•3 Jv/XyX-yXyX''X-.'-ivy-.v/'-yyyyyy'■'•'*/.■'/.•yX', ■.■.•'.•.;■.y y ■'•■■ ■ ■ ifoMj/MAyfr;.;,;.;.;/,;,;;.;,.;;.; v/.^^x-'Xy: XX'v! •■; y, ■' ' ■■' fotf'WX'XvXyy\YXvXvXy':vX;'-vx-y^y;.. .-..;•. im&&'X:*J:m >vjm W$Mi$$M '/A'y :y-"e09 'yXjX^tXX-X'XvlvXv/Xv/v/'v'.'.'.'.'.' -'X'Xlft'X'XX' X^XXy-y^yyv^*' X teM'.^/' ' ,,'X ,y / •' . ■!■■ • « /X'/xxo;'/ifev.':Xx.yXX'XXr'X': -';,'',•/,; ;X X v >.-.'-y • v,v.'''V,-.- , .-.-. •'.•'-••.'.'.'.•.''.••,',y.^Ji.V,',-:y-, :• ■■■ XiirY$fevX ■•:-:';:-':^ffl^^vxy. Xvlvi-WlSfflagBoRBKi'M'X-- x:*^ * f»rri is*v.;v •xxxX'XjX::^ VWy V-y ;'■ ','•■• .'.■''. ■'■. y.y ..' .••. •,.-.■ -v.', yyyyyyyy/-- XviXvXXXv. ■<■■ X> '■■',c 'wXvX':'XX>>x':;XX,;Xv;v; :•;■:■ •, y >t^xx;';v:y;;!x;;>x;x:xX:Xy';X' ii«'!v;^!»>x,!':'!w;-.'lyi^iX'ivXsv'iX'-''■ NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Washington Founded 1836 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Seryice THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA; OR, A DICTIONARY OF FACTS, AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. COMPREHENDING A CONCISE VIEW OF THE LATEST DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, AND IMPROVEMENTS, CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ARTj THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND CUTS. IN FIVE VOLUMES. VOLUME III. BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D. AUTHOR OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, iSfc.iSfc. FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS, APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE UNITED STATES: BY JAMES MEASE, M. D. AND TELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. PHILADELPHIA I'UBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL, NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET. ROBERT CARR, PRINTER. 1804. District of Pennsylvania: to wit. Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty- seventh Year of the In dependence, of the United States of America, WTilliam Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " The Domestic Encyclopxdia ; or, A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful " Knowledge. Comprehending, a concise View of the latest Dis- " coveries, Inventions, and Improvements; chiefly applicable to " Rural and Domestic Economy. Together with Descriptions of the " most interesting Objects of Nature and Art; the History of Men " and Animals, in a State of Health or Disease; and practical «' Hints respecting the Arts and Manufactures, both familiar and u commercial. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts. " In Five Volumes. Volume I. By A. F. M. Willich, M. D. " Author of the Lectures on Diet and Regimen, tjfe. is"c. First " American Edition ; with Additions applicable to the present situa- " tion of the United States. By James Mease, M. D. and Fellow of " the American Philosophical Society." In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act, enti- tuled, " An Act supplementary to an Act, entituled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other Prints." ( L. S. ) D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania. %t CONTENTS OF THE THIRD VOLUME. PAGE FIRE - . i Fire Engine (with a plate) - 5 Fire-arms - 6 Fire-Balls 7 Fire-Buckets - - ib. Fire-cocks - ib. Fire-escape (with a cut) -' ib. Fire-irons - - lo Fire-place (with eight cuts) - ib. Fire-proof 27 Firing-iron - - 28 Firkin - - ib. Fish - -29 Fishing - - 31 Fish-ponds 32 Fistula - ib. Fixed-Air - - - 33 Flag ... 35 Flannel - - ib: Flatulency - - 36 Flax - - 37 Flax, the Toad - - • 42 Flea ... 43 Flea-bane - - ib. Flesh-meat - - ib. Fleuk-worm - - 45 Flint ... ib. Floor - 46 Flounder - ib. Flour - - - ib. Flower - - - 48 Flower-de-Luce - - 51 Fluellin - - - 52 Flummery - - ib. Flute - - - ib. Flux .... 53 ......or Sap-flow - - ib. Fly ib. Fly-blown - - 58 vol.. III. PAGE Fly, the Catch 58 Fly, the Spanish - ib. Fly-struck 59 Fodder ib. Fog 60 Fomentation - 61 Food - - ib. - 63 Fool's Parsley 63 Foot ib. Foot-halt - 66 Foot-rot ib. Forcing 67 Forest - 68 Forestalling 69 Fossil-Alkali ib. Fossil-Coal 71 Fossil-Pitch ib. Foul 72 Foundered ib. Fox 73 Fox-glove , ib. Fox-tail-grass - 75 Fractures ib. Freckles - 76 French Mercury 77 Friction - ib. Frog ib. Frost - 78 Fruit-trees (with a cut) 83 Frumenty 121 Frush ib. Fuel - ib. Fuller's earth 123 Fulling ib. Fumigation 124 Fumitoiy - 125 Funeral Rites - ib. Fur 12fi A ii CONTENTS. PAGE PAGR Furnace 126 | Goat's beard 169 Furrow 130'Gold ib. Furze ib. Golden-rod 170 Fustic 132 ! Goldfinch 171 Gold-fish ib. Gad-f.y 133 Gold-of-Pleasure 172 Galbanum - ib. Goose ib. Gale ib. Gooseberry 173 Galega 134 Goose-foot 178 Gall _ - ib. 1 Goose-grass 179 135 Gourd - 180 Galling - ib. Gout 181 Gallium Tixctorium ib. Gout-weed 184 Gallon 136 Grafting (with a cut) 185 Galvinism ib. Grain 188 Gamboge 139 Grains ib. Game, in general id. Granary 189 Game, among Sportsmen 140 Gran ate 191 Gaming 141 Granite ib. Gangrene - ib. Granulation ib. Gaps 143 Grapes - 192 Garden ib. Grass - - ib. Garget - 145 Grass-hoppers - 202 Ciargil - ib- Grass-wrack ib. 1 Gargle ib. Grates " 203 Gargut; 146 Gravel ib. Garlic ib. Gravel, in Medicine - 204 Garter 150 Gravelling ib. Gaultheria ib. Grease, in Horses 205 Gauze ib. Grease of Animals 206 Gem 151 Green - ib. Generation - - ib. Green-finch 207 Gentian - - - 152 Green-house ib. Geranium ib. Green Sickness 210 Germander - 153 Greyhound • ib. ib. Grief • - 211 Gid - 154 Gripes ib. Gilding ib. Gromwell 213 Gilead 155 Ground-ivy ib. Gin - ib. Ground-nuts 214 Gin, or Jenny ib. Ground-pine ib. Ginger - 156 Groundsel - ib. Ginger Wixe 157 Grouse 215 Ginseng ib. Grove - ib. Glanders 158 Grub ib. Glass 159 Grubbing 216 G! -iiber's Salt 3 62 Guaiacum ib. Glazing ;'b. Gudgeon - - 217 Gleaning - 163 Guelder-rose ib. Glove - 164 Guilandia ib. Glow-worm - ib. Guinea - 218 Glue ib. Guinea-grass ib. Gnat 1G7 \ Guinea-hen 219 Goat - ib. 1 Guinea-pig ib. CONTENTS. iii. Gull Gullet Gum Gum-secretion Gum-boil Gums Gun - - - GuNNY-BAGGS Gunpowder Gutta Serena Gutters - - Gymnastics Gypsum Haddock Hail Hair Hair-grass Hair-powder Halter-cast Halting Ham - - - Hamamelis Hand Hare Harrow (with cuts) Harts' horns Hat - - - Hatching Haulm Haw Hawk Hawk-Moth Hawk-weed - . Hawthorn Hay Hays Hazel-nut-1'.ree Head Head-ach Hearing Heart Heart-burn Heart's ease Heat Heath, the Common Heath, the Berry-bearing Hectic Fever Hedge Hedge-hog - Hellebore Hemlock, the Common Hemlock, the Water Hemlock, the Long-leaved Hemp *GE PAGE 219 Hen 282 220 Henbane ib. 221 Hen-harrier 284 222 Hen-mould-soil ib. 224 Hentings ib. ib. Hepatic Aloe ib. 225 Herb ib. ib. Herbal - 285 ib. Herb Paris 286 229 Herb Robert 287 230 Heron ib. ib. Herring ib. 231 Hiccough 290 Hickory ib. 244 Hide 291 ib. Hide-bound - ib. 245 Hoarseness 292 247 Hoe (with five cuts) ib. ib. Hoeing 295 248 Hog - - 296 ib. Holly 300 249 Huiiyhock ib. ib. Honey 301 250 Honey-dew 302 ib. Honey-suckle ib. 251 Hoof 303 255 Hoof-boney - ib. 256 I Hoof-bound ib. 257 Hoof-brittle 304 258 Hoof-casting - ib. ib. Hoof-hurt ib. 259 Hop ib. ib. Horehound, the White - 310 260 Horehound, the Black ib. ib. Horehound, the Water - ib. 261 Horn ib. 266 Horn-beam 311 ib. Horn-distemper ib. 267 Hornet - 3i2 268 Horse (with a plate) ib. ib. Horse-bread - 324 270 Horse-chesnut 325 ib. Horse-fly ib. ib. Horse-Medicines ib. 271 Horse-radish - 328 ib. Horse-shoe-head 329 272 Horse-tail ib. ib. Hospital - 330 273 Hot-bed ib. 278 Hot-house - 331 279 Hound 333 ib. Hound's-tongue 33 i 280 Horn- ib. ib. Hourglass ib. ib. House (with a cut) ib. CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE House-leek 340 Isinglass 597 Hunger - ib. Issues 398 Hunting - 342 Itch - 399 Husbandry ib. Juice 400 Hyacinth 344 Julep ib. Hydrastis Canadensis ib. Juniper-tree - 401 Hydrometer ib. Ivory 402 Hykes ib. Ivy 403 Hypericum 345 Hypochondriac Affection - ib. Kale 404 Hyssop 346 Kalendar, or Calendar ib. Hysterics ib. Kalmia 407 Kelp ib. Jack (with a cut) 348 Kennel 408 Jack-daw 349 Kermes-Mineral ib. Jalap ib. j Key - 409 Japanning 350 Kidney-vetch ib. Jasmine ib. Kidnies ib. Jaundice - 351 Kilderkin 410 Jaw - - - 352 Kiln ib. Jay - 353 King-fisher ib. Ice 354 Kino - 411 Jelly 359 Kitchen (with ten cuts) ib. Jet - 360 Kitchen-garden (with a cu t) 422 Iliac Passion ib. Knawell 424 Implements 361 Knee-holly - ib. Inarching ib. Knife-board ib. Index 362 Indigestion ib. Labdanum 425 Indigo 363 Laboratory - ib. Industry 364 Labour ib. Infancy - - - 365 Laburnum 426 Infection 366 Lac - ib. Inflammation 367 Lace 427 Inflammatory Fever 370 Lacker ib. Ingrossing - 371 Lackey moth 428 Ink - - 372 Lacteals ib. Inn 377 Ladies-mantle ib. Inoculation, in Horticulture ib. Ladies'-smock ib. ib. 378 Lake Lake, in the Arts ib. Insects - 429 Instinct - 380 Lamb ib. Insurance ib. Lameness 430 Interest 383 Lamp - 431 Interfering ib. Lamp-black 433 Intestines ib. Lampas ib. Intoxication 384 Lamprey ib. John's-wort 385 Land 434 Joint ib. Land-ditching - 438 Journal ib. Language ib. Joy 386 Lanthorn - 440 Ipecacuanha ib. Lapwing ib. Iron 387 Larch-tree ib. Irrigation (with a cut) 391 Lark 442 Irritability 395 1 Larkspur - 443 Lath Lath-bricks Lathe Laudanum Lavender Lavender-thrift Laughter Laxatives Layers Lea Lead Lead-wort Leaf Leather Leaven Leaves Leech Leek Leg Lemon-tree Lenitive-electuary Lentil Leopard's-bane, the Great ..................... the German Leprosy Lethargy Letter Lettuce Level Lever (with a cut) Library (with a plate) Lientery Life Light Lightning Lilac Lily, the Common ...... of the Valley ......the Water Lime Lime-grass Limes Line - , CONTENTS. v. PAGE PAGE 443 Linen - - 484 ib. Liniment - 486 444 Linnet - - ib. - ib. Linseed - - 487 445 Lint - - ib. ib. Lips - _ 488 - ib. Liquor - - ib. 446 Liquorice - - 489 ib. Liriodendron Tulipifera 490 447 Literary Property - ib. - ib. Litharge - - 491 451 Liver - - ib. ib. Liverwort - 492 ib. Lixivium - - 496 454 Lizard - - ib. ib. Loading of Goods - - ib. 455 Loam - - 497 456 Lobster - - ib. 457 Lock - - 498 ib. Locking-pole (with a cut) 500 458 Locust - - 501 ib. Log-wood - - 502 459 Longevity - - ib. n ib. Looking-glass - 503 460 Loom - - ib. ib. Loose-strife, the Creeping 504 461 462 463 Lottery - - ib. 464 Lovage - - 505 - 465 Love - - ib. 466 Love-apple - 506 ib. Louffer (with a cut) - ib. 469 Louse - - 507 470 Louse-wort - " - 508 472 Lozenge - - ib. 473 Lucern - - 509 ib. Lungs - - 511 ib. Lungwort - - 514 474 Lupine - ib. 482 Lute - - ib. ib. Luxation - - 515 - 483 Luxury - - ib. PLATES IN THE THIRD VOLUME. I. Mr. Dearborn's American Fire-Engine, p. 5. II. Cotton Foot Gin, p. 155. III. Anatomy of the Horse, p. 318. IV. Anatomy of a Horse's Hoof, p. 328. V. Book-Case, p. 465. INDEX TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNONYMS, AND INVERSIONS OF TERMS, OCCURRING IN THE THIRD VOLUME. Fire-blast ; see Blast. Flake-white ; see Colour-making. Flooding of Land ; see Irrigation. Fool-stones, the Male ; see Early Orchis. Framboise ; see Raspberry, the Common. French-bread ; see Bread. Frog-cheese ; see Puff-ball, the Common. Frog-hopper; see Flea-locust. Fuller's-teasel; see Teasel. Fustoc; see Fustic. Galangal, the Common ; see Ze- doary. Galingale, the English ; see Cy- per-grass. Garden-nightshade ; see Night- shade, the Woody. Gatteridge-tree; seeSpindle-tree. Geneva ; see Gin. Gerard,tlieHerb; see Gout-weed. German Flute ; see Flute. Glastonbury - thorn ; see Haw- thorn. Glimmer, or Glist; see Mica. Gloucester-cheese ; see Cheese. Goose-tongue ; see Sneezewort Yarrow. Go -to - bed - af - noon; see Goat's Beard, the Yellow. Grafting ; see Engrafting. Gross-poly ; see Loose-strife, the Purple. Grayling ; see Umber.- Gray-millet; see Cromwell. Green-house-bug ; see Coccus. Grig; see Heath. Ground-pease ; see Ground-nuts. 1 Gum-elastic; see Caoutchouc. Hxmatites; see Blood-stone. Hairy-tare; s-ee Vetch, the Corn. Halm ; see Haulm. Hardened Hock -oil; see Fossil- pitch. Hare-lip; see Lip. Hart's-clover ; see Melilot, the Common. Haugh ; see Haw. Hautboy; see Strawberry. Hawn; see Haulm. Hazel-crottels, or Hazel-rag; see Lungwort Liverwort. Heath Polypody ; see Polypody. Hedge-reed; see Reed. Hemlock Water-Dropwort; see Dropwort. Herb Trinity ; see Heart's-ease. Hiccup ; see Hiccough. High-taper ; see Mullein, the Great White. Hind-berry ; see Raspberry, the Common. Hollands ; see Gin. Hore-hound,the Indian; seeSpice. Horse-bane ; see Hemlock, the Water. Horse-beech-tree ; see Horn- beam. Horse-hoeing; see Hoeing. Hyscn-tea ; see Tea-tree. Ice-house ; see Milk-house. JefFery-cock ; see Chafer. Jesuit's - bark; see Peruvian- Bark. Indian Horehound ; see Spice. Indian Ink ; see Ink. Indian Rubber ; see Caoutchouc. Infirmary ; see Hospital. Injections ; see Clysters. Ink-powder ; see Ink. Iron, blueing of; see Blueing. Irons ; see Quarter-evil. Itch, in Dogs ; see Dog. Kilkenny-coal; see Coal. King's-yeilow; see Yellow. Kroute ; see Crout. Ladies'-iox-glove ; see Mullein, the Great White. Ladies'-thistle; see Milk-thistle. Tia. INDEX. Lady-grass,or Ladies' traces; see Canarv-grass. Lark's-heel ; see Lark's-spur. Lavender-spike; see Lavender, the Common. Laurel-mezereon ; see Spurge- Laurel. Leasing ; see Gleaning. Lemon-water ; see Distilling. Life boat; see Boat. Lincolnshire Cheese; see Cheese. Linden-tree ; see Lime-tree. Lint-seed ; see Linseed. Liquorice-cock's-head; see Milk- vetch. Live-long ; se.e Orpine, the Com- mon. Locust-tree ; see Acacia. Lombardy-poplar ; see Poplar. Looseness ; see Diarrhoea. THE DOMESTIC FIR FIRE, is that subtle, invisible cause, which penetrates both solid and liquid matters with extreme facility, and renders them hot to the touch. It is also the chief agent, by which the composition and decomposition of natural bo- dies is generally effected ; so that, without fire, the animal and vege- table kingdoms would cease to exist. Various opinions have been maintained concerning the nature and properties of fire ; for an ac- count of which, we are obliged to refer the reader to the works of Boyle, Newton, and Scheele ; as we propose to give a few illus- trations connected with this sub- ject, under the article Heat. Though designed to be subservi- ent to the most useful purposes, fire frequently becomes a scourge to mankind; and, unless it be time- ly discovered lays whole streets and towns in ashes. Hence the securing of houses and other build- ings agairs'this devouring element has ever formed an important ob- ject of inquiry, while it has exer- cised the ingenuity of intelligent me:: : we shall briefly state a few of the most remarkable experi- ments, together with the usult or success which has attended them. D. Hales first proposed a plan VI I.. III. ENCYCLOPEDIA. FIR of covering the floors of houses with earth. The thicker the mould is laid on the floors, the greater is the security. He supposes that the depth of an inch will be amply sufficient; though he recommends to lay a deeper coat on the stairs ; because fire in general, ascends by means of stair-cases with the great- est velocity. 'A patent was granted in April, 1773, to David Hartley, Esq. of Golden-square, for his method of securing buildings and ships against fire. Lord Mahon has likewise in- vented a very simple and effectual mode of securing every kind of building against all danger of fire: he divides it into three parts, name- ly, under-fiooring, extra-lathing, and inter-securing. The first part or method, is either single or double. In single ujuler-fiooring, a common strong lath, one quarter of an inch thick, should be nailed atrr/inst each side of every joist and main timber, supporting the floor which is to be secured. Similar laths are then to be nailed on the whole length of the joists, the ends of which abutt against each other. The top of each lath or fillet,ought to be an inch and a half below the top of the joists or timbers, against which they are nailed, so as to form B 2 FIR FIR a small ledge on every side. When these fillets are nailed on, they should be laid in a rough plaster, which ought to be spread on the tops of such fillets, so as to leave no vacant space between them and the joists. Short pieces of common laths are next to be nailed, closely together, in a direction contrary to that of the joists ; the ends of the former are to rest on the fillets, and to be well bedded in rough plaster but not fastened with nails. They arc next to be coated once with the plaster, which is to be spread over them to the tops of the joists. In double-flooring, the fillets and short pieces of laths are applied in the manner already de- scribed ; the coat of rough plaster ought, however, in this method, to be somewhat more than half as thick as that in single-flooring'.... While the rough plaster is laying on. some additional short pieces of laths are to be inserted between the joists upon the first coat, as close- ly to each other as possible, and in the same direction as the first layer of laths. Over this second layer of short laths, another coat of rough plaster should be spread, which rnight to be trowelled level with me tops of the joists. As soon as the plaster-work be- tween the joists is perfectly dry, it should be inspected, in order to ascertain whether there be any small cracks, especially next to the joists. Should any occur, it will be requisite to close them, by washing them over with a brush, wetted with mortar-wash, which may be prepared by mixing two measures of quick-lime and one of sand in a pail, and tempering the whole with water, till it acquires the consistence of a thin jelly. Freviously to laying clown the flucring-boards, a small quantity of dry common sand should be strew- ed over the plaster-woi k, and struck smooth with a hollow rule in the same direction as the joists are laid, so that it may lie rounding be- tween each pair of joists. Particu- lar attention should be paid to the plaster-work and sand, that they be perfectly dry before the boards are laid, lest the latter become in- fected with the dry-rot. The mode of under-flooring may be success- fully applied to a wooden stair- case ; but no sand is then to be laid upon the plaster-work. The me- thod of extra-lathing may be prac- tised on ceiling-joists, sloping; roofs, and wooden partitions. The third method,namely, inter- securing, is similar to that of under- flooring ; but no sand is after- wards to be laid over it. Inter- securing is applicable to the same parts of a building as the method of extra-lathing ; but it is seldom necessary to be employed. Lord Mahon made several experiments, which shew the utility of this in- vention : but we can only refer the inquisitive reader to the 68th vo- lume of the " Philosophical Trans- actions of the Royal Society," for 1778 ; where he will find a satis- factory account of the manner of preparing the mortar, as well a> the result of numerous trials made by the inventor....See also Coun- try-houses and Fire-proof. The most expeditious way of extinguishing fire is a matter of equal importance, as the security of buildings from that destructive agent. Hence various machines, and chemical preparations, have been invented by ingenious men, in order to promote so useful an object; one of the earliest contri- vances was a barrel, filled with certain ingredient'■, first proposed by M. Fuchs, a German physi- FIR FIR 3 cian, in the year 1784; and which effectually answered the purpose for which it was designed....A si- milar invention was introduced in- to this country by a Mr. Zachaky Greyl, whose machines were made of wood, and contained only water ; they were exhibited before several of the nobility, but did not meet with encouragement. In the year 1761, Dr. Godfrey produced certain vessels which in every re- spect succeeded. They are sup- posed to have been an improve- ment on Mr. Greyl's, were con- structed with wood, and filled with a chemical liquor, consisting of wa- ter,oil of vitriol, and sal ammoniac. When thrown into rooms or other places that were purposely set on fire, they burst, and by their ex- plosion completely extinguished the flames: it is to be observed, that they were useless after the roof had fallen in. These contri- vances, however, are evidently more calculated for ships, than to be employed on land; as they would be of great service for sup- pressing fires in vessels at sea, and might be considered as necessary a part of their cargo as naval stores, or ammunition. In the 23d. vol. of " Annals of Agriculture,"Mr. William Knox, a merchant of Gothenburg, in Sweden, states that he has made a variety of experiments for extin- guishing fire by means of such substances as are cheap and easily procured. He divides them into simple and compound solutions. In the former class, he proposes to add to 75 gallons of water, 9 gal- lons of the stongest solution of wood-ashes; or 6 gallons of the finest pulverized pot aslies ; or 8| gallons of common salt, well dried, and finely beaten ; or S\- gallons of ±ieen vitriol or copperas, thorough- ly dried and finely pulverized ; or 1 li gallons of the strongest her- ring-pickle ; or 9 gallons of alum reduced to powder ; or 19 gallons of clay, perfectly dried, well beat- en, and carefully sifted. Among the compound solutions, Mr. Knox recommends to mix 75 gallons of water with 10 quarts of clay, 10 quarts of vitriol, and 10 quarts of common salt ; or a simi- lar quantity of water, with 18 quarts of the strongest solution of wood-ashes and 18 quarts of fine clay reduced to powder; or the same proportion of water, with 15 quarts of red-ochre, or the resi- duum of aquafortis, and 15 quarts of common salt; or, lastly, to mix 15 quarts of the strongest herring- pickle, and 15 quarts of red-ochre, with 75 gallons of water...All these different solutions, Mr. Knox re- marks, are equally efficacious in extinguishing fire ; but he prefers the compounds, as being the " surest and most powerful for that purpose." Another of the various inven- tions for extinguishing fire by che- mical means, deserving of notice, is the composition prepared by M. Von Aken, and which consists of the following ingredients: lbs. Burnt alum ....... 30 Green vitriol in powder . 40 Cinabrese, or red-ochre, ? pulverized.....} Potter's, or other clay, ~| finely powdered and > 200 sifted ...*..... J Water........... 630 With 40 measures of this liquor an artificial fire, which would have required the labour of twenty men, and 1500 measures of common water, was extinguished under the direction of the inventor, by three persons. The price of this com- 4 FIR FIR pound solution is estimated at one halfpenny per pound. Water Engines for extinguishing fire. These are either forcing or lifting pumps; and as they are made to move with great velocity, their execution principally depends on the length of their levers, and the force with which they are worked. Various engines have been con- trived, from which we have select- ed the following, as they are the most ingenious, and at the same time calculated to produce the greatest effects....In the year 1785, the silver medal and twenty guineas were conferred by the u Society for the Encouragement of Arts," isle. on Mr. Furst, as a reward for his contrivance to increase the effect of engines in extinguishing fires ; of which the following is a short description; From a platform rises an upright pole or mast, of such height as maybe judged necessary; a gaft slides upon it in an ascend- ing direction, and along both is conveyed the leather hose from the engine. The branch, or nose- pipe of the engine, projects at the 'extremity of the gaft; towards which an iron frame is fixed, whence two chains are suspended; and from these hang ropes, which serve to give an horizontal direc- tion to the branch ; while other ropes, that run through proper pullies, and are thus conveyed clown the mast, serve likewise to communicate a vertical motion to it. By these means, the branch or nose-pipe of the engine is conduct- ed into the window of any room where the fire more immediately rages; and the efcet of the water discharged is applied in the most efficacious manner to the extin- guishing of the flames. A patent was granted in January 1790, to Mr. Joseph Bkamah, of Piccadilly, and to Mr. Thomas Dickenson, of Bedworth Close, in the county of Warwick, for a new improved engine on a rota- tive principle. The merits of this machine depend on its having two wheels or cylinders of brass, or any other metal; one of which is of a greater, and the other of a smaller diameter, in any proportion re- quired ; both are nearly of equal length, but may be increased or decreased, according to the pur- pose to which the machine is ap- plied. As soon as the larger wheel is fixed, the smaller one is placed within it, and is fastened on an axis, so as to turn in a rotative direction round its centre; the smaller wheel being thus stationed, may be occasionally fixed, and the larger one moved in the same di- rection round the smaller one: the former of these, however, is pre- ferable in all cases. At each end of the larger wheel there is a stanch, to which are screwed two plates, or caps inclosing its ends, and into which theextremitiesof the smaller wheel are inserted, so as to render the junction water-tight : through these caps passes the axis of the inner cylinder, in order to com- municate motion from without.... Or the inner wheel may be applied so as to give motion, by its external end or ends, to any other engine or machine connected with it.... These are the component parts of Messrs. Br amah and Dicken- &f n's patent engines ; for a more particular account of which, we refer the reader, to the 2d vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manu- facture*, where he will find a mi- nute account of the machinery, and the effects it is calculated to produce. A patent was likewise granted in FIR maker, for Wg ^treet» enSine all kinds of if, lm.Pro^menis in all ^1ClS„° machines for extin- guishing fire.. .This invention con- sists in exploding or removing the valves both from that part of the cylinder, where the vacuum is made by the piston or fly, and from beneath the air vessel ; and in making use of valves, by the application of certain filtering chambers, with partitions or divi- sions, to preserve the effect of the valves, during the use of any im- proper fluid. These filtering cham- bers are to be placed between the drawing valves, and the strainer in common use, on the suction-pipe. The partitions in the chambers may be of fine wire-work, or of any other substitute, that will act as a first and second filtration in the chamber. The design of this invention is, to render the valves more free of access, and to prevent the neces- sity of opening any other parts of the engine, except the chambers containing the valves; by which means the effect of the machine is increased, and consequently the fire may be more easily extin- guished. To these different contrivances we shall add the American Fire- engine, of which we have given an accurate engraving. It was in- vented by Mr. Benjamin Dear- born, who communicated it to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, from whose Memoirs for 1794, we extract the following par- ticulars : Description of the Plate represcnt- ■ly.tr the American Fire-engine, en a new construction. pig, 1. A B, and C D, are the Ves °f two plan^s' confined to- C ther by four bolts....a b, and c d, FIR 5 are two cylindrical barrels, in each of which a piston, with a valve, is fastened to the spear e, and is mov- ed up and down alternately by the motion of the arms E E. Beneath each barrel a hole is made through the plunk A B, which is covered with a valve. The arms E E, are suspended on the common centre /: there are also arms parallel to these on the opposite side; 5- g are the ends of handles which are fast- ened across the ends of the arms. At h, a bolt goes across, from arm to arm, to which the piece i, k, is affixed, and on which it plays; the lower end of this piece is fastened to the top of the spear e....G, l.f, h a standard for the purpose of sup- porting the arms, to which there is a correspondent one on the oppo- site side; both are notched into the edges of the planks, where they are secured by a bolt, which passes through them at /, and has a nut or fore-lock on the opposite side. H I, H I, are square braces, an- swering the purpose of ducts, through which the water ascends from the barrels, passing through the plank at m....li L, K L, are irons in the form of a staple, in order to confine the brtices: the lower ends of of these irons meet, and are secured by a bolt, passing through them, and M N,n o, which is a piece that goes up through a mortice in the centre of the planks. This piece is square from the lower end, till it reaches the top of the braces; whence thty become cy- lindrical to the top, the upper end being perforated sufficiently low down, in order to communicate with the braces. Q, P, is an iron ring, that surrounds the tube, and has two shanks which ascend through the head, which screws on the top at p, q :....r, s, is a ferule nailed round the tube. 6 FIR Fig. 2. is the same engine; the arms and standards being taken off, in order to delineate more clearly the mode of securing the braces ; an object which is completely ef- fected by a wedge driven into the mortice a: beneath the upper plank b, is a hole for admitting a passage to the bolt, which secures the standards. In this figure, a side view of the head is given, with the pipe in a perpendicular direction. The machine is confined within a box, set on wheels, as in the common fire-engines. The whole is made of wood, excepting the spears of the pumps, and a few bolts, See. The advantages of this machine are, that it can be made in anyplace where common pumps are manufactured; the interior work will not exceed one-fourth of the price of those v. hich are constructed on the usual plan; and that they are incomparably more easy to work than the common ones; circumstances which strong- ly recommend the American fire- engine to the attentionof the public. FiRE-ARMS, are those which are charged with powder and ball ; such as musqucts, carbines, pistols, cannons, Sec. In December, 1780,a patent wTas granted to Mr. John Aitken^ of Edinburgh, surgeon, for his inven- tion of a new method of loading lire-arms, of whatever dimensions or forms, with two or more charges of powder and ball, and of dis- charging them in succession, by fire communicated through cor- respondent perforations, or touch- hole&p '"This consists in lodging sevetalcharges of powder v.v.d shot i;i the fire-arms, whether cylindri- cal, conical, chambered, or other- wise ; the hindmost extremity, or breech, being closed, while the an- terior one, or muczle is open. The FIR extension of the fire, in a posterior direction from the charge next the muzzle that is first inflamed, is in- tercepted by intermedia placed be- tween the several charges, which are firmly rammed about or above the shot; and which are formed of any substance that possesses suf- ficient resistance, is compact, in- combustible, and properly shaped. In the smaller fire-arms, namely, pistols, musquets, blunderbusses, Sec. the patentee chiefly employs leather, or other thick stuffs. In the larger ones, such as cannons, mortars Sec. he makes use of va- rious pastes, as being more com- modious, and more easily procured. The charges are ignited through touch-holes, by the lock, or match, as occasion may demand, accord- ing to the size and condition of the lube. A patent was likewise granted to Ja^ies Wilson, Esq. of St. Martin's in the Fields, for his im- provement in the construction of fire-arms, by which the powder will be effectually screened against the influence oftheweather,ata less expense than by any other method. His invention consists chiefly in fixing a semi-circular piece of brass or iron, about one line in breadth, over the touch-hole, and which rises upwards with a bevil from the side that joints the barrel. Thus the wet or moisture, which in com- mon fire-arms insinuates itself be- tween the barrel and the hammer or upper pan, where the powder is most exposed, is effectually pre- vented, and carried off on either side of the arch, or semi-circular piece of metal, by the channel, which is formed by the bevil when in contact with the barrel. This improvement is also applicable to old pans. [FIRE-BALLS. A vcrv inte- FIR FIR resting paper on these meteors, by Prof. Gmelin, of Gottingen, may be found in Til loch's Phil. Mag. vol. iii. FIRE-BUCKETS. It is a gene- ral complaint at the extinguishing of fires, that the water, as it is handed along from the pump to the engine, is continually spilling out of the buckets , to the great annoyance of the persons employed in this service ; and what is of more consequence, the great waste of water : so that by the time the bucket arrives at the engine, it is frequently not more than half full. The form of the buckets, as they are most commonly made, no doubt contributes to this inconve- nience : and if they were made of a cylindrical form, or no wider at the mouth than at the bottom, the evil would, in some measure, be remedied, but would still, however, exist in a considerable degree. The following simple appendage which has been proposed by a cor- respondent in the Weekly Mag.\?h\- ladelphia, 1798, to be added to any bucket, at a very trifling expense, will be found an effectual remedy, and without in the least impeding either the filling or the emptying of the bucket : For this purpose, provide a thin circular board of cedar, or other light wood, of the size of the bottom of the bucket inside. This board may be strength- ened by tacking on,across the wood one or two small strips or battens. Let a piece of strong twine be made last to the centre of this board, and also to the centre of the bottom of the bucket, inside ; and of such a length as to suffer the board to rise within about an inch of the mouth of the bucket. When the bucket is empty, this board will be on the bottom, and can, therefore, be no obstruction in filling it at the pump ; and when filled, it will float on the surface of the water, and in no measure impede its being emp- tied into the engine, or even dis- charged by hand against the fire. The effect of such a floai-board, in preventing the evil above stated, will be too easily conceived to need any further explanation.] FIRE-COCKS, are contrivances for admitting water into pipes or reservoirs : churchwardens in Lon- don, and within the bills of mor- tality, are enjoined to fix them at proper distances in streets, toge- ther with painted characters on the opposite wall, pointing out such distance. They are also ordered to deposit in every house thus mark- ed, an instrument or key for open- ing a plug, and likewise a large en- gine, and an hand engine, under the penalty of 10/. FIRE-ESCAPE, a contrivance for the purpose of rescuing persons in imminent clanger from fire. In the Annual Register for 1775, an account is given of a machine for saving persons and effects from the flames. It consists, l.Ofapole of fir, which maybe of any conveni- ent length, being about 5 inches in diameter at the bottom, and at the top or smaller end, about three inches. At the distance of three feet from the top, is a mortice through the pole, to which a pully is fixed, that is nearly of the same diameter as that part of the pole. 2. A rope about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and twice the length of the pole, at one end of which is a spring-hook, to pass through the handle of the basket, when used ; it is put through the mortice over the puily, and drawn tight on each side, nearly to the bottom of the pole, where it is se- cured till wanted. 3. A basket, which ought to bcof strong wicker- 8 FIR work, three and a half.feet long, two and a half feet wide, rounded off at the corners ; and four feet deep, rounding every way at the bottom. To the top of the basket is fixed a strong iron curve, or han- dle, with an eye or ring in the middle : a small cord about the length of the pole, is likewise fas- tened to one side of the basket, near the top. These being the principal parts, there are also se- veral straps, Sec for securing the poles from sliding ; of which the reader will find a minute account in the volume before quoted. This contrivance can be raised, and two or more persons may be taken out of the upper windows of a house, and let down safely in the street, within the space of thirty-five se- conds, or in little more than half a minute. A machine for this purpose has lately been invented by the Rev. Dr. Nicholas Collin, of Phila- delphia, the following description of which we have abridged from the 4th vol. of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. A strong wooden case is erected near the end of a rectangular stage of solid planks, mounted on four wheels (with locks to secure the latter when the machine is em- ployed), for the reception of an upright round shaft. This shaft is moveable in the case, by means of two ropes fastened to its foot ; which, after passing over two pul- lies or sheaves in the top of the case (one bein;;- on each side), are fastened to two windlasses,by wind- ing or unwinding which, the round shaft is raised or lowered. On the top of this upright moveable shaft, is an iron fork with a trans- verse pin, on which rolls a lever with unequal arms. The longest F IR arm is directed towards the fore- end of the stage, which it ought not to exceed in length, unless the hinder end be proportion ably loaded. The shortest arm is low- ered or raised by a rope fastened to its extremity, which reaches to the posterior end of the stage, and may be pulled either by men or by a windlass: or, a compound pul- ley may be substituted for the rope. To the fore-end of the longest arm of the lever, a basket is suspend- ed, by three iron rods, for the re- ception of persons or goods in danger, and which, by loosening the hinder rope, is thus lowered. As, however, in great elevations, the basket cannot reach the ground, a rope is fastened to it, by which persons or goods may descend.... Dr. Collin mentions a larger and a smaller kind of this machine, by the former of which twelve per- sons may be let down, and by the latter four. As he has not specifi- ed any dimensions, we suppose that they are to be proportioned to the height, at which houses and other builings are in general erect- ed, and to the number of persons the machine is intended to rescue. We cannot, on this occasion, omit to point outthe greatutility of those fringed ropes which should be fas- tened to the foot of a bedstead, and extend to a sufficient length, to de- scend by them, in case of fire thro' a window: they are sold by several rope manufacturers in town, gen- erally at two shillings per yard. [The following description of a Fire-escape, was drawn up for the editor, by Mr. B. Dearborn, of Boston, (inventor of the machine) already mentioned under the ar- ticles BALANCE.and Fire Engine. The contrivance of Mr. D. is cer- tainly the best, that has ever come FIR FIR to our knowledge, and ought to be generally adopted. It consists of a ladder, platform, and receiver ; the ladder is made with two pa- rallel sides, each of which has two straight and plain surfaces ; on the two outsides a groove runs from one end to the other ; in these grooves two ledges slide, which being nailed to the bottom of the receiver, keep it from slipping off; the bottom of" the receiver is made of boards, somewhat longer than the breadth of the ladder, which are confined together by the ledges ; the two sides, and one end of the receiver are guarded with an iron frame and net-work : the receiver is drawn tip the ladder by two ropes which pass over pullies near the top of the ladder ; the pullies are fixed in separate pieces, which are nailed on the inner surface of each side of the ladder, a little Lelow its upper edge, so that the ropes may pass between the steps of the ladder and the bottom of .he re- ceiver ; the ropes are made fast un- der the bottom of the receiver ; then passing upward over the steps of the ladder, they go over the pullie•>, and their ends go down tinder the steps of the ladder to the platform ; the platform is made1 of boards, nailed to two long hinges, by which it is a;!ached to the lad- der near the bottom ; the extremi- ty of each hinge is made sharp, and is turned downward to enter the ground and assist in keeping the ladder steady ; the feet of the ladder are also guarded with iron points. The men who draw up and let down the receiver, stand on the platform, whereby they have a clear stage for themselves and the ropes, and their weight ke; ns the ladder firm. When the receiver is hea- vhijt loaded, it will be necessary to v OL. III. pass the ropes under one of the steps of the ladder, that their fric- tion may increase the power ot sustaining the weight. When the ladder is to be removed, the plat- form is to he turned up and but- toned to the under side, and the receiver is to be made fast, a little above the foot of the ladder, by a pin passing through both ; then the ropes can be used in taking down the ladder, and in raiXng it again when necessary, which it may be best to do thus : let the ladder be laid bottom upward on the ground, the receiver being underneath, and the ropes, uppermost ; then the weight of one or more pci-oni on the loot of the ladder, will assist in raising it to a greater or less angle, as the receiver may be near- er or further off from its extremi- ty ; then with the assistance of the ropes, it may be raised perpendi- cular, and directed to its situation." The cut in the next page will con- vey a fuil idea of the machine. After all, perhaps, the best fire- escapes, are stone stairs, with good roomy landing places, and a thin wall to support the off ends of the steps, the other e;ids being built into substantial side wall-,.] FIME-IROXS, are those instru- ments which are employed in the management of a fire, namely, po- ker, shovel, and the different kinds of mn. s. As the manufacture of these articles is acknowledged tc be very unwieldy, Mr. Samuel Ben'tham, of Queen-square Place, in Middlesex, obtained a j t:-;♦.. in the mnnih of April, 1793, fora new method of making lire-irons. His invention consists in forming those instruments tubular ; the cylinders being closed at the ends, as well for strength as for keeping out dust ; hence thev acquire a degree C 10 FIR FIR oflightnesb, w hich-the patentee af- to the fire, it becomes necessary to firms cannot be given them by any ma^e it, if tubular, much thicker other means, wim the same degree than the stem. The chief object of strength. The joint of the tongs oflhis contrivance is simplicity and may be made in a manner similar lightness ; but we doubt whether to common ones, or with a spring- it is calculated for general use. joint resembling that of sugar- FIRE-PLACE,acontrivance for tongs. The two legs are joined communicating heat to rooms, and together by a flat, b toad, semi-cir- also for answering various purposes cular plate, hardened so as to ac- of art and manufacture. With res- quire a proper degree of elasticity, pect to the latter kind, we propose The ends of the tor.gr. may be to treat under the articles of Fur- either flat, as is usual, or hollow nace and Stove. like a spoon. The materials may In the construction of fire-places be either entirely iron, or those for domestic purposes, the chief parts which are not intended to object is the saving of fuel : with come in contact with the fire, may this intention, sever a1, ingenious ar- be of silver, plated work, or any tists have invented different kinds other metal. With respect to the of grates, more or less adapted to ' pokei' and shovel, the ends may, that useful end. for the same reason, be in separate The fire-places in general use, pieces ficm the s.ems ; but as that are, 1. The large open ones, which cf the poktr h frequently exposed were commonly adopted in former FIR times, and are still retained in the country, and in kilch-ns : they re- quire a wide funnel, consume a great quantity of fuel, ami gene- rally smoke, unless the door, or a window, be left open. 2. The modern fire-places ge- nerally adopted in towns, are con- structed with low breasts and hearths, narrowed by jambs..... These being more contracted than theantiquatedchimnies, easily keep the room free from smoke ; but the funnel necessarily occasions a con- siderable drauglit of air, which rushing in at every crevice, ren- ders the situation of those w iso are exposed to it very uncomfortable, and even dangerous : for it is un- questionable, that most of the die- eases that proceed from colds, m.iv be justly attributed to the strong draught of chimnies, by whie.li, in severe weather, persons are scorch- ed before, while they are freezing behind. Such fire-places, therefore, are of little service in heating rooms, as the surrounding air, which is warmed by the direct rays of the fire, does not remain hi the apartment, but is continually col- lected in the chimney, by the cur- rent of cold air which su.-.omuls it, and by which it is in a short time carried off. Nor is this the only inconvenience attendant on such improper contrivances, for the greatest part of the fire is lost, in consequence of its being absoro- ed by the back, jambs, and hearth, which are dark and obscu-v, and reflect very little, so that the heat flies directly up the chimney. 3. To remedy this inconveni- ence, an ingenious Frenchman, named Gauger, in the year 1709, proposed seven different con- structions of a new kind of chim- nies, in which there are hollow ca- vities, form-d by means of iron FIR Ji plates inserted in the back, jX.mbs, and hearth : through these the heat passes and warms the air in those cavities, which is thus continually communicated to the room. Al- though many advantages arise from this arrangement, yet the expense necessarily incurred, must ever be an insuperable obstacle to its ge- neral adoption. 4. Another kind of fire-place is the Holland irj'ii-stuvc, whii h has a ihvc proceeding from the top,eand a small i;on door that opens into the apartment. They serve to warm a room, lessen the consump- tion of fuel, and to produce a con- stant ehanr.e cf air; b.,t, as the fire is too much confined, it isnei- Iheir sufficiently cheariul, nor cal- culated for culinary purposes, and is therefore employed chiefly in work-shops. 5. The German-stjvc consiet of five iron plates, wide I) are screwed closely together in such a manner, that the fuel may Le put into it from another room, and even from the outside of the house. This stove warms rooms with lictle fuel, and is not attended with any dan- ger from the irruption of cold air; but it admits of no change or draught of air in tne room, and the fire is likewise concealed. [Dr. Willich recommends the Frank1.1a* stoves in preference to the chimnies as constructed upon the plan of Count Ru.vifokd ; but as wo have had a full experience of both, in this country, the gene- ral decision of Americans in favour of tiie latter is acceded to by the ed.tue. Besides the common ob- jections made to open stoves, that the;, give out a heat very unplea- sant to the feelin -,s ; and that it is i-egi lated whh dffi-eulty ; another important objection against them has been urged, viz. that when 12 FIR F IR heated, they consume the wo A. As smoke is larger than is necessary am open fire-place, properly con- for that purpose, nothing can pre- structcd, so as to burn the wood vent the warm air of the room with no more rapidity than is re- from escaping through it ; and quisite to carry up the smoke, an- whenever this happens, there is swers all the purposes of common not only an unnecessary loss of warmth, we have no hesitation in heat, but the warm air which giving a decided preference to leaves the room to go up the chim- Co'.mt Rumford's improvements, ney being replaced by cold air For this reason, an abridged and from without, the draught of cold condensed account of his observa- air so often mentioned, cannot tail tions on chimnies, and of his direc- to be produced in the room, to the tions for laying out the work shall great annoyance of those who in- now be presented : These direc- habit it. But, although both these tions are taken from the Count's evils may be effectually remedied, first and third vol. of essays. by reducing the throat of the ehim- The great fault of all the open ney to a proper size, yet in doing fire-places, ov chimnies, for burn- this, several precautions will be ne- ingwood or coals in an open fire, cessary. And first of all, the throat now in common use, is, that they of the chimney should be in its are much too large ; or rather it is proper place ; that is to say, in •the throat of the chimney, or the that place in which it ought to be, lower part of its open canal, in the in order that the ascent of the neighbourhood of the mantle, and smoke may be most facilitated; immediately over the fire, which for e\ery means which can be em- is too large. This opening has ployed for facilitating the ascent of hitherto been left larger than other- the smoke in the chimney must wise it probably would have been naturally tend to prevent the chim- made, in order to give a passage ney from smoking ; now as the to the chimney-sweeper ; but I smoke and hot vapour which rise shall shew hereafter, how a pas- fromthefirenaturallytendupwards, sage for the chimney-sweeper may the proper place for the throat of be contrived without leaving the the chimney is evidently perpendi- throatof the chimney of such enor- cularly over the fire. The nearer the nious dimensions as to swallow up throat of a chimney is to the fire, and devour all the warm air of the the stronger will be what is corn- room, instead of merely giving monly called its draught, and the passage to the smoke and heated less danger there will be of its vapour which arise from the fire, smoking. But on the other hand ffr winch la.-t purpose alone it when the draught of a chimney is ought to be designed. very strong, and particularly when As the immoderate size of the this strong draught is occasioned throats of the chimnies is the great by the throat of the chimney being fault of their construction, it is the very near the fire, it mav so hap- fault which ought always to be pen that the draught of air into the first attended to in every attempt fire may become so strong, as to to improv: them; for, however cause the fuel to be consumed too peifect the construction of a fire- rapidly. place may be in other respects, if In introducing the improvements the opening for the passage of the proposed in chimnies already F IR built, there can be no question in regard to the height of the throat of a chimney, for its place will be determined by the height of the mantle. It can hardly be made lower than the mantle ; and it ought always to be brought down as nearly upon a level with the bottom of it as possible. If the chimney is apt to smoke, it will sometimes be necessary either to lower the man- tle, or to diminish the height of the opening of the fire-place, by throw- ing over a flat arch, or putting in a straight piece of stone from one side of it to the other ; or, which will be still more simple and easy in practice, building a wall of bricks, supported by a fiat bar of iron immediately under the mantle. Nothing is so effectual to prevent chimnies from smoking, as diminish- ing the opening of the fire-place in the manner here described, and tow- ering and diminishing the throat of the chimney; and 1 have always found, except in a single instance, that a perfect cure may be effected by these means alone, even in the most desperate cases. It is true, that when the construction of the chimney is very bad indeed, or its situation very unfavourable to the ascent of the smoke, and especially when both these disadvantages ex- ist at the same time.it may some- times be necessary to diminish the opening of the fire-place, and par- ticularly to lower it, and also to lower the throat of the chimney more than might be wished. The position of the throat of a chimney being determined, the next points to be ascertained are its size and form, and the manner in which it ought to be connected with the fire-place below, and with the open canal of the chimney above. T hat these inquiries may be FIR 15 pursued with due method, and that the conclusions drawn from them may be clear and satisfactory, it will be necessary to consider ; first, what the objects are, which ought principally to be had in view in the construction of a fire-place ; and secondly, to see how these objects can best be attained. Now the design of a chimney fire being^simply to warm a room, it is necessary first of all, to con- trive matters so, that the room shall be actually warmed ; second- ly, that it be warmed with the smallest expense of fuel possible ; and, thirdly, that in warming it, the air of the room be preserved perfectly pure, and fit for respira- tion, and free from smoke and all disagreeable smells. W hen fuel is burnt in fire-places upon this simple construction, when the smoke escapes immedi- ately by the open canal of the chimney, it is quite evident, that all the combined heat must of ne- cessity be lost; and as it is the radient heat alone which can be employed in heating a room, it becomes an object of much im- portance to determine how the greatest quantity of it may be ge- nerated in the combustion of the fuel, and how the greatest propor- tion of that generated may be brought into the room. Now the quantity of radient heat generated in the combustion of a given quantity of any kind of fuel depends very much upon the ma- nagement of the fire, or upon the manner in which the fuel is con- sumed. When the fire burns bright, much radient heat will be sent off from it ; but when it is smothered up, very little will be ge- nerated ; and indeed very little combined heat, that can be employ- ed to any useful purpose : most of 14 FIR FIR the heat produced will be immedi- the fire in straight lines, to come ately expended in giving elasticity directly into the room ; which can to a thick dense vapour or smoke, only be effected by bringing the which will be seen rising from the fire as far forward as possible, and fire; and the combustion being leaving theopeningof the fire-place very incomplete, a great part of as wide and as high as can be done the inflammable matter of the fuel without inconvenience ; and se- being merely rarified and driven condly, by making the sides and up the chimney without being in- back of the fire-place of such form, flamed, the fuel will be wasted to and constructing them of such ma- little purpose. And hence it ap- terials, as to cause the direct rays pears of how much importance it from the fire, which strike against is, whether it be considered with them, to be sent into the room by a view to economy, or to cleanli- reflection in the greatest abundance. ness, comfort and elegance, to pay Now it will be found upon exa- due attention to the management mination, that the best form for the of a chimney-fire. vertical sides of a fire-place, or So many coals should never be the covings, (as they are called), is put on the fire at once as to prevent that of an upright plane, making the free passage of the flame be- an angle with the plane of the tween them. In short, a fire should back of the fire-place of about 135 never be smothered ; and when degrees. According to the present proper attention is paid to the construction of chimnies,this angle quantity of coals put on, there will is 90 degrees, or forms a vight-an- be very little use for the poker ; gle; but as in this case the two and this circumstance will contri- sides or covings of the fire-place, bute very much to cleanliness, and (A C, B D, Fig. I.) are parallel to the, preservation of furniture. • to each other, it is evident that For bringing as much radiant they are very badly contrived lor heat as possible into the room, we throwing into the room, by reflec- must cause as many as possible of tion, the rays from the fire which the rays, as they are sent off from fall on them. In regard to the materials which object in view is, to bring radient it will be most advantageous to heat into the room, it is clear, that employ in the construction of fire- that material is best for the con- places, I flatter myself, that no struction of a fire-place which re- great difficulty will attend the de- fleets the most, or which ab.orbs termination of that point. As the the least of it; for that heat which FIR is absorbed cannot be reflected..... Now, as bodies which absorb ra- diant heat, are necessarily heated in consequence of that absorption, to discover which of the various materials that can be employed for constructing fire-places are best adapted for that purpose, we have only to find out by an experiment, very easy to be made, what bodies acquire least heat when exposed to the direct rays of a clear fire ; for those which are least heated, evi- dently absorb the least, and conse- quently reflect the most radiant heat. And hence it appears that iron, and, in general, metals of all kinds, which are well known to grow very hot when exposed to the rays projected by burning fuel, are to be reckoned amongst the very worst materials that it is possible to employ in the construction of fire-places. [The impropriety of the fashion- able iron jambs, is rendered evi- dent from this just theory-] The best materials I have hither- to been able to discover, are fire stone, and common bricks and mortar. Both these materials are, fortunately, very cheap ; and as to their comparative merits, I hardly know to which of them the pre- ference ought to be given. When bricks are used, they should be covered with a thin coating of plaster, which, when it is become perfectly dry, should be white-washed. The fire-stone should likewise be white-washed, when that is used ; and every part of the fire-place which is not ex- posed to being soiled and made black by the smoke, should be kept as white and clean as possible. As white reflects more heat, as well as more light, than any other co- lour, it ought always to be prefer- red for the inside of a chimney-fire- FIR 15 place, and black, which reflects neither light nor heat, should be most avoided. Register-stoves have often been found to be of use, but it is because the great fault of all fire-places constructed upon the common prin- ciples, being the enormous dimen- sions of the throat of the chimney, this fault has been in some mea- sure corrected by them ; but I will venture to affirm, that there never was a fire-place so corrected, that would not have been much more improved, and with infinitely less expense, by the alterations here recommended, and which shall be now more particularly explained. Practical directions designed for the use of workmen; shewing how they , are to proceed in making the al- terations necessary to improve chimney-fire-places,and effectually to cure smoking chimnies. By the throat of a chimney, I mean the lower extremity of its canal, where it unites with the up- per part of its open fire-place....... This throat is commonly found about a foot above the level of the lower part of the mantle, and it is sometimes contracted to a smaller size than thcrestof the canal of the chimney,and sometimes not. The breast of a chimney is that part of it w.iich is immediately be- hind the mantle. It is the wall which forms the entrance from below into the throat of tin; chim- ney in front, or tow ards the room. It is opposite to the upper extre- mity of the back of the open fire- place, and parallel to it ; in short, it may be said to be the back part of the mantle itself. The width of the throat of the chimney is taken from the breast of the chimney to the back, and its length is taken at right-angles 16 FIR to its width, or in a line parallel to the mantle. Before I proceed to give parti- cular directions respecting the ex- act forms and dimensions of the different parts of a fire-place, it may be useful to make such gene- ral and practical observations upon the subject, as can be clearly un- derstood, without the assistance of drawings ; for the more complete the knowledge of any subject is which can be acquired without drawings, the more easy will it be to understand the drawings, when it becomes necessary te» have re- course to them. The bringing forward of the fire into the room, or rather bringing it nearer to the front of the opening of the fire-place;....and the dimi- nishing of the throat of the chim- ney, being two objects principally had in view in the alterations of fire-places here recommended, it is evident that both these may be attained merely by bringing for- ward the back of the chimney. The only question, therefore, is, how far it should be brought forward? The answer is short and easy to be understood ; bring it forward as far as possible without diminishing too much the passage which must be left for the smoke. Now as this passage, which, in its narrowest part, I have called the throat of the thimnry, ought, for reasons which have been fully explained, to be immediately, or perpendicularly over the fire, it is evident that the back of the chimney must always be built perfectly upright. To deter- mine, therefore, the place for the new back, or how far precisely it ought to be brought forward, no- thing more is necessary than to as- certain how wide the throat of the chimney ought to be left, between the top cf the breast of the chim- FI R ney, where the upright canal of the chimney begins, and the new back of the fire-place carried up perpendicularly to that height. In the course cf my numerous experiments upon chimnies, I have taken much pains to determine the width proper to be given to this passage, and I have found, that, when the back of a fire-place is of a proper width, the best width for the throat of the chimney, when the chimney and the fire-place are at the usual form and size, hfour inches....Three inches might some- times answer, especially when the fire-place is very small, and the chimney good and well situated : but as it is always of much import- ance to prevent those accidental puffs of smoking which are some- times thrown into rooms by the carelessness of servants in putting on suddenly too many coals at once upon the fire ; and as I found these accidents sometimes happened, when the throats of chimnies were made very narrow, I found that, upon the whole, all circumstances being well considered, and advanta- ges and disadvantages compared and balanced, four inches is the best width that can be given to the throat of a chimney; and this, whe- ther the fire-place be destined to burn wood, coals, turf, or any other fuel commonly used for heating rooms by an open fire. And this leads us to consider another important point respecting open fire-places, and that is, the width which it will, in each case, be proper to give to the back. In fire-places as they are now com- monly constructed, the back is of equal width with the opening of the fire-place in front; but this construction is faulty on two ac- counts. First, in a fire-place so construct- FIR ed, the sides of the fire-place, or covings, as they are called, are pa- rallel to each other, and conse- quently ill contrived to throw out into the room the heat they receive from the fire in the form of rays; and secondly, the large open cor- ners which are formed by making the back as wide as the opening in front of the fire-place, occasion ed- dies of wind, which frequently dis- turb the fire and embarrass the smoke in its ascent, in such a man- ner as often to bring it into the room. Both these defects may be entirely remedied, by diminishing the width of the back of the fire- place....The width, which, in most cases, it will be best to give it, is one-third of the width of the opening of the fire place in front....But it is not absolutely necessary to conform rigorously to this decision, nor will it always be possible....It will fre- quently happen, that the back of a chimney must be made wider, than, according to the rule here given, it ought to be.....This may be, either to accommodate the fire-place to a stove, which being already on hand, must, to avoid the purchasing of a new one, be employed ; or for other reasons.... and any small deviation from the general rule will be attended with no considerable inconvenience...... It will always be best, however, to conform to it as far as circum- stances will allow. W here a chimney is designed for warming a room of a middle size, and wher,e the thickness of the wall of the chimney in front, measured from the front of the mantle to the breast of the chimney, is 9 inches, I should set off four inches more for the width of the throat of the chimney, which, supposing the back of the chimney to be built VOL. III. FIR 17 upright, as it always ought to be, will give thirteen inches for the depth of the fire-place, measured upon the hearth, from the opening of the fire-place in front, to the back. In this case, thirteen inches would be a good size for the width of the back ; and three times thir- teen inches, or thirty-nine inches, for the width of the opening of the fire-place in front; and the angle made by the back of the fire-place and the sides of it, or covings, would be just 135 degrees, which is the best position they can have for throwing heat into the room. But 1 will suppose, that in alter- ing such a chimney it is found ne- cessary, in order to accommodate the fire-place to a grate or stove already on hand, to make the fire- place sixteen inches wide. In that case, I should merely increase the width of the back, to the dimensions required, without altering the depth of the chimney,or increasing the openingof the chimney in front. The covings, it is true, would be somewdiat reduced in their width, by this alteration; and their po- sitions with respect to the plane of the back of the chimney would be a little changed ; but these altera- tions would produce no bad effects of any considerable consequence, and would be much less likely to injure the fire-place, than an at- tempt to bring the proportions of its parts nearer to the standard, by increasing the depth of the chim- ney, and the width of its opening in front; or than an attempt to preserve that particular obliquity of the covings, which is recom- mended as the best, (135 degrees), by increasing the width of the opening of the fire-place, without increasing its depth. In order to illustrate this subject D 18 FIR FIR more fully, we will suppose one case more....We will suppose that in the chimney which is to be al- tered, the width of the fire-place in front is either wider or narrower than it ought to be, in order that the different parts of the fire-place, after it is altered, may be of the proper dimensions. In this case, I should determine the depth of the fire-place and the width of the back of it, without any regard to the width of the opening of the fire- place in front; when this is done if the opening of the fire-place should be only two or throe inches too wide, that is to say, only two or three inches wider than is neces- sary, in order that the covings may be brought into their proper posi- tion with respect to the back, I should not alter the width of the opening, but should accommodate the covings to this width, by in- creasing their breadth, and increas- ing the angle they make with the back of the fire-place.....but if the opening of the fire-place should be more than three inches too wide, I should reduce it to its proper width by slips of stone, or by bricks and mortar. When the width of the opening of the fire-place, in front, is very great, compared with the depth of the fire-place, and with the width of the back, the covings in that case being very wide, and consequently very oblique, and the fire-place ve- ry shallow, any sudden mGtion of the air in front of the fire-place, (that motion, for instance, which would be occasioned by the clothes of a woman passing hastily before the fire, and very near it), would be apt to cause eddies in the air, within the opening of the fire-place, by which puffs of smoke might t-usily be brought into the room. Should the opening of the chim- ney be too narrow, which, how- ever, will very seldom be found to be the case, it will in general be advisable to let it remain as it is, and to accommodate the covings to it, rather than to attempt to in- crease its width, which would be attended with a good deal of trou- ble, and probably a considerable expense. But it is time that I should men- tion another matter........Provision must be made for the passage of the chimney-sweeper up the chim- ney.....This may easily be done in the following manner. In build- ing up the new back of the fire- place ; when this wall, (which need never be more than the width of a single brick in thickness), is brought up so high, that there re- mains no more than about ten or eleven inches between what is then the tops of it, and the inside of the mantle, or lower extremity of the breast of the chimney, an opening, or door way, eleven or twelve in- ches wide, must be begun in the middle of the back, and* continue quite to the top of it, which, accord- ing to the height to which it will commonly be necessary to carry up the back, will make the open- ing about twelve or fourteen inches high ; which will be quite suffi- cient to allow the chimney-sweep- er to pass. When the fire-place is finished, this door-way is to be closed by a few bricks, by a tile, or a fit piece of stone, placed in it, dry, or without mortar, and con- fined in its place by means of- a rabbit made for that purpose in the brick-work. As often as the chim- ney is swept, the chimney-sweeper takes down this temporary wall, which is very easily done; and when he has finished his work, he puts FIR FIR 19 it again into its place....The cut No. 2. will give a clear idea of this contrivance ; and the experience I have had of it has proved, that it answers perfectly well the purpose for which it is designed. I observed above, that the new back, which it will always be found necessary to build, in order to bring the; fire sufficiently forward, in altering a chimney constructed upon the common principles, need never be thicker than the width of a common brick.....I.may say the same of the thickness necessary to be given to the new sides, or cov, ings, of the chimney; or if the new back and covings are constructed of stone, one inch and three quar- ters, or two inches in thickness will be sufficient...Care should be taken in building these new walls to unite the back to the covings in a solid manner, Whether the new back and cov- ings are constructed of stone, or built of bricks, the space between them, and the old back and covings of the chimney ought to be filled up, to give greater solidity to the structure...This may be done with loose rubbish, or pieces of broken bricks or stones, provided the work be strengthened by a few layers or courses of bricks, laid in mortar, [charcoal in powder, mixed with ashes, both of which are bad con- ductors of heat, were used by the Editor;] but it will be indispensibly necessary to finish the work,w here these new walls end, that is to say, at the top of the throat of the chim- ney, where it ends as rapidly in the open canal of the chimney, by a horizontal course of bricks, well se- cured with mor/ar...This course of bricks willbe upon a level with the top of the door-way left for the chimney-sweeper. From these descriptions, it is clear, that where the throat of the chimney has an end, that is to say, where it enters into the lower part of the open canal of the chimney, there the three walls which form the two covings and the back of the fire-place all end abruptly...It is of much importance, that they should end in this manner; for, were they to be sloped outward, and raised in such a manner as to swell out the upper extremity of the throat of the chimney in the form of a trumpet, and increased by degrees to the size of the canal of the chimney, this manner of uniting the lower extremity of the canal of the chimney with the throat, would tend to assist the winds which may attempt to blow down the chimney, in forcing their way through the throat, and throw- ing the smoke backward into the room ; but when the throat of the chimney ends abruptly, and the ends of the new walls form a flat horizontal surface, it will be much more difficult for any wind from above to find and force its way through the narrow passage of the throat of the chimney. For the same reason that is to say, to prevent eddies, and to per- mit the current of air, which pass- es under the mantle into the chim- ney, to bend its course upwards, and unite quietly with the ascend- ing current of smoke ; the breast of the chimney, which forms that side of the throat that is in front, or nearest to the room, should be neatly cleaned off, and its surface made quite regular and smooth. This is of great consequence, and may be easily done, by covering it with a coat of plaster, which may be made thicker or thinner in dif- ferent parts as may be necessary 20 FIR FIR in order to bring the breast of the chimney to be of the proper form. I have hitherto given no precise directions in regard to the height to which the new back and covings ought to be carried : this will de- pend, not only on the height of the mantle, but also, and more espe- cially, on the height of the breast of the chimney, when the breast ends, and the upright canal begins. The back and covings must rise a few inches, five or six, for instance, higher than this part. I mentioned above, that the space between the walls which form the new back and covings, and the old back and sides of the fire-place, should be filled up ; but this must not be understood to apply to the wall of dry bricks; or the tile which closes the passage for the chimney sweeper, and the old back of the chimney ; for that space must be left void, otherwise, though this tile (which at most will not be more than two inches in thickness) were taken away, there would not be room sufficient for him to pass. In forming this door-way, the best method of proceeding is, to place the tile, or flat piece of stone destined for closing it, in its pro- per-place, and to build round it, or rather by the sides of it; taking care not to bring any mortar near it, in order that it may be easily re- moved when the door-way is finish- ed. With regard to the rabbit which should be made in the door- way to receive it and fix it more firmly in its place; this may either be formed at the same time, when the door-way ' ' ult, or it may be made after it i^ finished, by attach- ing to its bottom and sides, with strong mortar, pieces of thin roof- tiles : such as are about half an inch in thickness, will be best for this use ; if they are thicker, they will diminish too much the open- ing of the door-way, and likewise, be more liable to be torn away by the chimney sweeper, in passing up and down the chimney. In placing a grate, the thing principally to be attended to, is, to make the back of it coincide with the back of the fireplace ; but, as many of the grates now in com- mon use, will be found to be too large, when the fire-places are al- tered and improved, it will be ne- cessary to diminish their capaci- ties, by filling them up at the back and sides with pieces of fire-stones: when this is done, it is the front of the flat piece of fire-stone, which is to form a new back to the grate, which must be made to coincide with, and make part of the back, of the fire-place. But in diminish- ingthe capacities of grates with pie- ces of fire-stone, care must be tak- en, not to make them too narrow. It frequently happens, that the iron backs of grates, are not verti- cal, or upright, but inclined back- wards. When these grates are so much too wide, as to render it ne- cessary to fill them up behind with fire - stone, the inclination of the back will be of little consequence ; for, by making the piece of stone with which the width of the grate is to be diminished, in the form of a wedge or thicker above than be- low, the front of this stone, which in fact, will become the back of the grate, may be made perfectly ver- tical ; and the iron back of the grate being hid in the solid work of the back of the fire-place, will produce no effect whatever ; but if the grate be already so narrow, as not to admit of any diminution of its width, in that case, it will be best to take away the iron-back of FIR FIR 21 the grate entirely, and fixing the grate firmly in the brick work, cause the back of the fire-place to serve as a back to the grate. This I have very frequently done, and have always found it to answer perfectly well. Where it is necessary, that the fire in a grate should be very small, it will be best in reducing the grate with lire-stone, to bring its cavity destined for containing the fuel, to the form of one half of a hollow hemisphere ; the two semi-circu- lar openings, being one above to receive the coals, and the other in front, or towards the bars of the grate ; for when the coals are burnt in such a confined space, and sur- rounded on all sides, except in the front, and above, by fire-stone, (a substance peculiarly well adapted for confining heat), the heat of the fire will be concentrated, and the cold air of the atmosphere being kept at a distance, a much smaller quantity of coal will burn, than could possibly be made to burn in a grate, where they would be more exposed to be cooled by the sur- rounding air, or to have their heat carried off by being in contact with iron, or with any other substance, through which heat passes with greater facility, than through fire- stone. Where gr?tes, which are de- signed for rooms of a middling size, are larger than 14 or 15 inches, it will always be best, not merely to diminish their lengths, by filling them up at their two ends with fire-stone, but, forming the back of the chimney of a proper width, without paying any regard to the length of the grate, to carry the covings through the two ends of the grate in such a manner, as to conceal them, or at least, to con- ceal the-back corners of them, in the walls of the coving. Directions for laying out the work. If there be a grate in the chim- ney which is to be altered, it will always be best to take it away ; and when this is done, the rubbish must be removed, and the hearth swept perfectly clean. Suppose figure 2, to represent the ground plan of such a fire- place ; A, B, being the opening of it in front, A, C, and B; D, the two sides, or covings, and C, D, the back. ^irst, draw a straight line, with chalk, or with a lead pencil, upon the hearth, from one jamb to the other, even with the front of the jambs. The dotted line, a, b, may represent this line. Fig. 2. f'rji'ffliriPlllillllifilfflillliliy, 22 FIR FIR From the middle c, of this line, (a, b), another line, c, d, is to be drawn perpendicular to it, across the hearth, to the middle d, of the back of the chimney. A person must now stand up- right in the chimney, with his back to the back of the chimney, and hold a plumb-lime, exactly to the middle of the upper part of the breast of the chimney, {d, Fig. 3), Fig. 3. ^#iSyx§si ;v yy% ?X &$?% "■■' ^eSt^wfB?;mW,-e<>j !\\-^yti'!:'-y,;-"v v"" 'J ^r^x? >yy-Xl 7lfA$: r^xa or, where the canal of the chimney begins to rise perpendicularly ; tak- ing care to place the line above, in such a manner, that the plumb may fall on the line c, d, Fig. 1, drawn on the hearth from the mid- dle of the opening of the chimney in the front, to the middle of the back, and an assistant must mark the precise place e, on that lin« where the plumb falls. This being done, and the person in the chimney having quitted his station, four inches are to be set off on the line c, d, from e, towards d ; and the point fir where these four inches end, (which must be marked with chalk, or with a pen- cil), will shew, how far the new back is to be brought forward. Through /, draw the line g, h, parallel to the line A, B, and this line g, h, will shew the direction of the new back, or the ground line upon which it is to be built. The line c,f, will shew the depth of the new fire-place ; and if it should happen, that c, f, is equal to about one third of the line A, B ; and if the grate can be accommo- dated to the fire-place, instead of its being necessary to accommo- date the fire-place to the grate ; in that case, half the length of the line c, f, is to be set off from /, on the line g,f, h, on one side, to k, and on the other to i; and the line i, k, will shew the ground line of the fore part of the back of the chimney. In all cases, where the width of the opening of the fire-place in front; (A, B), happens to be not greater, or not more than two or three inches greater, than three times the width of the new back of the chimney (i, k), this opening may be left, and the lines drawn from i, to A, and from k, to B. will shew the width and position of the front of the new covings ; but when the opening of the fire-place in front, is still wider, it must be reduced, which is to be done in the following manner : From c, the middle of the line A, B, c, a, and c, b, must be set off equal to the width of the back FIR FIH 23 (i, k), added to half its width, (/, i), and lines drawn from i, to a, and from k, to b, will shew the ground- plan of the frontof the new covings. \Y"hen this is done,nothing more will be necessary, than to build up the back and covings ; and if the fire-place is designed for burning coals, to fix the grate in its proper place, according to the directions already given. When the width of the fire-place is reduced, the edg- ings of the covings a, A, and b, B, are to make a finish with the front of the jambs. And, in general, it will be best, not only for the sake of the appearance of the chimney, but for other reasons, also, to lower the height of the opening of the fire-place, whenever its width in front is diminished. Whether a chimney be designed for burning wood upon the hearth, or wood, or coals in a grate, the form of the fire-place is, in my opinion, most perfect, when the width of the back, is equal to the depth of the fire-place, and the opening of the fire-place in front, equal to three times the width of the back, or, which is the same thing, to three times the depth of the fire-place. But if the chimney be designed for burning wood upon the hearth, upon And-irons, or dogs, as they are called, it will sometimes be neces- sary to accommodate the width of the back to the length of the wood, and when this is the case, the cov- ings must be accommodated to the width of the back, and the open- ing of the chimney in front. When the wall of the chimney in front, measured from the upper- part of the breast of the chimney, to the front of the mantle, is very thin ; it may happen, and especial- ly in chimnies designed for burn- ing wood upon the hearth, or upon dogs, that the depth of the chim- ney, determining according to the directions here given, may be too small. Thus, for example, supposing the wall of the chimney, in front, from the upper part of the breast of the chimney, to the front of the mantle, to be only four inches, (which is sometimes the case, par- ticularly in rooms situated near the top of a house); in this case, if we take four inches for the width of the throat, this will give eight inches only for the depth of the fire-place, which would be too little, even were coals to be burnt instead of wood. In this case, I should increase the depth of the fire-place at the hearth, to 12 or 13 inches, and should build the back perpen- dicular to the height of the top of the burning fuel, (whether it be wood burnt upon the hearth, or coals in a grate), and then sloping the back by a gentle inclination forwards, bring it to its proper place, that is to say,perpendicularly under the back part of the throat of the chimney. This slope, (which will bring the back forward four or five inch-is, or just as much as the depth of the fire-place is in- creased), though it ought not to be too abrupt, yet it ought to be quite finished at the height of eight or ten inches above the fire, other- wise, it may cause the chimney to smoke ; but when it is very near the fire, the heat of the fire will enable the current of rising smoke to overcome the obstacle which this slope will oppose to its ascent, which it could not do so easily, were the slope situated at -i greater distance from the burning r are in general made by the hand ; but, as that method is necessarily tedious, and inade- quate to supply the demand in po- pulous fishing ports, Mr. J. W. Boswell, of Barnstaple, Devon, in the year 1795, invented a ma- chine for the purpose of weaving nets, for which the Society fir the Encouragement of Arts, See. in 1796, conferred on him a premium of fifty guineas. His loom is cal- culated to make 68 meshes at the; same time, and by the same mo- tion, with a perfectly fast knot, which does not differ from those employed by fishermen...nets thus manufactured have a complete sel- vedge, and are not liable to uecav from the knots becoming 'oose, a circumstance of considerable im- portance to those employed in the fisheries. We regret that Mr. Coswell's ingenious machine is too complicated to give the reader a competent idea of its mechanism, without illustrating itby an engrav- ing ; and, as few persons in domes- tic life will attempt to make their own fishing-nets, we refer the cu- rious reader to the 11th vol. of the Transactions of the Pat: irtlc Society 32 F I 9 Fib above mentioned, where he will find an ample description, together with a plate explaining the whole of the machinery. 1TSH-POXDS, are those reser- voirs made for the breeding and rearing of fish. They are consi- dered to be no small improvement of watery and boggy lands, many of which can be appropriated to no other purpose. In making a pond, its head should be at the lowest part of the ground, that the trench of the flood-gate, or sluice, having a good fall, may, when necessary, speedily discharge the water. The best method of securing the work, is to drive in two or three rows of stakes, at least six feet long, at a distance of about four feet, extend- ing to the whole "length of the pond- head, the first row of which should be rammed not less than four feet deep. If the bottom be false, the foundation may be laid with quick- lime : which, slaking, will make it as hard as a stone. Some persons place a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out of the pond, among the piles and stakes ; and, when these are well covered, drive in others as occasion may require, and ram in the earth, as before, till the pond-head be of the height designed. The dam should be made sloping on each side, and a waste left to carry off the superabundant water in case of floods of rains ; the depth of the pond need not exceed six feet, rising gradually in shoals towards the sides, in order to allow the fish to sun themselves, and de- posit their spawn. Gravelly and sandy bottoms, especially the lat- ter, are well calculated to promote the breeding of these animals : and a fat soil, with a white rich water, such as the washings of hills, com- mons, streets, sinks, &c. is said (a be the most proper for fattening all sorts of fish. For storing a pond, carp is to be preferred, on account of its deli- cacy, quick growth, and prolific nature, as it breeds five or six times a year. This fish delights in ponds that have marl or clay bot- toms, with plenty of weeds and grass, on which it chiefly subsists during the hot months. In a late publication, we meet with the following singular method of furnishing a fish-pond -with a variety of fish : About the latter end of April, or the beginning of May, take the root of a willow that stands near the water side, and is full of fibres ; wash off the earth which adheres to it, then fasten it to a spike, and drive it into a river or pond well stored with fish : they will speedily be induced to deposit their spawn or roe in the fibres of the root. After a few days, (in cool weather, perhaps, week*), remove the spike, with the willow root, from the pond; and convey it to that which you design to store, driving it to the depth of four or six inches under the surface of the water; and, in about a fortnight, a great number of young fish wilt appear. The root, however, should not be left too long in the first pond or river, lest the heat of the sun animate the spawn, and disen- gage it from the root. Ponds should be drained every three or four years, and the fish s tied. In those which are kept foi oreeding fish, the smaller 1,'ik should be taken out, for storinp other ponds ; but a good stock of females, at leas, eight or nine years old. ou.;ht to remain, as they never breed before that age. FISTULA, in general, denotes FIS FIX any ulcerated and sinuous cavity, with callous and elevated edges, which extends to a carious bone. This formidable disease is, ac- cording to the parts which it at- tacks, called either fistula lachry- malis, that is, a sinuous ulcer of the lachrymal sac or duct, beginning with a tumor between the inner cornea of the eye, and the side of the nose ; or a fistula in perinaa, namely, an ulcer communicating with the urinary canal, but some- 'times opening into the bladder; or fistula in ano, when the ulcer is in the vicinity of the rectum or straight-gut. The first generally appears in ricketty children, or such as are subject to glandular obstructions; the second may arise from wounds in the bladder and of the urethra, from external vio- lence, &c. but is most frequently occasioned by certain diseases with which voluptuaries are punished ; and the last is produced by what- ever lends to form matter about the anus, by piles, soft tumors, hardened feces, or in consequence of irritation and inflammation, ter- minating in suppuration. It would be needless to enlarge upon the treatment of this com- plaint, the cure of which cannot be entrusted to unskillful hands; nay, medical and surgical advice are often inadequate to relieve the unhappy sufferer, especially from the last species of fistula, after an operation has been ineffectually performed. Indeed, the frequent unsuccessful attempts of the most experienced operators, have encou- raged a degree of quackery in this malignant disease, which ought never to be submitted to dabblers; as the delay of proper advice can- not fail to be attended with fatal effects. Hence we think it neces- VOL. III. sary to caution the unwary against the insidious attempts of those ec- centric impostors (particularly in the west end of the metropolis) who extort large sums of money from the unhappy patients, under the specious promise of curing a fistula, without cutting. After the disorder has been suf- fered to prey upon the internal parts, and the bones in the vicinity have become affected, or carious, we venture to pronounce that it is incurable. But, if the patient be of a sound constitution, and has not neglected himself at the commence- ment of the malady, he may doubt- less be cured by professional treat- ment, an appropriate diet, consist- ing of light and nutritive food, and abandoning every kind of stimulat- ing and heating aliment, both in a liquid and solid state. Hence game, pork, wine, spirits, coffee, and spices, are here equally improper. Lastly, we are inclined to believe, that the external use of living snails, or at least the expressed juice of them frequently applied to fistulous ulcers at their commencement, (especially after completely laying open the sinus), will have an excel- lent effect in stopping the progress of the disease ; and, by sufficient perseverance, probably accomplish a cure. There are several well-at- tested cases, that this simple reme- dy has recently been found of ex- cellent service in remoxlngscrophu- lous ulcers, which had resisted every other mode of treatment. Fits. See Convulsions; Epi- lepsy; Hysterics; and Spasms. 1TXED-A1R, an aerial fluid, which is disengaged from all sub- stances liable to undergo the vinous fermentation, as well as by mixing alkaline salts and earths with acids. It is, strictly speaking, a gas which F 34 FIX is essentially different in its proper- ties from atmospheric air, as the former is unfit to support either the respiration of animals, or the burning of a candle ; being likewise specifically heavier than the com- mon air we breathe. From its acid properties, it has been variously denominated aerial acid, cretacious acid, or carbonic acid: and, from its noxious qualities, it has receiv- ed the name of mtphitic gas. The appellation of fixed air has been applied to it from it.-, readily losing its elastic property, and fixing it- self in various bodies, especially those which are of a calcareous nature. Fixed air was first discovered by Dr. Black, who, in consequence of various experiments, found that chalk, and the other earths reduci- ble to quick-lime by calcination, consist of an alkaline earth, which is soluble by itself in water ; but which, when combined with a large quantity of fixed air, becomes in- soluble ; losing the properties of quick-lime, and assuming the ap- pearance those earths naturally have, when not reduced to a cal- careous state. Dr. Black observed the same phenomenon in white magnesia, and in alkalis both fixed and vola- tile. Their effervescence with acids, and their mildness, depend on the fixed air which these hodies contain; because alkalis and cal- careous earths become in a high degree caustic, when divested of that gas. He farther remarked, that fixed air, had different degrees of affinity with various substances; being stronger with calcareous earth than with fixed alkali; with the latter than with magnesia ; and with this than with volatile alkali- FIX This new gas was introduced irt-, to the catalogue of medicines, by its strongly antiseptic properties: it cannot, however, on account of its fatal effects, be inspired in large quantities, though in small portions it may be inhaled without clanger. Dr. PERCivALfirst administered it on a large scale, and directed his patients, in more than thirty cases of pulmonary consumption, to in- spire the steam of effervescingmix- tures of chalk and vinegar through the spout of a coffee-pot. By this treatment, the hectic fever was, in several cases, considerably abated, and the matter expectorated be- came less offensive, and better di- gested. Although Dr. Percival was not so fortunate as to effect a cure in any one instance, yet the late Dr. Withering met with better success ; as one of three pa- tients was thus restored to perfect health ; another received great be- nefit, and was much relieved; and the third was kept alive by inhaling this gas for more than two months. Fixed air, however, can only be employed with advantage in those. stages of pulmonary consumption, when a purulent expectoration, or a rupture and discharge of an ab- scess in the lungs, have taken; place : in such cases, this remedy affords a powerful palliative. Farther, it is equally useful when applied to foul ulcers ; and instan- ces have occurred, in which the sanies, or corrupt matter issuing from cancers, has been sweetened* the pain alleviated, and a better suppuration produced, even after the carrot-poultice had failed. But, though fixed air evidently checks the progress of a cancer, there is reason to apprehend that it never will effect a cure. Considerable benefit has also FIX been received in ulcerated sore- throats, from inhaling the vapours arising from effervescing mixtures. This remedy ought, however, by no means to exclude the use of other antiseptic applications. In that dreadful disorder, the malignant fever, wines strongly impregnated with fixed air may be administered, with a view to check the septic ferment, and to neutralize the putrid matter in the stomach and intestines. If the patient's common drink were thus prepared, it might be attended with beneficial effets. As the latter stages of malignant fevers are generally ac- companied with putrid diarrhoeas, this evacuation ought not to be re- strained by the use of astringent medicines ; because the retention of putrid matter in the body will aggravate the delirium,and increase the vehemence of the fever. And if the disorder be suffered to take its usual course, death is the inevi- table consequence. In cases of this dangerous nature, mephitic or fix- ed air, produced from a mixture of chalk and oil of vitriol, has been injected into the intestines, by means of the instrument employed for tobacco clysters ; by which ap- lication the violence of the diar- rhoea was quickly abated ; the heat and fetor of the stools corrected ; and every alarming and dangerous symptom in a short time removed. The last disorder in which the use of fixed air has been attended with success, is the calculus, or stone, of which it is said to be an excellent solvent ; but, as the ck- periments made on this subject have not hitherto accurately deter- mined its efficacy, we cannot speak of it with any degree of confidence. See Stone. Flag: See Flower-de-Luce, FLA 55 [Flag, Sweet. See Acorus.] FLANNEL, a kind of light, porous, woollen stuff, woven on a loom with two treddles, in a man- ner similar to baize. This is unquestionably one of the most useful articles of wearing apparel; and it is much to be re- gretted, that it is not more gene- rally worn, as we are fully per- suaded, that it would be the means of preventing many diseases. The principal objection to the wearing of flannel appears to be, that it irritates the skin, and occa- sions disagreeable sensations...... these, however, continue only for a few days, and the subsequent ad- vantages, thence resulting, amply compensate for such temporary uneasiness. Both young and aged would derive from it equal advan- tages. We do not, however, mean to insinuate, that flannel next the skin should be universally and in- discriminately worn by infants and young persons ; though it is an ill- founded assertion of its adversaries, that it has a tendency to produce eruptions; as it evidently opens the pores, promotes perspiration, and thus removes the principal cause of cutaneous diseases that originate from an obstructed and irregular state of the skin. There are,however,certain cases in which flannel cannot, with strict propriety, be used as an under- dress. In order to enable the reader to ascertain whether its constant use be advisable or not, we shall point out the leading circumstances which may, in this respect, influx ence his determination: it is a sa- lutary dress to all those, in gene- ral, who have passed the meridian of life, or the 35th year of their age ; though they should not have been accustomed to it from their 36 FLA FLA infancy; to persons of a cold and phlegmatic habit, or leading a se- dentary life : to such as are subject to fits of the gout, rheumatism, frequent colds and catarrhs ; to in- dividuals very susceptible of im- pressions connected with the vicis- situdes of air, weather, and climate; as well as to nervous patients, and those who have recently recovered from severe chronical diseases.... On the contrary, the wearing of flannel next the skin may be inju- rious to constitutions so organized that they are liable to profuse per- spiration, on taking even moderate exercise ; or to those who are al- ready afflicted with scorbutic or other eruptions of the skin ; or, lastly, to all such irritable and whimsical persons as possess nei- ther bodily nor mental vigour suf- ficient to overcome the first uneasy sensations which is occasions. But we are fully warranted to assert, from daily experience, that the ha- bitual use of this beneficent texture has essentially contributed to the recovery of numberless ricketty children, not less than to the sav- ing of others who were born of feeble and enervated parents. In short, there is every reason to be- lieve, that a more general adoption of this salutiferous cloth might prevent many fatal inflammations of the throat, breast, lungs, &c. to which the poorer class of people are remarkably liable ; and thus preserve the lives of multitudes who now become a prey to our damp and variable climate. FLATULENCY, a very com- mon disorder, arising from vapours generated in the stomach and in- testines. It occasions distensions, disagreeable sensations, and fre- quently a considerable degree of pain, Sedentary persons, and those who are of a delicate constitution, especially women, are very liable to attacks of this complaint, which is generally induced by the eating of peas, beans, and other legumi- nous food. Animal fats, especially those of mutton and veal, if immo- derately used, with large draughts of liquor immediately after eating them, are apt to turn rancid on the stomach, and to be accompanied with flatulency. The drinking of turbid or feculent liquors, whether new or old, as well as excessive potations of hot tea, produce a si- milar effect. The habit of the pa- tient likewise contributes towards the generation of these causes ; so that in. phlegmatic constitutions, where the bowels are of a dry and costive disposition, this complaint is most frequent and painful. The general method of treating flatulency consists in administer- ing hot aromatics, which, however, ought to be taken with great cau- tion, as they often irritate rather than relieve the parts affected...... The poorer class, who are subject to flatulency, usually have recourse to drams, low wines or punch...... remedies which are extremely im- proper ; and, though they afford a temporary relief, eventually impair the appetite and constitution. The safest mode of treatment is, to keep the bowels gently open by means of clysters, prepared of half a pint of mutton-broth, in which half an ounce of caraway-seeds has been boiled, adding two spoonfuls of sweet-oil, and one of soft sugar; which should be repeated three or four times in twenty-four hours.... During the intermediate clays, gen- tle laxatives, consisting of single drams of vitriolated tartar, dissolve ed in one ounce of cinnamon \va- FLA ttr, may be taken every three hours, till they produce the desired effect, in order to attenuate the viscous matter in the bowels....See also Colic But if the paroxysms of flatu- lency be violent, and accompanied with vomiting and other distressing symptoms, so that neither absorb- ents nor carminatives relieve the patient, we are informed by Dr. Reich, that great and immediate benefit has been derived from his method of extracting the air from the bowels, by means of a common clystering syringe; or, still more effectually by the machine of which we have given a short account un- der the article Air. This useful instrument, we understand, is ma- nufactured by George Goring, an ingenious turner of Furth, a town in Franconia, who sells it at a price of from 10s. to 18s. FLAX, or Linum, L. an indi- genous plant, consisting of four species, of which the following are' the principal: 1. The usitatissimum, or Com- mon Flax, which grows in corn- fields, and sandy pastures, and flowers in the month of July.... This valuable plant thrives most luxuriantly on ground newly broken up ; which it ameliorates, if it be sown only every sixth year. The best preparatory crops for flax are those of hemp and potatoes. In the fens of Lincolnshire, hemp is sown the first year on a good free open loam, that has been well till- ed, the soil being properly manured with pigeon's dung; the second year again hemp is cultivated with- out any manure; and in the suc- ceeding year followed by flax. With respect to the quality of linseed, from which fiax is propa- gated, that imported from Riga is FLA 37 generally supposed to be the best, and is sown broad-cast with clo- ver, in the proportion of 2, or 2| bushels per acre. Experience how- ever, has evinced, that any other seed would be equally successful, if it were properly kept for six or seven years before it is sown; for the merchants of Riga frequently import linseed from Germany and other countries, which, after seve- ral years they again furnish with the same seed, but at an advanced price. It would farther be an use- ful practice, to exchange linseed among farmers living at some dis- tance ; as it has been observed that it improves, when cultivated in a different soil and climate....See also Linseed. In order to prevent the depre- dations of birds on this valuable seed, circumspect farmers sow it after sun-set on land well pulveriz- ed, and harrow it in early the next morning, before the sun rises.... Thus the seed, being moistened by the night's dew, is easily enveloped with earth, and rendered invisible to birds....Another great enemy to the prosperity of the flax-plant, is the parasatical weed called the Greater Dodder (which see), or Cuscuta Europaa, L....Bechstein communicates the following reme- dy, by which it may be easily and completely extirpated :....To every bushel of linseed, take two drams of camphor reduced to powder, by adding fifteen drops of spirit of wine ; and mix it well with the seed on the evening when it is to be sown. . As soon as the crop attains the height of four inches, it will be requisite to weed it; an operation which ought to be performed with the greatest care, that the flax may not be trodden down. If it be al- 38 FLA FLA lowed to grow longer, the stalks ■will be so much bent and broken, that they never regain their former straighincss. When the weeds are carefully eradicated, they should be carried off the field, and on no ac- count be suffered to lie in the fur- rows, because they often strike loot again, and thus injure the growth of the flax. This plant becomes ripe when it is in full blossom ; but, if it be in- tended to stand for seed, it will not attain to maturity till the milky juice which it affords is dried up; at which time it is to be pulled, in order to be prepared for the manu- facturer. The first process which flax un- deigoes, is that of rating, or steep- ing it in water, to loosen and sepa- rate the rind from the stalk. The early flax is generally watered by laying it in bundles, in a pond or reservoir of soft water, where it is pressed down by stones, or other heavy bodies. In the course of a week, the rind will be sufficiently loosened, when the flax ought to be removed from the water, spread out in the air, and dried. Great skill and precaution are necessary in this part of the operation ; for should the flax be left too long in the water, the filaments or threads will become rotten and useless : it will therefore be preferable to take it out rather at an earlier period, than to leave it too long in the pits. Another process is that of dew- ripening: which is performed by- spreading the flax on the grass, so that the joint action of the rain and dew produces an effect similar to that of rating. In some parts of Germany, it is never steeped in water, but only exposed for several weeks to the air, rain, and sun; by which it is said to become finer and softer than by any other me- thod. To these operations may be add- ed that of rippling, namely, the separating of the seed from the stalk, by passing the flax through a kind of comb before it is rated or watered. These combs are made of iron, the teeth of which are so closely set together, that the heads cannot pass through, and conse- quently are pulled off. Some cultivators, however, beat the seed out in the field where it grew, instead of rippling, by means of a heavy piece of wood fastened to a bundle; after which it is sift- ed clean into a large sheet. In this state the flax is ready to be manufactured into Linen ; for a short account of which process, we refer the reader to that article. [Dr. Logan informed the Phila- delphia Society for promoting Agri- culture, that he cultivated flax and 'potatoes in the same field: each crop had an equal quantity of ma- nure ; on gathering an excellent crop of flax in July, the ground was immediately ploughed and sowed with turnips; and produced one hundred bushels of good tur- nips per acre: on removing the crop of potatoes and turnips, about the middle of October, the ground was put into wheat; the wheat, on the flax and turnip ground was fully equal, if not superior, to the wheat on the potatoe ground. Flax, he says, requires a rich loam or clay; rots best in August, and was informed by experienced farmers, that the injury which flax is said to receive by the heat of the mid-summer sun, is by no means equal to the benefit it receives by being quickly maturated. The following directions for cul-. £L A tivating flax are given by Mr. Deane, in his N. E. Farmer. ,k Flax requires more care and nicer culture than any that we are concerned with. It should never be sown on a soil that is not rich, and well wrought. Sandy and gravelly soils are by no means suitable for flax. It is not a plant that requires much heat; therefore it answers well in cold latitudes. The cooler kinds of soil, such as clay and loam, and the black earth of drained lands are suitable for it. But they should be well pulverized and manured. In wet seasons it commonly does bet- ter than in dry ones: So that though it may sometimes do well upon high land, it is best not to risk it: rather choose a soil that is naturally low and moist. If it be too wet, little trenches may be made, thirty or forty feet asunder, to drain off the water. The land must be in good heart, either na- turally or by the help of manures. But new dung should not be laid on it at the time of sowing; nor any thing else that will make weeds in- crease; for in no crops are weeds more pernicious than in flax. It is often found that they entirely kill most of the plants; and the remaining ones will be bushy and mishapen, and have a weak coat on them, being too much deprived of the rays of the sun. The manure for flax ground should rather abound with oils than otherwise, and be rather cooling than hot. The old rotten dung of black cattle and swine is most suita- ble, or a compost in which these dungs are the principal parts. A top-dressing of sea-weeds, after the flax is come up, is greatly recom- mended. But I rather choose to enrich the ground a year before, FLA as than when the flax is sowed. A crop of potatoes is good to precede one of flax. I plough up green sward, and dung it well with such manures as are suitable for flax, and plant it with potatoes. This crop does not abate the strength of the soil, but rather increases it. It makes the ground mellow, and does not encourage weeds: It is therefore in fine order for flax the year following. Green sward will sometimes do well the first year; but it must be a fat deep soil, such as some inter- vales are; and should have a dress- ing of old dung, well pulverized, and mixed with the soil by har- rowing: For if it be not well mix- ed, the crop will be Of various lengths, which is inconvenient, and occasions loss. In England they sow two bushels of imported seed on an acre. When they sow seed of their own growing, they allow more. In this country some afford but one bushel. The best quantity may be about six or seven pecks, or a little more or less, according to the strength of the soil. For it is not with this crop as some say it is with grain. Of grain, rich land requires, they say, less seed; because what is wanting in seed, is made up in stooling. But however this may be, it is most certain that the stooling of flax will be hurtful. That is the best flax, where a root bears but one spire, or stalk. It will be straighter and taller, as well as more soft and pliant. The ground should be ploughed in the fall, and again in the spring, the clods broken, and the stones taken out. Flax should be sown early, un- less the soil be too wet. A small degree of frost happening after it is up, will not kill it. That which 40 FLA is sown early has the strongest coat, as it is slower in its growth. A calm time should be taken to sow the seeds: Otherwise it cannot be sown even, it being more diffi- cult to sow than most other seeds. Flax-seed should be changed once in two or three years, or it will so degenerate, as to be unfit for sowing. It is worthwhile to change it every year. It is certain, that seed from less than a hundred miles distance, has been known to make a crop more than double. It has done so in this country. After the seed is sown, it should be co- vered, either by bush-harrowing or by rolling, or both. When flax comes to be about four inches high, if weeds appear among it, they should be pulled up by careful hands: And to prevent wounding the flax, the weeders should be bare-footed. If they should tread it down at this age, it will soon rise up again. The weed commonly known by the name of false flax, is not in blossom till the flax is nine inches or a foot high. At this time the weed is easily found by its blossoms ; and what escaped at the first weeding, should at this time be carefully eradicated. The next operation in the cul- ture of flax, is pulling it: In doing which, care should be taken not to mix long and short together in the same hands, but to keep all of the same length by itself. The reason of which caution is so obvious, that I need not mention it. The time of pulling flax depends upon its growth and ripeness, and upon the proposed method of man- aging it afterwards. That which is to be watered, should be pulled as soon as the blos- soms are generally fallen off. Some think the harl is stronger at this FLA time than afterwards, as none of the oily particles are yet passed up into the seed. It is undoubtedly better for the soil, that it be pulled at this time, than when the seed is ripe. The longer it stands to rip- en, the more oily particles it will draw from the earth. Being pulled, and tied up in hands, the flax, should be put into the water without delay. A pond is preferable to running water, both as it is warmer, and not so apt to deprive the flax of its oily and glu- tinous substance. In four or five days, according to the warmth of the water, it will be time to take it out. But that the true time may not be missed, it must be carefully watched, and trials made by drying and breaking a little of it, that so the harl may not get too much weakened. After it is taken out, and has lain dripping a few hours, it must be spread on a grassy spot, and dried. If it should happen to be not wa- tered enough, the want may be made up by letting it lie in the dews for a few nights; and if a gentle rain happen to fall on it, it will be the whiter and cleaner. The flax that goes to seed should not stand till it appears brown, nor till the seed be quite ripe. It is not necessary on account of the seed ; because it will ripen after pulling. When the leaves are falling from the stalks, and the stalks begin to have a bright yellow colour, the bolls just beginning to have a brownish cast, is the right time for pulling. The rind is to be loosened from the stalks, not by watering, lest it be too harsh, but by spreading it on the grass to receive the nightly dews. When it is done enough; the rind will appear separated from FLA FLA 41 the stalk at the slender branching parts near the top ends. When it is almost done enough, it should be turned Over once or twice. It was formerly the practice, af- ter drying the flax in the field, to house it till some time in Septem- ber; and then to beat off the seed and spread the flax. But this often interfered with fall feeding: And it was necessary it should lie the longer, the weather being cool.... Sometimes it has been overtaken by snows. I prefer the method I have lately gone into, as it saves labour; which is to spread the flax as soon as it is pulled. I do it on a spot where the grass is not very short, which prevents sun-burning. As the weather is hot, it will be done in about ten days or a fortnight. I then bundle and beat the seed off, and lay it up in a dry place till winter. While it lies, most of the seed will shell out. In the most frosty weather it will dress easily without warming be- fore a fire, or baking it in an oven. The " Complete Farmer" describes and represents machines for break- ing and scutching flax. To prevent the ill effect of so severe a crop as flax is to the soil, it should be ploughed without de- lay after the crop is taken off. /vs flax is pulled early, the ground thus gets a kind of summer fallow, which will do much towards re- cruiting it, and weeds are prevent- ed from going to seed." Mr. Chancellor Livingston found that a piece of flax sown by a tenant upon a dry sandy declivity, (about half an acre), looked ex- tremely sickly, was recovered in a surprising mannei by strewing 3 bushels of gypsum on the surface in the morning, while the dew was VOL. III. on the ground. It stood a very dry season, and yielded abundantly. An acre of flax, raised in 1738, by Mr. A. Roberts, produced 3001b. of flax, which sold for 8d. per lb. ... L. 10 0 0 9 A bushels of seed at 3s. lid. . I 17 21 L. 1 I 17 2-1 Expenses . . 7 16 6* Neat profit . . L. 4 0 8A Amer. Mus. vol. 9. p. 201.] Many attempts have been made by ingenious persons, to improve flax, or to render it finer, softer, and equal to silk in spinning. In Ireland, this object has, in a great measure, been attained by boiling it for several hours in sea-water, with the addition of a ley made of unslacked lime, and two or three parts of pot-ashes : thus we have seen the coarsest part of flax, or tow, considerably changed in its texture, so as to resemble the finest lint....\u the 69th Report of* the Economical Society of Leipzig, print- ed in 1797 (in German), we meet with the following process for con- verting flax into a silky substance, communicatedby Count Harrsch, director of the mines in Russia.... Take pure combed flax, tie it up into rollers covered with white buckram, fasten them with pack- thread, and deposit them for a fortnight in a damp cellar. Then open the flax, and place it under the cylinders of a common mangle, where it should be rolled over five or six limes, in a manner similar to that pursued with linen. Next, the flax should be passed through a fine brass comb. This process of mangling and combing must be repeated a second and third time, but the combs ought to be pro- 42 FLA FLA gressively finer. By such treatment (the Count informs the Society) a veiy fine, tender, and glossy flax, may be obtained, scarcely inferior to China silk; and, though it loses more than one-third of its sub- stance, yet the refuse, or tow, is unc'/mmonly fine, and still useful for the manufacture of ordinary linen. He farther observes, that, after each combing, particularly the first, the filaments appear flat and compressed, but that they recover their roundness by the subsequent operation. Flax thus prepared, cannot, by mere contact, or the sense of feeling, be distinguished from silk, and is fit to be manufac- tured into the finest cambric, and Brabant lace. Of the utility of flax or linseed, in fattening cattle, we have already treated in vol. i. Beside these various purposes, flax may also be considered as a manure: for the land on which it is spread, in order to prepare it for housing, is thus in a considerable degree ameliorated ; and, if rated flax be laid on a coarse, sour pas- ture, the nature of the herbage will be totally changed ; and the sweet- est grasses will in future grow on such indifferent soil....The water, too, in which the flax is immersed, if properly sprinkled on land, by means of watering carts, will pro- duce a very fertilizing effect, and increase its value ten or fifteen shillings per acre. But this water is of so poisonous a nature to cattle, that the practice of macerating or steeping flax, in any pond or run- ning stream, is, by the 33d Hen- ry VII1. c. 17, prohibited under very severe penalties. 2. The catharticum, or Purg- ing Flaz, or mill-mountain, is an annual plant, growing in dry mea- dows and pastures, and flowering from June to August. It is eaten by horses, sheep, and goats....An infusion of two drams of the dried plant is an excellent laxative, and has been given with advantage in obstinate rheumatisms. FLAX, TOAD, the Common Yellow, or Antirrhinum Linaria, L. an indigenous perennial plant, which grows in barren meadows, pastures, and road sides, and is in flower from July to September. Cows, horses, and swine refuse this noxious, and, according to Bechstein, poisonous weed; nor is it relished by sheep and goats.... An infusion of the leaves, however, has been used as a diuretic, and purgative; a decoction of the flow- ers is said to be very efficacious in cutaneous disorders. An ointment prepared from the leaves, is reputed to afford considerable relief in that painful malady, the piles....In dye- ing, Suckow and Dambourney remark, that the fresh herb, while in blossom, imparted an olive co- lour to woollen cloth and silk.... Bohmer thus obtained only a weak yellow liquor, of a greenish shade. [This detestable weed, which is known in Pennsylvania by the name of Ransted, is said by our botanists not to be a native of the United States. Did the im- porter of it know the injury he has done by its introduction, he could not fail to regret the pains he took on the occasion. Ransted abounds in an acrid oil. The juice mixed with milk is a poison to flies. The distilled water or juice of the plants, used as a cataplasm, is an approved remedy for the piles, according to Ray, Haller, and Curtis. It is highly injurious to our grass FLE FLE 43 lands, and is now said to have pass- ed the mountains. It is extremely difficult to eradicate.] FLEA, or Pulex, L.in zoology, a genus of insects requiring no par- ticular description. Want of cleanliness remarkably contributes to the generation of fleas ; as the females deposit their eggs, each from twenty to thirty, in damp and filthy places, within the crevices of boards, on rubbish, &c. whence they emerge in the course of six or eight days, in the form of [greasy whitish maggots. When a fortnight old, they enve- lope themselves in a small chrysa- lis, from which they sally forth, after ten claysexistencedn the form of fleas. In the winter, these dif- ferent transformations require a period of six weeks, but in summer only a month. They probably do not live longer than one year ; though it is said, that fleas have been kept on little golden chains for six years. As they are able to draw a weighteighty times greater than that of their own bodies, some frivolous persons have occa- sionally kept them harnessed to miniature carriages, &c. Leaping also is a singular proof of their muscular strength ; as, by pressing the belly downwards, contracting their legs, and then suddenly ex- panding them, these creatures dart forward to a distance of 10 or 12 inches. Children and females are re- markably liable to the attacks of this little enemy ; a circumstance which must be attributed to their more tendcrskin,their purerblood, longer clothes, and, in some indi- viduals, perhaps to a peculiar state of perspiration. Cleanliness, and frequent sprinkling of the room with a simple decoction of worm- wood will soon extirpate the whole breed of these troublesome vermin ; and the best remedy to expel them from bed-clothes,'is a bag filled with dry moss, the odour of which is to them extremely of- fensive. Others cover the floors of the roomslwhere fleas abound, with the leaves of the aider tree, while the dew is on tiie foliage, to which these insects fondly adhere, and thus may be easily destroyed...... Mercurial ointment, sulphur, and fumigation with the leaves of pen- ny-royal, or the fresh-gathered fo- liage of that plant, se.ved up in a bag, and laid in the bed, are also remedies pointed out for the ex- pulsion of fleas. Dogs and cats may be effectual- ly secured from the persecutions of these vermin, by occasionally anointing their skin with sweet oil. FLEA-BANE, the Great, or Plowman's Spikenard, Conyza squarrosa, L. an indigenous bien- nial plant, growing in mountainous meadows and pastures, in a cal- careous soil, and producing yellow flowers in the months of July and August. This plant possesses the odour of musk ; the smoke, occasioned by burning it, was formerly much employed for the destruction of fleas, gnats, and other insects. It was also recommended in cutane- ous disorders, but is at present ex- ploded from the shops. In a simi- lar manner has the CanadaFlka- bane, or Erigeron Canadense, L. lost its reputation, both for banish- ing fleas, and answering other su- perstitious incantations ; for which it was celebrated in former times. FLESH-MEAT, or the flesh of animals prepared for food, is an important object of domestic eco- 44 FLE FLE nomy. In this place, however, we shall communicate only the most proper and effectual ways of pre- serving such meat in a fresh state, especially in the hot days of sum- mer, as we treat of its relative sa- lubrity and influence on health, under the distinct heads of Beef, Mutton, Pork, Veal, Sec. as well as under the general head of Food. In a work entitled " Miscellanea Curiosa," by Mr. Jones, we find an easy method of preparing flesh- meat, without spices, and with very little salt; yet so as to keep good, and always ready for eating, for two or three years, and in the warmest climates. He gives us this account of the Moorish Elcholle, made of beef, mutton, or camel's flesh, but chiefly of beef; which is uniformly cut in long slices, well salted, and suffered to lie twenty- four hours in the pickle. It is then removed from those tubs or jars, into others filled with fresh water; and, when it has lain a night, it is taken out. put on ropes in the sun, and air to dry. When thoroughly dried and hard, it is cut into pieces of rwo or three inches long, and thrown into a pan, or cauldron, which is kept ready with boiling oil and suet sufficient to-coverit; thus it is boiled, till it be very clear and red on cutting it; when it is again taken out and set to drain. After having undergone this pro- cess, it stands to cool, while iars are prepared for storing it ; at the same time pouring upon it the li- qour in which it was fried ; and, as soon as it is thoroughly cold, the vessels are closely stopped. Pre- served in this manner, it will re- main hard, and keep two years : indeed, the hardest is considered as the best and most palatable. Thus it is brought to table by the Moors, who sometimes fry it with eggs and garlic, sometimes stew it, and squeeze on it the juice of lemon. It is affirmed to be a very good dish, either hot or cold. Another method of preserving flesh-meat, especially veal and lamb, is practised in Germany, and consists simply in immersing them in skimmed milk, so as to cover the whole joint. In warm weather, the milk should be changed twice the first day, and once in twenty-four hours ; but, in a cool temperature it is sufficient to renew it every two or three days. Thus, the meat may be kept in a sweet state for several weeks ; but it ought to be washed in spring water before it is dressed. Game and beef, how- ever, cannot be preserved in the same manner,and therefore should be wrapped in a clean linen cloth, and buried in a box filled with dry sand, where it will remain sweet for three weeks, if deposited in an airy, dry, and cool chamber. One of the cheapest means of preventing putrefaction in flesh- meat, would be that of covering it with charcoal powder ; but experi- ments are still wanting to ascertain its eflects on animal substances of different kinds. We think, how- ever, there can be little doubt en- tertained of the successful result. With respect to the best method of pickling meat, we refer to the ar- ticles Beef and Pickle. [Under the article Beef, in the first vol. ample directions were giv- en for salting beef. The following additional accountof the result of a succesful trial to preserve beef, killed in very hot weather, in Au- gust, is communicated by Mr. Cooper, of Northumberland : The animal fasted a night and FLE FLI 45 day before being killed. About nine o'clock in the evening he was kil- led, and cut up immediately. Persons stood by to keep off the flies and insects, every piece was coarsely and quickly wiped, and then rubbed with finely pounded salt, and instantly put into a barrel in a cool cellar. The next night the pieces were taken out, drained for half a minute, put into another barrel, and the following pickle was poured on them boiling hot; To every two gallons of water were added 21bs. of salt, and 2 oz. of saltpetre. This was poured on boiling hot, 1st. to kill the egg of any fly-blows : 2dly, to corrugate the external fibres of the meat where it is first apt to taint. N. B. The meat was deprived of all the large bones. In about a week the meat was taken out of pickle ; the pickle boiled and scummed, and again poured on hot. The meat kept perfectly well. The pickle of meat should be often examined, and once a fort- night boiled and scummed.] FLEUK-WORM, or Flewk- worm, Fasciola hepatica, L. an in- sect, of the size and shape of a child's finger-nail: it creeps up the gall-ducts from the intestines, and, preying upon the livers of sheep, occasions coughs and consump- tions in those animals. Sheeppasturingin moist grounds, are frequently attacked by this in- sect which Dr. Darwin conjec- tures to arise from the bile be- coming too much diluted, in conse- quence of their watery food ; so that it does not possess sufficient acrimony .to prevent the depreda- tions of flewk-worms. The remedy in general pre- scribed, is to dissolve one ounce of salt in water ; but Dr. Darwin suggests, that the salt may be used with greater advantage, if hay were moistened with the solution, which would thus supply more whole- some nourishment, than is usually given to sheep troubled with these vermin. FLINT, or Silex, L. a kind of opaque stone, which is, in gene- ral of a roundisn form, covered with a white crust, of a smooth uniform texture, and so hard, as to emit fire, when stricken against steel. It is chiefly used in the ma- nufacture of glass. For this pur- pose,the hardest flints are selected, such as will resist the file, and be- come white when calcined. They are first cleansed from the white crust adhering to them ; then burnt in a strong fire, and thrown, while red-hot, into cold water. After cleaning them of the ashes, the flints are finely pulverised in an iron mortar, and passed though a sieve. Weak aqua-fortis is next poured on the powder, with a view to dissolve any particles of iron, perhaps acquired from the mortar. This mixture is to be repeatedly stirred, and then left to subside, after which the liquor is to be poured off the powder, washed se- veral times with hot water, and, lastly, dried. In this state it is fit to be converted into glass. In the year 1742, an oil was prepared from the flints by Messrs. Bktton and Willington, of Shrewsbury, for which they ob- tained a patent. It may be made of 4 oz. of flints calcined, pulve- rized, and mixed with 12 oz. of salt of tartar. These ingredients are next to be melted together in a crucible over a strong fire, and run into an open glass, which strongly attracts moisture from the air, and 46 FLO is completely soluble in water, ex- cepting a small portion of earthy matter. This glass is then to be pulverized, and set in a cellar where it will spontaneously liquefy into an oil ; which the patentees have affirmed to be efficacious in curing obstinate rheumatisms.... We doubt, however, the utility of this medicine, aa there are other local remedies, more proper and efficacious in that painful com- plaint...See Rheumatism. Flixweed. See Cress. Floating Land. LSee Irri- gation. FLOOR, in architecture, the area, or lower part of a room, which is in general covered with boards. The best wood that can be se- lected for this purpose, is yellow deal, thoroughly seasoned ; which, if well laid, will for a long time retain its colour; whereas the white sort, by frequent washing, becomes black, and presents a dis- agreeable appearance. The joints of the boards are usually made plain, so .as barely to touch each other ; but, as the materials are not always perfectly dry, the boards not unfrequently shrink, and the water runs through them every time they are washed, by which the ceiling underneath is injured. To remedy this incon- venience, they should always be made either with edges, so as to fold over each other about half an inch, or with what is called dove- tails : in the latter case, the lower edge is nailed down, and the next driven into it, so that the nails are effectually concealed. In the habitations of the labour- ing classes, the floors are generally made of loam. The best materials for this purpose are two-thirds of FLO lime, one of coal-ashes, and a small portion of clay. The whole of these ingredients, is to be well tem- pered with water, and left to sub- side for a week or ten days, when it is to be worked up again. This operation should be repeated in the course of three or four days till the mixture become smooth and glu- tinous, when it will be fit for use. After the ground is made perfectly level, the composition is to be laid on the depth of two and a half, or three inches,and carefully smooth- ed with a trowel. The hottest sea- son of the year is the most proper for applying this mixture, which, when completely dried, will make a most durable floor, especially for mult-houses...See Country-Hou- ses. FLOUNDER, or Plcuronectes fiesus, L.afish which abounds in all parts of the British sea, and is also found in rivers, a considerable distance from the shore. It may be easily distinguished from plaise, or any other fish belonging to the genus, by a row of small, but sharp spines, which surround its sides, and are placed at that part where the fins are united to the body : a similar row marks the side-line, and extends half way down the back. The upper part of the body is of a pale brown, which is some- times marked with a few spots of greasy yellow. . Flounders seldom grow to any size in the rivers, few exceeding the weight of five or six pounds ; they are, however, preferred to those which are caught in the sea; being much sweeter, and at the same time having a more delicate flavour. FLOUR, the meal of wheat, rye, Sec. finely ground and sifted. We have already stated, that FLO row is the prey of a variety of in- sects : when converted into fiour, it is subject to the depredations of another race of destroyers, which multiply in it so rapidly, that in a very short time they wholly con- sume its substance. These insects are of an oblong, slender form; their heads are provided with a kind of proboscis or snout, with which they take in their food; their body is composed of several rings. They do incalculable damage to the flour deposited in magazines for armies or other public uses; and after they have insinuated them- selves into any parcel, the only me- thod that can be adopted for saving the whole quantity is, to convert it immediately into bread. In order to prevent such noxious vermin from breeding in flour, this valuable commodity should be kept thoroughly dry, as well as the barrels into which it is packed : with such precautions, if the flour be placed in a cool and airy room, it will be effectually preserved..... Sometimes, however, it happens, that though every attention be be- stowed on it, flour becomes sprit, or damaged, and thus acquires an unpleasant flavour. This may be remedied by mixing a quantity of ground rice (in the proportion of one pound to ten of flour) with the usual quantity of yeast and water; keeping the mixture before the fire for the space of two hours; at the expiration of which time, the whole may be wrought into bread, in the common manner: thus it will be totally divested of its disagreeable flavour.....See also Baking. The proportion of flour, which a bushel of grain affords, greatly varies. A bushel of Essex wheat, FLO 47 Winchester measure, weighs upon an average about 60lbs. which, when ground, will yield (exclusive of the loss incurred by the grind- ing and drying) 45 Albs, of the flour called seconds, which alone is used for baking throughout the greater part of England, and which affords the most wholesome, though not the whitest bread. Beside the seconds, such a bushel of wheat yields 131bs. of polard and bran ; the total loss in grinding seldom exceeds one pound and a half. A correspondent of the Editors of the Encyclopedia Britannica (Article Bread,) states, that he weighed two bushels, Winchester measure, of white and red wheat, the whole of which amounted to 122lbs. This wheat v/as ground under his own inspection, and yielded 12 lAlbs. of meal, so that the waste or loss in grinding the two bushels, amounted only to half a pound. The meal was also dressed in his presence, and pro- duced 93Albs. of seconds, and 25-1 lbs. of pollard and bran, so that the whole loss in the two bushels, both by grinding and dressing, did not exceed two pounds and a half. The bran and pollard were also dressed in a bolting mill, and pro- duced lbs. oz. Sharps . . .60 Fine Pollard . 5 8 Coarse ditto . 7 8 Broad Bran . 5 3 24 8 One pound only was thus lost in the bolting, and if the sharps had been sifted, they would have afforded three pounds of good flour. We are inclined to think, from these and similar data, if the price of wheat were given, that of flour 48 FLO FLO might be easily ascertained, and those frauds which are now prac- tised with impunity, could be ef- fectually prevented. [It has been stated by the Lon- don bakers when examined a few years since before the House of Commons, that the American flour went further in making bread than that of England. This is a proud fact for the American farmers, and cannot fail of being gratifying to every patriotic mind.] Many valuable substitutes for fiour have already been mention- ed under the head of Bread..... In this place, therefore, we shall only observe, that the most plen- tiful and the cheapest of these ar- ticles, in times of great scarcity, would doubtless be the Chesnut (of which we have given an ac- count in its alphabetical order). FLOWER, or Flos, the most beautiful part of the plants and trees, which contains the organs of fructification. See Botany. From their frequent utility as medicinal drugs, as well as their external beauty, the preservation of flowers becomes an object of some importance. For this pur- pose, various methods have been devised, from which we select the following, originally suggested by Sir John Hill : Let a sufficient quantity of fine sand be washed, so as completely to separate all ex- traneous matter. It is next to be dried and sifted in order to cleanse it from the gross impurities that would not rise in washing. The flower or plant intended to be pre- served, should then be gathered with a convenient portion of the stalk, and deposited in an earthen vessel adapted to its size. A small quantity of the sand, prepared as above directed, is next to be heat- ed, and laid on the bottom of the vessel, so as to cover it equally, and the plant or flower placed on such sand, so as to touch no part of the vessel. More sand is then to be sifted over, that the leaves may gradually expand, without receiv- ing any injury, till the plant or flower is covered to the depth of two inches. The vessel is now to be placed in a stove, or hot-house, heated by gradations to the 50th degree of Reaumur, or about 144 deg. of Fahrenheit, where it should stand for one, two, or more days, in proportion to the thickness or succulence of such plant, or flower. At the end of that time, the sand may be gently shaken off on a sheet of paper, and the plant carefully taken out, when it will be found in all its beauty; its shape being as elegant, and its colours as vivid, as when it was growing in a natural state. There are some flowers, especi- ally tulips, which require certain little operations, in order to pre- serve the adherence of their petals. With respect to those, it will be necessary to cut the triangular fruit that rises in the middle of the flower, previously to covering it with sancl ; for the petal will then remain more firmly attached to the stalk. This method may be applied to such plants and flowers as are em- ployed in medicine : for, though it be not alwav s necessary to pre- serve their original colour and form, yet the less change they undergo, the better will they re- tain their natural properties. Far- ther, the preservation of beautiful leaves and flowers in their original shape and colour, by placing them in such a situation that they may suffer no subsequent alteration, ex- 1 L O FLO 49 ccpt that from length of time or accident, is surely an object that merits the attention of every lover of Nature. See Herbal. Besides this mode of preserving flowers, they may be prepared so as to retain their beauty during the winter, and even to blow at any period required. In order to suc- ceed in this attempt, the most perfect buds of the flowers, should be selected at the time when they are about to open. These should be cut off with a pair of scissars, leaving to each a piece of the stem about three inches in length ; the end of which is immediately to be covered with Spanish wax. As soon as the buds are somewhat shrunk and wrinkled, they are to be folded up, separately, in a piece of clean dry paper, and deposited in a dry box or drawer, where they will keep without decaying. In the winter, or whenever the flowers are required to blow, the wax is to be cut off the buds, and these should in the evening be im- mersed into water, in which a little nitre, or common salt, has been dissolved : if exposed to the rays of the sun, on the succeeding day, they will expand with all their ori- ginal fragrance and beauty. There are a few general remarks made by eminent botanists, en the growth, enlargement, colours, and duplication of flowers ; the sub- stance of which we shall commu- nicate under the following heads : 1. It is an established fact, that flowers as well as fruits grow larg- er in the shade, and ripen and decay soonest, when exposed to the sun. Hence, likewise, the foliage or buds of plants requires more moisture for its vigorous growth than their flowers, or or- gans of fructification. Farther, ob- VOL. III. serves Dr. Darwin, the frequent rains of our climate, are apt not only to wash off the farina from the bursting anthers, and thus to prevent the impregnation of the pistil, but also to delay the ripen- ing of the fruit or seeds, from the want of a due evaporation of their perspirable matter, as well as from the deficiency of solar light in cloudy seasons. In another place of his admirable " Phytologia," this philosopher remarks that, as a superfluous supply of water is more friendly to the growth of leaf- buds, than to the generation of flower-buds, the production of seeds may be forwarded by supplying their roots with less water than usual. But when the blossoms ap- pear, an addition of water promotes their growth, by affording nourish- ment, which should again-be les- soned, when the fruit has acquired its full size, both to promote its maturity and improve its flavour ; as the saccharine matterand essen- tial oil will thus be in a less diluted state. Although the fruit may be- come sweeter and larger, when the green as well as the floral leaves continue on the tree, yet the corols with the stamens, stigmas, and nectaries (the succeeding fruit not considered) suffer, in the opinion of Dr. Darwin, no injury when both kind of leaves are removed, by the depredations of insects. Nay, some florists assert, that the flowers thus become stronger, pro- ducing no bulbs, as is the case with tulips and hyacinths. 2d. The variegated colours of the petals of flowers are so beauti- ful, and afford such delight to the eye of the contemplative natural- ist, as to deserve some investiga- tion. It is probable that varieties in the colour:, of single flowers SO FLO raised-from seeds, may be general- ly obtained by sowing those which already possess different shades, contiguous to others of the same species; or, by bending the flowers of one colour and shaking the an- ther-dust over those of another. Thus Dr. Darwin supposes the buds of the corn blue-bottle, cen- taurea cyanus, acquire those beau- tiful shades of blue, purple, and white. As some animals change their natural colours, when trans- planted in different situations of soil, a similar effect may be pro- duced by sowing flowers in facti- tious composts, which considerably differ from each other with respect to vegetable nutriment, and per- haps also in their colour. Experi- ments on this subject, as well as on the variegation of the leaves of shrubs and trees, are however wantingto confirm this conjecture; though the latter probably origi- nates from soil or situation, and may be communicated by ingraft- ing. The origin of new colours in flowers, and of variegated foliage, is imagined to arise from the want of nourishment of the soil on which they grow, compared to that as- signed to them by Nature ; or from a defect of moisture and of heat; a supposition countenanced by the dwarfish size of such plants, in general, and especially by the reduced stature of tulips, when their petals acquire various colours. The immediate cause of the va- rious colours presented by some flowers, such as poppies, has not hitherto been distinctly ascertain- ed ; but Dr. Darwin conjectures that, as they are not variable by the obliquity with which they are seen, like those of mother-pearl, card-fish, &c. they do not de- pend on the thinness of their FLO pellicle, and may, therefore, arise- from the greater facility which some parts of vegetables, more than others, possess in parting with their oxygen (which see) when exposed to the sun's light; for all flowers are more or less blanched before they first open. 3. The origin of double fiowera is believed to result from the luxu- riant growth of the plant, in con- sequence of excessive nourish- ment, moisture, and warmth ; they arise from the increase of some parts of the flower, and the consequent exclusion of others. As they present a greater blaze of co- lour in a small space, and conti- nue in bloom for some weeks lon- ger than single flowers, the me- thod of producing them from seeds is a matter of importance. Botan- ists very properly term such multi- plied flowers vegetable monsters, because they possess no stamens or pistils, and therefore can pro- duce no seeds. Nevertheless they are frequently raised from seeds ; because flowers cultivated with more manure, moisture, and warmth than is congenial to them, not only grow larger and more vigorously, but likewise shew a tendency to become double, by having one or two supernumerary petals in each flower, such as the stock July flower, cheiranthus, and anemone. It is still more re- markable, that this duplicature is communicated to those individual blossoms : hence florists tie a thread round such flowers, to mark them, and to collect their seeds separately, from which dou- ble or full flowers are said to be uniformly produced, if they be cul- tivated with additional manure, moisture, and warmth, as has been already observed. There subsists FLO FLO 51 c curious analogy, concludes Dr. Darwin, between these vegetable monsters and those of the animal world ; for a duplicative of limbs frequently attends the latter, as chickens and turkeys with four legs and four wings, and calves with two heads. In mules, also, the most important organs become de- ficient, so that they cannot propa- gate their species ; exactly analo- gous to these full flowers which, from the same cause, produce no seed. With rospect to botanic systems, it may be observed from these vegetables of exuberant growth, that the stamens and pis- tils are less liable to change than the Corals and nectaries ; conse- quently, that they are more proper parts for arranging plants into classes ; and that on this idea Linnjeus constructed his unrival- led system. Lastly, the calyx, or perianth, being seldom found in a double or multiplied state, is the next part of a flower that is liable to the least changes ; and may, therefore, on accurate inspection, serve to detect the genera of many double flowers. With respect to the colours which may 'be extracted from flowers, we refer the reader to the article Colouring Matter, and to the different flowers as they occur in their alphabetical or- der. p FLOWER-DE-LUCE,or Flag, Iris, L. a genus of plants consist- ing of 54 species ; the following throe of which are natives of Bri- tain : 1. The pseudacorous, Water Flower-de-luce,or Yellow Flag; which is perennial, grows on the banks of rivers, in marshes and wet meadows, and produces large yellow flowers in the month of July. The leaves of this plant, when fresh, are eaten by goats, and when in a dry state, by cows, but they are refused by horses and hogs.... On account of its poisonous nature to all cattle, except sheep, this ve- getable ought to be carefully extir- pated from the meadow-grounds, and their contiguous ditches. The juice of the fresh root is very acrid, and has been found to produce plentiful evacuations from the bowels, after other powerful re- medies had failed : by continuing its use, it cured an obstinate drop- sy. For this purpose, it has been taken in doses of 80 drops, every second or third hour ; but the de- gree of its acrimony is so uncer- tain, that it can never be gradually used. With more advantage and safety we may recommend the whole of this strongly astringent plant to the tanner ; and its flow- ers to the dyer, for extracting a beautiful yellow ; but the root, in particular, as a substitute for galls in preparing a black dye, or ink, with vitriol of iron. Lastly, the roots of this species are stated to be an antidote to the bite of a mad- dog ; and, after having been mix- ed with the food of some hogs that had been bitten, they escap- ed the disease, while others, in- jured by the same dog, died rav- ing mad. 2. Thefoetida, Stinking Flow- er-de-luce, Gladwyn, or Flag, which is found on hedge-banks, and sloping grounds, particularly in the south-western counties of England : it is perennial, and pro- duces flowers of a purplish ash- colour, which lose their smell dur- ing the night, and blow in the months of June and July. This plant is refused by horses, sheep, and goats; its leaves arc very 52 FLO fetid, and when bruised, smell like rancid bacon. The juice of the roots of this, as well as the preceding species, have occasion- ally been used to excite sneezing ; which is a dangerous practice, and has sometimes been attended with violent convulsions. It may, there- fore, be more usefully employed for the destruction of bugs and other vermin. 3. The Xiphium, or Bulbous- rooted Flower-de-luce or Flag, which has long been cultivated in our gardens,on account of its beau- ty. It has lately been found wild in the county of Worcester, and produces, generally, purplish-blue flowers. M. Schulze informs us in his " Social Narratives," (in German), that he made the follow- ing experiments with the azure- blue flowers of this neglected plant: He first bruised the flower-leaves in a marble mortar, expressed their juice, collected it in a shal- low glass vessel, and, after add- ing a small portion of finely-pul- verized alum, he suffered it to dry under shade, in the open air : thus, he obtained a very beautiful green pigment. The flowers, however, should be gathered in dry weather, their white parts carefully sepa- rated from the coloured leaves, and the pounded alum gradually mixed with the juice, till the desired co- lour becomes perceptible. With this preparation, both linen and silk were dyed of a remarkably fine and permanent green colour. Prof. Gmelin, in his German " Technical Chemistry," gives the following recipe for preparing a lively green water-colour : Take equal quantities of the expressed juice of the bulbous-rooted flag and rue, and add such a proportion of FLU a strong solution of alum, as is re- quired to produce the colour. Flowering Fern : See Os- mund-Royal. FLU ELLIN, theSiiARp-poiNT- ed, or Antirrhinum Elatinc, L. is an indigenous annual plant, grow- ing in corn-field, and flowering from July to September. The ex- pressed juice of this plant has been highly recommended as an ape- rient, resolvent, and vulnerary ; which properties an infusion of it possesses, though in an inferior degree. An ointment is prepared from this juice, which was formerly in great repute as a remedy in leprous, scrophulous, and cancer- ous cases. It is at present em- ployed only by empirics, both male and female, who pretend to cure with it cancers of every descrip- tion. FLUMMERY, a kind of jelly made of oatmeal, in the following manner : Steep three large table- spoonfuls of finely ground oatmeal for 24 hours in two quarts of pure water, then pour off the clear fluid, and replace it by three pints of fresh water; strain it through a fine hair sieve, add to it two spoonfuls of orange flower-water, and one of sugar; boil the whole to the con- sistence of a hasty pudding, stir- ring it continually while boiling, till it become perfectly smooth. This preparation affords a grateful and nutritive breakfast to persons liable to costiveness, in conse- quence of a sedentary life. FLUTE, The German, a musi- cal instrument of awcll known con- struction. Although playing the flute is on the Continentmore generally prac- tised than in Britain, yet we think it useful to observe, that this ex- FLU ercise is by no means compatible with either young or weak lungs. Indeed, all wind-instruments are in many respects objectionable, be- cause, after blowing forcibly, a large portion of air is suddenly in- haled, and afterwards partially ex- pelled from the lungs, so that they are by this debilitating action con- tinually expanded and relaxed, in a manner very different from that which Nature pursues in the pro- cess of respiration....See farther Wind-instruments. FLUX, a disorder to which sheep are subject, when those use- ful animals, after having been kept on too short an allowance, sud- denly come to their full feed. It is also sometimes accasioned by their eating the Fetid Chamomile, or May-weed, Anthemis cotula, L..... This disease, however, is not at- tended with any dangerous conse- quences, and generally disappears in the course of a few days, espe- cially in dry weather. But, if it continue longer than a week, some sweet and well dryed hay should be given them, and a decoction of clover flowers, with the addition of a little barley-meal, and neither allowing them any salt, nor to feed upon saline plants near the coast, during their convalescent state. FLUX, or Sap-flow, Fluxus umbilicalis, a disease frequently oc- curring in plants and trees, when the alburnum, or sap-wood, is wounded during the spring ; and which consists of a saccharine, mu- cilaginous fluid, resembling ho- ney-dew. This affection occasions great trouble, especially when vines in hot-houses are pruned too late in the season; for the whole branch is liable to bleed to death, in con- sequence of the loss of the sap, which ought to supply the young FLY 53 buds with nutriment, and expand their foliage. There are some perennial plants, such as the cow-parsley, or Hera- cleum sfihondylium, L. the roots of which, if the stems be severely wounded, or entirely cut off, when they have attained a certain height, are liable to decay in consequence or this flux, or loss of the umbili- cal fluid......Hence Dr. Darwin observes, it has been recommended to mow down, early in the spring, thistles, and such other noxious weeds as are troublesome, on ac- count of their rapid increase ; be- cause many of them will perish, and the rest will be considerably weakened by the great discharge of sap that flows from their wounds at that season. With respect to trees, there is another period of sap-flow, that occurs when the new buds are forming, after Midsummer. It is therefore very injurious to wound trees at that period ; and, as their vegetation is thus endangered, dif- ferent applications have been re- commended by gardeners. Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that a bit of sponge, if bound upon the end of the cut branch, or upon the wound, by means of some elastic bandage, will be the most certain remedy to save them ; or, a wire may be substituted, for the sponge, if twisted so tightly round the end of the maimed branch, as to check the circulation of the juices, and consequently to destroy the part above the ligature. FLY, or Musca, L. an order of insects divided into several genera, of which we shall notice only those species that are more immediately connected with agriculture and do- mestic economy. 1. The Dolphin, or Bean-fly. b'i FLY 2. The Corn, or Hessian-fiy, a native of the Landgravate of Hesse, whence it has received its name. This insect is particularly destruc- tive to wheat-corn, in which it de- posits its eggs close to the ground, while growing....When the young vermin are hatched, they continue for some time in a worm-state, feeding on the tender part of the stalk, the growdn of which is thus effectually checked. The Hessian- fly committed great depredations in the Eastern counties of England, several years since, and, in ths year 1787, did incalculable damage in the provinces of Pennsylvania and Maryland, in America. The only efficacious remedy hitherto discovered, consists in facilitating the vigorous growth of the plants, by properly manuring and cultivat- ing the soil; which practice, as it will admit of late sowing, will greatly retard their progress. [Common opinion has ascribed the introduction of the Hessian-fly into America, to the troops from Hesse Cassel, which came over with the British troops, during the revolutionary war in the United States. But there is great reason to believe this opinion erroneous. Sir Josei'hBanks informs Dr.MiTCH- ell, that he has no reason to be- lieve its existence in any part of Germany, Count Genani of Ra- venna has not mentioned the fly in his splendid work upon the dis- ceases to which wheat is subject in its growing state, though fifty dif- ferent insects are described. Agreeably to the interesting ob- servations of the late Hon. J. Ha- vens of Long-Island, inserted in the 1st. vol. of the Transactions of the Agricultural Society of New- York, the maggot of the fly gene- rally proves more destructive to FLY wheat in the autumn of the yeaf than in the spring; and before cold weather it is transformed into a chrysalis, in which state it is pre- pared to remain during the winter, and in the spring will again be transformed into a fly, which com- pletes two generations of the insect in one year. Mr. Havens says, the bearded wheat resists the fly most, though we know from the experience of Mr. Cooper, (below stated) and of others, that it is not always able to resist the sting of the fly. As the fly is not to be found in any other state than that of chry- salis in the time of harvest, and it remains in that state in the stubble for some time afterwards, Mr. H. recommends to burn the stubble of grain after the harvest, and to turn the ground over with the plough soon after, every year for several years, and has little doubt of its proving an effectual mean ofde- stroying the whole species ; for the insect would not long be continu- ed on rye, which may be- sown much later than wheat without in- jury from the winter. The following directions to avoid the ravages of the fly are by Judge Peters, of Philadelphia: " After a crop of oats cut this sea- son, [1802.] I ploughed in the stub- ble. The shed oats vegetated, and threw up plants generally through the field, which I am dressing with compost and stirring in, prepa- ratory to a crop of wheat. The fly is now plentifully impregnating the oat plants. " I am satisfied of the efficacy of the practice of lightly sowing fallows with oats, that the fly may deposit its brood in the oat plants, before the wheat is sown, or when it is young. The oat plants, FLY FLY 55 continuing to increase even with the young wheat, which it over- grows, afford a more inviting, be- cause a more prominent object to this destructive but stupid insect, which does not discriminate be- tween one plant and another. I mention oats, because it is a cheap and quick growing grain ; and may (in this stage of its growth) occupy the fallows with the least injury. I know by repeated and careful ob- servations, that the fly has no in- stinctive^ predilection]; for any par- ticular plant. They light on all plants and shrubs indiscriminately. Some afford a better shelter, and protect their progeny, while on others they perish. Some plants are injured by them, and others are unhurt: in the wheat they do the most injury. It being our sta- ple, and among the most valuable of our products, their progress in mischief is the most observed. " I have had frequent opportuni- ties of beingconvinced of the utility of the plan I now advise. I saw, among other instances, a remark- ably clean and fair crop of wheat cut by one of my neighbours, last year, saved by this method from the fly, which either injured or de- stroyed the crops of most others. " As my field will be in high order, and well manured, I intend to sow late. I expect the oats will continue to produce plants, on which the successive flights of flies will ex- haust themselves. The wdieat plants may escape their ravages. I communicate this to invite other farmers to investigate the fact, and pursue a similar plan, by which many have informed me they have been much benefited; some in a greater degree than otheis. " I recommend sowing none but ihe fairest and best grains for seed. These produce vigorous plants, most capable of resisting the inju- ries from the fly. I do not believe in the magical power ascribed to steep;.. I use steeps occasionally, that I may skim off the light, and cure the infected grain. They give an impetus and vigour to the first shoots of the plant, and so far are beneficial. But the crop requires other supplies in its progress.... Steeps of various sorts have been recommended as specifics against the fly. But these are not exclu- sively to be depended on." The following observations on this destructive insect, were com- municated to the Editor, by Jos. Cooper, Esq. of New-Jersey, to whom this work is indebted for several important articles: " I first heard, a few years since, of the fly being in some wheat of a neighbour sown with turnips, which induced me to examine some wheat growing among buckwheat that had been sown in wheat stub- ble, and found the insect in great plenty. Thiscaused me to suspend sowing wheat that year until the latter part of September: the wheat thus late sown appeared promising through the winter, but in the fol- lowing month of April I discover- ed many plants of a darker green, the blades shorter, and more in clusters than the others, and the middle blades deacUor in a declining state; and, on examination, I found all having the above appearances, abounding with the insect. I pulled up many such plants, and putting them in glasses, covered them with perforated paper. In two or three weeks the fly came out: I then went into the field where I discover- ed similar flies in great numbers, but the crop was still promising, although the plants which were 56 FLY FLY much filled with the insect early in the spring had perished : the promising appearance continued until the grain was nearly filled, when a great part of it fell, and the crop was nearly half lost. I observ- ed some late plants that were green at harvest almost as full of the in- sect as a piece of tainted meat with fly-blows. Seeing none after the beginning of September, and the weather having been very dry, and a rain coming on near the middle of that month, I was tempt- ed to sow most of my wheat as soon as possible. The consequence was, although I sowed the yellonv bearded wheat, that a lot of five acres which produced three hundred bushels of shelled Indian corn the year be- fore, produced but six bushels of wheat. This deficiency I attributed solely to the ravages of the flies. The same year I sowed a piece of land of inferior quality, with the same kind of wheat, but two weeks later, and about two hundred yards from the other, which produced a good crop, and apparently not in- jured by the fly. In the same or following year a friend, who was attached to early sowing, had prepared a piece of excellent ground, manured it high- ly, and sowed it about the latter end of August, which, after making a promising appearance, was totally destroyed. In the beginning of October he sowed an adjoining lot with wheat, in which he had raised pumpkins; the grain came up well, and made a fine appearance after the first snow that covered the ground, which fell the latter end of October, but was totally destroyed before winter. These experiments convinced me that sowing winter grain early is a mean of raising a brood of flies to deposit their eggs in, and thereby destroy the late sown grain in its vicinity. I had been informed of both wheat and rye sown in the spring,having been greatly damaged by the fly, but not sowing these grains, had not witnessed the fact until about three or four years ago, when I sowed some wheat and barley from La Plata, in April, in good land, well prepared : both made a promising appearance until the ears began to shoot, when the insects appeared on both, and were so numerous, that the barley was greatly injured, and the wheat nearly all destroyed. At the same time I had a lot less than 30 feet distant in wheat of the early Virginia .kind, which had been sown the last week in October : it produced an excellent crop, and I did not perceive a single plant in- jured by the fly. The La Plata bar- ley and wheat were sown the next spring very early; the wheat being . a later vegetable, was destroyed by the fly, but the barley came for- ward so fast as to be proof against it, and has been sown every spring since, at the same early period, with- out receiving the smallest injury from the fly. I am convinced, from the above and other experiments, that if the farmers all through a neigbour- hood would prevent as much as pos- sible such grain as is nutritive to the Hessian Jly from vegetating in the period between harvest and the lat- ter end of September; have their land in a good state of cultivation, and sow about the beginning of Oc- tober, or even later ; and of the kind of grain which comes forward most rapidly in the spring, they would receive little injury from the wheat fiy: and as the early Virginia wheat was produced from a plant selected by an observant farmer fLY from his other wheat, there is no doubt that other sorts of grain might be improved by a selection of such particular plants as ripen earliest and are superior in other respects." In a conversation with the editor, Mr. C. urged strongly the im- portance of sowing the early Vir- ginia wheat as late in the autumn as can be done with safety: but at the same time observed, that no advantage would be derived from the practice, unless all the farmers in a neighbourhood agreed to pur- sue the same plan ; for if an ad- joining field be sown early, the flies which have been living on the grain of that field, will after de- stroying it, deposit their eggs in the stalks of that which is late sown, and destroy it either in the autumn or succeeding spring. The necessity of this general agreement among neighbours, up- on a point equally interesting to all, being mentioned, affords an opportunity of enforcing the great advantages that would arise from a weekly or half monthly meeting of the farmers at a private house, or county town-house. At these meetings the general result of dif- ferent modes of cultivating the same article, the success attending accidental or intended rotations of crops, and the means of guarding against destructive insects might be communicated ; useful hints might be dropped in the course of conversation which others might improve, and harmony greatly pro- moted. A library might be kept at the place of meeting, and the township business also transacted.] 3. The turnip -fly, which not only infests turnips, but also cabbages, flax, and other useful vegetables. In order to prevent the depreda- vol. in. FLY >, 57 tions of this insect, it has been re- commended to mix three pounds of turnip-seed with one ounce of flour of sulphur in a glazed ear- then pot, which should be close- ly covered: after standing twenty- four hours, another ounce of sul- phur should be added, and the same quantity after forty-eight hours,so as to employ three ounces of this powder to three pounds of the seed, carefully stirring the whole every time the vessel is opened, with a smooth piece of .wood or ladle, that the seed may be thoroughly impregnated with the sulphur. It is then to be sown on an acre of ground, in the usual manner, where it will effec- tually keep off the insect till the thirdorfourth seeding-lcaf is form- ed, which will acquire a bitterish taste, and thus be secured from the depredations of the fly. Ano- ther remedy is, to strew tobacco- dust over the land ; and in some counties the seeds are steeped in soot and water for several hours previously to being sown, by which they acquire such a degree of bit- terness, as to screen them com- pletely against the ravages of this noxious insect. There is a kind of fly which infests orchards, perforating the leaves of the trees, especially quinces ; and which, though the foliage is afterwards renewed, oc- casions irreparable injury to the fruit. With a view to prevent these depredations, it has been re- commended to mix a small quan- tity of diluted honey with some arsenic,which composition attracts the insects, and consequently de- stroys them. This remedy may, with due precaution, also be em- ployed in houses where flies abound ; and as flies are liable to I 58 FLY FLY great thirst, if a weak solution of arsenic with a little sugar be pla- ced on a plate, in windows or on chimney-pieces, they will drink it eagerly, and thus meet with al- most immediate destruction. As, however, arsenical remedies are liable to produce dangerous accidents, we shall communicate other means which are less ha- zardous, and equally efficacious, for exterminating flies. If a room be swarming with these noisome insects, the most easy mode of ex- pelling them is, simply by fumi- gating the apartment with the dried leaves of the gourd (Cucurbita, L.) the smoke of whichinstantlvexpels them, if the window be opened, or suffocates them in a close room ; but, in the latter case, no person should remain within doors, as these narcotic fumes are apt to oc- casion the head-ach. In situations where this expedient cannot be conveniently adopted, Professor Tromsdorf has furnished us with an excellent remedy, that neither endangersthe lives of children, nor is attended with much expense or trouble. Take two drams of the extract of quassia,dissolve it in half a pint of boiling water, add a little syrup of sugar, and pour the mix- ture on plates: to this enticing food flies are extremely partial; and it is to them not less fatal than solutions of arsenic. FLY-BLOWN, a term expres- sive of that corruption of flesh- meat, or any animal food, which is occasioned by flies depositing their eggs on its surface, where they are subsequently bred into maggots. In the warm days of summer, meat is very liable to be thus tainted and rendered unfit for use, especially if it be kept in a close and damp place, which is not sufficiently ventilated. The easiest method of preventing such damage, is that of suspending the joints in a meat-safe, or a wooden frame surrounded by close wires, so that the flies may be completely excluded, and the air still allowed to perflate the whole apparatus.... An open and cool situation, how- ever, ought to be chosen for this repository. Those families which are not provided with this useful domestic contrivance, may occasi- onally preserve joints of meat for several days, even in summer, by wrapping them in clean linen cloths, previously moistened with good white-wine vinegar, placing them in an earthen pan, and cha»g- ing the cloth once or twice a day in warm weather....See also Flesh- meat. FLY, the Catch, or Campion, Silene, L. a numerous genus of plants amounting to 63 species, eleven of which are indigenous. None of these have hitherto been employed to any other useful pur- pose than that of serving as pas- turage for cattle. There is, how- ever, one remarkable species of this plant, namely, the nutans, or Nottingham Catch-Fly, that grows on dry or hilly pastures and walls, produces root-leaves on short leaf-stalks, forming a close turf; and bears white flowers in June or July, which are eagerly visited by bees, and might, therefore, be cul- tivated with advantage, in situa-. tions where these industrious crea- tures are reared. FLY, the Spanish, usually call- ed by the plural name of cantha- rides, but properly speaking, is a chafer of a shining green colour, a blueish shade, and emitting an un- pleasant narcotic odour. This in- sect is the Meloe vesicatorius, L. FLY FOD 59 which preys on the leaves of the common lilac, Syringa vulgaris, L. privet, Ligustrumvulgare, L. com- mon ash, Fraxinus excelsior, L. and other trees, though it seldom appears in our climate. Having already stated various substitutes for this foreign drug, unfer the head of Blister, and caution- ed the reader against its indiscri- minate application, we shall only add, that the internal use of this medicine, even in very small doses, is extremely precarious, and ought, therefore, to be abandoned. Externally, the tincture of Spa- nish fly has often been employed with advantage as a rubtj'acient, by merely rubbing indolent swel- lings ; or, the powder, as an ingre- dient in plasters, which ought, however, to contain but a very small portion of this powerful sti- mulant. [Four species of meloe that blis- ter are found in the United States. The first was brought into notice by Dr. Isaac Chapman, of Bucks county,Pennsylvania. The species described by Dr. Chapham feeds chiefly upon the potatoe ; another upon the Clematis Crispa, a third {JMeloe Penns. Lin.) upon prunella vulgaris, or self-heal, and ambrosia trijida, or stick weed. The meloe majalis has not yet been used to blister,lhough the attention of phy- sicians was some years since di- rected to it by Dr. Shokpf. From frequent trials, the Editor is con- vinced that the powers of Doctor CiiAPMAN'sblisleringfly are equal, if not superior, to those of Europe, See Wheat.] FLY-STRUCK, a disorder pe- culiar to sheep, which is occasion- ed by a fly that settles and deposits its eggs on them, and very materi- ally injures thequality of the fleece. In order to remove this malady, it has been recommended to cut off the wool, as far as it is infected, and to pour a few drops of the fol- lowing mixture in a circle round the maggots, produced from the flies, to prevent their escape.... Dissolve half an ounce of corrosive sublimate in 2 quarts of rain-water, to which a gill (A 0f a pint) of spi- rits of turpentine should be added. When this compound is poured on the back of the diseased ani- mal, in the mannei above directed, the shepherd ought to drop a little among the maggots, and rub them about with his finger: in conse- quence of which, they will be im- mediately destroyed. Another ie- medy, after clipping the wool, is to rub the parts infected with fine- ly powdered lime, or wood-ashes, and afterwards to anoint them with currier's oil, which will heal the wounds, and secure the animals from being stricken again. FOAL, or Colt and Filly, the young of a horse. See Cci.t. FODDER, denotes any kind of dry food provided for horses, or other cattle : it is more particular- ly applied to hay and straw. Having already specified those vegetables which may be onmloy- ed with the greatest advantage in the feeding of oxen,cows, bulls &c we shall here offer only a few oL servations supplementary to those stated under the article Catti.k. The saving of expense in ob- taining manure, is an object of great importance to farmers ; but there are few,comparatively speak- ing, who pay a due regard to this circumstance ; and. by disposing of their hard straw (such as ihati. of bailey, rye, 8ec.) for the pur- pose of thatching, they are unr'er the necessity of purchasing dim 60 F OD FOG which expense might be complete- ly obviated, by employing such straw in feeding their oxen, and other dry cattle.....See Stkaw- Cuttei:. Considerable advantages might likewise be derived from the use of compressed fodder, invented by Mr. Lawson, of Rotherhithe- street, London. This consists of the haulms of peas, beans, pota- toes, and the tops of carrots, which, after being cut off and dried, are mixed with certain por- tions of bruised corn, hay, fir-tops, bran, and broken oil-cake, and then formed into a stack, with clover, either in layers, or intermingled with that plant. To these articles, Mr. Lawson directs a quantity of straw to be added, in order to pre- vent the compressed food from be- coming mouldy, together with a small portion of common salt, which will both preserve and im- prove the fodder. The saving that might arise from the use of such provender, Mr. Lawson estimates at not less than one-eighth part of the corn and herbage now con- sumed in racks, and given in an unbroken state, by which means the greater part of its most nutri- tious properties is, to many kinds of cattle, totally lost: whereas, by breaking the corn and other ingre- dients, no part can possibly remain in an undigested state, such as is frequently evident in horses fed with whole corn, which they void with their dung, being as perfect and entire, as when it was first taken from the bin. Facts, like these, require no farther exposi- tion, and we earnestly recommend them to the attention of every in- telligent farmer and grazier. [Alternate layers of second crop clover newly cut, and straw stack- ed, have been found by a grazing friend, an excellent food. The su- perapundant moisture of the clover is absorbed by the straw, which thus impregnated is eaten greedi- ly by cattle and horses, and the clover being .dried, is prevented from heating.] FOG, or Mist, a meteor con- sisting of gross vapours floating near the surface of the earth. Fogs have a considerable influ- ence on the winter. In the sum- mer of 1783, an uncommon fog prevailed all over Europe, and great part of North America. It was dry, of a permanant nature, and the rays of the sun had but little effect in dissipating it, which they easily do in moist fogs aris- ing from water. The effect of the rays in heating the earth was ex- ceedingly diminished : hence its surface was frozen early, the first snows remained on it undissolved, and received continual additions ; the air was more chilled, and in- tensely cold, and the winter of 1783 and 1784 was exceedingly severe. The spring fogs are most detri- mental to such young fruit, and other trees, as are planted in low situations ; because they moisten the young shoots, and thus render them more liable to the injuries of the frosty nights succeeding them, but which they escape when placed in more elevated situations. These fogs are converted into rime during the night, w hich thus falls on the trees, and is in some circumstan- ces believed to shelter the vegeta- bles by the heat it emits at the moment of its freezing: hence black frosts, which are not accom- panied with rime, are said to be more prejudicial. But Dr. Dar- win remarks, that where dew or FOM mist descends on vegetables, be- fore the act of freezing commen- ces, and is partly absorbed by them, they become more succu- lent, and are thus destsoyed by their fluids being converted into ice. To obviate this inconvenience, he proposes to make temporary sheds in the walls of gardens, pro- jecting eight inches from the walls, and to be held by hooks that may be easily removed, when no more frosts are to be apprehended. Dr. DAhwiN succesfully tried this expedient with an -apricot-trse, which was preserved uninjured, either by the fog, or the frosts that ■followed it, during the vernal nights. FOMENTATION, in the heal- ing art, signifies the external ap- plication of a fluid in cases of swell- ings, &c. as warm as the patient can bear it, and in the following manner : Two pieces of flannel are dipt into the heated liquor, one of which is expeditiously wrung dry, and thus immediately applied to the part affected. As soon as it begins to grow cool, the first is removed, and the other instantly substituted, in order to keep those parts constantly suppli- ed with the warm flannels. This operation is continued for 15 or 20 minutes, and is repeated two or three times in the course of the day, as circumstances may re- quire. The design of fomentations may be fully answered, by the applica- tion of warm water alone, unless discutients or antiseptics are re- quired ; in which cases, such in- gredients must be employed as are calculated to effect that purpose. The degree of heat should on no account exceed that of produc- ing an agreeable sensation; for FOO 61 too great heat is attended with eflects, very different from those which are expected from the use of fomentations. FOOD, generally speaking, de- notes those alimentary substances which are taken into the stomach, whether fluid or solid, but it is usually confined to the latter kind: ....of the former we have already spoken in the article Drink. In the early ages of the world, mankind were supported by acorns, berries, wild roots, and such other vegetables as the earth spontane- ously produces. In succeeding centuries, as civilization advanced, luxury also made rapid progress ; men had recourse to animals, as well as to vegetables artificially raised for their sustenance; and, in still later ages, the art of preparing food has been brought perhaps to the highest degree of perfection, of which it is susceptible. Though originally designed to be a blessing to mankind, as well as their support, food may, in many cases, be justly considered as a curse: for we do not hesitate to affirm, that the injudicious con- duct of parents and nurses, during infancy, and the early years of childhood, lays the foundation of those numerous diseases, which, at a maturer age arise from indi- gestion, and have, in many families, become hereditary. The aliment of children ought to be adapted to their age, and the strength of their digestive powers. Hence they ought by no means to be fed immoderately, and promis- cuously, with every kind of food : as, by this indulgence, the first passages are distended, and their stomachs gradually acquire an un- natural craving for victuals, be- fore the preceding meal is proper* 62 F O O FOO ly assimilated. Such conduct is particularly injurious during the first year of their age : for, when their stomachs become more vigor- ous, they may be enabled, by slow degrees, to digest different kinds of victuals, the nature and properties of which are extremely opposite ; though excess in quan- tity is always hurtful. No food whatever, that has been prepared for many hours, should be given to children, especially after being warmed up, as it generates flatu- lence, heart-burn, costiveness, and a variety of disorders which are equally painful and difficult to re- move. Sudden changes from liquid to solid food are equally dangerous: one kind of aliment only, should be given at each meal, in moderate portions ; and not a multiplicity of incongruous mixtures, in immedi- ate succession, such as broth or soup, meat boiled or roasted, after taking milk, fruit, &c. All stimulating dishes, prepared for adults, as well as beer, wine, spices, coffee, and other heating liquors, should be carefully with- held from children ; as they often occasion the most afflictive com- plaints, for instance, eructations, vomiting, spasms, and convulsions, especially during dentition ; and, if the hapless victims of indulgence survive that period, they become liable to other tormenting diseases, the most frequent of which are the scurvy, scror hula, and consump- tion. There is another abuse in the feeding of children, which cannot be too seriously reprehended,name- ly, to introduce chewed victuals into their mouth, a practice equally disgusting and unwholesme.... Young and healthy mothers, it has been said, may safely perform this office for their children : but, in such case, it is requisite that the parent be in a complete state of health, that she be provided with sound tteth, and rinse her mouth pre-'iously with pure water. Un- der thtsr circumstances, she may venture to pei IXrm mastication, though it would be more advisable to relinquish this practice, and to give in* • ns such food only as they are abk to chew and clip est. Having already treated on the food of atiiks, under the article Diet, and on different modes of preparing it, under that of Cook- ij. g, \\ e Y.jk\e but a few remarks to add for the information of the reader. Vegetables are, with a few ex- ceptions, more difficult of diges- tion than animal food ; but a due proportion of both, w ith the addi- tion of acids, during the summer months, is alike grateful and con- ducive to health. On the whole, the flesh of young quadrupeds is less nutritive than after they have attained a proper age ; though it will, in general, be more easily converted into alimentary matter. In a salted state, meat not only loses a considerable part of its ge- latinous and spirituous particles, but it likewise becomes oppressive to the digestive organ, and im- parts a degree of acrimony to the human fluids, w hich has a remark- able tendency to generate putrid diseases, such as the scurvy of mariners....Hence it would be a desirable object to ascertain, by accurate experiments, whether beef, pork, &c. might not be kept fresh at sea for many months, merely by burying it in charcoal- powder, of which it could be easi- ly divested by proper ablution. Such is our decided opinion, and FOO we venture to recommend this im- portant subject to the farther re- searches of patriotic inquirers. With respect to the quantity of food, there is one general rule, which ought never to be disregard- ed ; namely, to cease eating, when the first cravings of appetite are satisfied, so as. to renovate the waste which the body has appa- rently sustained. By a strict ad- herence to this principle, many of those distressing complaints aris- ing from intemperance, might be effectually obviated ; and our fash- ionable watering places would not be so frequently crowded by the victims of luxury. Food of Plants, an expression in agriculture and gardening, by which is understood whatever tends to increase the growth, or affords nourishment to vegetable produc- tions. The proper choice and distribu- tion of this food, in such manner as to ensure the greatest advantage to vegetation, is an object deserv- ing the most attentive exertion of every skilful husbandman. The component parts of the nourish- ment of plants are supposed to be air, heat, water, earth, and nitre; but it is by no means ascertained, which of these ingredients princi- pally contributes to their growth and. reproduction. Various opinions have been held respecting the existence of an aerial mcid spirit; but, from the late dis- coveries in chemistry, this invisible agent appears to be no other than what is now termed oxygen gas, or the acidifying principle, by the powerful influence of which even iron is oxydated, or converted into rust: and, as this vital gas is an essential constituent of the atmos- phere, all plants necessarily par- F O O 63 take of its animating properties. Thus nitre is said to nourish them; because it contains a large portion of oxygen ; though it is certain that saltpetre only prepares other sub- stances to effect that purpose: thus, if nitre, in a solid or liquid state, be applied to the root of a plant, it will destroy it; but if it be placed at a distance, it attenu- ates, and decomposes the viscous and naturally pernicious matters contained in the earth, so as to ren- der them fit for supplying vegeta- bles with nutriment. Water contributes to the growth of plants in a very material degree: hence arose the art of floating land in dry seasons, without which ve- getables would perish for want of moisture. See Irrigation. Air, on account of its elasticity, is absolutely necessary to the in- crement of vegetables ; warmth is of equal importance, because no plant can thrive without some de- gree of heat. But, doubtless, the chief article is earth; which, being prepared by the nitrous, and other volatile salts, such as are generated in dung, not less than by water and air, is assimilated to the nature of plants ; constitutes a part of them; and is inseparable from them : but, if water, air, and heat, be taken away, the plant will still exist; though, from the want of those elements, it has ceased to vegetate. The excess of nitre, air, water, and heat, however, is a proof that these articles do not constitue the proper or only food of plants..... Thus, too great a proportion of ni- tre, or other salts, corrodes, and deprives them of vegetable life ; too much water drowns them ; too great a degree of air dries their roots ; and too much heat shrivels and burns them ; but there cannot 64 F O O FO O be too large a proportion of earth, unless the plant be too deeply bu- ried under it, so as to exclude the salutary influence of the other ele- ments ; in which case it must ne- cessarily perish. Many experiments have lately been made with factitious gases, in order to ascertain whether the growth of plants might be forward- ed by such artificial agents ; but, though some of these elastic airs, such as oxygen, have been found remarkably to promote vegetation, yet the expense and trouble, which these applications would occasion in the great way, will ever be in- superable objections to their gene- ral introduction. From recent at- tempts to fertilize and stimulate the soil itself, as the growing me- dium, with chemical solutions, it appears that water very slightly impregnated with camphor, or, ac- cording to others, with the phospho- ric acid, (which see), has produced uncommon effects on the earth of vegetables, and accelerated their rapid growth in a very evident manner. Farther experiments, however, will decide how far such means are practicable, and whe- ther the nature of plants thus forced, is materially changed or af- fected. In a select collection of " Me- moirs," lately published by the Free Society of Agriculture, Arts and Commerce, in the Department of Ardenne, the following vegetative liquor is recommended for pro- moting the growth, as well as the flowering, of bulbous roots in apart- ments, during the winter: Take 3 oz. of nitre ; 1 oz. of sea-salt ; half an oz. of salt of tartar ; half an oz. of sugar; and one pint of rain water. Let the salts be gra- dually dissolved in a glazedearthen vessel; and, when the solution is completed, add the sugar, and filter the whole. About eight drops of this liquid mu^t be poured into everv flower-glass filled with rain or river water: these vessels should be kept constantly full, and the wa- ter be renewed every tenth or twelfth clay ; a similar portion of the vegetative liquor being added each time. In order to ensure suc- cess, the glasses ought to be placed on the corner of a chimney-piece, where a fire is regularly kept in. cold seasons. FOOLS'-I'ARSLEY,orLEssER Hemlock, Aethusa cynapium, L. an indigenous plant, growing in corn-fields and kitchen-gardens, and flowering in the months of Au- gust and September. This noxious weed greatly re- sembles the common parsley, for which it is sometimes mistaken; but may be easily distinguished by its glossy surface, and total want of odour: when eaten among other plants, it occasions vomiting, vio- lent colic, and other painful symp- toms.....Such accidents, however, might be easily avoided, by culti- vating only the curled-leaved pars- ley, Apium graveolens, L. in our gardens. The fool's-parsley is eat- en by horses, cows, sheep, and goats ; but is pernicious to sheep. FOOT, that part of the body on which animals stand and walk. The principal cause of the lame- ness and distortion observable among many children, especially of the poorer class, is owing to an improper management of them, during their infancy. Instead of being carried on theirnurses' arms, in a posture which contracts and palsies the lower extremities, they ought to be supported in such a di- rection that the legs and feet may FO O F OO 65 be at liberty. Nor should they be confined too early in narrow shoes, with a view to render their feet small and taper: those necessary parts of our dress ought to be wide enough to allow sufficient room for motion, and might be fastened with strings, which are preferable to buckles. It will also be proper to adap.i. the shoes to the form of each foot, 1- - means of separate lasts ; in the same manner as those of the fashionable classes are made at present. A kind of half-boots, how- ever, such as may be laced above the ancles, are superior to shoes, as they not only have the advan- tage of fitting the leg, but are like- wise not easily trodden down at the heels; besides, children are enabled to walk more firmly in them than in shoes. WTij.h respect to the feet of adults, we would recommend always to adapt the shoe to their size and shape, and utterly to disregard the prevalence of an absurd fashion, which is often attended with in- convenience. Hence arise those painful excrescences, corns, con- cerning the cure of which we have already treated. To the same cause must be ascribed the growing of the nails into the flesh, which is attended with excruciating pains. «^Bathing the feet and legs, over the knees, in warm water, is of great service, especially after re- turning from a long journey..... When employed as an assistant to medicine, in certain diseases, it is of considerable advantage : and, if it be of a proper temperature, not exceeding 98°, it may be consider- ed as a safe cordial, by which the circulation of the fluids can be ex- cited, or a gentle and salutary fe- ver induced. Bathing of the feet, therefore, is incomparably safer VOL. III. | than the generality of cordials and sudorifics, as its effects may be suspended at pleasure. Blistered feet, or vesicles con- taining water, may be prevented in the hot days of summer, by anoint- ing the soles of the feet with veni- son tallow, and wearing worsted socks. We know an instance of a man, who at the age of eighty years travelled on foot, in warm weather, from the vicinity of Dur- ham to the west of Scotland, a dis- tance of 200 miles, in five days, without experiencing any incon- venience : on inquiry, he declared that he made use of no other expe- dient than that of rubbing the feet of clean woollen stockings, every evening, with spirit or oil of tur- pentine ; suffering the moisture to evaporate during the night, and wearing them on the following day. We believe, however, that vitriolic ather, though more ex- pensive, would be better adapted to the purpose. But, when the feet are once blistered, it is advisable to open the vesicles without delay, by the point of a lancet, or needle ; to express the water; and rub the parts with the fat of venison, or mutton-suet taken from the kid- neys. Those parents whose children are afflicted with club feet, or other deformities of the lower parts, we would recommend to peruse Mr. Sheldrake's "Practical Essay on the Club-foot," Sec. (8vo. p. 2 14. 7a. Murray and Co. 1798); where they will find much information perspicuously arranged, and illus- trated by engravings....See Chil- blain and Shoe. [The many melancholy instance-; of persons walking with inverted feet, which we daily see, cannot fail of causing regret among medi- 66 FO O FOO cal men in particular, from the cir- cumstance of their knowing with what ease many of "those cases might have been relieved by an early attention. In England great attention has been paid to cases of malconformation of the feet, and few cases are said to occur in which much of the deformity cannot be removed ; but trials ought to be made before the age of two years. Mr. Bishop, of Philadelphia, and Mr. Watt, of Paisley, in Scot- land, have taken the lead in these complaints. A plate of Mr. Watt's machines may be seen in the Me- dical and Physical Journal of Lon- don, vol. 4.] FOOT-HALT, a disorder pecu- liar to sheep, and which is occa- sioned by an insect resembling a worm, two, three, and sometimes four inches in length. The first appearance of this malady is mani- fest by the lameness of the animal, a symptom which increases to so high a degree, as to prevent it from grazing. In consequence of pain, and want of food, the sheep lingers till at length it falls a victim to the disease, unless the worm be timely extracted ; an operation that may be easily performed. As soon as the animal begins to limp, the lame foot should be exa- mined between the close of the claws, where the skin will be found perforated with a hole, through which the insect has worked itself a passage upwards, between the ex- ternal membranes and the bone. In order to extract the worm, the claws should be moved in contrary directions, for a considerable time, till the insect gradually makes its way to the surface. This simple operation will be fully efficient, without any other application ; and it is certainly preferable to drawing the worm out; as in the latter case there is always danger of its break- ing off, and rotting in the sheep's leg, which would materially injure the animal. The foot-halt occurs more fre- quently in wet than in dry seasons; generally in the spring and autumn, but seldom in the summer and winter. Sheep that are pastured in high, healthy grounds, are less liable to be attacked by this insect, than those which graze in low mea- dows, or marshy soils. FOOT-ROT, a disease to which sheep are subject, and which is said to be contagious. The first symptom of the disor- der ;is manifest, when the animal affected begins to limp; though no injury will be perceptible on exa- mining the foot, which is extreme- ly hot. The second stage of the distem- per is a yellowish-white spot, that appears in the cleft of the hoof, spreads gradually, and becomes livid ; destroying the hair, which in sound animals covers the foot. At this period, the diseased part acquires a disagreeable smell, and the lameness increases. In the third stage, the malady sinks into the frog of the foot; the shell of the hoof loosens, and the frog is filled with fetid matter, that oozes out when pressed by the hand : a small tumour sometimes breaks out in the front of the leg, about one inch above the hoof, which, however, is easily dis- persed. In the last stage, the foot is so completely mortified by the can- cerous humour conoding every part of it, as to become incurable ; in which case, the skin is the only valuable part of the animal. Through these different periods, FOO FOR 67 the sheep affected retain their ap- petite, and feed apparently as well as when in health ; but they very soon fall away, and continue to de- cline, till they have lost all their fat. Notwithstanding their rapid decay, at the end of the second and the commencement of-^he third stage, they are so eager for food, that they even crawl on their knees for sustenance. For the cure of this infectious disorder, different remedies have been prescribed ; from which we select-the following : the first was invented by the late Mr. Bake- well, the other by Mr. George Culley of Fenton, Northumber- land. 1. Take 3 oz. of verdigrease ; of vitriol, and common aium, 4 oz. each ; white mercury 1 * oz. and white copperas 1 oz. The whole is to be finely pulverized, and dis- solved in a quart of white wine vinegar. 2. Let 4 oz. of the best honey; 2 oz. of burnt alum, reduced to powder, and •£ lb. of pulverized Armenian bole, be mixed in as much train or fish oil as will con- vert these ingredients into the con- sistence of salve : the honey ought first to be gradually dissolved,when the Armenian bole should be pro- perly stirred in, after which the alum and train oil are to be added. The parts affected may be rub- bed with either of these composi- tions ; unless the distemper has become incurable ; but in the opi- nion of Mr. Arthur Young (from the 2 1 st vol. of whose Annals we have abstracted these recipes), the red salve of Mr. Culley, is more efficacious than Mr. Bakewell's liquid, having cured one or two diseased feet, where the latter had failed : yet Mr. Y. always employs the liquid previous to anointing the animals with the salve. This malady, in general, arises from long grass in wet seasons, but, if sheep be suffered to lie upon their own dung, a fermenta- tion will take place, and occasion either the foot-rot, or the foot-halt: to prevent which fatal disorders, those animals should be well lit- tered, and kept with a strict atten- tion to cleanliness. [This disease was mentioned under the article Cattle.] FORCING, in horticulture, is the art of producing ripe fruits from trees, before their natural season. Although by no means inclined to encourage this artificial practice, as fruit thus raised is neither sa- voury nor wholesome, yet we shall insert the method generally adopt- ed to effect that purpose, for the gratification of the curious, more than for its real utility. A wall should be erected ten feet in height ; a border marked out on its south side, about four feet wide ; and stakes fastened in- to the ground along the edge of the border, at the distance of four inches. These are intended for the support of the glass lights (or, with less expense, frames covered with oiled paper), which are to be placed in a sloping direction towards the wall, to shelter the fruit, as occa- sion may require: at each end, a door is to be so constructed that it may be opened either way, accord ing to the course of the wind. The frame ought to be moveable ; be- cause after a tree has been covered one year, the former should be re- moved to another , observing that each fruit-tree be forced only once 63 FOR FOR in three years : by this arrange- ment, they will be more durable and productive. Previously to applying the dung to the wall, it should be thrown to- gether in a heap, for five or six days, that it may thoroughly fer- ment ; thus prepared, it ought to be laid four feet thick at the base of the wall; and continued up- wards in a sloping direction, till it is about two feet in thickness, with- in a few inches from the top of the wall ; but, as it sinks, more dung should be added, for the first heat will only swell the blossom-buds. The proper season for laying it, is about the latter end of November; and, for ripening cherries, three changes of dung will be sufficient to produce very fine fruit in the month of February. This method of forcing, however, being often very expensive and troublesome, tanner's waste is now almost uni- versally employed for producing artificial heat, by enclosing it to the depth of three or four feet, within the walls of a hot-house. Early and late ripening fruits should never be placed together; because the requisite degree of heat for forcing the latter, would be very prejudicial to the former, after they have produced fruit. Glass, or oiled paper frames, are of considerable service for covering trees; but they should occasionally be removed to admit the benefit of gentle showers ; and the doors at the ends may, in warm weather, either be left entirely open, or one of them only closed. A mat should be suspended before the doors, to protect the trees from night frosts. The fruit-trees most proper for this management are, the avant, or small white nutmeg, the Albe- marle, the early Newington, and the brown nutmeg-peaches ; Mr. Fairc.hild's early, the elrugo, and Newington nectarines; the masculine apricot; and the May- duke and May-cherry. With res- pect to vines, the white and black sweet-water grapes will thrive most favourably : for early goose- berries, the Dutch white, the Dutch early green, and the walnut goose- berry, are the best sorts; and for currants, the large Dutch white, as well as the red currants are equal- ly prosperous....See Hot-houses. Forcing of Wine. See Clari- fication. FOREST, generally speaking, signifies a large tract of land, cov- ered with trees. The principal forests in this country are those of Sherwood), Windsor, the New Forest, that of Dean, on the north of the river Severn, and Epping-forest, in the county of Essex. There are, be- sides, several smaller forests, the total extent of which, together with those just enumerated, a- mounts to about 300,000 acres..... The utility of forests, to a com- mercial nation, is very great; as, by the quantity of timber they af- ford, a considerable expense may be saved, which must otherwise be incurred by the importation of ma- terials for ship-building. Independently of these consider- ations, forests of a moderate ex- tent are a national ornament, espe- cially if they do not occupy such lands as could be more usefully employed in agriculture. For- merly, England abounded with woods, and was celebrated for its lofty and majestic oak, which, how- ever, of late years has become scarce. On the contrary, various large tracts of uncultivated ground FOR F O 5 69 / might now be advantageously planted with larch fir, and other trees ; but as these expensive undertakings are beyond the ability of private individuals, it is to be hoped that the commis- sioners of the Land Revenue will be able speedily to carry so patri- otic a measure into effect....See Plantation. FORE-STALLING is the buy- ing of, or bargaining for, corn, cat- tle, or other merchandize, in its passage to fairs, or markets, for sale, with an intent to dispose of them again at an advanced price. The punishment for this offence, on conviction by two or more wit- nesses, is, for the first time, two months imprisonment, and forfei- ture of the goods, or their value; for the seeond, the offender incurs an imprisonment of six months, and loses double the value of the articles; and, for the third offence, he is liable to imprisonment dur- ing the King's pleasure; to a for- feiture of all his property; and is to be sentenced to stand in the pil- lory. Severe, however, as these regu- lations appear, they have hitherto not been attended with the desired effect. Notwithstanding all the arguments and invectives that have been employed against this grow- ing evil, in printed works, and in the courts of justice, we are per- suaded that it will never be crush- ed, till national councils adopt pro- per and effectual measures for preventing this iniquitous practice. Nay, others assert, that the root of the mischief is intimately con- nected with the landed interest, as well as with the numerous paper banks which infest both town and pountry. Such of our readers as have lei- sure, or inclination, to peruse a few late tracts on this important sub- ject, we shall refer to Mr. Gird- ler's " Observations on the perni- cious consequences of. Regrating, Forestalling, and Ifigrossing, isfc. (8vo. 6s. Seeley, 1800,) where they will find Considerable infor- mation, blended with reflections animated by benevolence and, pub- lic spirit. It is but justice to observe, that the same author has published an abridgementof his work in 12mo. price 2.?....Mr. Morris's " Shore Inquiry into the Nature of Monopoly and Forestalling," (8vo* Is. Cadell 1800,) contains a temperate dis- cussion of this interesting topic... To these we shall add Mr. Illing- worth's " Inquiry into the Laws, ancient and modern, respecting Forestalling, Regrating,and J;:grai- sing," Sec. (8vo. 7s. Brooke, 1800.) which comprehends a full inves- tigation of the subject, according to the laws of this country ; and is alike calculated to inform the law- yer, the antiquary, and those who are in search of truth. FOSSIL-ALKALI, is thus cal- led to distinguish it from the vege- table alkali; as the former is found in a pure state, in the bowels of the earth ; whereas the latter is prepared from various plants. Fossil, or mineral, alkali abounds chiefly in Egypt, Tripoli in Barba- ry, Hungary, several Russian Pro- vinces, and some parts of Asia ; but it has seldom been found in the western countries of Europe, except in the vicinity of volcanoes, or in mineral waters ; and in these it exists only in very small por- tions. The chief source of this alkali is the water of the ocean. It forms the basis of sea-salt; and, as it is an article of the greatest utility, 70 F O S different methods of extracting it have lately been invented. In August, 1781, a patent was granted to Mr. Alex. Fordyce, ior his rrctf processes, by which the alkali contained in sea-salt, rock-salt, salt springs, salt-cake, Glauber's-salt, anoN'vitriolated tar- tar, may be separated from the marine or vitriolic acids....He first converts suit-water, &c. into Glau- ber's-salt, by the applicatiorXof vi- triolic acid, or of any substance containing the latter. This salt is then to be mixed with a double quantity of lime, chalk, or any other calcareous earth, or iron, or with any substance containing that metal. The whole is to be placed together in a vault, or other reser- voir, secured from the rain, till it is completely decomposed, when the alkali is to be extracted by dis- solving it in water, and evaporating it to dryness. Or the patentee employs 601bs. of Glauber's-salt, or vitriolated tartar; lOlbs. of char- coal, or ny other substance capa- ble of bearing heat, and containing the inflammable principle ; and lOlbs. of iron : these ingredients are pounded together, and thrown into forty gallons of water ; where they are suffered to digest for twenty-four hours. The clear so- lution is then to be separated ; and, by evaporating, filtering, and crystalizing it is rendered fit for use. Another patent was granted in March, 1789, to Mr. Anthony Bouhboulon de Bonkuil, of Li- verpool, for his invention of an ap- paratus on a new construction, and certain new processes for the mak- ing of fossil alkali, which is said to be equal to that extracted from the best bariila.... As, however, his spe- cification is so complex, that it could not be understood without F OS the aid of an engraving; and, as the patent is not expired, we refer the reader to the 4th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures. The last process which merits our attention, is that of the Earl of Dundonald, for obtaining mi- neral or fossil, and vegetable al- kali, from neutral salts composed of those alkalies and an acid; or from the solutions of those salts, whence several articles are disen- gaged or formed, that may be col- lected and applied to various use- ful purposes. For these different inventions, his Lordship obtained a patent in 1795. 1. The most important of the new processes, is that of making Glauber's-salt, or sulphat of soda, which is one of those neutral salts, consisting of an alkali and an acid, from which an alkaline salt is to be procured. Thus, several other articles, such as spirit of salt, sal ammoniac, and an iron earth mix- ed with clay, as a pigment, are formed, or disengaged, and may be collected : 2. Glauber's salt is decomposed, forming mineral alka- li, or soda, either in a mild or caus- tic state : 3. Vitriolated tartar is prepared by decomposing the mu- riat of pot-ash ; and 4. This pre- paration is converted into either a vegetable alkaline hepar,ormild or caustic vegetable alkali. The salts and other substances result- ing from these chemical opera- tions, may be applied to various purposes, particularly for decom- posing soda from Glauber's-salt. As the principal article for which Lord Dundonald has established manufactories, appears to be the Soda now generally sold in the shops, we shall, in the alphabetical series, describe its manifold uses, FOS ■and content ourselves at present with giving a summary of the in- ventions claimed by the noble pa- tentee : namely, that sea-salt is decomposed by alum, by vitriol of iron, and Epsom-salt, with the aid of heat, when a due proportion of clay, or a clayey iron earth is mix- ed with the salts submitted to the operation ;....that sea-salt is also decomposed by Epsom-salt with the aid of heat, and without the intervention of clay ;....lastly, that it may likewise be reduced by sulphat of lime, or gypsum, with the aid of heat, when a due pro- portion of clay, containing much iron, is mixed with the sea-salt and gypsum. FOSSIL-COAL, a species of pit-coal found in various parts of England....See Coal. In December 1792, a patent was granted to Mr. John Barber, of Atfleborough, Warwickshire, for a method of smelting and purifying fossil-coal, iron-stone, iron ore, Sec. by steam, air, and fire, and for im- pregnating the same with inflam- mable air, by which he produced a tough metal. The patentee directs any portion of iron-stone, or ore, together with a quantity of fossil-coal, to be put into a furnace, into which fire is to be admitted, and steam conveyed from a boiler, by means of pipes, through an aperture made in the hearth. These pipes are not to project into the furnace, but only to extend so far as to permit the steam to convey along with it a quantity of atmospheric air -r and thus a calx sufficiently pure will be produced. The process of purifi- cation may be facilitated, by plac- ing a vessel of water at the bottom •f the furnace or building, for the reception of the lvot calx while it FOS 71 falls, or is disengaged. And if sometimes a proper proportion of sal ammoniac, or other merv- struum, be thrown in among the coals, &c. while purifying, that operation will be, in a considera- ble degree, facilitated. When the calces are thus pre- pared, a portion of them, and also a quantity of fossil-coal, or purified coals, are to be put into a smelting furnace, beneath which a fire is to be kindled. Apertures are also to be made for the introduction of irt- fiammable air, from one or more retorts, by means of pipes, either singly or conjointly with air-blast. Limestone, charcoal, and other substances abounding with inflam- mable air, may be added in due proportions, and will have an ef- fect similar to that produced by the inflammable air alone, for whick it may be occasionally substituted. The patentee observes, that the proportionate quantities of the va- rious materials employed, can only be ascertained by experience ; and. the result of this process will be the production of a tough metal, capable of being applied to several useful purposes. FOSSIL-PITCH, or Harden- ed Rock-oil, Petroleum indura* turn; a bituminous production (see Bitumens,) which consists of two varieties. • 1. The Asphaltum, or pure fos- sil-pitch, which is found in the shores of the Dead and Red Seas; and in various parts of Europe. It is a hard, smooth, brittle substance, destitute of smell, and externally of a black or brown colour, but when exposed to the rays of light, appears of a deep red....It is chief- ly used by watch-dial makers, who mix it with lamp-black, and oil of turpentine. The preparation of 72 FOU FOU this compound is said to be kept secret by certain persons at Stras- burgh, in Alsatia. 2. The Fix montana impura, or Pisasphaltum, which is found in Sweden, Italy, and other parts of Europe. It coheres like slag, or the dregs of iron, and is of the co- lour of black-lead; but if subject- ed to strong heat, it is soon volati- lized; and if left in the retort, a liquid substance distils into the re- ceiver, resembling rock oil....This mineral oil is never used in Eng- land as a medicine ; but in France the common people give it in drops for hysteric complaints, and also to their children, with a view to expel worms. FOUL, a disorder in cattle, which proceeds from a peculiar state of the blood, and a watery rheum that descends into the legs, and occasions swelling',. To re- move this malady, it has been ad- vised to throw the diseased quad- ruped on its back, and to tie its legs together, when the skin is to be slit with a sharp knife, in a straight direction above the heel. After this operation, a plaster con- sisting of nettles, garlic, and salt, should be applied to the wound, for a day or two: thus, it is said, the animal will be effectually re- covered. The appellation finul, is also given to a swelling between the clefts, or claws of cloven-footed cattle: it is produced by a worm, and gradually increases till it breaks, at the same time causing the affected creature to halt. To expedite the cure of this complaint, the tumour is ciiiveted to be lanc- ed, before it is thoroughly ripe, and as soon as the matter is dis- charged, the wound should be anointed with a mixture of tar and grease. By these applications, to- gether with keeping the feet clean, the disorder may be easily remov- ed.... We confess, however, we have had no experience in either cases of this veterinary prac- tice. FOUNDERED, a disease in the feet, to which horses are subject. .It is occasioned by hard riding, se- vere labour, great heats, sudden colds, &c that inflame the blood, and, as the farriers express it, melt the grease, which descends into the feet; where it settles and causes such a numbness and pricking in the hoof, as in some instances to render the animal affected unable to stand. The general methods of remov- ing this disorder are, first bleed- ing, \vhich operation, if oppor- tunely performed, is calculated to afford immediate relief....The rapid and irregular circulation of the blood, is then to be diminished, by giving the horse cooling salts in- ternally, clysters, an opening diet, and plenty of diluting liquor four or five times every day, together with emollient poultices ; which ought to be applied warm round the hoofs, in order to soften them, and to promote a free and equal perspiration. But the sole or frog of the foot affected, should on no pretence be pared to that excess, which is too frequently done by ignorant far- riers. It will be sufficient to clear away the hardened surface of the sole, that the poultice may pro- perly open the pores. All greasy and oily applications should like- wise be avoided, being ill calcu- lated to accelerate the cure. Fowl : See Poultry. Fowl-grass. See Rpughish Meadow-grass. FOX FOX, or Canis vulpis, L. an ani- mal of the canine race, well known for his cunning, and the depreda- tions he commits in farm-yards among poultry, and in warrens among rabbits. Foxes produce but once a year, and the litter generally consists of four or five, but seldom six or eight, and never less than three. The time of gestation is in the winter, and young cubs are found in the month of April. These, like dogs, are brought forth blind ; they continue to grow fifteen months or longer, and live to the age of fourteen years. It is remarkable, that on its long hairy tail the fox has a small bunch of hair which emits an agreeable odour, not unlike that of violets: this proceeds from a gland secreting a viscous humour, which is supposed to serve him as a bal- sam in healing wounds, or as a cordial. His woolly tail is dexter- ously employed for catching lob- sters from the hollow s of brooks and rivulets, as well as for blind- ing his persecutors, the dogs, Ex. when it is moistened with urine. But the greatest proof that be- speaks his wonderful ingenuity, is displayed by the manner he rids himself in summer of fleas, his most troublesome enemies. He first seizes with his mouth a par- cel of moss, then gradually, but with retrogade steps, immerses himself in water to the point of his mouth ; and, when these ver- min have retreated to the moss, he suddenly drops his cargo. The fox is not easily, and never completely tamed : when deprived of liberty, he languishes ; and if kept too long in a domestic state, he dies of chagrin. His skin is furnished e ither with a white, grey, vol. m. FOX 73 blueish, or black fur, which, on account of its softness and warmth, is in many parts of Europe em- ployed for making muffs, and lin- ing clothes. The fur of the black fox caught in the North, is some- times sold at the excessive price of 200 guineas. Various methods are practised for exterminating these predatory animals: they are hunted with dogs; iron traps are frequently set at their holes, which are also occa- sionally smoaked to expel them, so that they may the more readily fall into the snares laid for their destruction. The most common mode of taking foxes, is by means of. gins : these being baited, and a train made by draw ing raw flesh across his usual paths, or haunts, to the trap, he is frequently de- coyed......We conceive, however, that the most easy method of re- ducing him to captivity, would be in imitation of that practised in the immense woods of Poland, for catching wolves alive. It simply consists in digging circular holes of sufficient depth, depositing fetid carcases in them as an allurement, and coverin«- them with boards and moss, provided with a trap-door level with the ground. In this manner, all the foxes in the Unit- ed Kingdom relight be exterminat- ed in one season, and much injury prevented, which is every year suf- fered by the husbandman, chiefly for the sake of perpetuating a gra- tuitous chace. FOX-GLOVE, the Co?.i:.ion, or Purple, Digitalis purpurea, L. an indigenous biennial plant, growing in meadows, on hedge-banks, and the sides of hills; in dry, gravelly, or sandy soils, but seldom on flat grounds, unless in very dry situa- tions: for, though the seeds vege- 74 FOX tate, the roots decay in the winter, and the plantconsequently perishes. It abounds in the Midland, but is rarely seen in the Eastern coun- ties, and produces purple flowers, which blow in the months "of June and July. The leaves of the fox-glove have a bitter nauseous taste, but do not possess any peculiar smell: they have long been used with consider- able advantage, in the preparation of an ointment for sores and scro- phulous tumours. If taken inter- nally, this plant is a violent purga- tive and emetic :....in the country, a decoction of it, with the poly- pody of the cak, is frequently given in epileptic fits. An infusion of two drams of the leaf, in a pint of water, given in doses of half an ounce, till it be- gin to operate, is recommended for the dropsy, especially that of the breast: in which disorder it has proved of the greatest utility : the plentiful use of diluents is or- dered during its operation. It has likewise been taken in substance, at bed-time, in doses of one, two, or three grains of the leaves pul- verized ; and oXen operates as a very powerful diuretic, without producing any other evacuation. Sometimes, however, this close excites severe and unexpected vomiting: it has also the remark- able property of rendering the pi lie slower; frequently occasions distressing giddiness, and affects the power of vision. The Digitalis has within a few years, been advantageously em- ployed in pulmonary consumptions, and other disorders, where the fre- quency of the pulse requires to' be abated, with a view to repress the irregular action of the arterial sys- tem, and arrest the progress of disease: and though we doubt FOX whether any thing like medicine, or factitious air, will ever be dis- covered for the cure of that mer- ciless disorder, yet we entertain a very high opinion of the powers of the fox-glove, if timely administer- ed ; but we think it our duty to add, that it is one of those active and virulent plants which cannot safely be entrusted to inexperienc- ed persons, or empirics. As every part of fox-glove has a very bitter and acrid taste, by which it is apt to corrode the mouth, throat, and stomach, chil- dren ought to be warned against its poisonous properties......Sweet butter-milk, or oil and vinegar, in large draughts, will be the most effectual antidotes. [The digitalis as was stated un- der the head consumption, has un- questionably done good, in that and other diseases. But it cannot be concealed, that it has frequently failed, and that much mischief also has been'occasioned by its exhibi- tion. The causes of the failure of this medicine have been amply de- tailed by the Editor in a paper in- serted in the New-York Medical Repository, vol. l.p. 153. To this paper the reader must be referred for a particular notice on each head, all of which it may be well here to state generally. 1. The season of collecting the plant. 2. The part of the plant used. 3. The mode of curing it. 4. The adulteration of the plant. 5. The manner of exhibiting it. 6. The condition of the system at the time of use. The most common effects ob- served from full doses, are vertigo, pain or throbbing of the forehead, or eyes, imperfect vision, nausea, vomiting, reduction in the force and frequenoy of the pulse, or-extreme FOX FR A 75 irregularity in it. Whether the medicine be given therefore in dropsy or consumption, the great- est certainty ought to exist, that inflammatory action is prevalent in the system: otherwise much harm may be expected from the medicine. As a general rule, it may be observed that great cau- tion is requisite in its use, though perfectly safe, when judiciously ad- ministered. Dr. M'Clean in the Medical and Physical Journal of London, vol. ii. p. 113, has pub- lished an admirable paper on the medical use of this plant, and ad- vises the following form of its exhi- bition : Leaves of the fresh plant 4oz. Spirit of wine 5oz. digest during seven days with a gentle heat and strain. Of this medicine thirty drops or less may be given to an adult thrice a day. Physicians should cultivate this plant for their own use, as it never can be depended upon when bought at the shops.] FOX-TAIL GRASS, or Alofie- curus, L. a genus of plants con- sisting of 18 species, of which Dr. Smith enumerates four, and Dr. Withering six, to be natives of England : the principal of these are the following: 1. The pratensis, or Meadow Fox-tail-grass, which is perennial, grows in meadows and pastures, and flowers in the month of May or June. This plant thrives natu- rally in moist soils only ; it affords the best grass that can be sown on low meadows, or in boggy places which have been newly drained. Its seeds ripen early, and are easily collected. Although sheep pastur- ing ortyit, are said to acquire a coarser fleece, yet it furnishes a most grateful food to cattle ; but, as the larvae of a species of flies devour the seeds to so great an ex- tent, that in many spikes scarcely one will be found perfect, its cul- tivation is rather precarious. These insects are very minute, of an orange colour, and arc the prey of the Cimex campestris, or Field-bug, whose mouth is peculiarly formed for searching the husks of grasses. 2. The bulbosus, or Bulbous Fox-tail-grass, which is perennial, grows in moist marshy situations, and flowers in the months of June and July. This species is particu- larly adapted for consolidating the surface of fenny situations. Hence it deserves to be more generally cultivated in such soils, in order to prevent them from being poached by the feet of cattle. 3. The agrestis, or Slender Fox- tail-grass, which is likewise peren- nial, grows in corn-fields or on road sides, and flowers in the month of July. This plant is pro- vincially called black-bent; and, though a very troublesome weed, when growing among wheat, it might be sown with advantage as a meadow-grass; for, in its green state, it is much relished by caule; and Bechstein asserts, that cows fed with it, give an unusual quan- tity of milk. FRACTURES of Bones, are ac- cidents which generally arise from external injury. They are either simple, when the skin and other integuments remain sound ; ov double, when splinters are project- ing, and the fracture communicates with a wound. If, after a severe fall, or blow, the patient feels pain, accompanied with swelling, and tension of the contiguous muscles; when a grat- ing noise, distortion, and a loss of muscular power are perceived on handling the injured part, there is every reason to apprehend that ths 76 FR A FRF bones are broken. No time should then be lost in applying to a skil- ful surgeon; as fractures and con- tusions, especially those of the ribs, are generally attended with febrile symptoms, which require the im- mediate use of the lancet. Mean- while, the limb should be placed in the easiest posture, and the body kept quiet, cool, and open, by emollient clysters. As soon as the size and situa- tion of the fractured bone is ascer- tained, two or more splints made of leather or pasteboard, exactly fitting the injured limb, should be procured, and moistened previous to their application ; thus, they will soon accommodate themselves to the shape of the parts, and serve to retain the limb steady wdth a very slight bandage ; for which purpose, that of 12 or 18 tails is preferable, as being more easily applied, and removed than the usual rollers...Fractures of the ribs require adhesive plasters; the patient must almost lie straight and easy, without being exposed to opportunities of sneezing, laugh- ing, coughing, or distending his stomach by hard food. Hence the lightest provisions, and frequent weak or diluent drink, are neces- sary......The most proper external application in fractures, is a mix- ture of equal parts of vinegar, oil and water, with which the com- presses and bandages should be repeatedly moistened. The greatest care should be taken to retain the bones, after they are replaced/in their situation, bv proper compresses, or bandages, which, however, should not be too tightly applied. Much depends on the age and habit of the pati- ent, with respect to the time ne- cessary for performing a cure ; though, in middle-aged persons,and under favourable circumstances, a fracture of the leg or thigh bone may be healed in two months; of the arm, in six weeks; of the ribs, clavicles, and bones of the hand, in three weeks. But in old age, a much longer time is gene- rally required than during infancy. Fragrance: See Odour. FRECKLES, are spots of a yel- lowish colour, about the size of a lentile-seed, frequently appearing on the face, neck, and hands...., These discolourations are either constitutional in the individual, or arise in consequence of the jaun- dice, or the action of the sun upon the part. Heat, or a sudden change of the weather, often causes the skin to assume a darker colour than natural, and thus produces what is called, tan, sun-burn, and morphew, which differ only in de- gree, and usually disappear in winter. Persons of a delicate complex- ion, and particularly such as have naturally red hair, are most sub- ject to freckles in the face, and other parts exposed to the air. For the gratification of those who consider the removal of such little blemishes an object worthy of their attention, we shall communicate the following remedies : According to Homberg, one of the best applications for dispers- ing freckles, is a mixture of bul- lock's gall with a solution of alum, which, after the latter has sub- sided, must be digested in the sun for three or four months in a close phial. Another preparation is made by taking 4 oz. of lemon-juice, and mixing with it 2 drams of sugar, and one of borax, finely powdered; and, after these ingredients have stood a week or fortnight in a glass bottle, the liquor will be fit for use....As, however, freckles gene- FRI rally vanish during the winter, and have been observed to re-appear in early spring, the sharp morning- air of which, though salubrious, is said to be uncommonly favourable to their re-production, perhaps the most easy method of preventing them, would be a careful attention to this circumstance. FRENCH-MERCURY,orA/i>r- curialis annua, L. an indigenous plant, growing on waste places, and dunghills, in the vicinity of towns; and flowering in the months of August and September. The whole of this vegetable is mucila- ginous : when cultivated in gar- dens, it is dressed like spinnach, to which it is said to be greatly supe- rior ;but, if eaten in a large quan- tity, it is aperient. In France, ac- cording to Tournefort, a *syrup is prepared from the juice of the mercury, 2 oz. of which are given at one dose as a laxative : it is also used in clysters, and pessaries, in the proportion of one part of honey and two of the juice. In England, this plant was formerly in great repute as an emollient, but is at present disregarded. As an article of diet, it may be useful to per- sons liable to costiveness. French-Wheat ; See Buck- wheat. FRICTION, in medicine, is the act of rubbing a diseased part with oils, unguents, and other matters, in order to ease, relieve, and cure it. Friction is also performed w ith a flesh-brush, a linen-cloth, or with flannel ; which last is the most eligible. It is a kind of exercise that remarkably contributes to the health of sedentery persons ; for it excites and kindles the natural warmth ; diverts defluxions ; pro- motes perspiration ; opens the pores ; and tends to dissipate stag- nant humours. FRO 77 This operation is particularly be- neficial to the nervous, debilitated, and studious ; being an useful sub- stitute for other exercises. Hence we recommend to such individuals to spend half an hour every morn- ing and evening in rubbing their whole body, especially their*limbs, with a clean piece of flannel- It ought, however, to be observed, that this practice will be of the greatest service when the stomach and bowels are empty. Lastly, we venture to affirm, that the most important purposes to \whiehfriction may be rendered subservient to the animal economy, have hitherto been almost entirely neglected : we are, however, con- vinced from experience, that medi- cated frictions, or the introduction of the most active medicines into the human system, by rubbing them in properly on the surface, might be attended with the most happy effects, especially in all chronical diseases. Common sense appears to have long since pointed out this excellent method of ad- ministering medicines, even to the Indian savages, though it is little practised in enlightened Europe, where the stomach is doomed to be the field of battle, for deciding commotions and irregularities in our complicated frame. But who is hardy enough to maintain, that the digestive organ was by Na- ture destined to be the exclusive vehicle of drugs, and to serve as their common laboratory ? FROG, or Rana, L. a genus of amphibious reptiles, consisting of 17 species, the most remarkable of which are ; 1. The temporaria, or Common Frog, which is an animal so well known as to render any description unnecessary.'Some of its proper- tics, however, are very singular; 78 FRO its power of leaping is extraordi- nary, and it swims better than any other quadruped. Its body is naked, and without any tail : the fore limbs are very lightly made, while the hind legs and thighs are remarkably long, and furnish- ed with strong muscles. As soon as the spawn is vivified, the future frog becomes a tadpole, in which state it is wholly a water-animal; but as soon as it is changed into a frog, and attains its proper shape, it immediately migrates to the shore. These animals adhere closely to the backs of their own species, as well as to those of fishes. It has been remarked that they will even destroy pike ; and it is certain that they materially injure carp, by fix- ing their hind-legs to the back of those fish, while their fore-legs are fastened to the corner of each eye; so that the carp become much ex- hausted, and frequently sink under the weight of so disagreeable a companion. See Fumitory. 2. The esculenta, or Eatable Frog, differs from the former spe- cies, only in having an high pro- tuberance in the middle of the back, which forms an acute angle. Its colours likewise are more vivid, and its * marks more distinct, the ground colour being a pale or yel- lowish green, marked with rows of black spots from the head to the rump. Both this and*the preceding species are, according to Mr. Pen- nant, used as food, though rarely in this country. FROST, is that state of the at- mosphere, which causes water and other liquids to congeal, or freeze. Frost is supposed to descend from the upper parts of bodies ; but no experiments have hitherto ascertained to what depth it will FRO extend either in earth or water, a* its effects vary, according to the degree of coldness in the air, the longer or shorter duration of the frost, the texture of the earth, the nature of the juices with which it is impregnated, Sec In cold countries, the frost fre- quently proves fatal to mankind, not only producing mortification, but even death itself. The hands of those unfortunate persons, who die in consequence of intense cold, are first seized, till they lose the sense of feeling ; next a drowsi- ness prevades the whole body, which, if indulged in, is attended with imperceptible dissolution. If animation is suspended from severe frost, the following will be the external symptoms: rigidity of the whole body ; and inflexibility of the limbs, which continue in the same posture as the frozen person had adopted during the unfortunate accident; the teeth are closed ; froth sometimes issues from the mouth ; there is a total insensi- bility to all stimulants, and the extremities are partly mortified, and, in some instances, spontane- ously separate. Notwithstandingthese unfavour- able appearances, every exertion ought to be instantly made to re- store life, if possible, by strictly adhering to the following direc- tions ; because there is a greater probability of recovering such per- sons, than those deprived of life, in consequence of drowning or sus- pension by the cord. No external warmth of any kind must be applied to frozen persons, till the internal or vital heat, be ex- cited ; when the former also should be carefully and very gradually adapted to the manifest degree of the latter. Hence the whole process should be performed either • FRO FRO 79 in the open air, or in a cold room; the body cautiously carried in a posture somewhat erect, to the nearest dwelling ^the head turned gently towards the right side ; and the clothes carefully taken off, without injuring the skin, or bend- ing the limbs. These precautions are necessary, as a rough treat- ment may easily occasion disloca- tions of the joints, or fractures of the bones. Next, the whole naked frame, excepting the face, should be covered with a bed of snow from twelve to eighteen inches in thickness; or, if this cannot be pro- cured, cold water and ice may be substituted, and cloths successive- ly dipped in it may be spread over the whole body, especially the head and breast. After continuing these affusions,gentle frictions with flan- nel or soft brushes, likewise im- mersed into cold fluids, should be commenced ; alternately making use of the shower-bath, and perse- vering in these attempts for an hour at least, when the body ought to be left undisturbed for some minutes. If no signs of life appear, clysters of cold water, with oil and vinegar, or six ounces of brandy, are to be given, and the formerprocess again and again repeated ; so that five or six hours sometimes elapse, be- fore any symptoms of animation are perceptible. As soon, however, as there is the least prospect of re- covery, warm fomentations must be resorted to ; the degree of fric • tion cautiously increased ; or the patient placed in bed between two robust persons ; emollient clysters prepared ; and, when he is able to. swallow, a cup Of tea with a little vinegar, wine, or brandy, may be allowed. In many desperate in- stances, however, it will perhaps be proper to perform venesection, to introduce air into the lungs by means of common bellows, or those described in page 391, volume ii. or to have recourse to the electri- fying machine, or the earth bath, Sec. but such cases must be sub- mitted to the judgment of the pro- fession. [Mr. Eton, in his account of the Turkish Empire, relates the suc- cess which attended the Russian application of goose-grease to frozen limbs after the battle of Ochakof,even when the parts were perfectly black. The parts were kept constantly covered with the grease. The fat of common fowls is a domestic remedy in the United States for the same complaint. The simplicity of these remedies ought not to prevent our using them.] The power of cold on vegetables is well known ; and though the frosts of severe winters are on the whole more injurious to vegetation than those of the spring, yet, as the former , very seldom occur in this climate, the latter are produc- tive of more extensive damage, be- cause their effects are evident al- most every year. Frosts act most powerfully on ground newly culti- vated, on account of the vapours continually ascending from such soil. Trees recently cut, also, suf- fer more than others from the spring frosts; a circumstance which must be attributed to their shoot- ing forth with greater luxuriance. Hence, likewise, light and sandy soils are thus more frequently da- maged than firm and tough land, though both may be equally dry. As the blossoms of fruit-trees are more particularly affected bv early frosts, we shall communicate the following easy and simple me- thods, of securing them : l. A rope is to be interwoven 80 FRO F R O among the branches of the tree, and one end of it immersed in a pail of water. This rope, it is said, will act as a conductor, and convey the effects of the frost from the tree to the water. [This method has been'men- tioned in foreign publications upon the authority of the Chevalier Eii- n f nbkrg of Prague, by whom nstraw rope was used with success. Dr. Anderson also quotes it, Re- creations, vo\. i. p. 2f>. A compa- rative experiment might easily be made of the effects of ropes com- jxise.d of both materials, and it is to be wished, that the result may be published. It seldom happens that a period of three years occurs without a late frost in the spring. Much injury was suffered in the month of April 1802 ; and the snow that fell on the eighth day of May in the follow- ing year in Philadelphia, and the frost on the two succeeding nights, will long be remembered.] 2. According to M. Mallet, the early hoar-frost may be ren- dered harmless in its effects, by pouring fresh spring-water on the trees and vines thus covered, be- fore the sun rises. When mist or dew attends a frosty night, but has not preceded it, Dr. Darwin sup- poses that a hoar-frost may be less injurious than a black frost ; be- cause the case of ice on the buds of trees, or on young grass, being instantly produced, covers them with a bad coiuiuctor of heat, and prevents them from being exposed to so great cold as is occasioned by the continuance cf a black frost, without hoar or rime. [J;«m* of preserving. Trees from Frost. To explain the phenomena of the frost on vegetables, it is requi- site to set forth a few physical prin- ciples. Water occupies more space in a state of ice than when a fluid y whereas the fat and oil of vegeta- bles occupy less in a state of con- gellation than in that of fluidity. The trees, especially those whose leaves drop ofl'in autumn, imbibe during the summer a considerable quantity of humidity, and evaporate in proportion. According to the experience of the celebrated and Rev. Mr. Hales, a tree clothed with leaves imbibes from the atmosphere thirty times more water than one which is de- prived of leaves. The vessels of the young suckers are larger in propor- tion than those of the trunk, and consequently they contain a great- er quantity of humidity. Trees which retain their leaves winter and summer imbibe but little water ; the juice having in these trees a very slow motion, be- comes more glutinous, and^eeps in a certain though slow motion during the winter : this is also the reason why those trees do not shed their leaves during the winter. Those principles are applicable to the trees that lose their leaves in autumn ; and which, having re- tained them late, have imbibed during the summer a great quanti- ty of moisture ; should they be sur- prised by the frost in the winter, before the*ir juicesare changed into a glutinous nature, that does not so easily freeze or expand, those acjueous juices will congeal and oc- cupy more space, and by their di- latation burst the vessels of the young branches ; the juice extra- vjsates.especially'myoungsuckeri, * and occasions thereby, as it does FRO FRO 81 likewise in animals, the death of the tree, by a kind of hemorrhage, which nothing can stop. Experience proves the truth of these facts. The trees of a warm country which are transferred to a colder climate, in the beginning of the spring, before the sap is in mo- tion, bear hard winters without in- jury ; but if they are planted when the sap has begun to rise, or loo early in autumn, when the sap is still in motion, the trees being in the winter replete with that aqueous moisture, and which has not had time for conversion into a gluti- nous juice, perish through the causes which Ave have just now set forth. In England,in the winters of 1708 and 1709, almost all the trees pe- rished, the mulberry tree excepted, whose leaves had been plucked off before the winter, for the nourish- ment or food of silk-worms. Those trees having been deprived of their leaves betimes, were no longer re- plete with that aqueous juice which the leaves imbibe in abundance.... Here then we perceive the wise disposition of Nature, which re- quires the trees to shed their leaves before the winter, because they are as injurious to them in that season as they are favourable to them in another. As the trees that come from the southern countries contain more aqueous juice than those that grow in the north, those trees trans- planted in this latter climate are more liable to perish by frosts; but Nature herself presents to us the remedy to preserve those trees from the frost; this is, to pull off the leaves before they fall of them- selves ; observing nevertheless the footsteps of Nature, that is to say, not to perform this in one day, but VOL. III. by degrees, so that by the begin- ning of winter, the trees should be almost quite bare. Great attention must be paid not to pluck off the buds at the same time. Through this method, trees that are some- what delicate are preserved, be- cause the juices of such trees, be- coming thicker before the winter, and being likewise less abundant, the tree is no longer liable to the same inconveniences. Before you act upon a large scale, an experiment may be easily made upon the small branches of the tops of trees, which most com- monly are frost-bitten ; by divest- ing them of their leaves betimes, their freezing will be prevented. They should first begin early to disrobe the most aqueous trees, as well as the exotics, and those recently planted, rather than those that have been a long while in the country. One may in general judge that the trees whose leaves grow first in the spring, are the most aqueous, and indeed, Nature, always regular in her performances, deprives them of their leaves, first, in autumn. The above mode of preventing the effects of frost on fruit trees, was first noticed by Mr. Stromer, Professor in the university of Up- sal, a translation of whose paper is inserted in a collection of " Select Essays on Commerce, Agriculture," 8cc. London, 1754, 8vo. These essays are said to have been trans- lated from the Journal Economique, published at Paris. The same prin- ciples were again published in a late French work, entitled the " Diet, d1 Industrie," in which the Editor first saw them, and from the supplement published by Dr. WiLLicH,it appears a similar ar- ticle is inserted in the " Giomale M 82 FRO FRO Encyclopadico of Vicenza, by M. De San Martina, as an original pa- per. Mr. Blanchet attributes the bursting of trees in winter, to the extrication of the air from ice : and observes that the air, a perma- nently elastic fluid being compress- ed, and forced to give way to the particles of water, which cold, or the attractive power of the atoms of bodies, draws violently together, it follows that the ice into which the water is converted, must break asunder, in order to afford a pas- sage to this aeriform substance, which cold can neither condense nor make solid, and by separating the ice into irregular masses, must rend or shiver, with a crackling noise, the vessels no longer able to hold it....See Med. Repository.] In order to recover and preserve such trees from total decay, as have evidently been injured by severe winter-frost, a correspondent has favoured us with the following easy and expeditious remedy ; for the success of which he appeals to his repeated experience: When a tree appears to have suffered from in- tense cold, he advises to make-lon- gitudinal incisions in the bark, ex- tending to the whole length of the trunk, on the north, west, and east sides ; but never in a southern di- rection. As the west-winds are dry and piercing, very few and super- ficial slits only should be made on that side. This operation ought to be performed in the month of March, before the first sap rises ; and repeated in June, while the second sap ascends ; but always so managed, that only the upper- most bark, or epidermis, be divided; as too deep an • incision, though harmless" in the spring, might be kttended with fatal consequences in the heat of summer. In treesv however, which are thoroughly frozen, it will be useful to make deeper cuts; thus to give vent to the stagnant fluids, and promote their circulation. These cuts should be di- rected against the centre of the tree, drawn in a straight line downwards; fos, in the contrary case, the bark is apt to separate in chinks, afford shelter to vermin, and eventually frustrate the attempt. By a strict adherence to these rules, it will be found that apple-trees, in particu- lar, when slit in every direction, (except the south side), retain all their bark ; "others, which had un- dergone one-half of the operation, were but partially preserved ; and such as had received only two cuts, retained only the intermediate por- tion of the bark, from which they produced new shoots. This simple method is farther attended with the additional benefit that, while con- tributing to the growth of the tree thus affected, it tends to prevent the decay of those which have in the preceding year been injured by the depredations of caterpillars,and the subsequent stagnation of their fluids. Although it has been generally believed, that frost meliorates the soil, and especially clay-lands, yet as ice contains no nitrous particles, such improvements can only be of a transitory nature, by enlarging the bulk of some moist soils, and leaving them more porous for some time after the thaw ; but, when the water has exhaled, the ground becomes as hard as before, being compressed by the incumbent weight of the air....See also Clay- Nor is the salutary influence of frosty seasons, on the health of mankind, in the least confirmed by the annual bills of mortality ; as. FRO many old and debilitated persons, whose vital heat is insufficient to excite into action their vessels, al- ready too unsusceptible of irrita- tion, die in consequence of long frosts, during severe winters..... Birds, and other wild animals, as well as tender vegetables, perish benumbed from the same cause.... It deserves, however, to be remark- ed, that a sharp dry frost does not affect the human skin with that -sensation of chilly and piercing cold which we experience, when the air is loaded with moisture, the temperature of which is near the freezing point. This remarkable difference arises from the intense degree of cold produced by the evaporation of fluids, which conti- nually takes place on the surface of living bodies, where it naturally produces a more perceptible effect, than the simple contact of dry air would occasion, when it is but a few degrees below freezing. To the young and robust, therefore, frost is more pleasing than moist air ; as, in the former, they are able to keep themselves warm by increased exercise ; which, in the latter, only tends to promote and render the evaporation more se- verely felt on the skin. For the same reason, Dr. Darwin observes, severe and continued frosts " des- troy the children of the poor, who want food, fire, and clothing, in this harsh climate." To preserve vegetable roots, as well as fruit, from the effect of cold, the following directions will be sufficient: Dry sand, and cut straw, are eminently adapted to that purpose. Potatoes, turnips, onions. Sec. should be loosely plac- ed on sand, either under or above ground, and slightly covered with FRU 33 cut straw or chaff: but carrots and parsnips, we are informed, may be kept during the whole winter, by placing them in rows or heaps, so that their tops project at the sides, being the reverse of the method followed with turnips when packed in carts....See also Apples, vol. i. If, notwithstanding these pre- cautions, vegetables should be in- jured by the frost, it will be ad- visable, especially with frozen pota- toes, to immerse them in cold wa- ter for a short time, on the ap- proach of a thaw. By this expe- dient, the frosty particles are gra- dually extracted, and the vegetat- ing principle is preserved, after the severest season. On the other hand an intense degree of cold is also attended with some good effects: Thus, aroma- tic spirits possess a weaker flavour when newly distilled, than after they have been kept six or seven months, especially during the win- ter season. Experience has evin- ced, that this favourable change was produced only by the influence of cold; and M. Baume found, that by immersing quart-bottles filled with liquors, into a mixture of pounded ice and sea-salt, for six or eight hours, the spirit proves as grateful to the palate as that which had been kept for several years....Geoffroy remarks, that simple waters also acquire a more agreeable flavour, after having been for some time exposed to the effects of cold....See likewise Vin- egar. FRUIT-TREES, are such as bear fruit, namely, Apple, Cher- ry, Pkar-trees, &c. For the par- ticular culture of which we refer to those articles. At present, we 84 F RU FRU shall confine ourselves to remarks equally applicable to orchards, and to single trees. WThile young, no tree should be suffered to bear a large quantity of fruit: and, if they abound with blossoms, the fruit should be ga- thered as soon as it is formed; leaving only half a dozen of the produce, to ascertain its size and quality. By this measure, the trees will not only produce larger and finer fruit, but, by being kept clear, the leading and collateral branches will every year become more vi- gorous. Nor ought any young plant, or newly-engrafted tree, to be permitted to run mop-headed, as it will make no progress, till each branch has acquired a determined leader : for, if the growth of a tree be prevented, it will be extremely difficult to throw such energy into the system, as to enable it to grow freely. As long as fruit-trees continue in the nursery, it will be requisite to cut down the head, in order to give strength and symmetry to the stem : it will also be useful to shorten most of the grafts, lest they should be blown out by the wind: these operations likewise contribute to swell the buds. The ingenious Mr. Bucknall particularly recommends, not to place the rows of trees in a situa- tion either directly north or south, but rather inclining to the east, as the sun will then shine upon them in the early part of the day during the spring, and thus dissipate the vapours collected in the night; which, if suffered to condense, will stint the fruit in the earlier stages of its growth. He farther observes, that if the shaws (or shades) be properly attended to, the trees be- ing placed in this position, will be enabled to withstand the power of the winds; nor will they be af- fected by blight. The shaw will also protect the fruit from the au- tumnal winds, by which half the crop of fruit is not unfrequently blown down, before it is ripe : and, as the heads are at that season of the year laden with fruit and leaves, many trees are torn up from the ground, or so lacerated as to be completely spoiled : a misfortune that might be effectually prevent- ed by a proper disposition of the shades. In the Transactions of the Eco- nomical Society of Leipzig, we meet with a communication from the Rev. Mr. Germershausen, on the means of promoting the growth of young fruit-trees, espe- cially in grass land. This method simply consists in spreading flax- shows, ox the refuse of flax, after it has been combed, on the soil contiguous to the trunks of the trees, as far as the roots extend ; by which means their size as well as their fertility is remarkably increased. He mentions an in- stance, where an old plum-tree which, being in a languishing state, in a grass-field, was treated in the manner above directed, and thus not only acquired a new bark, but produced larger and better tasted fruit: the young shoots also, which formerly grew up around the stem, were prevented from sprouting forth, because the refuse of the flax excluded the ac- cess of air to the trunk, and im- parted additional nutriment to the roots. The leaves falling from the trees in autumn, may be sub- stituted for the flax-shows, if these cannot be easily procured; but it will be necessary to dig a small trench for the reception of the F R U F R U 85 decayed leaves, and also to cover leaves, and which are twisted by them with tiles, flat stones, or a a cobweb round the uppermost log of wood, to prevent their dis- branches. These notorious in- persion by the wind. This pre- sects are hatched in the spring, caution however, is not required when they assume the form of with the refuse of flax, which ad- very diminutive caterpillars, which heres so closely to the soil, as to destroy every thing before them, withstand the most violent storm, ^nd rapidly propagate in the most Although gardeners bestow the unfavourable weather. They da- strictest attention on orchards, it mage oaks very materially ; de- sometimes happens that the bark vour the white-thorn, and kill the of trees is stripped off by sheep, plant: apples and pears, likewise, or by other accidents. In this receive great injury. The only re- case, it has been recommended by medy hitherto known of extermi- Mr. W. Fairman, of Miller's nating such noxious vermin, is to House, Lynsted, Kent, to take off cut off all the twigs or shoots of the arms of such trees as are every tree on which these nests damaged ; to cut slips of the rind, of insects appear ; to collect them about two or three inches in in a heap, and burn them as soon width, and to place four or five as the weather will permit; for of them perpendicularly round the where this necessary operation is naked part. The damaged rind is deferred till the summer approach- previously to be cleared away, the es, the insects increase prodigious- sound bark somewhat raised, and ly, and commit irreparable da- the slips inserted beneath it, to mage. See Caterpillar and promote the circulation of the sap. Insects. These dressings are next to be The disorders to which fruit- bound very tight with rope-yarn ; trees are subject, are various ; the and a composition of loam and cow most fatal are, Blight, Canker, dung, together with a small pro- Mildew, Moss, &c. to which portion of drift sand, should be ap- we refer. See also Diseases of plied, over which some old sack- Plants. ing, or similar stuff, ought to be The effects of frosts are like- fastened. Mr. Fairman adds, wise often fatal, especially to the that he made an experiment with more tender fruit-trees. With a this mode of treatment, in the view to obviate such damage, dif- spring of 1794, on some trees ferent methods have been suggest- which had been much damaged ed ; the most parcticable of which by sheep, and that it completely we have noticed in the preceeding succeeded,the slips adhering close- article. We shall, however, add ly, and being full of sap. a few additional hints, in order Fruit-trees like the rest of the that the reader may select such as vegetable creation, are the prey of are the most simple and least ex- a variety of insects, of which few pensive. are more destructive than those In a communication from a infesting apple, pear, cherry, oak, Swedish agriculturist to a respect- white-thorn, and similar trees..... able periodical work, published on They deposit their black eggs the Continent, the following expe- in clusters, resembling withered dient is stated to have been sue- 86 FRXJ FRU cessfully employed, to protect fruit- trees from the vernal frosts. As soon as the weather begins to grow cold in autumn, large quantities of water are to be poured on the trunks of such trees, so that they may receive an early impression of the cold. In the spring, snow is to be accumulated round their stems ; which retards vegetation, and prevents them from blossom- ing too early. In consequence of this irrigation, the buds shoot forth at a period, when no apprehension need be entertained from the at- tacks of the frost that frequently happens during the nights of spring. Such practice of watering the borders of trees, is said to in- crease the heat in them, by acce- lerating the motion of their juices, if the soil of such border has been properly opened and prepared. [According to Tilloch (Phil. Mag. vol.3d,)CoLERUs,aGerman writer recommends " to dig a trench around the root of a tree, and to fill it with water, or to keep the roots moist until it has blossomed." A tree thus backened in its vege- tation will not probably be attacked by the late frosts of our variable climate.] It is farther recommend- ed, to add one ounce of common salt to every gallon of water, where those borders are old, and have been impoverished by pro- ducing* many successive crops; or if they have been manured with dung not sufficiently putrified. [Means of preventing- t/ie few- er s and fruit from falling off, and of retarding their opening. " The means proposed to retard the opening of flowers, consists in making, in the autumn, a ligature on the stems of the young trees : that compression slackens the mo- tion of the sap's rising, and the tree blossoms the later. Fruits are also likely to fall off as well as flowers. We see trees, which after having had a great abundance of flowers, are covered with young fruit, that promises the most plentiful crop : but it some- times happens, that they almost all drop off'. This accident is but too frequent with apple and pear trees. The way to remedy this incon- venience is to sprinkle the root or foot of the trees when they are in blossom with five or six buckets of water; and, to preserve the humidity, tfje bottom must be co- vered with straw, which prevents too hasty an evaporation of the wa- ter : by these means, the flow- ers and buds are preserved from falling off. The* slight frosts which overcome unfolded flowers, cause the weak and tender, ones to perish. We read in M. L'Abbe Rosicr's Journal for the year 1772, that Mons. Mustel, having for two successive years cut off the petals of pear blossoms or flowers, ob- served that the fruits were more successful than when they were left on ; but that care should be taken to cut the stamina : so that in 1772, a yearin which the pear trees bore but little fruit, a number of those whose plants had been cut off, were loaded with beautiful fruit." Diet, d' Industrie.] There is a method of making fruit grow, dining winter: and though we are no advocates for premature productions, we have abstracted the following process for the satisfaction of the curious, from the 9 th vol. of the Annual Register for 1763 : Let the trees be taken up by the roots in the FRU spring, at the time they are about to bud ; carefully preserving some of their own soil among the roots. These are to be placed upright in a cellar till Michaelmas, when they are to be put into vessels with the addition of fresh earth, and de- posited in a stove or hot-house, being regularly moistened every morning with rain-water, in which sal ammoniac has been dissolved, in the proportion of one ounce to a quart. Thus, in the month of February, the fruit will appear..... The same method is applicable to rose-trees, and flowers; which last, when sown in pots at or be- fore Michaelmas, and watered in a similar manner, will blow towards the end of December. In order to ascertain when fruits, for instance, apples and pears, are sufficiently ripe to be gathered, it is requisite to attend to the colour of the skin inclosing the seeds. During their infant state, there is no cavity round the kernels, but they are in contact with the seed- vessel. In a subsequent period, when the fruit has exhausted the nutritious matter, the cells con- taining the seeds become hollowr, and the latter assume a dark colour. This, Dr. Darwin observes, is the proper criterion by which to judge when such fruits should be gather- ed ; as it indicates that they will not continue to increase in size, but waste and become hollow, by absorbing the mucilaginous parti- cles from the centre. One of the most easy methods of preserving fruit, is that of de- positing it in ice-houses, where it may remain in a frozen state for a considerable time. And, if the fruit be afterwards gradually thaw- ing, by covering it with melted ice, or inirnersing it in cold-spring- FRU 87 water, it will loose but little of its flavour, provided it be consumed on the same day. Fruit may also be preserved, by keeping it in pits dug in a dry soil, or in dry-cel- lars, or even in barns, if the tem- perature be between 32 and 48 deg. of Fahrenheit's thermome- ter ; that is, such as will neither induce frost, nor vegetation. These pits or magazines, however, ought to be covered with such materials as are calculated to repel heat, and to absorb any accidental pu- trid exhalations, and thus retard the progress of putrefaction. Hence Dr. Darwin recommends the fruit to be covered first with pulverized charcoal, one or two inches thick, over which is to be laid a stratum of saw-dust, and over the latter, a thick, impene- trable thatch of straw : thus, seeds and fruits may be stored up for ages, without vegetating or decay- ing* He likewise mentions ano- ther mode of preserving fruit, by heat. As fermentation will not commence in the heat of boiling water, or 212 deg. and, as that degree of temperature can be easi- ly procured by steam, or by the vicinity of vessels containing boil- ing water, he is of opinion that such fruits as are used for culinary purposes throughout the year, may be kept in a fresh state, by put- ting them into bottles, and expos- ing them to the wasted steam of engines; or, by immersing them in the hot water that flows from such steam when condensed; or,by placing the bottles near the boilers which are fixed beside kitchen fires. Before we conclude this article, we shall briefly observe, 1. That the cutting and pruning of young fruit-trees retard their bearing; though such necessary operational 88 FRU contribute to the richness and fla- vour of the fruit, as well as to the beauty of the tree. 2. That those plants which produce kernels,yield fruit later, but in greater abun- dance than stone-fruit trees : the time for bearing required by the former being upon an average five years. 3. That stone-fruit, figs, and grapes, generally yield abun- dantly at the expiration of three or four years ; bear full crops in the fifth and sixth years; and, if judiciously managed, will continue to produce for several seasons. 4. That the fruit of wall-trees, in general, attains to maturity sooner than that growing on standards ; and the fruit on the latter, earlier than that produced by dwarfs. 5. That the produce of all wall-trees, which are planted in the south and east quarters, ripens generally about the same period; though that growing in a southern expo- sure is often earlier than the fruit in the east; while that towards the west is later than either of the for- mer, by eight or ten days ; and that exposed to the north, by fif- teen or twenty days. Lastly, as the freezing winds of this country proceed from the north-east, we shall, under the head of Or- chards, give more particular di- rections relative to the most proper situation of fruit-trees, and illus- trate this interesting branch of husbandry by an appropriate en- graving. See also Engrafting, Plantation, Pruning, &cc. Tlie follonving directions for picking, preserving, and packing fruit for carriage, we insert on the authority of Mr. Forsyth. " All apples, pears, &c. ought to be carefully gathered by hand, and laid in baskets containing dried grass, to prevent them from be- FRU ing bruised ; and, if they fall spon- taneously, some dry barley-straw or pease-haulm, should be prepar- ed for their reception on the ground : in the latter instance, the fruit ought to be separated from, and sent to the table before that which is collected by hand; and such, as may be accidentally bruised, ought to be reserved for culinary purposes ; because it can- not be long kept in a sound state. When all the fruit is collected, it should be conveyed to the store- room ; laid gently in small heaps, on dried grass ; and their tops be covered with short grass, in order to sweat. Here it may remain for about a fortnight; during which time each apple, pear, &c. must be occasionally wiped with a dry woollen cloth, and those exposed on the surface should be placed to- wards the middle of the heap. At the end of this period, all watery ingredients that may have been imbibed during a wet season, will be evaporated ; the heaps should then be uncovered, and each arti- cle carefully wiped; separating those which may be injured, or unfit for keeping.....During this process of sweating, the windows of the store-room, excepting in wet or foggy weather, ought to be continually open, in order to dis- charge the moisture perspiring from the fruit. The usual method of storing apples, pears, Sec. consists in lay- ing them on clean wheaten straw ; but, in this case, it will be neces- sary to examine them frequently, and to remove such as begin to decay ; because the straw, by ab- sorbing moisture, will become so tainted, as to communicate an un- pleasant flavour. Another mode of preserving FRU FRU 89 fruit, is that of depositing it on shelves made of well-seasoned white deal, and covered with coarse thin canvass, on which the articles are to be laid, after being wiped perfectly dry : a piece of linen cloth, or thin flannel, or whitish- brown paper, must then be placed on the top, with a view to exclude the air, and to guard against the injurious effects of frost. Farther, it should be turned several times during the winter; because the more tender and delicate kinds are apt to decay on the lower side, if they remain long in a quiescent state ; even though they may have been completely sound, when first selected for that purpose- In the vicinity of the metropolis, where fruit is kept in store-houses for supplying the markets, it is generally packed in soft paper, disposed at the bottoms and around the edges of baskets or hampers : a layer of fruit is then put in, and covered with sheets of paper ; af- ter which successive strata of fruit and paper arc placed regularly, till the vessel be full. The top is then provided with three or four double folds of paper, both to ex- clude the air and frost. Every sort is arranged in distinct bas- kets, to which labels are affixed, containing the name of the fruit, and the period when it will be fit for use. The best mode of preserving fruit, however, in the opinion of Mr. Forsyth, is that of packing it in glazed earthen jars, which ought.to be kept in dry apartments. For this purpose, apples and pears are to be wrapped separately in soft paper, and laid at the bottom of the vessel on a thin stratum of well-dried bran : alternate layers of bran and fruit are then to fol- VOL. III. low, till the jar be filled ; when it should be gently shaken, in order to settle its contents. Every va- cancy must now be supplied with bran, covered with paper, and the whole secured from air and mois- ture by a piece of bladder, over which the cover of the vessel must be carefully fitted. With respect to the packing of fruit, which is to be conveyed to a considerable distance, there cannot be taken too great precaution. Boxes should, therefore, be made of strong deal, and of various sizes, in proportion to the quan- tity they are designed to contain : these will be proper for melons wrapped simply in paper; and also for pears, peaches, nectarines, plums, and grapes, being envelop- ed first in vine-leaves, and then in paper; but for cherries, and cur- rants, flat tin boxes will be re- quired....! f the fruits last men- tioned are to be carried, succes- sive layers of fine long moss, and cherries, ought to be arranged, till the box be full ; so that, when the lid is closed, they may be in no danger of being injured by fric- tion. For transporting melons, &c. similar strata o! dried moss, and short, soft, dry grass, are to be formed, in which the fruit is to be stored according to the man- ner above directed ; being selected as nearly of the same size as possible ; care also must be taken to place the largest at the bottom, and to fill up every interstice.... For the sake of farther security, each box ought to be provided with a strong lock and two keys ; so that the persons packing and unpacking the fruit, may be re- spectively in the possession of one. The mess and grass should al- ways be returned in the boxes; N 90 FRU F R U and, wdth a little addition, they vi'l serve the whole season, pro- vided such materials be shaken up, and well aired, after each jour- ney ; in order that they may re- main sweet. Lastly, it will be necessary to cord these boxes firmly, with a view to prevent any accidents that may arise during their conveyance. If this method be carefully pursued, it will cer- tainly be attended with success; for, Mr. Forsyth observes, that fruit thus managed, may be sent with perfect safety, either by coaches or waggons, to the re- motest part of the kingdom. Among the various distinct publications which have appeared on this subject, the following are allowed to possess considerable merit: " A Treatise on Fruit- trees," &.c. by Thomas Hitt ; 8vo. 2d edit. 5?. 3...Art of Garden- ing. Mr. Hitt in his Treatise on Fruit Trees, affirms, that if a vi- gorous branch of a wall-tree be bent down to the horizon or be- neath it, it loses its vigour, and be- comes abearing branch ; and there- fore recommends his method of nailing the branches of wall-trees, and of tying those of espaliers, in a horizontal direction or still lower; as in this constrained situation there must occur greater difficul- ty, I.suppose, in the production of the new caudexes, necessary for the embryon progeny of buds, up- wards or horizontally along the bended branch, contrary to their natural habits, as well as from the compression of the bark beneath the curvature of the branch, and its extension above it ; whence more flower-shoots are produced, which do not require new caudexes to pass along the bended branch; but which permit their progeny, the seeds, to fall upon the earth, and penetrate it with their new roots. " In Lord Stafford's gardens at Trentham,I remember to have seen many years ago some stand- ard dwarf apple-trees with all their branches bent down, and fixed on a slight frame-work about a foot from the ground ; which seemed to be uncommonly prolific, as a circle of white and purple flowers, twenty feetindiameteron branches radiated from a centre, appeared to a distant eye like a lunar halo, or a carpet of rich embroidery. " The greater production of fruit-buds on branches bended to the horizon must contribute, I should suppose, to the prolific ef- fect of training nectarine and peach trees on tiles laid on the ground, or on the gentle declivity of a bank of earth facing the south, which has lately been recommended by some one, whose name I do not recollect, who gained a patent for his discovery. And it is indeed probable, that both these modes of training fruit-trees, one of which may be called an horizontal wall- tree, and the other an horizontal espalier, would repay the labour of FRU FRU Jthe horticultor; as they would be exposed to a more vertical sun in summer,, which might more cer- tainly ripen their fruit ; and would be kept somewhat backwarder in the early spring, by the greater obliquity of the sun-beams, and might be therefore less liable to injury from the vernal frost; and when in blossom might easily be covered in the night, when neces- sary, by mats thrown over them supportedby stakes with horizontal poles on them. " 2. Secondly. The twisting, or wire, or tying a waxed string round the viviparous branches of a tree, induces them to become oviparous, as observed by Mr. Whitmill, who bound not only the viviparous shoots of various wall-trees with strong wire, but also some of their large roots, and thus increased the product of his fruit....Bradley on Gardening, vol. ii. p. 155. And M. Buffon produced the same effect by a tight cord round the branches, which previously produced leaf- buds instead of flower-buds. Act. Paris, ann. 1783. " M. Buffon concludes from the above experiments, that an engrafted branch bears fruit more copiously, and more certainly,from its vessels being compressed by the callus around the ingrafted junction, which may have this ef- fect, and at the same time contri- bute, by preventing the luxuriant growth of its leaf shoots to render the tree of more dwarfish stature. I am informed, that many dwarf apple-trees, which are now plant- ed in garden pots both in France and England, bear much fruit, and are elegantly placed in the centre of a desert at luxurious tables ; and that the principal art of producing them consists in ingrafting them three or four times, scion on scion; so that the stem is compressed by the callus of three or four ingraft- ments before the branches are per- mitted to divaricate ; and the trees are thus rendered beautiful dwarfs. " The effect of thus compress- ing the bark by a wire, or a cord, or by the callus round the junc- tures of the ingrafted scions, is un- doubtedly accomplished by the in- creased difficulty opposed to the production of the caudexes, for each new embryon leaf-bud, as above explained, and the conse- quent generation of flower-buds in- stead of them. " 3. Thirdly. The wounding, or breaking a viviparous branch, or cutting away a ring of the bark, as of pear-trees, or a semi-cylinder of the bark of other fruit-trees, induct > them to become oviparous. " Where young trees discover too great vigour, Mr. Lawrence advises to cut the most vigorous shoots two parts in three through, leaving a large notch, that the wound may not heal too soon ; which he adds will both render them fruitful, make them more readily conform to the wall or espalier, and preserve such as are dwarfs from too much aspiring in very strong branches, especially of pears; he recommends two or more such incisions to be made in the same branch. " Another method he proposes, is to break thetoovigorousbranches half through with the hand, which he has practised with success in apricots and peaches, when the branches were formed directly for- ward from the wall, and these branches have continued several years to bear fruit, though some have occasionally died by effusing gum ; and though these incisions 94 FRU FRU and breaking the branches may be performed at any time of the year, he prefers the spring on account of the wet or frost of winter. Art gf Gardening. " A complete cylinder of the bark about an inch in height was cut off from the branch of a pear- tree against a wall in Mr. How- ard's garden at Litchfield, about five years ago ; the circumcised part is now not above half the diameter of the branch above and below it, yet this branch has been full of fruit every year since, when the other branches of the tree bore only sparingly. I lately observed, that the leaves of this wounded branch were smaller and paler, and the fruit less in size, and ripened sooner than in any other parts of the tree ; and another branch has the bark taken off not quite all round with much the same effect. " The theory of this curious vege- table fact receives great light from the foregoing account of the in- dividuality of buds. A flower-bud dies when it has perfected its seed, like an annual plant, and hence re- quires no place on the bark for new caudexes to pass downwards ; but on the contrary, leaf-buds, as they advance into shoots, form new buds in the axilla, of every leaf; which new buds require new caudexes to pass down the bark, and thus thicken as well as elongate the branch. Now if a cylinder of the bark be destroyed, many of these new caudexes cannot be pro- duced ; and thence more of the buds will be converted into flower- buds. t; In this curious circumstance, the caudexes of the buds of the tree above the decorticated part seem to have emitted short radicles into the alburnum ; the vessels of which must thus have acted as capillary tubes between the upper and lower caudexes of those buds ; as capillary tubes will raise water by the attraction of their internal surfaces nearly to their summits, when they are not too high in pro- portion to their diameter; but water will in no case flow over their summits, but will always stand with a concave surface be- low the uppermost rim of the tube in which situation it may readily be absorbed by vegetable radicles; and may be supplied from beneath, by the sap-juice raised by the vege- table action of the absorbent vessels of the caudexes, whose radicles terminate in the earth. " It is customary to debark oak trees in the spring, which are in- tended to be felled in the ensuing autumn ; because the bark comes off easier at this season ; and the sap-wood, or alburnum, is believed to become harder, and more dura- ble, if the tree remains till the end of summer. The trees thus strip- ped of their bark put forth shoots as usual with acorns on the sixth, seventh, and eighth joints, like vines; but in the branches I ex- amined, the joints of the debarked trees were muchshorterthan those of other oak-trees, the acorns were more numerous, and no new buds were produced above the joints, which bore acorns. From hence it appears, that the branches of de- corticated oak-trees produce fewer leaf-buds, and more flower-buds.... And secondly that the new buds of debarked oak-trees continue to ob- tain moisture from the alburnum after the season of the ascent of the sap in other vegetables ceases; which in this unnatural state of the debarked tree may act as capillary tubes, like the alburnum pf the FRU small debarked cylinder of a pear- tree above mentioned ; or, as the vessels of the alburnum may not yet have lost their vegetable life, they may continue to absorb sap- juice or water from their radicles, and carry it to the buds at the sum- mits by their spiral contractions as in the bleeding season. " The parts of a tree immedi- ately below a decorticated or a strangulated branch or root will generallylfecome viviparous, and will thenceoe said to be increased in vigour ; tha^s, it will produce new leaf-buds, arid those of a lux- uriant appearance Cbecause the in- jury of the bark of the branch or root will prevent the parts above from receiving so much of the nu- tritive sap-juice, as in their sound state ; and consequently the parts beneath will possess mofe of it; and also because these new buds are generated from a lower part of the caudex, and will thence be a few years before they will acquire that maturity, or puberty, which i^necessary for the generation of flower-buds, or the production of a sexual or seminal progeny; whence by strangulating or decorticating the alternate branches of a pear- tree they will bear for six or eight years; and the other alternate ones will become in the same time strong and vigorous, ready to un- dergo a similar operation, when the former cease to be of o^fcr use ; but the fruit will become smaller in size, though in greater number, and ripen earlier in the season. "In the same manner new root- scions are said to be produced by strangulating a branch of a root near the surface with a tight string, or by slitting a root near the trunk. Lveh-n's Sylva ; as in these c*scs FRU 95 the ascent of the sap-juice is im- peded, and the part below become* viviparous, or produces new leaf- buds for the reasons mentioned in the last paragraph -r as is frequently seen where the end of a Branch is lopped, or beneath the scar of the junction of an ingrafted scion.... On the same account it is not un- common to ingraft with success on roots taken out of the ground, and afterwards replanted; as the ro- binia on the root of acacia, and any other apples on the roots of the suckers of bur-apple, orcodling. See Phytologia, Sect. IX. 3. 5. "For the same reason the roots of some plants, which are other- wise not easily propagated, will shoot up buds; if a part of them next the stem of the plant be half cut^fhrougfh, or raised out of the ground, and exposed to the air; as in pyramidal campanula, and gera- nium lobatum. And for the same reason the lateral branches of nu- merous shrubs, as well as of her- baceous plants, will put forth roots, when they are bent down into the ground, if they are previously wounded to prevent the free sup- ply of the vegetable nutriment in its usual coursaf a^ in laying car- nations, dianthusjr **** " A method of converting the- viviparous branches of pear and apple trees into oviparous branches* is described by Mr. Fitzgerald in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. lii. and seems to be superior to the exsection of a cylinder of the bark above mentioned ; as the alburnum is not left naked after the operation. In the month of Au- gust, he made a circular incision round the principal branches of se- veral pear-trees, apple-trees, plumb- trees, and cherry-trees, near the stems of each, through the bark- 96 FRU About 3 or 4 inches higher, he then made another incision round the bark, and then a perpendicular one, joining these two circular ones, and separated the cylinder of bark nicely from the wood, covering it, and the bare part of the wood from the air, for about a quarter of an hour, when the wound began to bleed. He then replaced the bark with great exactness, and bound it round rather tightly with bass, so as to cover the wound entirely, and half an inch above and below the circumcisions. " In about a month the bark began to swell above and below the bandages, he then unbound them, and found the parts quite healed. He rebound them slightly with bass, and let them remain so till the beginning of the nejt summer, when he again took off thebandipes and found them all healthy, and every one of them bore plentifully that season, though it was in ge- neral reckoned a scarce fruit year. " He treated two young pear- trees in this manner, which never had yet had any bloom ; on one of them he operated on the main arms, and on several of the less branches from those main arms; and on onlyrone.of the main arms of the other. The first, he says, bore a surprising quantity of fruit in the next summer; and the cir- cumcised arm of the other bore a moderate quantity ; though no other part cf the tree had any ap- pearance of bloom. u Mr. Fitzgerald afterwards took a cylinder of the bark from the branches of two young apple- trees about the same size, as ex- actly as he could,by measure; and changing them,'bound them each on the other tree.' The bark of one had a leaf-bud and two apples FRU growing on it; the barks of both of them healed perfectly, the leaf- bud put forth leaves, and the ap- ples remained on and ripened; and both the branches bore so plenti- fully, that one broke with its load, and it was necessary to prop the other. "Mr. Fitzgerald further ob- serves, that he changed cylinders of the bark with equal success of nectarine and peach-trees; and that the branches thJfcoperated upon were retarded inTneir gene- ral growth ; whidfc coincides with the idea of repeatedly graftihg one scion above tyiqtheron the apple- trees designed" for dwarfs to be set in garden pots, as described in No. 2. 2. of this section. " 4. The transplanting a vivipa- MFS fiu*b-trce, or destroying some of its mats before Midsummer, or the confining its roots in a garden pot, or on a floor of bricks beneath the soil, will induce it to become ovi- parous. " Mr. Knight, in his treatise on the*vculture of the apple and pear, p. 83, has the following pas- sage"^, "In the garden culture of riie apple, where the trees are re- tained as dwarfs or espaliers, the more -vigorously growing kinds are often rendered unproductive by the excessive, though necessary, use of the pruning knife. I have alwajls succeeded in making trees oJBfiis kind fruitful, by digging Ami up, and replacing them with sdne fresh mould in the same si- tuation. The too great luxuriance of growth is checked, and a dis- pogMon to bear is in consequence , brought on." The same observa- tion was made by Mr. Lawrence, who took up trees which were too vigorous; that is, which produced viviparous buds instead of ovipa- FRU FRU 97 rous ones, and replanted them to render them fruitful. Art of Gar- dening. Lond. 1723. " In transplanting trees for any purpose, it may be observed, that they should not be replanted deep in the soil, since the most nu- tritive or salubrious parts of the earth are those within the reach of the sun's warmth, of the descend- ing moisture, and of the oxygen of the atmosphere. And as the root-fibres of trees, like those of seeds, always grow towards the moistest part of the soil, as the young shoots "and^aves grow to- wards the purest air and brightest light; it follows, 'that the root- fibres seldom rise higher in the ground than they were originally set, and seldom elongate them- selves even perfectly horizontally; so that when a fruit-tree is planted too deep in the earth, it seldom grows with healthy vigour, either in respect to its leaf-buds or its flower-buds. " This curious effect cannot be produced by generally debilitating the tree from its want of due nou- rishment ; because it is said to suc- ceed best in very good soil, or by the addition of new garden mould, as before directed; but"by render- ing more difficult the production of radicles from the caudexes of the embryon leaf-buds ; which descend to the finest ramifications of the old roots, and elongate themselves be- yond the extremities of their ulti- mate fibrils; a great number of which roots being torn off by trans- plantation, or compressed in a gar- den pot, the production or progress of many of the new radicles must be impeded or prevented ; and the numerous caudexes of new leaf- buds be in consequence formed irith greater difficulty, whence an VOL. III. increased tendency to generate flower-buds. " For the same reason if beans, vicia faba, which are but a few inches high, be transplanted; they do not-become so tall, but they flower and ripen their seeds soon- er ; because they cannot so easily generate new leaf-buds. The same occurs in frequently transplanting brocoli, brassica y the plant does not grow so tall, but has earlier flowers, and in greater number; and itis hence betterto pluck them up, than to dig them up, for the purpose of replanting them : as by that means more of the root-fibres are torn off, and the plants become almost totally oviparous. " It is well known, that the ves- sels of animal bodies are less liable to bleed, when they are torn asun- der, than when they are cut with a sharp instrument; as their dia- meters are contracted, or their in- ternal surfaces brought into con- tact with each other, in the act of extending them; till they break.... Thus if the naval-string of new born animals are cut instead of torn, they are liable to bleed to death ; and there is a remarkable case of a miller's servant*, who had his arm and shoulder bone, or scapula, torn off in a windmill without much loss of blood. This is mentioned to shew, that it may also be better to tear up roots, which are transplanted for this purpose, than to dig them up ; as they may thence effuse less vege- table blood, and in consequence be less weakened by the operation. " In transplanting strawberries, many of the roots being torn off, fewer leaf-buds, and consequent wires, are produced from the diffi- * Sec Chesalden's Anatom;. o 98 FRU FRU culty, which their embryon cau- dexes find in producing new radi- cles over the old ones to supply nutriment to the wires, till they bend down and protrude roots into the ground at their other extremi- ties, whence a greater number of flower-buds are generated ; on this account the roots of strawberries should generally be transplanted, or new ones from the wires should be cultivated, every third or fourth" year, to prevent the too luxuriant growth of their wires ; or a simi- lar difficulty of producing wires or leaf-buds maybe effected by crowd- ing the roots of strawberries toge- ther, as some gardeners recom- mend ; but I suppose by these means the fruit may become small- er from scarcity of nutriment, though more numerous. " A floor of bricks, or of stone, extended about two feet deep be- neath the roots of wall-trees, has been practised in some gardens from an idea, that the roots shot themselves too deep into some un- wholesome stratum of earth ; and it has been observed,that the trees became better fruit-bearers. In some situations it is possible, this might be the cause of the new prolific property of the trees ; but I suspect it has occurred generally from the difficulty opposed to the number and elongation of the root- fibres, and consequently to the ge- neration of the new caudexes of the embryon leaf-buds ; whence a greater production of flower-buds ensued. "5. If the central vivifiarous branches of a plant be cut away or shortened, the lateral ones will sooner or more completely become oviparous. 1. There are many very small buds on the lower parts of large branches, which do not seem to grow to maturity, and in conse- quence produce neither new leaf- buds nor new flower-buds. There are other lateral shoots on many trees, which only push out a few inches, and are called spurs, and which bear fruit the succeeding summer at their extremities. In many other plants the lateral branches are oviparous, except at the extremity, which is terminated with a viviparous bud ; while the central branches continue long to generate only a viviparous proge- ny, as in vines and melons. " The first of these, or the un- prolific existence of the buds at the bottom of large branches, may be owing in part to their feeble efforts of pullulation, from the want of sufficient sunshine and ventilation ; and also in part, like the spurs, and other lateral branches, to the dif- ficulty they encounter in producing the embryon caudexes of new leaf-buds along the trunk; which is already occupied by those of the more vigorous vegetation of the central branches, which possess a great share of sunshine and venti- lation. " But the principal cause, which renders the spurs and lateral branches oviparous, results from the resistance the embryon cau- dexes of leaf-buds experience by the curvature of the lateral branch, where it joins the trunk, and the consequent coarctation of its ves- sels, added to the difficulty every lateral bud has to encounter from its own curvature at its exit from the parent twig ; on which^ast ac- count the central bud at the extre- mity of an oviparous branch is ge- nerally viviparous, because it has not any curvature at its exit. All this corresponds with the fact above described, that when the viviparous FRU arms of wall-trees are bent down to the horizon, they become ovi- parous. " 2. What then happens in all these situations when the central parts are cut away or shortened ? First the dwarf-buds at the bottom of these large viviparous branches, which are in part cut away, will find more room to push down the embryon caudexes of new leaf- buds, and will produce a viviparous progeny ; and those at the bottom of oviparous branches, which are shortened by cutting off their vivi- parous extremities, v/ill also now pullulate, and produce flower-buds for the succeeding year, owing to the derivation of some of that nourishment to them, which would otherwise have been expended on the summit-bud. Secondly, the spurs will generate an oviparous progeny, but will require more nutriment, because all the vessels of plants inosculate, and will thence produce larger fruit, and more certainly ripen it. Thirdly, the other lateral branches will receive more nourishment, and become more vertical, and will thence find less opposition to the production of the caudexes, both of the flower- buds and leaf-buds; either of which may become stronger or more nu- merous according to the greater or less inclination of the branches to the horizon ; and both of them may be more vigorous, properly speaking; that is, they may be- come larger leaf-buds, or larger flower-buds, than others of the same tree. " 3. Thus in the management of melons, which would grow into branches much too extensive for the artificial glass-frames of our climate, and would not have time to ripen their later fruit in our FRU 99 short summers ; it is necessary first to check the vigour, properly so speaking, of the whole plant.... This is done by washing the seed from the ripe fruit, which should naturally contribute to nourish it; and keeping the 6eed four or five years, that the mucilaginous nu- triment deposited in the cotyledons may also be in some degree im- paired ; it is also probable, that confining the roots of melons and cucumbers in garden pots, if they were well supplied with nutriment, warmth, and water, might be ad- vantageous for this purpose. " Secondly, as soon as the leaf appears an inch in diameter, ex- perienced gardeners pick out the central bud, which causes an ovi- parous, though a more vigorous, lateral shoot; which, therefore sooner bears fruit, and that of a larger kind ; as it acquires more nourishment from the destruction of the central one. " And as these lateral branches are liable to produce other vivipa- rous shoots at their extremities, after they have generated lateral flower-buds, it again becomes ne- cessary to pinch off the viviparous extremities of them, not only to accommodate them to the size of the glass-frame, but also to supply them with more nutriment, which would otherwise have been ex- pended on the viviparous summit. " The central bud, or summit, of the lateral branches, is generally viviparous, as well as of the central branches; because the embryon caudexes of its new offspring are opposed in the production, along the bark by only one curvature at the insertion of the branch into the trunk ; whereas the lateral buds of the lateral branches have the pro- gress of the embryon caudexes of 100 FRU FRU their new budsopposed by two cur- vatures, one of the bud to the branch, and another from the branch to the trunk. " The lateral branches of many mature trees, though they bear flower-buds on their sides, are ge- nerally terminated with a leaf-bud, as above explained; but it happens in some of them, and particularly to vines, that after two or three flower-buds are produced on a la- teral branch, that it shall proceed to grow in length, and to produce leaf-buds at every joint above the flower-buds, as well as at the sum- mit ; which may be thus perhaps satisfactorily explained. After the third, and fourth, and fifth joints of a new lateral shoot have gene- rated flowers, which require few or no more caudexes ; room enough is left on the bark of the shoot for those above them to acquire the numerous new miniature caudexes of embryon leaf-buds, and where the new caudexes of embryon buds can easily be produced along the bark, and sufficient nutriment is supplied ; all vegetables are more liable to propagate themselves by bids than by seeds. " II. To Perfect and Enlarge the Fruit. " It is believed by some of the Linnxan school, that flower-buds or leaf-buds may be converted into each other in the early state of their existence, as mentioned inPhytolo- gia, Sect. IX. 2. 8. It is indeed pro- bable that either a flower-bud or leaf-bud may be geiu rated instead of each other reciprocally, before either of them exists ; but after either of them has obtained a cer- tain degree of maturity, so as to be distinguished by its form being more pointed or more spherical; I puspect no addition or detraction of nutriment, or of the facility of the production of its embryon cau- dexes down the bark and radicles beneath can change its destination. " 1. Shorten the oviparous branches, when the leaves fall off, by pruning their viviparous sum- mits, and cut away the ro*t-ruckers. Thesummitsofthelateralbranches as well as the erect ones, are fur- nished generally with viviparous buds ; which in many wall-trees should be cut off, after the leaves fall in autumn ; that more nutri-, ment may be derived to the fruit- buds, which may occasionally be- .come somewhat enlarged during the milder days of winter ; as they are now certainly too far advanced to be changed into leaf-buds; and if this pruning be deferred till late in the winter months, the flower-buds will not be quite so forward, as if it be performed earlier. For the same reason the root-suckers also should be cut away in the autumn, that all the nutriment, which they would otherwise expend, may be derived to the flower-buds, and in- duce them early to enlarge them- selves. " 2. Pinch or rub off all useless viviparous buds in the spring or summer, as they occur. In those trees where the fruit-buds arise on the new leaf-shoots along with the leaf-buds, and cannot therefore be sooner distinguished or approach- ed, as in figs and vines, the summit leaf-buds should be pinched off two joints above the fruit-buds, as soon as they appear, that more nutri- ment may be conveyed to the fruit- buds. " And in the hardier wall-trees, the new leaf-buds, which appear during the spring and summer months in wrong places, where they cannot be trained properly FRU FRU 101 against the wall, or where they are too numerous, should be rubbed or pinched off, as they occur; whence more nourishment will be derived to the ripening fruit, and to those new leaf-buds which are to remain to produce future flower- buds. " And if the new buds, which are seen in their young state in the axilla of the leaves of the new shoots, werepickedout by the point of a knife, or pinched off, where they grow long enough for that purpose, as the secondary shoots of vines in grape houses are pinch- ed ; it might probably induce those eyes to produce flowers in the suc- ceeding year, as spoken of in Phy- tologia, No. 2. 5. of this Section, as well as contribute to enlarge the present fruit by the expenditure of less nutriment on the leaf-buds, an idea well deserving the test of experiment. • " In the same manner, in the cultivation of melons and cucum- bers, after the central bud is pinch- ed off, as mentioned above Phyto- logia,No. 2. 5. the viviparous ex- tremities of the lateral branches should be also destroyed, as soon as a sufficient number of female flowers are impregnated ; that a greater share of nutriment may be derived to them, instead of crowd- ing the frame with new branches, whose fruit-buds would be too late to ripen in our short summers. " 3. Thin all those fruits, which arc too numerous ; pluck off apricots, fieaches, gooseberries ; and cut out many grapes from each branch with scissars. By the inosculation of the vessels of vegetables, when any parts of a tree are destroyed, those in their vicinity become more vi- gorous. On this account, when part of the fruit is taken away as early as may be, the remaining part acquires more nutriment..... Add to this, that where the fruit is crowded, some of it becomes precluded from the sun and air, and in consequence does not per- fectly ripen, and is liable to be- come mouldy ; for mucor is a ve- getable production, which, like other fungi, does not require either much light or air, as appears from the growth of some fungusses in dark cellars, and of common mush- rooms beneath beds of straw. " 4. Prevent the production of new leaf-buds. " In some pear trees, the whole of the blossoms become steril, and fall off without any apparent injury from cold, and this for ma- ny successive years. The same occurs sometimes to chesnut trees, asculus pavia, after the flower the fructification entirely falls off; some of these might be male flowers, as Miller observes, but the whole could not be such. The same hap- pens very frequently to the fig- trees of this climate, sometimes the whole crop falls off, when they are about the size of filberts ; that is, while they are still in flower, which, though concealed within the fig, must precede the swelling of the seed, whether these be im- pregnated or not. " A correspondent fact occurred to me a few years ago. I had six young trees of the Ischia fig, with fruit on them, in pots, in a stove. On removing them into larger boxes, the figs fell off, which I as- cribed to the increased vigour of the plants , as they protruded very vigorous shoots, occasioned by the accumulation of new soil round their roots. Perhaps these plants might rather be said to have been in flower than in fruit, and perhaps 102 FRU these flowers were all male ones only, or accompanied only with imperfect female ones ? k* Whence I conclude, that about the season when the corals of these flowers with their stamens and stigmas die, the trees generate and nourish too many new leaf-buds, owing to the facility with which they can produce the new caudexes of these young buds down the bark ; and that by the whole of the vegetable sap-juice being derived to the new buds for their present growth, or to form reservoirs for their future grown, the pericarp and seeds, whether impregnated or not, are deprived of their due nutriment and fall off. " Hence I propose to tie waxed thread or fine wire round the twigs of pear trees, which have usually miscarried, at> soon as they are in flower, so as to compress, but not so as to strangulate them ; or to wound the bark by a circular cr semicircular incision, which might counteract their facility of pro- creating new leaf-buds ; which I suspect would be more effectual in preventing the flowers from fall- ing off, than pinching off the new leaf buds, as they appear ; which is recommended by Dr. Bradley, in the managemeut of fig-trees, and is done to vines in hot houses ; but which I found to be ineffectual on many fig branches, both in the natural ground and in pots, and ascribed its failure to the continu- ance of the efforts of the fig-tree to produce new leaf buds ; whereas in vines, I suppose, the grapes would ripen, whether the new leaf- buds remain or are destroyed..... See Phytologia, No. 3. 2. of this Section. " Pontedera observed, that in the islands of the Archipelago, FRU some fig-trees bear in the spring many male flowers, and few female ones, the former of which fall off; and that they bear a second crop, chiefly of female flowers, in the autumn, which ripen in the ensuing &nrin%....Anthologia. Can this oc- cur in the fig-trees of this country? "Other figs are said not to ripen, but to fall off before their maturity, unless they be wounded by insects in their caprification, or punctured by a straw. A further investigation of this subject is much wanted to propagate figs with success in this climate. See Botanic Garden, vol. ii. note on caprificus. See also Milne's Botan. Diction. Article Caprification. " 5 Give additional moisture, manure, and warmth, during the early part of the growth of fruit.... By additional moisture the fruit becomes larger ; in hot houses this may be effected two ways, one by watering the earth on which the vegetables grow, and another by producing steam by watering the warm flues or floors ; which will afterwards in the colder hours be again condensed, and settle in the form of dew on the fruit and leaves. " By supplying vegetables as well as animals with an abundancy of fluid, they are liable to increase in bulk, both because the external cuticle, which confines the growth of both of them, becomes relaxed, as is seen in the hands of those wo- men, who have many hours been employed in washing ; and also be- cause the cutaneous absorbent ves- sels will thus imbibe-more fluid from the external surface; and the cellular absorbents will therefore imbibe less from the internal cells, and consequently more mucus or fat will remain in them. " Thus in Lancashire, whert FRU FRU 103 premiums are given for large gooseberries, I am told, that some of those who are solicitous for the prizes, not only thin the fruit of a gooseberry-tree, so as to leave but two or three gooseberries on a branch, but then by supporting a tea saucer under each of these gooseberries, bathe it for some weeks in so much water as to co- ver about one fourth part of it, • which they call suckling the goose- berry. " There are two circumstances to be attended to in giving water to plants ; which are, not to water them during the hot part of the day in summer, nor in the evenings of spring, when a frost may be ex- pected ; in both these circumstances we may be said to copy nature, as rain is generally preceded by a cloudy sky, and is never accompa- nied by frost; though that some- times follows it, and is then very injurious to vegetation. " When plants have been long stimulated by a hot sunshine into violent action, if this stimulus of heat be too greatly and too sud- denly diminished by the affusion of cold water, or by its sudden evapo- ration, their vessels cease to act, and death ensues ; exactly as has too frequently happened to those, who have bathed in a cold spring of water after having been heated by violent and continued exercise on a hot day. When severe frosts follow the watering of plants, they are rendered torpid, and die by the too great and sudden diminution of the stimulus of heat; which is equally necessary to the activity of vegetable as to animal fibres ; and in some instances the circulation of their fluids may be stopped by the congelation of them ; and in others their vessels may be burst by the expansion attending the conversion of water into ice ; or, lastly, by the separation of their different fluids by congelation. " W^hen an addition of manure canbe procured, as w here the black carbonic juice from a dunghill mixed with water, or soapsuds, which have been used in washing, can be employed instead of water alone, it must undoubtedly add to the nutriment, and consequently enlarge the size of the fruit by that means also, as well as by the addi- tional water. " 6. Protect the early flower* ard the late fruits from frost. The vernal frosts are very pernicious to the early blossoms of apples and pears, and of all the tender wall- trees ; various contrivances have been used to shelter them, as mats suspended before wall-trees; which in Denmark are said to be used to shelter them from the mid-day sun, as well as from the night frosts, both to prevent them from flower- ing too early, and being thence ex- posed to severe frosts ; and because vegetables suffer more from great cold, as well as animals, after hav- ing been exposed to great heat, as explained in Phytologia, Sect. XIV. 2. 2. " Those parts of vegetables, which are most succulent, suffer most from frost, as the young tops of tender trees, as of the ash, fraxinus, and weeping willow, salix babylonica ; and also all other ve- getables, after having been expos- ed to much moisture, as to rain or dews ; which probably may occur in part from the greater sensibility of the tender juicy summits cf the present year's growth, and partly from the expansion of their frozen juices, which may burst the con- taining vessel. 104, FRU " From some experiments in a late volume of the Philosophical Transactions, it appears, that very much more rain was caught in glasses placed on the ground near a high church, than was caught in similar glasses on the roof of it; which evinces, that a much greater quantity of moisture exists in the lower parts of the atmosphere, and is precipitated from it, than from the higher parts ; whence to pro- tect the blossoms more effectually from the descending dews coping boards might be placed at every two feet Or less above each other, with their front edges pointing up- wards to the meridian sun in March, and ledges nailed on the back edg- es to convey the rain or dews to- wards the central part of the tree, where by another cross ledge at the end of each board it might be carried from the wall. " A similar inconvenience from autumnal frosts affects some of the late fruits, as figs and grapes, which might also receive advantage from replacing the coping boards in the autumn. " Another method of effectually guarding against the vernal frosts, and also the autumnal ones, is by building the garden walls with fire-flues in them, which is now frequently practised. There is one secret necessary to be known, and well attended to, in the manage- ment of fire-flues : and that is in the first place to plant trees, which will open their flowers about the same time, against the same flue, and then diligently to observe notto put fire into this flue, till the trees, it is designed to assist, are in flower ; since if the fire be applied sooner, the flowers are forwarded, and in consequence exposed to more danger from the severer FRU frosts. One friend of mine, wh* diligently attends to this circum- stance, assures me, that he never fails of producing a plentiful crop of excellent fruit. " And it is possible that one use of covering apricot trees, before they flower, from the mid-day sun, which is said to be practised in Denmark, may be to protract their time of flowering, and thus expose them to less danger from frost, as well as to prevent their irritability from being exhausted by the heat, and thus causing the night air to be more injurious to them. " 7. Fruits may be sooner ripened by wounding them, or by gathering them. The wounds inflicted by in- sects on many fruits, promotes their more speedy ripening, as well as those inflicted by caprification, mentioned in Phytologia, Sect. XIV. 3. 3. and in No. 3. 4. of this Section. It is said that cutting the stalk of a bunch of grapes half through, which has acquired its due size, will expedite the ripen- ing, of it; because it will then be supplied with a less quantity of new juices, and the change of its acerb juices into saccharine ones, which is partly a chemical, and partly a vegetable process, pro- ceeds more rapidly. See Phytologia, Sect. X. 8. 1. On the same ac- count the pears on a branch, which has had a circle of its bark cut away, will ripen its fruit sooner ; and those annual plants, which are supplied with less water than. usual, both flower sooner, and ripen their seed sooner. " To which may be added, that gathering pears from the tree be- fore they are ripe, and laying them on heaps covered with blankets, is known considerably to forward their ripening, by something like a FRU ehemical fermentation added to the living action of the fruit, which ad- vances the saccharine process with greater rapidity. " I have seen apricots at table, which I was informed were pluck- ed from the tree, and kept some days in a hot house, and thus be- came deliciously ripe ; in the same manner as harsh pears ripen al- most into a syrup during twelve or twenty hours baking in a slow oven ; which occasioned the jest of a French traveller, who on being asked on his return, what good fruit they had in England, an- swered, that the only ripe fruit he happened to taste was the baked pear. " iv. The arts of preserv- ing fruit, as they depend on the prevention of the chemical pro- cesses, which produce their disso- lution, ought to be here mentioned. " 1. As life, whether animal or vegetable, prevents putrefaction, and as many fruits exi^t long after they are gathered from the tree, before they become ripe and die spontaneously, and in consequence putrefy, as crabs, sloes, H|edlars, and austere pears. The arrof pre- serving these consists in storing them, where the heat is neither much above or below 48 degrees, which is the temperature of the interior parts of the earth ; that is, in a dry cellar, or beneath the soil. or well covered with straw or mats in a dry chamber. As greater heat might make them ripen sooner than they are wanted, by the in- creased activity of their vegetable life ; and frost by desiroving that life would subject them to putrefy, when thty become thawed ; as perpetually happens to apples and potatoes, which are not well de- fended from frost. And lastly, the von. m. FRU 105 moisture would injure them many ways ; first, by its contributing to destroy their vegetable life ; se- condly, in promoting the chemical process of putrefaction ; and third- ly, by its encouraging the growth of mucor or mould, which will grow in most situations without much light or air. " Too great warmth destroys both animal and vegetable life, by stimulating their vessels into too great activity for a time, whence a subsequent torpor from the too great previous expenditure of the living power which terminates in death. After the death of the or- ganization, a boiling heat coagu- lates the mucilaginous fluids, and if continued would, I believe, pre- vent the chemical fermentation of them ; and that thus both vegela- table and animal substances might be preserved. The experiment is difficult to try, and could not there- fore be of much practical utility if it should succeed. " Great cold on the contrary de- stroys both animals and vegetables by the torpor occasioned by the defect of stimulus, and a conse- quent temporary death. * After- wards if a great degree of cold be continued, in some cases, the ex- pansion of their freezing juices may burst the vegetable vessels, and thus render the life of them irreco- verable. But there is another cu- rious thing hxppcns to many aqueous solutions, or diffusions, which is, that at the time of conge- lation the dissolved or diffused par- ticles are pushed from the ice, either to the centre, if the cold be applie:! equally on all sides, or into various cells, as mentioned in Phy- tologia, Sect. XIII. 2. 2. " This exclusion of salt is seen in freezing any saline solution in P 106 FRU FRU water; as common salt or blue vitriol exposed to severe frost in a two ounce phial, are driven to the centre of it. Wine, vinegar, and e* en milk, may be thus deprived of much of their water. Very moist clay, when exposed to frosty air, shrinks and becomes much more solid according to the assertion of Mr. Kikwak....Mineraiog. vol. i. p. 9, the freezing water covering its surface with ice, and driving the molecules of clay nearer the centre. And lastly, the mucilage produced by boiling wheat-flour in water, like book-binder's paste, if not too thick loses its cohesion by being frozen, the water driving, as it freezes, the starch from its crystallization ; and from this cir- cumstance probably is occasioned the change of flavour of apples, potatoes, and other vegetables, on being thawed after they have been frozen. " It is nevertheless affirmed, I think, by Mons. Reaumeur, that if frozen apples be dipped in cold water repeatedly, and the ice thus formed on their surface wiped off, or if they be left in a large pail full of very cold water, so that they may not thaw too hastily, they will not lose their flavour. If this be true and the apples will keep sound some time afterwards, it would seem that the vegetable life was not destroyed ; but that, like sleeping insects, they were reani- mated by the warmth ; otherwise, if the flavourbe not destroyed, and they could be immediately eaten, or used in cookery, it is still a valuable discovery, if true,and might lead us to preserve variety of fruits in ice- bouses, as strawberries, currants, grapes and pines, to the great ad- vantage of society....See Phytolo- gia, SecuXVII. 2. 4. "As the process of fermentatiow will not commence or continue, I believe, in the heat of boiling wa- ter, or 212 : and as this degree of heat can be easily preserved by steam, or by the vicinity of vessels containing boiling-water it is pro- bable, that fruits for the use of cookery might be thus preserved throughout the year, as the pulp of boiled apples, gooseberries, 8cc. put into bottles, and placed so as to be exposed to the wasted steam of steam-engines, or immersed in the hot water, which flows from the condensing of it; or near the boil- ers fixed behind some kitchen fires j as I suspect, that if such a degree of heat could be applied once a day, it would counteract the tendency to fermentation. " 2. Another method of pre- serving some fruits is by gathering them during their acid state, be- fore that aGid juice is converted into sugar, a» lemons, oranges, gooseberries, pears, and some ap- ples ; and if a part of the water be evaporated by a boiling heat, so ai to leave the acidity more concen- trated; it is less liable to ferment, and in consequence will be longer preserved. For this purpose the fruit should be kept in a cellar, and corked in bottles, so as to be precluded from the changes of air, and variations of heat; gooseber- ries, and rhubarb-stalks, are thui successfully preserved for winter use ; and if a tea-spoonful of bran- dy be put into each quart bottle, it will prevent the growth of mucor or mould upon them. " 3. As sugar will not pass int« fermentation unless diluted with much water, and less so in low de* grees of heat, many fruits may be thus preserved by impregnating them with sugar, and the better if FRU FRU 107 they are kept in a dry cellar. Dr. Hales found that by inverting the end of a branch of a tree into a bottle of brandy for a few hours, the whole branch died ; hence it is usual and useful to cover preserved fruits with a paper moistened wkh vinous spirit, which prevents the growth of mucor or mould upon their surfaces, which is a vegetable thus easily killed by the intoxicat- ing stimulus. " If sweet fruits be dried by Iveat, not only the superfluous water be- comes exhaled, but the saccharine process is also promoted, and much of the mucilaginous or acid parti- cles are converted into sugar, as in bak'ng pears, or in drying figs, dates, raisins, apricots : so that by gradually drying them,many fruits may be well preserved, and require afterwards simply to be kept dry. " 4. Some fruits, as the olive, are preserved in their unripe state in salt and water; the unripe pods ■of kidney-beans, and the bats of mushrooms, may be thus also kept for months in weak brine in a cool cellar enclosed in bottles without much change. But the oily kernels of nuts are well preserved in cellars beneath the soil, to preclude tire variations of heat, and covered in jars to prevent their evaporation. Other fruits are converted into pickles and preserved in vinegar, but lose their flavour ; and others by being immersed in vinous spirit are preserved, as cherries, and thus transmuted from food to poi- son. And when the kernels of apri- cots, cherries, or bitter almond* are preserved in brandy, which is called ratafia, we possess a mixture •f two of the most poisonous pro- ductions of the vegetable kingdom; except perhaps the leaves of lauro- cerasus distilled in alcohol, which was sold as ratafia in Dublin, and produced many sudden deaths in the gin-shops." In planting fruit trees, the holes ought to be dug at least one foot larger every way than the roots extend, some rich earth thrown into the holes, and the whole well pulverized ; tl»c first tender shoo'-g from the roots passing into the earth thus enriched and made soft, will have a quick and strong growth and thereby penetrate the more solid earth with vigour. But if the soil be a stiff clay, the ground round the tree ought to be dug and ma- nured every year, farther and far- ther from the tree, to make way for the extending roots. Neither grasi nor weeds should grow near tives to rob them of their nourishment. When newly grafted scions on young stocks are designed to re- main a few years in the nursery, before they are intended for sale, some provident gardeners trans- plant them, every two years, that the root fibres may be more nu- merous in a small compass, which oscasions them to grow, when final- ly transplantedjwith more certainty and with greater vigour. The following mode of trans- planting fruit trees, as well as other kinds, has been succe-s- fully prac- tised by a nursery man : Late in autumn, dig round the root of a tree, about three feet from the body,and leave the trench open; it will fill with water and freeze all the earth around the roots. Farly in the spring, remove the tree, having dug it up with all tiie earth adhering to the roots, and insert it into the hole made to re- ceive it. This hole should be larger than the roots of the tree require at first. In seveie winters the aboye mode might answer, but 108 FRU FRU during a moderate season, there would be danger of the destruction of the tree from the roots being constantly covered with water. Manuring the roots of fruit-trees is of the greatest importance for the preservation of the fruit. It is said that the Agricultural Society of Nova-Scotia has found by experi- ment, that apple trees raised from the pummice, if transplanted in time, (having the end of the tap root cut off,) may be rendered fit for grafting one or two seasons earlier, than if left in the place where the seeds were sown. In an excellent paper on the cli- mate of the United States, insert- ed in the London Monthly Magazine for January, 1800,by CoI.Tatham, are the following remarks, which are well worth attention : " It is a fact, that in those west- ern pp.rts of the United States, which have an high exposure tothe winter's blast, the northern sides of a ridge or mountain arrive soon- er and more certainly at a state of perfect vegetation, than the south sides, which are laid open to the power of the sun. I account for this phenomenon as follows : I sup- pose, that the southern exposure to the vehement rays of the sun, during the infant stages of vegeta- tion, puts the sap in motion at too early a period of the spring, before the season has become sufficiently steady to afford nurture and pro- tection to the vegetating plant, blossom, or leaf; and when in this state, the first efforts of vegetation are checked by the chilling influ- ence of cold nights, and such changeable weather as the contest between winter and spring is ever wont to produce, in their apparent struggles to govern the season.... On the contrary, the northern ex- posures which are not so early pre- sented to the vivifying influence of the sun remain, as it were, in a torpid state, until the more ad- vanced period of the spring, when all danger of vegetation being checked is over. Mr. C. Yancey, of Amherst county, Virginia, who was remarkable for the manage- ment of his peaches, had his or- chard on the north side of a lofty mountain." Col. T. further observes, " that during a hard winter, he saw a par- ticular tree in a row of the same kind and growth preserved through the mere accident of its having been paved with oyster shells...... Upon this principle, Mr. Witthe, of Virginia, succeeded in an ex- periment of planting a young or- chard in the usual mode, and se- curing each tree respectively, by passing them through the eyes of grind-stones, and breaking them by a sledge hammer, so soon as the maturity of the tree required a greater space for its expansion." Mr. Joseph Cooper informed the Editor, that early and late ap- ples, by being ingrafted on the same tree, improved in flavour, more than if but one kind grew on a tree. Mr. Samuel Coles, who was present, confirmed the fact; and said, that the Harvest- apple, and Newton-pippin, grew in his orchard on the same tree, and that both were larger, and of a finer flavour, than any other apples of the same kind in his collection ; though the soil, exposure, and all circumstances, were precisely the same. Fruit has been hitherto little at- tended to in the state of Pennsylva- nia. It is true, we have had,' and still have several fine kinds, parti- cularly of apples ; but considering'' FRU FRU 109 how very well they thrive in every part of the state, it cannot be said that they abound to a degree that might be expected. The greatest neglect has prevailed in respect to proper trimming and manuring round the roots of the trees, and but little attention has been paid to the perpetuation of a fine species, by grafting from it on other stocks. In Boston, and New-York, the su- periority of the fruit has been al- ways remarked. The family of Prince, at Flushing, Long-Island, has been many years celebrated for their fine fruit, and some of the choicest kinds to be met with in various parts of the United Stases, have been brought from their nursery. A very extensive and excellent collection of fruits, both imported and native, was ori- ginally commencedabout ten years- since, by Wm.CoxE, Esq. of Bur- lington, New-Jersey, and is now for sale by J. Smith h Co. at that place. In this grand collection, there are eighty kinds of apples, ninety kinds of pears, and fifty-one of cherries, nearly all imported, and one hundred varieties of peaches. Mr. Samuel Coles, of Moor's-Town,New-Jersey, also has an excellent collection. Several French gentlemen, who have taken up their residence near Philadelphia, have done much in a few years towards improving our stock of fruits, by importing large- ly of the finest kinds from France, and there can be no doubt, if we take pains to propagate from the valuable stock in our power, that in a few years the neighbourhood of Philadelphia may boast of as fine a collection as can be de- sired. Under the article Apple, some important remarks were given on this- subject; the Editor has now great pleasure in presenting to the American public the first attempt ever made to collect into one view, a list of the finest kinds of apples growing in the United States. For the materials of which this list was composed, he has been indebted to Mr. Wm. Prince, of Long-Island, Mr. R. Riley, of Marcus-Hook, Chester county, Fennsyl. Wm. Coxe, Esq. of Burlington, and the Hon. Judge Boudinot, of New- ark, New-Jersey, through whom also the valuable facts from Mr. John Ogdex,of Newark, and from Mr. Asa Hillyes, of Orange, Essex county, New-Jersey, were obtained ; and he, with thanks, ex- presses his obligation to them for their ready assistance and commu- nications. Attentive, however, as his friends have been, he cannot suppose that the list comprehends every apple in the United States; but he is satisfied that the most valuable have been described, and he will gladly receive accounts of any others which may have been unnoticed, and add them to the list, should another edition of this work be called for. The following kinds of apples are most commonly cultivated at pre- sent in the United States. Those marked P arc in the sale catalogue of Mr. Prince, ofFlushing, in Long- Island: \.The Juneting, P. is one of the' earliest apples, it ripens in June, and is of a yellow colour and small size. 2. Large early Harvtst. P. Ripens in June and July. It is usually as large as a middle sized Newton pippin, of a pale yellow colour when ripe, of a pleasant acid taste, and answers best for tarts, and may be used for that purpose 110 FRU when no larger than a nutmegv by cutting them in two equal parts without peeling. 3. Bow-apple, P. Ripens in June and July, equal to any summer apple; it is juicy, tender, and mild, of a light yellow colour. 4. Woolman's Harvest. Ripens in July. A handsome and striped apple ; agreeable to the taste. 5. Sweet's Harvest. Ripens in July, with red streaks, very fine for eating, or for tarts. 6. Summer Blush. Ripens in July and August, a very pleasant apple. 7. Summer Queen. Ripens in July and August, white with red streaks. This apple is much ad- mired for the table in Delaware state. 8. Sheep's Snout. An admired summer fruit. 9. Large red and Green sweet- ing. P. Ripens in August. A very large fruit weighing a pound. This is said to be the same as the Bow- apple, No. 3. 10. Summer Pearmain. P. Rip- ens in August and September. An excellent apple. 11. Autumn Pearmain. V. Ripens in September and October. 12. Sweet Pearmain. Ripens in September and October. 13. Large white sweeting.P.Kip- ens in September. 14. White's Pearmain. Ripens in August, is of a very agreeable taste. 15. Edward's Early. Ripens in August. 16. Autumn or Fall Pippin. P. Ripens in October. A large yel- low apple, acid taste and pleasant flavour. It is also a good kitchen apple ; it usually weighs 19 oz.... Keeps well. 17. Golden Pippin. P. Keeps FRU from October to January. Slightly acid : yellow on one side, and red on the other ; it is a good apple according to Mr. Riley, and wai brought from England by Wm. Penn. 18. Newton Pippin. P. It is of a flattish form, and green colour, when first gathered, turning yel- low in the spring, and is justly esteemed the best table apple in America. It is supposed to have come originally from Holland, " PopprayE" in low Dutch signi- fying a small sharp apfle; but Mr. Prince says it originated in the town of Newton, Queens County, Long Island, state of New-York. In general, apples kept till the spring lose their flavour and be- come mealy, but the Newton pip- pin may be kept till June with- out losing either its juice or fla- vour. It is an excellent apple for cyder, either alone or mixed with others. Many varieties are raised from the seed of it, of a large size, but different in form and co- lour. Mr. Riley, of Marcus Hook, says, there are two varieties rais- ed at Newton in Chester County. The fiat sort is much the best, and the greatest bearer. It is au excellent apple for house use, makes a large quantity of cyder, though of a thin quality. A large lo.ng kind sometimes called Lady- finger, is not so good, the taste is not so pleasant, and it has a thick skin. This apple is of a beautiful golden colour in the spring. The trees of both those varieties grow larger, and are great bearers. Forsyth remarks that the Newton pippin seldom ripent in England. Mr. Cooper of N. Jersey, remarks, that the Newton pippin does not thrive in a sandy soil. FRU 19. Newark Pippin, (of Prince) Mellow Pippin, French Pippin of Newark. Abounds near Newark, New-Jersey ; an excellent winter apple cf a greenish colour outside, rich saccharine taste, yellow sub- ttance, and of a higher flavour than the Newton pippin. It is so abund- ant in juice, that a barrel of cyder has been made from seven bushels, but the cyder is not of the first quality. It is said to have been imported from France. 20. American Pippin was brought from Maryland to Marcus Hook, thirty years since. It is of a flat- tish form, middle size, firm sub- stance, resembling the Vandevere: and will keep till harvest. Mr. Goxe describes it as a large long fruit, having a dull red stripe. Fourteen bushels of these apples are required at Marcus Hook, to make one barrel of cyder. 21. Spitszenburgh. P. " Keeps from November to March. There are three sorts. The iEsopus, Flushing and the Newton. The first is of a light red colour, round form, and pleasant flavour, and •lightly acid. The second is ge- nerally larger and of a deeper red colour, covered with small white •pecks ; its form is flatter and is of a more acid taste than the first. The third species resembles the second in taste and colour, but in form is much flatter." According to Mr. S. De Witt, surveyor general of New-York, u the Spitszenburgh apple was dis- covered as an accidental produc- tion in the neighbourhood of the city of Albany, and in his opinion may challenge the world to match' it. The flavour he thinks supe- rior to the Newton Pippin. Mr. Cooper and Mr. CoLEsof Moores- town mentioned another kind call- FRU 111 ed the Cane Spitszenberg, from a family of that name near Glou- cester point New-Jersey, and which they thought superior to the kind* mentioned above. 22. The Rhode-Island Greening. P. Is a most excellent apple. It is a large fruit, of a green colour when first gathered, and turns yellow toward spring, and of a very fine flavour. It answers well for culinary purposes. The tree is of a very rapid growth. 23. Jersey Greening. P. Keeps from November to March. It is a more juicy apple than the Rhode- Island Greening: but does not keep so well, of a pleasant flavour, light green colour, covered with small red spots. 24. Monstrous Pippin, or American Gloria Mundi, P. " will keep from November to March. It originated on the farm" of Mr. Crooks, near Red-hook, New- York. It is of a yellow colour when ripe, and resembles in flavour the fall pippin, or piplin. The fruit of the original tree weighed 27 ounces." 25. American Nonpareil, or Doc- tor Apple, in Pennsylvania, P. " will keep from November to March. A large red-striped apple, of excel- lent flavour, and very juicy. It keeps tolerably well during win- ter:" The tree is subject to blast. 26. Swaar Apple, P. « keeps from November to March. A large yellow and greenish apple, of good flavour much admired," but liable to be injured by the rose bug, when the fruit is young. The trees bear well. 27. Lady Finger, P. A long ta- pering fruit, of a beautiful yellow and red colour: it is well flavour- ed, and keeps till June. 28. Red Everlasting, P. Ripe i* \ 112 FRU FRU November; its colour deep red : it is a small sized fruit, of tolera- ble flavour; and keeps well till June or July, but grows mealy and dry. 29. Yellow Bell Flower, P. " A long yellow apple, of good flavour, and will keep until March." 30. Green Everlasting, P. Light green colour; skin remarkably smooth and fair. This apple keeps well until late in the summer, and some have been kept perfectly sound more than a year from the time they were gathered. 31. Michael Henry. A winter fruit , a long green apple, much admired for the table in Monmouth county, New-Jersey. It is a sweet, juicy, sprightly, and well flavoured apple. 32. Rcdling. Was brought about sixty years since from Pennsylva- nia to New-Jersey, by the mo- ther of Mr. Joseph Coopkr, who thinks it the best keeping apple now known. The colour is of a light shining red, and of very plea- sant smell and taste. They hang on well, being suspended at the end of the twig. It somewhat re- sembles the Priestley apple. The Ridley, or Rigley apple, which abounds in Plymouth township, Philadelphia county, approaches very much to the Reciling in co- lour and taste. Are they the same ? 33. Sweet and Sour. This sin- gular fruit came from Benjamin Clarke, of Millstone, N. Jersey, It is full of inequalities. The pro- minences are of one taste, and the cavities of another. 34. Orange Apple. Ripe in No- vember, much admired in Hunt- ingdon county, New-Jersev. 35. Flack A;pie. Ripe in Nov. a very deep red. Another much admired fruit near Trenton, New- Jersey. Mr. Bouuinot, of New-Jersey, says, " There is an apple lately discovered here, which is called by the owner of the orchard, a black apple ; but it is much larger, finer, and somewhat different from the common black apple. It appears to be a species between the Spitszen- burgh and common black apple." 30. Morgan Apple, Ripe in Oct. so named by Samuel Coles, of Moorstown, New-Jersey ; as it come from the late "J. Morgan, of Pensockin, New-Jersey. A plea- sant eating apple ; will keep till May. A great bearer. 37. Summ r Pippin. From Dr. CAMPFiELD,of Morris county, N. Jersey. 38. Lambert Apple. From Hunt- erdon. 39. Red Winter. Much praised by Samuel Coles, of Moore's-town, New-Jersey. 40. Burlington Pearmain. Ori- ginally from England. 41. Ruckman's Pearmain, P. Ripe in autumn. 42. White Pippin, P. Keeps from November till March. 43. Quince Apple, P. Keeps from November till March. 44. Priestley. Keeps from De- cember to April; originally culti- vated in Bucks county, Pennsylva- nia. A large, long, juicy fruit, and of a spicy flavour ; colour red. This tree grows very straight, and is of a handsome shape. 45. Van de Vere. Formerly call- ed Stalcubs. A well known and most excellent eating fruit; plea- sant, and sprightly acid, joined with a sweetish taste, and much pre- ferred for pies and sauces. Un- fortunately the trees have greatly failed of lute. On a rich heavy soil FRU FRU 113 they are subject to the bitter rot, on light soil not so much so. Mr. Riley, of Marcus Hook, says, this apple originally came from Wil- mington, Delaware, and was called after a farmer who raised it. 46. Merett's Pearmai,/. An ear- ly autumn fruit, cultivated in Bris- tol, Pennsylvania ; a light red, pear-shaped fruit, lively taste, but will not keep ; it makes excellent cyder. 47. Large Piplin. Weighs one pound. 48. Pennock's Red Winter. A large, fair, pleasant, spicy apple ; of an oval and somewhat flat form; of a reddish colour. It origi- nally came from Joseph Pennock, of Springfield township, Delaware county ; is ripe in September, and makes but poor cyder, and will not keep well. The tree is large, and bears abundantly every other year. 49. Winter Sweeting. 50. Brown Winter. 51. Roman Stem. From Bur- lington: a good eating apple, slight- ly acid ; of a dull green, not hand- some shape. 52. Spice Apple, is a large au- tumn apple, of an aromatic fla- vour ; very tender, and good for house use, but will not keep long. It appears to be peculiar to New- ark, New-Jersey. 53. Rambo. From Delaware ; a fine fall apple, of the size of a Van- devere ; same shape. 54. Winter Queen. Forsyth No. 44. From Delaware. 55. Hays Winter. Forsyth 43. From Delaware ; a fall apple of the Vandevere taste, and next in quality for baking to that fruit. 56. King Apple, is a very large red fruit, ripens in October, and when mellow has a pleasant taste, and is generally used as a winter ap- V0L. III. pie about Newark, New-Jersey ; though it does not keep so well as some other:;. a7. The Nursery Apple, is the size of the Harrison apple. When first ripe, it is of a greenish colour, but in the latter part of the winter it turns yellow ; it is frequently kept until June and July, and has been kept sound until September. It originated in a nursery of Jos. Baldwin, at Crane-town, N. Jer- sey. 58. Burlington Spitszbergen. A winter apple. 59. Lady Apple, Nonpareil, Pom- me d'Apis, P. of French origin ; is of a bright red colour next the sun, and yellow and green on the other side. A most beautiful little ap- ple, and of pleasant taste. 60. y\ewark Gate Apple. Native of New-York ; sprightly acid taste, and good for culinary use and cy- der. 61. Brown Knight. In Mr. Riley's opinion, this is excelled by none for the table. It is ripe in Sep. and keeps well. It was discovered by Rowson, an old Swede, near Marcus Hook. GO. Queen Apple. A large, fair, and well known apple ; fit for use the latter end of July, or sooner ; bears well every other year; a very good apple, but makes poor cyder. This, with the American pippin, and Brown Knight, will furnish the house with fresh ap- ples all the year round. Cyder Apples. 1. Hughes' Virginia Crab. A small fruit, of alight green colour, striped with red, and of a harsh un- pleasant taste. The Virginia Crab used for preserving is a different fruit, and has the disagreeable as- tringent flavour of a green medlar. Both of these originated in the state of Virginia. Q 114 FRU FRU 2. Cooper's Russet ing. Keeps from October to May. A natural fruit produced on the farm of Jos. Cooper, of New-Jersey, who be- lieves it to be of Indian origin, as the tree from which he (when a young man) preserved a graft, wras an old decayed tree, and the place on which it grew was originally the site of an Indian village. It is somewhat dry, but of a pleasant sweetish taste. This apple makes most excellent cyder : it also is a good pye apple, and best wdien not pared. Pears boiled in Russeting cyder, with about half sugar, make a good preserve. The trees bear abundantly every second year..... The iimbs spread horizontally, and are short; they are therefore not inclined to break. This ex- cellent fruit being justly esteemed is much propagated by ingrafting in New-Jersey. 3. The Harrison Apple, or Long Stem. It is of a moderate size, and of a rich dry taste, with a tartness that renders its sweetness agreea- ble and lively. It ripens about the beginning of November ; keeps a long time, and answers well for cu- linary purposes. The cyder made from this apple is clear, high co- loured, rich, and lively. General Washington was presented with a barrel of it by Judge Boudinot, of Newark, New-Jersey, and he de- clared his preference of it to that made from Hughes'Virginia Crab. Mr. Samuel Harrison, now eighty-four years of age, informed Mr. A. Hillyes, of Essex county, New-Jersey, " That his father, nearly ninety years ago, obtained a large number of small sprouts, from a INIr. Osiiorne, of South- Orange, which he planted in a nur- sery : that several years afterwards they were transplanted into an or- chard : fifteen or twenty of thes'a trees bore the fruit which was first called the Osborne Apple: after- wards the Long Stem, and is now called the Harrison Apple. Three of the original trees are now stand- ing in the orchard where they were at first planted, and are still bear- ing and thrifty, although they are nearly ninety years of age. "No person among us, (says Mr. H.) has seen or heaid of any of this kind of fruit which has not been propagated from the above men- tioned trees." The cyder of this fruit sells from eight to ten dollars per barrel. Mr. Coxe observes, " As a more vinous, rich, and highly flavoured liquor, I prefer the Harrison to the Crab cyder. This preference may depend on peculiarity of taste. The two liquors may in some degree be compared to the still and spark- ling Champagne, both of which have their exclusive admirers." 4. The Camfield Apple, is a large sweet fruit, of a pale red colour, ripens about the beginning of Oct. and keeps well, if carefully picked: being a rich fruit, it is necessary to mix the Harrison apple with it, in order to fine the cyder produced from it. This apple was brought to Newark, New-Jersey,by the late E. Camfield. 5. Vanwinkle, or Graniwinkle, is a large red and very sweet apple ; rich taste, and fine flavour ; ripe about the middle of October, when the fruit falls, and decays so rapid- ly, that it is difficult to preserve the apples till the proper time for making first rate cyder. These apples answer best when mixed with half their quantity of the Har- rison apple. Cyder made from this apple alone, resembles unferment- ed metheglin, and must remain in FRU the barrel until the next summer, when it will fine. The tree origi- nated in the orchard of Thomas Williams, dec. according to Mr. Hillyes of Orange ; but Mr. John Ogden of Newark, says, he was told the first graft was taken from a tree belongingto an old lady, Mrs. Vanwinkle Poveshon. 5. Yellow Sweeting. A large yel- low sweet apple, will keep till har- vest, makes good cyder, and an- swers for family use. Mr. J. Og- den's father took the scion from an old tree of John Johnston's, at Connecticut farms, fifty years ago. 6. Rariting Sweeting. Rich fla- vour; egg-shaped ; makes good cy- der, whichkeeps well: brought from Rariton, by Mr. Ogden's father. 7. " There is another apple," says Mr. Boudinot, " which is esteemed by some farmers as an excellent cyder apple. It is of a middling size ; about one half of it is green, and the other of a reddish cast: it is called a Sweet- ing, but is different from the Rari- ton Sweeting : it is a rich sweet apple, and requires a mixture of the Harrison, or some other tart apple, to make the liquor bright. It is a firm apple, and will keep till June." 8. The Grey-house. Mr. Riley, of Marcus-Hook, thinks this is not excelled by any for making excel- lent cyder : it is of a middling size, reddish grey colour, ripe in Oct. Cyder is made of it in November. The tree bears but every other year, and then is heavily loaded. It is a very tender fruit, though late in blossoming. At the time of the formation oflhis fruit it is very subject to perish by easterly winds, attended by cold rains, which fre- quently cause the apples to fall off ill abundance, sometimes to the FRU 115 loss of the whole crop ; and, on an average, the tree does not succeed in bearing a good crop above one fourth of the time. « It appears to me, (says Mr. R.) much more ten- der than any fruit I have met with. It was first discovered by P. Ro- man in this township, (Marcus- Hook), by a natural tree that grew close to his house : hence called his house-tree, and by some Ro- man Knights. This tree is of a middling size, inclines to grow low, and is short lived. Twelve bush- els of these apples are required to make a barrel of cyder." 9. The Red-House. A fair ap- ple, of a deep red; keeps pretty well. It makes thin rough cyderj not much in use. Ten bushels of these apples are required to make one barrel of cyder. ^ 10. The Collett. Is a large and fair apple, of a pale striped colour, somewhat speckled : of a spicy and pleasant taste ; keeps as well as common ; makes poor thin cyder; a native of Chester county, Penn- sylvania. Very few of these trees are now planted. 11. Cart-House or Gilpin. A useful apple, keeps well, tolerably good for house use and cyder. This is said to come originally from Vir- ginia. 12. Wine-Sop. An autumn fruit, of a deep red colour, and sweet, but not sprightly taste ; makes ex- cellent cyder, which is preferred by some to that of the red streak; cultivated by Samuel Coles, of Moore's-town, New-Jersey. 13. Poveshon. Is a small red ap- ple, ripe about the latter end of September, of a pleasant flavour, and makes good early cyder, for which purpose it is generally used about Newark, New-Jersey. 14. Red-Streak. Originally from 116 FRU England : a winter fruit; keeps well, but shrinks ; of a pleasant flavour ; red with spots, and gene- rally has a russet coloured teat on the lower side. The tree grows straight. When used for pies they need not be pared. The cyder from this apple is much admired. 15. Cutline. A Delaware autumn cyder fruit. 16. Gloucester. Native of Vir- ginia, and good cyder fruit. 17. Golden Rennett, P. An au- tumn cyder fruit. " The Pyrus Coronal ia, or .Va- tive Crab Apple of North America, is not eaten except when preserv- ed in sugar, and in this state they are deservedly esteemed as a great delicacy. The fruit is flattish, above one inch in diameter, yellow when ripe, or of the colour of polished brass, and possesses an agreeable fragrancy. Perhaps no tree presents a more gay appear- ance in the spring, when dressed in green, and with clusters of flow- ers of a most pleasing blush. The petals may be compared to flakes of white wax, faintly tinged with the finest carmine ; though some trees have flowers of a damask rose colonr."....Wm. Bartram. The Editor is indebted to his ex- cellent friend, Di% James Tilton, of Wilmington Delaware, for the following original and very valua- ble communication, on the subject of the insect which has been so ac- tively engaged in destroying the fruit of Pennsylvania, Delaware, (and probably of the other states), for a few years past. It were to be wished, that other gentlemen among us, who have opportunities, would be equally attentive with Dr. Tilton, in communicating their observations upon this subject of rural economy. " Curculio, a genus of insects FRU belonging to the Goleoptera,or Bee- tle order. The species are said to be very numerous. The immense da- mage dene, by an insect of this tribe, to the fruits of this country, of which there is no similar account in Europe, has given rise to a con- jecture with some naturalists, that we have a peculiar and very de- structive species in America. " The manner in which this in- sect injures and destroys our fruits, is, by its mode of propagation..... Early in the spring, about the time when the fruit trees are in blossom, the Curculiones ascend in swarms from the earth, crawl up the trees, and as the several fruits advance, they puncture the rind or skin, with their pointed rostra, and deposit their embryos in the wounds thus inflicted. The maggot thus bedded in the fruit, preys upon its pulp and juices, until in most instances, the fruit perishes, falls to the ground and the insect escaping from so un- safe a residence, makes a sure re- treat into the earth : where, like other beetles, it remains in the form of a grub or worm, during the winter, ready to be metamorphosed into a bug or beetle, as the spring- advances. Thus every tree fur- nishes its own enemy; for al- though these bugs have manifestly the capacity of flying, they appear very reluctant in the use of their wings ; and perhaps never employ them but when necessity compels them to migrate. It is a fact, that two trees of the same kind may stand in the nearest possible neigh- bourhood, not to touch each other, the one have its fruit destroyed by the Curculio, and the other be un- injured, merely from contingent circumstances, which prevent the insects from crawling up the one, while they are uninterrupted from climbing the other. FRU « The Curculio delights most in the smooth skinned stone fruits, such as nectarines, plums, apri- cots, &c. when they abound on a farm : they nevertheless attack the rough skinned peach, the apple, pear, and quince. The instinctive sagacity of these creatures directs them especially to the fruits most adapted to their purpose. The stone fruits more certainly perish by the wounds made by these insects, so as to fall in due time to the ground, and afford an opportunity to the young maggot to hide itself in the earth. Although multitudes of seed fruits fall, yet many reco- ver from their wounds, which heal up with deeply indented scars..... This probably disconcerts the cur- culio, in its intended course to the earth. Be this as it may, certain it is, that pears are less liable to fall, and are less injured by this insect than apples. Nectarines, plums, &c. in most districts of our coun- try, where the curculio has gained an establishment, are utterly de- stroyed, unless special means are employed for their preservation.... Cherries escape better, on account of their rapid progress to maturity and their abundant crops : the cur- culio can only puncture a small part of them, during the short time they hang upon the tree. These destructive insects continue their depredations from the first of May until autumn. Our fruits collective- ly estimated must thereby be depre- ciated more than half their value. " It is supposed the curculiojs not only injurious above ground, but also in its retreat, below the surface of the earth, by preying on the roots of our fruit trees. We know that beetles have, in some in- stances, abounded in such a man- ner as to endanger whole forests. FRU 117 Our fruit trees often die from ma- nifest injuries done to the roots by insects, and by no insect more pro- bably than the curculio. In dis- tricts where this insect abounds, cherry trees and apple trees, which disconcert it most above, appear to be the special objects of its ven- geance below the surface of the earth. " These are serious evils ; to combat which, every scientific en- quirer is loudly called upon to ex- ert his talents ; every industrious farmer to double his diligence, and all benevolent characters to con- tribute their mite. " Naturalists have been accus- tomed to destroy vicious insects, by employingtheirnatural enemies to devour them....[See Blight.] " We are unacquainted with any tribe of insects able to destroy the curculio. All the domestic animals, however, if we'll directed, contri- bute to this purpose. Hogs in a special manncrare qualified for the work of extermination. This vo- racious animal, if suffered to go at large in orchards, and among fruit trees, devours all the fruit that falls, and among others the curculiones, in the maggot state, which may be contained in them. Being thus ge- nerally destroyed in the embryo state, there will be few or no bugs to ascend from the earth in the spring, to injure the fruit. Many experienced farmers have noted the advantage of hogs running in their orchards. Mr. Bohdley, in his excellent '■Essays on Husbandry' takes particular notice of the great advantage of hogs to orchards ; and although he attributes the be- nefits derived from these animals to the excellence of their manure, and their occasional rooting about the trees, his mistake in this trivial 118 FRU FRU circumstance does by no means invalidate the general remarks of this acute observer. The fact is, hogs render fruits of all kinds fair and unblemished,by destroying the curculio. " The ordinary fowls of a farm yard are great devourers of beetles. Poultry in general are regarded as carnivorous in summer, and there- fore cooped sometime before they are eaten. Every body knows with what avidity ducks seize on the tumble bug, (Scarabaus carnifex), and it is probable the curculio is regarded by all the fowls as an equally delicious morsel. There- fore it is, that the smooth stone fruits particularly, succeed much better in lanes and yards,'where the poultry run without restraint, than in gardens and other enclosures, where the fowls are excluded. " Even horned cattle and all sorts of stock may be made to con- tribute to the preservation of our valuable fruits. By running among the trees, they not only trample to death multitudes of these insects ; but by hardening the ground, as in lanes, it becomes very unfit to re- ceive or admit such tender mag- gots as crawl from the fallen fruits. Besides, the curculio is very timid, and when frightened by the cattle rubbing against the tree or other- wise, their manner is to fold them- selves up in a little ball and fall to the ground ; where they may be trampled and devoured by the stock, poultry, Sec. Col. T. Fo- rest, of Germantown, having a fine plum tree near his pump, tied a rope from the tree to his pump handle, so that the tree was gently agitated every time there was oc- casion to pump water. The conse- quence was, that the fruit on this tree was preserved in the greatest perfection. " All the terebinthinate sub- stances, with camphor and some others, are said to be very offensive to insects generally. Upon this principle, General T. Robinson, of Naaman's creek, suspends an- nually little bits of board, about the size of a case knife, dipped in tar, on each of his plum trees....' From three to five of these strips are deemed enough, according to the size of the tree. The General commences his operations about the time or sooner after the trees are in full bloom, and renews the application of the tar frequently, while the fruit hangs on the tree. To this expedient, he attributes his never failing success. Other gen- tlemen allege, that common tur- pentine would be still better; be- ing equally pungent and more per- manent in its effects. Some have sown offensive articles, such as buckwheat, celery, See. at the root of the tree, and have thought that great advantages followed. " Ablaquealion, or digging round the trees, and making bare their roots in winter, is an old expedient of gardeners for killing insects, and may answer well enough for a so- litary tree, a year or two ; but the curculio will soon recover from a disturbance of this sort, and stock the tree again. " There is no surer protection against the curculio than a pave- ment. This, however, is only ap- plibable to a few trees. It may serve in town ; but will not answer in.the country...[Flat stones may however be placed round the tree, and where lime is at hand, they may be cemented.] " Many other expedients, such as smoking, brushing, watering, Sec. may be successfully employed, for the protection of a favourite tree or two; but it is manifest,from FRU FRU 119 the preceding history, that a right disposition of stock, especially hogs, among the fruit trees, can only be relied on by a farmer, with orchards of considerable extent. And that the stock, poultry, &c. may perform the task assigned them, it is evident, that a proper disposition of fruit trees is essen- tially necessary. " As the smooth stone fruits are the grand nurseries-of the curculioj special care should be taken, to have these effectually protected. Unless this can be done, a farmer should not suffer them to grow on his plantation. He will derive no benefit from them; and they will furnish a destructive vermin that will ruin his other fruits. Cherry trees, nectarines, plums, apricots, &c. should therefore be planted in lanes and hard beaten yards, [or paved yards,] the common high- ways of all the stock of the farm, and not beyond the range of the ordinary domestic fowls. Orchards of apple trees, pear trees, peach trees, &c. should all be in one en- closure. The pear trees and peach trees may occupy corners of the whole design, so as occasionally to be fenced off. In large orchards, care should be taken that the stock of hogs is sufficient to eat up all the early fruit which fall,from May until August. This precaution will be more especially necessary in large peach orchards : for, other- wise, when the hogs become cloy- ed with the pulp of the peach, they will let it fall out of their mouths, and content themselves with the kernel, which they like better ; and thus the curculio escaping from their jaws may hide underground, until next spring. Solitary trees of one fruit or another, remote from the orchard, should be regarded as nurseries of the curculio, and ought to be cut down or removed to the common enclosure. A young orchard should not be planted in the place of, or adjacent to an old one ; that it may not be immediate- ly infested with the curculio. " It is also apparent, from what has been said, that great advanta- ges might result from an associa- tion or combination of whole neigh- bourhoods against this common enemy. Although an intelligent farmer may accomplish much, by due attention, within his own ter- ritory, the total extermination of the curculio can hardly be expect- ed, but by the concurrent efforts of whole districts." [On this subject it may be added, that a gardener near Baltimore, who has been successful in raising plums, finds that the insect does most mischief in the night; and hence he shakes the tree every evening, and catches the insect in a sheet placed round it. He always burns them instantly. Wrapping each plum in a muslin bag, or in thin paper perforated with a pin, is a certain, though troublesome mode of guarding against the at- tacks of these insects. A machine for paring apples, has lately been invented by Mr. Moses Coates,of Chester county, which, on account of its simplicity, and the expedition with which it works, will no doubt come into ge- neral use. The following cut will give an accurate idea of this in- strument. 120 FRU ?RLT The apple is fixed on the three lively, by means of acids; they ge- pronged fork A, and is turned by nerally acquire a purplish hue, by the handle B. To the block C, the the addition of alkalies. The great- knife D is fastened in the manner er part of the colours of these of a spoke shave. E and F are juices is perishable, though they springs which fasten the knife to strongly resist fermentation, and the piece G, turning on a pin at H. continue almost unchanged, when While the right hand turns the the liquor is converted into wine. handle B, the left presses against If the juice be thinly spread upon the springs E, F, and turns the other bodies, exsiccated, and ex- knife in a semicircle over the ap- posed to the air, the colour speedi- ple. The Editor has tried the ex- ly decays ; the bright red fades periment with the machine, and sooner than any other ; but the found it to pare apples with great dark dull red obtained from the rapidity.] juice of the black-cherry, is of con- Colours from Fruits.....The siclerable durability. The ripe ber- red juices of currants, mulberries, ries of the buck-thorn tinge paper elder-berries, black-cherries, and of a green colour: when green, other fruit, impart their tinging those berries afford a yellow, and if particles to water, but more com- ripe, a purplish pigment. There pletely to rectified spirit ; and the are besides a great variety of other tincture acquires a brighter colour, fruits, both wild and cultivated, The red watery solutions, as well which impart different colours, and as the juices, are sometimes ren- which are noticed in their alpha- dered dull, and sometimes more betical series. FRU FUE 121 As we treat of the general pro- perties, as well as the relative sa- lubrity of fruit, under the indivi- dual heads of shrubs and trees, we shall, in this place, only add, that the injudicious practice of promis- cuously allowing it, whether ripe or unripe, to children and infants, is very reprehensible. On account of its acidity, they are not able to bear it in excess; and their diges- tive powers become too frequently impaired at the expense of other secretions; such as insensible per- spiration, and the discharges by stool, both of which are thus unna- turally promoted. All fruit given to young people ought to be per- fectly ripe: mothers and nurses should likewise bestow especial at- tention on the cleanliness of the peels, or shells, which as they ge- nerally pass, through different hands, or may have been stored in improper places, require to be previouslv wiped or washed. FRUMENTY, or Furmenty, as it is popularly called, is a kind of pottage, prepared of wheat, which is first dried whole in an oven, after- wards boiled, and put into moulds, or basons. In this country, it is chiefly made during Lent; and, when boiled up with milk, sugar, and a little spice, it forms a whole- some and nutritive dish. FRUSH,or Running-Thrush. in farriery, is a discharge of fetid, and sometimes ichorous matter, from the cleft in the middle of an horse's foot. It affects one, two and sometimes all the animal's legs; but more frequently appears in the fore-feet. It is occasioned by nar- row, concave, or hollow shoes; which, pressing against the fleshy pari of the frog, cause pain, in- flammation, obstruction of the blood, Sec. There are few cases VOL. III. in which the frush admits of a radical cure , because it is subject to frequent returns, producing at length lameness, in consequence of exposing the raw and tender parts to the action of sand, gravel, hard ground, Sec. But, if the disease proceed from contracted, narrow heels, in those feet which are said to be hoof-bound, it cannot be cured, without remov- ing the first cause ; though even in that case it will only admit of palliation. In wdde hoofs, however, that are open at the heels, and where the complaint is recent, or is sus- pected to arise from concave shoes, or from keeping the hoofs too hot, dry, and hard, the cure may be ef- fected with ease and safety, by lay- ing aside those shoes; washing the frogs clean after exercise, and dress- ing them with Mel JEgyptiacum, prepared in the following manner'-, Take 2 oz. of verdigrease finely pulverized ; 6 oz. of honey, and 4 oz. of vinegar: let the whole be boiled over a gentle fire till it ac- quires a reddish colour. Or, 2 oz. of blue vitriol, dissolved in a quart of water, may be substituted for the preceding composition, if the hoofs be kept cool and moist. At the same time, it will be requisite to have recourse to bleeding, and purging-medieines, which may be repeated two or three times at pro- per intervals ; or, to diuretics, which are preferable, as they may be continued for some time, with- out confining the horse to the sta- ble. FUEL is the aliment or food of fire. The fuel generally used in Bri- tain is pit-coal: it is attended with considerable expense, that is not a little increased by the enormous waste, arising from the injudicious R 122 F U E V U E manner in which the fifes are usu- ally managed. Hence different compositions have been proposed, among which that contrived by Count Rumford more particularly claims our attention. It is known by the name oi kindling balls, which are composed of equal parts of coal, charcoal, and clay ; the two former are reduced to fine powder, well mixed and kneaded together with the clay moistened with water ; and then formed into balls of the size of hens' eggs, which are thoroughly dried. These balls may be made so inflammable as instant- ly to take fire from the smallest soar'-, ai'ier they have been dipped in .. *rong solution of nitre, and then dried. With those three in- gredients, Count Rumford is of opinion, that a certain proportion of straw, cut very small, or of chaff, or even of saw-dust, may be ad- vantageously incorporated......The excellence of the fuel thus prepared consists in its economy and cleanli- ness ; circumstances of the utmost importance, and which are calcu- lated greatly to improve the apart- ments of the opulent: for, he ob- serves, " nothing is more dirty, in- elegant, and disgusting, than a common coal-fire."....The Count's invention is somewhat similar to the patent Coal-balls prepared by Mr. Frederick of which we have already given an acount. To this may be added, the im- proved fuel invcntcdhy Mr. Peter Davey, to whom a patent was granted early in the year 1801. The substances he employs are, a mixed coke composed of pit-coal and charcoal, in various propor- tions, united previously to the ope- ration of coking. The patentee takes small sea-coal, to which he adds charcoal, saw-dust, tan, or any other materials that may be converted into charcoal, in propor- tionate quantities: these, however, - arc not specified, and he simply observes, that for furnaces, or other large fires, the quantity of sea-coat is to be increased ; and, when the fuel is intended to be burned in small fires, it is to be diminished. After mixing the different ingre- dients, they are to be dried in kilns, and heated so as to make them in- timately cohere, and expel the moisture and oily parts, without consuming the substance of the coal: in this state, the fuel is fit for use. We do not pretend to decide, which of the preparations above- mentioned is preferable ; as they are all eminently calculated to in- troduce economy in one of the most useful articles cf domestic conve- nience. ...fire. Beside these compositions, vari- ous machines have been invented for saving fuel, of which the fol- lowing are worthy of notice :....In May, 1792, Mr. David Frear- son, of Liverpool, obtained a pa- tent for machinery and operations for the purpose of saving fuel, in the process of evaporating water from solutions of salts, or the waste or leys of soap-makers; and which may be applicable on other occa- sions, where the evaporation of wa- ter from substances holding it in solution is required. For the par- ticulars of this invention we refer the reader to the 9th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures," where he will find the whole process amply detailed. A patent was likewise granted in June, 17!.-8, to Mr. George BLUNDEi.L,ol"Bethnall-grecn, Mid- dlesex, for his invention of a ma- chine calculated for the purpose of FUL F U L 123 saving fuel, and preventing dirt or dust from fires, which he calls an "Economical Receiver.".....The ap- paratus consists of certain receiv- ers, or boxes, formed of metal, either simple, or compound, and which are either square, oval, or of any other shape that may be re- quired, in order to be fitted be- neath any kind of grates, stoves, or fire-places. Over this receiver is fixed a grating,or net-work of wire, which intercepts the cinders, and suffers the the ashes to fall into the lower part of the vessel. There are likewise sliders, and other pieces of machinery ; an explanation of which is inserted in the 10th vol: of the work above cited. FULLERS'-EARTH,or^rs77/a Litliaifarga, is a species of clay, of an ash-coloured brown, and pre- sents various shades, from a very pale to nearly a black colour : it is in general of a greenish cast. This earth is hard, firm, and of a compact texture, but soft to the touch, and neither stains the hands nor easily breaks between the fin- gers. Its surface is somewhat rough and harsh ; it dissolves easily in the month ; and, in a slight de- gree, adheres to the tongue. When thrown into water, it does not cause any effervescence, but gra- dually increases in size, and sub- sides in a fine soft powder. The largest stock of the finest fullers'-carth in the world is ob- tained from the pits at Wavedon, near Woburn, Bedfordshire; where strata of it are found at the depth of ten or twelve feet from the sur- face of the ground. This earth is also found in abundance, and of a Rood quality, in certain pits near Brick-hill, in. the county of Staf- ford; near Ryegatc, Surrey; Maid- stone, Kent; and in the vicinity of Nutley and Petworth, in the coun- ty of Sussex. Incalculable quantities of ful- lers'-earth are consumed in this Country, in the scouring of cloths, stuffs, cec. for which it is of the greatest utility, as it imbibes all the grease and oil used in the prepar- ing, dressing, &c. of wool. For this reason, it is declared to be a contraband commodity, and is pro- hibited to be exported, under the penalty of one shilling for every pound weight....As an article of domestic economy, it might be more frequently employed than it is at present, especially in the cleaning and scouring of wooden floors and wainscots, being an ex- cellent substitute for soap, of which great quantities are now consumed, and unnecessary expense of house-? keeping thus incurred. FULLING, is the art of cleans- ing, scouring, and pressing cloths, stuffs, and stockings, to render them stronger, closer, and firmer: it is also sometimes called milling. The fulling of cloth, Sec. is per- formed by a kind of water-mill, thence called a fulling or scouring- niill....Without describing the me- chanism of this manufacturing pro- cess, we cannot omit to remark, that urine is sometimes employed, as well as soap and fullers'-earth, to prepare the stuffs for receiving the first impressions of the pestle. They are first steeped in urine, then in a solution of fullers'-earth and water, and lastly in soap, dis-* solved in hot water. Soap alone would fully answer this purpose, but it is too expensive, especially as, according to the present mode of dressing, fullers'-earth is of equal efficacy. Urine is certainly pre- judicial, and ought entirely to be abandoned here, both on account 124 F U L FUM cf its disagreeable smell, and its eharp, saline properties, which fre- quently render the cloths dry and harsh. The scouring of cloth, how- ever, is not the only object in full- ing it; the alternate pressure com- municated by the pestles,or stamp- ers, to the stuffs, occasions in its advanced stages an effect analo- gous to that produced upon hats in the operation offelling. Thus, the fibres of wool which compose one of the threads, whether of the warp or the woof, assume a progressive motion, first introducing them- selves among those of the contigu- ous threads, then into those which follow, so that gradually all the threads, both of the warp and the woof, become completely felted. The cloth, after having by this pro- cess become contracted and short- ened in its dimensions, partakes in a great measure of the nature of felt: hence it may be cut without being liable to unravel; and con- sequently there is no necessity to hem its edges....Farther, as the threads of both the warp and woof are more intimately combined, the web, which acquires a greater de- gree of thickness, likewise forms a warmer clothing. The process offulling stockings, cn?:s, &c. is performed in a manner somewhat different from that in the mills; namely, either with the feet or hands; or a kind of rack or wooden machine, armed with teeth of the same materials ; or, which is still better, horses' or bullocks' teeth may be substituted. In this operation, urine, green soap, white soap, and fullers'-earth are employ- ed , but the first of these ingredi- ents, for the reasons before stated, is here also detrimental to the tex- ture. Stockings manufactured in a loom, should be fulled with soap alone ; but, for dressing such as have been knit, earth may likewise. be added. Lastly, knit worsted is by this process rendered less sub- ject to run, if a stitch should hap- pen to drop in the stockings. [FUMARIA, Cucullaria, (Cap- norchis, Dutchman's breeches.) A very singular and handsome plant. The elegantly complex texture of its leaves, of a soft, glacous green colour,together with its racemes of milk-white flowers, having lips studded as it were with gold, give it an air of great softness and ele- gance. The flower is of a singular structure, having two, or rather a double nectary conjoined, resem- bling a pair of breeches. We have two other species offumaria in the United States, both of which are very beautiful plants, viz. Lglauca, and f.fungosa. The last mentioned grows in the rich vallies of our northern mountains, but on ac- count of its singular elegance, has lately been introduced into our gardens. It is a biennial vine, rambles to a great extent over shrubs during the flowering sea- son. Its foliage is truly elegant, and its tufts of incarnate blossoms excite general admiration....Wm. Bartram.] FUMIGATION, in medicine, denotes the artificial impregnation of the atmosphere, with the fumes or smoke of any vegetable or aro- matic substance. Considerable injury is often pro- duced by inhaling the subtle corro- sive fumes of metallic and other processes ; so that palsy in lead- mines, and pulmonary complaints, in manufacturing towns, are but too frequent; hence we doubt whether medicated fumes deserve that encomium which has lately been bestowed on them, by various FUM FUN 125 writers. In our opinion, there is no better and more effectual fumi- gator in Nature than pure air, fre- quently renewed by means of ven- tilators. As, however, there are numer- ous advocates for factitious airs and fumigations, we have no hesitation to admit that they may sometimes be resorted to with advantage, for the purpose of purifying rooms that have been occupied by patients whose disorders were contagious. Hence the fumes of tobacco, and the effluvia of tar, have been espe- cially praised. The late Dr. Lind advised cascarilla-bark to be burn- ed, or the camphorated steam of vinegar to be diffused, as being eminently calculated to dispel in- fection. With respect to the fumigation of stables, or other buildings, where cattle are infected with the distem- per, it has been recommended to put an ounce of common salt in a varnished pipkin, upon which are to be - poured two ounces of spirit of vitriol, diluted with one ounce of water. The vessel is then to be placed for an hour on a chafing- dish provided with live coals, in or- der that its contents may be heated to a slight degree of ebullition..... The whole being safely deposited in the middle of a stable, the va- pours are permitted to rise, till the air of the building is saturated. Thus, the malignant miasmata in the air, are supposed to be neu- tralized, or corrected; but the pro- cess ought to be repealed twice in twenty-four hours, at equal peri- ods, during the prevalence of the contagion...No good, however, will result from this or any other fu- migation, without the frequent ad- mission, and change, of fresh air. FUMITORY, or Fumaria, L. a genus of plants comprising nine- teen species, five or six of which are natives ; and among these the principal are : 1. The officinalis, or Common Fumitory. It is annual, grows in corn-fields, hedge-banks and gar- dens, and is in flower from May to August....This plant is eaten by cows and sheep ; goats dislike it, exceptthe youngshoots, but horses totally refuse it....The leaves are succulent, saline, and bitter. The expressed juice, in doses of two or three ounces, is strongly recom- mended in hypochondriacal, scor- butic, and such habits as abound- with vitiated humours. It corrects acidity, and strengthens the sto- mach. Hoffman, in these cases, preferred it to all other medicines. On account of its efficacy in open- jng obstructions, and what are pro- fessionally called infarctions of the viscera, especially those of the liver an extract of it deserves to be kept in the shops. If the juice be taken in large doses, it proves both diu- retic and laxative : it may also be mixed with whey, and used as a common drink...An infusion of the leaves of this plant is employed as a cosmetic, to remove freckles from the skin. 2. The solida v. bulbosa, or Solid Bulbous Fumitory, which grows in woods and parks, (for instance, Le- van's Park,) and flowers in April or May....Bi:CHSTEiN relates, that this plant affords a certain remedy for the extermination of frogs in fish-ponds. FUNERAL RITES are those ceremonies which are religiously observed at the interment or burial of the dead. They varied among the ancients, according to the dif- ferent genius and religion of each country. 126 F U R F U R It is not, however, our design to specify these ceremonies, but mcrdy to point out an abuse that loudly claims the attention of all. In many populous parishes, with- in the bills of mortality, a danger- ous practice prevails, of excavat- ing pits (graves they cannot be called) for the reception of the poor, who being packed in four deal-boards loosely nailed together, are there deposited, till the whole is sufficiently filled. During the interval, planks are laid over the common grave ; and, when the uppermost coffin arrives, a minis- ter is employed to mutter, at once, the usual prayers over the hapless Victims of poverty, who are then covered with the maternal earth. Such mal-practice demands an im- mediate remedy ; as the mephitic vapour arising through the planks, especially during summer, have the most noxious properties ; and perhaps many have met with a premature grave, from inhaling those putrid exhalations......Facts like these, we conceive it our duty to state, on account of their immediate influence on the health of every inhabitant. Fungus, See Mushroom, and White Swelling. FUR, in commerce, signifies the skins of wild quadrupeds, which are dressed with alum, without depriving them of the hair; and which form a part of the robes of princes, magistrates, and others. The skins chiefly used are, those of the sable, er- mine, bear, beaver, hare, &c. Furs' did not become an article ofluxury in this country for many ages, and were imported princi- pally from Italy, till, since the conquest of Canada and the more northern parts of America, we have obtained them from the I»t dians. The furs at present used, are those brought from the remotest parts of North America by tha Hudson's Bay Company, and from Russia. They are very valuable, especially the skins of ermines, black foxes, and sables for which various prices have been paid, from 20 to 100 guineas....Import- ed furs are subject to heavy duties, which our limits will not permit us to enumerate. With respect to its influence on health, we shall briefly remark, that/Ur deserves no commendation as an article of ordinary dress. Its alkaline and oily particles stimu- late the skin, when in contract with it ; thus partially increase perspiration, and lay the founda- tion of colds and catarrhs. A fur dress readily attracts infection, and soon acquires an intolerable smell. Hence whole nations that wear such garment, are exposed to ob- stinate cutaneous diseases, and, perhaps, to the propagation of the plague itself: which is said to be spread among the Turks, chiefly, by their absurd and cumbersome dresses lined with animal hair. FURNACE, an utensil, or ap- paratus, in which a strong fire, either of coals or of wood, may be raised and maintained. There is a great diversity of fur- naces, according to the different purposes to which they are ap- plied ; but, as it would exceed our limits to specify them, we shall only state the chief points to be attended to in their construction, and next mention the various patents that have been granted to speculative individuals....The chief objects in building, and arranging a furnace, are: FUR i I. To confine the heat as much as possible to the matter which is to be operated upon. Hence the fire is usually limited to a cavity formed with that intention, and which is provided with a door for supplying it with fuel, as likewise with a grate for supporting it, and permitting the air to pass through, as well as the ashes to drop down into what is called the ash-pi:...... Thus, the heat is restrained so as to exhaust its force on the subject inclosed. 2. To prevent such heat from being dissipated ; which design is effected by simply shutting the door of the furnace, and placing the matter to be acted upon, in such a direction as to receive the whole force of the fire, in its pas- sage up the chimney. 3. To produce an intense heat with the smallest possible quantity of fuel. Hence the throat, or fun- nel of the chimney, is occasionally contractedby aslidingplate; which, when shut closely, prevents the passage of any smoke or air ; and, on drawing it out in a greater or less degree, leaves a vent propor- tionally large or small. Thus, a large quantity of fuel may be put in the furnace at one time, that will be slowly consumed, and con- sequently requires less attention, than those furnaces which are des- titute ofthis improvement. Where no great degree of heat is requir- ed, the sliding plate may be of cast-iron ; in some, cases however, fire-clay will be more serviceable; but this contrivance is inapplicable to such furnaces as consume large quantities of fuel, and especially where metals are to be melted. 4. To arrange the whole, so that the degree of heat may be regulat- ed at pleasure; which, intention is FUR 127 effected by admitting only a certain portion of air to pass through the fuel. For this purpose, the late Dr. Black recommended to fill the upper part of the furnace fre- quently with small portions of soot, so that by closing the door of the ash-hole, and perforating it with a certain number of holes corres- ponding to each other, a suffici- ent controul may be obtained over the fire. When the heat is to be increased, all the passages should be opened, and the height of the vent extended ; by which means the column of rarefied air will be enlarged, at the same time its passage through the fuel pro- moted, and consequently also the heat of the furnace rendered more intense. In June, 1785, a patent was granted to Mr. James Watt, of Birmingham, for his newly-im- proved method of constructing furnaces or fire-places for heating, boiling, or evaporating water, or other liquids; and also for heating, and melting metals, or smelting ores ; by which greater effects are produced from the fuel, and the smoke is in a great measure pre- vented or consumed. The paten- tee effects these different objects, by closing every passage to the chimney or flues, excepting those left in the interstices of the fuel; by placing fresh fuel above or nearer to the external air, than that which is already converted into coke or charcoal; and by con- structing the fire-places so that the flame must puss dowmvards, or laterally, or horizontally, through the burning fuel, and also from the lower part or internal side >f the fire-place, to the flues or chimney.......In some cases, M-. Watt causes the flame to pass 128 FUR FUR through a very hot funnel, or flue, previously to its arriving at the bottom of the boiler, or at that part of the furnace, where it is in- tended to melt metals ; by which contrivance the smoke is still more effectually consumed. In other cases, he directs the course of the flame from the fire-place immedi- ately intothe space beneath a boiler, or into the bed of a melting or other furnace.... A minute account of this machinery is inserted in the 4th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufactures," where it is describ- ed and illustrated by engravings. In 1794, Mr Hf.net Browne, of Derby, invented an ingenious furnace, calculated to facilitate evaporation ; for which the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. rewarded him with a gold medal ....By this arrangement, the heat is first carried under the vessel, then reverted back on the sides, and, at length, conveyed over the surface : thus the air in contact with the liquor is heated and rare- fied to such a degree, that the fluid is raised into vapour or steam, much sooner, and with less fuel, than in the cold atmosphere ; and, as the air necessary to keep the fuel in combustion passes over the surface of the liquor, every perni- cious vapour is carried with it into the fire, where it is decomposed, or at least rendered innoccuous. Mr. Browne's furnace is likewise so constructed, that as much fuel may be laid on the fire at one time as will be required for twelve, or even twenty-four hours ; and thus one man is enabled to perform the labour of three, with much greater facility than by the usual method. Beside this advantage, the evapo- ration is more speedily effected ; less fuel is consumed than in the Gommon boilers now in use ; and, neither the operator nor the neigh- bourhood will be annoyed with the most pernicious vapour.... Those who wish to be informed of the various parts of this use- ful contrivance, we must refer to the 12th volume of the " Trans- actions" of the Patriotic Society before mentioned, where it is mi- nutely described, and illustrated by an elegant engraving. A patent was granted in De- cember, 1798, to Mr Willlam Raley, of Newbald, in the East- Riding of Yorkshire, chemist; for his invention of a philosophical fur- nace and boiler, with an actuating wheel appended to them; and which are applicable to the draw- ing of foul and inflammable air from pits, mines, &c. to several branches of pharmacy, and vari- ous mechanical purposes. As, however, this machinery is scarce- ly suitable to domestic economy, we shall only add, that the speci- fication of it is contained in the 10th volume of the " Repertory of the arts and Manufactures." The last patent which claims our notice, is that granted in No- vember, 1799, to Mr James Burns, of Glasgow, builder; for his invention of certain improve- ments applicable to furnaces, fire- grates, stoves, and chimnies, by which a greater supply of heat may be obtained from a given quantity of fuel ; and rooms of every description may be heated more speedily and effectually than by the methods now in use ; while they are calculated in a great mea- sure to prevent accidents from wo- men's and children's clothes taking fire, and also to give a degree of cleanliness which cannot be at- tained where grates and stoves of FUR Vie common construction are em- ployed. The design of this con- trivance is to prevent the heat, generated and thrown out into any room or apartment by combustion, from being unnecessarily wasted by the air of such room being made to maintain the combustion of the fuel in the grate. To ef- fect this purpose, the air support- ing the file in the grates or stoves made with the patentee's improve- ments, or in other grates to which they may be applied, ought to be conveyed through a tube (which he calls an air-tube) from the out- side of the house : or it may be made to pass from the outside of the house between the joists, so as to be brought to the bottom bars of the grate, without com- municating with the interior air of the room ; while the grates, and other parts connected with them, should be so constructed, that the passage may be closed in a greater or less degree by means of a valve, small door, cock, or ,any similar contrivances, whenever it is not requisite to supply the fire with cold air from the outside of the house : or, the same object may be attained by directing the tube to a cellar, larder, Sec. which will thus be thoroughly ventilated, and prevented from acquiring un- healthy or disagreeable smells..... As our limits will not permit us to specify the constituent parts of Mr. Burn's design, we refer the rea- der to the 12th vol. of the Reper- tory, &c. above quoted, where it is minutely described, and farther illustrated by two plates. But we cannot conclude the subject, with- out stating, that his improvements are affirmed to be an effectual cure for smoky chimnies; and when a fire is lighted in grates of the vol. m. FUR ,129 patentee's construction, it burns up, and becomes lively in a few minutes, without the aid of bel- lows, and that watchful care which common stoves or grates require. The construction of furnaces, so arranged as to consume the whole volume of smoke, is an object which has long engaged the inge- nuity of artists.....Hence various contrivances have been proposed; but few, we believe, for efficacy and simplicity, can come in com- petition with that invented by Messrs. Robertsons, of Glas- gow. The opening of their fur- naces, instead of being closed by a door, consists of a quadrangular hopper, or funnel, which is con- stantly supplied with coals ; so that, in proportion as the fuel is exhausted, a fresh stock continually descends through the hopper....... Thus, the first combustion, which disengages the greatest part of the smoke and flame, takes place near the mouth of the fire-place, and a considerable quantity of the smoke will, without any other contriv- ance, be consumed by passing over the red-hot fuel in the farther part of the furnace. But, as a perfect combustion of smoke can- not be obtained without the aid of atmospheric air, a cast-iron plate, about three quarters of an inch above the top of the hopper, is in- troduced, so that a slit is formed of this depth, and of an equal breadth to the front of the fur- nace ; through which a current of air constantly enters, and is then combined with the smoke.... This aperture may be enlarged, or diminished, as occasion may re- quire, by raising or lowering the iron plate, by means of an iron pin : thus, the supply of air may be proportioned to th- quantity of 130 . F U R FUR smoke produced, and the whole of the latter will be advantageously used, before it can escape through the chimney. See also Boillers and Fire-places. [A full account of Mr. Robert- son's furnace with plates may be seen in the xi. vol. of Tillocm's Philosophical Magazine.] Mr. John Roebuck of the Devon iron works, Scotland, from the suc- cessful result of an experiment continued for several months, was led to be of opinion, that all blast furnaces, by a proper adjustment of such machinery as they are pro- vided with, might greatly and ad- vantageously increase their pro- duce, by assuming this as a prin- ciple, viz. " That with the given power, it is rather by a great quan- tity of air thrown into the furnace with moderate velocity, than by a less quantity thrown in with a grea- ter velocity, that the greatest benefit is derived, in the smelting of iron stones, in order to produce pig iron. FURNACE (air) This de- pends for its great heat on the height of the chimney. For the column of air, of which the chim- ney is a part, will be light in pro- portion to that height; and of course, the colder and heavier air will rush through the fire with proportional violence, to restore an equilibrium ; and combustion be- comes more rapid and intense, the more the air is decomposed.] FURROW, in agriculture, a term not properly defined, as it has three or four distinct signifi- cations, namely, 1. The soil turn- ed up by the plough ; 2. The trench left by this operation: 3. The interval between two ridges ; and, 4. The cross drain which re- ceives the rain-water collected by these intervals. Dr. Johnson adds a fifth, but he obviously mistake* furrow for drill. According to Mr. Marshall, there are three ideas which lay claim to ihe word furrow :...... 1. The trench made by the plough* which may be called a plough-fur- row ; 2. The collateral drains, or an inter-furrow; and 3. The trans- verse drains, or the cross-J'urrow. The proper formation and dis- position of furrows, is an object of the first importance in tillage, to effect the complete draining of water. Hence, in plain fields, the rain-furrows ought to be drawn ac- cording to the declivity of the land; but, in rising grounds it will be most proper to direct them to that side which slightly deviates from the horizontal line. It also deserves to be remarked, that in all situations where it is practicable, especially at the decli- vities of fields, reservoirs, or pits should be dug, or formed, in order to collect the drained water, toge- ther with the finest particles of earth, mire, and other ingredients of manure : after the water has subsided, these valuable materials might be easily obtained in a solid form, and thus again employed on the same field, without incurring the additional expense of carriage. We trust, judicious farmers will avail themselves of this hint, and not disregard it with the stale plea of innovation. FURZE, or Ulex, L. an indi- genous plant, consisting of two species, the principal of which is, the Europxus, Common Furze, Whins, or Gorze, which grows on heaths, road-sides, and pas- tures. It abounds particularly in the county of Cornwall, where it is very productive, growing to the height of six or eight feet; and FUR flowering from May till late in autumn. Furze thrives in a light sandy soil, though it grows more luxuri- antly in rich land. It is propa- gated from seed, which is sown in the months of February, March, and April, or in the beginning of May, in the proportion of 6lbs. to an acre ; either alone, or with bar- ley, oats, or buck-wheat. But it is not mowed till the year after it has been sown, in the month of Octo- ber, or somewhat earlier, when it will continue till Christmas, and be fit for use till March. Furze will grow for several years, and produce from ten to fifteen tons per acre, which, in the feeding of cattle, are equal to the same quantity of hay : hence it is in some places regularly stack- ed. This plant is of the greatest uti- lity, especially as food for horses, which, when it is recently bruised, eat it in preference to hay, and even corn. Goats and sheep like- wise feeds upon the tender tops. Cows also, that are fed with it, yield nearly the same proportion of pure and untainted milk, as when pasturing on meadow grass. For this purpose, the furze is crushed and reduced in a machine, con- sisting of a large circular stone, set on its edge, with a wooden axis passing through the centre. One end of this axis is fixed upon a pivot placed in the centre of a cir- cular area, and at the other end is fastened ayoke, to which a draught- horse is attached. As the animal moves, the stone revolves round its axis in a circular groove, or trough •of hewn stone, in a manner simi- lar to sugar-bakers, or tanners'- mills. In this trough the whins or furze are placed, and bruized by FUR 131 the weight of the stone, as it passes over them : after being well crush- ed, they are raised up (by means of a three-pronged fork) in the ii rm of a kind of matted cake, which being set upright, is again broken by the wheel revolving on its axis. Thus, the operation is continued, new surfaces being successively presented to the action of the wheel, till the whole is reduced to a soft pulpy mass. During the continuance of this process, how- ever, it will be requisite to pour sufficient water on the furze, at dif- ferent times, as, without such pre- caution, the plant could with diffi- culty be rendered soft enough to be eaten by cattle. To the furze thus crushed, chopped straw is sometimes added, in the propor- tion of 1 cwt. to a ton of furze..... This operation may be effectually performed by the mills employed in grinding apples, or expressing oil. But, in some parts of England, the prickly points of the whins are merely broken with heavy mallets on blocks of wood, and in this state given to cattle, which eat them eagerly. Furze is likewise employed for heating ovens, as it burns rapidly, and emits a great degree of heat; when consumed, its ashes are used for a ley, which is of considerable service in washing coarse ii en. This plant is also eminently adapted to the formation h this apparatus, does not ma- terially differ from that produced by two simple plates; but it may be effected in various ways, espe- cially if one or both hands be ap- plied in a wet state to the lowest plate of the pile; or any part of the face be brought in contact with a wire communicating with the top piece. Farther, if a wire be held between the teeth, so as to rest upon the tongue, that organ, as well as the lips, will become con- vulsed, the flash will appear before the eye, and a very pungent taste will be perceived in the mouth. . Many other curious facts have transpired on this interesting dis- covery ; but, as they have not been hitherto applied to medical pur- poses (though we believe that Galvanism may be safely, and per- haps successfully resorted to, in paralytic and other cases, where the muscles require excitement), we shall content ourselves with re- ferring the curious reader to Dr. Fowler's " Essay on Animal Elec- tricity," 8vo.....for a further ac- count of Signior Volta's discove- ry ; to the volume of the " Philoso- phical Transactions" above cited ; and to the 4th vol. of Mr. Ni- cholson's " Journal of Natural Philosophy:" and, for later disco- veries, to the 1st vol. of Dr. Gar. nett's " Annals of Philosophy," he. 8vo. Cadell and Davies, 1801, where the subject is perspicuously treated. GAMBOGE, a concrete vege- table juice, of a gummy-resinous nature. It issues from the Cambo- gia gutta, a native of Gambia, in the East Indies; whence it is im- ported in large cakes or rolls. The best sort is of a deep yellow colour ; is divested of all smell; and has very little taste. As a pigment, gamboge makes a beautiful yellow, which is much used by painters. When taken as a medicine, it operates violently both upwards and downwards. It has been used in dropsies with cream of tartar, or jalap, or with both, to accelerate their operation : it is also recommended to be taken for the expulsion of the tape-worm, in doses of fifteen grains, early in the morning ; and, if the worm be not expelled in two or three hours, this powerful dose is said to have been repeated with safety and with success, even to the third tiroe, and in persons of delicate habits. Great precaution, however, is re- quisite in the use of this precari- ous and active medicine ; but, if accidentally too large a dose of it should have been swallowed, the most effectual antidote will be co- pious draughts of a solution of pearl-ashes in water. GAME, in general, denotes any 140 GAM GAM sport or diversion that is perform- ed with regularity, and subject to certain rules. Gar.ics are usually divided into those of extrciie, such as leaping, playing at tennis, Sec. and into those of hazard, such as back- gammon, Sec. which latter ought, in justice to the persons addicted to them, to be completely abo- lished. Having already treated of the more active games, under the ar- ticle Exercise, we shall at pre- sent only point out such as are peculiarly detrimental to the health of children. 1. Bending of the head back- wards should be carefully avoided, to prevent young people from tumbling over : besides, the mus- cles of. the abdomen become thus unnaturally extended, and fre- quently dispose such hazardous adventurers to ruptures. 2. Jumping wantonly from, or to, a considerable height, ought to be either prohibited, or undertaken with the greatest caution, in order to avoid violent concussion, and sudden tension of the muscles. The juvenile sportsmen should, therefore, be taught to make such exertions with their knees some- what inflected, as to reach the ground first on the points of the toes, and then gradually to drop on the soles of the feet. 3. Children are uncommonly fond of displaying their dexterity in lifting one another, and even weights far superior to their strength ; a practice that ought to be seriously discouraged : for, while they are in such postures, every nerve is necessarily strain- ed ; respiration is impeded ; and dangerous accidents may ensue. 4. All partial exercise tends to give the body a crooked form, and should therefore be allowed only at certain times, and with moderation ; as, under these re- strictions, it is even salutary ; but, if continued to excess, it is attend- ed with the most injurious effects. Hence it would be a judicious measure to teach youth, at an early period, the use of both arms alike, and to make them acquainted with such games as contribute to that purpose. 5. Sedentary diversions, and long standing, are extremely pre- judicial to the straight growth of children ; for, as the spinal co- lumn and legs are too feeble to support the additional weight of the reclining part of the frame, the vertebrae yield to one side, and often occasion incurable distor- tions. If these precautions were more strictly observed, and both male and female children instructed to beware of dangerous postures and leaps, as well as of raising and carrying heavy burthens, how ma- ny fatal accidents might be avoid- ed ! Yet, we are by no means ad- vocates for rendering them unne- cessarily timid. There is a medi- um, which every prudent guardian will easily discover ; and to this we would call the attention of pa- rents....happy, if we could thus add our mite towards introducing more rational, and less hazardous practices. GAME, among sportsmen, de- notes such birds, beasts, or other eatable animals as are taken or killed by fowling or hunting. For its physical properties, the reader will consult the separate articles of Deer, Duck, Hare, &c. Different penalties have been imposed, by various acts of parlia- GAM G A N 141 ment, on all unqualified persons, who may be detected in taking away or killing game, or in keep- ing greyhounds and other dogs, together with engines for catch- ing hares, or other game ; but as they are too numerous to be spe- cified here, we can only refer to the laws themselves, or to the ab- stract of the acts of parliament, published in Kearsley's Tax-Tables, 12mo. 1801. GAMING,theartof playing any game of chance ; for instance, dice, E O, and Pharo-tables, Sec Gaming has at all times been regarded as pernicious to the mo- rals of society, and is therefore prohibited under severe penalties. Thus, by the 16th Car. II. c. 7, if any person lose by playing or betting, more than 100/. at one time, he is not compellable to pay it ; but the winner incurs a forfei- ture of treble the value, one moiety of which belongs to the King, and the other to the informer. By the 9th Ann, c. 14, all bonds, Sec. giv- en for money won at play, or lent for the purpose of play, are utterly void ; and, if any person lose at one time more than 10/. he cannot sue the winner; or, if any one com- mit a fraud, and win more than 10/. or any valuable article, he is liable to be indicted, and incurs a forfei- ture of five times the value; beside which, he is to be deemed infa- mous, and liable to suffer such cor- poral punishment as is inflicted in cases of perjury. By the 18th Gko. II. c. 34, the stat. 9th Ann is far- ther enforced ; and, if any person is convicted of losing 10/. or 20/. at any sitting within twenty-four hours, he shall forfeit five times the sum. There are likewise vari- ous other penalties, which our limits do not permit us to specify....Do- mestic readers have neither leisure nor inclination to spend their valu- able time in the iniquitous practice of gambling : and, as those idle miscreants of society who waste their days in deep games, at the ultimate expense of the industrious husbandman, are seldom detected or punished, it were sincerely to be wished, that our salutary laws could be more rigidly enforced. But little prospect remains for the suppression of that vile amusement, which has lately spread its baneful influence even among women of rank and fashion ; since they find themselves encouraged and sup- ported by a powerful phalanx, com- posed of great and wealthy, but unprincipled men, who consider their homes as gloomy abodes, in which they cannot devote them- selves to every scene of riot and dissipation. GANGRENE, [See Mortifi- cation,] an intense degree of in- flammation , in which the part af- fected grows livid, soft, little sen- sible, and is frequently covered with vesicles containing ichorous matter. But, when the part be- comes blackish, flaccid, easily lace- rable, coid, insensble, and emits the smell of putrid flesh, so that the corruption quickly spreads, it is- then called sphacelus. Persons of a good habit of body are seldom affected by a gangrene; though, even in them, it may acci- dentally be induced by contusion, lontf-continued pressure, or by whatever destroys the texture of a part, and deprives it of its nourish- ment. Thus, in cold climates, se- vere frosts frequently occasion this malady, by impeding the circula- tion....In rheumatic constitutions, especially those advanced in years, the feet are first afflicted with pain, 142 G A N while on the inner side of the small toes, livid spots appear, from which the skin soon separates. By de- grees the foot swells, and the toes become mortified. As soon as there is reason to ap- prehend, from the unnatural heat of the part affected, and the vio- lence of the fever, that a gangrene will ensue, the patient ought, with- out loss of time, to apply for pro- fessional advice, as bleeding may perhaps be useful: meanwhile, his diet and other treatment should be similar to that prescribed under the head of Inflammation. When an inflamed surface as- sumes a gangrenous appearance, wlule the patient is weak, and the pulse low, it will be advisable to resort to a nourishing diet, together with the free use of generous wine, and whatever else is calculated to invigorate the system. Peruvian bark in powder is usually given, in as large quantities as the patient's stomach can support. According to later experience, however, musk conjoined with the volatile salt of amber, affords a still more power- ful remedy, for checking the pro- gress of gangrene: eight grains of the former, with five of the latter, have been administered in the form of pills, every three hours, with evident success, after the bark and valerian had been given without effect. In gangrenes arising from in- tense frost, the parts ought to be immersed in very cold water, or rubbed with snow ; for warm ap- plications will be attended with speedy mortification. A similar pratice should be adopted, if the whole body has become torpid, or rigid, from the severity of the wea- ther ; but, in this case, the water ©ught to be gradually changed for G AN some of a warmer temperature.... Frictions with sAt will also be of considerable service ; and, if the whcle body be benumbed, it will be requisite to administer first a glass of cold wine, or other cordial, and afterwards some warm wine, either alone or with spices. It, however, frequently happens, that a mortification takes place, though no efforts or attention be neglected. In such unfortunate situation, we can by no means ap- prove of extravagantly cutting and dissecting the parts, as soon as they appear gangrenous; but, where the affection extends very deep, it will be beneficial to scarify the diseas- ed spots, and to remove part of the putrid muscular fibre. Various external applications have been recommended, as auxi- liary means of curing a gangrene; but the following deserve a particu- lar notice: Dr. Hahneman has, with singular success, employed a strong decoction of oak-bark, nam- ly, six ounces of it, in coarse pow- der, boiled in a quart of water till it is reduced to one pint: four or six double rags are dipped in it, and applied in a cold state to the diseased part, every half hour, but the compress must every time be made of clean rags....Others have, with equally good effect, resorted to gentle stimulants, generally con- sisting of a weak solution made of one dram of sal-ammoniac in two ounces of vinegar, and six of wa- ter : the degree of stimulus may be increased, or diminished, by va- rying the proportions of the salt. Lastly, when a separation of the mortified part, and a discharge of the corrupt matter, have been ef- fected, either by the use of exter- nal or internal remedies, the re- maining sore is to be treated as a GAP simple purulent ulcer, and maybe healed in the same manner. [G APS, a disease to which poul- try are subject. The late Dr. A. Wisenthall of Baltimore, gives the following account of it: Lon. Med. and Phys. Journal, vol. ii. " There is a disease prevalent among the gallinaceous poultry in this country,called the Gaps, which destroys eight-tenths of our fowls in many parts, and takes place in the greatest degree among the young turkeys and chickens bred upon old established farms. I know not whether the same kind of fowls in England are liable to it, and therefore shall take the liberty to give you a brief account of it. " Chicks and poults, in a few days after they are hatched, are found frequently to open their mouths wide and gasp for breath, at the same time frequently sneez- ing, and attempting to swallow. At first the affection is slight, but gradually becomes more and more oppressive, until it ultimately de- stroys. Very few recover ; they languish, grow dispirited, droop and die. It is generally known, that these symptoms are occasion- ed by worms in the trachea. I have seen the whole of it completely filled with these worms, and have been astonished at the animal's be- ing capable of respiration under such circumstances. " They are of a reddish colour, and at first view, resemble the hu- man lumbricus, (or round worm) ; but when examined, are ma- terially different, When exposed to the microscope, they are found to have an orifice or mouth at one end, formed for suction ; the other end,as far as I know, imperforated. Through the integuments is seen GAR 143 the intestinal tube, much convo- luted, like that of the lumbricus. " No effectual remedy is known against these destructive animals. I have indeed seen them drawn out of the trachea, by means of a fea- ther, stripped from near its end, which is passed into the larynx, and twisted round till it engages one or two of the worms, which are extracted with it."] GARDEN, a piece of ground, laid out, cultivated, and ornament- ed with a variety of plants, fruits, and flowers. Gardens are generally divided into three classes : 1. The flower- garden ; which, being designed both for pleasure and ornament, ought to be in the most conspicu- ous situation. 2. The fruit-gar- den, or orchard; and, 3. The kitchen-garden, which beingcalcu- lated for utility, should be planned in more distant situations. The two latter, however, are at present usually combined, as they equally require good soil and exposure. The principal circumstances that merit attention in the laying out of gardens, are situation, soil, water, and prospect, the most eligible of which we shall briefly state, re- ferring the reader to the article Kitchen-garden, for a more par- ticular accountof the management of such ground as is designed for the supply of culinary vegetables ; and to that of Orchard for tha treatment of fruit-gardens. 1. The situation ought to be nei- ther too elevated, nor too low : for if a garden be too high, it will be exposed to the attacks of the winds, which are very detrimental to trees ; and, if it be too low, the dampness, the vermin, and ve- nomous creatures which breed in 144 GAR GAR ponds and marshy places, contri- bute much to the unwholesome- ness of the spot. It is true, as Dr. Darwin has observed, that low situations are favourable in some respects, on account of their superior warmth, and of their being more sheltered from the cold north-east winds, which, in this climate, are accompanied with frost; and from the boisterous south-west winds, that are very violent, and during summer, fre- quently injure the more delicate plants, by dashing their branches against each other. But in low situations, Dr. D. adds, the fogs in the vernal evenings moisten the young shoots and early flowers of trees, and thus expose them to the injuries of the frosty nights which succeed them, and which they ge- nerally escape, when placed in more elevated ground. The best scite, therefore, is on a gentle de- clivity, especially if it abound with springs, and the land surrounding the house be level: for the air will then be temperate, and the water descending from the hill, whether from springs or rain, will not only contribute to fertilize the soil, but also supply fountains, cascades, Sec. it will be farther useful for irrigat- ing the adjacent valley, which, if the water be not suffered to stag- nate, it will thus be rendered fruit- ful and salubrious. 2. A good soil is an object of great importance. This may be ascertained, by observing whether there be any heath spontaneously growing on it, or other weeds that indicate a poor soil. But if the land be covered with rich grass, fit for pasture, it will be advisable to investigate the depth of the ve- getable earth, by digging holes in various parts, 6 feet in width and 4 in breadth : thus, if 2\ or 3 feet in depth, of good mould, appear on the surface, the soil may be considered as excellent. Good land must neither be too stony, nor too hard for the spade ; nor too dry, damp, sandy, or too light; lastly, neither too stong, nor clayey, as such soils are ill calcu- lated for gardens. 3. The next requisite is water ; the want of which is one of the greatest inconveniences in garden- ing : nor should it be taken from cold springs ; as river-water, or that from stagnant pools, is more proper, especially after it has been exposed to the rays of the sun dur- ing the day. 4. The prospect, though by no means an essential point, consti- tutes one of the greatest charms of a garden, which if it happen to occupy a low and confined situ- ation, is not only disagreeable, but also detrimental to the health of those who spend part of their time in such places. In laying out a garden, its size ought never to exceed the ability or wants of the proprietor. The beauties of Nature should likewise be diligently studied ; as gardens will continue to please in propor- tion as they approach to her de- sign. Hence the several parts ought to be sufficiently diversified; and the general disposition of them accommodated to the inequalities, as well as the different situations, of the soil. Nor should the num- ber and species of trees and shrubs be disproportioned to each part; nor any objects that may conduce to ornament, be excluded from the view of the garden. Lastly, in designing these delightful spots, the constant aim should be to unite all that is natural, grand, and no- GAR ble. The curious reader, who is desirous to obtain more particular information, may, with advantage consult Mr. Wilatley's classi- cal work, entitled " Observations on Modern Gardening, illustrated by descriptions," 8vo. 3s. 6d. which is calculated alike to entertain and instruct. [The great want of Botanic gar- dens in the United States, particu- larly in the city of Philadelphia, the seat of medical science, is now severely felt, and ought to be in- stantly remedied. That legisla- ture would do itself immortal ho- nours, which would devote a few acres to this important purpose. Of so much consequence is this measure deemed in Europe, that it is said in almost every little free town in Germany, and in every province of the Batavian Republic, a botanic garden is established, and a person regularly appointed to take charge of it. In this gar- den all useful plants are placed, whether intended for medicine, or the arts, and it also serves as a source of instruction to those who wish to acquire a knowledge of that pleasing* and highly useful study. At Glassnevin near Dub- lin, too, a botanic garden has been established for some years, and is now in a flourishing condition. It is under the direction of the Dub. lin Society, for the Promotion of Arts; Sec. by which an account of it has been published. Dr. Hozack professor of Bota- ny has lately laid the foundation of one at Xew-York ; and it is to be hoped the laudable example will be followed in Philadelphia.] GARGFT, a disease incident particularly to black cattle : it is attended with a swelling of the throat, tongue, and the contiguous VOL. III. GAR 145 parts ; and supposed to arise partly from over-heated blood, partly in consequence of eating poisonous herbs. To prevent an attack of this disorder, it has been recom- mended to bleed the animals in the spring. But, if it has already taken place, the mouth ought to be examined, and washed with vinegar. Others advise an inci- sion to be made with a knife, be- low the tongue, in order io let out the blood and water; afterwards to wash the wound with a solution of salt and alum, in vinegar. This, however, appears to us a hazard- ous practice, of which we have had no experience. OARGIL,a distemper in geese, which, by stopping the head, fre- quently proves fatal. To effect a cure, nothing more js requisite than to take three or four cloves of garlic, pound them in a mortar with sweet butter; then form them into little balls, and give them to the animal fasting; but no food should be allowed them till two or three hours after taking this re- medy. GARGLE, or Gargarism, is a liquid form of medicines used in disorders of the mouth, gums, Sec. Gargles are peculiarly useful in sore throats and fevers: they are preferable to many other remedies that are given on the spur of the occasion, as they may be easily and expeditiously prepared. Thus a gargle for softening and cleans- ing the mouth and gums may be procured, by simply mixing a small quantity ofbarley-water and honey, acidulated with a little vi- negar. An attenuating gargle, consist- ing of 6 ounces of water, -} an ounce of honey, and a dram and a half of nitre, will be of considerable U 146 GAR GAR service in inflammatory fevers and quinsies, and also for cleansing the tongue and mouth. A decoction of sage, sweetened with honey and sharpened with vinegar, is well calculated to answer a similar pur- pose. With the same intention, the late Sir?John Pringle recom- mended a decoction of figs in milk and water, with the addition of a little sal ammoniac, as an excel- lent gargle, especially /or strangu- lations in the fauces. In putrid sore throats, where the symptoms are urgent, the ten- dency to putrefaction is great, and the patient's breath offensive, the following composition will be found serviceable : Let 12 ounces of bar- ley-water be mixed with 6 of bruis- ed contrayerva-roots, while the former is boiling. The liquor is then to be strained off, and 2 ounces of white wine vinegar, 1 ounce of tincture of myrrh, and 6 drams of the best honey are to be added. If the parts surrounding -the gullet happen to be affected to such a degree as to render it pain- ful for the patients to employ this composition themselves, it may be injected into the mouth, by means of a small syringe. An emollient gargle may be made, by boiling an ounce of marsh-mal- low root, and two or three figs in a quart of water, till it is reduced to one pint, when the liquor is to be strained off: it is useful in fe- vers, where the tongue and mouth are parched, in order to soften those parts and to promote a dis- charge of the saliva. Lastly, the common gargle is prepared, by mix- ing 6 ounces of rose water, with I an ounce of syrup of Clove July- flowers, and acidulating this com- pound with spirit of vitriol : it is employed for cleansing the mouth and gums, and operates as a gentle repellent; though we believe a mixture of water and vinegar is not inferior to that elegant com- position. GARGUT, a distemper affect- ing all kinds of mamillary animals, especially cows when full of milk. It is occasioned by this fluid being coagulated in their bags or udders, so that it becomes corrupted and breaks out, discharging a noisome and ulcerating matter. The chief cause of the injury is owing to the neglect of milking, or sucking down in proper time; but may also arise from too high feeding. Cows and sheep, when thus affected, may be cured ; because these ani- mals are tractable, and will suffer the diseased parts to be anointed with emollient applications: re- maining quiet, while their teats are gently drawn down. Instances have occurred of cows, which were, even after they had lost half their bags, recovered by the simple me- thods above mentioned, especially by gently squeezing out the cor- rupted milk from the two sound teats. But sows can seldom be cured, on account of their intracta- bility ; and their pigs will never re- lieve them by sucking, after they have once tasted the vitiated milk: hence they necessarily perish, in consequence of their unlimited high feeding. GARLIC, or Allium, L. a genus of plants comprising 54 species, seven of which are indigenous : of these, the following are the princi- pal : 1. The Oleraceum, Streaked Field-garlic, or Wild Garlic, which is perennial; grows in pastures, meadows, and among corn ; and produces whitish-green blossoms in the month of July. It is eaten GAR by cows, goats, sheep, and hogs : ....the tender leaves of this species are usually boiled in soups, or fried with other herbs, and form an wholesome article of food. 2. The ursinum, Broad-leaved Garlic, or Ramsons, which is also perennial; grows in woods, hedges, and meadows ; and produces large white flowers, that blow in the months of May and June. This species is eaten by cows, but it communicates its flavour to the milk and butter, to such a degree as to render those articles offensive during the spring. It affords an excellent remedy fcrdispefling rats and moles ; nor will this plant suf- fer any vegetable set near it to thrive :...an infusion of it in brandy is esteemed, according to Mr. Pen- nant, a good medicine for the gravel....The inhabitants of liamt- schatka find it of great service in removing the scurvy, even in the most advanced stages. 3. The Schoenoprasum, Chive, or Chived Garlic, abounds in mea- dows and pastures ; and flowers in the month of June. It is propa- gated by parting the roots, and was formerly in great request as an in- gredient in salads, during the spring ; but it has been latterly neglected : its taste, smell, See. are milder than those of the common onion. Beside these species, which are but little cultivated, there is ano- ther, that deserves to be noticed, viz. the sativum, or Common Gar- lic. It is a native of Sicily, whence it has been introduced into our gardens....This is a very hardy plant, and will thrive in almost every soil or situation. It is pro- pagated either by the roots or seeds : the former ought to be set GAR 147 in autumn, so that they may strike firmly in the ground before the spring; which is requisite to make them flower vigorously the ensu- ing summer. When raised from seeds, it should be sown on a bor- der of common earth, either in autumn, shortly after the seeds are ripe, or in the succeeding spring: they require only to be kept clear of weeds ; and, in the following autumn, may be transplanted to the spot where they are destined to remain. Every part of this plant, but especially the root, has a pungent, acrimonious, and almost caustic taste, with a peculiarly strong, and, to many persons, offensive smell. Several nations, however, such as the Russians, Poles, and Hunga- rians, are very partial to it ; and the Jews eat it to excess. Its odour is extremely penetrating and diffu- sive ; and, when the root is taken into the stomach, its scent is com- municated to the various excre- tions, and perspires through the pores of the skin....The juice of this pungent root may beemployed v/ith advantage, for cementing broken glass, china, or porcelain. Garlic differs from the onion, only by being more powerful in its effects : they are both stimulants ; assist digestion; relieve the bowels; expel flatulency ; and are benefit cial in disorders proceeding from too great a degree of viscidity ; they also increase the appetite ; and, as their stimulating properties are diffused over the whole system, they may be considered as useful condiments with the food of phleg- matic persons, or those, whose se- cretions are in a languid state ; but their use may prove very pernici- ous to individuals who are liable 148 GAR GAR to inflammatory complaints, or in whom a great degree of irritability prevails. The medical properties of garlic are various: it has long been in estimation as an expectorant in pi- tuitous asthmas, and other pulmo- nary affections that are not accom- panied with inflammation. It is also frequently of service in the dropsy ; at the commencement of which it has been especially recom- mended by Sydenham, in the quantity of one or two drams in substance, for a dose....Externally applied, it blisters the skin. When made into an unguent, it is said to discuss cold tumors, and has been celebrated for its efficacy in cu- taneous complaints: in certain states of deafness, a small clove or bush of the root, when enveloped in gause, or muslin, and intro- duced into the ear, has been found an efficacious remedy. XMcilicd for preventing the taste of Garlic in Milk and Butter. The following plan is recom- mended, by a writer in the Philadel- phia Mugazine for 1798, for re- moving the garlicy taste from milk, and producing sweet, good butter, in place of that which is so generally considered as highly dis- agreeable. " When the milk is new from the cow, pour one quart of boiling wa- ter to every gallon of milk; stir it through, and put the whole into broad shallow dishes, so that it will not be above two inches deep. Let these dishes be placed on an open shelf, that the vapour may pass freely and entirely away. When the milk has stood in this manner twelve hours, it may be put into the churn altogether, or only the cream, as may be most agreeable to the taste or practice of the ope- rator. Milk from cows that have pastured on garlic, when managed in this way, will be quite sweet. The plan here proposed is found- ed on analogous experience. The feeding of cows on turnips communicates a disagreeable taste to the milk and butter ; but in many parts of Britain, they make excellent butter from turnip fed cows, by apian similar to the fore- going. The bad taste of the turnip con- sists in some volatile substance, which is evaporated by the hot water. Garlic is much of the same nature, but probably more volatile. Biscuit baked from gar- licy flour, has no taste of gar- lic ; but soft bread or pudding of the same flour, retains it strongly, having both experienced but an imperfect evaporation." Wild Garlic is unquestion- ably the most noxious plant with which farmers are troubled. When once it has obtained entrance in a field it is exceedingly difficult to destroy, for being a bulbous root, it is very tenacious of life, and will spring up vigorously after having been smothered for two years by a plentiful crop of clover....Nothing short of a system of farming, which is able to destroy it while in a ve- getating state, will banish it from a field. Such a system, the Edi- tor has been favoured with by Mr. John D. Steele of White-Marsh township, Montgomery county; who successfully cultivates a large farm, and the Editor has the plea- sure to state that nearly the pre- cise plan laid down by Mr. S. was prescribed by Mr. Wm. West of Delaware county upon an applica- tion to him respecting the means of destroying this noxious plant. " The loss which farmers sus-, GAR tain, by the impossibility of selling but at a very depreciated rate, grain that has garlic mixed with it, or dairy produce, that is affect- ed with its disagreeable flavour, and also the loss which results to them from the retardation of the growth of their crops, where this pernicious plant prevails, render its extirpation an object particu- larly worthy of attention. I do not presume to say from experience, that this desirable object is fully attainable, but I believe the mode of summer fallowing pursued by many farmers for that purpose, is illy calculated to produce its ac- complishment. If the increase of garlic proceed- ed only from its fructiferous stem, ploughing in the summer would doubtless prevent it, but this is far from being the case, as the lateral progeny which grows from the maternal bulb, is perhaps more numerous than the sexual progeny produced at the summit of the stem. We all know that the germinat- ing powers of garlic lie dormant from the latter end of the spring, till towards the termination of au- tumn, and a slight attention to its bulbs will convince us, that it re- ceives little or no injury from ex- posure to the action of the atmos- phere during that time ; indeed it is a prevalent opinion that bulbs shoot with additional vigour after being dried during the time that their germinative functions are sus- pended, and hence the practice of taking up tulips, simli onions, hyacinths, ke. when their foliage or blades decay, and replanting them before they begin to shoot.... It is a fact also, which no one will pretend to controvert, that bulbs kept out of the ground, or from GAR 149 receiving nutrition during their springing season, will gradually dwindle away and die, which fact is strikingly exemplified in the plant we are treating of, for if it beploughedup earlyinthe spring of the year, those bulbs which are turned up and loosened from the surface of the ground, will in a short time perish inevitably. Some few however ofthe embryonplants, drawing nourishment from their parents, and receiving shelter from their exterior integuments, will, if ploughed intothe groundagain, too soon spring from their remains. But the greatest difficulty is in bringing the w hole of the roots to the surface of the ground, and can only be effected by repeated ploughings, hence two, three, or four years, according to the state of the ground or the seasons, must escape before a field overrun with this weed, can be perfectly cleared from it: but I do not think this ought to discourage the cultivator, or deter him from attempting the destruction of this pest, for if he can give as much manure to his land as will cause it to produce three or four crops of oats, barley or spring wheat in succession, he will not sustain any loss. It is not on mere theoretic rea- soning that I have founded my opi- nion, of the impossibility of de- stroying this plant by repeated ploughings in thesummer, and of the efficacy of spring ploughings, in producing its destruction ; for experience and observation have convinced me of botn...I have fre- quently plowed fieldsthat abounded in garlic early in the spring, sow- ed them with oats, and in the suc- ceeding autumn sowed them with winter grain, in these field. I have invariably found garlic plants so 150 GAR weakened, that few of them pro- duced seed....In two instances I have ploughed land in the spring and fall, two years in succession, and sowed it with oats for the ex- press purpose of destroying the garlic. In the first instance, I suc- ceeded perfectly, I do not know that there is a single root of gar- lic in the whole piece, which con- sists of about 12 acres ; whilst ano- ther section of the same field ex- actly in the same state which was left as a mowing piece, and high- ly manured, is nearly covered with this plant....My other experiment was not crowned with such com- plete success, but the quantity of plants left appear so trifling as scarcely to deserve notice. When a field is once clear of this weed, I believe there will be little difficulty in keeping it so, if care be taken that it is not introduced with the seed or manure, for nature has been very sparing in furnish- ing it with the means of spread- ing itself: she has not given it the downy wings of the thistle to convey it into the circumjacent country; she has not bestowedupon it the adhesive properties of the burdock, to carry it to distant parts; nor has she communicated to it the elasticity of the noli me mngere to convey it from its native spot ; but on the contrary, she has form- ed its seed heavy and destitute of every itinerant principle, so that, when ripe, it falls immediately to the ground, where it joins the nu- merous subterraneous progeny,and becomes the concomitant of the maternal bulb."] GARTER, a ligature employed for fastening or tying up stockings. Though the use of garters be sanctioned by custom and fashion, it is by no means to be recommend- GAU ed, either above or below the knee; for the parts compressed acquire an unnatural hardness ; and every ex- ertion, either in walking or riding, is attended with increased fatigue. Dropsies of the legs and thighs also frequently arise from this unsus- pected cause; hence, likewise, many persons stumble, fall, and dislocate, or otherwise materially injure the knee-pan. Such are the inconveniencies attendant on the use of garters : they might, how- ever be easily prevented,by simply fastening the stockings to the waste- band, by means of tape. Trifling as this alteration may probably ap- pear, it is of real importance to all, especially to those who are troubled with swelled or ulcerated legs, as well as to invalids and valetudina- rians in general: for we are fully persuaded that by the adoption of the expedient before suggested, many unfortunate accidents may be easilv obviated. [GAULTHERIA, a genus of plants, one species of which only is known to us as a native of the United States. It is called Cana- dian Gaidtheria, or Mountain Tea, Grouse-berry, Deer-berry, Ground- ivy. It is a common and very small shrubby plant, with slender stems, having at theirtops four or five oval ever-green leaves, which have been used as a substitute for Bohea tea; whence the name of Mountain tea. This tea has been used with suc- cess in alleviating the asthma*] GAUZE, in commerce, is a thin transparent stuff,sometimes woven of silk, and sometimes only of thread. In preparing the silk for making gauze, it is twined round a wooden machine, about six feet in height, in the middle of which an axis is placed perpendicularly, with six large wings. On these, GEM the silk is wound off the bobbins, by the revolution of the axis; and, when it is thus placed round the mill, it is taken off by means of another instrument, and wound on two beams. The silk is then passed through as many small beads as it has threads, and is thus rolled on another beam, in order to supply the loom. Gauzes are either plain or figur- ed : the latter are worked with flowers of gold and silver, on a silk ground, and are chiefly imported from China....No silk gauzes can, during the present hostilities, be imported from either France or Holland: formerly they paid a duty of 21 per cent, on the value of the goods.....Within these few years, excellent silk and other gauzes were manufactured at Paisley, in Scotland ; but, as this elegant ar- ticle of luxury has lately much declined, the silk is now employed for other more solid purposes. GEM, a general name applied to all precious stones, which are divided into two classes: 1. The pellucid, or such as are clear, ele- gant and beautiful fossils, extreme- ly hard, and of uncommon lustre; 2. The semi-pellucid gems, which are found in small detached pieces, and are composed of crystalline matter debased by earth: they are, nevertheless, of great beauty and brightness, and somewhat transpa- rent. The value of gems depends principally on their hardness and colour. With respect to the for- mer, the diamond is allowed to be the firmest, and can only be po- lished, or cut, by its own powder : next to it, the ruby, sapphire, ja- cinth, emerald, amethyst, garnet, onyx, jasper, agate, porphyry, and marble are classed in the order we GEN 151 have enumerated. The same clas- sification prevails in point of co- lour: the diamond is universally esteemed on account of its brilli- ancy ; the ruby for its purple; the sapphire for its blue; the emerald for its green ; the jacinth for its orange ; the amethyst for its car- nation ; the onyx for its tawney; the jasper, agate, Sec. for their vermillion, green, and variegated colours; and the garnet for its transparent red. The art of imitating gems is very difficult to be attained ; and, as it can be practised only by those cu- rious persons, who possess both leisure and means, we shall not en- ter into a detail. The same apo- logy will apply to the imitation of what are called antique gems ; many valuable impressions of which have been made by Mr. Tassie: hence we cannot omit to mention Mr. Raspe's " Account of the Present State and Arrangement of Mr. James Tassie's Collection of Pastes," Sec. 8vo. 1786, where the inquisitive reader will find an in- teresting subject judiciously treat- ed and explained. GENER ATION,in physiology, implies the propagation of the species, whether in plants, insects, fishes, or other animals. Having referred the reader to this article, under the head of " Anuialculk," (vol. i. p. 61), we are obliged only to explain the term, without entering into spe- culative theories, none of which has hitherto been sanctioned by general authority. Generation, is also used, in Scripture, for genealogy, cr the series of children issued from a common parent. More frequent- ly, however, is the word genera- tion employed at present, to sig- 152 GEN GER nify an age, or the average period of human life. Hence we say, " to the third and fourth genera- tion ;" in which sense historians generally compute the space of about 33 years to each generation. Thus Herodotus divides a cen- tury, or 100 years, into three ge- nerations ; a calculation that ap- pears to be tolerably correct, from the latest results of political arith- metic. GENTIAN, the Common, Yel- low, or Red ; Gentiana lutea, v. rubra, is a native of the Alps, whence it was introduced into this country. It is, however, seldom cultivated in our gardens; the root, which is employed in medicine, being imported from the moun- tainous parts of Switzerland and Germany. Gentian is one of the principal bitters of European growth, and has been found of considerable ser- vice in fevers, and those complaints which arise from weakness of the stomach, and acidity in the first passages. Some years since a poisonous root was brought to Lon- don among parcels of gentian, the use of which occasioned violent disorders, and, in two cases, death. This spurious root is conjectured to have been the Aconitum anthora, a species of the wolf's-bane, which may be easily distinguished from the gentian, by its smell, whitish colour, and want of bitterness; whereas, the true gentian is exter- nally brown, and of a yellowish, or bright-red colour within ; has no scent, and, at first, a sweetish, but immediately after, a very bit- ter and pungent taste.....The dose of this drug, in powder, is from 10 to 40 grains ; though it is more frequently taken as the chief in- gredient in bitter wines; tinctures, and infusions. [There are several species of gentian in the. United States. Dr. Seoepf particularly praises a low species, with narrow leaves, which he found in the glades in Pennsyl- vania. GERANIUM, maculatum or Cranes bill. " In the county of Lancaster" according to Dr. Bar. ton, " and probably in other parts of Pennsylvania and the United States, this plant is known by the English name of " Crow Foot." It is hardly necessary to say,-that this name is improperly applied to this or any other species of the family of geranium; for it has, long since, been appropriated to the dif- ferent species of the genus Ranun- culus. The name of Crow-foot is also bestowed, in some parts of Penn- sylvania, upon a species ofgeum or Bennet, the geum rivale or red wa- ter avens."....These remarks fur- nish an additional argument in fa- vour of the importance of calling plants by their botanical, instead of their trivial names. The geranium maculatum, is a common plant near Philadelphia, and flowers in the spring: it is a powerful astringent, and will stop very violent bleeding. Mr. Bak- tram informed the Editor that he stopped a most profuse hemorrhage in the ancle, which had been cut with an adze, by applying this plant to the part. From the pulsatory motion of the blood, there could be no doubt of a small artery hav- ing been divided. The root boiled in milk is a com- mon domestic remedy for the cho- lera, a bowel complaint which at- tacks children during the summer GER GER 153 months. Dr. Willich notices the geranium under the article " Cranes bill."] GERMANDER, or Teucrium L. a genus of plants consisting of sixty-eight species, three of which only are natives. 1. The scorodinia, Wood Ger- mander, or wood sage, which is perennial; grows in woods, heaths, thickets, and hedge-banks ; and flowers in the month of July. It has a bitter taste, and in smell re- sembles hops, with a small mix- ture of garlic : in the Isle of Jer- sey, it is used in brewing, as a substitute for hops. 2. The scordium, or Water Ger- mander, which is also perennial; grows in damp and marshy situa- tions ; and produces purplish flow- ers in the months of July and Au- gust. It is eaten by sheep and goats, but refused by horses, hogs, and cows ; though the latter will eat it when impelled by hunger, in consequence of which, their milk acquires the flavour of garlic. The fresh leaves of the water ger- mander are bitter, and somewhat pungent: when pulverized, they have been used for the expulsion of worms :....a decoction of the whole plant is said to be a good fomentation in gangrenes. 3. The chamaedrys, or Common Germander, is found in the bor- ders of corn-fields that are remote from houses, in ruins, and upon ancient walls ; it produces reddish purple flowers, which blow in the month of June or July. The leaves and tops of this species have a mo- derately bitter taste, accompanied with a weak aromatic flavour. It was formerly in great esteem as an aperient and corroborant; it is strongly recommended in agues, rheumatism, and gout, especially VOL. m. to weak and relaxed constitiuioris. In tanning, it has been employed with advantage by Baltsch. There is an exotic species of the germander, viz. the Teucrium ma- rum, or marum germander, which is a native of Spain, whence it has been introduced into our gardens, under the name of Cat-thyme. It has received this appellation, from the uncommon fondness which cats instinctively display for this vege- table. Its leaves and tender branch- es, on being rubbed between tiie fingers, when fresh, emit a vola- tile aromatic odour, which excites sneezing ; but to the taste they are somewhat bitter, with a sensation of heat and acrimony. From the active powers of the marum germander, it has been highly recommended in many dis- eases that require medicines of u stimulant, aromatic, and deobstru- ent quality. In the second volume of the " Transactions of the Royal and Economical Society of Florence," we meet with an interesting memoir by Dr. Menaubonk, on the medi- cal properticsof the Common Ger- mander. Our limits permit us only to state, that Dr. M. strongly recommends the leaves and shoots of this indigenous plant as a sub- stitute for the Permian bark ; a hint which deserves the attention of medical practitioners. GERMANDER, the Wild, or Germander-Speedwell, Vero- nica c/iamoedrys, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing in pastures and the sidesof hedees; and flower- ing in May. It is eaten by cows, goals, sheep, and horses, but re- fused by hogs. The leaves of this plant have been recommended as a substitute for tea ; but it is chiefly used as a mild astringent. X 154 G I L GID, a distemper to which hogs are subject. It is occasioned by their feeding too eagerly on buck- wheat, clover, or other rich succu- lent plants ; and is somewhat simi- lar to the disorder in horses, called the staggers ; as the diseased hogs are affected with violent giddiness, sometimes stumbling and falling at every step ; at others, sitting on their haunches, they squeak for several minutes successively, with great violence. The only remedy hitherto known for the cure of this malady is, to drive the animals about for a considerable time (as they are too intractable to be treat- ed medically,) by which means an abundant evacuation will be pro- moted, and they will be effectually relieved. It is, however, necessary to adopt this rough treatment, as soon as any of the first symptoms appear ; for, if neglected, their in- testines become inflamed ; their bodies violently distended ; and a painful death will be the conse- quence. GILDING,the art of spreading, or covering any substance with gold, either in leaf, or in a liquid state. This art was known to the an- cients, though it has only within the last two or three centuries been brought to the highest degree of perfection. Consistently with our plan, we cannot enter into the va- rious branches of gilding, the know- ledge of which is confined to a par- ticular class of artists ; yet, as there are many who delight in making experiments, we shall subjoin a simple method, that may be easily practised, and will not affect the health of individuals. Let gold i>e dissolved in aqua- regia (which see) ; in this solution piecesof linen should be immersed, GIL then dried, and burnt to ashes j these should be finely pulverized, and rubbed on silver, by means of a wet linen rag, or more properly with a moistened piece of cork: thus, the particles of gold they con- tain will be deposited, so as to ad- here firmly to the silver. The re- maining ashes are next to be wash- ed off, and the surface of the silver that does not appear gilt, is to be burnished with a blood-stone, till it acquires the colour of gold. This method, which is easy, and con- sumes a very small portion of gold, is usually employed for the gilding of trinkets, spoons, snuff-boxes,and other articles. Gold is likewise used for orna- menting glass, porcelain, and other vitrified matters ; to the surface of which (being very smooth, and sus- ceptible of a perfect contact), the gold ieaves closely adhere. The pieces are then exposed to a certain degree of heat, and slightly bur- nished, in order to give them lus- tre. However ingenious and pleasing to its amateurs, the art of gilding is very detrimental to the health of the persons who practise it, espe- cially in the more complex branches where mercury and other noxious minerals are employed over fires, ana cannot fail to produce the most pernicious vapours. Gilders by profession are particularly liable to suffer from these exhalations, the influence of which, howe\ er, might be effectually prevented, by allow- ing a continual current of air to perflate the apartment, where the process is managed. Such an ar- rangement may be easily made, by merely opening the upper window, or a door, which will admit fresh air to pass through the room. By this simple expedient, the tremors* GIL G I N 155 paleness, and sickness usually at- tendant on such operations, will be completely averted. [The following expeditious and excellent mode of gilding is com- municated by Mr. Samuel Fol- well, minature painter of Phila- delphia. " Give your wood two coats of parchment size, and when dry, give one coat of a black composed of asphaltum boiled in turpentine: then lay your gold leaf on, and in 3 hours after, you may burnish."] GILEAD,the Balsam,orBALM of, is a gummy substance that ex- udes from the bark of the Amyris Gileadensis v. Opobulsamum, L. a native of Arabia Felix. The balsam formerly imported into Europe, is obtained chiefly by incision ; but the quantity afforded by one tree is so very small, and the collecting of it is attended with so much trouble, that the genuine balm is seldom, and perhaps never exported in a commercial way. It is of a bitterish aromatic taste, an acidulous fragrant smell, and of a yellowish or greenish colour....... Among the Turkish women, it is in high reputation, both as a cosme- tic and as a specific for almost every disorder ; on which account it is valued at so extravagant a price, that it is extremely difficult to pro- cure it in a genuine state, because it is presented only to Sovereign Princes. Hence, in this country, it is now entirely superceded by the balsams of Canada and Copaiba, which are equally efficacious. We have inserted this account, with a view to caution and undeceive the credulous, who may be apt to ima- gine that any base compound of- fered to the public, under specious pretensions, is the real Balm of Gilead, which is frequently men- tioned in Scripture. [A contemptible Jew Mounte- bank, by name Solomon, resident at Liverpool, who has purchased the title of M. D. from Aberdeen, has puffed off a medicine which he calls "Balm of Gilead," as an uni- versal restorer of exhausted consti- tutions, and has continued to dupe thousands by hisdisgusting preten- sions, and by the abominable pub- lications which bear his name. To the honour of the American name, such creatures would starve in the United States. Some of this medi- cine, is however, occasionally offer- ed for sale among us, at the mode- rate price of g3 per oz. vial; but there is little demand for it. The good sense of our countrymen is strongly depicted in this circum- stance.] Gill. See Ground-ivy. GIN,sometimes called Geneva, or Hollands, is a malt spirit dis- tilled a second time with the addi- tion of juniper-berries. These berries were at first added to the malt before it was ground ; so that the spirit obtained from both, by distillation, possessed the aromatic flavour of the berries, and was much superior to that produc- ed by any other method. At pre- sent, the juniper-berries are totally omitted ; and the noxious spirits vended under the name of gin, ac- quire their flavour by distilling them with oil of turpentine, the taste of which in a slight degree resembles that of the juniper-ber- ries, but possesses none of their valuable properties. [GIN, commonly called Jenny. A machine to free cotton from seeds. N'ariousmacliinesunder thi.s name have been invented, some of which go by water or horses, and some by hand; an account of these may be seen in '• Drayton's view of South Carolina" just published, 156 GIN Bvo. At present we shall describe a frot gin in use in South Caroli- na, and of which a drawing has been procured through the friend- ship of a correspondent, who ob- serves, that " this gin differs from the common foot gins, in having • iron instead of wooden rollers ; it also works with greater ease, and its rollers appear to have twice the velocity of those in common use. The inventor asserts he can gin sixty-five pounds of cotton per day." Explanation of the movements of the improved cotton foot gin. A A.Two perpendicular wheels. B the axis, on which is a crank C turned by a treadle D with the ope- rator's foot. The wheels are each armed with a triple fly, loaded at the extremity of each arm with leaden weights of about 4ibs. each. E a leather strap, which turns the collars FF of the two iron rollers, and for the purpose of turning them contrary ways, the strap on one side is reflected or twisted, and a small spindle G, turning freely ou its axis prevents the friction of the same. H H are two steel screws to regulate the distance which the rollers areto be apart. I is a movcabletable with elevated sides on which the cotton is placed to be ginned, and resting on twoarms K. This table in the back view of the machine is removed to shew a dia- gonal trough L, which receives the seed separated from the clean cot- ton. The cotton is extricated by the operator from the rollers, and falls over a platform placed on the bracesM and is received on a broad foct board N, in the front. O is a high seat on which the operator is seated. P, Q, are mortises in the upright shaft; in which are in- GIN serted metal collars for the axis B to run in, and are regulated by w edges, as shewn in the plute. As this gin is particularly calcu- lated for families who raise cotton for home manufactures, the inha- bitantsofKentucky,Tennesee,Ohio and Mississippi Territory, (in all which states it is understood no gins are yet introduced) will de- rive great benefit from the oppor- tunity now offered them, of con- structing a machine which will greatly diminish their laboyrs.] GINGER, the Common, or Amomum Zingiber, L. is a native of the East Indies, whence it was transplanted by the Spaniards to the West India Islands,from which Europe is chiefly supplied with its spicy root. Ginger is a perennial shrub, which grows about a yard high. Its pro- pagation is effected by parting the roots in the spring, planting them in pots of light rich earth, and placing them in a hot-bed of tan- ner's bark, where they are to re- main. The dried roots of this plant are either white, from the lime em- ployed to prevent their destruction by vermin ; or blueish, brown, or black, according to the soil in which they have been cultivated ; they are of eminent use, both for culi- nary and medical purposes, afford- ing one of the most wholesome and agreeable spices. Hence ginger in entire pieces is often boiled in beer, and drank by persons who are obliged to spend part of their time in cold, open air. It is more im- mediately serviceable in cold flatu- lent coiics ; in laxity and debility of the stomach and intestines, espe- cially in torpid, phlegmatic consti- tutions ; in order to induce a brisk- er action of the vessels ; for it is /'Yvnl I'rnv of a lollen Gin ''"%£■- V* ok A GIN GIN 157 not so' heating as the spices of the pepper kind, though its effects are more durable. Ginger-bread, is a composi- tion prepared of flour, and sugar or treacle, to which is added a cer- tain proportion of ground ginger, whence it has received its name. Ginger-bread, well baked, may occasionally be of service to tra- vellers, if a small portion of it be taken early in the morning, and on an empty stomach ; but it ought seldom, or very sparingly, to be given to children, whose stomachs it materially injures, especially when ornamented with leaf-gold, as it is erroneously called ; though the glittering bait consists of Dutch gold, that is, brass or copper re- duced to the fineness of gold-leaf, and which is one of the most ve- hement poisons. From this fruit- ful source arise gripes, obstipations of the bowels, obstructions of the mesenteric glands, and other fatal disorders that frequently torment infants, and which there is great reason to fear, have carried many helpless victims of indulgence to an untimely grave. Parents, there- fore, cannot be too watchful in this respect ; and it were much to be wished, that the pernicious prac- tice of gilding ginger-bread might be prohibited, by public authority. [Ginger wine. A correspond- ent forwards the following receipt for making a pleasant ginger wine, which he recommends from expe- rience. To 20 galls, of water add 80lbs. honey, or 70 lbs. sugar, the former in preference : boil and skim as the feculent matter rises ; put the mixture into an open head, and add •*- ounce of ginger coarsely ground or bruised, to every gallon of the mixture, and when cooled. ferment and Jproceed as in elder wine, adding to every 10 gallons, when bunging close one fourth of brandy ; and if the flavour of the orange is required, proceed as in Currant Wine.] GINSENG, or Panax quinque- folium, L. is an exotic plant grow- ing wild in North America. The dried root of ginseng, as imported into this country, has a mucilaginous, sweetish taste,simi- lar to that of liquorice, but accom- panied with some degree of bitter- ness, and a slight aromatic warmth, with very little odour. The Chi- nese ascribe extraordinary virtues to this plant, and consider it as a sovereign remedy in almost every disease to which they are subject. No proofs, however, of its won- derful efficacy have occurred in Europe. Nevertheless it is often used as a tonic, antispasmodic and stimulant, in doses from 20 to 60 grains, in powder. Nor do we be- lieve that the celebrated ginseng tea possesses any peculiar proper- ties, excepting those of a nauseous taste and loathing, while the warm water swallowed with it debilitates the stomach. [This, well known plant is the only native production of the Uni- ded States, which answers to ex- port, in order to procure the lux- uries of China. It is not much es- teemed in China, unless clarified, except in times of a great scarcity of the plant. Whejphowever well clarified, it has brought the extra- vagant price of Si 00 per lb. and great wealth has been acquired by some early adventurers from Phi- ladelphia. The process of clari- fying, though hitherto kept a pro- found secret, consists in the care- ful application of heat and mois- ture to the fresh roots, and after- 158 GLA GL A wards dipping them in hot rice water, or a solution of isinglass in water. It is observed, that not more than one root in twelve will clarify. This plant grows abun- dantly near Philadelphia. The Chinese attribute almost miraculous powers to ginseng. In particular they suppose, it possess- es rhc property of preventing the eflects of old age. and in preserving their virility to a late period. Me- dical men in Europe and the Uni- ted States do not ascribe any virtue to this plant; but Mr. Pennant shrewdly remarks, that it is very extraordinary, a nation so acute as the Chinese, should continueto use it for so long a period', and still believe in its good efl"ects,and there- fore he cannotbepersuadedbutthat the plant must possess some of the properties attributed to it by the Chinese.] Gladiole. See Flowering Rush. Gladwyn, or Gladdon. See Stinking Flower-de-Luce. GLANDERS, a disorder in horses, which manifests itself by a corrupt slimy matter running from the nose : according to the degree of malignity, or the conti- nuance of the infection, the dis- charge is either white, yellow, green, or black, and sometimes tinged with blood. The cause of the glanders is va- riously attributed, by some to an infection ; by-others, to a diseased state of the lungs, the spleen, or the brain. When the distemper has continued till the evacuated mat- ter is of a blackish colour (which usually happens in the last period), it is conjectured to proceed from the spine : in this case, it is call- ed the mourning of the chine. Unless timely remedies be ap- plied on its first appearance, the disorder becomes incurable. With a view, therefore, to prevent ra- ther than to cure it, we shall brief- ly state the most likely methods of obviating the symptoms of this ma- lady, on their first appearance. If the lungs be the seat of the disease, as in the case when horses are first attacked with coughs, we cannot recommend a better treat- ment to be pursued than that point- ed out under the article Cough. But, if a swelling arise beneath the ears, jaws, or about the root of the tongue, proper and immediate ap- plications should be made to pro- cure a discharge and suppuration of the matter. When cough, dif- ficulty of breathing, or a great de- gree of inflammation, accompanies such swelling, it will be advisable to draw a little blood from a dis- tant vein, in order to mitigate those symptoms : and, when the swel- lings about the parts have acquir- ed an evident prominence, they should be fomented twice in twen- ty-four hours, for two or three days, with flannels dipped in the following decoction : Let a hand- ful of chamomile, and a similar quantity of wormwood, marsh- mallows, and elder-flowers, be boiled in three quarts of water, for fifteen minutes, at the end of which they are to be strained. The li- quor is to be used hot; and the herbs applied warm to the parts affected, by way of poultice. In the course of two or three days, it may be ascertained whe- ther a suppuration will follow ; in which case the tumors increase in size, and feel soft in the middle, when pressed by the hand. This is a favourable symptom ; but if the GL A swellings continue hard, without fluctuation, and are accompanied with a running from the nose, eve- ry precaution ought to be taken ; as otherwise the disease may be- come troublesome. Hence it will be necessary to prepare a vapour- bath, consisting of rosemary, la- vender-flowers, and sweet marjo- ram, a handful of each boiled in two or three quarts of water. This is to be put into a^pail, and the ani- mal's head held over twice a day, as near as can be borne, and for such a length of time as the vapour passing up the nostrils is supposed to operate in the manner of an in- ternal fomentation. During the whole treatment, the horse's head ought to be kept warm, as it will greatly contribute to the discharge of the noxious humours. In case the running from the nose continue to increase, becom- ing progressively more discolour- ed, the above stated vapour-bath should be continued, and the eight part of a pint of the fol- lowing mixture injected into one or both of the nostrils, lukewarm, three or four times in the course of twenty-four hours : Take an ounce of linseed, half an ounce of chamomile-flowers,thesame quan- tity of elder-flowers, and three pints of water. The whole is to be boil- ed for a few minutes and strained; but previously to its application, it ought to be properly mixed with four ounces of Mel Algyptiacum, the recipe of which was given in the article Frush. Should the discharge, at length, become so malignant as to afford reason to apprehend a caries of the bones,the fumigation and injection must be continued, and two or three drams of the following mer- curial ointment rubbed into the G L A 153 glandular tumors, every evening, tor a fortnight; cutting away all superfluous hair,that themcrcuri \l particles may be more effectually absorbed, and carried into circula- tion : Take one ounce of crude mercury, and half an ounce of Venice turpentine ; let them be mixed together in a mortar, adding a few grains of sulphur, to facilitate the union of the ingredients ; then gradually mix with them two ounces of melted and lukewarm hog's-lard, and cover the vessel closely ; the unguent being now fit for use. This is the fast remedy that can be applied, with any pros- pect of success ; and, if it unfortu- nately fail, the most rational far- riers are of opinion,thatthe animal should be killed, without further delay ; as the skin will then be its only valuable part. GLASS, a solid transparent, brittle substance, produced by melting together sand, flint, alka- line salts, Sec. besides which there, are various saline matters em- ployed, namely, Polverine, or Ro- chetta, which is prepared from Glaswort, or Salsola Kali, an in- digenous plant; but which is chief- ly imported from the Levant, where it is cut down in the summer, dried in the sun, and burned in heaps, when the ashes fall into a pit, where they concrete into hard mass..... A similar salt is obtained from the ashes (kelp) of the Fucus vesicu- losus, or Common Sea-wrack, or Sea-ware, a marine plant growing on the sea costs. TJie sand used in the manufacture of glass is found at Lynn, in Norfolk, and Maid- stone, in Kent. These various articles are first carefully washed, and, after ex- tracting all the impurities, they are conveyed to the furnace in pots 160 G L A GL A made of tobacco-pipe clay, for the purpose of resisting the fire. Here the mixture is fused, and disposed of according to the different kinds of glass intended to be manufac- tured. Round glass, such as phials, drinking-glasses, &c are blown.... When the different materials are sufficiently liquefied, the workmen dip long iron pipes into it, and blow the metal till it lengthens like a bladder. It is then rolled on a mar- ble slab to polish it, when it is blown a second time, in order to form it into the shape of a globe. Next, it is cut of at the collet, or neck, adhering to the pipe : for this pur- pose, the latter is rested on an iron bar close to the neck, and a drop of water poured on it, by which means it is cracked about a quarter of an inch, when it is slightly struck or cut by a pair of shears, and im- mediately separated. Now the workman dips the rod or pipe into the melting metal, whence he draw out as much as will connect the glass already made, to which he fixes the rod, opposite the opening causecFby the breaking or cutting of the neck. In this position, the glass is carried to the mouth of the furnace, in order to be heated, or scalded: thus it becomes so soft, that it may be pierced, opened, and moulded at pleasure, without any apprehension of its breaking. The vessel, however, is not finish- ed till it has again been returned to the mouth of the furnace, where, after being thoroughly heated, and turned quickly round, it will open to any size, by means of heat and circular motion. Should any im- purities remain, they are cut off with the shears, as the glass con- tinues flexible till it becomes cool. And, if the vessel thus made re- quire a foot or handle, or any other ornament the operator forms them separately, and unites them by the help of hot metal, drawn from the pots with the iron rod :....the last operation for completing the glass, is that of Annealing...See vol. i. Window or Table-glass, is work- ed nearly in the manner above de- scribed : the workman blows and manages the metal, so that it ex- tends two or three feet in a cylin- drical form. It is then carried to the fire, and the operation of blow- ing repeated till the metal is stretched to the dimensions re- quired, the side to which the pipe is fixed diminishing gradually till it ends in a pyramidal form ; but, in order to bring both ends nearly to the same diameter, while the glass continues flexible, a small portion of hot metal is added to the pipe ; the whole is drawn out with a pair of iron pincers, and the same end is cut off with a little cold water as before. The cylinder thus open at one end is returned to the mouth of the furnace, where it is cut by the aid of cold water, after which it is gradually heated on an earthen table, in order to unfold its length, while tiie workman with an iron tool alternately raises'and depresses the two halves of the cylinder : by this process, the latter accommo- dates itself to the same flat form in which it is agairt heated, cooled on a copper table, hardened twenty- four hours in the annealing furnace, and afterwards preserved for use. Window-glass is divided into va- rious sorts, the principal of which are : 1. Crown-glass, which is the clearest and most expensive. The best window-glass, is madeof white sand, 60lbs.; purified pearl-ashes, SOlbs.^ salt-petre 15 lbs.; borax, GL A GLA 161 lib. and of half a pound of arsenic. These materials are melted in the manner before mentioned, and if the glass should assume a dusky yellowish hue, a sufficient quantity of manganese must be added to re- move that defect. 2. Newcastle-glass which is most commonly used in England: it is of an ash-colour, and frequent- ly speckled, streaked, and other- wise blemished. Its preparation consists of 60lbs. of white sand, 25lbs. of unpurified pearl-ashes, lOlbs. of common salt, 2lbs. of ar- senic, and 2 oz. of manganese. 3. Phial-glass is an intermediate kind, between flint and the com- mon bottle or green-glass. The better sort is made of 120lbs. of white sand, 50lbs. of unpurified pearl-ashes, lOlbs. of common salt, 5 lbs. of arsenic, and 5 oz. of man- ganese. The composition for green or common phial-glass consists of 1201bs. of the cheapest white sand, 80lbs.of wood-ashes well burnt and sifted, 20lbs. of pearl-ashes, I5lbs. of common salt, and 1 lb. of arse- nic. 4. The common bottle, or green glass, is prepared from any kind of sand fused with wood-ashes, to which may be added the clinkers of forges. Plate-glass is the last and most valuable kind, and is thus called, from its being cast in plates or large sheets: it is almost exclu- sively employed for mirrors or looking glasses, and for the win- dows of carriages....It is composed of 60lbs. of white sand cleansed ; 25lbs. of purified pearl-ashes ; 15 lbs. of salt-petre,and71bs.of borax; and, if a yellow tinge should ap- pear in the glass, a small quantity of manganese and arsenic are ad- ded, in equal proportions. VOL. III. Plate-glass was formerly blown, but that method having been found very inconvenient, casting was in- vented ; namely, the liquid metal is conveyed from the furnace to a large table, on which it is poured, and all excrescences, or bubbles, are immediately removed by a rol- ler that is swiftly passed over it.... It is then annealed in the manner already referred to. The last process is that of grind- ing, which is performed by certain machinery, that is not generally known. In Britain, it is practised to the greatest perfection by Bohe- mians. The colouring of glass with va- rious shades, is an art known only to a few persons, and as it is not an object of domestic economy, we shall only notice a patent granted in February, 1778, to Mr. John Kent Tarrant, for his invention of painting, spangling, gilding, and silvering glass....This is effected by applying the painting to the back of the glass, so that it may appear on the front, when finished : the colours are to be prepared with oil or varnish. Those parts which are intended to be gilt, must be previ- ously traced on the glass, and when perfectly dry, the gold-leaf is to be applied : a similar method is to be followed for silvering. With re- spect to spangling, the patentee di- rects this process to be performed after the parts have been properly shadowed; and, as soon as the out- lines are dry, the glass ought to be varnished with a solution of gum copal, and the spangles strewed on while it is wet; when they are per- fectly dry, it is necessary to varnish them over two or three times. Glass is so remarkably elastic, that if the force with which glass balls strike each other, be comput- Y 162 GLA GL A ed at 16, that with which they re- cede from their elasticity, will be nearly 15. Hence we have seen glass wigs, and even glass brushes, manufactured by Bohemian artists. Ifglass be exposed to the influence of dew, it becomes moist, which does not happen either with silver or any other metal. And if a gob- let, or other drinking glass, be fill- ed with water, and rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, it will im- part musical notes, higher or lower, in proportion as the glass contains more or less of that fluid: it like- wise possesses considerable electri- cal properties, and is therefore fre- quently employed in experiments on electricity. Before we conclude this article, we cannot omit to take notice of the numerous accidents that fre- quently happen in consequence of persons inadvertently, or adventur- ously, swallowing fragments of broken glass. In such case, the salest remedy is to administer, as speedily as possible,large draughts of olive or other demulcent oils, by which the membranes of the sto- mach and intestines may be lubri- cated, and thus the injurious ef- fects of the glass timely counter- acted. If children, or other impro- vident persons, have cut themselves with glass, it is of the first import- ance to ascertain whether any par- ticles of it have remained in the wound : these should, at all ha- zards, be immediately extracted by a skilful operator, as, without such precaution, the most dangerous consequences are to be apprehend- ed, in parts thus injured. For different methods of uniting broken glass, we refer to the arti- cles Cement and Garlic Glass-wort. See Salt-wort. GLAUBER's-SALT, a chemi- cal composition, which is usually prepared by adding to sea-salt an equal quantity of oil of vitriol dilut- ed with water, distilling off the marine acid, and dissolving and crystalizing the remainder. These salts may also be obtained by mixing four ounces of borax with one ounce and one dram of oil of vitriol ; the whole of which, when sublimed, affords what is by chemists called Sedative Salt ; and if the remainder be exposed to a strong fire, it will yield Glauber's- salts. They were first prepared by John Rhodolphus Glauber, a celebrated chemist of the 17th cen- tury ; and are of considerable use in medicine as cooling purgatives, when taken in doses from six to twelve drams: they also prove ex- cellent aperients in various chroni- cal disorders, such as habitual cos- tiveness, for which small doses of one dram of this salt, with two scruples of cream of tartar,and one scruple of sal ammoniac dissolved in water, may be given with ad- vantage, three or four times a day. [The very disagreeable taste of this salt may be in a great mea- sure destroyed, by dissolving it in hot lemonade.] GLAZING,signifies the coating or enamelling of earthen ware with any vitreous substance, the basis of which consists of lead. It is one of those familiar arts with which the ancients were doubtless better acquainted than our modern pot- ters. The Roman urns discovered in Yorkshire, instead of being glazed, are covered on both sides with a fine varnish of a red coral tint, smooth, beautiful, and incom- parably more durable than all our GLA tarthen vessels ; having withstood the effects of time for a long series of centuries. On the coutrary, the glazing of all our earthen ware is very apt to crack,both from moisture and heat, being composed of lead, one of the most pernicious metals that could be devised for such important pur- poses. It is well known that lead is easily volatilized by heat, and readily decomposed by any vegeta- ble acid : hence it has been affirm- ed by various eminent writers, that we are under the necessity of inhal- ing or swallowing, perhaps every day, a minute portion of a metal which is one of the slowest, but most destructive poisons, and lays the foundation of many fatal disor- ders, such as palsy, dry colic, con- sumption, Sec. the remote cause of which has not, till lately, been sus- pected. Although we are no advocates for spreading alarm,or exciting appre- hension, yet there appears to be sufficient reason to believe that our glazed culinary vessels are a latent source of disease ; and when fruit or acids be allowed to remain in them for some time, the liquors or substances thus preserved will ne- cessarily acquire a very dangerous impregnation from the metal. Instead, therefore, of describing the composition and process by which earthen vessels are usually glazed, we shall earnestly recom- mend various substitutes for lead lo the attention of the public. M. Westrumb, an eminent Ger- man chemist, was required by the government of Hanover to devise a less pernicious method of glazing earthen ware than was hitherto practised. In consequence of nu- merous experiments, he has at length published the successful re- G L E 163 suit of several compositions, in which not a particle of lead was employed, and which in his opinion will prove an useful glazing for or- dinary vessels. First; 32 parts of sand; 11. 15. or 20 parts of purified pot-ash ; from 3 to 5 parts of borax. Second; 32 parts of glass (we suppose fiint-glass ;) 16 parts of borax ; and 3 parts of pure pot- ash. Third: 150 parts of crystalized Glauber's-salt, with 8 parts of pul- verized charcoal, preriously roast- ed, till it has acquired agrey colour; 16 parts of sand ; and 8 parts of borax. Another method of glazing with- out lead has been invented by M. Nieseman, a potter at Leipzig : it consists of half a pound of salt- petre, half a pound of pot-ash, and one pound of common salt. This composition is not very expensive, and said to produce an enamel not inferior to that prepared with lead. Professor Leonardi has investi- gated, and found it eminently use- ful. We trust, therefore, our pot- ters will in future conscientiously desist from using that pernicious and slowly poisonous metal. GLEANING, or Leasing, as it is called in some counties, is the gathering or picking up those ears of corn which are left after the field has been reaped, and the crop car- ried home. This practice has latelybeen de- cided to be illegal; and so far as it respects those idle persons, whose sole occupation during the summer months, is to procure a scanty sub- sistence by leasing, the decision lias been dictated by the soundest wisdom. In some parts of the Continent, the farmers allow this privilege 164 GLO only upon condition that the glean- ers contribute their labour for one or two hours towards the housing of the crop. Such regulation is occasionally beneficial to both par- ties, especially on the approach of rain ; as the sheaves may thus be collected and loaded on carts, or otherwise secured by the aid of supernumerary hands, before the storm bursts forth, and perhaps damages the corn, by additional moisture. In consideration of their services, these voluntary labourers are permitted to glean for one or two hours, more or less, according to the time they have assisted, be- fore others are suffered to enter the field indiscriminately. GLOVE, a covering for the hand and wrist, which forms a consider- able article of commerce. Gloves are divided into various kinds, such as silk, thread, cotton leather, Sec. The materials for the last-mentioned sort are the skins of kids, lambs, does, bucks, and other animals, the various manufacturing of which affords employment to a srreat number of families. Although the most fashionable gloves, and those very generally worn, consist of leather, yet they are by no means the most healthy. Indeed, it is equally improper and unwholesome to cover the hands and arms with any other than woollen texture, which ought to be preferred by all females who are anxious to improve the complexion of those extremities....we are con- vinced from experience, that no cosmetics are so efficacious and safe as simple animal wool. GLOW-WORM, the Female of the Fire-fly, or Lampyris nocti- luca, L. is remarkable for the light it emits during the night. This luminous appearance depends upon GLU a phosphorescent liquor found at the lower extremity of the insect, which, by unfolding or contracting itself, withdraws it at pleasure. The glow - worm flies about chiefly in autumn, and frequents the grassy plantations of juniper- trees. The whole insect was for- merly used in medicine as a solvent of the stone, and highly extolled as an anodyne ; but it is at present deservedly exploded. GLUE, a tenacious, viscid mat- ter, serving as a cement to unite or connect substances together. Glues are of different kinds, ac- cording to the varioususestowhich they are applied ; such are com- mon glue, glove-glue, and parch- ment-glue : but the two last are more properly called Size. The common or string - glue, which is chiefly used by carpenters, joiners, Sec. is prepared sometimes from the whole skins of oxen, cows and other animals; but more gene- rally from the parings or scraps, sinews of the legs, Sec. The parings -are steeped for two or three days in water, when they are washed out, and boiled to the consistence of a jelly, which is pas- sed, while hot, through osier bas- kets, in order to separate the im- pure particles. It is then left to subside and filtrate: when all fecu- lent matters are settled at the bot- tom, the jelly is dissolved and boiled a second time ; after which it is poured into flat vessels or moulds, whence it is taken out in solid mas- ses, and cut into square pieces or cakes....Lastly, it is suspended in a kind of coarse net fastened to a frame, or strings, where it is suf- fered to remain till completely dry. The best glue for common purpo- ses used in this country is gene- rally imported from Ireland, andis, GLU GLU 165 exempt even from the convoy- duty ; whereas the glue obtained from foreign markets pays to the customs 9s. 3d}, per cwt. A very superior, but expensive glue may be prepared from the hides of the oldest castle, especi- ally those of bulls. Its quality is likewise much improved by long keeping ; and its strengtlrjmay be easily determined, by immersing a piece in water for three or four days ; at the expiration of which, if it swell considerably without dis- solving, and resume its former dry state, on being exposed to the air, it may be considered as excellent. Glue is also manufactured from the skins, fins, heads, tails, and cartilages of porpoises, cuttle-fish, and other sea-monsters. For this purpose, the parts above mention- ed should be boiled in water, be- ing carefully preserved from smoke, and whatever may disco- lour the liquor, or render it tur- bid. When all the substance of the fish has been boiled down, the jelly is strained through a sieve, and suffered to cool. It is then again boiled with the same pre- caution, till the drops, when dried in the open air, concrete on cool- ing. After having acquired a pro- per consistence, it is twisted in a manner similar to paste, and sus- pended on strings for drying in the shade. Glue, thus prepared, is more or less perfect, in proportion to the care with which it is clari- fied : it should be completly so- luble in water. Another very powerful glue may be prepared by a spirituous solu- tion of isinglass, which Mr. Boyle directs to be first steeped for twen- ty-four hours in common brandy ; when the isinglass is opened and softened, the whole should be gen- tly boiled together, and stirred till it forms a perfect solution, and till a drop of the cold liquor indicates a strong jelly. It is then to be strained while hot, through a clean linen cloth, into a vessel ; which ought to be closely stopped. A gentle heat will be sufficient'to dis- solve this glue into a colourless, and nearly transparent fluid, which is said to be so adhesive, that pie- ces of wood glued with it, separate elsewhere sooner than in the place where they arejoined....See Isin- glass. [The following account of the mode of making glue, is extracted from a late British publication. " Pelts obtained from furriers and hatters, the hoofs and ears of horses oxen, calves, sheep, Sec. all yield glue. These are first digested in lime water, to cleanse them as far as it can, from the grease or dirt they may have contracted: they are then steeped in clean water, taking care to stir them well from time to time ; afterwards they are laid in a heap, and the superabun- dant water pressed out ; then they are boiled in a large brass cauldron with clean water, skimming off the dirt as it rises, and further cleans- ed by putting in, after the whole is dissolved, a little melted alum, or lime finely powdered, which, by their detersive properties, still fur- ther purge it: the skimming is continued for some time, when the mass is strained through baskets, and suffered to settle, that the re- maining impurities, if any, may subside ; it is then poured gently into the kettle again, until it be- comes a clear darkish brown co- lour ; when it is thought to be strong enough, (which is known either by the length of time a cer- tain quantity of water and mate- 166 GLU GLU rials have boiled, or by its appear- ance during ebullition.) it is pour- ed into frames or moulds of about six feet long, one foot broad, and two deep, when it hardens gradu- ally as the heat decreases : out of these troughs or receivers it is cut when cold by a spade into square pieces or cakes, and each of these is placed within a sort of wooden box, open in three divisions to the back ; in this the glue, as yet soft, is taken to a table by women, where they divide it into three pieces, with an instrument not unlike a bow, having a brass wire for its string ; with this, they stand be- hind the box and cut by its open- ings, from front to back : the pie- ces thus cut are taken out into the open air, and dried on a coarse net work, fastened in moveable sheds of about four feet square, which are placed in rows in the glue ma- ker's field, (every one of which con- tains four or five rows of network;) when perfectly dry and hard, it is fit for sale." Character of good glue. That is thought the best glue which swells considerably without melting, by three or four days' immersion in cold water, and recovers its former dimensions and properties by dry- ing. Glue that has been frosted, or that looks thick and black, may be melted over again and refined, wdth a sufficient quantity added of fresh to overcome any injury it may have sustained ; but it is ge- nerally put into the kettle after what is in it has been purged in the second boiling. To know good from bad glue, it is necessary for the purchaser to hold it between his eye and the light, and if it ap- pears of a strong dark brown co- lour, and free from cloudy or black spots, the article is good. M. Hatchett observes, " that glue made from the skins of ani- mals is more tenacious and of a better quality, than that which is made from feet and sinews. The more aged the animal the better the glue, but a longer continued boiling appears requisite in order to extract it, and the more viscid glues are obtained from the sub- stances which afford them, with greater difficulty than those of a less viscid quality, which may more properly be called size." Trans, of the Royal Soc. Lon. 1800, part 2. An excellent glue may be pro- cured from cheese. Take skim- milk cheese, free it from the rind, cut it in slices, and boil it in warm water, stirring it with a spoon, until it be reduced to a strong glue which does not incorporate with water. Then throw away the warm water, pour cold water over the glue, and knead it afterwards in warm water, subjecting it to the same process several times. Put the warm glue on a grinding stone, and knead it with quick lime until you have a good glue. When you wish to use this glue, you must warm it: if it be em- ployed cold it is not so strong, though it may also be used in that manner. This glue is insoluble in water as soon as it is dry, and it becomes so in forty-eight hours. It may be used for glueing wood and for cementing marble, S;c. The joining can scarcely be dis- covered. Baits also for catching fish may be made of it. Fish are very fond of it, and it resists the water..... Boerhaave observed, thatnomen- struum dissolved cheese, not even aqua regia. Transactions of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. Glue of the Laplanders. The GN A G O A 167 bows of the Laplanders, are com- posed of two pieces of wood glued together ; one of them of birch, which is flexible, and the other of fir of the marshes, which is stiff, in order that the bow when bent may not break, and that when un- bent it may not bend. When these two pieces of wood are bent, all the points of contact, endeavour to dis- unite themselves, and to prevent this, the Laplanders employ the following cement: they take the skins of the largest perches, and, having dried them, moisten them in cold water until they are so soft that they may be freed from the scales, which they throw away. They then put four or five of these skins in a rein deer's bladder, or they wrap them up in the soft bark of the birch-tree, in such a man- ner that water cannot touch them, and place them thus covered into a pot of boiling water, with a stone above them to keep them at the bottom. When they have boiled about an hour they take them from the bladder or bark, and they are then found to be soft and viscous. In this state they employ them for glueing together the two pieces of their bows, which they strongly compress and tie up until the glue is well dried. These pieces never afterwards separate. Transactions of the Academy of Sciences at Stock- holm.] GNAT, or Culex, L. a genus of insects comprising several spe- cies, which are well known by the severe punctures they inflict. Gnats deposit their eggs to the number of 200, by each female, on stagnant waters where they are hatched into small grubs, in the course of two or three days. On the sides are four small fins, by the aid of which the insect swims about, and swiftly dives to the bot- tom. The larvae retain their form a fortnight, or three weeks ; when they are converted into chrysalis, in which state they continue three or four days, floating on the sur- face of the water, till they assume the form of gnats. These insects have a cylindrical body, consisting of eight rings. The sting, which is perceptible to the naked eye, contains five or six spiculsc, or darts, exquisitely mi- nute. With these, gnats make punctures in the skin, and are sup- posed to inject a small portion of liquor which renders the blood cir- culatingnear the wound more fluid, and thus causes troublesome itch- ing. Others observe, that female gnats only extract the blood by suction. As, however, these stings are generally attended with a pain- ful swelling, different remedies have been suggested for its remo- val : one of the most effectual con- sist of small, but equal portions of Venice turpentine and sweet oil; they should be mixed and applied to the wounded part, which will be effectually relieved in the space of six hours. Indeed, olive oil alone, or unsalted butter, or fresh hog's-lard, if timely rubbed on the sting, will be equally efficacious. But we cannot approve of any mer- curial solutions, that have occasi- onally been advised in popular books, for the more speedy cure of this trifling affection. GOAT, or Capra, L. a genus of animals, comprising more than 30 species, only one of which is reared in this country, namely, the Hircus, or Common Goat, a native of MountCaucasus, in Asia, whence it has been dispersed through Eu- rope. This species has arched and 168 G O A keeled horns, with a long beard, and is peculiarly attached to the company of man, even in its wild state. The females generally bring forth one or two, and very seldom three kids, after a gestation of about five months; they attain an age of twelve years. Goats are sensible of caresses, and display a remarkable attach- ment to their friends. They are stronger, more nimble, and less timid than sheep ; possess a lively, capricious and wandering disposi- tion ; and delight in elevated and solitary places, frequently sleeping on the points of rocks and preci- pices. These animals are more easily supported than any others of the same size ; for there are few herbs which they will not re- lish. Nor are they liable to so many disorders as sheep; and, though able to support the vicis- situdes of heat and cold more easi- ly than the latter, yet they are very susceptible of severe frosts, which they endure with less difficulty in the society of other animals. Goats emit, at all times, a strong and disagreeable odour, which how- ever is not without its use : for, if one of these animals be kept in a stable, it is affirmed that it will be an effectual preventive of the stag- gers, a disorder which is often very fatal to horses. This' infiuence of the goat is not, as Mr. Marshall judiciously observes, in his " Ru- ral Economy of Gloucestershire," merely that of a charm ; for the staggers are evidently a nervous disorder. Odours, in many cases, operate beneficially on the human nerves, and probably the strong scent of the goat has a similar ef- fect on those of the horse ; a con- jecture which is partly corroborat- ed by the practice adopted in GOA Northumberland, where a few goats are generally mixed with the sheep, for the preservation of the health of the flock. It is also well known, that the former with safety eat plants, which would be de- structive to sheep and other ani- mals. Hence, goats devour the leaves of hemlock with impunity ; but the Spotted Snakeweed, Poly- gonum Pcrsicaria, as well as the leaves and fruit of the Common Spindle-tree, Evonymus F.uropa:u.i; L. are to them not less fatal than to other quadrupeds. Although the food of goats is attended with little expence, as they maintain themselves on the most barren mountains, yet their produce is of considerable value. The whitest wigs are made of their hair, for which purpose that of the Welsh he-goat is in the greatest request. Their fat is in equal esteem with the hair, and candles are made of it, which, in whiteness and quality are said to be superior to those of wax ; their horns afford excellent handles for knives and forks; and their skin is well calculated for gloves, espe- cially that of the kid, which is dressed abroad, made into stock- ings, bed-ticks, bed-hangings, sheets, and even shirts. The flesh of these animals, how- ever, is hard, and almost indiges- tible : hence the meat of kids only should be eaten, as it is more ten- der, and affords good nourishment. Goat's-milk is sweet, nutritive, and medicinal; it is an excellent sub- stitute for that of asses ; and, when drank warm in the morning and evening, with a tea-spoonful of hartshorn, for several weeks, it has been productive of benefit to phthi- sical patients, who were not too much reduced. Cheese prepared GOL G O L 169 from goat's-milk is much valued in mountainous countries, after it has been kept to a proper age ; but, possessing a peculiar flavour, it is to some persons very unplea- sant ; nor is it more easily digested than any other kind of caseous matter. GOAT's-BEARD, or Tragopo- gon, L. a genus of plants compris- ing 16 species, two of which are indigenous. 1. The pratense, Yellow Goat's beard, or Go-to-bed-at-noon (be- cause its blossoms close about the middle of the day) grows in mea- dows and pastures, where it flowers in June. Dr. Withering re- marks, that the young roots of this plant, in spring, may be boiled and eaten like asparagus, as they pos- sess a similar flavour, and are nearly as nutritious. 2. The porrifolium, or Purple Goat's-beard, is also found in mea- dows, and not unfrequently in up- land pastures ; it flowers in the month of May. The succulent roots of this vegetable, when cul- tivated in gardens, are called Sal- safy. Cows, sheep, and horses, eat the whole of this plant; swine de- vour it with avidity, but it is not relished by goats. The tender roots afford a delicious salad, and also an excellent substitute for asparagus. GOLD, the most valuable of all metals, is of a bright yellow colour in its pui'e state, but acquires dif- ferent shades, when alloyed with baser metals. Europe is supplied with gold chiefly from Chili and Peru, in South America; though, a small quantity is likewise imported from China, and the coast of Africa..... This metal is also found in the sands VOL. III. of several large rivers which do not spring from mountains, but con- tain veins of gold : mines of it exist in various parts of Europe, and a very promising one has lately been discovered in the county of Wick- low, in Ireland. Gold is obtained in a pure or na- tive state more frequently than any other metal; it is in general mixed with a stony matter, from which it is extracted by amalgamation.... It is more ductile than lead, or tin, but less elastic than either iron or copper. Gold becomes hard'and brittle, by continued hammering, but resumes its ductility when slowly heated. Being the toughest, and at the same time the most mal- leable of all metals, one grain of it may be hammered into leaves that would cover a space of 1400 square inches. This precious metal is the hea- viest of all known bodies, except- ing platina; its specific gravity being to that of distilled water as 19,258 1 to 1,0000; that is, one solid inch of gold weighs about nineteen or twenty times heavier than one cubic inch of water. It melts in a low white heat, requiring, accord- ing to Mr. Wedgewood's calcu- lation, 5237 degrees of Fahren- heit's, or thirty-two of his own thermometer; a point much higher than that required for the melting of silver or copper. Gold is not only the universal cir- culating medium for the purchase of commodities, but it is also ap- plied to various purposes; for in- stance, chains, watches, plate, the making of gold lace for liveries, he. As the manufacture last men- tioned frequently becomes tarnish- ed, and totally loses its lustre, we shall briefly observe, that this may Z 170 GOL be easily restored, by gently rub- bing the lace with a sponge dipped in warm spirit of wine. Gold is soluble in aqua regia, by which con/derable quantities of it are consumed by carvers and gild- ers, and also for the ornamenting of china, S:c. It may, likewise, though imperfectly, be dissolved in the most concentrated aqua- fortis. The relative value of gold to that of silver, was anciently as twelve to ■,.■■'•:. This proportion, however, varies according to the abundance or scarcity of the former metal..... In our coinage- the value of fine gold is to that of fine silver, as 15^ to 1. A similar proportion may be considered, upon an average, as the fixed standard of Europe. [Mr. Hatchet has lately pre- sented to the Royal Society of Lon- don, an interesting paper on the alloying of metals ; from which it appears that copper, in proportion of I-12th, is the best alloy for gold. From many experiments it is ascer- tained, that the deficiency founcL of late in gold coin, is not owing to the wear of circulation ; as in a quantity of guineas loosely packed and sent to some distance by the coach, the wear was all upon a few, and on those the impression was quite obliterated ; yet they were not found much deficient in weight, the work being by action, pressed in, and not, as it were, filed off.] There are various methods of determining the fineness of gold or the proportion of alloy wiiich it contains. For this purpose, touch- needles are generally employed, by which the rcspectivequality of gold can be ascertained with tolerable exactnes. These needles are small bars madeof compound metals, in different proportions, which are ac- GOL curately marketi on each ; and, by rubbing the metal under examina- tion, and one or more of the needles, close to each other on a touch-stone, the different strokes are compared, in order to judge by the colour which bears the strongest resem- blance to that of the doubtful me- tal. The most usual stones for this test are black basaltes, though either flint, or potter's ware of a black colour, may be employed with equal advantage. And though such a criterion cannot be relied upon with the same degree of ac- curacy as that of ascertaining the specific gravity of^different metals, yet the touch-needles give a more exact information than might be expected fromthis superficial assay. Thus, an expert goldsmith will not altogether decide from the differ- ence of colour, but will also be guided by the concomitant effect produced on the texture of the me- tal, whe.i,abraded by the touch- stone, namely, whether it be rough, dry, smooth, or greasy. See Gui- nea. Several metallic compositions, however, yield marks or impres- sions on the touch-stone, very near- ly resembling those of pure gold, and which can be distinguished or detected only by another more ac- curate test. In order to guard against such impositions, it is ne- cessary to apply a drop of aqua- fortis to the suspected metallic strokes on the stone : if they do not disappear, in consequence of this application, it may be safely concluded that the gold is genuine; as, in the contrary case, it will be evident that it is a base or adulterat- ed metal. Gold-cup. See Bulbous Crow- foot. GOLDEN-ROD, the Co.imon GOL GOL 171 or Wound-wort, Solidago Vir- gaurea, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing in woods, hedges, heaths, and copses ; and flowering from July to September. This plant was formerly officinal, and is still in great repute among country people, for its medicinal virtues ; but we are inclined to think it may with greater advan- tage be employed as a dyeing drug. Both its leaves and flowers impart a beautiful yellow colour ; which, according to Bechstein, is even superior to that obtained from woad. GOLD-FINCH, or Fringilla Carduelis, L. is a native of Europe, and is sometimes also found in Asia and Africa. This bird is peculiarly beautiful in its colour, of an elegant form, and strikes melodious notes. Its bill is white, tipped with black, and its forehead and chin of a rich scar- let tint, divided by a line passing from each corner of the bill to the eyes, which are black. Gold-finches begin to sing early in the spring, and continue to whistle the greater part of the year, when kept in a cage. In a s*ute of confinement, they are much at- tached to their keepers, and will learn a variety of little (ricks, such as to draw up small vessels con- taining hemp or Canary-seeds, and water ; to fire squibs or crackers, See. Gold-finches construct very neat and compact nests with moss,dried grass, and roots, which they line with wool, hair, the down of this- tles, and other soft substances.... The females lay five white eggs, marked with deep purple spots at the larger end : they feed their young with caterpillars and insects; but the old birds subsist on various kinds of seeds, especially those of the thi.-tle, of which they are ex- tremely fond. As these birds are frequently liable to be sick, it will be requi- site to allow them every day a lit- tle groundsel, and some saffron in their water. If they are lax, a small portion of chalk should be given them, either by fixing it to the side of the cage, or ciumbling 'it on the bottom. Red sand, or gravel, should like- wise be strewed every day in their habitation; for, as they chiefly sub- sist on oily seeds, the gravel or sand will qualify, and absorb the oil in their stomachs. Gold-finches will breed with the Canary-bird: this intermixture is most successful between the male finch and the female Canary, vL>Ie offspring is productive, and is said to resemble the male in the bill, the colours of the head, and wings ; and the hen, in the rest of the body. [Goll-Finch {Fringilla tristis,) calied yellow-bird,or Dutch yellow bird, to distinguish it from a beau- tiful little summer bird of passage (motacilla atstiva) or the common ytllow-biid. It is about the size of the /. Carduelis, above mentioned, of a beautiful light yellow colour, ex- cept that It has a crow black spot on the foiehead, larger feathers in the wings and tails, which are also of the same crow colour. It is a beautiful, vivacious little bird ; its notes are variable and lively, some of them seem to resemble the Canary-bird, with winch they will breed, producing mules of various colours. W. Bautram.] GOLD-FISH, or Ciprinus au- rutus, L. is a native of the !_..&:- 172 GOL Indies, whence it was introduced into England, about the latter end of the 17th century. These fish are very tender, even in their native climates ; but they are now become so naturalized, that they even breed in this coun- try. They are chiefly kept in glass vessels for ornament; but it has lately been ascertained, that they thrive and propagate in ponds or other reservoirs ; where they grow- much larger and come to greater perfection than in the East: hence it is proposed to rear them in pre- ference to carp, on account of their possessing a finer flavour, and being much better calculated for the ta- ble than the common carp. GOLD OF PLEASURE, or Common Camline, Alyssum sa- tivum, v. Moenchia sativa, L. an indigenous plant, growing in corn- fields, frequently among flax (with the seeds of which it is supposed to have been imported from foreign countries) ; it flowers in June. This plant is cultivated in Ger- many, on account of its seeds, from which an excellent oil is expressed: one bushel of the former yielding from 24 to 23 lbs. of the latter, which is equally useful for culinary and other economical purposes. According to German writers, the seeds of the Common Camline afford a larger proportion of lamp- oil, and which is of a finer quality than that obtained from rape-seed; though it is more liable to become rancid. Nevertheless the culture of the former strongly recommends itself to the farmer; as it will grow in unfavourable weather, when flax cannot prosper. The Gold of Pleasure, however, requires a well prepared soil,should be thinly sown, and not harrowed in too deep : if GOO properly cultivated, it yields more than one hundred-fold. The seeds of Camline are like- wise a favourite food with geese and other poultry. Horses, cows, goats, and sheep, relish the plant. GOOSE, or Anas anser, L. a well known species of birds, very common in this country : it is di- vided into two varieties : I. The ferus, Grey Lag, or Wild Goose, that inhabits the fens, where each female hatches eight or nine young, which are frequent- ly caught, easily tamed, and afford excellent meat, far superior to that of the domesticated kind. To- wards winter, they collect in flocks, but reside the whole year in the marshes. 2. The mansuetus, or Tame Goose, or the Grey Lag in a state of domestication, from which it varies in colour, being more or less inclined to a grey. It is, however, often found perfectly white, especially the males or ganders. [Mr. Wm. Bartram informs the Editor that " there is a valu- able breed of this Fowl in the Southern states, from a mixture of the largest Grey Goose, with the wild Canadian Goose, (Anas Canadensis.) They are much larger than any sort of tame geese; and in their cry and manners re- semble the Canadian Goose."] The goose, in general, breeds only once in the course of a year; but, if well kept, it will frequently hatch twice within that period.... Three of these birds are usually allotted to a gander ; for, if that number were increased, the eggs would be rendered abortive : tha quantity of eggs to each goose for sitting, is about twelve or thirteen. GOO While brooding, they ought to be fed with corn and water, which must be placed near them, so that they may eat at pleasure. The males should never be excluded from their company, because they are then instinctively anxious to watch over, and guard their own geese. The nests, in which these birds sit, ought to be made of straw, and so confined that the eggs cannot roll out, as the geese turn them every day. When they are near- ly hatched, it will be requisite to break slightly the shell near the beak o'f the young goslin, as well for the purpose of admitting air, as to enable it to make its way at the proper time. Gcc?.e are very valuable, on ac- count of the feathers they afford : for the purpose, they are unmer- cifully plucked in the county of Lincoln (where they are reared in the largest numbers) five times in the year: the first operation is per- formed at Lady-day, for feathers and quills, and is repeated four times between that period and Mi- chaelmas, for feathers only. The old birds submit quietly, but the young ones frequently prove unru- ly and noisy. The latter may be plucked once, when about thirteen or fourteen weeks old, for fea- thers; but no quills must be taken from them; nor should this opera- tion be performed at too early a season, because the goslings are liable to perish in cold summers. Although the plucking of geese has by many been considered as a bar- barous custom, yet experience has evinced, that these birds, when pro- perly stripped of their feathers, thrive better, and are more healthy, than if they were permitted to drop them by moulting. GOO 173 As geese form a principal deli- cacy at our tallies, the most expe- ditious mode of fattening them is an object of some importance..... Hence it has been recommended to keep them cooped up in a dark and narrow place, where they are to be fed with ground malt mixed with milk, or if milk be scarce, with barley-malt, mashed up with wa- ter. Another, and less expensive way, of which we can speak from experience, consists in giving them boiled oats, with either ducks'- meat, or chopped carrots, alter- nately, as they, are exceedingly fond of variety : tlms, they will become very fat in a few weeks, while their meat acquires a fine flavour. In order to fatten Michaelmas, or stubble-geese, it has been directed, first to turn them on the wheat-ed- dishes, or those pastures that grow after the wheat has been harvested. Next, they are to be pent up, and fed with ground malt mixed with water, for which, boiled oats, malt or wheat, may occasionally be sub- stituted. This method of fattening, how- ever, by no means deserves to be countenanced ; for, as the flesh of geese is naturally a precarious food, confinement, without exercise, ren- ders it still more unwholesome. Their fat, indeed, is almost indi- gestible; and their flesh has a very bad effect on wounds and ulcers. It is also pernicious to persons, whose habits of body predispose them to inflammatory diseases, and frequent eruptions of the skin; for the prevention of which, they ought prudently to abstain from this deli- cious morsel. GOOSEBERRY, the Rough,or Fea-berry, Ribes gro^f-.ularia, \„ an indigenous shrub growing in 174 GOO GOO woods and hedges, especially about Darlington, Durham; also, on old buildings and church-towers, whi- ther it has probably been trans- planted by birds. This useful bush flowers in April, and bears fruit in June or July, which, however, does not acquire its natural vinous fla- vour in this climate, till August or September. Although gooseberries are gene- rally eaten, or employed for culina- ry purposes, before they arrive at perfect maturity, yet being one of the most saccharine productions we possess, they might with more advantage be converted into wine. As each pound of the juice ex- pressed from ripe berries requires only one ounce of soft sugar, (whereas the ripest currants require double that quantity) to induce the vinous fermentation, a very excel- lent and wholesome domestic wine may be made at a trifling expense. After standing several years in bot- tles well corked, it becomes equal in quality to muscadel, or other sweet Italian wines. If the flower- buds of this shrub be added to a cask of any other flavourless wine, Bryant asserts (in his 1st volume of " Nntriiiv plants," p. 243, Ger- man edition) that they impart to it the taste of genuine muscadine. The husks of this fruit, when the juice is expressed for making wine, are usually thrown away: it appears, however, that they may with advantage be employed in distillation, and afford an agreeable spirit, resembling Brandy. It has indeed been ascertained by experi- ence, that such liquor, after having been kept a few months, was little inferior, in point of strength and flavour, to the best French Coniac. [Gooseberriesdo not succeed well near Philadelphia, owing probably to the great heat of our summers r for it is understood, that in Cana- da and Nova-Scotia, this fruit grows to a large size. It was late- iy mentioned to the Editor, that a successful cultivator of goose- berries at Newcastle, upon Tyne, was in the practice of covering the bushes with mats, to prevent the influence of the sun causing a ra- pid maturity. Probably a shady situation in the United States would answer equally well. Dr. Darwin gives the following additional reason for covering fruit and plants......" When vege- table fibres have been long stimu- lated more than natural or usual by increase of heat, the spirit of vegetation becomes exhausted; and in consequence a slighter de- gree of cold will destroy them; be- cause their fibres, after having been long excited by a greater stimulus, will cease to act on the application of one which is much less; whence after hot days, tender plants are more liable to be destroyed by the coldness of the nights. For this reason also, in more northern cli- mates, the gardeners shade their ten- der vegefrJncs, as the flowers of apricots', in the spring frosts, from the meredian sun, as well as from the coldness oj the night, which is generally the greyest about an hour before sunrise."...Phytologia, Sect. xiv. 1. 1. " At the late annual gooseberry shew at Chester, England, the fol- lowing were adjudged to be the principal prizes, viz. of red....Mr. Bell's Alcocks King, weighed 18 dwts. 19 grains.....of yellow, Mr. War bur ton's Rrjxjal Sovereign, 14 dwts. 10 grains....of green, Mr. Warburton's Langly Green, 14 dwts. 5 grains; and of white, Mr. Warburton's Whitesmith, \U GOO dwts. one grain."....Monthly Mag. London, Sept. 1801. In Holt's View of the Agricul- ture of Lancashire, we also find the following facts :...." A single gooseberry tree, the Manchester rough red, in the garden of J. Sykes, yielded twenty-one quarts of fruit in their green state ; the whole quantity weighed twenty- eight pounds ! avoirdupois." For- syth gives a list of the most cele- brated gooseberries, with their re- spective weights, which shews to what perfection this fruit is brought in England. Gooseberries are a delicious and wholesome fruit, and would be found very profitable;if attended to, in the United States. They not only afford a very pleasant article of diet but also form the chief article in an excellent domestic wine. Such a wine, made near Downing's-town, the Editor had the satisfaction lately to taste, and hopes to be able to describe the particular process . pursued in making it, under the article Wine. This fruit may be preserved by being_put up dry in a large mouth- ed, strong black bottle, covering the cork well with rosin. The following directions for cultivat- ing gooseberries are taken J'rom Forsyth. Gooseberries are raised from cuttings, or from seed, and some raise them from suckers ; but this last is not a good way, as bushes raised in this manner are more lia- ble to throw out suckers than those which are raised from cuttings or seed. The best time for planting cut- tings is about Michaelmas, always cutting them from the strongest and cleanest shoots. The length of the cuttings should be from six GOO \1S to eight inches, planting them to an East or North aspect, at the distance of one foot from row to row, leaving them about three inches above ground. By plant- ing at this distance, you will be able to hoe and keep them clear of weeds. Water them frequently in dry weather during the spring. The Methods of Planting Goose- berries. The Market-Gardeners about London plant them in rows from eight to ten feet apart from row to row, and six feet from plant to plant in the rows. In that case, I advise pruning them in the begin- ning of October, and the ground between may be planted with Cole- worts or Beans from a spring crop; by so doing, there will be no occa- sion to tread over the ground and hurt the cole worts in pruning the bushes ; for, before the gooseber- ries begin to shoot, the coleworts will he all cleared off the ground. After this time (or before if you find it convenient) lay a good co.it of rotten dung on the ground; then dig it and plant early [iota- toes ; but not so near to the goose- berries as to hurt them. The roots of gooseberries should always be kept clear to admit the sun and air. In small gardens I would recommend planting them in a quarter by themselves, at the distance of six feet between the rows, and four feet from plant to plant; or you may plant them round the edges of the quarters, about three feet from the path ; you will then have the ground clear for cropping, and a man. by set- ting one foot on the border, can gather the gooseberries without in- juring the crop. As gooseberries love a rich soil, they should be dunged every year, 176 GOO GOO cr at least have a good coat of dung once in two years. N'ever plant them under the shade of other trees, as it will in- jure the flower of the fruit Of Pruning Gooseberry Bushes. It is a practice too common in priming gooseberries, to let them branch out with great naked stems, s- ering them to remain in that stale for years. When that is al- ready the case, they should be cut down near to the ground in the wi.t^r pruning; this will make them ti.row out fine strong healthy shoots which will bear fruit the second year. Gooseberry-bushes, in general, bear their fruit on the second year's wood. Care should be taken in summer to keep the middle of the bush clear to admit a free air into them ; leaving the finest and strongest shoots from six to ten inches distant from each ether. This w ill help to ripen and harden the wood: It is a practice with some to shorten the shoots in the autumn or winter pruning: This should be always near to a wood-bud ; which may be known by its being single, whereas fruit- buds are in clusters. The shoots may be shortened to eight or ten inches, according to the strength. Some leave them at full length for three or four years, thinning out those that are superfluous. Al- ways leave a proper number to be trained up between the full length shoots, to succeed them when they are tired of bearing ; then cut the old ones down to the young ones that are to succeed them. By these means you will always keep the bushesin a constant state of bearing. You may observe, that those branches which were cut the first year, will in the second throw out short dugs, or spurs, which pro- duce the fruit ; and these should by no means be cut off, unless the branches are in a sickly state, and require to be cut close clown (as is the case this year, 1800), when the bushes are overloaded with fruit. It will then be necessary to cut out a good deal of the old wood, to assist nature to recover herself after producing so great a quantity of fruit. It is a practice with some to clip the tops of gooseberries with a pair of garden shears, as they would clip a thorn hedge;-this I by no means approve of, as kthe fruit will not be half the size, nor of so fine a flavour, as when the bushes are kept clear of superflu- ous wood. Care should be taken in spring and summer to stock, or grub up, all the suckers from the roots of the bushes, leaving their stems clear and unencumbered. Many of the Lancashire sorts are apt to grow horizontally, and the branches frequently trail on the ground, which renders them liable to be broken by high winds, especially when they are loaded with fruit. In that case I would recommend two or three hoops to be put round them, to which the branches may be tied, to support them, and prevent their being bro- ken by the wind. Those who wish to have their gooseberries very late should plant on North walls and pailings, be- tween the other trees, and they may be removed when the trees begin to meet. If laid in thin, they will be very fine and hand- some fruit. I would advise to plant the finest late sorts ; as by this method the table will be sup- GOO plied much longer than by the common custom of planting in quarters. Immediately after pruning, I always apply the composition to the ends of the shoots and cut- tings ; and I find it of great use in preventing the exhalation of the sap, and preserving the cuttings till they take root. Gooseberries are very much in- fested with a small green cater- pillar, which frequently devour; both leaves and fruit. Yen must, therefore, be very attentive, and observe their first appearance on the bushes , for, if not destroyed early, they will in- crease so fast, that they will soon devour all the leaves, and the fruit will then be good for nothing.... They make their first appearance generally on the edges and under- sides of the leaves. Take some sifted quick-lime and lay it under the bushes ; but do not at first let any of it touch the branches or leaves; then shake each bush suddenly, and smartly, and the caterpillars will fail into the lime ; if the bush be not shak- en suddenly, the caterpillars, on being a little disturbed, wdi lake so firm a hold as not easily to be shaken off. After this is done, sift some of the lime over the bushes, this will drive down those which may have lodged on the branches. The caterpillars ought to be swept up next day, and the bushes well washed with clear lime- water mixed with urine ; this will destroy any caterpill as that may still remain, and also the Aphides, if there are any on the busl.es. To the above, the Editor will onlv add, in case the gooseberry bush does not succeed on first planting, change itspoaiti^n: by do- VOL. III. GOO 177 ing so three times: a friend at last succeeded in raising a veiy fine bush, which amply rewarded his trouble and patience. Dr. Anderson, v ho has invest- igated the natural history of the gooseberry caterpi'llar .with great minuteness, observe-, that these insects always commit their depre- dations on the under sides of the haves, at the bottom of the bush: and begin by gnawingoff the edge;;. While young, they herd together, but as they advance in si^e they separate. I le therefore directs the tree to be seal died repeatedly, to pinch off all leaves on which the caterpillars are found, and to kill them instantly. By this method he saved his bushes, though the caterpillars seized upon them in such nambers,'that had they been neglected only for a few days, eve- ry leaf must have been destroyed. The following mode of destroying gooseberry catrrfdllars i", given in t/ie London Monthly Magazine, for March, 1800. " Make a cone by covering three or four hoops with a tarpaulin, or coarse brown paper. Y.'iien the trees arc affected by the caterpil- lar, strew hot lime under and around the trees, and cover the birsh with the cone ; fill a common fumigating bellows with tobacco and sulphur, in equal quantities with a bit of charcoal, or any other piece.of fire-wood ; thrust tne pipe of the bellows through a small hole of the painted cloth at the bot- tom of the cone, when a few mo- ments are sufficient to suffocate all the caterpillars ; falling on the lime, they serve as a manure to the tree. Xo injury is done to the tree."] Wild goosebei ries,fcpweYer, arc A a 173 GOO of a very inferior size to those cul- tivated in a rich garden soil, espe- cially when improved by inocula- tion, or engrafting ; in which state they frequently attain an uncom- mon size. There is another species of th'S shrub growing wild about woods and hedges, in several places in Cambridgeshire, Oxfordshire,Nor- folk, and the Isle of Wight. We allude to the Smooth Gooseber- ry, or Ribes uva-crispa, L. which can with difficulty be distinguished from the preceding species, either by the flower scales, or even by the smoothness of its berries. Mr. Robson assured Dr. Withering, that the seeds from the same plant will produce both rough and smooth gooseberries. The last mentioned species, however, flowers some- what later, thrives in almost every soil, and does not attain the size of the rough gooseberry : its yellow berries are transparent, juicy, and contain a great number of seeds. Beside these, we meet with an- other Linnsan species, or perhaps a variety of the, former, called the Red Gooseberry, or Ribes recli- natum, which grows wild in Ger- many, &c. has somewhat broader leaves than those before described, and produces a red or dark purple fruit of a very sweet flavour. It thrives, remarkably in a fat, light, and sandy clay : Ave therefore con- clude that its berry would be emi- nently adapted to the preparation of domestic wines. All the different gooseberries are -wholesome fruit, but should not be eaten before they are perfectly ripe ; nor is it proper to swallow their stones along with the juice ; but the skin may, with probable advantage, be used by those who are accustomed to take large quan- GOO tities at one time ; in order to pre- vent flatulency. It is, however, founded on erroneous notions of theirchemical properties, either to boil the unripe berries for sauces, or to convert them into domestic wines, which though more cool- ing and refreshing, do not possess the delicate flavour, and rich sac- charine quality, inherent only in ripe fruit. Gooseberry Caterpillar.... See Caterpillar. GOOSE FOOT, or Chenopo- dium, L. a genus of plants, com- prising twenty-seven species, ele- ven of which are indigenous ; of these the following are the princi- pal : 1. The Bonus Henricus, Peren- nial Goose-foot, Mercury Goose- foot, or Good King Henry, which grows amongst rubbish, on road sides, and walls ; and is sometimes found in pastures : it produces pur- plish-green flowers, that are in bloom from May to August. This plant is cultivated like spinach by the poorer class of people in Lin- colnshire : its leaves are frequently boiled in broth ; and the young shoots, when peeled and dressed, are, on account of their flavour, eaten as substitutes for asparagus. Neither goats nor sheep relish this plant, which is also refused by cows, horses, and hogs. Its roots, however, are frequently given to sheep affected with a cough, and are supposed to afford an excellent medicine for preventing consump- tion in those animals. 2. The album, Wrhite Goose- foot, or Common Wild Orache ; which grows frequently in corn- fields, on old dunghills, rubbish, and in gardens ; and flowers in the months of July and August. It is eaten by cows, goats, sheep, horses. GOO GOO ny ar.d hogs, which last devour it with avidity; but Linnaeus asserts that it is totally refused by horses.... According to Prof. Pallas, the white goose-foot is a very trouble- some weed among corn, on the banks of the Volga, where the German colonists make use of its very abundant seed, by mixing it with bread corn, and also boiling it separately in the form of groats .....Townsend relates, that a spe- cies of pot-ash, or barilla, is pre- pared from this plant. 3. The olidum, v. vulvaria, Stinking Goose-foot, or Fetid Orache, an annual plant, growing on road sides, old walls, and rub- bish, and flowering in August.... This species, in a fresh state, has a nauseous taste, and a strong offen- sive smell, similar to that of putrid salt fish. It is nevertheless eaten by cows, horses, goats, and sheep, but refused by swine...Though ex- ploded by the London College, Dr. Cullen strongly recommends the fetid orache as a powerful anti- spasmodic, especially in hysterical cases.....Dam bourn ey dyed wool of a durable citron colour with a decoction of the whole plant ; but the stuff was previously immersed in a diluted solution of tin ; and though the liquor emitted the un- pleasant fetor of this vegetable, yet the wool acquired no smell. 4. The maritimum, Sea Goose- foot, Small Glass - wort, or Sea- ■blite, which abounds on the sea- shore, and flowers in the months of July and August....Dr. With- ering mentions it as an excellent pot-herb....In Siberia, and in As- trakhan, theinhabitantsobtain from this plant their pot-ash, which pro- bably partakes more of the nature •of soda. 5. The poljspcrmum, Upright Elite, R^und leaved Goose f-.ot, or All-seed Goose-foot, which grow s on cultivated ground and dung- hills, and flowers in the month of July or August. 1 his curious plant has not hitherto been converted to any useful purpose; though we be- lieve its numerous seeds might lie advantageously employed in feed- ing poultry. Perhaps it is a vari- ety of the quinoa, \\ hich grows in the mountains of Peru, where each plant affords upwards of 4000 grains, equal, if net superior, to rice ; for we find in the French " Annee lAtteraire" for 1781, that this exotic vegetable is a species of the Goose-foot. [See Chenopo- diu:i.] GOOSE-GRASS, or Cl: av- ers Clivers or Catchwefd Goose-grass ; Galium nf.f cultivat- ing winch, the reader wiil consult the articles in their alphabetical series. Culmifn-iu* grasses may likewise be subdivided into two classes, for agricultural purposes ; hence it is of importance that every farmer should distinguish, 1.Those which run to seed-stalks in a manner si- milar to the common annual spe- cies of corn, and the leaves of which gradually decay in propor- tion as they approach towards per- fection, and totally wither v.hen the seeds are fully ripe. In lids d.v.sion may be lanked Ray or ivye-gra^s, to which may be ad- ded the Sweet-scented Spring Grass, the Dog's-tail-grass, and the Bent-grass. 2. Those, the leaves of which grow after the seed-staks are formed, and retain their succulence and verdure during the whole season. Such are the Fescue and Meadow Grasses, that continue green and succulent, even after tine seeds have attained to maturity, and while the flower- stalks are fading. We cannot here specify the places of growth, proper soils, or the modes of cultivating the dif- ferent grasses^but, as many far- mers are not sufficiently acquaint- ed with the peculiar names of those plants, and as little improvement can be made in this important branch of husbandry without such knowledge, we shall here state the proper appellations of the best cul- tivated and wieuitivated trrasses re- GRA ferring the reader to the various articles a» they occur in their al- phabetical order. I. Cultivatkd Grasses. I. Red Darnel, or Ray-grass : Lolium fierenne, L. 2. Crested Dog's-tail-grass : Cy- nosurus crhtatus, L. 3. Meadow Fescue-grass : Fes- kica pratensis, L. 4. Meadow Fox-tail-grass : Alo- pecurus pratensis, L. 5. Smooth-stalked Meadow- grass : Pou pratensis, L. 6. Roughish Meadow-grass : Poa Trivialis, L. 7. Soft Brome-grass, Lob-grass, or Oat-grass : Bromus mollis, L. 8. Meadow Soft-grass : Holcus lanutus, L. 9. Sweet-scented Spring-grass : Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. 10. '1 imothy-grass: Phleumpra- tense, L. II. Wild, or Uncultivated Grasses. I. Sheep's Fescue-grass : Festu- ea ovina, L. 2. Hard Fescue-grass : Festuca duriuscula, L. 3. Water Hair-grass : Aira aquatica, L. 4. Annual Meadow-grass : Poa annua, L. 5. Flote Fescue-grass : Festuca fiuitans, L. 6. Reed Meadow-grass : Poa aquatica, L. 7. Mountain Melic-grass : Me- lica nutans, L. 8. Creeping Bent-grass : Agros- tis stolonifera, L. 9. Marsh Arrow-grass: Trigls- •chinpalustre, L. and 10. Sea Arrow-grass : Triglo- chin maritimun, L. which is pecu- liarly calculated for sheep-walks. These are the principal grasses, VOL. III. GRA 193 cultivated and wild, which merit the attention of agriculturists ; but, as these seeds, us well as those of other grasses drop from the husles a very short time after, and many of them, btfnre they are ripe, those wdio wish to preserve such seeds, ought to watch them dili- gently ; as the neglect of a very. few days will deprive the cultivator of an opportunity of collecting them. The Tall Fescue-grass, however, forms an exception : for, as its seeds are not fertile, it can only be propagated by parting and planting the roots. The culture of grasses has been particularly attended to within these few years ; and, as they support many of the most useful quadru- peds, the art of increasing the quantity of leaves round the roots of grasses, is deservedly regaided as an object of great importance. It simply consists in eating off the central stem by sheep, horses, 1 or other cattle, early in the season: hence Dr. Darwin justly observes, that new lea vesare produced around the first joint of the stem thus graz- ed. This practice is especially use- ful in low meadows, and affords a double profit, if continued till the month of May ; as, in moist situa- tions, a crop of hay is certain to succeed, which by this method, will not only be much finer, and more copious, but the expense that must otherwise have been in- curred in providing hay, may in a great measure be saved by making use of such early grass. [The Rev.and learnedDr. Hen- ry Muhlenbkrg of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, has paid more atten- tion to the natural history of the grasses of the United States, than any other person, and it is much Cc 194 GRA GRA to be wished he would favour us with the result of his valuable re- searches on this subject. But he has been equally attentive to the cultivation of some of the most useful species of grasses, as well domestic as imported. " Accord- ing to his trials they thus range in point of merit. 1. Tall Meadow Oats, or Tall oat-grass, Avxna elatior, imported. 2. Tall Fescue Grass, festuca elatior, native. 3. Meadow Fox-tail-grass, Alope- curuspratensis, imported. 4. Meadow-soft-grass, or York- shire grass of the English, Holcus Lanatus, native. 5. Timothy, or meadow cat's-tail- grass, phleum pratense. 6. Rough Cock's foot-grass, [or- chard grass] dactylis glomerata, na- tive. 7. English or Common Rye-grass, lolium perenne, imported. 8. Sweet - scented - vernal-grass, anthoxanthum odoratum, imported. 9. Reedy Cinna, Cinn% Arun- dinacea, native. 10. Brome-grass, two species, bromi. Timothy should be cul- tivated with the nine other kinds of grass enumerated above, in bot- toms or meadows, which can be watered. For upland meadows, Dr. M. prefers red clover, trifoli- umpratense ; 2. Lucerne medicago sativa; and 3. Sainfoin hedysa- rum onobrychis. 1. The Tall-JIcadow oats was imported many years ago by Dr.M. and is now spreading fast through the state of Pennsylvania. It is the Wicsenhafer franzosich ray- grass of the Germans. The Eng- lish rye-grass or ray-grass is the Lolium perenne, a very different plant. A very good figure and de- scription is given of the avtena in Sherber's treatiseon grasses, vol. l.tab. 1. Agreeably to the experi- ence of Dr. M. this grass is of all others the earliest, latest, and best grass for green fodder and hay. It blossoms £.bout the middle of May, with red clover, and the seed ripens a month after. It grows best in a clover soil, and rises to a height of from five to seven feet. It ought to be cut in blossom about the end of May. The seed may be sown in the fall or spring, with or without grain, and must be brushed in, cr lightly harrowed. If mixed with clover, it will make good upland meadow. Horned cattle prefer this grass to all others. But some horses do not relish it green." Trcns. ofAgric. Soc.New- York. In addition to the above, Dr. M. informs the editor, that the ray-grass must be pastured or cut at least three times in a season ; if suffered to grow old, it will become strawlike. When intended for hay, it must be salted. 2. Fescue Grass (Tall.) A native perennial grass of the United States. It is very luxuriant and productive, but rather coarse.... Cows are fond of it, but horses do not relish it. It grows in moist meadows and in woods. The leaves are broad, stem very high (some- times six feet), flowers in July. 8. Meadow fox-tail-grass, Alope- curus Pratensis. Root perennial, stalks from a foot to eighteen inches high. Mr. Swayne says it suits low meadow grounds or boggy places which have been drained. Sheep, horses and goats eat it, but cows and hogs are not fond of it. 4. Meadow soft-grass, Holces La- natus. The root is perennial, stems from two to three feet high. The velvet-like softness of this plant, and the redness of the opening GRA panicle, render it very conspicuous in the field. This grass is esteemed by Mr. Marshall, (Rural Eco- nomy of Yorkshire) as excellent for promoting the growth of young neifers, and cattle of every kind, but not good for horses....Indeed it has been accused of exciting the discharge of a morbid quantity of urine in horses. Young's Annals, vol. 20, p. 105. 5. Timothy Grass....Phleum Pra- tense.... A well known favourite and native grass of the Northern and middle United States. According to Mr. Strickland,(7Va?zs. Board of Agric.) It is the same as the English Cats tail grass, except that the Timothy is about a fortnight earlier than the cats tail, the ef- fect of the change of seed and climate. Dr. Muhlenberg, we have seen, accords in this opinion. Mr. Deane {N. Flngland Far- mer) says " it obtained its name, by being carried from Virginia to North Carolina, by one Timothy Hanson." Is it possible to ascer- tain the accuracy of this statement? By what name is it known in Vir- ginia ? Timothy suits a moist low ground, and if somewhat shady it may be sown alone. On upland it is generally sown with red clover, but as these grasses ripen at differ- ent periods, it certainly is bad eco- nomy to sow more Timothy than will answer to support the clover which is very apt to lodge. But as a combination of Timothy and Clover is preferred by horses, and the former tends to correct the ten- dency of the latter to injure their wind, the best way is to sow it with grain, to roll the ground and to permit it to stand alone after the grain comes up. It may then be GRA 195 mixed with clover hay in alternate layers. The Timothy will grow about four inches high in the autumn, and in the succeeding spring the grain will shelter it from the sun, until after harvest, when it will have acquired sufficient strength to bear the heat of our summers. The first year, after grain harvest it may be slightly pastured, but the second year it must be kept up for hay, of which it will yield an abun- dant crop if the ground has been well prepared. It may be pastur- ed afterwards, and if the land be manured every spring, will keep in the same ground many years. Timothy is commonly cut too soon, that is, before it has blossom- ed ; it is then bitter and apt to bleed, which weakens the stalk and frequently occasions the death of the plant; but if permitted to stand until in full blossom, the young leaves will be seen coming out from near the surface, which, if the grass be then cut, will start up with vigour, stand the sun, and yield a fine pasture. It is a common opinion among farmers, that Timothy hay is bet- ter for being heated, or mow-burn- ed : but Mr. Joseph Cooper as- sures the editor that this is a mere prejudice, and unfounded in fact.... He justly remarked, " that cattle are the best judges of good hay, and that repeated attention to the subject has convinced him, that they will seldom, if ever leave any part of bright Timothy hay which may be put before them, while, on the contrary, a part of mow-burn- ed hay will frequently be left. He also added an important fact: viz. that bright hay, even if made of coarse grass, will give yellow but- ter, while the best Timothy hay if 196 GRA GRA mow-burned, will always produce white butter. One acre of Timothy hay will yield thirty bushels of seed, and on good upland, two tons of hay. Timothy is spoken of in teims of contempt by Swayne, Soll, and other pratical English writers, the reason of which is, that the heat of the sun in England is not great enough to bring this plant to perfection. 6. Orchard Grass. Rough cock's- foot grass, Dac:ylis Glow ra'a. Is a native of the United Slates, and is a strong robust and productive plant. It is ripe before timothy, flourishes well in orchards in the shade, (whence its name,) and lasts three years. It should be cut when young., either for hay or fodder, as its stalk becomes coarse when per- mitted to grow old. Sole in the 9th vol. of the Bath Society Trim*. says it is refused by all cattle; but from this assertion, and from what he says of our favourite Timothy, he cannot be received as an autho- rity for American farmers.....It is said that the American orchard grass is different from the grass known in Europe by that name. 7. Ray-grass, Lolium perenne. Wiry, with little foliage in upland pastures: but in rich meadows its foliage is abundant, and of rapid growth. It is an early grass. 8. Sweet Scented Vernal Grass. Anthoxanlhum odoratum. Is com- mon in our meadows, grows to the height often inches ; it is an early grass and delights in moist soils. 9. Reedy Cinna. Cinna arundi- nacea. A grass the size of oats, root perennial. Holcus odoratus. Seneka-grass of the western conntry. It is also a native of Europe and Asia. The root is perennial, jointed and creep- ing. This grass has a sweet smell, and collected in some places to lay among clothes and linen, and hung over beds, according to Linnjeus, to procure sleep. Green Grass, Poa Viridis, is a native of the United States, and especially of Pennsylvania, where it grows in ail meadows, and rich soils. Dr. Muhli- nqeug says, it is not described by Linn^us though nearly allied to his poa angustifolia. It may be easily known by the fol- lowing description. " Culm (or haulm) erect and round (columnar) panmcit diffuse, spicules five flow- ered and hairy at thed base."Cattle are very fond of this grass, it cut when the blossom opens.It produces less than Avs.ta elatior or tall mea- dow oats, but horses p refer it. It con- tinues green until even after frost, and when all other herbage is de- stroyed ; and if manured, will con- tinue for ever. The fine grazing farm of Mr. V- m. West, of Up- per Derby, Delaware county, con- sists entirely of this grass. Mr. W. finds it necessary to sow clo- ver thinly upon the green grass sod every three or four years, to correct a slight tendency which green grass has to bind the soil.... When the Green Grass appears up- on meadows made by banking out rivers, care must be taken to secure a supply of water; otherwise, ac- cording to Mr. J. Cooper, the ends of the seeds (not the tips of the blades, as stated in vol. ii. p. 52) will become affected with a black spear, about one fourth or one half inch in length, similar to the smut on rye, and cause a loss of the hoofs of cattle that eat the grass. Blue Grass, Pea compressa, L. Rehwcsen of the Germans, a na- tive grass of the United States, hav- ing " a compressed oblique culm (or haulm) panicle squeezed, spi- cules round, (columnar) and eight GRA flowered." This is eaten tolerably well by cattle when young, and re- mains green until after frost. It binds the soil in the course of three or four years, so as to require ploughing up. This is often mis- taken for the green grass, and both are called occasionally Spear-Grass, and wire grass. Having already fully treated on clover both red and white in vol. 2d, there remains nothing to be said, except that wood ashes have been found in Penns. and Del. the best top dressing for land which it is wished to bring into white clover. To sheep raisers this fact is important, as white clover is known to fatten sheep speedily, and to give a fine flavour to the meat. Herd-Grass. White top, Foul meadow grass of East Jersey. Dr. Muhlenburg informs the editor, he thinks this grass is the agrostis stricta of Wildenow. It is particu- larly adapted to wet low grounds. It mats and consolidates the surface, continues many years, excluding every other grass, and all weeds. Many worthless swampy spots in the low parts of the state of New- Jersey have been rendered valuable grazing grounds by this grass, loaded waggons having passed over places, which two or three years before sowing it, would scarcely admit an animal to walk through without sinking. It makes excel- lent hay, and cattle are said to pre- fer it to that made of either clover or timothy. It is more succulent than timothy, though not so coarse. The same bulk of herd-gra.s hay, will weigh one third more than the eame bulk of timothy hay. Four tons in a common crop from one acre. It yields no second crop, but affords excellent late and early pasture. It was first brought to GRA 197 New Jersey from New England, by the late Wm. 1-oster, who re- sided near Mount Holly ; and in- troduced into Pennsylvania about ten or twelve years since. The Red Top and White Top, are only varieties of the above spe- cies of grass. The latter is the larger of the two. The red top is particularly valuable, as it will grow and sod the first year on banks, when no other grass will thrive. Lucerne, Medicago Sativa. The Hon. Robt. R. Livingston has re- corded some original and highly valuable experiments upon Lu- cerne, in the Trans. Agric. Soc. New York: by which it appears that it may be easily sown on a dry soil with oats and clover, and that its annual clear profit after deduct- ing every expense, will exceed on the two first years 7 /. per acre. The ground must be highly pulve- rised to insure a good crop....He found also that it answers very well with red clover, and that it braves biting frosts of the spring, and the keen autumnal blasts, better than clover, or any cultivated grass of this climate. In England the de- ficiency of heat, prevents the lu- cerne from coming to perfection until the third year, hence the ne- cessity there of sowing it in drills to keep down weeds....In warm si- tuations, lucerne when sown with clover will be fit to cut before the clover rises to the scythe. The se- cond crop in this case will be ear- lier on account of the clover which will consist almost wholly of it: because having escaped the wounds which the lucerne received, it will be ready to take the field before lucerne has recovered from its am- putation. Mr. L. advises as the result of his experiments: 198 GRA GRA 1. Never to sow on ground that is not perfectly pulverised. 2. Not to sow till the earth has acquired a degree of warmth friend- ly to rapid vegetation, viz. in Mar. 3. To sow with no crop that will probably lodge. 4. If sown with buckwheat, to apply no gypsum or other manure, till the buckwheat be off. 5. When the quantity sown is small, and the farmer can afford to lose a crop, to give the ground one turn in the autumn, another in April, harrowing it fine, and a third the beginning. of May, and then if the weather be mild and warm, sow, if the ground be in perfect tilth, otherwise give it ano- ther ploughing. Eighteen or twen- ty pounds of seed are not too much. Mr. L. prefers ground that had been manured and bore a potatoe crop the year preceding ; but ano- ther mode by which the seeds will come up quicker, and with more regularity, is to manure early in the spring, and to plough and har- row the ground firm, when the weeds have sprung and got some head, and when the earliest kinds begin to blossom, plough again, and harrow fine ; repeat this four times by the first of July ; then the lucerne seed should be sown when the ground is dry, and rol- led in : if committed to the ground when moist, the seed will swell, and if a dry season succeeds be- fore they have struck root, they will whither away. When lucerne turns yellow, it must be mowed, as the plants will come up free from the disorder. Dr. Muhlenberg sows lucerne alone, like clover, after potatoes or Indian corn, or in preference after cabbage crops, about the se- cond May, and observes, that when it can be fed green, it exceeds any other grass. The following observations on this valuable plant, and on other useful grasses, by Mr. De la Bi- garre, are taken from th6 Trans. Agric. Soc. N. York, and being the result of experience, deserves seri- ous attention. " Amongst a great number of grasses used for artificial pastures, I thought it my duty to select those which I presume the most suitable to this state, and most friendly to cattle, as far as I am able to judge, from my experience of the coun- try. This essay will be extended only to four of the perennial, consider- ing the three others as annual, and less useful, which therefore require a separate treatise. Lucerne....It is not true that lucerne can grow every where: it requires a light but substantial ground, not too dry nor too wet: it delights in a deep and gravelly soil, or rich sand, where it may root down easily, rather upon a level spot, than on mountains or declivities. As much as possible I would chuse a situation sheltered by woods or hedges from the cold winds in the winter, and from burning breezes in the summer. Tillage and sowing....The ground intended for lucerne, must be ploughed twice before winter, fif- teen inches, or at least a foot deep. In the latter end of March you plough it again, and dress it with a harrow before the clay of sow- ing : the seed is buried in the ground by the harrow, taking care to fix chatwood or branches under and betwixt the teeth, in such a way as to facilitate the covering of the seed, without going too deep into the ground. G RA GRA 199 There are two ways for the sow- ing of lucerne : the first, by itself, which is the best : the second, mixed with bariey or oats.....but observe not to mi:: lucerne with any other perennial. Whether lucerne is sown by it- self, or inixt with barley, take twenty pounds weight for an acre. If you chuse to sow it with barley, take the exact measure of the quantity of bar'ey which yau are used to sow upon one acre.....then put in that measure twenty pounds of lucerne seed, fill it up afterwards with the barley, that process will establish the just proportion. If you intend to sow lucerne by itself, fill up the measure with sand or ashes over the above-mentioned quantity of seed, as that method makes the sowing easier and more regular. When your barley is ripe, you may mow it as close as possible to the ground without any danger of hurting the young plants of your lucerne, of which you cannot ex- pect but a very indifferent crop the first year. Do not let cattle feed upon it at that time. The second year will give you two crops. In the beginning of the third year, as soon as the win- ter is over, you must harrow your lucerne about two inches deep when the ground is yet moist, in two or three different directions, in order to root out the weeds : Never mind nor be uneasy if your lucerne is torn to pieces by that hard dressing ; the more it is torn the better it will grow : this is a fact of long experience, upon which you may rely. Manure.....After the above dres- sing, you may manure your lu- cerne with greater advantage, by spreading over some new ground or mud taken frqni creeks and swamps, or employ some pulve- rized gypsum. The best manure for lucerne which I know, is the dung of fowls and pigeon-houses, well dried by the sun, and reductd into powder; but it seems very scarce, and too difficult to be got in this country, although a great deal less of this last manure would be required, as in the proportion of one to nine. Dung of cows, horses, or of any other cattle, ought to be rejected as bad manure, upon lucerne, because they bring with them such a quantity of weeds, as to poison the best lucerne in the course of two years. Produce ...The third year the lu- cerne has acquired its full strength, then upon a common average one acre will produce, viz. The first crop, 2500 weight, The second, 1400 do. The third, 600 do. After the third crop, let it be fed upon by your cows all the remain- der of the fall. Such a piece of lucerne will last from nine to ten years : but how- ever great may appear the profit of that culture, there is a greater one after the lucerne is worn out: I mean the richness afforded to the ground by the roots of that plant; which is such that the first year the lucerne has been ploughed up, I was never able to raise wheat, which grew too rich, tall, luxuri- ant and lodging. Instead of wheat, then you must sow barley and oats. Mowing....The most propertime to get good and tender forage, re- lished by the cattle, is to mow lu- cerne when in full blossom, or a little before the ripeness of the seed. Another advantage of mowing 200 GRA GRA early, is to have the weeds cut down, which otherwise would come to seed, and spread over the field. W hen the weather is clear, one or two days are sufficient to dry your lucerne hay ; and by spread- ing over each row a thin bed of any straw (that of oats and barley is the best) you may carry your lucerne to the barn, without any danger of being heated or rotten. The straw so intermixed with lu- cerne, receiving the juicy emana- tions of it,becomes more palatable, and is eaten like the best hay by the cattle. It would be needless to observe what increase of food that process affords to a farm. Disorder....\n some uncommon summers, it happens that lucerne is attacked by caterpillars, or other insects. When this is the case, and you perceive the stems and the leaves turning pale, yellow, or fading, the only and best remedy is to mow instantly your lucerne, which will soon grow again, fine and free from those insects. Sainfoin....It may be ascertain- ed that sainfoin, considered like hay, is one of the most friendly foods to neat cattle ; horses are particularly fond of it in the winter, when it furnishes them so strong a nourishment as to be a good sub- stitute for oats. It grows upon any kind of soil, except upon stony ground. Its most advantageous quality is to succeed in the poorest land, san- dy loam, and upon declivities, of which it keeps the ground. Tillage and Sowi?ig....T\\o tilla- ges as deep as possible, according to the nature of the ground ; ne- ver mind if the plough turns up a part of that reddish and yellow stratum which they call unvegeta- ble among the farmers. It is sown by itself, or mixed with the same grains pointed out for lucerne ; but as the seed of sainfoin is bigger than that lu- cerne, the mixture must be in pro- portion. Manure.... Any kind of well-rot- ted dung, or pulverized gypsum, will increase the crops, though it may do without. When it is three or four years old, a good harrow-scratching cannot fail to be of service. Produce....It will be, according to the soil, commonly two crops. The first richer than that of any other grass : The second less, in the proportion of one to nine; because you cannot mow the sainr foin as early as you do lucerne. If you wish to make a strong food for your horses, you must wait till it is grown up in seed for the first crop. Mowing....! would recommend the method pointed out for lu- cerne, as the most profitable. Longevit'/'....Sainfoin is in full strength the third year, and will last from nine to twelve years, sometimes more, according to the soil and exposure. Disorder....It is not liable to be destroyed by any kind of insect, as far as I know from an experi- ence of fifteen years. Its mortal enemy is a flock of sheep, parti- cularly when it is young. Esi'ARCET....This grass, un- known I believe in England, may be classed among the plants of pe- rennial kind, and more like the sainfoin than any other. It has some peculiar advantages. It may be sown in every month of the year, except in time of snow or frost, growing upon every soil; it roots very well through stiff clay, stony or hard red gravel, provided GRA GRA 201 the ground has been ploughed as deep as possible. Manure. Thesameas for sainfoin. Produce, Mowing, iAc. Though it would afford a crop nearly like that of sainfoin, I preferred keep- ing it for constant pasture ; and in that way I have seen one of twen- ty-three years old, producing as fine grass as any young meadow. It is remarkable for keeping up the ground upon declivities. No disorder. Pimpernel. This perennial plant, which I would rather call immortal, on account of its long continuance, highly deserves to be introduced into this country. It is capable of withstanding the sever- est cold, as well as heat; besides it grows as well upon the tops cf mountains as in plains and vallies: it delights above all in light, gra- velly or calcareous soils. This vi- vacious plant has the power of destroying every other kind of grass or weeds. It keeps green all the winter, and the cattle are so fond of it, that whenever they smell it, they soon remove the snow to get at it. Whether eaten dry, green, or wet, it never hurts the cattle : Its nutritive qualities differ from those of other plants of the same class ; for instead of heating, it refreshes. Give me leave to submit to you a single instance, recommending this plant better than any other description. In the province of Berri it was known long ago, that all the sheep who fed upon certain meadows full of wild pimpernel, had finer wool. In consequence, a gendeman of my acquaintance look the trouble to cultivate a piece of ground with that pimpernel, and his success has confirmed beyond any doubt VOL. in. our preceding remark. He bought twenty poor wretched sheep, who never had before but coarse and common wool. In the course of the first year the alteration in the wool was sensible, and the little flock was bearing a good and heal- thy appearance. Not farther than at the third shearing, the wool was so fine that it fetched one-fifth above the common price. In short, this plant, whether as hay or in grass, affords the most relishing food to horses and cows; these last give much better iv.uk. Tillage and Sowing. The ground must be well ploughed at least six inches deep, once in the latter end of September, the second time in October. Then twelve pounds of seed will do for an acre, if the ground is good : Add to it as much sand or ashes, and sow it as you do lucerne. Manure. It may do without; but gypsum and any kind of dung would increase the crops. Like lucerne, this grass will re- ceive a great benefit, by being scratched with a harrow, every other year in the beginning of March.' Produce. Commonly three crops, like lucerne, if it is reserved for hay. Is also mowed like lucerne, and perennial."] Those of our readers who wish to acquire more minute information respecting the [English] native grasses, we refer to ~S:v. Swayne's excellent Treatise, entitled, "Spe- cimens of Pasture Grasses;" (folio, 1/. 1*.), a work replete with infor- mation. Grass Plots and Walks, are chiefly formed by covering spots of ground with turf taken from a fine common or down; as -this D D 202 GRA GRA mode of obtaining verdure is more speedy, and, for durability, far pre- ferable to that of sowing the soil with grass-seeds. But, where the latter method is practised,the seeds ought to be procured from those pastures which abound with fine and clear grass. The soil should be previously dug, and carefully divested of all clods and stones : after which it ought to be covered an inch deep with good mould. The seed is then to be thickly : own, and raked over, to prevent it from being dispersed by, the wind. It will, however, be advis- able to mix with the seeds a con- siderable portion of white clover, as this will produce a finer surface, and retain its verdure much longer than any common grass. The turf intended to be laid in gardens, ought to be selected from such commons as are free from weeds ; and, if it is to be transpos- ed to a rich soil, it will be requisite to cover its surface beneath the turf, with sand, or an indifferent mould, that the grass may not be- come too rank. It will also be ne- cessary to dress the turf late in autumn every second year, either with ashes, or tan, so that the rains may precipitate the ameliorating particles into the ground. The grass, when a few inches high, should be mowed closely, or graz- ed off by sheep, to prevent it from vegetating too luxuriantly ; by which means it will retain its beau- ty for many seasons ; but, if ne- glected, it will in a few years be overgrown with weeds. GRASS-IiOPPFHS.or Tettigc- nite, L. are a family of insects be 1-j.iging to the genus of GrylLux, and comprising 69 species : they all leap by the help of their hind 1cl,s, which are strong and much longer than the fore legs. 1 hough their walk is heavy, they fly oc- casionally with great speed: the females deposit several hundred eggs in clusters under ground, by means of two lamina or plates ap- pended to their tail, with which they penetrate the surface. The larvae that arise from them, re- semble nearly the perfect insects, but are of a smaller size, and ap- parently destitute of wings: these, however, are enveloped in four ex- crescences or knobs, which are un- folded when the insect attains its full growth, after having four times changed its coat during the sum- mer. Grass-hoppers do not abound in Britain, and indeed are seldom seen in any considerable numbers, on account of our variable climate. But, in the warmer countries of Asia, Africa, and Europe, especi- ally in Spain, they commit incal- culable damage, by destroying the whole vegetation of a corn-field, in a short period of time. The only method of extirpating these pre- datory vermin, hitherto known,is-to destroy their eggs wherever they can be discovered in the ground, either in early spring or late au- tumn ; for, as they multiply rapid- ly, the extermination of the wing- ed insects alone would not be at- tended with the desired effect.... For this purpose, ditches two or three feet deep, may be formed in autumn, filled with horse-dung, to wnich they are extremely partial, and the surface covered with a few inches of mould. In the fol- lowing spring, numerous families of grass-hoppers, with their eggs, will be found assembled in these ditches, where they may be readily destroyed. See also Locust. GR ASSWR ACK,or Zostcra, L. a perennial native plant, of two spe- cies, the principal of which is the GRA GRA 203 marina, or Sea-grasswrack, found on sea-shores, and in salt water ditches near Yarmouth. This vegetable grows at the bot- tom of the ocean, as common as the mosses thrive in woods : it is thrown on shore by the tide in such abundance, that mounds or dams, are constructed with its assistance,to preventthe encroach- ment of the sea. The green leaves are said to be an useful and dura- ble substitute for thatch : when ex- posed to the air and weather, they become white. The inhabitants of Gothland, employ the grasswrack as an excellent manure, and like- wise for stuffing their beds, as it is softer than hay or straw.... Horses and swine eat this herb, but it is not relished by cows, un- less mived with hay. The ashes ob- tained iVomthe whole plant are,with great advantage,employed by Ger- mans, in the manufacture of glass. GRATES for Fires, are com- posed of ribs of iron, placed at small distances from each other, so that the air may pass through the fuel, and the accumulation of ashes be, as much as possible, prevented. Grates are peculiarly adapted to the use of pit-coal, which requires a greater draught of air to promote its burning freely, than any other kind of fuel. In the year 1791, a patent was granted to Mr. Benjamin Charlf.s Collins, of Salisbury, Wilts, for a grate on a new con- struction, to be used either in or out of a chimney. This invention is said to be calculated to increase the action of the air upon fire, by augmenting and directing the pas- sage of the former through the latter. Thus the fire may be ren- dered so intense as to present a perfect white heat; and, as the draught of air is very great, the patentee observes, that " all, or nearly all of the unignited smoke is" carried down into the fire ami. there consumed, instead of passing off in the common way." To effect this purpose, he constructs one or more air-Hues provided with stops, by which he may at pleasure pro- mote the draught of air to the re- quisite degree of heat. Grates of this construction are asserted to be very useful for light- houses, and other places requiring a strong fire, such as laboratories, brew-houses, smelting furnaces, glass houses, Sec. For a more cir- cumstantial account of this patent, we must refer the reader to the 8th vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures:..[See Fireplace.] GRAVEL, in agriculture and gardening, is a congeries of peb- bles ; which, if mixed with stiff loam, make excellent and durable gravel walks. For this purpose, the bottom should be laid with lime rubbish, large iimta, or any other hard substance, to the depth of six or eight inches, in order to pre- vent any weeds from shooting through the surface. Over this stratum, the gravel is to be strew- ed six or eight inches thick, and somewhat sloping, that all the larger stones may roll off to the sides. The next operation is that of raking, when the large stones are to be removed, and the walks carefully rolled in every direction, especially during or after hard showers : thus they will bind, and become very firm. The most proper gravel for walks, is that which abounds with smooth round pebbles ; for the- e, when mixed with a small portion of loam, are not so liable to be turned up by the feet in walking as those of a rough and irregular shape 204 GRA Gravelly Lands or Soils arc such as abound with gravel or sand, which easily admit both heat and moisture. They receive but little benefit from the latter, if there be a loose bed at the bottom, because it easily evaporates ; but if the stratum be firm, for instance, clay or stone, the moisture is too long retained, so as to chill the soil and render it unfruitful. The best method of counteracting this incon- venience, is to manure such land with chalk, which is slightly to be ploughed in, that it may not sink too deep into the ground. As gravel constitute the chief material of our roads, and thus be- comes an article of considerable importance, we shall briefly men- tion a method, by which gravel or stone may be discovered without boring. It simply consists in ob- serving, whether the common White Saxifrage, or Saxifraga granulaia, L. (which see) grows on any spot where a bed of gravel is suspected to lie : for, if that plant be discovered, it will serve as a guide to surveyors or others, where to dig with a certainty of finding the object of their search. We state this fact on the authority of Mr. T. Walford, in the 25th vol. of Annals of Agriculture, where an accurate representation of the Saxifrage is given. For a method of clearing land from stone or gra- vel, we refer the reader to the ar- ticle Stcne. GRAVEL, in medicine, is a dis- order affecting chiefly the bladder and ureters ; it is occasioned by a sandy or gritty substance which collects in those parts, produces considerable pain, and at length obstructs the due secretion and ex- civtion of the urine. Although the gravel is generally considered as the forerunner of the GRA calculus, or stone, yet we are con- vinced from experience, that they are distinct diseases; and that those patients who are afflicted with the former, are generally exempt from the dangers of the latter. Persons of a gouty or rheumatic habit, as well as the aged, often discharge a white-reddish gravel, which not only obstructs and sup- presses the emission of urine, but by its stimulus occasions colic, vo- miting, and other spasms. There is a peculiar bodily disposition re- quired for the generation of this painful disease , but it is also re- markably promoted by the use of sour wines ; hard food, or such as is with difficulty digested, especial- ly cheese ; a sedentary life, &c.... For the cure of the gravel, only the mildestdiuretics (which see) ought to be resorted to ; perspiration should be supported by gentle means, particularly by friction with warm flannel; moderate exercise is never to be neglected ; and the patient's diet, as well as his mode of living in general must be re- gulated by appropriate temperance, and abstinence from all heating food and drink. [A very common plant about Philadelphia, viz. Erigeron Phila- delphicum, fieabane, or Cavender, has been frequently given with evi- dent relief in this distressing com- plaint. Half a pint of a moderate- ly strong infusion of the plant in water, twice a day, is the dose.] GRAVELLING, a disorder in- cident to horses much employed in travelling. It is occasioned by small particles of gravel penetrat- ing between the hoof and shoe, in consequence of v/hich the part swells and festers. The' most efficacious remedy, we understand, is to remove the slice as early as possible ; to draw GRE the place to the quick ; to express the matter and blood gathered there, and to pick out all the gra- vel. The wounded foot is next to be washed with copperas-water; then to be filled up with a mixture of hot grease and turpentine ; the hole stopped with the refuse of flax or hemp, and the shoe properly set on again. Meanwhile, the ani- mal should not be suffered to work or travel, and the foot must be kept dry : thus, it is asserted, it will heal after two or three dress- ings. Grave, See Burial, Bury- ing-grounds, and Funeral Rites. GREASE, a disorder in the heels of horses, proceeding either from a relaxation of the vessels, or a vitiated state of the blood and humours. When a horse's heels are first observed to swell in the stable, and to subside on taking exercise, care must be taken to wash them very clean, after every journey with soap-suds, urine, or a mixture of vinegar and water. Thus, with proper rubbing, the disease will often be effectually prevented, or removed. Or, the heels should be well bathed twice a day either with old verjuice, or the following mix- ture, which is well calculated to brace the relaxed vessels : Take of rectified spirit of wine 4 oz. dis- solve in it £ oz. of camphor ; then add 6 oz. of wine-vinegar or ver- juice, and 1 oz. of white vitriol dissolved in a gill of water. After mixing these ingredients, cloths dipped in the linanient should be applied to the heels of the ani- mal, and fastened with a proper bandage for a few days, during which the cure will generally be performed. A laced stocking, GRE 205 made of strong canvas, or coarse cloth, neatly fitted to the part af- fected, will afterwards be found very useful, and might be easily contrived. But, if cracks or scratches are perceptible, which suppurate, the hair should be carefully clipped away, as well to prevent a gather- ing, as to admit of cleansing the animal's heels from all impurities, which would tend considerably to aggravate the disorder. Should this be the case, or if the heels be covered with hard scabs, it will be requisite to begin the cure with poultices, prepared either of boiled turnips and lard, with a handful of bruised linseed, or oatmeal and rye flour, with a little common turpen- tine and hog's-lard, boiled up with strong-beer grounds, or red-wine lees. Beside applying either of these poultices for two or three days, the sore parts ought at the same time to be dressed with the digestive ointment, in order to soften them, promote a discharge, and reduce the swelling; when sores may be dried up with the following absorbent: Take white vitriol and burnt alum, of each 2 oz. Mel JEgrptiacum (see Frush) I oz. ; and lime-water two or three pints; wash the sores three times a day, with a sponge dipped in this mixture : and apply the com- mon white ointment spread on tow, adding previously two drams of sugar of lead to one ounce of this salve. When the distemper is only lo- cal, and requires no internal medi- cines, the method above described is generally successful ; but if the horse be full and gross, his Icg-s much gorged, so that the hair stares up, and is, as farriers term \t, pen-J eat hired, discharging afe- 206 GRE GRE tid matter from deep foul sores, in such case it will be advisable to apply to a skilful veterinary sur- geon ; as the disorder is then be- come of a dangerous tendency. GREASE, the fat of animals, or any unctuous matter. See Fat, and Tallow. Having already given some re- cipes for removing grease spots from Cloth, we shall here add a few directions for dischargingthem from Leather, or other articles of wearing apparel: Take equal quan- tities of soft soap, and the ashes of vines ; let them be well mixed to- gether, and a small proportion of tartar and burnt roach alum be added; these articles should be thoroughly incorporated,then form- ed into balls, and kept in a dry place for occasional use. With such balls the spots are to be care- fully rubbed, in consequence of which, it is affirmed, they will to- tally disappear. Another, and more simple me- thod, however, is to rub the leather with the white of an egg, which, when dried in the sun, will leave no trace of the spot or stain. [Mr. Henry, in his late excel- lent Epitome of Chemistry, says that " spots of grease may be re- moved by a diluted solution of pure pot-ash; but this must be cau- tiously applied, to prevent injury to the cloth. Stains of white wax, which sometimes fall upon the clothes from wax candles, are re- moved by spirit of turpentine, or sulphuric aether. The marks of white paint may also be discharged by the last mentioned agent."] GREEN, is one of the primary colours, exhibited by the refrac- tion of the rays of light. See Co- lour. Sap-Green is a simple colour, but far inferior to verdigrease; it is prepared from the juice of buck- thorn berries, evaporated to the consistence of a gum : but it fre- quently inclines to a yellowish co- lour. Another green sometimes used is called terra verte, which is a na- tive earth, probably impregnated with copper. It is of a blueish- green cast, much resembles what is called sea-green, but is gritty, and requires to be finely levigated before it is used. Its colour is durable, but not remarkably bright. See also Green. A durable green pigment has long been a desideratum among painters. M. Kinnman, a mem- ber of the Swedish Academy, has, at length, discovered and published the following process: Dissolve, in separate vessels, a portion of zinc in aqua-fortis, and cobalt strongly calcined, in aqua regia, till the li- quors are completely saturated. When both solutions are prepared, mix two parts of the latter with one part of the former ; then procure a hot and clarified solution of pot- ash, three parts of which will be required to precipitate the mixture above specified. After it has sub- sided, the fluid part should be de- canted, and the sediment evaporat- ed to dryness over the fire, till it as- sumes a green colour. Before, however, this pigment can be used, it ought to be repeatedly washed with filtered water: thus it will be- come fit both for oil and water-co- lours, as it is sufiieiently fixed to withstand the effects of the air and sun ; for the inventor has ascer- tained its superior durability by more than ten years' experience. He adds, that painters may, by means of this preparation, com- bine their yellow and ultramarine, so as to form a very beautiful and permanent green. GRE GRE 207 Green....The following method of preparing Brunswick Green, a beautiful colour, in great request on the Continent, for oil-painting, and in the manufacture of stained paper, is inserted on the authority of M. Kasteleyn. He directs shavings of copper to be put into a close vessel, and sprinkled with a solution of sal ammoniac. The metal first unites witb the muriatic acid, and is dissolved, when it is precipitated by the disengaged am- monia, with which it combines..... The precipitate is then to be wash- ed, and dried cither in wooden boxes, or upon an expanded cloth : the liquid now remaining may be repeatedly employed as a solvent for fresh portions of sal ammoniac, till it be completely saturated. M. Kasteleyn states,that three parts of such salt are sufficient for two parts of copper, and that the result will be six parts of colour. This beautiful pigment is sold in Hol- land by the name of Frieslarid Green ; and it sometimes forms an article of exportation: in which case it is generally adulterated with white lead. [To paint a good green, the first coat must be a lead colour.] GREEN-FINCH, a species of the Fringilla, L. a charming little bird, which has a strong tinge of green diffused over its whole body, ]the wings and tail are black, but variegated with yellow. The green-finch may be easily domesticated, by carrying it into a dark place, putting it upon one fin- ger and gently touching its breast with a finger of the other hand. Thus, by a few caresses, and gra- dually admitting day-light, this lit- tle creature may be accustomed to eat any bruised seed out of the hand, and will then continue tame. With respect to the proper food for green-finches, and their treat- ment when in a diseased state, we refer to the article Gold-finch. GREEN-HOUSE, a conserva- tory or erection in gardens, for the purpose of sheltering the more cu- rious and tender exotics from the effects of our variable climate, es- pecially during the winter season. The length of green-houses ought to be proportioned to the number of plants intended to be kept, or rais- ed. Their depth in small houses should not exceed twelve or four- teen, and in large ones, eighteen or twenty feet. The windows should reach from about 11 foot above the pavement to nearly the same distance from the ceiling, so as to admit of a cornice being con- structed round the buildings, over the tops of the windows. The breadth in the smaller conservato- ries ought not to be more than 5 or 5^, and in the larger ones 7 or 7 J feet ; as they will otherwise be- come heavy and inconvenient. The floor ought to be paved with Purbeck-stone, or flat tiles, elevat- ed two, or if the situation be damp, three feet above the surface of the ground ; it will also be advisable to carry a flue, about ten inches wide, and two feet deep, beneath the floor, through the whole length of the house, and to return it along the back part, where it should he carried up into funnels, for the pui- pose of discharging the smoke. In the inside, shutters should be made so as to fold back upon the piers, that the rays of the sun be not im- peded. The inner wall of the building ought to be either cover- ed with stucco, or plastered with mortar, in order to exclude the frosty air. But, if the wails be wainscoted, it will be requisite to 208 GRE GRE plaster the intermediate space with lime and hair: the cieling and walls or wainscot ought, however, to be white-washed, so that the rays of the sun may be reflected throughout the building. W hile the front of the conserva- tory is placed directly south, the two wings should be respectively arranged to face the south-east and south-west. Thus, the warmth of the sun will be reflected from one part of the green-house to the other, during the whole of the day ; and the front will be effectu- ally guarded against the cold nor- therly winds. In the 2d vol. of " Recreations in Agriculture," Dr. Anderson proposes to construct a green- house, in such a manner that it may be converted into a hot-house, without requiring any additional fuel. He therefore recommends the roof to be made of glass, plac- ed in a sloping direction ; and to fix perpendicular windows on the top of the front wall, so as to raise the lower eaves of such roof con- siderably higher than that of the slates would have been, without elevating the middle of the roof. According to his plan, the trian- gular, perpendicular wall should be completely covered with glass, through which the morning and evening sun may be admitted. In the country, or in houses uncon- nected with others, he suggests the propriety of bringing perpen- dicular windows closely down to the floor, both on the east and west ends, in order to receivv the benefit of the rising and setting sun. With respect to the conversion of this structure into a stove, or hot-house, Dr. Anderson supposes it to be erected close to the kitchen chimney of an inhabited house.... At a small distance from the bot- tom of the chimney, there is to be made a communication with a flue, or stove, which passes beneath, and rises on the opposite side of the green-house, where an appro- priate tile is suspended fromalever which, by means of a cord fasten- ed to its extremity, may at plea« sure drop this cover on the top of the tube or flue, and thus pre- vent the smoke from ascending ; the bottom of the cover being lined w ith pieces of thick cloth, so that. it may apply closely and become air-tight. A valve is Jikewise placed in the chimney, which turns on a pivot, so as either to allow the smoke a free passage, or to impel it into the flue, whence, after part- ing with its heat, it is either suf- fered to escape at the top, or is reverberated, according as the co- vering tile before alluded to,is shut or opened. For a more ample account of tliis project, we refer the reader to 2d vol. of Dr. Anderson's in- structive work above cited, where it is illustrated by cuts. We have here given an outline of his plan, because it is ingenious, and may lead to farther improvements. With respect to the manage- ment of plants in green-houses, Mortimer recommends occasion- ally to open the mould in which they are set, to scatter a little fresh earth on the pots, and over this to lay a little dung. It will also be ad- visable to water them, when the leaves begin to curl or wither; and to pluck off such as are decayed; but these operations should not be too frequently repeated. See Hot- hOuse. [Plants destined for the Green- house, should be kept out as late in the autumn as safety will admit, in GRE GRE 209 order to prepare them for the di- minished temperature to which they will be exposed. A slight white frost will not injure, but be- nefit all except very tender plants. During the day they ought to be placed in the shade for a week, in order that they may not suffer by different degrees of temperature in the day and night; and that they may be accommodated graciuallvto the cold, which they are destined to bear, before being confined for the winter. The sun must be kept out until the depth of winter.... In the even- ing, water the floor, in order that the air may be filled with moisture, by which plants thrive more, than when the water is applied to their roots. Orange, lemon and lime trees, must not be permitted to blossom in the green house during winter, as they will thereby be prevented from bearing the following season. They must only be kept alive and healthy, to prepare them for the genial warmth of the external atmosphere in the spring.....The leaves are much disposed to fall off, if the tree has been subjected to too much warmth during the winter.....The ever-green plants never push out leaves in the same place a second time. Water con- stantly evaporated from a stove, is higly useful. .1. W. Watkims, Esq. of New- York, gives the following plan for the construction of a green-house, in the Tram, of the Agric. doc. of the above state. The building should be sunk in the earth from two to four feet, in proportion to the size of the house, and according to the nature of the soil ; as clay retains moisture, and of consequence produces damps, vol. m. in such ground it should no«: be so deep. The height should not ex- ceed twelve feet from the exterior ground, by which it will be less exposed to high winds. The width should not exceed sixteen or eighteen feet, as the sun's rays are at that distance from the eclass very feeble. A south front is well known to be the true one, bur ad- vantage should be taken of glazing as much of the eastern end as pos- sible, for the benefit of the morn- ing sun. The front should dechne northward from a perpendicular with the horizon, so as the angle made thereby with the hoi e ;n, will at noon d\y in winter, bring the rays of the sun to strike the glass at right angles, and the roof should descend the opposite side without a break. By this position of the roof and glass, the rays of the sun are thrown upon every put of the inside of the house, and the whole becomes heated thereby ; more of the rays are also introduced into the building, and when the sun produces most heat during the day, there is no reflec- tion of its rays, and at other parts of the day, the reflecting angle being obtuse, does not powerfully cast off the ray >. The inside of the rafters of the roof, should be lined with boards, and the space between that and the roof filled with a mixture of straw, sand, and clay made into mortar; boards should be used in preference to shingles, as making fewer breaks in the roof, less opportunity is given for the'admission of cold air. Tne residue of the building mav be of stone or brick work, or a frame building filled in with bricks, and no flooring of any kind upon the ground. Shutters on the out- side are sufficient, and it is prefer- E E 210 GRE able to have them hung on hinges, as the least troublesome, to the common practice of sliding ones ; they should be made to fold into the -paces between the windows. Before putting the plants into the house, the bottom should be covered with bark from a tan-vat, about a loot deep, according to the depth the building is sunk in the earth. The advantages proposed by this method of constructing are, the lessening the expense of building, that the heat of the sun being suf- ficient to warm the house, the trou- ble and expense of warming it by a stove is avoided, which unless very carefully attended, the plants may be injured by too much heat, and are always by the smoke that unavoidably makes its way out of the pipes. It would be proper, ne- vertheless, to make arrangements in constructing the house for using a stove, in case a long succession of cold cloudy days, by obscuring the sun, should reduce the heat in the house below that degree of temperature necessary for preserv- ing the plants, which is a case that will seldom happen, as one clear day will warm the house sufficient- ly to admit its being shut up for several days. Plants in a house of this kind require less water, and do not suf- fer for the want of atmospheric air. It is probable, as the earth is charg- ed with electric fluids, as vegeta- ble substances are known conduc- tors of it, that the bark, by its fer- mentation, not only generates heat, but serves as a mean to produce out of the earth, an atmosphere for the plants, sufficient with such atmospheric air as will find admis- sion, to supply the quantity ex- GRE hausted, by the daily rarefaction occasioned by the sun's heat. A green-house has been 1 upon this construction in this state, without having had the least occa- sion of being heated by fire. The plants in the spring were remarka- bly thrifty ; tropical fruit ripened in it during the winter, and young fruit formed on the trees. It re- quired no other care, than now and then watering the plants, and shut- ting the windows as soon as the sun left them.] GREEN-SICKNESS. SeeCAlo- rosi.s. GREY-HOUND, the Common, or Cards Graius, L. is a dog re- markable for bis swiftness.strength, and sagacitv, in pursuing game.... There are several varieties, such as the Italian, the Oriental, and the Highland Greyhound : the last of which is now become exceedingly scarce. A good grey - hound ought to have a long, and rather large body; a neat pointed head, sparkling eyes, a long mouth, with sharp teeth, small ears- formed of a thin cartilage; a broad, and strong breast; his fore-legs straight and short; his hind-legs long and lim- ber ; broad shoulders, round ribs, muscular buttocks, but not fat, and a long tail, strong and full of sinews. In the breeding of these ani- mals, the female is principally to be regarded ; though both should, as nearly as possible, be of the same age, which ought not to ex- ceed four years. The food of grey hounds ought to consist of chippings, or raspings of bread, with soft bones and gris- tles ; these should always be soak- ed in beef or mutton broth, and, GRI when nearly cold, some milk may be added. On this diet, they should be fed morning and even- ing, which will greatly contribute to preserve them in health and spirits. But, if nevertheless, the dog should become sick or weak- ly, we understand that a rich broth, prepared by boiling a sheep's head together with the wool, in a suf- ficient quantity of water, with the addition of some oatmeal, and given to the animal alternately with the flesh, will speedily pro- mote his recovery. The proper exercise for a grey- hound is coursing three times a week ; and, if he be consecpiently rewarded with blood, it will ani- mate and encourage him to pursue game. After the chase, he should be led home, his legs washed with beer and butter, and in about an hour, he may be fed. GRIEF, or an increased and continued degree of sorrow, is one of the depressing passions. Its influence on the body is remarka- ble ; and its effects with few ex- ceptions, are similar to those of fear. Grief diminishes bodily strength in general, and the action of the heart in particular. The circula- tion of the fluids is thus impeded , the bile stagnates, and occasions indurations of the liver ; or, by mixing with the blood, it produces either jaundice or dropsy. Grief also diminishes perspiration, ren- ders the skin sallow, aggravates the scurvy, but particularly putrid fevers, and disposes persons to be- come easily infected with them. Its effects in changing the colour of the hair, are well known, and instances have occurred, in which the hair has been turned from a deep black to a grey colour, in 24 GRI 211 hours. Blindness, gangrene, and even sudden death, or, as it is em- phatically called, a broken heart, have resulted from the excess of this passion. Persons who indulge in fretting, become at length in a high degree peevish and irritable : from the constant return of sorrow, the mind beholds new food for it in every object. Thus, the whole imagination is seriously affected, and the most profound melancholy, together with a nervous fever, or, which is still more dreadful, with total insanity, are the inevitable consequences. Consolatory arguments being the first remedy that can be ad- ministered, recourse should be had to whatever is chearful, or calcu- lated to dispel thought, and to di- vert the mind from brooding over its real or imaginary woes. Gentle opiates, cautiously taken, may oc- casionally be of great service in this preying disease ; but daily ex- ercise in the open air, must on no account be neglected ; the body should be frequently rubbed with dry cloths, and perfumed with vi- negar, amber, or other 1 agrant matters: the tepid bath will also be found of eminent advantage ; and, if possible, the patient ought to be removed to a more genial ciiniate. Mild wines, if drank with modera- tion, will be often productive of the happiest effects ; but, if tkev be intemperately used, their strong tendency to generate an acid, can- not fail to deprave the appetite, and disorder the stomach. GRIPES, or Colic, in Farriery, a disorder with which horses are frequently affected. As it arises from various causes, its treatment must necessarily differ; and as the most judicious farriers have divided this malady into three species, we 212 GRI GRI have adopted such divisions.because ■there is no distemper incident to that useful animal, which is more frequently mismanaged by igno- rant pretenders, and consequently becomes incurable. The first species is the flatulent colic, which is generally occasion- ed by wind in the bowels, after drinking cold water, when the horse is hot ; or the perspirable matter is retained, and repelled on the bowels \y catching cold ; in either case, those parts become violently distended. This species of ihe disease may be distinguish- ed by the rumbling of confined air in the intestines, and the restless- ness of the animal affected, which often lies down, and rises almost instantly with a violent spring; striding his belly with his hinder feet, stamping v\ith those before, and refrsing his food. The horse is frequently attacked with a kind of convulsions, and falls into pro- file sweats, which are quickly suc- ceeded by cold damps. He strives repeateoly to stale, turning his head to his flanks, rolling on the ground, and frequently lying on his back. The symptom last men- tioned arises from a retention of urine, which generally attends the flatulent colic, and is often increas- ed by an accumulation of dung pressing on the neck of the blad- der. The first remedy is, to in- troduce into the straight gut, a small hand dipped in oil, by which the confined air obtains a passage ; and the neck of the bladder being thus relieved, the suppression of urine will be removed. Next, the following preparation will be of considerable service : Take half an ounce of Venice turpentine, and a similar quantity of junhper-berries pounded ; one ounce of salt-petre, one dram of oil of juniper, and two drams of salt of tartar. Let these ingredients be formed into a ball with syrup, and given to the animal affected ; after which it may be washed down with a decoction of juniper-berries, or with a little ale. But, if the horse neither break w ind, nor stale plentifully, it will be requisite to repeat the ball at the expiration of two hours, with the addition of one dram of salt of am- ber. He should likewise be gently exercised during the continuance of the fit. A clyster may be given either during the interval of taking the balls, or alone, and occasionally repeated : for this purpose fanners use the following ingredients, viz. Two handfuls of chamomile flow- ers, an ounce of anise-seeds, and a similar quantity of fennel and co- riander seeds : these are to be boil- ed in three quarts of water, till they are reduced to two ; when half a pint of gin should be added together with half an ounce of oil of amber, and eight ounces of oil of chamomile. We conceive, how- ever, that instead of the last three expensive articles, a pint of com- mon, or linseed oil, will answer a similar purpose. By a judicious application of these remedies, the animal will be considerably reliev- ed ; and, if his restlessness cease, and he continue quiet for an hour or longer,no danger need be appre- hended. 2. The bilious, or inflammatory gripes, are attended with the same symptoms as the flatulent colic, to- gether with a considerable degree of fever, panting, and dryness of the mouth. The horse frequently discharges a small quantity of dung, together with a hot scalding water. If the urine appear of a blackish, or reddish colour, accompanied with GRI GRO 213 a fetid smell, a mortification will speedily ensue. To counteract these dangerous symptoms, the distempered animal should imme- diately lose three quarts of blood ; which operation ought to be re- peated, unless a favourable change take place within three hours. Tne clyster above-mentioned, should be injected thrice a day, with the ad- dition of two ounces of nitre dis- solved in water : large draughts of gum-water should be allowed, and a pint of the following drink ad- ministered every three hours, till several loose stools are procured ; when it may be repeated every night and morning, till the disorder be removed : Let three ounces of senna, and half an ounce of salt of tartar be infused in two quarts of boiling water, for one or two hours; when the liquor should be strained, adding two ounces of the common lenitive electuary, and four ounces of Glauber's salt. If, notwith- standing these remedies, the in- flammatory symptoms become more violent, the event will in ge- neral be fatal. A strong decoction of Peruvian bark is the only medi- cine that may probably afford re- lief; a pint of which ought to be given every three hours, with half a pint of port wine. 3. The dry gripes arise chiefly from costiveness ; they are known by the animal's restlessness, and frequent but unsuccessful attempts to dung. In this case, the straight gut should be relieved in the man- ner above directed for the flatulent colic ; an emollient clyster, consist- ing of two or three quarts of thin water gruel, six ounces of sugar, and an equal quantity of salad-oil, should be injected lukewarm,three times in the course of twenty-four hours ; and the purging drink, pre- scribed for the inflammatory gripes, may be given till the. bowels be unloaded,and the symptoms abate. The proper diet for horses at- tacked with either species of this painful disorder, ought to be scald- ed bran, thin water-gruel, or what is called by farriers white water; which is prepared by dissolving four ounces of gum arabic in two quarts of water, and mixing the whole withthe animal's usuuldrink. CROMWELL, or Lithoifl-r- mum, L. a genus of perennial plants, comprising several species, the principal of which are j 1. The officinale Common Crom- well, or Gromill, Gray-mill, or Gray-millet, which grows in dry- gravelly soils, and flowers in the months of May and June. The seed of this plant affords excellent flour, which might in times of scar- city be converted into bread. From the rind of the root, a red colour may be extracted ; and it is also employed in the North of Europe as an inoffensive paint for the face, especially by country girls. Its seeds were formerly medicinal, but possess no peculiar properties ; though Hal leu observes that the plant itself is narcotic. 2.The arvense, Corn, or Bastard Gromwell, Gromil, or Alkanet ; a noxious weed, which is common in corn-fields, and flowers also in May and June. The juice of the root is likewise used as a paint : its rind tinges wax and oil of a fine red co- lour, similar to that which is ob- tained from the root of the foreign Alkanet. Sheep and gouts eat the Bastard Gromwell, but cows do not relish it; and it is totally re- fused by hogs and horses. CROUND-IVY,Gill, or Ale- hoof, Glechoma Hederacea, L. an indigenous plant, thrivingin groves 214 GRO hedges, and shady places ; flower- ing in the months ofApril andMay. G round-ivy has a peculiar strong odour ; it is of a bitter and slightly aromatic taste. Its leaves contain an essential oil, destitute of smell. This plant was formerly held in great estimation, and supposed to possess eminent medicinal virtues; but which are not confirmed by later experience. In obstinate coughs, it is still a favourite reme- dy with the poor, who probably ex- perience its good effects by perse- vering in its use, and abstaining from animal food. The expressed juice mixed with a little wine, and applied morning and esening, is said to destroy the white specks sometimes occurring on the eyes of horses. It is observable, that plants grow- ing near the ground-ivy, do not prosper ; and that this vegetable proves hurtful to horses, if they eat it in any quantity ; nor should it be given to diseased sheep, though it is a grateful and salutary food to them, when in health. But horses are not very partial to it; and it is totally refused by cows, hogs, and goats. GROUND-NUTS, orGnouND- pease, the Arrachis Hipogaios Americanus of Ray, a plant culti- vated in the West-Indies by the Negroes. When in flower, it in- clines towards the earth, into which the pointal enters, and extends to a certain depth, where the seed- vessel and fruit are formed ; so that the latter attains to maturity under ground. As large crops of this vegetable are produced on light sandy lands, of little value, it may perhaps be advantageously cultivated in the southern counties ©f Britain. The seeds or fruit, when bruised GRO and expressed through canvass bags, afford a pure, clear, and sa- vory oil, which, in the opinion of Dr. Watson, may be used for the same purpose, both culinary and medicinal, as those obtained from olives or almonds. The oil of ground-nuts, however, possesses a great advantage, as it will admit of being kept for a considerable time, without becoming rancid, or re- quiring any particular care, even during the heat of summer. As one bushel of the seeds, when ex- pressed, yields a gallon of pure oil without, and a much larger quanti- ty, though of inferior quality, with the aid of heat, they deserve to be more generally known and import- ed. The value of a bushel of these nuts, in South Carolina, did not ex- ceed eight pence in the year 1768, when specimens of the seeds were produced before the Royal Socity, and an account given in the 59th vol. of their Philosophical Trans- actions for 1769.....[See Earth- nuts.] GROUND - PINE, or Ajuga Chamoepitys, L. an indigenous plant growing in sandy fallows, and flowering in the months of April and June. It possesses a bitter and acrimonious taste, and though it has often been recom- mended as a medicine for the cure of the gout, jaundice, and intermit- ting fevers, yet its real efficacy in these diseases is not ascertained. GROUNDSEL, the Common, or Senecio vulgaris, L. an indige- nous plant, growing on cultivated grounds, rubbish, and in court- yards ; it flowers from April to September. A strong infusion of this weed exites vomiting; the bruised leaves afford a refrigerant and healing application to boils.... Its seeds are very agreeable to GRO GRU 115 gold'-finches and linnets confined in cages. Cows do not relish this plant: it is,however, eaten by goats and swine, but refused by horses anc sheep. There is another useful species of the groundsel, the Senecio Jaco- boea; for which we refer to Rag- wort. GROUSE, or Growse, Tetrao tctrix, L. a native bird, which is found in woody and mountainous situations, chiefly in North Britain. The male is two feet in length, and weighs nearly four poi nds; while the female is only about half that length and weight: she deposits six or seven eggs, which are hatched late in the summer ; and the young birds subsist at first on ants' eggs, and wild mountain berries. Towards autumn, grouse fre- quently descend from the moun- tains, and feed on corn : as they grow older, their principal food is derived from the tops of heath, and the cones of the pine-tree, by which they acquire a delicate fla- vour, and are speedily fattened. At present, these birds are rarely found in England, though grouse-shooting is a favourite sport in various parts of Scotland. GROVE, in gardening, is a small wood impervious to the rays of the sun. Groves constitute one of the chief ornaments of our gardens: they also afford the greatest relief against the scorching rays of the sun, while the rest of the garden is parched with heat; so that with- out a grove, every large garden must be defective. Groves arc either open or close. The former are composed of large shady trees, arranged at such dis- tances as to prevent the rays of the hun from penetrating through their intertwining branches. Close groves frequently contain large trees ; but the grounri beneath is so thickly planted with shrubs as to form private walks, sheltered from the wind. These are often contrived, in order to bound the open groves, or to conceal the walls or other inclosuresof the gar- den : and, when properly laid out, with dry walks winding through them, between fragrant shrubs and flowers apparently irregular, they have a most pleasing effect. In the planting of groves, the trees should be placed at diagonal intervals, by which mode they will acquire a more noble appearance, and also form a shade much sooner than such as are planted in direct lines. GRUB, in Zoology, the Eng- lish name for worms, or maggots, hatched from the eggs of beetles. Grubs are an excellent bait for many kinds of fish. In angling for the grayling (see Umber) as well as trout, the ash-grub is pre- ferable to all others. This insect is of a milk-white colour, a plump round form, with a red head. There is another very common grub, which is longer and thinner than the ash-grub ; has also a red head, but two rows of legs along the bel- ly ; it is tougher and yellower. To preserve grubs, they should be kept in bran, which will render them very firm ; but the ash-grub is always so tender, that it can with difficulty be employed as a bait: hence, it should be wrapped in a piece of stiff hair with the arming,and about a stravv'sbreadth left to project at the head of the hook, to prevent the grub from sliding off, when baited. The horse- hair must be white, or of a colour perfectly resembling that of the 216 GUA GU A bait; as otherwise it will be sus- pected by the fish. For the differ- ent methods of destroying grubs, in general, see Chafer. GRUBBING, in agriculture, a term used by farmers to denote the extirpation of trees. Old trees which are past grow- ing should be taken up by the roots, and young ones planted in their stead. That is, in most places, a tedious operation, though in some counties a machine is employed for this purpose, winch considera- bly facilitates the labour and les- sens the expense of removing the roots. It consists of an iron hook, about two feet and a half long, with a large iron ring affixed to its hanoie. The ground about the root being cleared away, and the straggling horizontal roots cut off, the point of the hook is fastened to some part of the stump ; and a long lever of sufficient strength, placed through the ring. Thus arranged, two men at the extremi- ty of the lever force it in every direction, till the root is torn out, twisting off the tap-roots at some distance under ground. This method appears to be very effectual in stubbing up the roots of underwood ; but, when those of very large trees are to be extract- ed, it will be advisable previously to cleave them with wedges into several parts, and then to take them up separately. See also Berne-Machine. GUAIACUM, or Lignum vita, L. is a genus of plants producing three species, the principal of which is the officinale, or Common Lignum Vitx, a native of the West Indies. It may, in colder climates, be propagated by seecis sown in pots plunged into a hot- bed, but it is seldom cultivated in this country. The wood of this species is of equal utility in the mechanical arts, and in medicine; being so heavy as to sink when immersed in water. It is chiefly employed in the West Indies for the wheels and cogs of sugar mills, and is also frequently formed into mor- tars, bowls, and other utensils. 1 he wood, gum, and bark, are all employed in medicine, though the two first are chiefly used in Europe. Cum Guaiacum is of a friable nature, of a deep greenish colour, but sometimes of a reddish hue ; and has a pungent acrid taste..... There is another spontaneous ex- udation obtained from the bark of this tree, which is called native gum ; it is imported in small irre- gular, semi-pellucid pieces ; and is much purer than that extracted by incision. The general virtues of Guaia- cum are those of a warm aromatic medicine : it strengthens the sto- mach and other viscera, and great- ly promotes the discharges of urine and perspiration. Hence it is of especial service in cutaneous erup- tions, and disorders arisingfromob- structions of the excretory glands: in rheumatic and other pains, un- attended with fever, the liberal use of gum guaiacum has often afford- ed considerable relief. It is like- wise a good laxative, and furnishes a more active medicine than either the wood or bark of this tree. Gum Guaiacum, when dissolved in rum, or combined with water, by means of mucilage or the yolk of an egg, or in the form of a tinc- ture or elixir, has been found use- ful in chronic rheumatism, or even in such wandering pains of the sto- gud mach or other parts of the body, as could be attributed to the retroce- dent gout; in which cases a smalll ta! de-spoonful of the emulsion may be taken three or four times a day. GUDGEON, in Ichthyology, is a species of the Barbus, or Bar- bel ; which sec. It inhabits most running waters, small streams, such as the river Lea, and is found in great abundance in the New- River, near London. Though small, this fish is highly esteemed for its fine flavour. Gudgeons generally hide them- selves under weeds, in rough wa- ter, and among the sedge growing at the sides of rivers, particularly during the spawning season, which commences about the middle of April, and terminates with the month of May. When full of spawn, they are of a superior fla- vour, and this period includes the latter part of March, and the first part of April. The proper season for taking gudgeons isin the month of March, April, and May, but the rods, lines, baits, &c. differ in several material respects according to the particu- lar time of the year fixed upon for angling. In general, however, the rods should be of a small size, and the line a single horse-hair, or that of a goat may be substituted. The hooks should also be very small, three or four of which must be affixed to each line, at the dis- tance of six inches from each other ; and the depths at which the sportsmen is to angle, vary, ac- cording to the season of the year, the nature of the water, and other circumstances. The most gene- ral bait for gudgeons are, blood- worms and white paste. On taking his stand, the angler VOL. III. GUE 217 may throw in bread as a ground- bait ; but the common method of disturbing the bed of the river with a rake, should be adopted only in warm seasons. Sometimes it is attended with good effects to plumb the bottom, or at least to drop the plummet rather deep. A curious double plugged float, and small shot, fixed at about three inches from the hook, is generally used with success in catching these fish. GUELDER-ROSE, or Vibur* num, L. a genus of plants compri- sing twenty-two species, two of which are natives of Britain. 1. The Lantana, Mealy Guel- der-rose, Pliant Mealy Tree, or Wayfaring Tree, which grows in calcareous soils to the height of 18 or 20 feet, in woods and hedges: it produces large white flowers in May, and black farinaceous berries in October. The young branches and rind of the trunk of this spe- cies may be employed for bands and cords. It is, however, chiefly esteemed for its beautiful foliage, which renders it an ornament to parks and plantations. The bark of its root is used for the prepara- tion of bird-lime ; the berries at- tract birds, and are of a drying astringent nature. 3. The Opnlus, Common Guel- der-rose, or Water Elder, which grows in woods and damp hedges ; bears white blossoms in May or June, and red berries in Septem- ber. When in bloom, this tree ex- hibits a singularly fine appearance; the flowers, though small, are formed into large globular umbel--, whence it is sometimes called the Snow-ball tree. Birds are enticed by the red berries, but will not cat them. According to Becii,teii>j, 218 GUI GUI these berries may be preserved in vinegar, and the tough, hard wood is employed by shoe-makers for small pegs of heels. [GLTLANDIA, Bonduc or .Vic- tor tree. A forest tree abounding in the western states of America. It bears nuts about the size of the pignut, of a deep chocolate colour and shining appearance. The shell is so thick and hard, that they require to be filed, to forward their vegetation. The nuts when parch- ed and ground, are substituted for coffee by the inhabitants of the western country. GUINEA, a British gold coin, thus denominated, because the precious ore from which the first guineas were coined, was original- ly imported from the coast of Gui- nea. The value or rate of this coin has frequently varied : when first struck, its current price was 20s. on account of the scarcity of gold, it afterwards advanced to 2 1.9. and 6d. but its present nominal value is 21,9. If the pound weight (troy) of gold be divided into 89 parts, each 5 of them will be equal to half a gui- nea, so that 12 ounces contain 441 guineas. As this favourite coin is gradually disappearing, we think it superfluous to state it* accurate proportion of pure gold and alloy : it has been confidently reported, that English guineas have lately been exchanged on the Continent, and especially in Hamburg, at from 24 to 25 shillings. Such temp- tations, however, will induce only those persons to profit by the op- portunity, who are now almost ex- clusively in the possession of gold, while they accommodate us with pap?". GUINEA-CORN, or Holcus Sorghum, L. an exotic vegetable^ growing on the coast of Africa : its stalks are large, compact,generally attaining the height of 7 or 8 feet, and producing abundance of grain. It may be easily raised in shelter- ed situations, especially in exhaust- ed hot-beds and other loose soils, where its seeds should be sown early in the spring; as the large flowery tops appear in June. In Tuscany, Syria, and Palestine the flour made of this grain is mixed with other meal, and converted in- to bread; which however, is ge- nerally brown, tough, and heavy. Hence the former is better calcula- ted for milk-porridge that is equal- ly wholesome and nutritive. The juice exuding from the stalks of the Guinea-corn, is so agreeably luscious, that it affords excellent sugar, by a process similar to that adopted with the sugar-cane. The seeds furnish nourishing food to poultry and pigeons, as well as for horses and hogs. Struve, a Ger- man writer on economy, states, that he obtained from this grain good vinegar by fermentation;and, on distilling it, a strong spirit. GUINEA-GRASS', a valuable species of herbage, thus denomina- ted, as it was first discovered on the coast of Guinea, whence it was brought to Jamaica, and afterwards imported into this country. In point of real utility, this plant ranks, in Jamaica, next the sugar- cane ; for the breeding farms throughout the island were origin- ally established, and are still sup- ported, chiefly by means of the Guinea-grass, which bestows ver- dure and fertility on lands that would otherwise not deserve to be cultivated. About ten years since, it was also introduced into the East-Indies, where it is now sue- GUI GUL 219 tcssfully cultivated, and grows to the height of seven feet: it ad- mits of being frequently cut, and makes excellent hay. Cattle eat it, both in a fresh and dry state, with great avidity : hence the cul- ture of this valuable herbage has been strongly recommended to the farmers of Cornwall and Devon- shire. [The following remarks on the culture of this grass are by the late H. Lawrence of South Caro- lina. " In the last spring I procured from Jamacia three half pints of Guinea-grass seed, which I planted in the drills of one fourth part of an acre of very indifferent land ; the seed sprung and soon covered the ground with grass four feet high and upwards. Being desir- ous of saving as much seed as pos- sible, I cut one bundle of grass for horses : they ate it all with great avidity. " In August I took one of the grass roots and divided it into twenty eight parts, which were im- mediately replanted : every part took root, and the whole are now growing very finely and seeding. I am of opinion this grass will make the best pasture we can wish for.....From former experience I have reason to believe the Guinea grass is perennial....It is easily managed, requires but one good hoeing, after which it will take care of itself. I am informed a gentleman near Kingston, in Jamaca, makes up- wards of 1000/ sterling per an- num by Guinea-grass hay.] GUINEA-HEN, or .Vumida vie/eagriy, L. an exotic species of gallinaceous fowl, which is a na- tive of Africa. Its body is sloped in a manner similar to that of a partridge, and its dark grey co- lour is beautifully variegated with white spots. Guinea-hens are not so tame and domestic as our native fowls, and frequently occasion considerable trouble to their keepers, by flying into hedges and bushes, especially during the night, where they lay, and hatch their eggs, of which they frequently deposit from 100 to 150. Nevertheless, they breed tolerably well in this climate; their flesh is generally white, tender, and sweet, though it is sometimes found per- fectly black. GUINEA-PIG, or, as it is more properly termed, the Restless Ca- vy, Cavia Cobaya, is not a native of Guinea, but of Brasil, whence it has been imported into Europe. It is about seven inches in length, and its white body is variegated with irregular black and orange- coloured spots. The female breeds at two months old,and brings forth ten,twelve, or fourteen-young. ones, several times in the course of the year, after a gestation of three weeks.* Guinea-pigs feed on all kinds of herbs, but are particularly fond of parsley, as likewise of apples and other fruit. In their wild stcrte, they multiply prodigiously, and would become innumerable,'ifthey were capable of sustaining cold and moisture. Cats are their natural enemies ; but their haunts being supposed to be exempt from the inroads of rats, guinea-pigs might be usefully reared in country pla- ces inlhseed with those preda- tory'animals ; as they afford a pa- latable and wholesome food. In a domestic siate, they are very rest- less, and make a continued noise, similar to the grunt of a young pig. GULL, or Larits, in ormtho- i_0 GUL logy, a genus of aquatic birds.com- prising eleven species, the most remarkable of which is the para- siticus, or Dung - hunter : it is about twenty-one inches in length ; the upper parts of its body, wings, and tail, arc black; the lower part of the breast dusky, he. It commonly frequents the Hebrides in the month of May, and retires about August. It is also found in the Orkney Islands, and on the coasts of Yorkshire, where it is called the J'easer. The female constructs her nest of gra:ss and moss, on a hil- lock, in some marshy situation, in which she deposits two ash-colour- ed eggs, spotted with black, and about the size of those of a hen... Funke, a German naturalist, in- forms us that these eggs are found in such numbers, on an island which is uninhabited, in the vici- nity of Amsterdam, that it is lett i'.t the annual rent of 20,000 flo rir.s. Gulls, in general, fly but slow- ly ; though, when in pursuit of other birds, they often attack and compel them to disgorge the fisn, or other food, which the gulls de- vour with avidity. GULLET, or Oesophagus, in anatomy, is a long, round, and ca- pacious tube, destined to convey the food from the mouth into the stomach. It descends between the windpipe (which see) and the joints cf the neck and back, as far as the fifth joint of the" spine, where it turns somewhat to the right till it arrives at the ninth; where it again changes its direction towards the left, climbs over the aorta, or the largest blood-vessel in the human body ; and, after rising above it, penetrates the midriff, and then extends to the left orifice of the .stomach. GUL Instead of enlarging upon the situation and structure of the gul- let, we shall give a few directions for removing substances stopt be- tween the mouth and the stomach. If the matter detained within the gullet, is of an alimentary or harm- less nature, it may then safely be pushed down by means of a heated and oiled wax-candle, to render it flexible ; because the manner in which the obstruction is formed, may often occasion death. On the contrary, if the substances swallowed are indigestible, such as pins, needles, pieces of bone, glass, buckles, or other pointed bodies, immediate attempts should be made to extract them: when they have not descended too low, the fingers will frequently besufficientto reach and withdraw them, but if they be deeper within the gullet, other means must be instantly adopted ; as delay may prove fatal. For this purpose, the most simple instru- ment is a crotchet, or a kind of hook, made of smooth and thin iron wire, by bending it into an oblong ring at one end, reflecting the wire to the top, and forming a large handle: thus no pointed part, will injure the throat by introduc- ing the hook ; and there will be no danger of its slipping from the operator's hand. We have seen a more effectual instrument con- trived by a double and triple ring of thin wires crossing each other in an oval form, so as to leave spaces between them, in order to loosen and extract a pin, or other sharp substance ; the handle must, in either case, be somewhat bent, and accommodated to the curve of the neck. As, however, the construction of such a crotchet requires some in- genuity ; and as wires may not al- GUM GUM 221 ways be at hand, there is another more simple and expeditious me- thod of procuring relief, by means of a small piece of dry sponge, or tough meat, which should be fas- tened to a fine silken or linen tape, so that after swallowing the sponge or meat, it may again be gradually extracted. Thus we have frequent- ly seen pins, or sharp pieces of bone, removed without farther in- convenience. In order to facilitate the operation, a little lukewarm milk or water should be swallowed, by the patient, before the string is withdrawn from the throat. If, however, none of these ex- pedients prove successful, it will be necessary either to administer an emetic, consisting of half a dram of ipecacuanha in powder, to be taken in a draught; or, if the pa- tient be unable to swallow, to ex- cite vomiting by stimulating his throat with a feather dipped in sweet oil ; and, if this attempt likewise be ineffectual, a clyster, made by boiling one ounce of to- bacco in three quarters of a pint of water, and then straining the de- coction, should be given in danger- ous cases.....such an injection has often been attended with speedy vomiting, and the consequent dis- charge of the substance which ob- structed the gullet. After these remedies have been fairly tried, no other prospect re- mains of saving the patient's life, than by opening the wind-pipe, an operation which, in the hands of a skilful surgeon, is neither difficult, nor painful to the person threaten- ed with suffocation. GUM,a concrete vegetable juice which possesses no peculiar smell, or taste ; it forms a viscid or mu- cilaginous solution in water, but is not acted upon either by spirits, or oils: it bums in fire without melt- ing or inflaming, and is not dissi- pated by evaporation. Gums are divided into two classes, genuine and impure. In the former class are Gum Arabic, Gum Senega, and Gum Traga- canth: and gums of plum and cherry trees, 8cc The latter are such as contain a greater or less proportion of resin. Gum Arabic exudes from the Mimosa Nilotica, or Egyptian Aca- cia, which abounds in Africa; but according to Dr. Swediaur, it is chiefly obtained by boiling the roots of certain trees growing in Egypt. The best gum used in this country is of a pale yellowish co- lour. On account of its glutinous properties, it is preferred as a de- mulcent in coughs, hoarseness, and other catarrhal affections, in order to obtund or mitigate irritating acrimonies disorders, and to sup- ply the loss of abraded mucus. It has been very generally employed in stranguaries, and other urinary complaints. Gum Ammoniac. See vol. 1. p. 45. Gum Copal. See Copal. Gum Guaiacum. See Guaia- cum. Gum Kino. See Kixo. Gum Lac. See Lac Gum Senega. See Senega. Gum Tragacanth. See Tkaga- canth. Gum Elemi exudes from the Anvjr'u elemifera, a native of South America, whence it is imported, and sometimes also brought from the East Indies. The best sort is rather soft and transparent, of a pale yellowish colour, inclining to green ; and of a strong but pleas- ing smell. It was formerly em- ployed more than it is at present, 222 GUM GUM in the compound ointment of Elemii which has long been used for di- gesting and cleansing ulcers. Besides its utility in medicine, gum is of considerable service in the Arts ; and, as sufficient quali- ties of it cannot always be pro- cured genuine, different persons have endeavoured to contrive such substitutes, as would effectually answer the same purposes....From these, we have selected the follow- ing, as being most easily prepar- ed, and chiefly from substances produced in this country. The first is the invention of Mr. Albert Angell, of ILthnal- green, Middlesex, to whom a pa- tent was granted in January, 1781, for his Britannic Elastic Gum. This preparation consists of one gallon of linseed, or nut-oil, lib. of bees- wax, 6ibs. of glue or size, ^lb. of verdigrease, a similar quantity of litharge, and two quarts of spring or rain-water. These ingredients are to be melted in an iron kettle, till they acquire the consistence of gum. The patentee observes, that such composition is particularly serviceable in the various branches of portrait and house-painting, as it renders the colours durable, and free from peeling; it is also said to be of great utility in the gild- ing, painting, &c. of silks, cali- coes, Sec. and in dressing silk, linen, or cotton, in the loom, in- stead of gum or paste, so as to strengthen the threads of the fin- est cottons. He states a variety of other uses, a minute account of which the curious reader will find in the 3d vol. of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufactures." Another patent was obtained in June 1788, by Mr. Francis Blai- kie, of Glasgow, merchant, for the invention (discovered to him) of a substitute for gum, in thick- ening colours for printing, which fully answers the purpose, and at a more reasonable rate. This ar- ticle is prepared by boiling flax- seed iu water, till the whole sub- stance is completely extracted ; the liquor is next to be strained through a linen or woollen cloth, and boiled down to the consistence of a jelly. It is then to be put in- to a close vessel, and a small quan- tity of spirits, or sweet oil, poured on the top, in order to preserve it in a fresh state. In using this sub- stitute, the printer is directed to put a certain portion into a gallon of colour, according to the nature of the latter, and the particular kind of work ; while he should re- gulate himself by trial, in the same manner as is practised in employ- ing common gum. GUM, or Gum-Secretion, in horticulture, is a kind of gangrene, or morbid production of gummy matter, exuding from the wound- ed alburnum or sap-wood of deci- duous trees, arising from various causes, but mostly from injudici- ous pruning; bruises, or injuries committed on the wood, or bark, by the hammer in nailing the branches against walls ; pinching the shoots by making the trellises too tight, or by driving the nails too closely to the branches. It may also be occasioned by leaving the foot-stalks of the fruit after this has been gathered ; by carelessly applying ladders ; and especially where large boughs have been broken off, or inadvertently lop- ped. This distemper may be known before the gummy secretion actu- ally takes place, by the bark as- suming a brownish cast, that gra- dually deepens, till the gum a\ GUM length exudes in the form of small blisters. As soon as any of these symptoms are perceived, Mr. For- syth directs the infected part to be cut out with a sharp knife, till the clean white bark and wood ap- pear ; after which the composition and powder should be speedily ap- plied. Lastly, in case any gum ooze out of the tree, it must be immediately craped off; as the disease will otherwise rapidly in- crease : the best time for this operation, in the opinion of Mr. F. is during wet weather ; because the gum being moistened, may then be easily removed without in- juring the bark. Cherry and other stone-fruit trees are particularly affected with this exudation of gum, which, how- ever, concretes in dry weather, and thus its farther discharge is pre- vented : otherwise the tree would weep, and perish from a deficiency of nourishment. Dr. Darwin conjectures this gummy substance to be part of the nutritious fluid designed for the new buds, which are usually form- ed in the summer. He proposes to obviate its exudation, by fas- tening a thin plate of lead on the part affected, which is previously made smooth with a knife, so that no rain or dew can penetrate : a piece of sponge, soft leather, or India rubber, might be bound on the tree beneath the lead, till the wound is healed. The doctor sug- gests another method of closing the wound; namely, to cut out a piece of bark from a tree of infe- rior value, but similar nature ; to adapt it to the wounded part,-after its edges are nicely smoothed, and to tie it on with list, flannel, or other bandage ; in order that its SUM 225 elasticity may secure a continual pressure, without injuringthe bark. Mr. Bucknall, who has made some ingenious observations on the formation of gum, in the 12th vol. of the " Transactisns of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts," Sec. disapproves of smearing the dis- eased tree with tar, or any other substance that may impede the proper circulation and perspiration of the juices, as it must necessa- rily hurt the tree. The best re- medy, in his opinion, is the medi- cation [vol. 21. p. 498.] for, be- ing applied simply like a plaster, and not being extended farther than is required by the bare wood or torn bark where the gum oozes forth, it is rtot attended with those unfavourable effects. He farther assures the Society, that in each of these cases, " the medication becomes supremely salutary," on account of its drying qualities ; for the wounds heal in one half of the time they would close, when ex- posed to heat, cold, moisture, and vermin. GUM, or Yellow Gum, is a species of Jaundice, to which in- fants are liable, in consequence of a retention of the meconium, or when the bowels are obstructed after their birth. This affection may be cured, by occasionally administering a weak solution of tartar emetic, in the proportion of half a grain to four ounces of water, sweetened with manna, till it operate either bv stool, or by vomiting : after which, a small tea-spoonful of castor-oil should be given in water-gruel. But as the former medicine must be used with great precaution, we would preferably recommend one or two grains of ipecacuanha to be 224 GUM infused in an ounce of water, with a dram or two of manna, and to be taken in divided doses. If, however, the complaint be attend- ed with convulsions, the infant may be immersed in a warm bath, and expeditiously wiped ; a practice which is generally attend- ed with better effects than the swallowing of paregoric elixir, laudanum, and other antispasmo- dics ; even though such remedies should consist only of single drops, or half drops. Hence, we serious- ly caution parents and nurses against those precarious drugs, which cannot fail to undermine the constitutions of children. GUM-BOIL, Parulis, is an af- fection of the gums, commencing with inflammation, and generally terminating in an abscess. Gum-boils usually arise from violent pains in the teeth. They are to be treated with discutients, like other inflammatory tumors, but, if these fail, or the disorder be neglected, it is apt to produce a fistula. A gargle prepared of an infusion of sage, chamomile, and elder-flowers boiled in milk and wa- ter, may with advantage be fre- quently held in the mouth, and the remaining herbs sewed up in a bag, and applied to the cheek ; or, a half-roasted fig held within the mouth to the part affected, some- times affords great relief. When the softness of the tumour evinces that the matter is properly suppu- rated, it should without delay be opened by the lancet, to prevent the matter from lodging there, eroding the bone, and causing a fistula, or caries. After this operation is per- formed, the matter should be gen- tly pressed out with the fingers, and the mouth frequently washed with lukewarm Port-wine and water. GUM But, when the ulcer has pene- trated to a considerable depth, it will be necessary to inject the last- mentioned mixture with a syringe, and compress the part affected by a proper external bandage. If the affection assume a fistulus appear- ance, and have callous edges, it may even then be cured, by inject- ing the compound tincture of aloes, and continuing it for some time. Should, however, all these reme- dies prove ineffectual, the fistula must be laid open by incision, and the caries removed by medicines, caustics, or the actual cautery. GUMS, in anatomy, are hard fleshy substances in both jaws, sur- rounding the teetji, and keeping them firm in their sockets. Gums frequently become spon- gy, and separate from the teeth: this is often occasioned by a tarta- rous kind of crust, which is form- ed about them, and, on the sepa- ration of which, the gums return to their pristine state : to promote- this favourable change, they should occasionally, though gently, be rubbed with a mixture, consisting of four parts of an infusion of roses, and one part of the tincture of myrrh. Another disorder incident to hu- man gums is the scurvy, which frequently breaks out on them, while it does not appear on any other part of the body. Indeed, when a scorbutic complaint attacks the whole system, the first symp- tom is a putrid state of the gums. In such case, a rigid diet, consist- ing chiefly of ripe fruit and muci- laginous vegetables, will be the best corrective. Externally, a fine powder, prepared of three parts of double refined sugar, and one part of burnt alum, may be employed for rubbing them two or three GUN times a day ; because sugar is an excellent antiseptic, even as an article of diet: a whole ship's company has been cured of a for- midable scurvy, by living from ne- cessity, for some time, on no other aliment. GUN, or Musquet, in the mi- litary art, is a kind of fire-arms, or weapon of offence, which for- cibly discharges a ball, or other hard and solid substance, through a cylindrical tube, by means of in- flamed gunpowder. Although the precise time when these instruments of death were first invented, is involved in obscu- rity, yet the introduction of guns into the western part of the world, is but of modern date. Among the various patents ob- tained by gun-makers, we shall only mention one granted in 1801; to Mr. John Prosser, of Charing- cross, London, sword-cutler, for a new contrived water-proof pan and hammer, for gun and pistol locks. The invention consists in applying a hammer of nearly the usual form, but instead of the common plain screw-pin round which it revolves, and which attaches it to the stock, the patentee has substituted a very large pin, of sufficient dimensions to allow of its being hollowed out and perforated, and in the axis of the hammer he places the pan to contain the priming, and to com- municate the fire to the chamber of the piece. See also Fire-arms. As nu.nerous misfortunes hap- pen with loaded guns and pistols, especially to careless youths and children, we suggest the propriety of removing the flint every time fire-arms are carried into a house ; or never to suffer young people to touch them. Indeed, the artist who will contrive a moveable ham- VOL. III. GUN 225 mer, or at least the upper part of the hammer containing the flint, which may be easily and instant- ly fixed on the spur of the occa- sion, would be the instrument of saving many useful lives, and well deserves to be rewarded by the pub- lic ; for all otherjnventions of stop- locks, kc. do not afford sufficient security. [GuN NY-BAGS. A species of bagging in the East Indies, employed to bring over sugar, salt-petre, pepper and coffee. The plant which yields the fibre whence this flax-like substance is obtained, is called by the natives of Bengal, Paat, with additional names to dis- tinguish the several varieties. The fibre is called Jute, and much cul- tivated in Bengal for the purpose of making sacking, ropes and twine. The cost of this article in Bengal is about 67 cents per cwt. Strong Demy, Crown, and cart- ridge paper, for grocers, druggists, Sec. may be made from this arti- cle, as shall be more particularly stated under the article Paper.] GUNPOWDER, a granulated composition of salt-petre, sulphur, and charcoal, which readily takes fire, and when secluded from the air, rarefies or expands with great vehemence, by means of its elas- tic force. The invention of gunpowder is at- tributed to Barthold Schwartz, a German monk ; but there is rea- son to believe it was not unknown in the time of Alkxander the Great ; and that Roger Bacon, in 1292, understood the nature of its component parts; though it was generally introduced into Europe only about the middle of the 14th century. The eflects of gunpowder, in mines, &c. may be considerably G G 226 GUN *J U IN increased, by leaving some space between the powder and the wad- ding. Hence, in loading a screw- barrel pistol, care should be taken that the cavity for the powder be entirely filled, so as to leave no space between it and the bad, be- cause musquets,fowling pieces,Sec. are very apt to burst, if the wadding be not rammed down close to the powder. In Birch's History of the Roy- al Society, we are informed, that Prince Rupek rmanufactured gun- powder of a force exceeding the best kind made at present, in the propor- tion of 21 to 2 ; and that sued) supe- rior quality is to be ascribed chiefly to a peculiar method of purity ing the nitre, and employing charcoal obtained from the wood of the al- der buck-thorn. [Mr. R. CoLEBiAN,of the Royal Mills Waltham Abbey, gives an ex- cellent paper on the subject of gun- powder, from which the following is extracted....See Tilloch's Phi- losophical Magazine, vol. 9. Gun-powder is made from the following proportions of the ingre- dients, viz. to each hundred Salt-petre, 75 Charcoal, 15 Sulphur, 10 The first thing to be attended to, is the purity of the articles. The salt-petre is refined by solu- tion, filtration, evaporation, and chry-.talization : after which it is fused, taking care not to use too much heat, that there may not be any danger of decomposing the nitre : by this means, it is not only rendered more pure, but the water of chrystalization more certainly got rid of. The sulphur is refined by melt- ing and skimming ; the most im- pure is refined by sublimation. The charcoal is best made in the following manner : The wood to be charred is first cut into lengths of about nine inches, and then put into an iron cylinder or retort, which is placed horizontally. 1 he front opening of the cylinder is then closely stopped : at the farther end are pipes leading into ca'ks. The fire being made under the cylinder the pyro-ligneous acid, attended with a large portion of carbonated hudrogen gas, comes over. The g-is escapes, and the acid liquor is collected in the casks. The fire is •:ept up till no more gas or liquor comes over and the c, ibon remains in the cylinder. The proportion, of powder used for the several pieces of ordnance by the navy, has been reduced one third in consequence of the increased strength of the composition into which this cylin- der chare oai enters. The wood must be felled in the summer, and must have the bark taken off before charring. The wood used is either alder, willow, or (black) dogwood. But if dis- tilled, the choice of wood is not material. 1. Each ingredient must be separately ground to a fine pow- der ; 2. Mixed together in the pro- per proportions; 3.The composition is then sent to the gunpowder- mill, which consists of two stones vertically placed, and running on a bed-stone. On this bed-stone the composition is spread, and wet- ted with as small a quantity of wa- ter, as will, together with the revo- lutions and weight of the runners, bring it into a proper body, but not into a paste. Only about forty or fifty pounds of composition are worked at a time ; these mills are worked either by water or horses. The composition taken from the mills is sent to the corning house GUN to be corned or grained. Here it is first pa sed into a hard and firm body, broken into small lumps, and the powder then grained, by these lumps being put into sieves,in each of wdiich is a flat circular piece of lignum vitac. The sieves are made of parchment skins, having round holes punched through them : se- veral of these sieves are fixed in a frame, which by proper machinery has such a motion given to it> as to make the lignum vitsc runner in each sieve, go round with quick velocity, breaking the lumps of powder, and forcing them through the sieves, forming grains of seve- ral sizes. The grains are then se- parated from the dust by proper sieves and reels. They are then hardened, and the rougher edges taken off, by be- ing run a sufficient length of time in a close reel, having a proper cir- cular velocity given it. The powder, thus corned, dusted and reeled, is sent to the stove and dried ; taking care not to raise the heat so as to decompose the sul- phur. The heat is regulated by a thermometer placed in the door of the stoves, if dried in a gloom stove. This gloom is not in a heated state, when the powder is taken in and out of the stove, and is furnished with a copper and other coverings. The Editor, Mr. Tin loch, sug- gests the propriety of heating the stove by means of steam tubes, and Mr. Coleman approves the plan. A good idea may be formed of the purity of gun-powder, and some conclusion as to its strength, by the following mode : Lay two or three small heaps (a dram or two) on separate pieces of clean writing paper: fire one of them by a red hot iron wire; if the flame ascends quickly, with a good GUN 227 report, leaving the paper free from white specks, and does not burn it into holes ; and if no sparks fly oft", setting fire to the adjoining heaps, the goodness of the ingredients and proper manufacture of the powder may be safely inferred; but if otherwise, it is either badly made, or the ingredients impure. The strength of gun-powder does ne>t depend on the granulation, the dust of gun-gowder, after manufacture, having nearly the same force as when granulated. The following observations are an abridgment of an excellent pa- per by the Hon. Mr. Napieu.,.. (See Trans. Royal Irish Academy.) The impurity of nitre may be detected by dropping a strong so- lution of sugar of lead into a phial of distilled water, saturated with salt-petre, which if it retained any considerable portion of magnesia, or marine salt, will assume a turbid or milky appearance. He has rea- son to believe, that powder, made with salt-petre oftener than four times refined, isof inferiorstrength, though probably more durable, than with that which has only been twice depurated. In the choice of salt-petre, he prefers that with crystals of a mod- erate size, solid, transparently white, which do not readily break with a crackling noise when gently grasped in the hand, and which when ignited on a red hot shovel, do not greatly decrepitate, but melt and consume with an equal and continued inflammation: the first of these symptoms is produced by hasty and imperfect desiccation, and the last is a proof that the ma- rine salt has not been entirely se- parated from the nitre. He ad- vises : 1. That the nitre be thrice boiled, carefully skimming off the 228 GUN feculent matter which floats on the surface, and abstracting the marine salt, which being crysulized by evaporation emring the process, falls 10 the bottom ; 2. To filter through canvass made into the form of a jelly bag, leaving it to crystalize after each ehxation, in leuoen or copper vessels, exposed to a free circulation of air. in a dry situation, and not in a cold cellar; 3. i o avoid the cakes deposited to- wards the bottom of the pans ; 4. To the mother water, oozing from the pans, add to the.mixture a small quantity of wood ashes, and repeat the operation of extracting ; 5. To use iron boilers and leaden pans. The sulphur is to be melted in an iron pot, over a gentle charcoal fire, which does not blaze, and strained through a double linen cloth, and the operation repeated until there is little or no residuum. The combination of the ingredients should be performed in clear dry 'veather. Stamping mills, consist- ing of large iron mortars, and wooden pestles, are preferable for the commencement of the mixing and twenty-four hours are little enough to work gun-powder. The rollers should be of cast iron, as well rs the circular trough in which they vvree. 1"he periphery of the cylinder ought to be divided into eight equal parts, alternately grooved and plain, with two of the fluted divisions hav- ;'•::<• th^ir grooves transverse, the other two lo?.gi'Uclinal. These grooves should be one inch broad, and a quarter of an inch deep, w ith their angles rounded off: the trough smooth. Oil applied in small quantities to the fluted roll- ers.wili prevent the adhesion of the pas'e to the grooves. Mr. Napier gives a plate of the rollers he re- commend.-;. GUN Glazing the powder reduces its strength about one fifth, if the powder be good. But it keeps bet- ter ; hence is proper for exporta- tion. Mr. Napier observes, that it would be a wise measure in go- vernment, to adopt the practice of glazing all high proof powder, and reserving it for foreign garrisons, where it must remain long in the magazine, as powder of this de- scription retains its grain better, and is consequently more durable, than when unglazed. Frequently reversing the bar- rels preserves powder, by prevent- ing the effects of that kind of de- composition arising from the dif- ferent specific gravities of the in- gredients. W hen barrelling pow- der, it is of great consequence to chuse dry clear weather. Mode- rately sized and somewhat spheri- cal grained powder is best. It should be dried very slowly, and not tried until after being manufac- tured two months; as, when fresh, it will rise to high proof; but being left in the magazine for a month, will lower in strength at least one fourth. Salt of tartar mixed with gun- powder, increases the report astonish- ingly, but is noxious to strength and durability. To the above important practi- cal observations on this subject, a few remarks shall be added. 1. The improved mode men- tioned by Mr. Coleman,of prepar- ing the charcoal is certainly of great importance, and ought to be generally adopted. It is incon- ceivable how pure the charcoal is rendered by this process, and what a quantity of water and tar are pro- duced in the operation. The edi- tor made an attempt last year GUN GUT 229 to havesomepowder manufactured with distilled charcoal, and very pure sulphur, in order to discover its superior power, but the foreman of the manufactory alarmed at the attempt to improve upon the bu- siness, which he thought had ar- rived under his direction, at its ultimatum of perfection, spoiled the mass by an incomplete mixture of the ingredients; so that when some of the composition was thrown into the fire, the sulphur might be seen burning before the whole inflamed. Maple wood is found to answer very well for charcoal. 2. As the goodness of gunpow- der must depend as much upon the intimate mixture of its component parts, as upon the purity of the several ingredients, it must strike every one, that the form of the rol- lers described by Mr. Napier is admirably adapted for the purpose. 3. The United States have with- in a few years past, suffered a great loss, by the navy powder absorbing so much moisture, as to render it unfit for use in a second cruise. To remedy this evil, the vessels intended to preserve gunpowder, ought to be perfectly air-tight.... Neither wood nor tin, however close, effectually secure the article from moisture. It has been remark- ed that any vessel in which salt of tartar can be preserved dry, will of course keep gunpowder in the same state of perfection as when first inclosed. Demijohns wickered, and packed in hay, would answer well to keep powder if filled to the top, corked, covered with bladder, and rosin put over the whole. Kegs made of well seasoned oak, lined with lead, and surrounded by powdered charcoal packed tight, might be used with nearly equal advantage. For domestic purposes, « a turn- ed brass or pewter neck, like that of a common phial, and capable of being likewise stopped with a small cork, well soldered into the top, would answer well. A pro- jection would perhaps render them inconvenient for package, and it would therefore be proper that the neck would be sunk into the top ; and in order to get out the con- tents, it should be let into a semi- cylindrical hollow in the side of the canister. When corked up, the top of the cork might be cut off, and the whole aperture cover- ed with a plaster of thick drying paint, or wax or turpentine, spread on a piece of tin-foil. Nicholson's Jounral, vol. 1."] Gun-shot rrbK.7rfr.See Wounds. CUTTA SERENA, or Amau- rosis, signifies the Joss of sight without any other visible cause or defect in the eye ; except that the pupil (or the round hole for ad- mitting the rays of light) is gene- rally deprived of its power of con- traction. Numerous are the causes from which this unfortunate blindness may arise; but the principal of them are nervous and paralytic af- fections. Violent contusions of the head ; apoplectic fits ; hot baths ; suppression of catarrhs, or perio- dical evacuations ; metallic cosme- tics; drunkenness; sudden flashes of lightning ; repulsion of cutane- ous eruptions ; long fasting ; fre- quent exposure to the rays of the sun ; violent exercise and passions, especially terror and anger ; as well as purgatives, rheumatisms, sneezing; explosion of gums ; co- pious blood-letting ; vomiting; worms, Sec. all may occasion amaurosis. Among the remedies which have 230 GUT been found the most effectual for removing this melancholy disease, are electricity ; the cold bath; hot embrocations, or blisters contain- ing antimonial tartar applied to the spine ; leeches to the eyes of plethoric patients; the magnet fas- tened to the nape of the neck, and a bag of iron-filings placed over the eyes; agitation of the frontal nerve; artificial ulcers ; scarifications, or issues and blisters on the back part of the head, kept open for a con- siderable time ; cupping ; sina- pisms, Sec. while the body should never be suffered to become cos- tive. For this purpose, we pre- ferably recommend small doses of tartarized kali with Peruvian bark, namely, one or two drams of the former, and one or two scruples of the latter, to be taken once a-day or oftener, as occasion may re- quire.....Mercurial remedies have also been used with great advan- tage ; but they ought to be regu- larly prescribed. ( There is another disease, called cataract, namely, a dimness or loss of sight from the interposition of an opaque film, either in the eye itself, or in the eye-lids. This malady generally takes place by imperceptible degrees ; it is often consequent to inflammations of the eyes, and arises from the abuse of spirituous liquors, external injury, and mortification ; acrid vapours, Sec. In the commencement of this complaint, similar remedies to those mentioned for the cure of gutta serena, may be used with ad- vantage- ; beside w hich, emollient cataplasms and fomentations are of service to check the progress of the affection. If, however, it has continued for some time, the cataract must be couched, or ex- tracted by the skilful hand of a GYM surgeon; as there is no other pros- pect of removing it : though elec- tricity and mercurial purgatives, together with a poultice of fresh hemlock constantly kept upon the eye, and a permanent blister on the neck, are said to have some- times afforded relief. CUTTERS, in building, denote canals in the roofs of houses, for receiving and carrying off rain-wa- ter. They are also formed in streets, for similar purposes. Gutters in agriculture, may be so disposed as to communicate with a large pond, or reservoir, for containing a fresh supply of w ater for cattle. In the 4th vol. of the " Trans- actions of the Society for the En- couragement of Arts," Sic. Mr. Harriot recommends the forma- tion of gutters made of elm, 18 inches wide, 12 inches deep, and 50 feet in length, with proper lids at each end, to let the water in or out at pleasure. This drain oughtto lie 3-t feet lower than the surface of the earth ; for, in Mr. Harri- ot's opinion, nothing can he more absurd than the general mode of arranging square gutters; because there is no comparison in the dis- charge of water from a flat gutter, of the same numberof cubic inches, w ith that of a square one. GY MN ASTICS,or the Ath le- tic Art, denotes the dexterous performance of certain exercises of the body, whether for defence, health, or amusement. On the first institution of society, men being aware of the necessity and advantage of military manoeu- vres, for repelling the attacks of enemies, national games were es- tablised : and public rewards were granted for the encourgement of youth. These exercises consisted U Y JP GYP 231 of running, leaping, swimming, wrestling, &c. Although, from the change of manners, and the different systems of tactics now prevailing, such games become less requisite, yet as they doubt- less contribute to the preservation of health, and tend to invigorate the juvenile body, we conceive that they might, with certain restric- tions be advantageously re-estab- lished in academies. A discussion of this interesting subject, how- ever, being foreign to our plan, we refer the reader to M. Salzmann's " Gymnastics for Youth," 8vo. 1800 ; which is an useful practi- cal guide, and merits the attention of those who are concerned in the superintendance of schools. [This work is reprinted in the U. States.] GYPSUM, or Plaster-stone, a native combination of calcareous earth, with vitriolic acid. It is more loose and friable than lime- stone, and does not effervesce with acids, either in a crude or calcined state. But, though easily reduced to powder in the fire, it is, accord- ing to Cronstedt, nearly as dif- ficult of fusion as lime-stone. There are various species of gypsum discovered in Saxony, Spain, Italy, and other parts of Europe [and bay of Fundy] ; and substances of a gypsous nature al- so abound in several parts of Britain. Those found in the counties of Derby and Notting- ham, are so fine as to admit of being polished, and manufactured into vases, Sec. in a manner similar to alabaster. The chief use of gypsum, how- ever, is as a material for small or- naments and figures, as well as moulds for casting wax-work, &c But, within a few years, it has been advantageously employed for fer- tilizing the soil ; and various ex- periments have been made by dif- ferent agriculturists, to ascertain its efficacy. From these, it appears to be a most valuable manure; and a correspondent in the 5 th volume of the " Letters of the Bath and West of England Society," states, that he covered a piece of grass- land two inches thick, with barn- manure ; while, on another part of the same exhausted land, he scattered gypsum or plaster of Paris, in order to compare its ef- fects with those of dung. Both spots were mowed twice in the same year, and once in the succeeding: in every crop the land covered with gypsum was more productive. The effects of the latter manure on cabbages and turnips were equally beneficial; and particularly uplands, which were completely exhausted, and abandoned on account of their san- dy nature, have thus been rendered fertile. These experiments have been conducted to a very exten- sive plan in the United States of America, especially in Pennsylva- nia ; while two crops of grass were annually cut from sandy heights, the first of which yielded upon an average two tons per acre, and the latter, one ; nor has this produce decreased after a succes- sion of six years. In the same State, an old wheat-field was ma- nured with gypsum about ten days after the harvest; in the en- suing March it was sown with clover; and early in September more than two tons of rich clover were obtained from each acre..... Nine additional bushels of corn per acre were, likewise, produced in that country by a similar treat- ment of the soil. Although the numerous experi- 232 GYP ments made in Britain have not succeeded in every instance, yet the superiority of gypsum over every other manure, for chalky and dry calcareous lands, has been clearly evinced. In the year 1791, Mr. Arthur Young scattered on a field of good turnip loam with a gravelly bottom, at the rate of five bushels of gyp- sum per aci e, part of which was af- terwards sown with clover, and the rest with wheat. The ensuing summer was uncommonly dry ; and, though, both the wheat and clover were eventually burnt up, yet previous to the drought, the latter was not only considerably higher, but also thicker, of a deep- er, and far more luxuriant colour, and of a broader leaf than any other clover that had not been thus manured. No alteration, however, was discernable in the wheat. Mr. Young concludes his account (" Annals of Agriculture," vol. 16.) with observing,that neither a simi- lar quantity of night-soil, pigeons' dung,peat-ashes,nor any other sub- stance with which he is acquaint- ed, would have had an equal ef- fect. In the 17th vol. of the work last quoted, there is an account ex- tracted from a provincial paper, concerning the effects of gypsum; from which it appears that, if oats be immersed in water, drained, and then gradually mixed with plaster of Paris, till the former were suf- ficiently dry to be sown evenly, the produce of such prepared oats will be much finer, and far more luxu- riant, than from unprepared seed. One bushel of gypsum only was mixed with eight of oats, from which were produced 122 bushels, while 96 only were obtained from an equal quantity with many pre- G Y V vious preparation. The clear profit therefore, was 26 bushels of fine oats, and, if the increased weight of 1 Mb. be allowed, it will amount to thirty bushels and a half! Sainfoin, grass, and clover, seem to receive the greatest benefit from gypsum, which, for the purpose of manure, ought to be previously broken, either by the hand with hammers, or by mill stones, and then sifted: in this pulverized state, it may be scattered on the land, at any season of the year, in the proportion of eight or nine bushels per acre. The best time, however, for strewing this dry ma- nure, is previous to gentle showers, by the aid of which its efficacy will be considerably increased. Mr. Kirwan affirms, in his ex- cellent ^Treatise on Manures," that the gypsum successfully employed in agriculture is of a fibrous tex- ture ; and in his opinion clay-soils are more improved by it than the calcareous. This assertion appears to contradict the experience of those who have employed that sub- stance on a large scale, and espe- cially the American farmers. We shall not attempt to reconcile these differences, because the same ma- nure may be attended with oppo- site effects on soils variously mix- ed and combined. Mr. Kirwan observes, that the theory of the eflects of gypsum is to be deduced from its uncom- mon septic property; because it ac- celerates putrefaction in a higher degree than any other substance. Hence it ought not to be ploughed in, but merely deposited on the sur- face of the land, in order that the old grass may be speedily convert- ed into coal, to nourish the young vegetables. Mr. Darwin, however, ques- GYP GYP 233 tions these deductions concerning bodies promoting putrefaction ; as the advancement of that process has, in general, been judged of simply by the exhaling odour; which is liable to be altered, or de- stroyed, by its union with many bodies, without otherwise effecting the tendency to dissolution. For the prevention of fatal acci- dents from either swallowing, or inhaling, gypsous matter, we refer the reader to the article Lime, which requires similar precautions and antidotes.] [The history of the introduc- tion of this inestimable article into the state of Pennsylvania is of im- portance, as it will tend to add another instance to the many with which the world abounds, of the great prejudices which oppose those who attempt improvements, and of the difficulties that attend the laying aside old established habits and practices however absurd, or unprofitable. The history of our progress in the use of gypsum in Pennsylvania, will also serve as powerful encouragement to those •who have experienced the benefit of new processes, but are deterred from making them public by the fear of ridicule from fools, the op- position of theorists or the morti- fication arising from the neglect of the careless. About thirty-eight years since, Mr. Guyger, a native of Kosheho- pin, Bucks county, Pennsylvania, who had removed toGermany,sent a keg of ground gypsum to Mr. Jacob Barge, innkeeper of Phi- ladelphia, and mentioned that it had been found highly beneficial in Germany, as a manure for clover, requesting him to purchase any farm on which the stone was to be found, as he wished to return to VOL. III. America. The keg was left at Rotterdam, to which place it was sent to be shipped ; but Mr. B. de- termined upon putting to the test the character given of the stone* He therefore obtained some from a manufacturer of burr mill-stones in Philadelphia, and strewed it in the spring, on a moist place,(where a scythe never had been used,) in a water meadow belonging to Mr. Hocker of White Marsh. The first account Mr. B. had of the success of the experiment was after some months, when he was informed of the uncommon luxu- riance of the grass, and of its su- periority to that in other parts of the meadow. Mr. Hocker be- ing convinced, immediately tried the gypsum, and Mr. Lancaster, his neighbour followed his exam- ple. Mr. Clifford near Bristol, Pennsylvania, and David Dks i- ler of Philadelphia also used it at an early period. Afterwards the late Mr.STONF.DURNF.RofGermantown used it, and by the superiority of his crop of grass over those of his neighbours, who had manured very highly with stable manure, shewed them its importance, and induced them to employ it. The uncommon product of the land when strewed with the gypsum, as might be ex- pected, became a general subject of conversation, and the demand became so great, that Mr. Barge was induced to erect a hand-mill to grind it. He also continued to use it in the vicinity of Philadel- phia, and thus to spread its fame. Richard Peters, Esq. also be- came an early proselyte to the opi- nion of its virtues, and has done much towards destroying the pre- judices against it, by pointing out the particular soils in which it an- swers best. Still, however, from Ha 234 GYP GYP the absurdity of some people, who expected it to do wonders on all soils, in all situations, in every crop, and under all circumstances, and did not find it answer their ex- pectations, doubted the facts stated, and even opposed its use. But all opposition has been surmount- ed, and it is now in such demand, that the importation of this article alone gives employ to many vessels from the bay of Fundy : and few waggons leave Philadelphia with- out carrying some home. Mills going by horses are erected with the sole view of grinding it, and machinery for the same purpose is connected with the grist-mills throughout the country. The utility of gypsum to grass, was discovered in the following way, as stated by Mr. Guyger to Mr. Barge :....A labourer at a gypsum quarry, near Hillburn in Germany, was in the habit of walk- ing across a meadow after his work, in order to shorten the distance home : and that he might avoid a discovery of the trespass, he fre- quently varied his direction. In the course of the season,he remark- ed the uncommon luxuriance of the grass in the directions which he had been accustomed to take in his route home, and imagining that it must have proceeded from the dust of the gypsum which fell from his clothes, tried the experi- ment to determine the point. The event answered his expectations. The effect was communicated to the Prince to whom the district belonged, and soon made public. "We owe much to R. Peters, Esq. for the pains he took a few years since in collecting from va- rious intelligent practical farmers in Pennsylvania, the result of their experience with respect to gyp- sum ; and for embodying it in a small volume*. The informa- tion obtained was in the way of answers to a set of very judicious queries proposed by him ; these queries have also been answered by himself, and as they are more full than most of the others, we shall insert them here, together with his miscellaneous observations on the same subject. Every farmer should attentively read the in- structive compend from which they are taken. " Query 1st. How long have you used the Plaister of Paris as a manure ? Answer. About twenty-five years. I was among the first who began the use of it in Pennsylvania. Query 2d. In what condition was your land when you began to ap- ply it ? Answer. Worn out by long and bad culture ; full of weeds and other noxious plants ; some annu- al, others perennial. Query 3d. What quantity per acre have you generally used ? Answer. From four to six bush- els, at one strewing, I have for- merly thought the proper quantity per acre ; but lately I have not commonly exceeded three bushels. I have had as much effect from two bushels, as from any greater quantity per acre, when season and other favourable circumstances combined. It is difficult to fix the requisitequantity,as the effect much depends on accidents of weather, &c. which cannot be calculated with any certainty. There ap- pears to be a certain point in the operation of plaister, which is not * Entitled, " Agricultural Enquiries on Plaster of Paris." Philadelphia, Cist, 104 North Second Street, 1797. GYP gained by additional quantity, so much as by a combination, with extraneous circumstances, difficult to trace or account for. When this point of saturation is arrived at, I question whether any in- crease of quantity will extend the effects. On the principle that gyps is a salt, and salts check fer- mentation when applied in too great quantities, it may be pre- sumed, that the requisite quan- tity of plaister is regulated by the fermentable putrifying substances it finds in the earth on which it is strewed. If these be scarce, a great quantity of plaister beyond what is necessary to operate with them, is hurtful. I remember to have sowed, on a strip across a field, some years ago, a great dres- sing of plaister; perhaps in the proportion of ten bushels to the acre. This strip produced little or nothing, till I dunged the field for wheat, two or three seasons after the over dose of plaister. I was surprised by this small strip re- covering itself, and remaining for years superior to any other part of the field. Yet I have heard of ten bushels to the acre, being strewed to good effect. But I know not the state of the ground, as to the pabulum for the gyps. I never found^t beneficial to sow the plais- ter in any such quantity. I many years ago divided half an acre of ground into square perches, to try the eflects of common salt. I be- gan by scattering a proportion of two bushels of salt to the acre, in- creasing the quantity on every perch. I numbered the divisions, and kept an account of salt sown, and the produce of wheat with which the whole was sown. I have not the memorandum of this experiment at hand, but I think GYP 235 the wheat dwindled with eight bushels to the acre, and nothing grew after, I believe, the propor- tion of twelve bushels of salt. I mention it now, because it seems analogous to the present subject; for I recovered the ground by mo- derate dunging. The spot salted might be perceived for many years afterwards,by the extraordinary ver- dure of the grass (chiefly white clo- ver)which grew spontaneously onit. Query 4th. What soils are the most proper for this manure ? Ansvjer. Light soils, dry and sandy, or loamy. On clay I never succeed, though I have heard of its being used on clay with a de- gree of success. Where it has any success on clay, it is rare. The President (General Washing- ton) whose lands at Mount Ver- non and in its neighbourhood, are generally strong clay, orinclining thereto, informed me, that he had " tried the plaister of Paris on his land (which is stiff and cold) at the rate of from 1 to 20 bushels to the acre. It has been spread on grass and ploughed land. On the latter it has been ploughed in ; harrowed in with a common tined harrow ; bush harrow; and not harrowed at all. The effects in either, and all the cases, were not more than if he had taken up as many bushels of the same earth and scattered them again over the surface of the ground. Yet, he be- lieves in, and is a friend to gypsum as a manure." On wet soils I have always failed. I have strewed it on mossy swamps. On elevat- ed spots in these swamps, it has killed the moss and thrown up white clover wonderfully ; but has done nothing where the water around these spots continued on the ground in the smallest degree* 236 G Y P I have heard of some instances to the contrary, but none have fallen under my observation. Query 5th. Have you repeated the application of it with or with- out ploughing ? at what intervals, and with what effects ? Query 6. Do you find that it renders the earth steril after its useful effects are gone ? Answer. I have beneficially repeated the application with and without ploughing ; but I succeed bestin arepetition after cultivating, and dressing slightly with stable manure,orwith ploughing in green manures. I have ploughed in buck- wheat in full blossom (which in a fortnight or three weeks, often in less time, becomes putrified and converted into excellent manure, havingundergone a violent fermen- tation) and sown winter grain, on which I have sown clover seed ; and having strewed plaister on the clover, similar, if not greater ef- fects, have been produced than were received from the first dres- sing. Ploughing in elver affords a pabulum for the plaister, which fails often in mellow grounds in fine tilth, were the putrified substances are scarce,or have been exhausted by ploughing and frequent expo- sure. In short, I find it must have something to feed on, as some far- mers express it. In the first ap- plication, it has the decayed roots of vegetable substances it finds in the earth. I perceive no greater degree of sterility after plaister, than after dung. All manures are stimulants, and leave the earth wearied and vapid, from the exer- tions they have excited. Stable dung as bad as any, if not worse ; as it leaves the ground full of weeds, unless it be sufficiently rot- ted, or used in compost. GYP Query 7th. To what products can it be most profitably applied ? grain and what kinds ? grasses and what kinds ? Answer. I never found any be- neficial effects from strewing it on winter grain. It is useful for all le- guminous plants, buck-wheat, flax, hemp, rape and other plants, whose seed produces oil. It is also bene- ficial for most products of the kitch- en garden and fruit trees ; Indian corn and turnips. Oats and barley seed, wet, and covered vv'uh as much plaister as will adhere to them, are much benefited. I have found little or no use in a top-dres- sing of plaister on either of these latter grains. It is generally most profitably used for red clover; though it will do excellent service to any grass. White clover, being the natural grass of most countries in certain soils, is most commonly thrown up by plaister, (as it is by several other manures) though there was no appearance of this grass before the application. Query 8th. When is the best time to scatter it ? Answer. I have sown it in most seasons of the year. If strewed in the fall, and a dry frosty winter succeeds, much of the plaister is blown away. I have found it an- swer well, if sown at any time from the beginning of February to the middle of April, in misty wea- ther. I have frequently sown it on the snow in February, and it has done well. Some do not sow it till the vegetation begins. It seems to me, that if strewed at any sea- son, it will have an effect; though, perhaps, in a greater or less de- gree, according to the state of the weather, orotheraccidenlal causes. Query 9th. What is the greatest product of grass per acre, you GYP GYP 237 have known by means of plaister ? Answer. As much as from any other manure. I never weighed, or kept any exact account. I think I have had five tons per acre, at two cuttings, in one season ; and I have sometimes cut a third crop; though 1 seldom do .this, as I pre- fer feeding the third growth. The hay is, in my opinjpn, better than that produced by dung. The cat- tle waste less of it. I have dung- ed part of a field, and plaistered the residue. The cattle and horses will reject the grass on the dung- ed part, while they can get the smallest bite off that plaistered.... I have never desired over luxuri- ant crops of grass. The hay of these is not so nutritive as that of a moderate growth. The stock will not consume it to advantage, though I often salt it. I am con- tent if I get a ton and an half, at a eutting, on the acre. This will stand well to the scythe, and does not, like over luxuriant grass, die, rot, or become feculent and musty at the root. Query 10th. Have you ever used it on ground dressed with other manure, and what ? and the ef- fects, if any, superior to the plais- ter alone ? Answer. The answers to 5 and 6 comprehend, for the most part, what I have to say on this query.- In England, it is said the plaister falls where the " land has been lim- ed: that it operates best on virgin soils, and docs not answer on lands which have been long under til- lage*" We find the direct con- trary effects here. It is true, we do not lime here so higlily as they do in England. Our lands will not bear so much lime as theirs. We have as good and as bad land as th..t of any part of the world. The poorer the land, the less lime it will bear. But our best land will not admit of so much lime at two dressings, as I have understood they put on in England, at once. Whether our lime is stronger, or our climate less favourable to it, I cannot tell. A difference of cli- mate may have an operation on plaister, as it has on products. Ve- getation is here more rapid than that of England, and of course our harvests earlier. The straw of their wheat is, I believe, generally short- ter than that on our fresh or ma- nured lands, and the ears larger and fuller, where the wheat is good ; for they are not without a due proportion of bad wheat with light and small grains. So that we do not generally get so much wheat off an acre as they do. But our wheat yields a greater propor- tion of flour. It is not so flinty, is thinner skinned, and of course we have less offal and more flour. Our grain grinds more lively, and with- out kiln drying. Much of their wheat requires kiln drying, before it can be ground to advantage, and especially grain intended for ex- portation ; owing to its qualities, produced by moisture and other circumstances of climate. In Ire- land their grain ground at their best miils, is generally kiln d'-yed. We know neither the necessilv or use of kilns in our mills, excepi for Indian coro. On the contrary our millers sometimes damp the wheat to prevent the bran from being ground so fine as to pass through tiie cloth and speckle the Hour. This account is given to shew the eflects of moisture in the English and Irish climate in com- parison with that of our counti v. I believe that plaister will not an- swer so well in a moLt, as in a 238 GYP moderately dry climate. A very wet season here is not the most favourable to plaistered grounds. The advantages of the gyps over other manures are most percepti- ble in dry seasons. I doubt, how- ever, be the effects of climate what they may, either on products or manures, whether in England the plaister has had a long or fair trial. I find, by some late English pub- lications, that the knowledge of it is not extensive, and its use con- fined to few agriculturists ; some of whom give the most flattering accounts of their success in its ap- plication. Many of my fields are limed as highly as they will bear. Some part of my land is fresh ; a small part remains in an exhausted state. I apply the plaister to all, and do not find any difference unfavoura- ble to that which has been limed. Soms years ago I sowed clover with wheat in the autumn, on a field highly limed. I plaistered a part of this field, on the clover and wheat : the whole having had a light dressing of dung. The suc- ceeding season the plaister threw up the clover in such profusion as to choak the wheat crop, in a great degree. I lost my wheat on the plaistered part, as I mowed, not being able to reap the crop. The wheat on the other part was excel- lent, and the clover of moderate growth. I am aware that part of my misfortune in the loss of the wheat, may be attributed to the clover getting too forward, by be- ing sown at the season of feeding wheat. Yret a comparison with that in the same field not plaister- ed, sufficiently shewed the effects of the gypsum. I have not re- peated this mode of sowing clover, which 1 then practised to .'.void the GYP loss I had sustained from late frosts, which sometimes destroy the young clover, sown on wheat in the winter. Some farmers object to sowing plaister on the clover sown on win- ter grain, while the grain is in the ground; and do not strew the plais- ter till the next season. Perhaps this may be bgst. But I have met with no loss by strewing the plaister on the clover and wheat, when the clover seed was sown on the wheat in February. On the contrary, in a dry spring, it has saved my young clover, and forwarded the grass, so as to enable me to mow a tole- rable crop in the autumn next after the wheat harvest,which, being cut with the stubble, I have given in the winter to dry cattle. What they rejected, increased my dung heap. It has been however most common with me to sow the plais- ter in the spring next succeeding the grain harvest. Query 11th. Its duration ? Answer. When it throwsup gen- tle and moderate crops, its efficacy is of the longest duration. If it is violent in its first operation, it is of short continuance. I have known it exhaust itself in one year. But I have had benefit from one dres- sing of three or four bushels to the acre, for five or six years, gradu- ally decreasing in its powers. I prolong the efficiency of dung, by plaistering the second or third year, when the clover, on dunged or any other ground, begins to fail. Perhaps the scattering it annually, or every other year, in small por- tions, will continue for a length of time gentle operations, and pre- vent violent efforts. I have heard of some who have practised sow- ing it frequently, and in small quantities, and obtained goodcrops GYP GYP 239 of grass for twelve years and up- wards. The weeds of our fields, which have been at former periods under bad culture, forbid their laying in grass, especially if only pastured, so long as it would be otherwise desirable. Cutting annual weeds, before they seed, will destroy them. Perennials cut at proper periods. may in a great degree be conquer- ed. At any rate, their seeding may be prevented; and the old stock destroyed by ploughing. But the abominable custom of suffer- ing weeds, briars, &c to grow in corners and about fences, will for- ever afford nurseries of these pests, which will keep up a succession of these nuisances, in fields otherwise well cultivated. The rotting of fences, articles of no small ex- pense and labour, is not the least evil attending this negligent habit. The few farmers who are careful to destroy weeds in theirown fields, are too often infested by those of their slovenly neighbours. In some parts of Europe there are laws which authorize those who destroy weeds in their own, to cut those in the adjacent fields of an obsti- nate or negligent neighbour, and obt,.in summary process from a magistrate, to reimburse the ex- pense. However, unpalatable such laws might be here, they shew that the destruction of weeds is considered highly important, in countries where a good stile of agriculture prevails. The truth is, that a farmer should be in constant hostility against these formidable foes. His reward in a victory over them, will be a certain increase of his crops, which will be doubly benefited by every effort to destroy useless and noxious plants. Query 12lh. Is there any differ- ence between the American and European plaister. Answer. I have in general found the European plaister the best. But I have used the Nova Scotia. The quarries in Nova Scotia may turn out better, the more they are worked and explored. There is a variety in the American plais- ter, some being much better than others." The prejudices for and against this manure are equally violent; and there is no way of correcting them but by the results drawn from sober and continued experi- ence. In Germany, where this fossil has been the longest known and used, opinions have been very opposite, and many of them very- absurd and ridiculous. Not only sorcery and witchcraft have been charged on those who used the plaister, but it has been said by some wonderfully wise people there, that it produced or attract- ed thunder and lighting. Some of the petty princes of that coun- try have made edicts against the use of it, urged, perhaps, by the bigotry of its opponents, and the unfounded German adage: " That it makes rich fathers and poor chil- dren." The peasants have, how- ever, in opposion to their weak and tyrannical prohibitions, sown the plaister on their fields in the night. I have seen a treatise in German, on the subject of gyp- sum, as applied to agriculture, containing many excellent obser- vations and useful lessons, mixed with some anecdotes and discus- sions, sufficiently amusing to cheer one through dissertations, on a to- pic apparently insipid and unenter- taining. After all that our present experi- ence enables us to say, we have 240 GYP GYP much to learn on the qualities and effects of the gypsum, as it relates to agriculture. It is a ca- pricious and whimsical substance. I have known it produce no effect for four years, and then throw up a most astonishing vegetation, and this after repeated ploughings, for both winter and summer crops. In a field now in clover, I perceive it most luxuriant, where Indian corn hills were plaistered with no effect on the corn, four or five years ago. This is one among many instances I have had in my own fields, and have heard from other farmers of similar effects. May not this be accounted for by supposing that the operative principle in the plaister was an over-charge for the fermentable substances then in the earth, and that it did not find enough of these substances to operate on, 'till the time when it produced the vegeta- tion here mentioned ? Whatever be the cause, dew will remain on a part of a grass field plaistered, an hour or two in a morning, after all moisture is eva- porated from the part of the same field not plaistered. I have also frequently seen this effect in my garden beds, which, if plaistered, will retain moisture in the driest season, where there is not the least appearance of it in those beds whereon no plaister was strewed. If water be, according to Lord Bacon, " almost all in all" in the food of vegetables, the plaister at- tracts or retains abundant supplies. I do not like the plaister ground too fine. It flies away in strewing, and is not so durable as that mo- derately pulverized. I think it sufficiently fine if it be ground so as to produce twenty bushels to the ton. It is most common now to make twenty-four or twenty-five bushels of a ton. I have endea- voured to prevent the finer parts from being blown away, by damp- ing it. But I do not find that it can, in this state, be so equally distributed ; it being apt, when thus damped, to collect in lumps. It should always be remember- ed, that calcination, however ne- cessary it may be to make cement of plaister, lessens, if not destroys, its agricultural uses. We have a simple mode of try- ing the quality of plaister. We put a quantity pulverized into a dry pot over the fire, and when heated it emits a sulphureous smell. If the ebullition (arising from what- ever cause, be it the escape of air or dissipation of its water of chrys- talization) is considerable, it is good. If it be small, it is indif- ferent. If it remains an inert mass, like sand, it is worthless. It is customary with some far- mers, to sow plaister every year on the same ground, in smaller quantities, that is about a bushel to the acre ; and some sow less, for several successive sea-ons. Some sow it every other year. Those who practise these methods (by all of which I have occasionally profited) consider them most be- neficial, for grass grounds parti- cularly. I have generally thought it best to get abundant products in the shortest time. I have there- fore applied the gypsum in greater quantities, to the clover husban- dry ; and its operations were in full vigour, as long as the clover continued on the ground. When the clover fails, I plough and pro- ceed with the usual course of crops, till it falls again into its common rotation. This generally happens in the third year from my plough- G Y P GYP 241 tng up the lay or sod, as it suc- ceeds winter grain, which I have seldom sown on my worn lands, unless they are previously limed, or dressed with stable manure, or buckwheat ploughed in as a green dressing. I havesometimesplough- ed in the last growth of the clover, of the second or third year, and harrowed in on the sod, after once ploughing, wheat or rye, on which I have sown clover-seed, and plaistered again. I have done well enough in this practice, though I do not think it neat or good husbandry. It should not be done if the ground be poached, or foul with weeds or blue grass, which require frequent ploughing to destroy them. I sow clover with spring grain generally, and scatter plaister on the clover and grain, but doubt its effects on the grain as a top dress- ing*. I often sow clover seed with plaister on buckwheat, and the plaister operates both clover and buckwheat. Clo ver seed sown on flax, answers well. The plaister has a great ef- fect on both these plants. The pulling the flax does no injury to the clover. If the buckwheat seed be wet, and strewed over with a coating of plaister, the crop is much benefited. I sometimes mix the clover seed with the plaister, and sow them together. There are various opinions as to the manner and time of plaistering Indian corn. If the season and other circumstances are favoura- * Mr. W. West of Upper Derby, informs the Editor that in London coun- ty, Virginia, evident advantages are de- rived from strewing one bushel of gyp- sum on an acre of wheat, early in the (ipnng. VOL. Hi. ble, the mode then used is naturally conceived to be the best. But there is no deciding from one or t >vo for- tunate seasons. Some pnt it on the hill soon after, or at the time of planting; some at the time of moulding ; and others at a later stage. Some suppose that if it be put on, and could be confined to the plant (though this is impossi- ble, for the earth will receive the greater part, either while it is strewing on the plant, or by the washing of rains), it is the most beneficial. I generally strew it on both plant and hill, when the corn receives irs first dressing. I have put it on the hill only, and have scattered it over the whole field. I have met with success generally, but sometimes disappointment, in all these modes of application. '1 he one I generally practise is strewing it on the plant and hill, when the leaves are fairly formed; or at the latest when the corn re- ceives its first dressing, which is powerfully on «most commonly done by harrow- ing over and uncovering (if neces- sary) the plants, though the hoe is used when requisite. But the plaister is always strewed after this operation, that it may remain on the surface. I have always considered it ne- cessary to keep the plaister, as much as possible on the sur- face. In some anomalous instan- ces, which I consider as ex- ceptions to any general rule, it has operated when ploughed in ; but for the most part it does best as a top dressing. I had been inform- ed of a practice of sowing plaister with seed wheat, and ploughing both in together. This (and every other mode of application of the plaister to winter grain) has had little, if any success with me; I I 242 GYP though I have tried it in every way I ever heard of, or could ima- gine. Good crops of winter grain have often succeeded clover, to w hich no other manure than plaister on the clover, had been applied. I attri- bute this to no immediate action of the plaister on the grain, but to the clover, which always amelio- rates the soil. It is an excellent covering crop, and, like most tap rooted plants, does not exhaust; but on the contrary, increases fer- tility. I have known a good crop of wheat follow the ploughing in a luxuriant vegetation of young suc- culent teazle and thistles...tap root- ed plants. These apparent pests had for several years occupied the field. They had operated as a cover, and, when ploughed in, as a green manure. The lot on which I first strewed plaister, twenty-five years ago, has not been ploughed during that pe- riod. I have twice given it about half a top dressing of stable dung. I have repeated the plaister three or four times, three, four, and six bushels to the acre, at intervals of three, four, and five years. I should have preferred ploughing, had it been convenient, as, in the second crops, I am often tormented with Indian grass and weeds. But the ground is on a part of my farm, where the hay and pasture are more useful to me than any other crops. After dressing with dung, I have left a part unplaistered, to compare it with the rest; and al- ways perceived a striking inferior- ity, where the plaister was not strewed. I once repeated the plaister on a part of it, without previously dunging, after it had been mowed several years, from the GYP time it was first plaistered. The plaister seemed to have no effect. But on applying a slight dressing of dung the next year, this part was equally good with the rest. This lot is now an excellent com- mon grass, intermixed with red and white clover, and some blue grass....parts of it much layed, owing to the wet season. I have, notwithstandingtheabove instance, frequently plaistered here and in other parts of my farm, and suc- ceeded well without dung; but ne- ver in the degree I have perceived with dung. I must be understood here to mean, a repetition of the plaister. For in the first applica- tion it has generally thrown up as great a burthen as any combination could produce. I have from this and many other occurrences, long been of opinion that the plaister must come in con- tact with some animal or vegetable manures, or putrified substances, to give it its proper efficacy. And when so connected, a small quan- tity of such manures or substances, will give it activity. The auxili- aries necessary to draw forth the powers of the plaister, are within the reach of every farmer, of com- mon industry and moderate capa- city. The first application, with- out other assistance than what it finds in the earth, from the decay- ed and decaying roots, and other vegetable substances, will throw him up forage, and enable him to increase his stock. The more stock, the more animal manure for summer or winter crops, pre- paratory to the repetition of plais- ter, with clover. The green ma- nures only cost the seed which produces them. With these aux- . iliaries, I am satisfied, by actual GYP GYP 243 and long experience, that the gyp- sum may be repeated as safely, and with more benefit and less ex- pense, than can any other manure, on soils suitable for its application ....a circumstance which ought al- ways to be kept in view. I can with a tolerable degree of certain- ty, from the appearance of an over luxuriant crop of clover, tell when it is about to quit me. When the plaister ceases its operation, the clover departs with it, being over- come by twitch or other noxious grasses or weeds. It perishes in consequence of two violent and rapid efforts, its fate is similar to that of an individual, who by liv- ing too fast, accelerates death. I account for the phenomenon of the sudden exit of the operative pow- ers of the gyps, by its having pre- maturely decomposed the substan- ces containing the principles of ve- getation ; and having exhausted those principles in too short a time. In the violence of these operations it excites a vigorous, but fatal ve- getation, which, like the exertions of one in a proxism of fever, puts on the semblance of strength, but in fact is only a prelude to dissolu- tion. There is no guard against this misfortune, but the practice of sowing small quantities, and frequent repetition. This mode I like the better, the more I expe- rience it." Valuable however as gypsum is, it must be acknowledged not to be suited to all soils and situa- tions. 1. Mr. Joseph Cooper strewed some upon his clover shortly after the revolutionary war, with evident good effect upon the first crop, but he had a trifling second crop. He then put the land in potatoes after ploughing and manuring well, and tried clover again, but the crop was not worth noticing ; flax, which according to his experience answers as well as barley with clover, was tried the succeeding season, the ground having been previously well manured, but with no better effect- He then hauled river mud upon his land, and this seemed to have the best effect in adapting the soil to the growth of clover. It is highly probable that the cause of the exhausting quality of the gypsum in the above instance, proceeded from the small quantity of vegetable matter it found in the ground, as explained by Mr. Pe- ters ; or the gypsum may have been of a weak kind. Mr. Samuel Cooper, also of New-Jersty, experienced no be- nefit from gypsum applied to corn, in a sandy soil: though we have before seen,(Art. Corn) that good effects were produced by it in Penn- sylvania. 2. Gypsum, it is well known, does not answer near the sea. Dr. Mitchell explains this circum- stance thus : " When plaister is applied to a soil impregnated with common salt, a double decomposi- tion may happen ; the sulphuric acid forming with soda a Glau- ber's salt, and the muriatic acid making with the lime a muriate of lime. As neither of these sub- stances is remarkable for promot- ing the growth of vegetables, the reason is plain, wherefore yyp'um so often fails to fertilize land,i;< the neighbourhood of the ocean, or in any place where it can be decom- pounded by particles cf sea salt." 3. On clay*nt is equally inert. Mr. S.mvthe, in the Trans, of 224 GYP GYP the Board of Agriculture, London, has published iome observations on gypsum, which evidence great want of information on the subject, and shows that the right use of this invaluable manure is much better understood in Pennsylvania. Mr. Peters, has fully refut- ed the errors of the above wri- ter.] H. HAI H AI HADDOCK, or Gadus eglesi- nus, L. a species offish which pe- riodically frequents the Yorkshire coast, in large shoals, and com- monly weighs from two to three pounds. Large Haddocks are in roe, from the middle of November to the end of January ; but, in the succeed- ing three months, they are said to be out of season. In the month of May they recover their flavour, and continue to improve till Janu- ary, when they are in the greatest perfection. These fish grow to a considera- ble size, weighing sometimes four- teen pounds; but in such case their flesh is coarse, and not proper for the table : hence those of an in- ferior bulk are more esteemed when their weight does not exceed two or three pounds. HAIL, a meteor, which is usu- ally defined to be frozen rain ; though it widely differs from the latter, as hail-stones are not com- posed of single pieces of ice, but of several small globules condensed together. Hail is one of those phenomena* of which naturalists have in vain endeavoured to give a satisfactory explanation. As far as the limits of our knowledge extend, hail is a meteor, that is never productive of any good effect. Both rain and dew invigorate the whole vegetable world ; and the frost, by expanding the water contained in the earth, often pulverizes and renders the soil fertile ; while the snow shel- ters the more tender plants from being injured by severe frost. Nei- ther of these purposes is effected by hail, which is indeed attended with contrary effects : for, during the winter, it does not lie sufficient- ly close to the ground, to preserve vegetables from the nipping frosts; and, during the spring and sum- mer seasons, its cold temperature not only chills and blasts, but its weight greatly injures the more delicate plants ; frequently laying whole corn-fields level. But though we cannot discover any ostensible use of hail, it is certain that the Creator has formed nothing, that is not in some deqrree subser- H AI H A I 245 vient to the operations of Nature. HAIR, small filaments, which issue from the pores of the skins of animals, and which serve them as a natural covering. Hair is found on all parts of the human body, excepting on the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet ; but it grows to the greatest length on the head and chin. It is subject to few diseases ; the only affection that can in this country be strictly considered as a disease, is Baldnfss ; for which we have pointed out the most pro- per remedies. Frequent cutting the hair is very beneficial to the ears, eyes, nay, to the w hole body : and, if the head be washed or immersed daily in cold water, it will be found an excellent preventive of periodical so that this simple expedient may, in some measure, serve as a sub- stitute for a constant blister, or artificial issue. There are, however, certain cases, in which cutting off the hair is attended with dangerous effects, especially during a state of conva- lescence from acute diseases. In a periodical work lately published in France, two instances are re- lated of women, in a very promis- ing state of recovery from a pu- trid malignant fever, whqpe hair had been cut, and who both died shortly after this imprudent ac- tion. A third owed her preserva- tion only to her youth, and the energy of her constitution. The hair is, by all nations, con- sidered as an ornament to the per- son, more than as a covering for head-achs. JMfche head, provided by the benefi Persons subject to defluxions humors from the heath to weak eyes and similar confjjpints, will derive great benefit from shaving the head at certain intervals ; as this is the most effectual mode of opening the pores and promoting perspiration. There is no danger of contracting cold from washing or exposing the head, after being rubbed dry, to the open air : and this futile objection should influ- ence only the conduct of those who, from ignorance or prejudice, carry all their exhaled impurities on the surface of the skin, and especially on the head, for a suc- cession of years. Thus, perhaps, arise many states of intellectual derangement, the source of which is seldom suspected. Besides, cleansing the head affords comfor- table and pleasing sensations ; and the more frequently the hair be cut, it will grow the more speedily; 'cent hand of Nature. Flence va- rious pomatums, and other secret preparations, have been imposed upon the public, for the purpose of u making the hair grow long and thick." We are no advocates for contrivances, which to our certain knowledge are generally composed of noxious ingredients, such as the calces of lead and mercury. Those persons who cannot be dissuaded from the use of artificial means, may with safety employ a mixture consisting of equal parts of olive- oil and spirits of rosemary, to which may be added a few drops of oil of nutmeg. If the hair be rubbed every night with a little of this liniment, and the proportion be very gradually increased, it will answer every pin pose to be attain- ed by those boasted preparations which are sold by empirics. Another course of fraud is that of changing the colour of the hair 246 H A I H AI to a darker shade : with this inten- tion, various liquid remedies are vended by perfumers, under dif- ferent alluring appellations. These, however, being likewise prepared from lead, antimony, and other metallic solutions, no prudent per- son will be induced to purchase them. The only method that can be pursued with impunity, is to cut the hair close to the head, and to pass a leaden comb through it every morning and evening, by whichtsimple practice the hair will assume a darker colour ; the per- spiration of the head will not be impeded, and, consequently, the health of the individual rather pro- moted than injured. Hair constitutes a very consider- able article of commerce, especi- ally since the fashion of wearing; wigs has prevailed among all rank and haslatelybeen extended to hot sexes. The hair of this, and other northern countries, is preferred to that of the southern climates of Italy, France, &c. The chief qua- lity of hair consists in its being well fed, as it is termed by hair- dressers, so that it be neither too coarse nor too slender. Hence thick hair is less susceptible of the artificial curl, and is disposed to frizzle ; but, if it be too delicate, it will retain the curl only for a short time. The length of good hair is usually estimated at 25 inches ; and, in proportion as it is shorter, it becomes less valuable. There appears to be no stated price for this article ; as, accord- ing to its quality, it is sold at from 5*. to 5/. per ounce : it pays, when imported, a duty of 2.- A^d. per lb. With respect to the various operations which hair undergoes prcviouslv to being manufactured %J2 If^s into wigs, we trust the reader will excuse our silence. The hair of beavers, hares, and other animals, is used in various manufactures, especially that of hats, of which they constitute the principal material. If the refuse of the short hair of hides be scattered on arable land, and left there to putrify, it proves one of the most fertilizing and du- rable manures. Hair, in farriery, is commonly called the coat; and, with respect to horses, merits particular consi- deration. The hair growing on the fetlock, serves as a defence to the prominent part of it, when the ani- mal is travelling on rough, stony roads, or in frosty weather. If the hair on the neck and more ex- osed parts be close and smooth, t" may be concluded that the horse s in health. To reiwier the hair of this use- ful anirr*jrnne and glossy, it is ne- cessary that he be kept warm at heart, as the least internal cold will render the hair rough ; he should also be frequently sweated, in or- der to loosen the dust and fijth, which render his coat foul; and while he is hot, all the white foam, sweat, he. that rises on his skin, ought to be carefully scraped off. The smoothness of a horse's hair, it is said, may also be considera- bly promoted, by rubbing his own blood over him for two or three days after it has been drawn; he is then to be well curried and dressed, in consequence of which, his coat will become as soft and glossy as if it had been covered with a fine varnish. The hair of a horse's mane and tail is apt to fall off, especially if they have been suddenly over- H A I H A I 247 heated, so as to engender, what would, therefore, amply repay the is called in the language of the trouble of eradicating it, and sub- stable, the dry-mange. A similar stituting better grasses: for this effect will follow, after he has been purpose, the land should be first surfeited, so that the foul humours drained, and then the tufts of this are repelled into those extremities noxious weed pared up and burnt. of the body. To remedy such dis- Its ashes are said to afford an e:c- gusting appearance, the horse's cellent manure. Cows, goats, and mane, &c. should be anointed with swine eat the turfy hair-grass, but black soap, and the animal washed it is refused by horses. with a strongley prepared of wood- 2. Thefiexuosa, Heath or Wav- ashes. If, nevertheless, a canker ed Mountain Hair-grass, growing arise on the animal's tail, it will on heaths, in woods, and barren be requisite to apply diluted oil of -pastures ; and flowering from June vitriol, which will corrode, and to August. prevent it from making farther 3. The caryophyllea, or silver progress. Hair-grass, which is common in Horse-hair likewise forms a con- sandy pastures ; and flowers in the siderable article of trade ; it pays month of July.. on importation a duty of about 1 Id. Mr. Stillingfleet, in his ex- per lb. and is partly employed for cellent Tracts relating to Natural weaving the covers of the seats of History, recommends the culture chairs, sofas, Ecc. but principally of both these last species, as be- for the stuffing of bolsters and mat- ing particularly well adapted for tresses. For the last mentioned sheep-walks : for he has observed purposes, the hair is previously them always to abound in those baked, and, in that state, forms counties which are celebrated for one of the most elastic couches, delicious mutton. which is incomparably superior to 4. The aquatica, or Water Hair- the softest, but enervating, feather- grass, is found generally on the beds. edges of pools and standing wa- HAIR GRASS, or Aira, L. a ters ; it flowers in the months of genus of perennial plants, com- June and July. This plant is a prising 24 species; of which 14 wholesome food for cattle, and de- are indigenous'; and of these the serves to be more generally known; following deserve notice. as it contributes much to the sweet- 1. The cespitosa, or Turfy Hair- ness of the Cottenham cheese, and grass, which grows in moist mea- to the fine flavour of Cambridge dows and woods; flowers from butter. June to August. This plant is HAIR-POWDER is generally frequently found in tufts, and oc- prepared from starch, which, after casions irregularities in the surface being thoroughly dried, is ground of meadows. It produces an abun- and passed through the finest dant quantity of leaves ; and being sieves. In its pure state, it should the roughest and coarsest of all the be perfectly white, and possess no grasses in pasture and meadow- smell. But in order to conceal grounds, cattle seldom touch them base adulterations, or to please the unless impelled by hunger. It votaries of the toilette, perfumers 248 HAL study the art of communicating to it various artificial odours from sweet-scented flowers, such as vio- lets, Jesamines, &c. Dr. Darwin observes, that alum is sometimes used in the manufac- ture of hair-powder ; and we un- derstand from credible persons, that even lime is frequently mixed with fine flour : it is therefore not surprising that so many persons who employ hair-dressers display bald heads, and are under the ne- cessity of wearing wigs , but, if the latter were aware of the inju- ry they inflict on themselves, by inhaling such pernicious substan- ces, in consequenceof which, many w ho exercise that trade, pine away of pulmonary complains, they would never use any other but ge- nuine powder. And though com- mon flour is not in itself pernici- ous, when used as a substitute for hair-powder, yet by the mucilage it contains, the hair is apt to be caked together when the bead is sensibly perspiring, or is acciden- tally wetted by a shower of rain ; an effect which may be frequently noticed in a whole regiment of sol- diers. There is a great variety of vege- tables which may be usefully em- ployed as substitutes for hair-pow- der, in the manufacture of which large quantities of grain are annu- ally wasted. The principal of the former is, we believe, the Horse- Chesxut, of which the readerwill find some account, vol. ii. p. 113. See also Starch. HALTER-CAST, in farriery, is an excoriation of the pastern, occasioned by the halter being en- tangled about the leg, in conse- quence of the horse's endeavour to rubhisneekwithoneofthehindfcet. HAL For the cure of this affection, it is requisite to anoint the sore part every morning and evening with equal quantities of linseed oil and brandy, properly mixed. HALTING, among farriers, signifies an irregularity in the mo- tion of a horse, arising from a lameness, or other injury in the shoulder, leg, or foot, which in- duces him to spare that part, or exert it too timorously. As an intimate acquaintance with this defect is of considerable importance to the farmer, we shall briefly state the principal circum- stances connected with the sub- ject. If a horse halts, the lameness may be discovered either before, in which case the malady is seat- ed in the shoulder, legs, of feet ; or, behind, when it lies in the hip, ham, &cc 1. When the cause of the af- fection proceeds from the shoulder, the horse does not lift up his leg, but drags it on the ground, or casts one of them more than the other, and keeps the knee in a manner unbent. On turning short, he will evidently favour the lame leg.... Hence the injury must be either in the top of the shoulder blade, called the withers, which is known by the animal halting most when a person is on his back; his fre- quent shrinking ; and, if pressed with the hand about the top of the shoulder-blade, attempting to bite; or, the hurt may be at the lower end of the shoulder-blade; in which case he treads with thick steps, shrinks, and is ready to drop on being squeezed in that part.... When it arises from the elbovr which joins the marrow-bone to the leg, the horse winces, and HAL HAM 249 , 4, he. point out where the twelve teeth on each side of the harrow are placed. Mr. Sandilands observes, that where a strong break harrow is not necessary, by making the teeth shorter or lighter, 48 tines may be, obtained, which, will tear the ground at every two inches, cover the seed well and make a fine mould. He farther recommends to cons- SET~f'~..... 2 y£\ '^\ HAR H A R 253 truct harrows for every purpose,and of every size, on the principle above stated ; as, in such case, no to(,;h can follow the track of another, and all are kept in constant action. The same gentleman has also in- vented another implement, called a Wrack-harrow, from the speedy manner in which it collects the wrack, or roots of couch-grass, and other noxious weeds. Of this con- trivance the annexed figures repre- sent the plan and profile. It is composed of a plank oftim- ber,six feet long,nine inches broad, and two inches thick, in which are fixed two rows of teeth, viz. twelve in the front, and thirteen behind: each row is about four inches apart, and the teeth' are five inches dis- tant ; so that they operate at the distance of 2 A inches from each other. They are in length about seven inches below the wood,three- quarters of an inch square, and pointed diamond-wise, so as only to catch whatever may be brought above ground by previous harrow- ing, without penetrating the soil. To the plank are joined shafts for a hfirse, and handles for a man to guide it, of such length and strength as may be deemed neces- sary. This machine is used in the fol- lowing manner: When all the weeds are brought to the surface, the wrack-harrow is drawn across the field; the person who holds the handles pressing a little on them, till the plank has passed over the first furrow, on which the harrow is suddenly lifted, w-ithotrt stopping the horse; thus all the weeds col- lected by the harrow will fali into the furrow, whence they may be removed or burnt, at the option of the farmer. If, however, the horse be not steady, it will be requisite to employ a boy for the purpose of leading him ; in order that the couch-grass, &c. may be properly eradicated. A patent was granted in the year 1799, to Mr. William Lester, ' of Yardley-IIastings, Northamp- ton, for his invention of a harrow, by which the inconveniencies at- tending the implements construct- ed on the common plan may be ef- fectually obviated. The patentee makes his harrows of various sizes, to be drawn bjrone, two, four, or six horses, so as to suit every kind of soil. The first size is six feet in width, and of equal length; the teeth are twelve inches distant in every direction, and there is an interval of one inch and a half between their track'-, in every line of draught. This size is more peculiarly adapted to harrowing in every species of grain and seed, especially on lay,fiag, or whole-land. The second size is 7-i. feet wide, and six feet nine inches in length ; the teeth are fourteen inches asunder In every direction, and an intermediate space of two inches occurs between their tracks, in each line of draught. This im- plement is particularly calculated for clearing foul land. The third size is nine feet in length, by seven feet nine inches in breadth ; the teeth are sixteen inches apart in 254 HAR HAR every direction, and a space of 21 inches intervenes between the tracks in each line of draught.... The last mentioned harrow is, in the opinion of the patentee, emi- nently adapted to the cultivation of foul land, especially for clearing fen-fallows of couch-grass. Thesuperiority of Mr. Lester's patent harrow, is stated to consist in the impossibility of its clogging, or drivingthe soil together in heaps. Being divided into two parts, of equal lengths (which are drawn by two centres united in a third), it has a steady uniform motion, and is effectually prevented from di- verging into any oblique direction. Another excellence in this conni- vence is, its couching over both ridges and furrows, and its yield- ing to all the inequalities of the soil; besides, from the diagonal position of the bulls, and the irre- gular arrangement of the teeth, each tine is drawn in a different direction, so that no one tooth can follow another in the same track ; whereas, in the common harrows, one half of the teeth run in the same course. In the 9th volume of the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, there is a de- scription of a pair of harrows and of a drag, or heavy harrow, invent- ed by Mr. H. Wynne. His imple- ments are constructed in such a manner, that each pin makes a separate track,.and that the inter- vals between those tracks are all equal ; so that the entire ground, over which the harrow passes at one time, will be marked with lines three inches apart. The pair of harrows is seven feet six inches broad ; and the inventor asserts, that the same horses will,by means of it, work one fourth more ground, and perform such labour much better, than by any other harrow^ Mr. Wynne's implement is stated to possess this farther advantage, that when the pins or teeth sink into the earth, the posts being nearly parallel to the line of draught, admit all roots, stones, and other obstructions to pass freely between them, and also beneath the rails, by which they are connected. And, as the hinge is within the tine, when the harrow is drawn up and down ridges, it accommodates itself to the shape of the ground ; the joint rising when the harrow is on the top of the ridge, and sinking when it is in the furrow. The drag, or heavy harrow, like- wise invented by Mr. Wynne, is constructed without a joint, and will work a piece of land six feet three inches in breadth, leaving in- tervals of five inches between the tracks. The principle is similar to that on which the implements just described are formed; and which, the inventor says, is appli- cable to harrows of any size : as the intervals between the tracks may be varied at pleasure, the re- gularity being still preserved. The spikes or teeth here employed are made of square iron, pointed and bent forward diagonally ; they are fixed in such a direction, that the line of the track may pass through their angles [as in the plan.] A patent was granted in May or June, 1801, to a Mr. Wilde, for a harrow on a new plan. His in- vention is intended to obviate the inconveniencies attending the com- mon harrows ; from the ingenuity and simplicity of its construction, it appears to merit attention. The set of harrows, when put together for work, consists of four, which are constructed in the usual man- ner, and with the usual number of tines. These are placed nearly H AR H A R 255 parallel to each other, and are combined by means of three iron links, which are moveable where they are joined to the harrow ; the centre link is fitted in an ob- lique direction, and is longer than the other two, which are setstraight. AH the links, however, are placed loosely, in order that the imple- ment, when joined together, may have a little play-room. This in- genious harrow is fastened to the bearing-bar, to which the traces are affixed, by means of an iron pin that is attached to the chain-hook, pa- .ng through holes made at dif- ferent distances in the bar, so as exactly to give the requisite direc- tion to the harrow. Thus, the equal course of the implement is secured ; and the work is more uniformly performed, and with a greater degree of regularity. Mr. Wilde makes harrows for Jive-yard lands, exclusive of the furrows ; but they may be adapted to any size required. The horses may likewise be set to draw abreast, or where the soil is very wet and heavy, to follow each other in the furrow, and thus to prevent the land from poaching. The patentee is of opinion, that a considerable saving might be made both in seed, and the labour of horses, three of which are said to be fully suffici- ent, where other harrows require four. His implement may also be employed as a rake, or for any si- milar purpose. From the great importance of harrows in tillage, we have been induced to extend this article to a considerable length. Although we do not pretend to decide on the re- lative value and practical utility of the different inventions or improv- ments before specified, yet we should probably select the imple- ments, contrived by Mr. Sandi- lands, without prejudice, how- ever, to the merits of the rest, which are doubtless calculated to be eminently useful in different soils and situations. HARTS-HORNS, are the horns of the common male red deer.... The scrapings, or raspings, of this animal's horns are medicinal, and employed in decoctions, ptisans, or cooling drinks, Sec. Harts-horn jelly is remarkably nourishing and sometimes given in cases of diarrhoea : a decoction of burnt harts-horn in water is, however, generally substituted for this purpose. The coal of harts-horn, which is prepared by exposing it to a strong and long continued fire, changes into a very white earth, called calcined' harts-horn. It is employed medicinally as an absor- bent, and likewise in dysenteries, which are supposed to arise from acrid and ill digested matter. The salt of harts-horn is sudori- fic, and has been successfully pre- scribed in fevers : it yields a very penetrating spirit, which is useful to persons of weak nerves, or sub- ject to fainting fits ; though the preparation generally used, is dis- tilled from bones, after extracting the oil. The latter is more grate- ful to the stomach, retains its lim- pidity for a much longer period, and is consequently superior to that obtained from harts-horn. This valuable substitute, however, is frequently adulterated by means of quick-lime. In order to detect the fraud, let a small portion of strong spirit of wine be mixed with the suspected volatile spirit; and, if a white powder be separated, let it subside, till the fluid can be de- canted. A little of the sediment 256 HAT HAT is then to be poured into a spoon, and held near a fire, or over the flame of a candle : if the powder be completely dissipated, the spi- rit is not prepared with lime, and contains a dvie proportion of vola- tile salt; but, if any remain in the spoon after it has been exposed to a moderate heat, it may be con- cluded that quick-lime, and other pernicious ingredients, have been employed. [The utility of the spirits of harts-horn, or spirit of sal-ammo- niac in curing the eflects of the bite of a snake, were mentioned in vol. i. p. 44. The efficacy of the remedy has lately been confirmed bv a publication of Dr. Ramsey of Charleston, S. C] Hasel. See Hazel-nut Tree. HAT, a covering for the head, which is generally made of a mix- ture of Spanish wool with that of hares, kids, rabbits, beaver, 8cc. Lately, feathers have been useful- ly employed in the manufacture of this article. As it would be too tedious to de- tail the various processes the dif- ferent materials undergo, before they are converted into felt, we shall content ourselves with ob- serving, that the degree of fine- ness depends entirely on the grea- ter or less quality of hare's wool and beaver employed in its tex- ture. The former is usually mix- ed with equal portions of the finest sheep or lamb's wool; but the bea- ver is generally confined to the fac- ing of finer hats, into which it is worked superficially, and therefore seldom used for the body, or prin- cipal material of this article. ATter the hat has been shaped and fashioned, it is dyed in a li- quid prepared of logwood, and a mixture of green copperas and blue vitriol ; when it is stiffened with common glue : the beer grounds (whiCh are previously applied to the inside, to prevent the glue from penetrating through to the face) being perfectly dry. In the dyeing process, however, our hatters ac- knowled their inferiority to those of France, and Holland, which is imputed to the water on the conti- nent being kept for many months, nay, in some places, for years, be- fore it is used. Various other little operations are still required, in or- der to soften and give the hat its final shape, after which it is lined and trimmed for sale. A patent was granted in January 1782, to Mr. Robert Golding, of Southwark, hat-dyer ; for his method of dyeing, staining, and colouring beaverhats green, or any- other colour. The inventor directs the nap of the hat to be raised by means of a card, on the side in- tended to be dyed, and then boiled in alum and argol. A thin paste should be made of flour, or clay, which is spread over every part that is not to be dyed, and then closed: or the hat may be pre- viously pasted, and instead of being boiled, it should be only simmered in the same liquor. As soon as the paste is spread, plates of copper or other metal, shaped like a common funnel, are fixed over the paste, to prevent the dye from penetrating through. In this state, the hat is immersed in the dye, till the colour be sufficiently fixed ; when it is taken out, opened, and cleansed from the paste : but, if any co- louring particfes have penetrated through the felt, they may be re- moved by rubbing them with a small quantity of spirit of salt, aqua fortis, Sec. The compounds em- ployed in dyeing, are fustic, tur- HAT HAT 257 Tneric, ebony, saffron, alum, argol, indigo, and vitriol, with urine, or pearl-ash, atthe option of the dyer ; all of which are used together, or separately, according to the colour required. Among the different patents granted to hatters, for discovering new-materials in this manufacture, such as that of Mr. J. Burn, in 1792, for mole-fur ; and another to Mr. J. Tilstone, in 1794, for kid-hair; we shall only notice an invention of Mr. George Dun- nage,who, in November 1794, ob- tained a patent for his Water-proof Hats, in imitation of beaver. The articles he employs are si- milar to those commonly used for the making of hats, with which he mixes Bergam, Piedmont, or Or- ganzine silk. These are dressed and worked in a peculiar manner ; though we understand that hats thus prepared become heavy and opprsssive to the wearer, while they acquire an ugly colour. The curious reader will find the paten- tee's specification inserted, at full length, in the 4th vol. of the Re- pertory of Arts and Manufactures. The same manufacturer procured another patent in November 1798, for a method of ventilating the crowns of hats. This invention consists in separating the top from the sides of the crown, so that the tip, or top crown, may be either raised or let down at pleasure, in order to admit the external air, or to exclude it from circulating in the crown of the hat. The whole contrivance is effected by means of springs, sliders, sockets, grooves, loops, and cases, which are con- nected with the top and side- crown : thus the admission or ex- clusion of atmospheric air in front, VOL. III. behind, or on either side, may be regulated accordingly. As this in- vention is ingenious, we refer the reader to the lOthvol. of the work last quoted, where he will find a minute account, illustrated by an engraving. In November, 1801, a patent was obtained by Messrs. John Walker and Peter Alphey, for contriving water-proof hats and caps, as likewise for rendering silk, linen, leather, cotton, and other materials for wearing apparel, wa- ter-proof. Their invention consists in providing the respective articles with a coat of oil-print ; aiier which they are japanned with a varnish mixed with lamp or ivory- black. The caps and hats are ma- nufactured of paste-board covered with canvas, and treated in a simi- lar manner ; but the leather, to be made water-proof, should not be previously dressed with oil, or any unctuons matter. For a more mi- nute account of the method in which the different compositions are applied, the reader will const It the 16th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," Sec. [The art of hat-making has been fully detailed by Mr. Nicholson, in his Philosophical Journal, vol. -1, 2, and 3, 4to. to w hich the reader is referred.] HATCHING, is the maturation of, or communicating life to, fecun- dated eggs, either by the incuba- tion and warmth of the parent bird, or by artificial heat. The art of hatching chickens by means of oven:;, has been long practised in Egypt, where it is con- fined to the knowledge of the in- habitants of a single village and its vicinity. This method being easily understood, we shall only observe, L l 258 II A T that each brood is supposed to con- sist of 30,000 chickens ; the num- ber of ovens amounts to 386, which are in constant employ for six months ; and, as the eggs are completely hatched in three weeks, or about the same period as a hen continues to sit upon a brood, it has been calculated that the ovens of Egypt every year communicate life to at least 92,640,000 chickens! A very ingenious and useful me- thodof hatchingeggs, we conceive, is that invented by the celebrated naturalist Reaumur, who reduced this art to fixed principles. The degiee of heat necessary for the purpose, is nearly the same as that marked 36 deg. on his own ther- mometer, which is equal to about 96 deg. of Fahrenheit, as well as to the heat both of the skin of the hen and all other fowl. M. Reaumur employed stoves of any shape, which were heated by means of a baker's oven ; or in a room warmed by an oven under- neath : the eggs w ere here depo- sited, and occasionally shifted in a similar manner as the parent birds move them ; in order that each egg might equally participate in the irregularities of the stove. The on- ly important object is, to ascertain the precise degree of heat: with this design, he melted and poured into a phial two parts of butter and one of tallow. When the heat was of a proper temperature, the liquid grease resembled a thick syrup ; if it was too great, the mixture flow- ed like oil, on holding the phial sideward ; but, when the heat was too low, it remained fixed in alump. Thus, by placing the phial into the stove, the proper degree of heat may be easily regulated. He also invented a kind of hollow covers, or low boxes, without bottoms ; H A W and lined with fur, which he called artificial parents. These not only shelterthe chickens,when hatched, but also afford them a genial warmth, so that they fly under the boxes as readily as they resort to the protection of the wings of the hen. In a few days, they may be turned out into the open air, and committed to the care of capons, or even cocks, which maybe taught to perform the maternal office, and watch them with as much solici- tude as is evinced by hens. HAULM, Halm, or Hawk, among farmers, signifies the stem or stalk of corn, pease, beans, See. from the root to the ear. The haulm of beans affords an excellent fodder for working- horses ; that of pease, if saved in a favourable season, makes nou- rishing and wholesome food for horses, cattle, and sheep. The stalks of potatoes are of considera- ble utility as a manure : if spread on coarse, sour pasture, they will totally change its nature, and en- hance the value of the land from ten to fifteen shillings per acre. HAW, or Haugh, in farriery, is a spongy excrescence in the in- ner corner of the eyes of horses, or other cattle, and which, if not timely removed, will occasion total blindness. It arises from gross humours, and is known by the wa- tering of the eye, and the opening of the lower side. To cure this excrescence, far- riers direct the affected animal to be held fast by the head, and the upper eye-lid to be drawn back by means of a needle and strong thread ; which, in cows or oxen, may be lied to one of the horns. The haw is then to be carefully cut out with a knife, after which the eye should be dressed, then HAW washed with a sponge dipped in beer or ale, and salt, in order to cleanse it properly, and absorb the blood. This operation, however, ought to be performed only by skilful, farriers, as many valuable horses have been rendered irreco- verably blind by the deep cutting of ignorant pretenders. In such case, the wound must be dressed with honey of roses ; and, if any fungous or spongy flesh should arise, it ought to be sprinkled with burnt alum, or to be touched with blue vitriol, that it might be com- pletely eradicated. Where sheep are affected with the haws, the prac- tice is to drop the juice of chamo- mile, or crow's-foot, into the eye. [The method of removing haws, was noticed under the article Eye.] HAWK, the Common, or Spar- rowhawk, Falco Aisus, L. is a bold and spirited bird : it abounds in almost every part of Europe ; and varieties of it are found dis- persed over the whole earth. The length of the male of these birds is twelve inches ; that of the female fifteen ; the former differs both in size and colour from the latter. The female builds her nest in hollow trees, high rocks, or lof- ty ruins, sometimes in the old nest of a crow, and generally lays four or five eggs, marked at the point- ed end with reddish spots. The Sparrowhawk is obedient and docile : by keeping him awake three or four days successively in a hoop, till he become almost'deli- rious, he may afterwards be easily trained to hunt partridges and quails. In a wild state, however, these creatures commit great de- predations on pigeons, poultry, rab- bits, hares, Sec. so that the follow- ing method of catching them will HAW 259 probably be acceptable to many readers. A hawk-cage, made upon a plan similar to that of a gold-finch trap- cage, but larger, and baited with two house-sparrows, should be ex- posed in a fine clear morning, on a hedge, or some other open place, and left out till late in the evening. By tb.is simple contrivance, those predatory birds might be easily- taken , and either destroyed, or preserved for the purpose of hawk- ing ; an amusement that has late- ly been abandoned in this country, and therefore requires no descrip- tion. HAWK-MOTH, or Sphinx,!,. is a genus of insects, comprising 165 species, ten of which are dis- covered in Britain, and variously named, according to the trees they infest. The generality of hawk*moths spin their cods under ground, in- terweaving with their threads small particles of grain and earth. They appear eitherearly in the morning, or after sun-set: their flight is slow, and often accompanied with a pe- culiar sound. The caterpillars of these insects are usually found rolled up in the leaves of trees ; some being green, and smooth ; others brown or yellow; again, others are spotted, and furnished with rings, or belts. The most certain method of pre- venting the degradations of hawk- moths, consists in cellecting the leaves they inhabit, and crushing the insects ; after which the trees should be washed with a mixtureof clear lime-water, and a decoction of tobacco leaver. Such cleansing will, according to Mr. Forsyth, also be found an effectual remedy, when the moths are in a state of '0 HAW HAW larvae ; having previously picked off, and destroyed the caterpillars. IIAWKWEED. or Hieracium, L. a native genus of perennial plants, comprising forty six spe- cies, the principal of which are : 1. The Pilosella Mouse-ear Flawkweed, which grows in dry meadows, pastures, and on walls ; its flowers possess the singularpro- perty of opening in the morning, and closing early in the afternoon: they blow from May to September, This species differs from otherlac- tescent plants, being less bitter, and more astringent, on which ac- count it was formerly esteemed in the cure of blood-spitting. It is con- sidered as noxious to sheep, which are not partial to it ; and though eaten by goats, it is refused by horses and cows. 2. The auricula, Narrow-leav- ed Haw kweed,or Umbelled Mouse- ear, thrives on mountains, in the county of Westmoreland, and flow- ers in the month of July. It de- serves to be cultivated on the bor- ders of gardens where bees are kept; for, according to Bech- stein, it furnishes them with an abundance of wax and honey. HAWTHORN, or Crategus. L. a genus of plants, consisting of twenty-five species, three of which are natives of Britain. 1. The Aria {Pyrus Aria of Dr. Smith,) White-beam Hawthorn, or Wild Pear-tree, which grows in woods and hedges, especially in mountainous situations with a cal- careous soil, and flowers in the month of May. It delights in dry hills, and open exposures, thriving either in gravel or clay. It will bear lopping, and does not prevent grass from growing beneath it. The white-beam hawthorn is eaten by sheep and goats, which last ani- mals devour it with avidity. If* fruit is red, and when mellowed by the autumnal frosts furnishes a grateful repast; a spirituous li- quor may be obtained from it by distillation. This species seldom produces a good crop of fruit for two years in succession : but its barrenness is amply compensated by the utility of its hard, tough, and smooth wood ; which is form- ed into axle-trees, wheels, walk- ing-sticks, carpenter's and other tools : its seed should either be sown as soon as it becomes riper or preserved in damp sand. 2. The Oxyacantha {Mcspilus Oxyacantha of Dr. Smith)White- thorn, or May, which grows in hedges, woods, and old parks. This is a very valuable shrub, and on account of the stiffness of its branches, the sharpness of its thorns, and its hardiness in endur- ing the severest winters without injury, it is universally preferred for making fences and hedges. The berries during winter afford food to various birds, but may be more usefully employed in fatten- ing hogs: the wood is very tough, and,like the white-beam hawthorn, converted into axle-trees and han- dles for tools. There are several varieties of this species, of which we shall mention only the celebrated Glas- toneury Thorn. It is in bloom- twice in the year : the winter blos- soms (about the size of a sixpence) appear about Christmas, and much earlier, if the winter be very se- vere. These, however, produce no fruit. This extraordinary thorn has been celebrated for its age, for nearly a whole century ; the oldest inhabitants never having obsei'ved it in anyother than itspresent state. The berries of this miraculous va- HAY riety contain only one seed ; and, when sown, produce plants which differ in no respect from the com- mon hawthorn. 3. The torminalis, Wild Service- tree, Sorb, or Service Hawthorn, which grows in woods and hedges, and flowers in the month of May. Its dark yellow berries ripen in October, and may be eaten either raw or preserved in sugar. They also yield, on fermentation, a good vinegar, as well as an ardent spirit by distilling them : where they abound, hogs may be easily fat- tened. [There are several native spe- cies of Cratagus or Thorn in the United States. See Hedge.] HAY signifies any kind of grass, that is cut and dried for fodder. The time of mowing grass for hay, ought to be regulated accord- ing to its growth and maturity; for it is extremely detrimental to a crop, to cut it too early ; because the sap has not sufficiently circu- lated through the whole blade of grass ; so that the latter, when made into hay, shrinks and consi- derably diminishes in bulk. It is, however, equally prejudicial to the grass, if it be suffered to stand till it shed its seeds. When the tops of the grass appear brown, it will then be fit for being mowed. The chief object in making hay, is to preserve the vegetable juices : with this design, different methods have been adopted, of which we shall notice the principal. In the county of Middlesex, whence the London markets are chiefly supplied with hay, all the grass mowed on the first day, be- fore nine o'clock in the morning, is tedded, that is, uniformly spread over the meadow, divided as much as possible, and well turned, be- HAY 261 fore twelve o'clock, and perhaps a second time in the afternoon. It is then raked into wind-rows, and formed into small cocks. On the second day, the grass mown the preceding day after nine o'clock, and what is cut on this day before that time, is tedded, and treated in the manner above described. Previously to turning the grass of the second day's work, the small cocks thrown up on the preceding day are well shaken out into straddles, or separate plats, five or six yards square. If the crop be so thin as to leave large spaces between the plats, they ought to be raked clean. The next business is, to turn the plats, and also the grass cut on the second day, which is generally done be- fore one o'clock, in order that all the grass which is mowed may be drying while the people are at dinner. In the afternoon, the straddles or plats are raked into double wind-rows ; the grass into single ones; and the hay is thrown up into field-cocks of a middling size, also called bastard cocks; the grass is then cocked, as on the preceding day. Similar operations are succes- sively performed on the third day; the hay in bastard cocks is again spread into straddles, and the whole is turned previously to the people going to dinner. Should the wea- ther have proved fine and warm, the hay that was made into bas- tard cocks on the second evening, will, in the afternoon 6t the third day, be fit to be housed. On the fourth day, the hay is put into stacks. This method has, from experience, proved very success- ful, especially in favourable wea- ther. On the Duke of Argyle's es- 262 HAY tates in Scotland, the hay is dried on pins in barns ; and, when thus made, it has been found to be re- markably green and sweet. According to Dr. Anderson's plan, the grass is to be cut only when it is perfectly dry, without spreading it out into swaths, wind- rows, Sec. or tedding it, as is the general practice. Immediately after it is mowed, it is thrown up into small and narrow cocks about three feet high ; each cock is slightly thatched, by drawing a lit- tle hay from the bottom of the cock, which is laid on the top, with one of the ends downwards. Thus, the hay may with ease and expe- dition be rendered equally safe from rain and wind, unless a violent storm should occur immediately after the cocks are raised. And, if they be put up when the grass is perfectly dry, Dr. Anderson af- firms that they " never sit so close- ly as to heat," though they become in the course of a day or two so firm as not to be liable to be over- turned, unless by a hurricane. In these cocks, the hay is suf- fered to remain for a week or a fortnight; till upon inspection it is judged that they will keep in tolerably large tramp-cocks; in which case two men, each of whom is provided w ith a pitch-fork, carry the small cocks between them suc- cessively to the place where the tramp-cocks are to be raised. The advantages attending this method are: 1. That the labour is consi- derably shortened ; 2. That the hay continues almost as green as when it was first cut, and that it re- tains its natural juices in the great- est perfection ; whereas, by spread- ing it out, tedding it in the sun, &c. it becomes bleached, its sap ex- hales, and it is frequently much HAY damaged by the rain. Particular care, however, ought to be taken, that the grass be perfectly dry, when first piled up into cocks: for, if it be in the least degree wet, it will speedily become mouldy, clog together so closely as to be impervious to the air, and never dry, unless it be spread out in the sun. To prevent such an accident, Dr. Anderson directs the cut* ting of the grass to be commenced during fine, settled weather in the morning, and not to suffer the hay- makers to touch it, till the dew be evaporated. In the 28th vol. of Annals of Agriculture, we meet with a com- munication from David Barclay, Esq. of Walthamstow, Essex, who has employed Dr. Anderson's method of making hay with suc- cess ; but, instead of conveying the hay by hand to the stack, he caused a cart rope to be fixed round the bottom of a large cock, and to be drawn by a horse to the stack, while a man fixes a pitch-fork in the opposite side, and thus pushes the cock. Dr. Darwin proposes a middle way to be adopted between the different methods practised in the North and South of Britain. If the swath of cut grass be turned over only once in the course of a day, for three or four days, the internal parts of it become in a manner dried in the shade ; and, if it be afterwards spread over the ground only for a few hours in a fine day, he believes the hay would become sufficiently dry to be stack- ed. He strongly recommends the grass to be thrown into small cocks at night, especially if the weather be damp, to prevent it from being injured by the excre- ments andslime from the vast nura- HAY HAY 263 bers of worms, which rise out of the ground during warm moist nights. For this reason, the hay- cocks ought to be made as high in proportion to their base as pos- sible, that a less surface may be in contact with the ground, while the broader top is exposed to the ac- tion of the air, by which the exha- lation of its moisture is accelerated and the hay itself is secured from accidental showers. In wet seasons, Dr. Darwin thinks the best method is to turn the swaths every day, or every other day, or make them into small cocks ; thus to secure the whole from the injuries of incessant rains; and also to prevent the parts next the ground, as well as in the mid- dle from fermenting and putrify- ing. When the weather becomes more favourable, the hay may be made into large cocks, so that the perflation of the atmosphere will not only cause its moisture to ex- hale the more quickly, but an in- cipient fermentation will discharge a portion of heat and thus contri- bute to dry the hay, by increasing the evaporation: in a similar man- ner, the remarkable heat genera- ted in hay-stacks, finished only one or two days, greatly contributes to dry the whole stack. Hay constituting the chief food of horses and other cattle, espe- cially during the winter different contrivances have been suggested to prevent it from being injured by rain, while making. And here* we cannot but recommend the practice of tippling, which we have already described ; as from its simpliciu-jmd facility, it is equally applicable to clover and other grasses. In the 14th vol. of the Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, &c. Mr John Middleton, of Lambeth, gives an account of a machine to be used in the making of hay. It consists of a back and two sides, or gates, each of which is about seven feet in length. The frames, or exte- rior parts, are of oak or ash, that of the back being four inches by four, while those of the wings are three inches by three. Between all the frames are fixed deal planks three inches by two and a half, and at the end of each wing, or gate, are chains, to which the horses are to be fastened by means of splinter bars. Before this machine can be employed, the hay is to be put into rows ; the animals being harness- ed,and managed by persons mount- ed on them, they are slowly driven on, so that all the hay may be col- lected between the gates. When the machine is filled, and the load is to be drawn to a distant place, the horses must be kept as closely together as possible. We conceive Mr. Middleton's implement will be found useful during the ardent heat of summer, especially when there are but few labourers, in dragging the hay to- gether as soon as it is sufficiently made, and thus preventing it from being parched. In showery wea- ther, it is said to be still more ser- viceable ; as in case of approach- ing rain, the grass may be collect- ed immediately, formed into a stack, and sheltered from wet by a cloth, or by treacling it closely to- gether, leaving a ridge in the mid- dle, and by raking it down on the outside. He observes, that during the wet summer of 1795, this ma- chine was particularly convenient; and that, if the boys or •drivers be' 264 HAY HAY steady, and the horses tractable, or accustomed to the work, ten acres of hay may be effectually secured in lit tie more than one hour. [The following description of a hay-harrow, or rake, is taken from the Trans. Dublin Soc. having ori- ginally appeared in the works of the Rotterdam Societ.: As the object of this contrivance is to diminish labour, the Editor thought it might prove useful to the farmers of the United States, and hence has given a full account of its merits. If the hay, when raked by the machine, dries so rapidly as stated, in the cool moist air of Holland ; the hay-rake must answer an ex- cellent purpose in our warm dry air. The hay-rake is of the size of a harrow. The upper and under rails are two or three inches square, and nine feet long, fastened together with three pieces,five inches broad, one inch and a quarter thick, and four feet four inches long ; one in the middle, and the other two on each side, ten inches from the ends of the rails, as at a a. To give this machine yet more strength, there must be two diagonal braces b b ; in each of the rails must be five teeth six inches long in the clear, and three quarters of an inch in diameter, placed as in the plate, and sloping outwards to the rear ; for if they slope forward, or are up- right, they will cluster the grass too much in lumps. The teeth' mav be made of iron, and a little smaller, if the harrow sinks through the hay or grass into the ground. The hay-harrow is drawn by a horse, upon which a man sits, who scatters the hay, by harrowing it from the swath, as thick as is ne- cessary to dry it. Three acres of grass may be turned in one hour, and well mixed ; and on a warm dry day, the horse may be kept constantly going; when the last of the acre is turned, the first of it may be begun with, because the grass may be sufficiently dry on the upper part, so that if this work be done at an early hour of the day, the cocks may be made up in the afternoon ; because if it should not be yet sufficiently dry, it will be so before it is all cocked. Hay composed entirely of red clover has been proved by repeated experience to be injurious to horses when given constantly. New clover hay is said to hurt their eyes, and old clover hay to injure their wind in an evident manner. These are singular effects, and not yet well ; explained : but as the facts stated are the result of numerous en- quiries among men the least liable to prejudice, the reader is cau- tioned against the injury he may ; sustain, from inattention, disbelief, i or ignorance of these properties v of clover hay. Timothy or green grass, should therefore be mixed 1 with clover ; and every species of j hay should be well salted, by J sprinkling salt over the surface of 1 every course of hay. The effect of J salt in making even poor hay palat- ^^ able, was stated under the head of ^1 Cattle, vol.2d,on the authority of j an experienced feeder and grazier.] j In the 2d vol, of the Trans- J actions of the same Society, Mr. Richard Toft, of Kentish Town, describes a contrivance for securing hay-ricks from rain, while they are I raising ; for which he was reward- ed with a silver medal. It consists ] of 240 yards of coarse cloth, called duck, prepared with tar and oil; three scaffold-poles, two of which j are upright, the third is thicker in HAY HAY 265 the middle than at the ends, being intended for a ridge ; two double blocks; four pedestals, and about one hundred weight of tarred rope: beside these articles, there is a reel, or windlass, together with pullies, and iron work, Sec. the whole ex- pense of which amounts to about 28/. The pedestals are to be placed four feet in the ground, for the re- ception of the poles. The width of the cloth is required to be great- er than its length, as it is to be raised by a rkige-pole, for the ad- mission of air : and as the stacks are generally wider in the middle than at the bottom, the cloth is di- vided into two parts, that it may be the more easily folded over the pole. \V hen a rick is advanced above the eavts, and begins to become narrow, Mr. Toet di- rects the cloth to be taken down, by unhooking one end of the ridge- pole, and letting it down by means of a rope ; after which the other is to be unhooked, uc. in a similar manner. The; cloth may be suf- fered to rest upon the sides of the rick, but, in case of high winds, it will be requisite to fasten it with ropes. In erecting the stacks, great caution is necessary that the hay be not put together before it is per- fectly dry ; in which case it not unfrequently happens that whole stacks are suddenly reduced to ashes. To prevent such accidents, a chimney or funnel is usually made in the centre of the stack, but it then becomes necessary to form adverts beneath the stack, by digging three or four trenches; co- vering them with boards or sticks; and exposing their apertures in every direction to the wind, in order to ui ure continual ventila- tion. . VOL. III. As the erecting cf funnels in stacks is not universally adopted, it is of consilience to aso'TUn. the degree of he.t which the stacked hay has acquired, lest it should at any time take fire. One of the easiest methocis is that pursued by Mr. Ducket, and which consists simply in thrusting a secffUd-bAt, or some long iron bolt into the hay rick, and then introducing a gun, or ram-rod, furnished with a strong worm, and screwing out a sample, by which he not only discovers the heat, but also the colour of the hay; and if the stack requ re air, he per- forates it in several parts with si- milar holes-, which thus answer every purpose of a ventilating fun- nel. In Lancashire, barns have, with- in these few years, been erected for the preservation of hay, whence they are denominated huy-barns. They are built upon pillars, and covered with slates. Sometimes they are provided with floors board- ed with planks, loosely placed, per- forated with holes, and lying hol- low for a certain space above the ground, for the purpose of admit- ting a free circulation of air be- neath. These buildings are cheap, useful, and very convenient in bad weather : they afford such advan- tages in the preservation of hay, as will in a short time amply repay the expense of erecting them. Having already pointed out the necessity as well as the utility of giving salt to cattle, we shall here only remark, that the most imelli- gent farmers sprinkle the salt while the stack is raising, alternately be- tween each Ever of hay, in the proportion of 1 cwt. of sat to se- ven or eight tons of hav. Every species of cattle will prefer inferior food thus prepared, to the finest M M 266 H A Z H AZ hay in its raw state : for the salt assimilating with the juices of the hay, prevents too great a fermenta- tion, and imparts a superior fla- vour. Farther, the salting of hay- ricks effectually secures them from becoming over-heated, or mildew- ed ; so that the hay may be put to- gether, without the least danger of its taking tire, in a much greener state than would otherwise be safe. An excellent apparatus for secu- ring hay and corn-slacks, has been contrived by Sir Joseph Banks ; but, as an adequate idea of it can- not be conveyed without the aid of an engraving, we refer the reader to the 10th vol. of Annals of Agri- culture, where its description is il- lustrated by a plate. A patent was granted in Febru- ary, 1801, to Mr. William Les- ter, of Cotton End, Northamp- tonshire, for hjs improved engine for cutting hay, straw, tobacco, &c. of which we shall give a farther account under the head of Straw- CUTTER. HAYS, signify a particular kind of net, for taking rabbits, hares, &c. As rabbits frequently straggle abroad at mid-day for fresh grass, two or three of these nets are di- rected to be pitched at the entrance of their burrows. The sportsman then goes round their haunts with a dog, and drives them into their burrows, where an assistant seizes them as they enter. HAZEL-NUT TREE, or Co- rylus, L. a genus of plants con- sisting of four species: one of these is a native of Britain, namely, the avellana, or Common Hazel-nut- tree. It grows in woods, copses, and hedges; flowers in March or April. All the different species of the hazel are large, hardy, and deci- duous shrubs; they have several varieties, valuable for their fruit, which, in a cultivated stale, are known under the name of Filberts. These shrubs prosper in almost any soil or situation : and may be propagated either by layers, or by planting their nuts in February ; for which purpose the latter should be preserved in sand, in a moist cellar, inaccessible to vermin ; but they should not be secluded from the external air, for want of which they will become mouldy. When reared in coppices, this shrub pro- duces abundance of underwood, that may be cut every 5th, Tth, or 8th year, according to the purpose for which it is designed. The uses of this wood are va- rious : it is employed for poles, hoops for barrels, spars, hurdles, handles for implements of hus- bandry, walking - sticks, fishing- rods, 8cc. Where beautiful speci- mens are required for veneering or staining, tht roots of the hazel-nut tree are preferable to the branches. In Italy the chips are used for fin- ing turbid wines ; and in countries where yeast is scarce, the twigs of this shrub, dried, and afterwards soaked in the fermenting liquor, serve as a substitute for that arti- cle in brewing. Painters and en- gravers prepare coals for drawing outlines, from the wood of this plant, by the following process: Pieces of dried hazel, about the thickness of a finger, and four or five inches in length, are put into a large pot filled with sand, and the top of which is closelv covered with clay. In this manner they are placed in a potter's oven, or other- wise exposed to a sufficient degree of heat; and, on cooling, the sticks are found to be converted into char- coal, which draws freely, and is H AZ easily effaced with India-rub- ber. According to Evklyn, no plant is better calculated for thickening copses than the hazel; with this view he recommends the following expeditious method : Take a pole of hazel (for which ash or poplar may be substituted) of 20 or 30 feet in length, the head of which is somewhat lopped into the ground ; the pole should likewise be chopped near the soil, in order to make it yield: thus fastened to the earth with a hook or two, and covered with fresh mould sufficiently deep, it will produce an incalculable num- ber of suckers, speedily thicken, and furnish a fine coppice. The kernels of the fruit of the hazel-nut tree, though difficult of digestion, have a mild, farinace- ous, oily taste, which is agreeable to most palates : yet filberts are said to be more nourishing than nuts : both, however, operate as a cathartic, /when chewed small and taken in considerable quantities ; but produce constipations of the bowels, if swallowed in large pieces; and dysentery, if eaten unripe. A kind of chocolate has been prepar- ed from this fruit, which has also occasionally been converted into bread. An expressed oil is ob- tained from the nuts, which is lit- tle inferior to that of almonds : it is often preferably used by painters, as it readily dries ; and chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines with, and retains, odours. An emulsion made of the kernels, and taken with good old mead, is recommended for invete- rate dry coughs. Squirrels and mice are excessively fond of the nuts ; goats and horses eat the H E A 257 leaves, but they are refused by sheep and hogs. HEAD, the uppermost or fore- most part of the animal body. As the foundation of many dis- eases is laid, by taking cold in this part of the frame, we shall offer a few hints relative to its covering. For new-born children, an easy and moderately warm head-dress is fully sufficient during the first weeks of their existence ; as su- perfluous ornaments only tend to encumber and to fatigue them. The infant's cap, however, ought not to be narrow, nor tied too closely, lest the head be compres- sed, the muscles of the ears crip- pled, and the sense of hearing im- paired. It is equally hurtful for children and adults to walk in the sun with the head uncovered, yet our cum- bersome black hats, though sanc- tioned by custom and fashion, are generally too heavy for the hotxlays of summer ; they ought to be ma- nufactured of lighter materials, and either white, or dyed of some light colour, especially for soldiers, tra- vellers, and persons labouring in the field. Such individual should wear hats made of oil-cloth, sup- ported by fine wires, or of straw, chips, he. In this temperate climate, youth may with safety be accustomed to go with their heads uncovered ; but, in those countries where either of the two extremes of heat or cold prevail, the opposite practice must be adopted. Many diseases, however, might be avoided, were the trite, but true maxim of "keeping the head cool," more strictly attended to. Hence the wearing of thick and warm night-caps, whether at night, or in 268 H E A HE A the dav time, cannot be too much reprobated ; as those who indulge in this whimsical habit, render themselves continually liable to tar.e cold from the slightest change in the atmosphere. [The dress of the head both day and night, should be accommodat- ed to the state of the weather. A chip hat in winter would not be more absurd than a netting night- cap in winter. In cold weather the head should be defended at night by a thick cap of cotton or flannel lined with muslin, in order to pre- serve an uniform temperature of body, and thus prevent the undue action of the external cold air upon the bead. See Teeth.] HEAD-ACH, or Cephalalgia, a painful sensation in the head, pro- duced by various causes, and at- tended with different effects, ac- cording to its various degrees, and the part of the head where it is situated. Head-ach, in general, is only a symptom of disease, and frequent- ly occasioned by effusions of blood on the brain, as also by ulcers, accretions, See. on that sensible or- gan. Persons of a sedentary life, or those subject to costiveness .or indigestion, are more peculiarly li- able to the attacks of the head-ach. An acrimonious state of the fluids ; the stone ; catarrhs ; contusions on the head ; a diseased state of the teeth ; piles , hysterics ; strong odours of every kind ; the fumes of tobacco ; rheumatism ; gout; scurvy ; worms, both in the intes- tines and in the head ; too much hair; grief; and intoxication, are among the numerous causes of this affection, which is sometimes so violent as almost to deprive the unhappy sufferer of his senses. Where the head-ach originates from an internal cause situated within the brain, it is seldom cur- able. In nervous affections, re- lief may sometimes be procured by venesection, cupping, or leeches ; by sneezing remedies, blisters, is- sues, or other topical discharges near the head ; by purgatives ; or by determining the fluids to other parts. Frequent combing and cut- ting of the hair, as well as bathing the feet in tepid water, will likewise be found very serviceable. A poul- tice of elder flowers applied to the part affected, has been sometimes attended with good effects, as also has the holding of a piece of helle- bore in the ear. According to Thunberg, Ca- jeput-oil, applied to the head, will afford considerable relief. Simi- lar success has attended the ap- plication of xther and spirits of hartshorn as a sternutatory, and as a local remedy. It is asserted, that the most acute and obstinate head- achs have been removed by the use of vervain, both internally in the form of a decoction, and also by suspending the herb round the neck. Strong coffee has likewise been of considerable service, espe- cially to phlegmatic habits, and those whose digestion is impaired. [The nervous head-ach, to which women are peculiarly liable, is a distressing complaint ; it may be greatly alleviated by taking ten, 15 or 20 drops of laudanum on the approach of the symptoms, and by retiring to a dark silent room. A cup of coffee without milk, taken when the first effects of the anodyne are over, will pre- vent or mitigate the sickness of stomach, which sometimes ensues a dose of opium.] The diet of persons afflicted with the head-ach ought to consist HE A H E A 2<59 of such emollient substances as will prevent costiveness; for in- stance, stewed prunes, apples, spi- nach, &c. The drink should be diluting, such as barley-water, or infusions of malt, 8cc. Their feet and legs should be kept warm, and the head shaved, frequently bathed with warm water and vinegar, re- taining it as much as possible in an erect posture. Head-wai'.k. See Red Poppy. HEALTH, is a proper disposi- tion of the several constituent parts of the body, by which they are en- abled to perform their respective functions without any impediment. The continuance of health de- pends chiefly on what has been professionally called, the six non- naturals ; namely, air; food ; ex- ercise ; the passions; evacuation and retention ; sleep and waking: treating of these subjects in their alphabetical series, and the restora- tion of health being the object of medicine, we refer the reader in both respects to the different ar- ticles, according to the order in which they occur. Moderation, however, in the strictest sense of the word, is equal- ly essential to the preservation of health, as a pure air, and whole- some food. Cleanliness, too, ought by no means to be neglected; for an unclean person very seldom en- joys good health. Hence, frequent washing of the skin is of the first importance; and we are fully per- suaded, that most of the diseases, with which the lower classes of people are affected, especially in crowded neighbourhoods, originate from the filthy state which is but too evident in many of their wretched habitations. With respect to those persons who propose to reside in hot cli- mates, we shall state only a few simple rules, by an attention to which their health may be effectu- ally preserved. 1. Abstain from all excess in spirituous liquors. 2. Avoid with the utmost care the evening dews, or wetting of the feet on the approach of night; as fatal sore throats not unfrequent- Iy arise from this source. Should the feet, however, have been wet- ted by any accident, let the whole body be speedily immersed into cold water. 3. Bathe every morning in the sea, or, if possible, in sea-water; but, where that cannot be procur- ed, dissolve an ounce of salt in a bason of water, and wash the skin with the solution, after which put on the clothes without drying the skin. This operation strengthens the muscular fibres, and covers the skin with a kind of saline crust, which, in the opinion of Dr. Hales, effectually prevents all fe- brile infections. With these pre- cautions, he asserts, a person of a sound constitution may enjoy as good a state of health in the hot- test asXn the most temperate cli- mates. HEARING, is one of the exter- nal senses, and expresses the act or faculty of perceiving sounds. Animals possess this sense in a more acute degree than man; the owl and the hare enjoy the fa- culty of hearing in a pre-eminent degree : by means of it, the for- mer perceives the slightest sounds, and is thus enabled to seize her prey, while the timid haie is cau- tioned against approaching dan- ger. This very delicate sense is liable to be impaired by a variety of accidents; hence arises that un- pleasant defect called Deaeness, 270 H E A HE A of the causes and cure of which we have already treated. HEART, a hollow muscle of a conical form, situated at the bot- tom of the thorax or breast: its basis is turned towards the right, and its point towai ds the left side. The former, whence the great blood-vessels take their origin, is covered with fat, and has two hol- low appendages, called auricles, from their resemblance to an ear. The whole consists of two cavities, which are separated from each other by a thick muscular septum : one of these is called the right and tiie other the lefit ventricle. The heart, which may be consi- dered as the most powerful muscle in the animal body, serves to faci- litate the motion or circulation of the blood, which is communicated to the different parts of the frame, by means of various arteries and veins. These, however, it is the province of anatomy to* describe ; and as that subject does not enter into our plan, we trust this brief explanation will suffice. HEART-BURN, or Cardialgia, an uneasy sensation of heat in the stomach, which is frequently atten- ded with nausea and sickness. The heart-burn generally arises from a prevailing acidity, indiges- tion, the eating of tough fat meat, and unfermented mealy substances. Those persons who are subject to this affection, ought to drink no stale or acid liquors, and to ab- stain from flatulent food. If indigestion, or debility of the stomach, be the cause, the patient may take infusions of Peruvian bark, valerian, or any other sto- machic biiter. Moderate exercise in tne open air will contribute to promote digestion, and consequent- ly remove the complaint. Should the heart-burn originate from acidity of the stomach, the general practice is to administer absorbent medicines, such as pre- pared chalk, crab's claws, calcined oyster-shells, Sec. a tea-spoonful of either being given in a glass of peppermint-water, which frequent- ly procures relief. There are, however, many cases in which absorbents tend to aggra- vate rather than to cure this trou- blesome affection ; namely, when it proceeds from an acrid and em- pyreumatic oil generated on the stomach. In such instances, a tea-spoonful of the powder of gum- arabic dissolved in half a tea-cup- ful of water, and repeating this dose three or four times, if neces- sary, has been attended with im- mediate success ; and, where the gum cannot be procured, a few blanched sweet-almonds finely chewed, and swallowed, have often produced a similiar effect. If the heart-burn originate from flatulency, the remedies pointed out for that affection, may be here safely resorted to; such as infu- sions of anise-seeds, ginger, and other carminatives. HEART&-EASE, or Heub Trinity, Viola tricolor, L. an in- digenous annual plant, growing in corn-fields, 3:c. It produces gene- rally white and yellow blossoms, intermixed with purple, which flower from May to September. This plant has almost endless va- rieties, and, when reared in gar- dens, is known under the name of Pansies. It was formerly in great repute for epilepsies, asthmas, Sec. At present, however, it is used only in the disorder peculiar to children, called crusta lactea, or a species of scald-head affecting the face. A handful of the fresh, HE A H E A 271 or half a dram of the dried leaves, is boiled in a pint of milk, and if continued to be drank for some weeks, both in the morning and evening, it has invariably been at- tended with success. HEAT, signifies either the pe- culiar sensation we feel on the ap- proach of burning bodies, or the cause of that effect, which is Fire. Heat is now universally consi- dered as a modification of a fiuid; \ but, after the various inquiries of the most able chemists, much re- mains to be done towards ascer- taining all the phenomena of this subtle and invisible element. In this place, we shall only select a few principles in some degree il- lustrative of its nature and proper- ties : 1. Heat and cold mutually expel each other. 2. Heat is visi- bly occasioned by the concentration of the rays of the sun, and also of the electric fluid. As fire, there- fore, is evidently the cause of heat, it follows that both the light of the sun and the electric fluid are ele- mentary fire. 3. Heat expands bodies in every. direction : hence the elementary fluid, when pro- ducing heat, acts from a centre towards a circumference and, when it generates cold, moves in a contrary direction. 4. It is, therefore, impossible to calculate the precise quantity of heat which any substance contains. 5. Heat assists the progress of vegetation, but too intense a degree of it pro- duces effects totally different. 6. When latent heat is transferred to external bodies, vapours become condensed, and in some cases return to their original state : in others, they are productive of light, and a vehement degree of sensible heat, whence the different phenomena of Distillation,Evaporation, he. With respect to the purposes to which heat is applicable, such as the warming of apartments, Sec. we refer the reader to the arti- cles Fire-place, Grates, Hot- houses, 8cc. [Substances differ greatly in their power of conducting heat, and this quality directs our use of them in a variety of ways, in the arts and domestic ceconomy. The simplest mode of determining whether any substance is a good, or bad con- ductor of heat, says Mr. More, (Essay on Ice Houses) is by heating or burning one end of a small piece of some material, and holding the other end in the fingers, if it can be ignited or^burnt close to the fingers, without much sensation of heat, it is a slow conductor: if on the contrary, a sensation of heat is perceived when the ignition or burning is at some distance from the fingers; it is a good or quick conductor of heat. Metals differ very sensibly in their conducting power. By a va- riety of experiments, conducted by the celebrated Dr. Ingenhouz, by the direction of Dr. Franklin, it appears that the powers of the se- veral metals in conducting heat from the best to the worst, appear to be in the following order. Silver, Iron, Copper, Steel, Tin, Lead, Gold, Charcoal and wood are very slow conductors of heat: a quality which renders both of extensive utility for various purposes...See articles Kitchen, Eire-places.] HEATH, or Erica, L. a genus of plants comprising 100 species. five of which are natives of Britain. The principal of these is the vul- 272 H EC H E C garis, Common Heath or Ling. It grows on heaths and in woods ; flowers from June to August. In the island of Islay, in the west of Scotland, a wholesome ale is prepared, by brewing one part of malt, and two parts of the young tops of heath, to which hops are occasionally added. In England, the common heath is employed in making brooms and faggots, which last are used either as fuel in ovens, or for filling up drains before they are covered..... Horses, sheep, and goats, eat the tender shoots of heath. The stalks and tops are of considerable ser- vice in tanning leather, especially for soles ; and, if woollen cloth be boiled in alum-water, and after- wards in a strong decoction of the tops, it will acquire a fine orange colour....Bees are very partial to the flowers of this species ; but, where heath abounds, the honey acquires a reddish tint. HEATH, the Berry-bearing, Blacjc Crow-berries, or Crake berries, Empetrum nigrum, L. an indigenous-plant, growing on moist mountains and elevated heaths, in the driest and most barren lands, as well as in bogs and moorlands. It abounds in Derby shire, Staf- fordshire, and the northern coun- ties ; flowers in the months of April and May. Its black berries are eaten by the Highlanders; but, if taken in large quanties, they occasion violent head-achs : hence they are more proper for grouse. The plant is not relished by goats, and is totally refused by horses, cows, and sheep:....if boiled with alum, the berries impart a purplish dye. HECTIC FEVER, a species of slow fever, returning daily, with paroxysms at noon and in the evening: generally attended with profuse perspiration at night ; and the urine depositing a sediment like brick-dust. Causes : Persons of tender con- stitutions, and those who indulge in violent passions, especially grief are chiefly liable to the attacks of hectic fevers....Besides, luxurious living, abuse of wine, the drink- ing of impure water, the exces- sive use of perfumes, as -well as the suppression of natural dischar- ges, and an injudicious treatment of catarrhal, putrid, inflammatory and intermittent fevers, are among the numerous causes of this dis- order. Prognosis; Hectics arising in consequence of favourable suppu- ration of a wound, or ulcer are the least dangerous. But, where they are confirmed, it is in vain to attempt a radical cure, as medi- cine can only mitigate the symp- toms, and protract a lingering ex- istence. The changes of the sea- sons are particularly fatal to young. hectic patientswho if attackedinthe spring, generally languish till the succeeding autumn ; or, if they become subject to the disease dur- ing the summer solstice, they lin- ger out a wretched existence, till about the same period arrives in the following year. Method of treatment : As this fever arises from various causes, it must necessarily require differ- ent remedies. In general, howe- ver, the chief object to be attended to, is the mitigation of the symp- toms, by preventing both costive- ness and looseness ; by procuring sleep, and checking the night- sweats, i he use of Peruvian bark has been attended with considera- ble success ; for it tends to stop the progress of gangrenes, and the HED suppurations become more favour- able. Cauteries applied to the head ; antiscorbutics; together with gelatinous, or mealy substances, and the moderate use of generous wine, may be safely administered. In the beginning of the disease, soft, stewed eggs, and raw oys- ters eaten in small portions, have often proved very beneficial. Dr. Hulme recommends the inspira- tion of fixed air, in hectic fevers accompanied with pulmonary complaints. Much, however, de- pends upon the diet, air, and ex- ercise. The diet, indeed, ought to consist chiefly of milk and vege- tables. Haifa pint of either goats' or asses' milk, which last is less viscid than any other kind, should be drank three or four times in the course of a day, and continued for weeks, and even months. Some authors preferably recommend but- ter-mdk, which in their opinion is equal to that of asses ; observing that many persons have recovered by the free use of it; nevertheless, it should be sparingly taken at first, and gradually increased till it become almost the only suste- nance. Persons who have been accus- tomed to animal food and strong liquors, must effect this change by imperceptible degrees; and, by persisting in the course above men- tioned, they will in most cases re- cover, unless the fever have made such progress as to reduce the frame to a confirmed consumption. HEDGE, in agriculture, a fence inclosing a field, or garden, Sec. generally made by intertwining the branches of trees. Hedges are usually divided into two classes : 1. Outward fences, VOL. III. HED 273 planted either with hawthorn or black-thorn, of which we have al- ready treated under the article Fence ; and 2. Those intended for gardens, which are planted ac- cording to the fancy of the pos- sessor, with holly, yew, or other evergreens. In forming outside hedges, the plants ought to be as nearly as pos- sible of the same size. The sets should be one-third of an inch in diameter, freshly taken up, straight, smooth, and well rooted. The best season for planting them out, is late in the autumn ; and the young hedge ought particularly to be attended to during the first two years; because, if it be then ne- glected, no future care can recover it. The top-shoots must not be shortened, but the sides regularly pruned for some years, while the inclosure is young ;,for, only by adhering to this practice the hedge will attain a proper degree of close- ness and strength. The late Mr. Bakewell was remarkably curious in his fences : he used to plant one row at the dis- tance of a foot from set to set; and, after making the ditch, to lay the earth dug out of it, so as to form a bank on the side opposite the quii 1.. In other parts of England, the hank is made on the side of the quick above it. The advantage of Mr. B.'s method is, that the plants grow only in the surface-earth, not secluded from the atmosphere ; whereas, in the common practice, the best earth is generally loaded by a thick covering of mud taken from the ditch, and placed oblique- ly on the bank. There is, how- ever, a considerable waste* of land in the former method: for after N N 274 HED the whole was thus formed, he usu- ally added a double post and rail; one on the outside of such bank, and the other on the outside of the quick. Hedges designed for ornament in gardens, are sometimes planted with evergreens, among which the holly is preferable to any other; next in rank is the yew, but the dead colour of its leaves renders such hedges less agreeable. The laurel is another plant that may be employed as a fence for gardens ; as it is one of the most beautiful evergreens; but it shoots forth with such luxuriance, that it is very difficult to confine it to any shape : its leaves, too, are very large, and, if cut through with the 6heers, present a very disagreea- ble appearance : hence they ought to be pruned with a knife, and the shoots exactly cut down to each leaf. In the 3d vol. of the Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, Sec. Mr. Lea- thaji, of Barton, gives an account of his method of planting quick- set hedges on dry, gravelly, or thin soils. He considers the cau- ses which render such hedges very indifferent, to be....l. That they are set too low or flat on the sur- face, to allow the roots to strike deeply into the soil. 2. That, when planted higher, they are ge- nerally too near the slope of the bank, and thus cannot receive the benefit of the rain. To remedy these inconveniencies, two lines are maiked out, 12 feet apart ; the upper part of the soil is taken from three feet within each line, ' and thrown into the centre of the space, so as to form a flat bed, three feet in breadth, in the midst pf which the quicks are planted ; HED the remaining space of 18 inches on each side is filled up with the eanb., gravel, or sand taken out of the ditches on both sides, by which means the bed is extended to five feet, allowing six inches for the slope of the lark. Quicks, thus planted, will find sufficient nou- rishment in the soil, before the tap- root reaches the barren gravelly bottom ; and the earth thus plac- ed, will retain moisture enough to nourish the plants ; so that they will in a short time form an excel- lent fence, which, by elevating the bank on each side at pleasure, may be protected at a small ex- pence from the ill effects of sharp winds, or the air of the sea. Mr. Leatham observes, that the space, on such low-priced ground, is but small ; and, as a good, thriving fence is obtained, it amply compensates the expenses. A hedge, constructed according to the dimensions above stated, cost him fifteen-pence per rod of seven yard in length. In the 1st vol. of the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, we meet with a communication, in which elms are recommended for fences.... When elm-timber is felled in the spring, the chips made in trim- ming the trees are to be sown on a piece of newly-ploughed land, and harrowed in, as is practised with corn. Every chip, that has an eye or bud, will speedily shoot like the cuttings'of potatoes ; and, as such plants have no tap-roots, but strike their fibres horizontally in the richest part of the soil, they will be more vigorous, and may be more easily transplanted, than if they had been raised from seeds, or in any other manner. They possess this farther advantage, that HED five or six stems will generally rise from the same chip ; and, af- ter being cut down to within three inches of the ground, they will multiply their side-shoots in pro- portion, and form a thicker hedge, without running to naked wood,than bv any other method hitherto prac- tised : Lastly, if they be kept care- fully dipped for the first three or four years, they are said to be- come almost impenetrable. In the second volume of the same instructive work, we find another communication on the subject of hedges ; and the great advantages that might be derived from them, by planting cyder- fruit-trees. If a judicious mix- ture of such trees were set in hedges, the profit they afford would amply compensate the ex- penses incurred, without any loss of ground. And, as the best kinds of this fruit are so extremely sour at the proper season of gathering, that even hogs will scarcely touch them, depredations are not to be apprehended. [The growing scarcity of wood in the United States near the capi- tals, rendtrs an immediate atten- tion to the planting of hedges ab- solutely necessary ; and as the bu- siness is very little understood in the United States, particularly in Pennsylvania, the editor has abridged the excellent observations of Dr. Anderson on the subject, and earnestly recommends an at- tention to them by all American land holders. Dr. A. says, that a hedge of thorns thrives best in the face of a diich*. A single row is to be " It will be seen hcreafier that a ditch is oii.ne.e..ary in uie Uni.cd Sla'.es...Editor. HED 275 preferred, except on soils free from weeds. The richest and most fer- tile spot, must be set apart for a nursery, and in the choice of plants the youngest and most healthy, and that havetheir roots very much multiplied closely by the stem, are to be preferred. The plants must not be suffered to stand in the pla- ces where the seeds were original- ly sown, as the tap root will de- scend to a great depth, without sending out a sufficient number of lateral shoots near the surface, so that when it is afterwards taken up to be planted in the hedge-row, it has few or no roots that can be rai- sed with the plant, which tends in a powerful manner to check the ve- getation of the plant at the time. The plants must therefore be trans- planted when young, and the roots shortened with a knife, to increase their ramifications. Dr. A. Directs to sow the haws pretty thick, transplant the strong- est plants the first winter after sowing,and the remainder suffered to remain in the seed-bed one year longer ; when they must be trans- planted into rows at least four feet from each other, and kept clean ever afterwards by the hand-hoe. Dwarf-peas oronionsmay be plant- ed between the rows. In the succeeding winter the earth between the rows ought to be dug over with the spade, taking care to go very close to the rows, and to work with a sharp edged tool, the workman always forcing the spade straight down with the back of the spade toward, the thorns on each side of the row, as close to it as possible, so as to cut the greatest part of the lateral roots as near the bedy of the plants as possible, which will tend to 276 HED HED make them branch into still more numerous ramifications : this oper- ation should be repeated every winter, keeping at each digging, a little greater distance from the plants ; the upright shoots must not be trimmed while in the nur- sery. Pick plants of an equal size, and of an equal degree of healthiness ; or, sort them into several lots of different sizes, and plant each of these lots in a place by itself. The plants should be of the size of a man's little finger, or thumb. Plants reared in a rich nursery till they are of that size, and well dug, will advance with great vigour. The plants must be set out ear- ly in the winter, and never after February, and when planting, cut off the top of the quick entirely with a sharp tool, and prune the roots but little. Directions for the manner of planting. Turn up a little of the earth from the place where the ditch is to be made, and lay it upon the bank reversed, so as to form a bed for the plant above two inches thick a- bove the solid ground, upon this the thorns should be laid nearly in an horizontal position,but inclining a lit.l~ upward in the point, and having the ends of the stems just ecmal with the face of the bank, or projecting beyond it very little more than half an inch. By this means, every plant will send out nearly one or two shoots, which will be the more vigorous, as there are so few of them. Supernume- rary shoots must be trimmed close by the stem from which they spring, for it is the largeness of these original stamina of the hedge that will afterwards constitute its strength,, and not the number of small ramifications, as is too ge- nerally imagined. An easier way still, is to rub off the supernumer- ary buds as soon as they begin to shoot in the spring. The plants being thus regularly laid, should have their roots im- mediately covered with the best mould from the surface of the ditch, and the breast of the bank must be made up with the less fer- tile earth from the ditch. Attention to the Hedge. The first winter after planting, the hedge must be examined, and all stinted or dead plants removed, and their places supplied. For this purpose a stock of vigorous plants must be kept in the richest part of the nursery, and be well tended ; the top must be cut off at planting, and rich earth put over them. In the course of the growth of the hedge, the top must not be cut, but only the luxuriant side branches that spring out above, trimmed from time to time, so as not to be allowed to overshade those that may be below. The first clipping must be as near to the upright stem as possible^ for as these side branches must al- ways extend a little furtherat every cutting, if this caution is not ob- served, these lateral shanks will in time become naked ; and the in- terval would form a very disagree- able void. A hedge that has been stinted in its growth, from the poverty of the soil, or inattention to weeds, must be cut down in autumn or the be- ginning of winter to the height of an inch or two above the ground, kept free from weeds,andiraitiedas above. All the buds of the sprout- ing stump must be rubbed off, ex- cepting one or two of the strongest and best placed, which should be HED HED 277 left for a stem. An attention to this rule is of great consequence. When a hedge has been ne- glected and gaps are formed, they must be filled by plashing. To do this, stems are selected, to be left at proper distances, the tops of which are all cut over at the height of four feet from the root. Strag- gling side branches of the other pans of the hedge are also lopped away. Several of the remaining plants are then cut over close by the ground, at convenient distan- ces ; and the remaining plants are cut perhaps half through, so as to permit them to be bent to outside. They are then bent down almost to a horizontal position, and inter- woven with the upright stakes, so as to retain them in that position. The operator begins at one end of the field, and proceeds regularly forward, bending all the stems in one direction, so as that the points rise above the roots of the others, till the whole wattling is completed to the same height as the uprights, after which it assumes the appear- ance somewhat resembling that which is represented in the foliow- iivj- cut. *%** All the diagonal wattlings conti- nue to live, and send out shoots from many parts of their stems ; and as the upright shoots that rise from the stumps of those plants that have been cut ever, quickly rush up through the whole hedge, these serve to unite the whole into one entire mass that forms a strong, and durable fence. Dr. A. recommends to plant in the shade, the pyracanlha, ever- green thorn, between every second and third thorn, in order to render the hedge ornamental, also, the woodbine (honey suckle), hardy roses, and a few plants of the crab- tree. The willow, lombardy-poplar, and whinns or furze, and alder, are also recommended by Dr. A. to form hedges. Thus far Dr. A. Those who have it not in their power to procure live quicks, may soon obtain a stock, by ploughir-g up a cow-pen and sowing the haws therein ; or by putting them in a barrel or box of rich earth, and 278 H E D HED placing it under the eaves of a house until they sprout, or until upon examination it is found they are about to sprout ; when they should be transplanted into a nur- sery of rich ground, and tended as above directed. Mr. Montmollin of Philadel- phia, has made a fair experiment with respect to the comparative merits of the English white thorn and the American black thorn, at his farm on the Wissahickon road, where the editor had the pleasure to see both growing. He procur- ed his American quicks from New- Castle in the state of Delaware, near to which place thorns grow with great luxuriance. English thorns were planted round a part of the same field as the former, and the same care bestowed on both. The English thorn sheds its leaves two weeks before the Ame- rican thorn, and though the former was planted two years after the latter, yet at present (1803) the American thorn is more forward in growth by the above period than the English. Mr. M. planted at eight inches apart, but thinks 12 inches a better distance, as the hedge grows very rapidly if well tended, and soon fills up the space between each plant. Fie plants them in a slanting direction, each plant leaning towards its next neighbour, as shewn in the cut before given. Mr. M. also pursues the mode recommended by Dr. Anderson, in first setting out quicks in a nursery of rich land, and weeding them well; he however sets them out in the spring instead of the winter. He permits the plants to remain in the nursery, for two suc- cessive springs, and not only at the first planting, but in the two fol- lowing springs he trims the plants to three or four eyes. The difficulty attending the pro- curing of thorn plants, and the length of time the haws require to vegetate, will prevent the great bulk of American farmers of the present day from attempting to lay the foundation of a rich inheri- tance for their children by plant- ing hedges of that tree, they are therefore informed that a hedge equally useful, and less trouble- some than that of the thorn, may be formed of the honey locust of our country (Gleditzia Triacanthos) or of the white flowering locust, (Robinia pseud-acacia.) The seeds ought to be sown in a nursery and well weeded as directed in the case of the thorn, and when the plants are about a foot high, may be transplanted to the fence side. Mr. Montmollin has a fine hedge of the honey locust. It must be remarked, however, that the roots of both the above trees spread very rapidly, and render it necessary to run a plough every second year at the distance of two feet from the hedge, to divide the young roots, and thus stop their pro- gress.] HEDGE-HOC, the Common, or Hstrix erinaceous, L. is a quad- ruped, which is from nine to ten inches in length, the body is of an oblong form, entirely covered with sharp quills on its back, but with hair on the breast; the ears are broad, round, and short, and the eyes small and protuberant. The females of these animals, after a gestation of seven weeks, produce four or five young ones, of a whitish colour, with only the points of the bristles appearing above the skin. Hedge-hogs unnaturally devour HEL their offspring, and all attempts hi- therto made to domesticate them, have proved ineffectual. They fre- quent woods, live under the trunks of old trees, in the chinks of rocks, or under large stones. Being of a timid disposition, they proceed only at night in quest of food, which consists of fallen fruit, roots, leaves, insects, &c. It is however, not founded on truth, that they extract the milk from the udders of cows; as the peculiar smallness of their mouth renders the act of sucking impracticable. They may be ad- vantageously kept in gardens, where they will be of considerable service, by dovouring many noxi- ous insects, especially moles, mice, and snails, which last they eat with great avidity. The flesh of these creatures is eatable. HELLEBORE, or HUeborus, L. a genus of plants consisting of five species, two of which are na- tives of Britain : the principal of these is the fxlidus, Fetid Helle- bore, Bear's foot, Ox-heel, or Set- tcrwort. It grows in meadows, shady places, and hedges; pro- ducing green flowers, somewhat tinged with purple at the edges, which blow in the months of March and April. In a recent slate, this species has an extremely fetid smell, accom- panied with a bitter taste, which is so remarkably acrid, as to exco- riate the mouth and fauces. A decoction of it is, by country peo- ple, employed as a cathartic, for which purpose one or two drams are fully sufficient. The dried leaves of the fetid hellebore are sometimes given to children as a vermifuge ; but as their operation is so violent, that a large dose might easily prove fatal, this viru- lent plant ought to be employed HEM 279 only by farriers. Beside imme- diate vomiting, the most proper antidotes to every species of the hellebore, are mucilaginous drinks in very large quantities ; such as the decoctions of oatmeal, pearl- barley, linseeed, marsh-mallows, 8cc. or milk and water ; after tak- ing which, the poisonous matter will be most effectually counter- acted by diluted vinegar, juice of lemons, or other vegetable acids. HEMLOCK, or Conium, L. a genus of plants comprising five species; one of which is a native of Britain, namely, the macula- tum, Common Hemlock ; or Kex, a biennial plant, growing in hedges, orchards, rubbish, on cultivated ground and dunghills : it flowers in the months of June and July. Its stalks is more than a yard high, sometimes an inch thick, hollow, marked with many dark-red spots, and knotty ; its umbels consist of numerous small white flowers, and the fruit resembles aniseed, but has an unpleasant taste. The whole plant is poisonous ; though its leaves were formerly often em- ployed in schirrous tumours of the breast, and cancers; in which painful disorder, though it may not in every case effect a cure, it is a very useful medicine, when duly prepared and administered. As the Common Hemlock, how- ever, is one of the most deleterious vegetables of this ciimate, we ad- vise the readerto refrain from med- ling with this precarious medi- cine, and to intrust its preparation to professional hands. If inad- vertently taken,this species, aswcll as the two following kinds of the hemlock, require similar anti- dotes and treatmentwith the Helle- bore, of which we have treated in the preceding article. 280 II E M HEM Hemlock, the Lesser.......See Fool's Parsley. HEMLOCK, the Water, Phel- landrium, L. a genus of plants con- sisting of two species, one of which, the aquaticum, Water Hemlock,or Horse-bane, is a native of Britain. It grows in rivers, ditches, and pools : and flowers in the month of June and July. This species is eaten by horses, sheep, and goats, but swine do not relish it, and it is tot all v refused by cows. It is con- sidered as a fatal poison to horses, which on eating it become paraly- tic : this affection is occasioned by an insect called curculioparapleticti- cus, which is generally found with- in its stems ; the usual antidote is the dung of pigs, which ought to be given to the animal as early as possible. The leaves of the horse-bane are sometimes employed in discu- tient cataplasms ; its seeds are re- commended in intermittent fevers and pulmonary consumptions, but ought to be prescribed by the fa- culty. IIEMLOCK,theLoNG-LEAvED Wateu, or Water Cow-bane, Acuta virosa, L. is an indigenous perennial plant, growing on the sides of pools and rivers ; flower- ing in the month of August. It is like-vise one of the most virulent vegetable poisons; its root is large, hollow, and contains a very acrid milhv juice that soon changes to a saffron-colour, and has a nauseous taste, somewhat similar to that of parsnip : the stem attains a height of four feet. Early in the spring, when it grows in the water, it is frequently eaten by cows, which are inevitably killed by it; but, as the summer advances, its scent be- comes stronger, and they carefully avoid it. Yet, though it is thus fat J to cows, it is eaten with safety by horses, sheep, and goats, which last devour it with avidity. [Two species of Cicuta are na- tives of the United States, viz. C. bulhifera, with white flowers, and C. maculata with a purple spotted stem, and black flowers. They are highly poisonous. Hemlock Sprue': See Pinus.] HEMP, the Common, or Can- nabis sativa, L. a valuable plant, which grows wild in the East In- dies, and is cultivated to a very considerable extent in Britain, par- ticularly in the counties of Sussex and Suffolk. It thrives most fa- vourably on a sandy, moist loam, or on old meadows and low bot- toms near rivers, and is propagated from seed, which is sown in the proportion of eleven pecks, or two bushels per|acre,broad-cast; though a much smaller quantity will suf- .fice, if it be drilled. The proper time for sowing hemp, is from the middle to the end of April, or even a month later ; but the best crops are generally produced from the ealier seeds. This useful plant requires no weeding; the male, orfimble hemp, is usually fit for pulling in the middle of July, or about nine weeks after it is sown. The female, termed harle, or seed-hemp, is sel- dom ripe till September, when it is pulled, tied into bundles, and set to dt y : at the end of ten days they are loosened, and the heads or tops are held upon a hurdle by one per- son, while another, with a small threshing flail, beats out the seed. The hemp is then prepared for the manufacturer, either bv glass- ing, that is, lying on stubble or pasture ground, in order to be HEM gradually dew-ripened, or, by wa- ter-rotting, for which process clay- pits are preferred to running-water. In these, the hemp is immersed in bundles, laid both directly, and across, thus, for four or five days, according to the fineness of the weather. The next operation is that of reeding, namely, the separation of the bark from the reed, or woody part, which is effected either by pulling out the reed with the hand, or by drying, and breaking it by machi- nery, like flax. The hemp is then cleared of its mucilaginous matter, by pouring water through it, and squeezing out the liquid after every affusion, till it be completely di- vested of those particles. The next operation is that of •breaking it, which, in the county of Suffolk, is performed with the aid of certain machinery worked by the hand; when the hemp is beaten in mills; combed or dressed by drawing it through heckles, si- milar to the <:ombs of wool-manu- facturers ; and spun into thread, whence it is made into twine, cordage, cloth, netting, &c. Beside the strong cloth, and other articles made from it, hemp is of considerable utility for other purposes. The refuse, called hemp- sheaves, affords an excellent fuel ; and the seeds yield by expression a pure oil, which is peculiarly adapted for burning in chambers, as it is perfectly limpid, and pos- sesses no smell. Another valuable VOL. III. HEM 281 property of hemp is, that it effect- tually expels vermin from planta- tions of cabbages ; for, if it be sown on the borders of fields, Sec. plant- ed with that v—-able, no cater- pillars will infest it. When fresh,Jiemp has a strong, narcotic smell : the water in which it has been soaked, is said to be is a high degree poisonous, and to produce fatal effects, immediate! v after drinking it. The seeds have an unctuous, sweetish taste ; they may be triturated with water, or boiled in milk as an emulsion, which is occasionally taken as a domestic remedy in coughs, heat of urine, and similar complaints. There is another species of hemp, called Chinese Flcmfl (Crotolaria junceaj, which was introduced into England, from India, in the year 1783, when Various experiments were made with little success; though they fully proved that the plant will perfectly succeed in this climate. The most remarkable of the statements which have been published, is that communicated by the Rev. Dr. Hinton, of North- wald, near Brandon, Suffolk ; on whom the " Society Jbr the Encou- ragement of Arts," Sec. in 1783, conferred the silver medal. This gentleman received some seeds from the Secretary of the Society, in 17.TG, which were sown on the 17th day of May, and the plants appeared en the 16th day of June. They were few, and sickly ; and, notwithstanding several favourable showers, they continued to lan- guish so much, that the experi- ment was entirely abandoned, and buck-wheat was harrowed into the ground for a fallow-crop. In the beginning of October, however, the persons employed in cutting the buck-wheat, discovered some O o 282 HEM seed in the heads of a few strag- gling hemp plants, which had been suffered to grow among the crop , and which, after being carefully threshed, produced three pints of tolerably good seeds. On the 10th of "vie;'-. 1787, they were sown on a smdi piece of good soil : in the course or" 9 d.«.ys the young plants came :ip,anel weresulierc-c to grow till August, when they were pulled. The produce of pure hemp weigh- ed at the rate of 95 stone 7 pounds and 12 ounces per acre, beside tin _i. busnels, two pecks, and half a pint of seeds that were saved ; which is upwards of one-third more than the best crops of Eng- lish h .mp have ever been known to yirid. In tne Ea-tem climates, hemp- leaves are used l'ke opium, and possess similar intoxicating pro- per,its. The Russians and Poles; even of the higher classes, bruise or roast the seeds, mix them with salt, and eat them on bread..... Birds, kept in cages, are likewise fond of this oily seed; but.they should not be indulged in its con- stant use, which is apt to render them prematurely old, blind, and at 1 en; tii consumptive. Hemp being an article of exten- sive utility, variousvegetabL-s have been discovered, which m;y serve as substitutes. Among these are the CanadaGolden-roi! .or Solidago Cunad-nsis, a perennial plant, that might be easily cultivated in Bri- tain : its s-a'.ks are numerous, straight, and grow above five feet in height; they afford very strong- fibres, if treated in the same man- ner as hemp. The sun-hew<_r, or. HAiuut/.us, L. also affords single fihr.nems or fibres, which are said to be as thick, and in all respects HEN as strong, as small pack-thread.... See also Nettle. HEN, the female of the Cock, (Phasianus Gallus), an useful do- mestic bird which lays eggs, and produces one, and sometimes two broods of chickens in one year. If well fed, and allowed to roam in a farm-yard, a good hen will deposit, in the course of twelve months, above 200 eggs. She pre- pares her nest without any care, eitheramong bushes,or by scratch- ing a hole in the ground ; the time of hatching is preceded by a cluck- ing noise, and the animal's discon- tinuing to lay eggs. Ten or twelve chickens being the greatest num- ber that a good hen can rear and clutch at a time, various methods have been devised for obtaining young broods by artificial means, of which we have already treated under the article Hatching. Capons may easily be taught to clutch a flesh brood of chickens; Fh st, the fowl is made so tame, as to feed from the hand; on the ap- proach of the evening, the feathers are plucked off his breast ; the bare skin is rubbed with nettles ; and the chickens are then placed beneath him. This expedient is repeated two or three nights in suc- cession, till the animal conceives an afiection for the young birds thus committed to his change: w hen one brood is grown up, ano- ther nearly hatched may be placed under him, in the manner above directed ; and he will treat them with the same tenderness as the real parent. IIEN-BANE,or Hyoscyamus, L. a genus of plants comprising nine species, one of which is a native of Britain, namely, the niger, or Com- mon Hen-bane. It abounds in vil- HEN lages, road-sides, and among rub- bish ; and flowers in the month of July. Neither horses, cows swine, nor sheep, will touch this plant, though the animals last mentioned are supposed to ea'. it when young: it is not relished by Loals. The seeds, leaves, and roots of the common hen-bane, taken in- ternally, are reputed to be ,;oison- ous; and numerous instances have been recorded ol den virulent ef- fects. The general consequences of eating them are, convulsions, madness, and death ; ttough Dr. Smith states that he has eaten the seeds with impunity. The leaves, if scattered about a house, are srid to drive away mice and rats: when bruised, they emit an odour re- sembling that of tobacco, and are so powerfully narcotic, that their exhalation occasions the head-ach and giddiness. The whole plant is fatal to poultry ; it intoxicates hogs ; but cows, horses, dogs, and goats, are able to bear a tolerable portion before they are aiEeted. In superstitious ages, the famous sorci rer's ointment was prepared from the leaves of the hen-bane, which produced a kind of delirious trance, or furious inspiration, on those who were anointed with this poisonous salve. Malignant per- sons, even in modern limes, appear to be well acquainted w ith the pro- perties and eflects of the hen-bane : and the iniquities lately practised in a village near Newport, Salop, wkh a preparation of this power- ful plant, almost exceed belief; especially as they were directed by one branch of a numerous family ae.ainst another, not even except- ing inh.nts. When suspicions arose against those unseteanls who were guilty of secretly mixing this bane- ful vegetable with ale and beer, HEN 283 they had the inhuman audacity to introduce the poison between the soles of the slioe-^; and after tnesj were secured, between the seams of shirts that were suspended on the hedge. We have mentioned these flagrant instances of depravi- ty, in order to caution the credu- lous reader, and to shew that the extraordinary effects oflhis poison- ous application arise from natural causes, and ought net to be ascrib- ed to witehcray, as wa-; unfortu- nately the case in Shropshire, till the whole mystery was satisfacto- rily explained. The writer or this article, having contributed to de- tect the delusion, thinks it his duty to warn the public against certain grave and whimsical matrons, ai well as old men lurk..;g about,. country places, who, under the pre- tence of fortune-telling, and amus- ing the harmless listeners with spell craft, ci.nnincrly enter inco the secret hritoryo. difleront families, avail themselves of tlie most pow- erful herbs.-and thus become sub- servient to the most nefarious pur- poses. Notwithstanding these virulent properties, the hen-bane has lately been employed v. i'h cor.siderabls success in the most obstinate dis- eases, such as epilepsy, internal spasms, madness and melancholy; though Ave trust that no circumspect person will ever resort to its use, withoutconsulting amedical iriend. If, however, any small portion of the leaves should have been acci- dentaly swallowed, brisk emetics, ought to be instantly taken ; and after discharging the contents of the stomach, it will be necessary to administer emollient and oily- clysters, to repeat them as often as they are ejected, and to drink as large portions of vinegar or juice 284 H E N HER of lemons diluted with water, as the stomach is able to support. In recent cases, where the poi- sonous ointment of hen-bane has been absorbed by the skin, mild sudorifics, joined with mercurial frictions, will then be very proper; in order to excite a slight salivation, and expel the \iie.s; but, if some time after the accident has elapsed, and the patient become delirious, paralytic, consumptive, or blind, recmrse must be had to proies- sional advice. HrN-r.iT. See Fetid Hore- Kovso. HEN-'ARP.IER, Dove-co- lcuredlFalcon, or Blue Hawk, Fa!c-i Cyaneiu, L. a native bird, found chiefly 'm the northern parts cf Britain. It is about 18 inches in length ; the female breeds an- nual! >• on the Cheviot Hills, and other precipices in that neighbour- hood ; and makes her nest on the grovnd, where she deposits four egg::. The hen-harrier flies low, skim- ming along the surface of the earth in search of its prey, con- sisting of li-:ai\lsr reptiles, and birds, especially poultry ; among which it commits great depreda- ticn;. HEN-MOULD-SOIL, in agri- culture, a term used In some parts of England to denote the black, mouldering, hollow, spongy earth, which is usually found at the bot- toms of hills. It is better calcu- lated for grazing, than for the cul- ture of grain ; because it docs not adhere sufficiently close to the corn to keep the stalks firm, while grow- ing ; or, if it appear to thrive, the growth is generally coarse, and yields abundance of straw, but lit- tle in the ear. This soil possesses too much moisture, arising from a bed of stiff clav. which prevents the discharge of t'^e water into the lower stiata, sc that the crop be- comes uncommonly rate . In otlv r p. rts cf Britan, the appiriiayon of iun-nvnld n i-iven to a blac' . compact earth, rtreak- c.l with white memo. This soil is vc cy rich and lerliie, producing the finest wneat. HLNTi'NGS, a term used by farmers to e-i'.iress a particular me- thod of sowing grain before the plough, so that the seed is cact in a straight line, which *'.s fo''oved by the plough, and thi s complete- ly covered. This method of sow- ing is supposed to save a consider- able quantity of grain, as well as to lessen expense; because a dex- terous lad is fully competent thus to scatter the seed with the same regularity as the most skilful hus- bandman. Hepar Sulphuris. See Liver of Sulphur. HEPATIC ALOE, the inspis- sated juice of the common aloe, a native of Barbadoes, and other West India islands. Its smell is much stronger, and more disagree- able, than the Socotrine aloes; the taste is uncommonly bitter and nauseous. The best hepatic aloe comes from the island of Barba- does, in large gourd-shells; an in- ferior sort, which is in general soft and clammy, is imported in casks. For an account of its medicinal properties. See Aloe. Hep-tree. See Dog-rose. HERB, a name given to all plants, the stalks or stems of which perish every year, after their seeds have attained to maturity. Herbs are usually divided into two classes: 1. Those, the roots of which decay together with the stem ; and 2. Those, whose roots HER vegetate in the ground for several years. The former class is subdivided into 1. Annuals, or those plants which arrive at maturity the first year, and entirely perish, imme- diately after they have shed their seeds ; such are wheat, rye, bar- ley, 8cc. 2. Biennials ; and 3. Tri- ennials ; namely, such as yield fruits and flowers the second or third year, and then decay: of this nature is the Garden Angelica,and some other plants. Those herbs which do not decay after they have shed their seeds, belong to the latter class, and are called perennials ; some of them lose their verdure, and continue bare during part of the year, such as colt's-foot, &c. while others re- tain their leaves the whole year, whence they are called evergreens; such are the holly, fir, &c. Herbaceous Plants are such as are furnished with succulent stems or stalks,creepingalong the ground every year. They are divided into similar classes with herbs,andthose which meritmore particular notice, are treated of in their alphabetical aeries. HERBAL (Herbarium,) gene- rally speaking, signifies a book, containing a methodical arrange- ment of the classes, genera, spe- cies, and varieties of plants, toge- ther with an account of their pro- perties. It is also applied to a hor- tus siccus, or dry garden ; an ap- pellation given to a collection of specimens of plants carefully dried and preserved. Among the different methods adopted by botanists, for obtaining a hortus siccus, the following ap- pear to be the most practica- ble : I. Lay the plants flat between HER 285 papers ; then place them between two smooth plates of iron screwed together at the corners : in this state they are to be commited to a baker's oven for two hours. Af- ter being taken out, they must be rubbed over with a mixture con- sisting of equal parts of brandy and aquafortis, then pasted down on paper with a solution of gum- tragacanth in water, after which they are to be laid in a book, where they will adhere, and retain their original freshness...Although this process was suggested by Sir R. Southwell, in the 237th Num- ber of the Philos. Trans, of the Roy. Soc. yet the following me- thod is more simple: 2. Flatten'the plant, by passing a common smoothing iron over the papers between which it is placed; and dry it slowly in a sand-heat. For this purpose, the cold santf ought to be spread evenly, the smoothened plant laid gently on it, and sand sifted over so as to form a thick bed; the fire is then to be kindled, and the whole process carefully watched, till the plant is gradually and perfectly dried.... Thus, the colour of the tenderest herb may be preserved, and the most delicate flowers retain all their pristine beauty. 3. Another, and far more com- plete method, was suggested by the ingenious M. Whately; and bears a slight resemblance to that last specified. He directs those who intend to follow his plan, pre- viously to procure....!. A strong oak-box of the same size and shape as those employed for pack- ing up tin plates : 2. A quantity of fine sifted sancl, sufficient to fill the box : 3. A considerable number of pieces of pliant paper, from one to four inches square ; and, 4. Some 286 HER small flat leaden weights, and a few small, bound books. He then directs the specimen of the plant intended for the herbal to be gathered, when dry and in full bloom, with all its parts as perfect as possible, and conveyed home in a tin box, well secluded from the air. The plant is first to be cleared from the soil as well as the decayed leaves, and then laid on the inside of one of the leaves of a sheet of common cap-paper. The upper leaves and flowers are next to be covered, when expanded, by pieces of the prepared paper, and one or two of the leaden weights placed on them. The remainder of the plant is now to be treated in a si- milar manner. The weights ought next to be gently removed, and the other leaf of the sheet of paper folded over the opposite one, so as to contain the loose pieces of paper and plants between them. A book or two is now to be applied to the outside of the paper, till the intended number of plan, s is thus prepared ; when a box is to be filled with sand to the depth of an inch, one of the plants put in, and covered with sand suf- ficient to prevent the form of the plant from varying. The other plants may then be placed in suc- cession, and likewise covered with a layer of sand, one inch thick be- tween each ; after which the whole is to be gently pressed down in a greater or less degree, according to the tenderness or firmness of the plants. The box is next to be carefully placed before a fire, one side being occasionally a little raised, as may be most convenient; the sides be- ing alternately presented to the fire, two or three times in the day; or, the whole may be put into an HER oven gently heated. In the course of two or three days, the plants will be perfectly dry, when the sand ought to be taken out, and put into another box : the plants sho-Jd likewise be removed to a sheet of writing paper. This method of preserving plants, Mr. WdATtLY states to be prefer- able to every other, as both the fio" ers and leaves, if kept loosely within the piper, in a dry room, without beisg exposed to the air, will retain tneir Ijeuuty for several yearo. P will, however, be ne- cessary to inspect t.u m once in the course of ^ year, for the purpose of destroying any small insects, that may accidentally breed among the plants. Hehb-Bennet. See Common AVENS. Heru - Christopher. See Christopher, the Herb Herb-Gerard. See Gout- weeo. HERB-PARIS, or True-Love, One-berry, or Four-l,eaved Trce-lovk, Paris quadrifdia, L. an indigenous plant, growing in woods and shady places, and flowering in the month of May or June. The dark, bro_wn berries of this plant, possess a narcotic smell, and are fatal to poultry. ' If inad- vertently eaten by children or adults, they occasion vomiting and spasms in the stomach. The ex- pressed juice of the berries, how- ever, is said to be useful in iniiam- mations of the eyes ; and both foe leaves and berries possess similar properties wi'n opium. Accord- ing to LinnjEus, the root of the Herb-Paris may be employed as a substitute for lpecacuai.n.i ; for it excites vomiting, if given in a dou- ble proportion.,.Bohmer remarks, HER that the dried leaves impart a fine yellow colour to yarn or linen-cloth, which has been prepared in alum- water. HERB-ROBERT, or Fetid Crane's-bill, Geranium Robertia- num, L. an indigenous annual plant, growing on walls, hedges, rubbish, and stony places; flower- ing from May to October. This herb is in great repute among many farmers, for its efficacy against the staling of blood, and the bloody flux in cattle; in which cases it is said to be preferable to most of the remedies used on such occasions. In Germany, the Herb-Robert is employed in the process of tan- ning; and Dambourney obtained from this, as well as all the other species of Geranium, a more or less durable yellow dye. Hekb-Two-pence. See Creep- ing Loosk-striee. HERON, the Common, or Ardea major, L. a predatory bird, which has a small lean body, but is provided with long legs, and a sharp-pointed bill. The male heron is a very ele- gant bird; its forehead, crown, and upper part of the neck, are white ; the head is adorned with a pendent crest of long black fea- thers ; beneath the covers of the wings it also has a fine black plum-' age. The female, however, is not so handsome ; she builds her nest either in trees, or in high cliffs over the sea, and forms it of sticks lined with wool: in the month of February, she deposits five or six large eggs of a pale green co- lour. Herons were formerly much esteemed as a delicacy at the table, but their flesh has a strong taste of fish. They attain an age some- HER 287 times exceeding sixty years, and are very great devourers of fish, so that they occasion more mischief in a pond than otters. One heron will swallow fifty dace or roaches of a moderate size in a day; and it has been known to devour a thousand store-carp in a year. When it is ascertained that one of these rapacious birds visits a fish-pond, he might be taken in a manner similar to that practised in catching pike. For this purpose, three or four small roach, or daee, are to be procured, and each should be fastened on a wire, with a strong hook at the end ; the latter must be connected with the wire just below the gills, and passed imme- diately unuer the uppermost skin to the tail. Thus, the fish will be preserved alive for several days; a precaution which is essentially ne- cessary ; because, if dead, the he- ron will not attempt to bite. Next, a strong line about two yards long is to be prepared of silk and wire twisted together, one end of which should be fastened to the wire con- nected with the hook, and the other to a stone of about a pound weight: .....three or four of such baits be- ing placed in different shallow parts of the pond, it is very pro- bable that the mischievous bird will be speedily taken by this stra- tagem. HERRING, or Clupea harengas, L. a well-known fish, generally about seven or eight inches long, though it sometimes grows to the length of a foot: it has four gills, the fibres of which are remarkably long, and open very wide, so that this fish almost instantly dies, when taken out of water. Herrings are found in great abundance, from the highest north- ern latitudes, down to the northern 288 HER HER coast of France. They are also met with in the Yarmouth seas from the end of August till the middle of October ; and are in full roe about the latter end of June, whence they continue in perfection till the beginning of winter, at which season they deposit their spawn. Among the various methods employed for salting or curing herrings, and sprats, we shall briefly notice one invented by Mr. Benjamin Batley, of Strettham, Surrey, merchant; for which he obtained a patent in September, 1800. After severing the head, and taking out the entrails of the fish, he salts the body with bay, rock, or common salt (if not suf- ficiently salted as sea sticks J, pre- ferring, however, the bay or rock salt to the common, which is apt to absorb the pickle, and occasion the fish to rust. The patentee then prepares a pickle, consisting of one pound of bay salt, four ounces of salt-petre, from two to four pounds of molasses, and a gallon of spring- water ; which is boiled till the other ingredients are dissolved. The herrings are then packed as usual in a cask; between every layer of them he sprinkles a small portion of salt, and also of pickle, to cover the fish; but leaves three inches of the head of the cask un- stovved, in order to fill up that space with the pickle. When headed up, a cork-hole may be bored either in the head or centre of the cask, by means of which more pickle may, when necessary, be introduced, for the preservation of the fish. With respect to the mode of curing sprats, the process differs in some particulars ; and those who wish to acquire more minute information on this subject, we refer to the 14th volume of the Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures. [The immense wealth wh-ch the Dutch derive from the herring fishery, is well known to every ner- son who has paid attention to the subject of the wealth of nations, or is acquainted with the history of the above mentioned people. This fishery has been emphatically styl- ed the Dutch Gold Aline, and such indeed it has proved to them. The coasts of the United States are annually visited by herrings, and though not of the same qua- lity as those caught by the Dutch, yet there can be no doubt of the possibility of improving their na- tural good qualities, by the same attention which is paid by the Dutch. That it is to the mode of curing, more than to the original flavour of the fish, the peculiar ex- cellence of the Dutch herrings is, owing, is prorod by this fact, viz. that the English do not prepare herrings of equal quality with the Dutch, though the fish are caught on the same coast:.....viz. on that of Scotland. A conviction of the importance of this trade to the United States, has induced the Editor to take pains to investigate the subject, and to abridge the scarce and va- luable pamphlet published by the patriotic Earl of Dundonald, who has detailed the Dutch regulations, and their mode of procedure : and the Editor will have great pleasure in thinking, that he has rendered an essential service to his country by so doing. " The Dutch oblige the fisher- men, by law, to separate the her- rings caught in one night from , HER those caught in another, and to take them off Fair Hall, or Scotch Coast, after St. John's day (June 24). No herrings are allowed to be shipped after the 15th of July. The herrings first taken are not to be sold, unless they have been ten daysin pickle. The curing of the herrings must be completed three weeks after they arrive, and be re-packed more than once, accord- ing to the nature of the herring. No herrings are suffered to be re- packed or heightened with fresh pickle but in the public streets, or customary places, with open doors. The different sorts and sizes of herrings, must be kept separate, and the large barrel herrings to be salted in no less proportion than four barrels of salt to every last (12 'barrels); the herrings to be pro- perly gutted, and laid cross-wise in the barrel. They prohibit all salt being used except that from Portu- gal or Spain. The gills, liver,and stomach, are the only parts that are torn away. The long gut, to which a fat membrane adheres, is drawn a little out of the body of the fish, and is left pendent. As soon as ■gutted, the fish should be salted with the above quantity of Spanish, Portugal, or best purified salt, and laid close in the barrel, in a direc- tion contrary to the one immediately below. When the barrel is full, it is to be coopered up, and stowed in the hold. The barrels should be tight. Fourteen days is suffici- ent for the fish to pine in the first salt or pickle, provided the salt be small; but when great salt is used, it may require three weeks or a month. The Curing of herrings, is a distinct process from that of salt- ing, and is necessary to prevent vol. m. HER 289 the tendency which the bloody liquor or brine has to putrify, and consequently to spoil the fish. Curing...Aftertheherringshave been salted as directed, and have re- mained a sufficient time in salt to pine, or throw their liquor, empty the barrels containing the herrings upon a large dresser, with a ledge or moulding round it, and inclined one way, to allow the brine to run into a hogshead or vessel placed to receive it: put the brine into a large hammered iron pan or cast metal boiler, let it boil, skim it, draw off the liquor, and when skim- med into a wooden vessel, let it cool. Take the milts of thirty her- rings for every barrel proposed to be cured ; bruise them in a mortar, add of the liquor as you proceed, and when sufficiently disolved, and in the state of a rich emulsion or saponaceous liquor, mix it whh the boiling liquor in the wooden ves- sel ; then lay the herrings in the barrel; with a layer of salt betwixt each row, in the same manner as directed in the salting of them : cooper up the barrels, and fill them with the prepared liquor at the bung hole, or at the hole in the end of the barrel. The causes to which the supe- riority of the Dutch herrings are attributed by the Rev. Herbert Marsh, are as follow....See Dub- lin Soc. Trans, vol. 1. part 2d. 1. The attention to the proper quantity of salt so as neither to render the fish too salt, nor to en- danger their spoiling, from using too small a quantity. 2. To the quality of the salt employed. 3. To the sorting of herrings before they are salted the second Pp 290 H I C HIC time, by the fish wardens after they are brought into port. 4. To the mode of treating them when first taken. They are never exposed uncovered to the open air: but when drawn out they are thrown into pickle and then gut- ted, salted and packed, and if any remain when they shoot the nets again, they cast that remnant over- board as unfit for use : hence arises that uniform equality observed in the Dutch herrings. Mr. Marsh computes, from al- lowable data, that one bund red and thirty thousand barrels.of herrings, are consumed every year in Ger- many ; to this must be added the immense quantity consumed in the Dutch provinces, and the portion exported, and thence an idea may be formed of the great value of the trade. To purify salt, see that ar- ticle.] Hessian Fly :....See Fly, the Com* [and Wheat.] HICCOUGH, or Hiccup (Sin- galtus), a sudden convulsive mo- tion of the stomach, occasioned by various causes, such as a fit of laughing, thirst, cold drinks, sup- pression of diarrhcea, antipathy, kc. It can by no means be consi- dered as a disease,though a few in- stances have occurred, in which it has continued for three or four years ; and one in which it became habitual, and could not be removed. Persons who eat large meals, and load the stomach by drinking profusely after them, or those lia- ble to flatulency, are chiefly sub- ject to this affection. The common hiccough seldom requires any medicine to remove it, as it generally disappears after drinking a few small draughts of water in quick succession ; but, when it becomes very troublesome, a table spoonful of vinegar may be swallowed. In several very obsti- nate cases, simple peppermiut-wa- ter acidulated with a few drops of vitriolic acid, has procured imme- diate relief. Vomiting ; sneezing; the application of cupping glasses, or aromatics to the pit of the sto- mach ; the stench of an extin- guished tallow-candle, and many other remedies, have occasionally been resorted to with success. We are informed by a correspondent, that a firm ligature on the artery at the wrist, will afford relief, if it be continued for about one minute ; but, if the first attempt should not prove successful, he re- commends it to be repeated; when such convulsive efforts will, in ge- neral, be suppressed. In children, or nervous adults, sudden joy or fright, or the promise of an ac- ceptable present, is often equally efficacious. [HICKORY, a well known na- tive forest tree of the U. S. of the genus Juglans, L. Marshall in his ^Arbustrum Americanum" enu- merates the following varieties of this species. " 1. Juglans alba acuminata, long sharp fruited hickory tree. The kernel of the nut is small and not sweet. 2. /. alba minima, white, or pignut hickory. The fruit of which js small and round, and covered with a very thin husk, or covering, opening in divisions. The shell of the nut is also thin, and the ker- nel plump, but very bitter. The timber of this is not much esteemed. The late Dr. John Pennington recommends the pignut as an as- tringent. 3. J. alba odorata....The nuts are small, round, and the kernel sweet, The timber is hard and HID tough, and used for axle~trees for carriages, mill cogs and rounds, and also for handles, &e. for most implements of husbandly. 4. J. alba ovata. Shell barked hickory. This tree delights in a moist rich soil. The fruit is round- ish, but rather flatted, and indent- ed at the ends. The shell is thin, and contains a highly pleasant ker- nel, preferable to the other kinds. There are several varieties of this in America, some with nuts as largs as our common walnut"..... These should be carefully pre- served, as they yield, together with the hickory nut, a very fine oil, w hich has been expressed from the bruised nuts, and found su- perior to the olive oil for table use.] HIDE, generally speaking, sig- nifies the skin of beasts, but is particularly applied to those of large cattle, such as bullocks, cows, horses, Sec. Hides are either raw or green, that is, in the same state as when they were taken off the carcase ; salted or seasoned, in which case they are dressed with salt, alum and salt-petre, to prevent them from putrifying ; or they are cur- ried or tanned ; for an account of which process, the reader will con- sult the articles Currying and Tanning. In August 1783, a patent was granted to Mr. Geo. Choumert, of Five-foot-lane; Bermondsey- street, Surrey, tanner, for his in- vention of a machine for cutting, splitting, and dividing hides and skins, both in the pelt, and after being dressed into leather, for se- parating the grain from the flesh- side. As, however, this patent, though expired, cannnot be un- HID 291 derstood without a plate, and is, besides, not immediately connect- ed with domestic economy, we re- fer the inquisitive reader to the 4th vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures. Another patent was granted in May 1801, to Mr. Tho. Eag- nall, of Worsely, Lancashire, for a mill or machine for beaming or working green hides and skins out of the mastering or drench, and preparing them for the ouse or back liquor, and also for chop- ping, grinding, riddling and pound- ing bark, and for other purposes. This machine may be worked by wind, water, steam, or any other power ; but for the reasons before stated, we again refer the curious reader to the 15th vol. of the work above cited. HIDE-BOUND, in farriery, a disorder to which horses, or other cattle are subject. It is known by the rigidity of the skin which apparently adheres to the animal's ribs, without the least partial se- paration. The horse is generally languid, dull, heavy, and weak ; his excrements are dark, foul, and offensive; he falls into profuse sweats on every little exertion; and his whole appearance indicates great weakness. Want of proper care, and bad food, such as rank long grass in swampy situations, and musty hay or oats, are the most probable causes of this affection. Few di- rections, therefore, will suffice, as the case is rather a temporary in- convenience than a disease. The animal should first lose a little blood, in order to induce a slig:it change in the circulation, which should be increased by giving him, t,hree or four hours after blood-let- 292 H O A ting, a mash of equal parts of malt, oats, and bran. This mix- ture ought to be repeated every night for two weeks, during which period two ounces of sulphur are to be stirred in, every second night: the animal's regular diet ought to consist of equal parts of oats and bran, with a pint of old beans in each, to prevent the mashes from relaxing his body. Besides, it will be required to give him regular dressing, air, exercise, sound oats, sweet hay, and plenty of good soft water; by means of which he will speedily recover. Hide-bound, is likewise an ap- pellation given by husbandmen to those trees, the bark of which ad- heres too closely to the wood, and obstructs their growth. The most simple remedy that suggests itself on the occasion, is, to cleanse the bark properly with a brush, [dipped in soap] and make slight incisions, longitudinally, round the whole stem ; yet this operation will be most advantageously performed in the vernal months, or early in the summer. [See Apples.] [HIVES, See Croup.] HOARSENESS, a dimunition of the voice, generally attended with an unnatural asperity and harshness. It arises, mostly, from defects in the larynx and wind- pipe ; from an ulcerated or ossified state of those parts ; or from the acrimony of the bile : and it is not unfrequently a concomitant of ca- tarrhous coughs, and scorbutic af- fections. Lubricating medicines ought first to be administered, in order to ob- tund the acrimony of the humours, and to relax the strictness of the glandular parts. For this purpose, mucilaginous broths; decoctions or infusions of emollient vegetables. HOE such as the dwarf, common, and marsh-mallows; and the syrups of hedge-mustard or horse-radish,\vilI be found eminently serviceable. If hoarsenessbethe consequence of a Cough (which see,) the re- moval of that complaint will re- store the voice to its natural tone. In every instance, however, the bowels ought to be kept regular ; and, if scorbutic affections be the cause of hoarseness, it will again depend on the removal of the dis- ease, which pervades the whole system. Where this complaint is inveterate, tonics, attenuants, and expectorants, have frequently been found of service. In many recent cases, however, the most speedy relief will be ob- tained by bathing the feet in warm water for about half an hour, pre- viously to retiring to rest; when by a few days temperance in diet, and by carefully avoiding to take cold, this troublesome affection will gradually diappear. HOE, or How, a well known implement of husbandry, designed for eradicating weeds from gardens, fields, &c. This tool is of great utility, and ought to be more fre- quently employed in stirring the unoccupied corners and spots of land, during the more vacant sea- sons of the year, by which opera- tion the soil will be considerably improved. To facilitate this important ob- ject, we shall present to our readers several hand-hoes,much superior to those in common use, and which, from their simplicity, deserve to be more generally known. The first is the Portuguese Hoe, lately described and recommended by the patriotic Lord Somerville, and of which the follow ing is a re- presentation : HOE HOE 293 The handle of this implement is from three feet to three feet four inches in length ; and, as it is both light and short, it is peculiarly cal- culated for strong lands and moun- tainous situations: because the hoe, by its weight and pointed form, cuts deeply into the earth, without requiring much exertion. The second is the Horseshoe Hoe, invented by Mr. MarkDuck- et, of Esher Surry : This hoe is furnished with aring or loop, as above represented, near the bottom of the handle, for hold- ing a strap, which is fastened round the waist of the persons at work, as they walk backwards. It is eminently useful for cleaning crops of every description, whether drill- ed or hand-set in rows. Mr. Duck- et has judiciously availed himself of a short handle, and heavy iron work, the exact reverse of the com- mon hoe, which requires great ex- ertion to make any impression on the soil (excepting on the lightest sands,) especially if it has become dry and hard. It is evident from the preceding cut, that Mr. Ducket's hoes bp their convex form, earth up as well as down; though the same imple- ment may also be made with, straight edges ; namely, for drilled or dibbled crops at six inches in- terval ; for clearing pease, beans, Sec. at 18 inches distance ; and for dressing crops of any description, at 12 inches interval. Should these hoes, however, from their straight edge, be unequal to cope with it iff 294 HOE HOE land, Lord Somerville suggests the expediency of adopting the conical edge (or the edge opposite to that in the horse-shoe hoe) which will remarkably increase their pow- er. Lastly, his lordship observes, that three flat hoes at six inches ; two flat ones at twelve inches ; and three horse-shoe hoes, form the whole number requisite : and that they all screw into the same frame and handle. * consists of two principal parts : the first of them is a beam of wood, which, at its fore-end, has a semi- circle, forming two handles, be- tween which one man walks and draws the implement forward. At the other end, this beam is divided and moves on two small gudgeons, by which it is accommodated to the height of the hands of the per- son drawing, and room is allowed for the movement of a wheel. The farther end of the opposite beam is held by another person, who guides the hoe, and regulates the depth to which it penetrates the ground, while he at the same time assists its action by pushing it for- ward. The fore-end of this beam is also divided so as to admit a wheel to run between the sides, which serves to adjust the depth, and to ease the draught, in work- ing the implement. Mr. M'Dougal's hoes are made The last hand-hoe, we shall no- tice, is constructed on an improved principle, by Mr. James M'Dou- gal, now of Oxford-street, Lon- don ; for which the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. in 1793, conferred on him a premium of twenty guineas. This contriv- ance, which is represented in the annexed cut. of cast-iron, and fixed in a mortice in the hinder beam, by means of a proper wedge : they may be made of different forms or dimensions, in proportion as is required by the peculiar nature of the work. The design of this contrivance isv to clear land from weeds, and to loosen the soil in the intermediate spaces of pulse or grairr, sown in equi-distant rows, while the plants are at the same time sufficiently earthed up, in consequence of which they vegetate with increased lux- uriance. It is calculatedto effect these ob- jects in an eminent degree, and from the simplicity of its construc- tion, and the facility with which it is worked, it claims the attention of all agriculturists. [The editor has used an earthing hoe fixed in a beam, exactly like Mr. M'D's. with great advan- tage. HOE HOE 295 But when the mere destruction of weeds is required, Mr. Johnson of Brunswick, New Jersey, take3 out the hoe and introduces an in- strument called in England a scuf- fle, which cuts the roots under the surface, and deposits the earth in its original place again. The scuffle is a very simple instrument, being nothing more than an iron blade fixed between two prongs ; the handle of which may also be made of iron. While the blade cuts the weeds off, under the surface, they fall between the prongs into their place again ; and die without leaving the earth too much exposed to the sun.... This instrument fixed to a long handle is common in gardens, but when fixed in a beam is certainly much improved with respect to the diminution of labour. A man and a boy will accomplish more work in half a day, with the above hoe and scuffle, than could be perform- ed by two men at the same work in one day, with common hoes. and from the experience of their utility, the Editor cannot too warm- ly recommend them to all who possess gardens.] HOEING, or Horse-hoeing, in the dill-husbandry, is the break- ing or dividing of the soil by til- lage, while the corn, or other plants, are growing ; it differs from the common mode of cultivation, which is always performed before the grain, Sec. is sown, and is far more beneficial to the crop than any other method. Horse-hoeing is practicable only on lands that are easily ploughed ; and it is from inattention to this circumstance, that it has not been attended with success, and has, in many parts of England, fallen into contempt. Having already, described Dr. Darwin's ingenious drill-plough and horse-hoe, and given ample directions for their use, we shall, in this place, mention only such implements as have not been spe- cified in the article Drilling, and which merit particular notice. A horse-hoe on a new plan was contrived a few years since by the ingenious Mr. Ducket, whose in- ventions we have had frequent oc- casion to mention. It is made wholly of iron (including the car- riage) ; and consists of two com- mon plough-shares, which work from twenty to twenty-four inches of ground in breadth, accordingly as they are winged. These are fixed by means of wedges into a twisted beam, and the whole is put together with such strength, that they may be worked with four horses, at any depth required. Mr. Ducket applies his hoe to various purposes, but chiefly to the eradi- cating of pea, bean, and other stub- bles, in order to prepare them for the plough ; and so effectually does 296 HOE HOG the implement _ answer, that the corn may be sown, even though the soil should not have been pre- viously ploughed. In the 2d vol. of Dr. Anderson's Recreations in Agriculture, we meet with an account of an improved method of horse-hoeing ; which is stated to be performed in the most perfect manner, merely by the aid of a double-mould-board-plough. It is particularly calculated for the clearing of weeds, Sec. from cab- bages, round which the earth is heaped, so as to make those plants thrive with uncommon luxuriance. For a minute account of this opera- tion, the reader will consult the work before quoted ; where its su- periority over Mr. Tull's horse- hoeing system is pointed out, and the subject illustrated with cuts. The best season for hoeing good land, is, two or three days after rain has fallen, or as soon after as the soil will not adhere to the hoe, when at work. Light, dry lands, indeed, may be dressed at almost any time ; but the season for hoeing strong clay-soils, is very frequently short and precarious. Hence it will be useful to point out the proper juncture. There is a period between the time of the clay-soils running together so as to form puddles, in consequence of superfluous moisture, and that of their consolidating into hard cakes from great drought; when they are sufficiently tractable. This is the proper season ; and whatever land is then hoed, will not cake together, till it has been again pe- netrated by rain ; in which case the operation is to be repeated at the time just mentioned, and as of- ten as is necessary, till the growing crop begins to cover the soil ; when it will in a manner screen the surface of the land against the intense heat of the sun ; and con- sequently in a great measure pre- vent the inconveniencies attendant on the consolidation of the soil, during dry weather. By the successive hoeing, the land will be brought into a high state of improvement; and, if the weather prove favourable, good crops will be obtained, while, by a contrary practice, the soil is ren- dered useless ; and, from the stag- nation of the water, become a public nuisance. HOG, or Sus, L. a genus of animals consisting of six species, the most remarkable of which is the scroj'a, or Common Hog. Its body is covered with bristles, and it has two large teeth, both in the upper and lower jaw. In a wild state, this creature is of a dark brinded colour, and beneath the bristles is a short soft hair; its ears are more diminutive than those of tame hogs, which are long, sharp-pointed, and hang down ; the colour of the latter is generally white, though some- times mixed with other shades. The hog is proverbially the most rude and brutal of quadrupeds ; its habits are gross, and such is its gluttony, that it devours every thing indiscriminately. But, though it be the most impure and filthy of animals, its sordidness is useful, inasmuch as it swallows with avi- dity, refuse and offal of every kind so that matters which would be- come a nuisance, are converted into the richest nutriment. S^ows generally breed at the age of 18 months, or two^years, and bring from 5 to 10 or more pigs, twice [or oftener] in the year after a gestation of four months. As hogs, from their voracious HOG HOG 297 jiature,will eat almost every thing, they are very generally reared in all situations, being quickly and cheaply fattened. In miry and marshy ground, where they de- light to wallow, they devour frogs, fern, the roots of rushes, sedge, &c. In the drier countries, they feed on hips, haws, sloes, crabs, beech- mast, chesnuts, acorns, Sec. on the last of which they thrive exceed- ingly. Of late years, however, the management of these animals has become an object of attention. Clover, potatoes, turnips,cabbages, and carrots, are, it is well known, articles with which they may be fed, and even fattened, at a small expense. Parsnips are of consi- derable utility for this purpose, and probably the roots of the white- beet, if it were fully tried, would be found still more useful ; for experiments have shewn, that it contains a considerable proportion of saccharine matter, and may be cultivated with very little difficulty. Cos-lettuces are likewise eminently serviceable, especially for young pigs, which when fed on them, may be weaned a fortnight earlier than is usual. Pease also afford an excellent food for fattening, and if duly mixed with salt, will ren- der the animal fit for sale at the end of live weeks. In the vicinity of London, vast numbers of hogs are annually fat- tened with grains from the distil- leries : such pork, however, does not take the salt so readily as the flesh of those pigs which have been fed with more substantial food, and been driven to the market from a considerable distance. Hogs may with great advantage be folded on wheat, where the soil is loose, light, and friable; for they vol. III. will drop a considerable quantity of dung, and tread the looser parts of the land so closely together, that it will not hove during summer; nor v, ill the wheat be"" root-fallen. Particular care, however, ought to be taken, that these animals be well ringed; an operation that ought to be performed as early as possible. The diseases to which hogs are subject, are but few; nor are they often troubled with them. The chief are, 1. The measles, said to be perceptible only in the throat, which, on opening the mouth, appears full of small tu- mors, that in some cases are visi- ble externally. The remedy usu- ally applied is the powder of crude antimony, in small portions, which generally removes the affection. 2. The fever, which is also called . the heaving of the lights: it is cured by giving the diseased animal a mixture of oil and brimstone ; 3. the Mange; 4. the Murrain, or Leprosy; and, 5. the Gargut,- to wdiich articles we refer the reader, in their respective order. Hogs are very valuable quadru- peds, and their flesh furnishes at all times an agreeable meat. (See Bagon and Ham.) In a fresh state it is called pork, and affords a wholesome and nourishing food to a sound stomach, when eaten in moderation, with sub-acid vegeta- bles or sauces. Their lard, or fat, is applicable to various purposes, both culinary and medicinal. The blood, intestines, feet, and tongue, are all used in the kitchen; though the first is indigestible. The fat of the bow els and web, which dif- fers from common lard, is prefera- bly employed for greasing the axles of wheels. The bristles are made Q-ss food. Bath Sec. Transac- tion..: In A'-'.]', i769, a hog was hilled ■A WiUiainsbur?;, Virginia, which weighed 10jO lbs. after the blood, bowels, and hair had been taken from him. It is supposed he weigh- ed upwards of 1200lbs. when alive. In March 1787, another hog was killed at New-Port, Rhode-Island, which weighed, when gutted and dressed, 834 lbs. The length of the; animal is said to have been'nine feet, and height six feet. The owners of these hogs were guilty of a very unpatriotic act, ia sacrificing animals which would have been so highly valuable for breed. In future, it is to be hopec, a similar error will not be com- mitted. " A sow kept at Hollowmire, near Ulverston, only four years old last September, has farrowed 221) pigs, which is on an average of 57 per year, and except at the first time, always brought up thirteen. Within 19 weeks and three days she has farrowed twice. The ani- mal went to the male the next day after the pi^s were taken away, which was done when they were three weeks old...I-om. Mont. Mag. January 1798." Under the article Clover, it was said, hopes were entertained of being able to give the particulars of an experiment in feeding a num- ber of hogs upon a small clover patch, but the Editor has not been able to succeed, notwithstanding his exertions for the purpose.... Though it would have been agree- ble to state the precise number, yet the utility of the practice of feed- ing hogs with cut •lover, is well known to many farmers, and can- not be too strongly recommended tothose whohave not yet adopted it. Parsnips are said to be highly fattening for hogs, and to give a fine flavour to the meat. This vegetable abounds with sugar, and therefore must be nourishing; 300 HOL but it is probable that Indian corn (mayz) would be required to har- den the flesh before killing. Under the article Cattle, the economy of feedingwith boiled food was mentioned with confidence, though no direct experiment was adduced to support the opinion.... The following comparative experi- ment, however, settles the point. Mr.TiMOTHYKiRKof York-Town, Penn. fed one pig with boiled po- tatoes and Indian corn, (mayz) and another with the same articles un- boiled. The two animals were weighed every week, and the dif- ference between them was as 6 to 9. The experiment was continued several weeks, and the animals alternately fed upon boiled and un- boiled food, with an uniformity of result, which sufficiently proved the very greatprofit arisingfrom boiled food. Mr. Kirk's very excellent and economical boiler shall be describ- edunder the article water. There are few domestic conveniences that exceed this in point of utility.] Hog's Fenn el. See Common or Sea Sulphur-wort. HOGSHEAD, in Commerce, a measure of capacity which con- tains 63 gallons. Hog-weed. See Cow-pars- nip. HOLLY, or Ilex, L. a genus of shrubs consisting of 16 species; one of which is a native of Britain, namely, the aquifolium, or Com- mon Holly-tre*e: it grows in woods or hedges, and produces small whitish flowers in the month of May, which are succeeded by scar- let berries that are ripe in Decem- ber. This evergreen is propagated by seed ; for which purpose the ber- ries are to be put into the ground HOL for one year, after which they should be taken up, and sown at Michaelmas: the young plants will appear in the succeeding year..... These are to be transplanted in the summer ; and, if the operation be carefully performed, their growth will be rapid, especially if they be watered in dry seasons, and the soil about the roots to be frequently loosened. There is a great variety of this cultivated shrub, all of which are propagated by budding, or en- graftingthem on stocks of the com- mon green holly. This species is of great utility: the croppings of its leaves afford, in winter, a grateful food to sheep; and its berries support the feather- ed creation, during that inclement season. The holly makes an im- penetrable fence, and is eminently calculated for the formation of hedges, as it admits of being crop- ped, and retains its verdure, and the beauty of its scarlet berries, without receiving any injury from the severest winters. The com- mon bird lime (which see) is pre- pared from the bark, after it has been fermented, and cleared from the woody fibres. Its wood is much used in veneering, and is frequent- ly stained black, to imitate ebony. It is likewise advantageously em- ployed in the making of handles for knives, and cogs for the wheels of mills-. In medicine, the leaves of the holly have lately been employed with uncommon success in cases of the gout, agues, colics, Sec- the bird lime obtained from the bark is said to be an excellent application to obstinate swellings. HOLLYHOCK, or Alcea rosea, L. abeautiful exotic plant, frequent- ly cultivated in our gardens. It is a native of China; grows to the HON height of 8 or 9 feet ; and nearly the whole of its stalk is covered with white, red, brown, yellow, or variegated flowers that continue to blow till September. The hollyhock is propagated either by seeds, deposited in drills, about the middle of April, on beds of light "earth, and aiier wards co- vered with soil about half an inch deep ; or, by separating and set- ting the roots. As soon as the .plants shoot forth a few leaves,they are removed into nursery beds, where they require to be well watered till they have taken root; after which no farther care will be necessary till the month of Octo- ber, when they should be trans- planted to those places where they are intended to remain. Beside the ornamental appear- ance of this majestic plant, Dr. Bohmer informs us that the soft, fibrous, and woody parts of its stalks, without any addition of rags, produce a white and fine paper. Honesta. See Traveller's Joy. Honewort, the Hedge. See Bastard Stone Parsley. HONEY, a sweetfragrant vege- table juice, collected by the bees from the flowers of various plants, and deposited in the cells of the comb. Having already treated of the best methods of taking the honey from hives we shall in this place only observe, that the honey pro- duced by young bees, and which flows spontaneously, is purer than that expressed from the comb ; whence it is called virgin honey : the best sort is of a thick con- sistence, and of a whitish colour inclining to yellow ; it possesses an agreeable smell and a pleasant taste. HON 501 As an article of food, when im- moderately used, honey is perni- cious to weak stomachs ; it ought, therefore, to be avoided by persons liable to eruptions of the skin, or in whom there is a redundancy of bile. This vegetable essence con- tains an acid, similar to that of su- gar, but is more spirituous : hence it readiiy ferments, occasions fla- tulency, and in some habits pro- duces gripes and looseness. As a medicine, however, it is a very useful aperient and expecto- rant, especially when it has been previously boiled; in which state it may be used with safety and ad- vantage by asthmatic patients; for it tends to dissolve viscid humours, and to promote the expectoration of tough phlegm...See also Chapped Hands. Notwithstanding these salubri- ous properties of honey, it is apt to produce effects very detrimental to those plethoric, bilious, febrile or cachectic patients, who trust to it as a remedy in coughs, arising from, or connected with,pulmonary com- plaints. The writer of this article has lately seen two mournful in- stances of young females, each of whom, by a singular infatuation, had swallowed such quantities of a quack medicine, called " the bal- sam of honey,"as amounted tothe- sum of ten guineas, in order to cure a catarrhal cough, and to prevent it from attacking the lungs. Un- fortunately, however (and let it be recorded here as a warning to others,) they had proceeded too far in slighting an organic affection, which preyed on the functions of life ; and both, in the course of six months, fell victims to a fatal de- lusion. Honey is also convertible into an agreeable liquor, termed Mead, of 302 HON HON which the reader will find an ac- count in its alphabetical order. Although Prof. Lowitz has sa- tisfactorily proved that honey may, by a chemical process, be consoli- dated into sugar ; yet, as such a change would not be profitable, where the former is sold at a much higher price than the latter, we shall suggest a more advantageous mode of employing this balsamic juice. If a pound of honey be dis- solved in three or four quarts of water, and exposed to a tempera- ture between the 70th and 80th de- grees of Fahrenheit's thermo- meter, it will in a short time be- come a very agreeable acid liquor, which possesses an aromatic fla- vour, and strength, superior to that of the best vinegar made of white wine. As the latter is frequently adulterated,and incompaxablymore expensive than the substitute we have proposed, this appears to de- serve every attention in domestic economy. HONEY-DEW, or Suffusio mel- Uta, a sweet substance found on the leaves of oak, hazel-nut, hops, and other plants ; and which has been erroneously supposed to fall from the sky. According to Dr. Darwin, the honey-dew is a saccharine juice that exudes from trees, in conse- quence of the retrogade motions of the cutaneous lymphatic vessels connected with the umbilical, or with the common sap-vessels of plants ; instead of being carried forward to increase the growth of the present leaf buds, or to accu- mulate nutriment for the buds, which are in an embryon state. This exudation is consequently very injurious to the trees which are subject to it; especially from its great sweetness, which attract* immense numbers of bees and ants* Mr. Forsyth directs those trees, which are most liable to such dis- temper, to be sprinkled with a mix- ture of limewater and urine ; after which they should be washed with the liquid, stated in the article Blight. These remedies, how- ever, ought to be applied early in the morning ; in order that the trees may become dry, before the solar rays produce intense heat; as, otherwise, the blossoms and leaves are apt to be scorched, and thus to be materially injured. HONEY-SUCKLE, or Lonice- ra, L. a genus of plants consisting of 20 species, two of which are na- tives of Britain, viz. 1. The Periclymenum, Common or W oodbinc Honey-suckle, which grows in hedges and woods, and flowers from June to August. It is eaten by cows, goats, and sheep, but refused by horses. The beauty and fragrance of its variegated flowers,rendersthis species a pleas- ing ornament of our gardens,hedg- es, and arbours. The best, as well as the easiest method of propagat-* ing it, is by layers and cuttings, both of which readily strike root, and form plants that are fit to be set out in one year. The ripe ber- ries are strongly purgative. 2. The Xylosteum, or Upright Honey-suckle, which grows on walls and in hedges ; it flowers in May. According to Linn^cs, this shrub forms excellent garden hedges in a dry soil, especially where flocks of sheep are frequent- ly passing, as these animals do not eat the leaves. Its wood is ex- tremely hard, and makes the best ram-rods, as well as pegs, or pins for musical instruments, teeth for HOO H O O 303 rakes, and similiar articles. The small reddish and juicy berries ex- cite vomiting, and are so powerful- ly laxative, that they are not touch- ed even by birds. Honey-suckle, the Darf...... See Dwarf Cornel. HOOF, the horny part which covers the feet of many valuable quadrupeds ; but, in this place, we shall treat of it only so far as it relates to that useful animal the horse. A perfect hoof should be round, smooth, tough, and short, so that the horse may tread more upon the toe than upon the heel: it should also be rough and somewhat hollow within, having a narrow frush and broad heels. On the contrary, im- perfect hoofs are rather broad than round ; and, if spreading out of the sides and quarters, the heels of such a horse are generally narrow, and will sooner or later heeon\e fiat- hoofed, have a weak foot, and not carry a shoe long, nor travel far without surbating : thus, by tread- ing more upon his heels than upon his toes, he will walk low on his pasterns, and his feet, through weakness, will become subject to what are called false quarters, gra- velling (which see,) and other ma- ladies, of which we have subjoined a short account. HOOF-BONEY, a distemper arising from external injury, either a stripe, blow, or by a horse bruis- ing himself in his stall, by attempt- ing to strike at the next animal, but missing his aim, and dashing the foot against the post or rail that separates them. It consists of a round horney swelling on the up- permost part of a horse's hoof. To bring this hard tumor to ma- turity, it may be cove red either with a poultice of hay boiled in stale urine, or with a plaster of wine-lees and wheat-flour simmered together over a fire. By such applications, it is generally dispersed ; but, if it should come to a state of suppura- tion, it must be lanced in the soft, lower part, to give vent to the mat- ter ; and then covered with a plas- termade of the following ointment: Take eqilal parts of turpentine, suet, and wax, melt them together carefully over a slow fire. The use of this salve should be continued, till the ulcer is perfectly healed. HOOF-BOUND, an unnatural contraction of a horse's hoof, on the top and at the heel, so that the skin appears to grow over the hoof. It is easily discovered by the fre- quent halting of the horse, and the hollow sound of the diseased hoof: it arises from various causes, such as keeping him too dry in the sta- ble ; an injudicious method of shoe- ing ; paring the soles as often as the animal is shod, &c. As this malady always approaches gradually, it may be relieved at the commencement of every stage, or species of it, by proper manage- ment ; but, if it become inveterate, no art whatever can effectually re- move it. The first species proceeds, in general, from the injudicious use of concave shoes, or from paring and hollowing out the sole and binders as often as the shoes are renewed. Hence, the heels become so thin, that the crust at the ex- tremity may be forced into contact by the slightest pressure : the con- traction of the hoof at length be- comes general, and incurable. The only remedy in this case is, to keep the hoofs cool and moist, never to suffer them to be greased, or the soles to be pared, and to use only flat, narrowband open heeled shoes. CO-1 H O O HOP Thus the stricture on the heels and frog will be in some measure re- moved, the animal affected consi- derably relieved, and the disorder at length so far palliated, as to enable him to walk with more firmness. Another species is a contraction of one, or frequently of both heels, in fiat feet, from the use of con- cave shoes, 8cc. The best remedy in this case is, to lay aside such improper shoes ; to pare or rasp to the quick the whole contracted quarter of the crust near the heel, but without drawing blood : a bar- red shoe is then to be put on, so as to make the bar of the shoe press upon the frog ; the hoof should be kept moist, and the diseased ani- mal turned out to grass. Thus the stricture of the hoof will gradually disappear, the contracted part ex- pand, and a new hoof grow from the coronet downwards, that will acquire a round, proper shape, and in a short time the horse will be restored to his former activity. HOOF-BRITTLE, or Bhit- tlehoof, a disorder in horses, which is either constitutional in the animal, or arises from a surfeit, and as farriers express it, falls down into his feet; or, is the con- sequence of the horse having for- merly been foundered (which see.) To remove this malady, some pre- scribe the following ointment to be linerally applied to the hoofs two or three times a day : Melt equal quantities of turpentine, mutton- fcuet, raw bees-wax, hogs-lard, and salad-oil, in an earthen pot. HOOF-CASTING, a misfor- tune that sometimes befals a horse, when the horny substance entirely separates from his foot, in conse- quence of his foundering or slip- ping, which breaks it on the top round the coronet, so that it at length drops off. [The hoofmust bedefended with care, by wrapping it up in tow cov- ered with bees-wax and oil, and any funguous flesh that may appear, tak- en down by burnt alum or blue vit- riol, whilst the animal must be suf- fered to rest. Where the disease proceeds from improper hay, as mentioned in vol. 2d. p. 52. or from meadow grass not duly watered, (seep. 196);the remedy is obvious.] HOOF-HURT, an' injury inci- dent to working cattle, especially to oxen, which are sometimes wounded by a coulter or share of a plough in any part of the dees. [The remedies in this complaint are, a softening ointment and rest.] Hooping-cough. See Chin- cough. HOP, the Common, or Humuhis Lupulus, L. an indigenous plant, growing in hedges, and flowering in June. Hops delight in a good rich loam, with a deep sub-soil or stratum of a loamy brick-earth, in a southern or western exposure ; though they grow in almost any ground that is not wi t. They are chiefly culti- vated in the southern counties of England, and are propagated either by nursery-plants or by cuttings. These are set in hills, formed by digging holes in the spring, which are filled with fine mould an 1 the number of which varies from 300 to 1000, or 1200 pel- acre. One, two, or three plants are put in each hill, but, if hops are designed to be raised from cuttings, four or five of these, from three to four inches in length, are planted and covered one inch deep with fine mould. At the end of the first year it becomes necessary to put poles into HOP H O P 305 the hill?, round which the bines reared from plants are wound : at the expiration of the second year, full-sized poles from 15 to 20 feet are set (though the hop-bines will run to the height of 50 feet,) in the proportion of two poles te each hill, and a similar number of hop plants are fastened loosely round each pole, by means of withered rushes. Hops begin to blow towards the middle of June, and about the end of August they are generally fit to be gathered. TheYnost proper time of collecting them is, when the 1-af rubs easily off the bine, when the hops have a strong scent, and the seed assumes a brownish colour. The culture of hops, though pro- fitable when it succeeds, is very precarious: as soon as the plant appears above ground, it is attack- ed by an insect somewhat similar to the turnip-fly, which devours the young heads. Hop-gardens, situated on chalky soils, are pecu- liarly subject to its depredations ; and the best remedy is to manure the soil highly with malt-cuffln, which adheres so strongly to the insects, as to prevent them from creeping over the plant. [The hop is an article of growing importance in the United Stales, and should be cultivated by every farmer more or less, as they re- quire little trouble and pay well. Farnhum hops are the best. The following directions for rais- ing and curing hops, are taken from the Trans. Agile. Soc.of New-York. A rich deep soil, rather inclin- ing to moisture, is, on the whole, the best adapted for the cultivation of hops ; but it is observable, that any soil, (stiff clay only excepted) will suit the growing of hops when properly prepared....and in many ptuts of Great-Britain they use the VOL. m. bog-ground, which is fit for little else. The ground on which hops are to be planted, should lie made rich with that kind of manure, best suited to the soil, and rendered fine and mellow by being ploughed deep and harrowed several times. The hills should be at the distance of six or eight feet from each other, according to the richness of the ground. On ground that is rich, the vines will run the most; the hills must therefore be farthest apart. At the first opening cf the spring, when the frosts are over,- and vegetation begins ; sets, or small piece3 of the roots of hops, must be obtained from h-,-ps that are esteemed the best*....cut off from the main stalk or root, six or eight inches in length. Branches, or suckers, most healthy, and of the last year's growth, must be sought for. Phey may easily be known by their looking white. .....Two or three joints or buds should be left on each set. The sets should be put into the ground as soon as taken up, if possible; if not, they should be wrapped in a cloth, kept in a moist place exclud- ed from the air. A hole should then be made large and deep, and filled with rich mellow earth. The sprouts should be set in this earth, with the bud upwards, and the ground pressed close a round them. If the buds have begun to open, * Of the different kinds of hops, the long white is most esteemed. It yields the greatest quantity, and is most beautiful. The beau-y of hops consists in their beLv of a pale bright green colour. Care must be 'akento cb aiu all of one. sort, but if differe.it ? -.i-s u-e used, they must ke kept separate in he field; for there :s in difi'er- end kindi of hops a material difference in their time of ripening; and if intermixed, will occasion extra u-ouble in gathering. R r 305 HOP HOP the r.ppcrmost must be left just out of the ground ; cti.erwise, cover it with the earth an inch. Two or three sets to a pole will be suffi- cient, and three poles to a hill will be found most productive. Place one of the poles towards the north, the other two at equal distances about two feet a part. The sets are to be placed in the same man- ner as the poles, that they may the easier climb. The length of the poles may be from fourteen to eighteen feet, according as the soil is for richness. The poles should be pkiced inclining towards each other so as to meet at the top, where they may be tied. This is con- trary to the European method, but will be found best in America. In this way they will strengthen and support each other, and form so great a defence against the violent gusts of wind, to which our climate is frequently subjected in the months of July and August, as to prevent their being blown clown. They will likewise form a three sided-pyramid, which will have the greatest possible advantage from the sun. It is suggested by ex- perience, that hops which grow near the ground are the best. Too long poles are not good, and care must be taken that the vines do not run beyond the poles : twist- ing off their top-; will prevent it. The best kinds of wood for poles are the alder, ash, birch, elm, ches- uut and cedar. Their durableness is directly the reverse of the order in which they stand, and burnine: the end put into the ground, will be of service to preserve them. Hops sht.uld not be poled till the spring of the second year, and then not till they have been dressed. All that is necessary for the first y :.a, is to keep the hops free from weeds, and the ground lightand mellow, by hoeing often, and plo-.-ghing if the yard is large enough to require it. The vines when run to the length of four or five feet, should be twist- ed together to prevent their bear- ing the first year, for that would injure them. In the months of March or April of the second year, the hills must be op ned, and all the sprouts, or suckers, cut off within an inch of the old root, but that must be left entire with the roots that run down ; * then cover the hills with fine earth and ma- nure. The hops must be kept free from weeds, and the ground mel- low, by hoeing often through the season, and hills of earth gradually raised around the vines during the summer. The vines must be as- sisted in running on the poles with woollen yarn, suffering them to run with the sun. By the last of August or first of September, the hops will ripen and be fit to gather. This may easily be known by their colour chang- ing, and having a fragrant smell: their seed grows brown and hard.f As soon as ripe, they must be ga- thered without delay, for a storm, * Hops must be ires.°d every year as soon as the frost will permit. On thi» being well done, depends in a great mea- sure the success of the crop. It is thought by many to be the best method to manure the !r>p yard in the fall, and cover the hills entirely wi.h manure; asserting, with other advantages, that this prevents the frosts during the winter, from injuring the hop. The truth of this may be de- termined byexptriments in our climate and couuu-y. t Hops had better be gathered before they are qui'e ripe, than remain ill rhey are over ripe; for then they will lose their seed by tlie wind, or on bei.ig handled. The seed is ihe strongest part of the hop, Lvri they will lose their green colour vfhich. is veil valuable. HOP HOP 307 *>r frosts, will injure them materi- ally. The most expedient method of picking hops, is to cut the vines three feet from the ground, pull up the poles and lay them on crotches horizontally, at a height that may be conveniently reached. Put un- der them a bin of equal length, and four may stand on each side to pick at a time. Fair weather must be taken to gather hops in, if possible ; and hops ought not to be gathered when the dew is on them, for dew is apt to make them mould. They should be dried as soon as possible after they are ga- thered ; if not immediately, they must be spread on ,a floor to pre- vent their changing colour. The best mode of drying them is with a fire of charcoal, on a kiln covered with hair-cloth, in the manner of a malt-kiln*. The fire must be kept steady and equal, and the hops stir- red gently. Great attention is ne- cessary in this part of the business, that the hops be uniformly and sufficiently dried : if too much dri- ed they will look brown, as if they were burnt; and if too little dried they will loose their colour and fla- vour. They should be laid on the hair-cloth about six inches thick, after it had been moderately warm- ed ; then a steady fire kept up till the hopes are nearly dry, lest the moisture or sweat, that the fire has raised, should fall back and change their colour. After the hops have been in this situation about seven, eight or nine hours, and have got through sweating; andwhen struck with a stick, will leapup,then throw them into a heap ; mix them well and spread them again, and let them remain till they are all equal- * Mats madeof the splinters of walnut •r ash, will answer the purpose, and come cheaper than kair-cloth. Iy dry. While they are in the sweat, it will be best not to move them, for fear of burning them. Slacken the fire when the hops are to be turned, and increase it after- wards. Hops are fully dried when their inner stalks break short, and their leaves are crisp and fall off easily. They will crackle a little when their seeds are bursting; and then they must be taken from the kiln. Hops that are dried in the sun, loose their rich flavour,and if under cover, they are apt to fer- ment and change with the weather, and loose their strength. Fire preserves the colour,and flavour of hops, by evaporating the water,and retaining the oil of the hop. Af- ter the hops are taken from the kiln, they should be laid in a heap to acquire a little moisture to fit them for bagging. It would be well to exclude them from the air, by covering them with blankets. Three or four days will be suffici- ent for them to lie in that state.... When the hops are so moist that they may lie pressed together with- out breaking, they are fit for bag- ging. Bags made of coarse linen cloth, eleven feet in length, and se- ven in circumference, winch hold two hundred pounds weight, are most commonly used in Europe: but any size that best suits mav be made use of. To bag hops, a hole is made through a floor large enough for a man to pass with ease; the bag must be fastened to a hoop larger than the hole, that the floor may serve to support the bag, and forthe convenience of handling the bags, some hoops should be tied in each corner to serve as handles. The hops should be gradually thrown into the bag, and trod down continually till the bag is filled.... The mouth of the bag must then 308 HOP be sewed up, and the hops are fit for market. The harder hops are packed, the longer and better they will keep ; but they must be kept dry. In most parts of Great Britain where hops are cultivated, they estimate the charges of cul- tivating an acre of hops at forty- two dollars, for manuring and til- ling, exclusive of poles and rent of land. Poles they estimate at sixteen dollars per year, but in this country they would not amount to half that sum. An acre is comput- ed to require about three thousand poles, which will last from six to twelve years, according to the kind of wood used. The English growers of hops think they have a very indifferent crop, if the produce of an acre does not sell for one hundred and thirty three dollars, and frecjuently they sell for two hundred dollars ; and have been known to rise as high as four hundred dollars. In this country experiments have been eqiady flattering. A gentleman in Massachusetts, in the summer of 1791, raised hops from one acre of ground that sold for three hun- dred dollars ; and land is equally good for hops in this state. Upon the lowest estimate we may fairly compute the nett profit of an acre of hops to be eighty dollars, over and above poles, manure and culti- vation. There is one circumstance far- ther we think has weight, and ought to be mentioned. In the Eng- lish estimate, the expense put down, is, what they can hire the la- bour done for, by those who make it their business to perform the dif- ferent parts of the cultivation. A great saving may therefore be made by our farmers in the article of labour ; for much of it may be HOP performed by women, children, and the aged. Add to this, we have another advantage of no small mo- ment. In this country the hop harvests will come between our two great harvests, the English and Indian, and interfere with neither: but, in England, thVgrain and hop harvests interfere,and create agreat scarcity of hands, it then being the most busy time in the year. It is found by experience, that the soil and climate of the eastern states are more favourable to the growth of hops than Great Britain ; they not being so subject to moist fog- gy weather cf long continuance ; which is most injurious to hops. And the southern states r.ro still more favourable to the hop than the eastern states, in point of flavour and strength. The state of New-York unites some advantagesfrom either extreme of the union. The culti- vators of land in this state have every inducement which policy or interest can afford, to enter with spirit into the cultivation of hops. We shall, therefore, be enabled to supply our own demand, and export this article, instead of send- ing abroad for all we use ; and no crop that can possibly be put on land, will yield an equal profit.... This culture will require* but little land...the labour may be performed at intervals, so as not to interfere or injure the other business of the farm, by the aged, women, and children. There is no farmer of this state but may, with ease, raise from one quarter of an acre, to as much as three or four acres of hops, the advantage of which would in a few years, be most sensibly felt, both by the individual concerned, and by the state at large.] In the months of June and Julv, HOP HOP 309 [in England] the hops are liable to be blown by a species of aphis, or fly, that poisons the leaf, by voiding its excrement; which is particu- larly injurious during hot, cloudy, and moist weather. This insect, however, does not endanger the growth of the plant, unless it be in a weak state, in consequence of the depredations committed on its root by the larvae of the ottermoth, or Phaloena Humuli, L. For the expulsion of these vermin, Dr. Withering recommends to cover hop-gardens with stones or flags ; because, when hops grow wild in stony places, where the moth can- not penetrate to deposit its eggs, they are never affected with tne honey-dew. There are two other distempers incident to hops, namely, the Fen and the Smitt, for which no effec- tual remedy has hitherto been dis- covered. Hops may, however, when gathered, be perfectly se- cured from the future depredations of insects, by putting a small quan- tity of brimstone in the fire, while they arc drying in the kiln, by which means the vermin is not only destroyed, but the superfluous moisture is more speedily evapo- rated, and the hops acquire a brighter colour. The hop is a most valuable • plant: in its wild state it is relish- ed by cows, horses, goats, sheep, and swine. When cultivated, its young tops are eaten, early in the spring,as substitutes for asparagus, being wholesome and aperient; they are sold under the name of Hop-tops. The principal use of hops, how- ever, is in brewing, for the pre- servation of malt liquors, which are thus rendered more salubrious, and less liable to become sour..... Hence vast quantities are consum- ed in Britain : but, having already pointed out the most proper me- thods of using them under the head of Brewing, we refer the reader to that article. A decoction of hops diluted with water, and given to cattle in very severe weather, is said to be of great service, and remarkably to improve their strength. In Sweden, the stalks of hops are successfully converted into strong cloth ; for which purpose they are gathered in autumn, soaked in water during the winter, and in the succeeding spring, after being dried in stoves, they are dressed like flax. This object has been attempted in Bri- tain, and from an experiment made, in consequence of the premium offered by the patriotic Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sic. it appears that hop-bines afford a ma- terial for spinning yarn, which may be woven into fine sacking, as well as coarse bags for hops. The bines, are also employed for binding the sheaves of corn ; and they have lately been converted into strong paper. From the leaves and flow- ery stalks oflhis plant, when dried, Dambouhney dyed wool of a fine cinnamon brown, having previous- ly dipped it in a diluted solution of bismuth. Berthollet remarks, that the expressed juice of hop- bines affords a very permanent red- brown colour. In medicine, decoctions and sy- rups of hop-flowers are said to be attended with much benefit in pes- tilential fevers: a pillow filled with them, and laid beneath the head, has been found to procure sleep to patients afflicted with delirious fe- vers. The heads and tendrils are 310 HOR HOR likewise of considerable service in the scurvy, and other cutaneous af- fections. Hop-trefoil : See Clover, the Hop; p. 152 of vol. ll. HOREHOUND, the White, or Marrubium, L. a genus of plants comprising 12 species, one of which only is indigenous, viz. the vulgare, or Common White Horehound, which grows on road sides, and among rubbish; it flowers from July to September. This very bitter plant possesses an odour sufficiently grateful; when given in large doses, it operates as a purgative. It is reputed to be both attenuant and resolvent; an infusion of the leaves in water, sweetened with honey, is recom- mended in asthmatic and phthisical complaints, as well as in most other diseases of the breast and lungs.... We believe, however, it may with equal, or greater advantage, be em- ployed in currying or tanning soft leather. Bees collect honey from the flow- ers of the Common White Hore- hound, but the herb is not eaten by either horses, cows, sheep, or goats. HOREHOUND, the Black, Fetid Horehound, or Hen-Bit, Ballota nigra, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing on rub- bish and in hedges ; flowering in the months of July and August.... No species of cattle will touch this vegetable, which is, nevertheless, highly prized by the Swedes, who consider it as an almost universal remedy in the diseases of cat- tle. A strong decoction of the Fetid Horehound has been much recom- mendedin hysterical and hypochon- driacal cases. An infusion, or tea, made of equal parts of this plant, of betony leaves, and white hore- hound, is asserted by Ray, both to prevent the gout, and mitigate the attacks of that painful disorder, if three or four tea-cupfuls of it be regularly drunk every day. HOREHOUND. the Water, or Gtpsyvvort, Lycopus Eurofiaeus, L. an indigenous perennial plant, which grows on sandy ground, on the banks of streams and ponds; it flowers from July to September. The French manufacturers are chiefly indebted to this plant forthe deep black colour of their cloth ; its juice imparts a permanent dye to wool, silk and linen, and is much used by travelling gypsies, for the purpose of staining their faces. HORN, a hard substance grow- ing on the heads of various animals, particularly on cloven-footed qua- drupeds. The oil extracted from it, by repeated distillations, become*. extremely subtle and volatile; in which state it is called oilofDiv- pel, being the name of its inven- tor. The horns of stags yield the greatest proportion of rectified ani- mal oil, as they contain a larger quantity of that species of earth which is found in bones, than those of any other animals. Horns form a considerable article in the arts and manufactures...... Those of bullocks, when softened by heat, are converted into lan- thorns, combs, knives, inkhorns, Sec. After the horn is roasted over a fire made of the stalks of furze, so as to render it sufficiently soft, it is slit on one side, and spread out between a pair of flat tongs, large enough to keep it expanded a second time over the fire, and reduce it to a flat state ; it is then put into a press between iron plates which are heated and greased. Here the HOR horns arc suffered to remain till they are gradually cooled ; next they are soaked in water, till soft enough to be pared down to a prop'-r thinness, with a large knife worked horizontally on a block..... Thus, they acquire their transpa- rency ; and, after being immersed in urine, they are polished,by rub- bing them with whiting and the coal of burnt willow. The refuse or shavings of horn are of considerable utility as a ma- nure for chalky land, on which they are strewed in the proportion of fourteen bushels per acre. Their efficacy was not exhausted after a succession of four crops, each of which was remarkably improved. Hence they afVadvantageously em- ployed on light and gravelly soils, together with hotter manures, pre- venting the latter from burning the .crops; because horny substances have been observed to attract the dew, and retain moisture. HORNBEAM, or Carpinus, L. a genus of plants consisting of five species one of which is a native of Britain; viz. the Betutus, Common Horn-beam-tree, Hard-beam-tree, Horse or Horn-beech-tree. It grows in woods and hedges; flow- ers in the month of May. The horn-beam will thrive on poor, stiff soils, on barren and ex- posed hills ; and, if intended for trees, it is propagated by seed, as soon as it is ripe. It vegetates eighteen months before the plants appear above ground ; and the young trees are transplanted at the age of two years, to the spots where they are intended to remain. When designed for hedges and underwood, it is propagated by lay- ers. The horn-beam is a very valua- ble tree, and grows to a large size ; HOR 311 its leaves afford a grateful food to cattle, but no grasses will flourish under its shade. Its wood is very tough, white, and burns like a candle ; it is much employed by turners ; is very useful for various implements of husbandry ; and is wrought into cogs for the wheels of mills, presses, &c which are far superior to those made of yew.... The inner bark imparts a perma- nent yellow colour to yam.....See also Fence. HORN-DISTEMPER, a disor- der incident to horned cattle : it gradually wastes the internal sub- stance of the horn, commonly call- ed the pith, which is the spongy part of the bone, and the cells of which are filled with an oily mat- ter. Thus, at length, the horn be- comes hollow. From an account published by Dr. Tofts, in the 1st vol. of the Memoirs of the American Accademy, it appears that this spongy bone is sometimes partially,and sometimes entirely, consumed. The horn is deprived of its natural heat, and on touching it feels unusually cold.... When this malady is suspected, other symptoms should be particu- larly attended to ; such as dullness in the countenance; a sluggish motion ; want of appetite; a desire to lie down ; and, if attended with an inflammation of the brain, a gid- diness, and frequent tossing of the head. Stiffness, as in the rheuma- tism, affects the limbs ; the milk often fails in cows ; the udder is hard, and there is in most cases n sudden wasting of the flesh. As soon as the distemper is dis- covered, an opening should be made in the diseased horn, with a gimlet of a moderate size, two or three inches above the head. If it be found hollow, and the gimlet 312 HOR HOR pass through withoutany discharge of blood from the aperture, it will be advisable to bore lower, and as near to the head as the hollow ness may probably extend. This aper- ture is asserted to be a necessary operation, and frequently affords speedy relief. It should, however, be carefully kept open, as it is lia- ble to be filled up by a thin fluid that gradually oozes out, and ob- structs the passage. Sawing off the horn has sometimes been adopted; but, from the best observations, boring is a preferable expedient. Dr. Tofts supposes injections to be useless; as nothing more is re- quired than to perforate the horn in an early stage of the distemper; and to keep it open, in order to ad- mit fresh air, to prevent compres- sion, and to promote the discharge of fluctuating matter. Should, how- ever, the distemper have affected the brain, so as to produce a high degree of inflammation, no method of cure is likely to succeed ; and the animal ought to be killed with- out farther delay ; as otherwise its flesh would become useless. Horned Poppy. See Poppy, the Horned. HORNET, or Vespa Crabro,L.a well known insect, which is about one inch in length, and builds its iieft in hollow trees. Hornets are very voracious, de- vouring other insects, and even bees. Their sting is severe and occasions a considerable tumor, ac- companied with intense pain ; for the mitigation of which, there is no better remedy than sweet oil, or boney-w ater, immediately applied to the. injured part. Different methods have been sug- gested for exterminating these per- ricious insects; the most simple of which sppear to be the following: Towards the end of April, hornet? are found on rotten planks, gates, and posts, in a toipid state: each of these insects contains the gene- ration of a swarm ; and as they may then be ea-.ily taken, the de- struction of one, before they breed, is equal to the extirpation of num- bers. After they are hatched, hornets chiefly infest melon-beds, where they occasion great injury to the fruit. In order to prevent these depredations, it has been re- commended to procure slender rods of different lengths, and to rub the ends of them with bird lime. By touching the insects with these rods, they may easily be taken ; and, as the females only proceed in quest of food, by destroying these, the whole brood will consequently perish. HORSE, or Equus, L. a genus of quadrupeds consisting of five species : the principal of these is the caballus, or common horse, which has allowing mane, and the whole of its tail is covered with long hair. There are, strictly speaking, no wild horses to be met with at pre- sent ; and those which are suffered to roam at large in Tartary, Sibe- ria, and America, are of a small size, inelegant form, and extreme- ly intractable. In a domestic state, the horse is bold, intrepid, docile, and attached to th** company of man ; indeed no quadruped is so eminently qualified for both purpo- ses, the saddle, and the harness... In the breeding of horses, however, sound and well-shaped animals ought to be selected with particu- lar care ; as the strength and ex- cellence of the race entirely de- pend on this circumstance. For elegance, the Spanish and Italian breeds are p.elerable; but, for the HOR more useful porpose of draught those of Britain, Normandy, and Holstein, are the most esteemed. The females, or mares, bring forth one colt, after a gestation of eleven months : none of the parent creatures should be under four years of age. Castration is com- monly performed when the colt is twelve or eighteen months old; but the most general, and* we believe, the best practice is, to delay that operation till the animals attain the age of at least two years; for they will then retain a greater degree of strength and spirit. If properly kept, they live to the age of forty years; but mares do not breed after eighteen, and stallions are useless at the age of twenty, so that they are fit only for the harness. The horse being an animal of ex- tensive utility, the most proper and least extravagant manner of feeding and keeping him, becomes an ob- ject of considerable importance.... Hence, potatoes, carrots, furze, cabbages, Sec. have been success- fully tried as substitutes for oats, and the more expensive method of cornfeeding: where,however, grain is used, the most economical way will be to boil, and give it in a cool state to the animals, together with the liquor; by which simple means one half may be saved. Carrots are particularly serviceable, as broken-winded horses, when fed on these roots, speedily recover.... A considerable reduction may also be made, by cutting the hay into a kind of chaff, and mixing with it straw, or the broken ears of corn, which arise in dressing grain; and also by soiling horses with lucern, tares, or clover, instead of turning them out to grass in the summer ; for, if they be well littered, the dunghill will nearly repay the ex- VOL. III. HOR 313 pense of their maintenance....See also the articles Furze, and Lin- SEr n. The management of horses, af- ter having performed the labour of the day, is a matter of equal mo- ment with their feeding ; and, as considerable expense has injudici- ously been incurred, by erecting elegant stables, we propose the fol- lowing practice to the consideration of the rural economist. It consists, simply, in forming a small yard provided with a shed that is open in the front, and furnished with racks, as well as a pump and cistern placed in one of the corners. A superstructure of this kind, if well littered, is in every respect prefer- able to a stable, and will preserve horses iu better health, without re- quiring any other currying or dres- sing,than is usually given by farm- ers' servants. The utility and con- venience of such a yard have been fully evinced by a patriotic noble- man, the Earl of Darlington, who has followed this practice with great success for several years, and ob- served, that horses thus managed, not only are more healthy than in stables, but at the same time able to work well, even after the age of twenty years. The diseases of horses are va- rious ; but as we treat of UienVin their alphabetical series, we shall here only offer a few hints to the proprietors of these useful animals, by which many disorders may be easily prevented. In all fresh wounds, the princi- pal objects of attention are, to beep them clean, and protect them from the air ; but, if any swellings or local humours arise, or the skin be bruised without being broken, they will be effectually removed, bv ap- plying Goulard's mixture, v, hich S s 314 HOR HOR is prepared by adding two tea- spoonfuls of extract of lead, and one large spoonful of strong cam- phorated brandy, to a pint of w ater; the whole is to be well shaken to- gether, and set apart for use. [Lead water, prepared by adding one table spoonful of sugar of lead to a pint, or pint and a half of soft water, is a more certain remedy than the extract of lead.] There are many diseases in which clysters are an excellent re- medy; but they are frequently ad- ministered with so little skill, by means of the common clyster-pipes, that they are of no service. Hence it will be useful to procure a pipe made of pewter, the body of which should be larger and longer than a quart pot: at one end let a handle be fixed, and at the other a tube which lessens gradually, in the same manner as a common squirt. This will absorb a pint or quart of any preparation, and discharge it with proper force. Numerous disorders, however, arise from excessive labour ; and the injudicious application of ill- formed shoes. To remedy this se- rious evil, the attention of farriers has lately been directed towards the improvement of horse-shoes, and the invention of such as may pre- vent pain, and render this valuable animal sure-footed. We shall, therefore, take notice of the differ- ent patents that have been granted for this purpose, under the article Shoe. We have already observed, that the English horses are eminently adapted to the different purposes of agriculture. The breeds of cart- horses, which deserve more parti- cular attention, are the large black ones bred in the counties of York and Northampton, and the sorels, for which the sandy tract of lan<* in the vicinity of Woodbridge, Suf- folk, has long been celebrated. The former are chiefly used by those farmers who are in the habit of pur- chasing two-year-old colts, which they work lightly for two or three years, and then sell them for coach- horses. This practice merits severe reprehension ; for independently of the great risk in keeping valu- able horses during the most critical pi riod of their age, such precaution is necessarily attended with addi- tional expense. The York and Northampton breeds, however, are reputed to be much inferior to the Suffolk punch sorels, which are ad- mitted to be the best cart-horses in England. These are of a bright sorel colour ; have very low fore- hands, large bodies, somewhat si- milar to those of cows, short legs, and ill-shaped heads; yet, though their appearance be thus aukward, they exceed every other breed in draught. These animals are of all sizes; but the smaller ones, 14£ hands high (the price of which is from 401. to 501. per pair), will be of great service. The long-contested question, whether oxen or horses are pre- ferable for agricultural purposes, we shall not venture to decide ; though it will be useful fairly to appreciate the advantages, as well as the disadvantages, which attend the maintenance of either. Oxen will draw the plough on tough clay soil and hilly lands, while horses stand still; but, on even and light ground, the latter not only work faster than oxen, but are incomparably more active for carriage. It deserves, how- ever, to be remarked, that oxen may be maintained at a very small expense. The price of two horses HOR HOR 315 is computed to be equivalent to that of nine oxen : the food of the latter, during summer, consists merely of grass, and in winter of straw, on which provender they may perform moderate labour ; and, when worked hard, they are allowed a little hay. On the con- trary, the food of a horse generally is hay, oats, beans, Sec. The num- ber of cart-horses constantly em- ployed in Great Britain, is calcu- lated at 500,000.......300,000 of which are allowed, by the most competerit judges, to be. superflu- ous. These cousume Craily, upon an average, during nine ponths in the year, one peck of corn each ; which amounts to sixty-three bu- shels each per annum ; that is, (allowing one quartern loaf per week to every person, and com- puting only 12 loaves to the bu- shel) as much corn as will support seven persons , so that 300,000 superfluous cart-horses, moderately fed, require for their support a quantity of corn sufficient to main- tain 2,100,000 persons! which number, if the inhabitants of Great Britain amount to ten millions, is nearly one fourth part of the whole population. To invalidate this statement, it has been objected, that though oxen may be maintained at a less expense than horses, yet the latter are far preferable, as they perform their work with much greater ala- crity ; and that the extra plough- ing which a pair of horses will ac- complish in one week, will fully pay the balance of keeping. Such is the difference of opinions, in the communication of which we have strictly adhered to facts ; yet it ought in justice to be added, that an ox improves in value 21. per an- num, upon an average, from the time he is used and fed as an ox ; and, when fattened, affords good and wholesome meat; while a horse progressively declines till he, literally, " is of no value." [This subject shall be renewed under the article oxen.] In this place we are induced severely to censure the inhuman practice of docking and nicking their tails, for no other reason, than to improve the beauty of heir appearance, and to prevent them from "flinging the dirt ;" thus de- priving them of a very useful part, which was certainly designed by Nature for defending them from flies and other insects, during the summer heats, if for no other ostensible reason. Besides, it is highly probable that the tail as- sists the animal even in his com- mon exertions ; balances his body when trotting, and thus prevents him from stumbling ; for it has been observed, by those who are conversant with the manners and'* customs of the East, that the horses of Turkey and Persia seldom stum- ble ; a circumstance easily account- ed for, as the absurd and brutal practice of .docking is unknown in those countries. Another operation, equally cruel and injudicious, is that of cropping the ears of horses, which may per- haps be justified, where an animal has large, wide lopping ears, des- titute of all spring or motion, and which are in some degree a de- formity. But to cut oft' a pair of fine ears from a horse's head, mere- ly to gratify the ridiculous taste of grooms and jockies, is, if possible, still more absurd than to dock or nick his tail. It is, indeed, utterly indefensible : for the ears neither retard the animal's motion, nor " fling dirt."....We trust the day 516 HOR HOR is not far distant, when this sense- less prejudice will lose its influence over those men of sense and un- derstanding who are now facinat- ed by it; and when the vitiated taste of horse-dealers will be treat- ed with merited contempt. Independently of the important services which the horse renders mankind by his labour, his dung affords an excellent manure. The urine, or stale, of these animals, likewise furnishes an ex- cellent fertilizing liquor, if pre- served with the brine, suds, Sec. of the house : some caution, how- ever, is necessary, in applying it to the soil. Horse urine is equally beneficial to all lands ; but it should be pre- viously diluted in a proper vessel, with half the quantity of pond-wa- ter, and in that state poured on the ground. Thus, the great heat of this manure, which, in particular seasons, is apt to burn some crops, may be easily corrected. As the utility of horses exceeds that of all other domestic animals, we shall subjoin a few characteris- tic marks, by which their general qualities may be ascertained, and some of the numerous frauds com- mitted by grooms, jockies, &c. op- portunely prevented. In old horses, the eye-pits are generally deep : this mark, how- ever, is very uncertain, as it is also found on young animals descended from aged stallions. But the most certain criterion is that derived from the teeth, the number of which amounts to 40 ; namely, 24 grinders, or double teeth, 4 tushes, and 12 fore-teeth : these last are the surest guides for discovering the age of a horse. They appear about 12 clays after the colt is foal- ed ; are round, short, not very so- lid, and successively cast and re- placed by others. When two years and a half old, the two middle fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and those in the lower jaw, are cast: in the course of another year, four others drop out, one on each side of the former. At the age of about 4-i years, the horse loses four others, and always, next to those which have already fallen out and been replaced. These four foal- teeth are succeeded by four others but do not grow so quickly as the eight first, and which are called corner-teeth. They replace the four last foal-teeth, and are the chief marks by which the age of a horse may be ascertained : they are the third, both above and be- low, counting from the middle of the jaw, being hollow, and having a black mark in their cavity...... When the horse is four years and a half old, they are scarcely visi- ble above the gum ; and the cavity is very sensible: in the course of a year and a half, they begin to fill i and the mark continually di- minishes and contracts, till the animal attains the age of seven or eightyears,when the cavity is com- pletely filled, and the black spots disappear. These teeth cease to afford any knowledge of a horse's age, after eight years, when it is ascertained by the tushes, which are the four teeth next to those last mentioned, and which, like the grinders, are not preceded by any other teeth. The two in the low- er jaw usually begin to shoot at o\ years , those in the upper jaw at 4 ; and both continue very sharp pointed till the animal is 6 years of age. At 10 years, the teeth in the upper javy appear blunted, worn out, and long ; the gum con- tracting in proportion to the in- HOR HOR 217 creasing years ; and the more ex- posed the.teeth are, the greater is the age of the horse. From 10 to 13 or 14, little can be perceived to determine the age ; but at that time of life, the upper teeth seem blunted, the gum contracts, and these useful bones are left bare.... In proportion, therefore, to the greater or less degree of these marks, the age of a horse may be determined ; and likewise, though not perhaps with equal accuracy, by the bars in the animal's mouth, which decrease as he advances in years. On this occasion, it will not be useless to point an odi- ous practice, of which many ost- lers and stable-keepers are guilty, especially towards the horses of strangers. When provisions are at an exorbitant price, those inhu- man monsters have sometimes the cruelty to mix a few leaves of the bird-cherry among the hay, or to rub the fatigued animal's teeth with tallow, or soap : in eithercase, it will obstinately refuse food, and not eat, till the hay is changed, or the teeth have been properly scoured with common salt. In a horse that is free from ble- mish, the legs and thighs are well shaped ; the knees straight; the skin and shanks thin ; the back si- news strong and firm. The pas- tern joints should be small and ta- per, and the hock lean, dry, and not puffed up with wind. With i-e pcct to the hoof itself, the coro- net ought to be thick, without any tumor, or swelling; the horn bright and of a grayish colour. The fi- bres of a strong Joot appear very distinctly, running in a direct line from the coronet to the toe, like the grain of wood. Such a foot, however, ought to be kept moist and pliable ; as it is subject to fis- sures and cracks, by which the hoof is sometimes cleft through the whole length of the coronet. A narrow heel is likewise a great defect; and, if it do not exceed two fingers in breadth, it forms an imperfect foot. A high heel often causes a horse to trip and stumble; while a low one, with long, yield- ing pasterns, is apt to be worn away on a long journey. On the other hand, a foot disproportion- ately large, renders the animal weak, and clumsy in its gait. The head of a horse ought to be small, and rather lean than fleshy; his ears should be erect, thin, sprightly, and pointed ; the neck arched towards the middle, taper- ing gradually towards the head ; the shoulders rather long ; the wi- thers thin, and enlarge by degrees as they extend downwards, yet so as to render his breast neither too gross or too narrow. Such are the principal characters, by which the best form and proportion of that useful animal may be deter- mined. Those of our "readers who wish to obtain more extensive in- formation relative to this interest- ing subject, may with advantage peruse Ten Minute's Advice to every Gentleman going to purchase a Horse. &c. (12mo. Is.) ; a small work, but which is replete with practical information. [The very imperfect knowledge generally prevalent, of the anatomy of this truly noble' animal, has in- duced the Editor to give an engrav- ing of the skeleton of the horse, from Blaine, the latest writer on the subject. The skeleton of the horse is di- vided by Blaine, into head, trunk, and extremities : 318 HOR HOR Explanation. A Bones of the head. B 7 Vertebrae of the neck. C 18 Dorsal Vertebra. D 6 Lumber Vertebrae. E 18 Bones of the tail. F The Scapula or shoulder-blade. The spine dividing the fossec is represented by the plain sur- face. G The Sternum or breast bone. H The humerus or bone of the arms, its head articulates with the shoulder-blade. 4 5 6 7 8 The eight true ribs so called, their cartilages being con- nected with the breast bone. I The false ribs, so called from their cartillages not being insert- ed into the sternum, but into each other. K The leg bones. L The knee, formed of seven bones. M The shank bones to which are joined two imperfect shank bones, on the back part, called by the French Epineux. N Two triangular bones fixed to the back and upper part of the great pasterns, forming the fetlock. O Great pastern bones. P Little pastern bones. Q Coffin bones. R Pelvis, or hip bones. S Thigh bones. T Stifle, or knee bone. U Hind leg bones. V Heel of'the hock. V/ Oslets, or small bones of the hock. X Instep bones. An attention to the improvement of the breed of horses in the U. States, is a matter of great conse- quence. Our countrymen appear to be aware of this, and have of late imported some valuable horses ; but it is still to be regretted that the country is filled with a set of worthless Stallions, possessing no prominent good quality, from which an imperfect race is propagated, to the great injury of the general in- terest. The following observations on this interesting subject are taken from a pamphlet published in Phi- ladelphia in 1795. " It is the union of a pedigree possessing particular qualities, with - a stranger, also possessing some _: *' good property, which gives perfec- tion. By a strict attention to this principle, the English have greatly^ X" improved their breed witiun a few years past. They commonly dis- tinguish horses into four kinds. 1. The race horse. 2. The hunter, uniting force with speed and spirit. 3. Coach horse, to draw light weight with agility, and to figure in Cavalry. 4. Cart or draught horse. The race horse is the offspring of a Barbary or Arabian horse, and an English mare of the first , blood. The Hunter is the offspring of the race horse, and a mare three quarters blood, but more,strongly limbed than the former. The coach horse is the offspring of a hunter and a mare still more strongly limbed than the hunter, and half a degree less in blood. ,* The draft horse is the offspring of a coach horse, and the strong country mare. This distinction of the different classes of horses, arise from phy- sical causes, and we seldom find them employed for any purpose but that for which they are natu- rally fit, unless they are rendered >V"-^ HOR HOR 319 inadequate by age or accident; as it is well known that a saddle horse requires a different character from that of the draught, and that the same qualities are not adapted to swift and slow motion, or to draw- ing heavy or light loads. Those who wish for good horses should puy the utmost attention to the geneology of both sires and mares; the leading qualities of both should be ascertained, for, imper- fections as well as perfections are transmitted to their posterity. The race horse breed, is only a source of expense and distress to the owner, and should not be encouraged. The hunter deserves the preference ; his beauty is per- fect, the mode of training simple, and he demands no other attention, than that which reason prescribes. In peace, he contributes to the plea- sure of his owner, and in war he preserves his rider by his speed and spirit. When unfitted by age for the saddle, he answers for a coach horse. To succeed in pro- pagating this-valuable species of horses in the United States, we must be particular in our choice of stallions, and attend to, 1. Their breed; 2. Their make; 3. Their leading character. The breed ought to be well known; the half blood answers very well. When the pedigree is ascer- tained, and he is found free from hereditary defects, as spavin, short breath, sore eyes ; his figure, pro- portion, strength and character should be examined. The prefer- able kind, is the lofty, stout horse, light but not gigantic, fine figure, small head, short ears, bold front, a brown full eye with little black spots within, prominent and high ; lore legs thick and broad from the shoulder to the knees, and from the knees to the joints next to the foot, lean and flat; joints thick and short; hips broad and square, buttocks large and fleshy; lutms broad. It is on this construction, that the perfect equilibrium of this fine animal depends: when he walks or trots, he should carry his fore feet in a perpendicular direction before him, without turning them either in or out, or rising them too high, which occasions a loss of time ; the hind feet should ex- actly replace the fore, for if they spread, it makes him overreach himself, and occasions him to strike his hinder hoofs against his fore heels. The mare should not have high bones, her ribs should be round, body long, and loins large. The sire and dam being matched, their leading qualities must be ascer- tained. A heavy, cold, slow mare, should be joined with the fire and action of the southern horse; and on the contrary, two fiery spirits must not be united. A horse should coyer but once a day, and stimu- lating drugs entirely avoided. April is the best month for a mare to foal, on many accounts. Eight clays after bringing forth, the stallion must be presented to the mare, and if necessary, the presentation should be repeated. Common mares may be continued in use, with safety and advantage, till some weeks before they foal. When near their time, they should be confined to a certain regimen of food, in order to avoid overload-. ing the intestines, and] thereby re- tarding their delivery. After fry- ing, the pasture should be rich, cr in defect of that, short feed should 320 H O It HOR be given, such as broken Indian corn, or coarsely ground oats or beans. Horses reared in marshy shady meadows never thrive." The general opinion of breeders has been, agreeable to the advice above given, respecting the cros- sing of the breed: and a decided testimony in favour of it has lately been given by Mr. A. Knight, in the Transactions of the Royal Soci- ety, London, 1799, part 2d; and yet it is well known that the cele- brated English breeder, Bake- well, did not accede to the opi- nion, but always bred from his own stock, until he procured another, the qualities of which he wished to propagate, and unite to those of his own. The proper mode of shoeing horses, being an affair of great con- sequence, and as little understood by the greater part of those who own horses, as by the blacksmith ; ample directions shall be given on the subject, taken from the late excellent work, by Mr. E. Cole- man, Professor of the Veterinary College, London, entitled " Obser- vations on the structure, Isfc. of the foot of the Horse," London, 1798. The whole of the hoof is com- posed of horny fibres, without sen- sation. The crust or wall sur- rounds the anterior and lateral parts of the foot. It is the only part that can receive nails without mischief, is thicker at the toe than the quarters, and generally thicker at the outer than at the inner quar- ter. The union of the crust with the coffin-bone sustains the weight of the animal. The horny sole is concave on the outside, beginning at the junction with the crust, and increasing as it advances towards the centre, so that the edge of the sole, united to the crust, is least concave. "** The bars or binders are two in number, and are placed between the frog and sole; and at the heels, form a broad solid junction with the crust. Their use is to keep the heels expanded. In a natural hoof there are two large cavities between the frog and bars. The frog is an insensible body*, placed in the centre of the sole, of a wedge-like form, pointed towards the toe, and expanded as it advan- ces to the heels. In the centre of the broad part there is a fissure or separation. The practice of shoeing very much depends on the functions of the frog being understood. As its convexity must make it liable to touch the ground at every step, we conclude it was intended to re- ceive pressure. Paring the frog therefore, and raising it from the ground by a thick heeled shoe, annihilates its functions, and pro- duces disease. Common practice of shoeing Horses, and its consequences. Before any shoe "is fitted to the hoof, the bars are totally, and the frog partly removed by the but- teris. This removal is termed opening the heels ; when the hoof is thus prepared, a shoe is applied thicker at the heel than at the toe, broad in the web, having its upper surface convex, and four nails placed in each quarter. The high heels of the shoe prevent the frogs from embracing the ground,. and the concavity of the shoe at the quarters, and the nails (that are placed near the heels) will con- fine the growth of the crust, and contract the hoof. Practice of shoeing Horses, which preserves the foot in health. The first thing to be attended to, is to take away a portion of the sole, between the whole length of HOR „ the bars and crust with a drawing knife. The heels of the sole, can- not receive the pressure of the shoe, without corns. The sole must be made concave, and not allowed to come in contact with the shoe. The heels of the shoe should be made to rest on the junction of the bars with the crust, but if the bars be removed, then the shoe is supported by the crust only, and not by the solid broad basis of crust and bars united. WThen the shoe is applied, the ca- vity between the sole and shoe, should be large enough at every part to admit a large horse pick- er, and particularly between the bars and crust. If a picker can- not be admitted, then it is requi- site to make either the sole or the shoe concave. The bars and frog should never be removed, but ragged parts of the latter may be cut away. Where the heels are higher than the frogs, lower the heels by a rasp or but- teris, for in every case we are to endeavour to bring the frog in con- tact with the ground. Neverthe- less, where the frog has been dis- qualified for its functions for a considerable period, and become soft, it must be accustomed to pressure by degrees. Thus at every time of shoeing, the hoof may be lowered about the tenth of an inch, until the frog be hard, and equally prominent with the heels; or if the horse be not required to work, great advantages will be de- rived from standing without shoes on hard pavement. By reducing the heels of the shoe, in the same proportion as the hoof grows, a thin heeled shoe, may, in a few months be employ- ed ; and yet the horn being pre- served at the heels, and cut at the vol. in. ^ HOR 321 toe, everWAne tf. shoeing, the heels (shcW,and ' hoof together) will be as nigh, and frequently higher, than when the former thick heeled shoes were applied. The crust that descends afc*the heels, we allow to remain, but sub- tract an equal quantity of iron from the heels of the shoe, and as much horn as possible from the toe of the hoof. This system should be continued, until the heels of the shoe are about one third the thick- ness of the toe. But as the feet of horses are so variously deformed by bad ma- nagement, it will be requisite, in shoeing, to attend to each particu- lar kind of hoof. If any form of shoe be indiscriminately employed for all kinds of feet, it must fre- quently fail of success, but by at- tention to the different hoofs, we can generally improve the whole foot so as to adapt the shoes here recommended, with advantage. The shoe must be varied in its length, breadth and thickness at the heel, and surface, according to the hoof. If the heels of the fore feet, are two inches and a half, or more in depth, the frog sound and prominent, then only the toe of the hoof requires to be shortened, and afterwards protect- ed by a short thin heeled shoe.... A common sized saddle horse- shoe, may be about three-eighths of an inch thick at the toe, and one-eighth at the heel. But unless the hoof has been properly pre- served, the heels and frog are ge- nerally too low, to receive the short shoe. The toe of the hoof requires to be shortened as much as possi- ble, but if the frog touches the ground, no part of the heels should be cut.. During the wet months, we protect the whole crust by a T 1 322 HOR long shoe ; ancffif thjytfels of the hoof are low, we emp^^ the same shy in. v-'mmer. Young horses with perfect feet, that^have never been shod, or hor- ses t^ken from grass, do not al- ways^dmit of horn being taken from the toe; and_where only a small quantity of the toe of the crust can be removed, riie heels of the shoe should not at once be made thin, as a temporary lame- ness may ensue. But if the crust can be removed at the toe, nearly in the same degree as the part is to be cove-red with iron, and if the frog be sound and prominent, then a thin heeled shoe may at once be employed with success. A shoe and nails for a mode- rately sized coach horse, should weigh from 18 to 20 ounces. A saddle liorse shoe with nails, about 12 or 14 ounces; width at the toe six-eighthsof an inch,but one-fourth less at the heel. The toe of the shoe may be three-eighths of an inch thick on the outside; the in- side of the toe and the heel one- eighth. Some little variations will be occasionally requisite. The shoes of cart-horses, should be three times thicker at the toes than at the heels,provided this quan- tity is not worn out before the toe. In general the heels of the short shoe, should terminate about three- fourths of an inch from the heels of the crust (see the plate), but the heels of the long shoe should rest on the junction of the bars with the crust, behind the seat of the corns. The length of the shoe commonly employed, is between both ; the heels are generally op- posite the seat of corns, and the length of the shoe contributes to produce the disease. The shoe when first applied, is adapted to HOR the hoof, but before the expiration of the month, the hoof descends, is expanded, and frequently be- comes too large to fit the shoe; and then the heels of the shoe, that were at first equal with the crust press upon the horny sole, bruise and inflame the sensible sole,'and occasion corns. The short shoes are not allowed to approach the • seat of corns, and> then the heels of the role having great free- dom of motion, this disease is pre- vented. And where long shoes are properly employed, if the heels rest on the junction of the bars with the crust, and if the sole be- tween the bars and the crust is re- moved, corns are equally avoided. The shoe mostly recommended by the Veterinary College, is partly flat, and in part concave, on its up- per surface. The flat portion of the shoe, is intended to rest only on the crust, while the concavity of the shoe is supposed to be op- posite the sole, and the nails arc placed in the centre of the seat, or flat part of the shoe. The princi- ple of this shoe, is to prevent any part of the sole from receiving pressure, and to oblige the crust to support the whole weight of the animal. If the whole of the sole be suffi- ciently thick to admit of being con- cave, then the whole internal sur- face of the shoe may be made flat. But where the sole towards the toe is convex, or flat and very thin, a shoe altogether flat, or a flat seat, with the nails in the middle, can- not be applied without improper pressure. But I have scarcely ever seen an instance, where the sole could not be removed, the first or second time of shoeing, be- tween the whole of the bars and the crust. HOR — ,, HOR 323 * For flat soles, the form of the from nails, the heels are allowed shoe is concave at its upper part, to expand. opposite to the flat or convex por- About one inch and a half of the tion of the sole with a narrow sur- heels of the shoe may be general- face, only equal to the crust and ly left without nails : but on a bar- nails ; but at the quarters and shoe, the nails should be carried heels, where the sole can be made nearer the quarter on the outside, concave there it is necessary to em- than the common shoe, or it will ploy a flat surface. If the bars and be liable to be detached from the sole at the heels have been destroy- hoof. ed by the farrier, so as to prevent When a horse cuts, the outer the possibility of making a conca- quarter of the crust should be lovv- vity between the bars and the crust, ered, and the interior quarter pre- and if the horse be obliged to work, served. But when the sole is thin, then it will be necessary to employ the inner quarter of the shoe a bar shoe to rest on the frog, and should be thickened, and the outer raised from the sole at the heels, quarter made thin, which will pro- But where the sole can be preserv- duce the same effect as altering ed only for a few weeks, it will the horn. If the toes of the hoof grow sufficiently to be made con- turn in, the inner quarter of the cave with a drawing-knife between hoof only, should be low ered, and the bars and crust, and then the the outer quarter of the shoe made heels of the shoe may be flat, with- thicker than the inner quarter. out touching the sole. Explanation of the Plalee. • The best form for the external Fig. 1. A view of the natural hoof surface of the shoe, is a regular of the horse, being of a circular concavity ; that is, the common form, and shod with a short shoe reversed. shoe. The nail holes, and the nails, are a a a The external surface of the stamped with a punch of a wedge- sole, of a concave form. like form (see the plate), and the b b The inferior edge of the crust heads of the nails are of the same at the heels. figure, namely conical, and receiv- c c The junction of the bars with td into the nail holes ; and then so the crust. long as the shoe remains, so long d d The point of the bars. there are heads to the nails. e e The sole between the heels of The shoe should be nailed all the crust and bars, the seat of round the toe of the crust. The corn. toe is by much the thickest part of ff The heels of the short shoe, the crust in the fore hoof*, and not allowed to reach the seat of therefore capableof receiving nails, the corn at e e. . with less danger "of wounding the g The toe of the frog. sensible parts within, than at the h h The heels of the frog. quarters, whero the crust is gene- i i The cleft between the heels of rally thin, and by preserving the the frog, the external seat of greater part of the quarters free thrushes. ——------------------------__ k k Two cavities between the sides * la the hind feet, the quarters and toe CL me bars, and the sides of the are nearly all of the same substance. frog* 324 HOR HOR A Jioof shod with a long shoe, would extend to e <>, ancVif there be a corn on the foot, a semi- circle must be cut out of the shoe, directly over it, to prevent pressure from the shoe. Fig. 2. View of the hoof, with con- tracted heels, produced by the common method of shoeing. a a a The sole. b b The original seat of the bars. c c The seat of the original cavi- ties, between the bars and the crust, but now, from contrac- tion, solid horn. d d The frog very much compres- sed by the contraction of the heels of the crust. e e The width of the hoof at the heels, not being more than one half of its length, from/to^-. f The extremity of the heels of •the frog. g The toe of the crust. Fig. 3. A punch with a wedge point to make the nail holes. Fig. 4. A nail with a wedge head, of the same form as the point of the stamp. Fig. 5. A nail with a common head. A patent has lately been taken out by John Williams, in Eng- land, for a method of disengaging horses from carriages, when they take fright. The simplicity of the process is said to be so great, that the operation is performed with as much facility as the pulling of a check-string, while at the same time horses are as securely attach- ed to the carriage, as upon the common construction. Andrew Leeth and Co. Shoe- lane, Fleet-Street, London, are the manufacturers of these " Sase- guard Splinter-bars. The specification is detailed in the first volume of the new series of the " Refiertory of Arts," with a plate.] HORSE-BREAD, an expensive preparation given to horses, and consisting of wheat, oats, and beans; to which are sometimes added, aniseed, liquorice, eggs, and ale ; at others, rye and white- wine. There are three kinds of bread usually allowed to race-horses, for the second, third and fourth nights' feeding : all of which are prepared with wheat, and beans worked with yeast; the difference in the propor- tions is as follows: in the first sort, a triple quantity of beans is used to one part of wheat ; in the se- cond, equal portions of both are employed; in the third, three- fourths of wheat are added to one part of beans. These artificial stimulants, how- ever, produce only a temporary ef- fect ; nor do they contribute to the future health and prosperity of the horse. Indeed, we doubt whether, in the present unprecedented state of the market, horse-racing can be reconciled to the principles of jus- tice and humanity ; unless it be ad- mitted, that the fluctuating, though always exorbitant, price of corn, within the last two years, must be attributed chiefly to the vile arts and evasions of the law, practised by monopolizers, regraters, fore- stallers, Sec. These pests of soci- ety have apparently succeeded in creating a constant fictitious scar- city, which, it is to be apprehend- ed, will prevail, and elude the ut- most vigilance of the magistrate, till the circulating medium be re- gulated, and the bank-notes,of pri- vate individuals reduced to their! true value. ' After this involuntary digression from the subject, we shall conclude Fig. 7. HOR HOR 325 with stating a very useful practice that is followed in many parts of Denmark and Germany, with a view to preserve the health of that noble animal, the horse; and at the same time to keep him in " good order." It simply consists in mix- ing a handful of the dried and pul- verized seed of the common nettle, every morning and evening, with his allowance of oats. Others add a handful of salt to each meal, and occasionally a few boiled carrots, which remarkably contribute to render his flesh plump and firm. Of the good effects of nettle-seeds, we can speak from experience, having frequently observed that they improve the coat or hair of the animal, by producing an un- common gloss and smoothness. [HORSE-CHESNUT, or JEs- culus, L. See Chesnut.] HORSE-FLY, or Hippobosca,L. a genus of insects, comprising four 6pecies : the principal of these is the equina, or Common Horse-fly, which equally torments horses and cows. The horse-fly is broad, flat, shining, and apparently covered with scales, its head, breast, and belly, are of a yellowish colour, streaked with- brown. These in- sects are very difficult to be killed, on account of the hard scaly wings with which'they are covered ; and so firmly do they adhere to the poor animals, that these can nei- ther rub nor bite such pernicious vermin off their skin, without severely wounding themselves. Hence the only preventive we can devise, is a net for covering the horse in hot weasher, or in ^^ traveling through woods, or such places as are infested with these w troublesome flies. W HOUSE-MEDICINES, an ap- pellation given to such drugs as are prepared exclusively for the use of horses, in particular disor- ders. As many accidents happen from the ignorance of pretenders, we shall offer a few hints, toge- ther with recipes, that may be use- ful in ordinary cases. I. Purges are frequently ren- dered necessary in full grown hor- ses of gross habits, for disorders of the stomach and liver; they ought, however, to be administered with great caution, and their strength proportioned to that of the animal; for, as these medicines frequently continue 22 hours in the body pre- viously to passing off, they are apt to cause gripes, accompanied with excessive cold sweats, and to occa- sion inflammation, which frequent- ly terminate in gangrene and death. 4Kb Purges ought to be given early ^W in the morning, upon an empty stomach ; three or four hours af- terwards, the horse should be fed with scalded bran, when a little hay may be allowed him. All his drink ought to be lukewarm, and a little bran should be mixed with it; but, if he refuse this mesh, pure water may be given. While the dose is operating, the animal should swallow copious draughts of warm water; or, in cases of re- < fusal, be indulged with cold drink, in order that the purge may pafe off the more speedily. The following preparations are extracted from those, the charac- ter of which is established among sports-.nen, for their utility on sud- den emergencies. 1. Take from 10 to 12 drams of t aloes ; of myrrh and ginger, each half an onnce ; ofsaffron half a dram ; or, if botts are suspected, add one scruple (20 grains of ca- « 326 HOR lomel, or fifteen of red precipitate. 2. Let 10 drams of Socotrine aloes : half an ounce of myrrh finely pulverized ; one dram of saffron, and a similar quantity of fresh jalap, both in powder, be ,pveil mixed together, and formed into a solid ball, with the addition of [molasses.] 3. Infuse two ounces of senna in a pint of boiling water, with three drams of salt of tartar, for two hours; when it is to be poured off, and four ounces of Glauber's salt dissolved in it, together with two or three Ounces of cream of tartar. This preparation is reput- ed to be cooling, easy, and speedy in its operation ; it is preferable iu cases cf sudden inflammations to any other dose ; as it is said to pass into the blood, and also to ^^fc operate by urine. ^Br The follow ing cathartic balls are St recommended by Mr. Taplin ; w and the ingredients of which they consist,are proportioned to the age, strength, size, and constitution of ^_ different horses. ^fc 1. Socotrine aloes, one ounce; *€■ rhubarb, two drams ; jalap and \f^m cream of tartar, each one dram ; ^F pulverized ginger, two scruples ; oil of aniseed, twenty drops ; and as much [molasses] as will form • the whole into a ball. 2. Socotrine aloes, ten drams ; rhnbarb, jalap, and ginger, each two drams; cream of tartar, three drams ; and a sufficient epiantity of [molasses] to form the ingredi- ents into a ball. 3. Barbadoes aloes, nine drams; jalap, Castile soap, and cream of tartar, of each two drams ; ground ginger, one dram ; and the same proportion of [molasses] as above stated. 4. Barbadoes aloes, ten drams; H OR Castile soap and Jalap (in powder), of each half an ounce ; cream of tartar and ginger, each two drams; oil of aniseed, forty drops; these are to be formed into a ball, with syrup of any kind. In preparing these balls, it will be requisite to give them an oval form; but if they exceed the size of a small hen's egg, they ought to be divided into two doses, and dipped in oil, in order that they may pass the more easily down the horse's throat. II. Clysters are of consider- able service, in relieving the ani- mal from various acute complaints: hence they should be carefully ad- ministered lukewarm. Their com- position ought to be extremely simple, so that they may be easily prepared, and given on sudden emergencies. Clysters are distinguished by various names, such as emollient, laxative, diuretic, Sec. of these we shall specify such as may be spee- dily procured, together with the cases in which they may be resort- ed to with advantage. 1. Laxative Clyster. Let two or three quarts of thin water-gruel be mixed with eight ounces of Glauber's salt, to which are to be added, six ounces of sweet oil. 2. Emollient Clyster. Take two or three quarts of thin water-gruel, six ounces of coarse sugar, and a similar proportion of salad-oil. The whole is to be well mixed, and injected lukewarm. These two preparations will be fully suf- ficient to promote a free discharge in sudden obstructions, inflamma- tions, Sec. ; they are, in general, fully as efficacious as the*more costly compounds. 3. Purging Clyster:. Iiiise two ounces of senna in boiling water; H'OR HOR 327 after having stood a sufficient time it is to be strained, and [half a pint of molasses,] with an equal quan- tity of salad-oil, are to be carefully incorporated with it....This will operate more speedily than either of the preceding mixtures, and is therefore preferable, when imme- diate discharges become neces- sary. [Another. Common salt a small handful, lamp or sweet oil, a. pint, molasses a pint, water one quart, inject by means of a large pewter syringe. This remedy is highly useful in cases of over feeding, and should be repeated every half hour, until the bowels are fully evacu- ated.] In case of sudden or apprehend- ed inflammations, in thebowels,the following is the most proper : 4. Anodyne Clyster: it consists of one pint of the jelly of starch, or infusion of linseed, and one ounce of liquid laudanum, properly mixed, and immediately adminis- tered : if the symptoms increase, from 30 to 40 grains of opium may be substituted for the laudanum, according to their urgency. 5. Nourishing Clyster. Three quarts of thick water-p.ruel, with two or three table-spoonsful of ho- ney. When clysters of this kind become necessary, they ought to be given four or even five times in the course of a day, as circum- stances may require. They are very serviceable in cases of locked jaw, inflammations of the throat, Sec. 6. Diuretic Clysters. Take Ve- nice turpentine, two ounces ; Cas- tile soap, one ounce. These are to be well beaten up with the yolk of two eggs, and then diluted with two quarts of warm water. Such a clyster is of great service in the strangury, and all obstructions of the urinary passages : if speedily administered, it seldom fails to af- ford complete relief. These few clysters are amply sufficient for common exigencies ; and, with a few alterations, which every skilful person is able to adopt will answer almost every purpose. \Diureiic mash. Dissolve half an ounce of salt pelre (nitre) in a quart of strained flaxseed tea, and mix it with bran for his food.] III. Poultices are of such uti- lity, as to deserve a place in this collection. We shall, therefore, subjoin two preparations which may be safely applied in cases of * accidental wounds. 1. Digestive Poultice: Take such a quantity of oat-meal or coarse wheaten flour, and beer- grounds, as may be required on the occasion : with these are to be mixed common turpentine and hog's lard, one ounce of each, pre- viously melted together, and the whole boiled to the consistence of a poultice. 2. Emollient Poultices : Take half a pound of oat-meal, or coarse wheaten flour, and a similar quan- tity of pulverized linseed. These are to be boiled in milk and water, to the consistence of a cataplasm, when one ounce of sal ammoniac in powder should be added. The emollient poultice may be applied to wounds attended with great heat, inflammation, or swelling: by the addition of^ fresh butter, lard, or oil, it may be rendered more relaxing, so that it will spee- dily remove the tension of the skin, while it attenuates the viscid and obstructed juices. IV. Powders. The chief pow- 328 HOR HOR der employed in farriery is that of Dia-pente ; which consists of equal quantities of gentian, barberries, myrrh, the shavings of ivory and round birlhwort (Aristolochia ro- tunda, L.) These are to be care- fully pulverized, sifted, and weigh- ed, so that the exact proportions be mixed ; after which they are to be kept perfectly secluded from the air. This powder generally forms an ingredient in other me- dicines, and is of considerable ef- ficacy in the Farcy (which see :) it is likewise mixed with musca- dine wine, sack, or ale, and given as a kind of diet-drink to horses affected with colds,coughs, inflam- mations in the blood or liver, and various other affections: as it tends to purify the humours, and to clear the bowels of infectious or corrupt matter. The last class of medicines that deserve attention, are : V. Diet Drinks, which are generally used in cases of surfeits, or similar disorders ; for this pur- pose, the following receipes may be useful: 1. Lime-water, prepared with shavings of sassafras and liquorice, is well calculated to purify the blood, and may occasionally be given, together with balls consist- ing of pulverized salt-petre, mixed with honey ; so that two or three ounces of nitre be taken in the course of twenty-four hours. 2. Tar-water may in many ca- ses, and especially when the ap- petite is impaired, be administer- ed with advantage ; but let it be remembered, that all medicines of this nature ought to be continued for a considerable time, in obsti- nate maladies ; for, otherwise, there will be no chance of suc- cess. Lastly, as many diseases of the horse arise from obstructed perspi- ration, inconsequence of his being suffered to stand in the stable, and become cool after fatiguing labour, we can from experience recom- mend a mesh, consisting of two or three gallons of lukewarm water, in which half a pound of honey is dissolved, with the addition of a few handfuls of barley-meal, or malt dust : such a draught ought to be allowed morning and even- ing for several days, whenever it is apprehended that the animal has taken cold, or been otherwise in- jured by violent exertions. [For Sore Eyes. Dissolve half an ounce of sugar of lead in a quart of water, and bathe the eyes frequently with a linen cloth dipped therein. When the inflammation has subsided, and the eye continues to run from weakness, add 1 oz. of white vitriol to a pint of the above water. For other diseases See the several articles. Under art. Horse it was intended to treat of the best draaght of horses or oxen, but in order to' make this article more complete, it must be deferred until we come to the arti- cle Wheel-carriages.] HORSE-RADISH, or Cochle- aria Armoracia, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing on the sides of ditches, the banks of riv- ers, and other damp places ; flow- ering in the month of May. It has a strong pungent smell; a penetrating acrid taste ; and is refused by every kind of cattle.... The root, when scraped, is much used at the table as a condiment for fish, roast beef, kc. ; it is also em- ployed for many other culinary purposes ; and might in times of scarcity, afford flour for bread. V* ith this intention, however, the HOR roots ought to be collected in au- tumn, and treated in the manner already described. [See art. Cas- sava and Che'snut.] But, if horse-radish be intended for im- mediate use, it ought to be dug out of the ground fresh, only from October to March ; or to be ga- thered in the spring, then dried, reduced to powder, and preserved in bottles closely stopped, for oc- casional use ; when it should be previously moistened with spring water. When Steeped and digest- ed in vinegar, during a fortnight, this root is said effectually to re- move freckles in the face. In paralytic complaints, horse- radish has sometimes been applied, with advantage, as a stimulating remedy to the parts affected. A strong infusion of it excites vomit- ing ; and is greatly recommended by Sydenham in dropsies,particu- larly such as succeed intermittent fevers. Prof. Blckmaxn menti- ons this vegetable among the most proper substances for tanning or currying leather. [A syrup made by boiling scra- ped horse-radish in brown sugar, is an excellent remedy in the de- cline of colds and of pleurisies, to promote expectoration. A tea- spoonful may be taken frequently, and permitted to dissolve in the mouth.] IIORSE-SHOE-HEAD, an af- fection of the heads of infants, in which the sutures of the skull are too open, or too great a space oc- curs between them ; so that the aperture is frequently not closed, or the cranium in that part does not become hard and firm, till the age of puberty. This opening in- creases as often as the child takes cold ; and, if it continue for a long VOL. HI. HOR 329 series of years, it is generally re- garded as a sign of weakness, or short life. In this case, the usual practice is to rub the head occasion- ally with warm rum or brandy, mixed with the white of an egg, or a little palm-oil : it will also be ad- visable to wear a small cushion over such aperture, by which it will not only be protected from the cold air, but likewise from receiv- ing sudden injury ; and conse- quently the closing of it will be promoted. Such infants ought to be watched with additional care to prevent any accidental falls, or blows, on the head, which to them would be fatal....See also Food. HORSE-TAIL, or Equiselum, L. a genus of perennial plants, comprising eight species, six of which are indigenous: of these, the following are the principal: 1. The Sylvaticum, or Wood- horse-tail, which grows in moist woods, shady places in the vicini- ty of rivers, and on boggy soils : it flowers in the months of April and May. Horses eat this plant with avidity ; and, in some parts of Sweden, it is collected for the pur- pose ofservingthemas winter-food. 2. The arvense, Common, or Corn horse-tail, growing in wet meadows and moist corn-fields. It is a most troublesome weed in pastures, and is seldom touched by cows, unless pressed by hunger, when it occasions an incurable di- arrhoea : it is eaten with impunity by horses, but is noxious to sheep. This rough grass is employed for cleaning and polishing tin vessels. According to Glfditsch, this species, as well as thefiuvialile, or River-horse-tail, are of considera- ble service in tanning or dressing leather. L v 330 H O S HOT 3* The palustrc, Marsh-horse- tail, or Paddock-pipe, which flou- rishes in maishy and watery pla- ces ; flowers in the months of June and' July. It is not so strong as the preceding species, but is equal- ly prejudicial to cows : farther, it is very troublesome in drains, with- in which it vegetates, and forms both stems and roots, several yards in length : thus the course of the water is interrupted, and the drains are totally obstructed. To remedy this inconvenience, the reader will consult the article Draining. 4. The hyemalc, Rough Horse- tail, Shave-grass, Pewterwort, or Dutch Rushes, is found in marshy, watery soils, and flowers in the months of July and August. This species is wholesome for horses, by which it is eaten ; but it is hurt- ful to cows, and disagreeable to sheep. It is chiefly employed by turners and cabinet-makers, for po- lishing their work ; as well as by dairy-maids, for cleaning pails and other wooden utensils. Horse-worm. See Botts. HOSPIT AL, a building proper- ly endowed, or otherwise main- tained by voluntary contributions, for the reception and support of the poor, sick, infirm or helpless. Few countries abound with a greater number of these humane institutions than Britain ; yet they are often calculated to generate disease rather than to cure it, on account of their crowded wards, or from their confined situation in populous cities, where the most pestilential vapours are in a man- ner condensed ; and thus, in too many instances, the victims of po- verty, age infirmity, or sickness, eventually perish by mutual con- tagion. Much, we are convinced, has already been done towards reme- dying an evil of so serious a na- ture ; but still more remains to be accomplished, before salutary changes produce the desired effect in this neglected department of medical police. We mention these few circumstances, in order to ex- cite a greater degree of attention to this important object, in which the salubrity of the metropolis is particularly concerned. Those of our benevolent readers who wish to acquire further information, ought to read the Extracts from an Account of the Institution for the Cure and Prevention of Contagious Fevers in London, lately published; as well as Mr. Aikin's Thoughts on Hospitals (8vo. Is. 6c?. John- son, 1771) : both pamphlets equal- ly abound with interesting facts and observations. HOT-BEDS, in gardening, are made either with fresh horse-dung or tanners' bark, and covered with glasses, to protect them from the severity of the wind and weather. Where horse-dung is employed, a trench should be dug, of a width and depth proportioned to the.size of the frames intended to be used; and which, in dry ground, ought to be a foot, or a foot and a hal£, deep ; but, if the soil be wet, it should not exceed six inches. The dung is then to be spread even and smooth on every part of the beds, laying the finer manure on the surface : if the bed be intended for planting out cucumbers, a hole should be made, about ten inches broad, and six inches deep, in the middle of the place destined for each light, and then filled up with good fresh earth. The bed is next to be covered, to the depth of four HOT inches, with the earth taken out of the trench, and the frame fixed over it, to remain till the earth become warm, which commonly takes place in the course of 3 or 4 clays after the bed is made; when the cucumbers may be planted. In case the hot-bed be designed for other plants, it will not be ne- cessary to make holes in the dung; but, after levelling the surface, good earth ought to be spread over it, to the depth of three or four inches; the frames and glasses be- ing put on as before. In making such beds, the dung, should be set- tled close with a fork ; and if it be full of long litter, it must be trod down equally in every part. In the first week, or ten days, after the hot-bed is made, the glasses should be slightly covered during the night, and cautiously opened in the day time, to give vent to the 6team; but as soon as the heat abates, the covering should be in- creased by mats or straw ; and, when the bed becomes cold, fresh dung should be applied to its sides. Hot-beds made with tanners' bark are preferable to those above described, especially for tender exotic plants and fruits; as they require a more equal warmth than can be produced by horse-dung. The method of making them is as follows : a trench is dug about three feet deep, if the ground be dry ; but, if the soil be wet, it ought not to exceed the depth of a foot, and should be raised two feet above the ground. Their size must be in proportion to the frames in- tended to cover them; though they ought to extend at least 10 or 12 feet in length, and six feet in width. The trench should be lin- ed with bricks on each side, to the height of three feet, and filled in HOT 331 the spring with fresh tanners' bark, which should be previously thrown up into a round heap, in order to drain for three or four days. \Y hen the tan is laid on, it ought to be gently beaten down with a dung- fork ; for, if it be trodden in, it will be prevented from heating, as it settles too close. The frame and glasses are now to be fixed ; and, in the course of ten days or a fort- night, the bed will grow hot, when pots or plants of seed may be plunged in it; care being taken that the bark be not compressed. These beds will preserve a proper temperature of heat for three or four months, which may be con- tinued two or three months longer, by adding a load or two of fresh bark, as often as the warmth be- gins to decrease. Frames vary hi size, according to the plants they are destined to cover. If designed for ananas or pine-apples, the back should be three feet high, the lower part fif- teen inches : when the heel is in- tended for taller plants, the frame must be made proportionally high- er ; if for seeds only, it will not be necessary to employ frames more than fourteen inches in height at the back,- and seven in the front. Thus, the heat will be increased, and the growth of the plants con- siderably promoted. HOT-HO USE, a building erect- ed for the purpose of raising such exotic plants, as, from their ex- treme tenderness, are unable to withstand the eflects of a cold or variable climate. The construction of hot-houses, in general, differs little from that of Gheen-houses ; because the design of both is to receive as much benefit as possible from the genial warmth of the sun, assisted by the HOT HOT heat artificially procured from sub- terraneous stoves and flues.....We shall, therefore, at present, only give an analysis (from the 1st vol. of the second series of Recreations in ylgriculture, &c.) of the princi- ple 0.1 which Dr. Anderson's im- proved hot-houses are constructed, and for which he has lately obtain- ed a patent. He first points out the defects in the present method of erecting hot-houses ; in consequence of which the heat of the. sun is not employed with that" advantage of which it is susceptible. In the prevailing mode of building these houses, the roof glasses are, with very few exceptions, Jaid into the frames, by folding one frame over the other, and thus leaving an open space between each pane; through which the air has a free passage, while the front panes are closely covered round with putty. This communication with the open air at the upper part of the house, is their chief imperfection: for the power of the morning sun is thus lost for several hours; and, in the evening, when the warm air with- in begins to cool and to contract in bulk, the cold air from without rushes in through the top or roof- glasses, cools the whole house in the most expeditious manner, and thus counteracts the influence of the solar rays. To remedy these inconvenien- c'.es, the patentee proposes the fol- lowing plan of construction, for houses designed to force vines, or such plants as require a similar temperature. The house is to be built of the usual dimensions, but with a glass roof perfectly flat; and, as it never requires to be open- ed, all ihe seams or junctures be- tween each pane are to be care- fully closed with lead and putty* Over this flat ceiling, another slop- ing roof is to be erected, and co- vered either with slate, or likewise with glass, which will better an- swer the purpose. The upper chamber, which will thus serve as a reservoir for the heated air, com- municates with the common at- mosphere only at its lower part, that is, immediately over the roof of the lower house; and there is a contrivance for another occasional communication with the latter, by means of a pipe or tube, that ex- tends from the top of the upper chamber, almost to the ground below. By this construction, as soon as the sun expands the air in the low- er house or chamber, a part of that air rises through the tube into the upper chamber ; where it ascends to the top or roof, forcing out the cooler air contained in the upper chamber, which passes off through the openings left above the floor of this chamber, or in the roof of the lower room. During the whole of this heat- ing process, the vines, which are trained along, beneath the glass roof of the lower chamber, are sur- rounded with heated air. In the evening, when the influence of the sun is withdrawn, the warm air be- gins to cool, and consequently to contract its bulk ; thus the exter- nal air rushes in, through the aper- ture immediately over the lower glass roof, into the upper cham- ber. This cold air being heavier than that within the house, it can only enter as the latter recedes; the current through both chambers is now exactly reversed ; and the lower room receives all the warm air from the reservoir or upper one, before the cold can reach it. HOT Dr. Anderson is of opinion, that a few hours sun-shine will at any time be sufficient completely to heat the house in which vines are planted ; and thus, without any artificial heat from fuel, a perma- nent warmth may be maintained, which is sufficient to ripen grapes, in favourable weather, as early as in the months of June, July, and August. He farther suggests, that the upper chamber may be convert- ed into an hot-house of inferior rank ; and that it would be emi- nently calculated to serve as a sub- stitute for a green-house or con- servatory. Such is the outline of this very ingenious plan, and the inquisitive reader who wishes to acquire more minute information on this subject, will probably resort to the volume already quoted, where it is amply treated, and illustrated with cuts. [Dr. W. adds the following ac- count of a new plan in his supple- ment.] A glass frame for buildings of this description has lately been in- vented by M. Benard : it posses- ses considerable advantages over those in common use. The lower part consists of a double square of glass-panes set in wood, or in wood and lead. The upper part is composed of panes of glass fix- ed in wood, and terminates in an oblong six-sided prism : it may be taken of at pleasure, by a ring connected with the top......The whole of this fabric has the singu- lar advantage of throwing a great body of light on the plants, while it prevents that sickly growth, de- nominated etiolation ; and renders iten-y to produce a variety of tem- peratures, as occasion may require. M. Benaud's hot-house is suppli- ed with heat, at a trifling expense, H O U 333 by common oil ; the smoke of which is conveyed round the frame, by means of a flue. Hot-houses are liable to be in- fested with a variety of insects known under the different appella- tions of Cocci, Aphides (lice), Sec. that harbour in the walls, and among the trellises, which fasten up vines, and other wall-fruit trees, especially during the winter. In order to destroy these vermin, Mr. Speechley recommends the walls to be washed with common soap- suds, early in the spring, while they are in a torpid state : this li- quor is to be poured out of a wa- tering-pot from the top of the wall downwards ; and ought when used, to be considerably warmer than new milk : thus, if the suds be properly and plentifully applied, the wall will assume a pale red colour, and the insects be effectu- ally destroyed. HOUND, an appellation given to dogs of chace. Hounds of the middle kind are deemed to be the best, being stronger than such as are either very small, or of a large size..... The shape of these animals should be carefully attended to, as they can neither run swift, nor perform great tasks, if their limbs are not well proportioned. A good hound ought to have straight legs, round small feet, and well-formed shoul- ders ; his breast should be rather wide than narrow ; his chest deep ; his back broad ; his head small ; his neck thin ; his tail thick and bushy. Young animals that are weak from the knee to the foot, should not be suffered in the pack ; and all the hounds should be near- ly of a size. Particular attention is requisite in the breeding of houn'ds. No old 334 HOU HOU dogsshould be admitted,nor should any attempts be made to cross the breed. The months of Januarv, February, and March, are the best for breeding. As, however, this quadruped is less connected with purposes of economy than amuse- ment, we shall content ourselves with referring the curious reader to Mr. Beckford's " Thoughts on Hunting," (4to. 10. 6d.) in which the subject is fully and perspicu- ously treated. Hound's-berry: See Cornel- tree. HOUND's-TONGUE, or Cy- ncglossum, L. a genus of plants consisting of eight species, two of which are natives of Britain : the principal of these is the officinale, Common Great Hound's-tongue, or Dog's-tongue, which is fre- quently found on road sides, and among rubbish ; where it flowers in June. It is eaten by goats, but refused by sheep, horses, hogs, and cows. Its scent is very dis- agreeable, and resembles the odour of mice. This plant has a bitter taste, and is so powerfully narcotic, that persons who had eaten it as a cu- linary vegetable, were laid into a profound sleep for fourteen hours ; and others died in consequence. The roots, however, were, ac- cording to Ray, employed by Dr. Hulse, who prescribed a decoc- tion of them internally, and cata- plasms externally in scrophulous cases. The leaves and roots have likewise been recommended for the same purposes, and also for coughs, dysenteries, Sec. on ac- count of their mucilaginous, astrin- gent, and sedative qualities, of which we have bad no experi- ence. [The Cynoglossum Virginiamim, is a native of the United States. The leaves when used as tobacco to smoke, intoxicate. According to Clayton; the root is astringent, and is given in diarrhoeas.] HOUR, a measure of time, equal to the 24th part of the na- tural day, or that space of time which the earth requires to per- form its diurnal revolution round its axis. The hour is divided into 60 minutes, each of which is divid- ed into 60 seconds, as every second is into 60 thirds. See Time and Watch. HOUR-GLASS, a kind of chro- nometer, employed by navigators, as well as by some artisans and mechanics, to measure the passing of time, by means of a descent or running of sand, out of one glass into another. The best hour-glasses are those which are filled with egg-shells, well dried in an oven, finely pul- verized, and sifted ; as they shew the passing of time with greater exactness than common sand. HOUSE,a habitation or edifice suited with conveniencies /or the abode of man. The chief requisites in construc- ing houses are, situation, durabili- ty, and convenience, of which we have already treated under the ar- ticle Building ; we shall therefore only notice an expired patentgrant- edin 1786 to Mr. Dennis McCar- thy, for his then new-invented compound, applicable to the for- mation of tiles. The patentee directs three bush- els of Thames sand, or any white fluxing sand, to be mixed with a bushel of salt, and calcined in a kiln or furnace till it become a hard substance. These ingredients are HOU then to be ground fine, and one bushel of them mixed with an equal quantity of white clay, or whiting, to which are to be added one bushel of calcined ground flint, or ground glass; plaister of Paris may also be mingled with the clay, if the lat- ter article cannot be easily procur- ed ; and, by the addition of smalt, the compound may be made of a beautiful slate colour. When the ingredients are mixed together, and moistened with wa- ter, they should be worked till they acquire a consistence proper for casting them into moulds. The pieces, or tiles thus formed, are next to be burned hi a furnace, or kiln, the fire being confined by funnels or muffles. The size of these tiles depends on the distance of the rafters, on which they are to be placed in such a direction, that the joints may meet in the centre, and either fold over, or fix into each other exactly; in which 6tate they arc to be fastened by pegs,screws,spikes,ice. when the joints are to be closed with stone cement, tarras, or fine mortar.... A more particular account of this invention will be found in the 11th vol. of the Repertory of Arts a/.d Manufactures, where it is fully spe- cified. [Under the articles, Coun- try-house, Ai.CHiTEcruiiE, and Building, may be found some general observations on this sub- ject, which deserve attention. At present some additional instruc- tions shall be given, as the result of much inquiry among practical men, 1. In the first place, it is of the greatest consequence to procure well seasoned timber for joists. Wood differs very much in dura- bili'y, and yet the opinion of men HOU 335 whose judgment upon this subject is matured by repeated experience, authorizes the assertion that the durability of any particular species of wood is not so much connected with the nature of it, as with its seasoning. Hemlock spruce, ('Pi- nus Abies Americana) is a very perishable wood, if used when re- cently felled and sawed ; but it is a fact, that young hemlock, free from wind shakes, duly seasoned* and not floated, will last as long as most other kind's of wood un- der similar circumstances. Mr. D. Evans, jun. of Philadelphia, an experienced builder, in altering his house, found a bond piece of hemlock sound, which he knew from the age of the house must have been at least 80 years old. The Senate chamber in Con- gress hall; and the building erect- ed for the President of the United States, and now occupied by the University of Pennsylvania, were striking instances of the perishable nature of unseasoned hemlock: but it is also a fact, that white-oak if unseasoned, will not last longer than hemlock w ben put into brick or stone-work. Of this ma- ny facts may be produced. The necessity of attention to the tim- ber is the more earnestly enforc- ed, because from the rapidity wit'i which houses have been built in Philadelphia for some years past, much timber, fresh from the saw-mill, has been put in dwellings intended by the owners to be du- rable, but which have already be- gun to decay, and will continue to rot. Rome serious acidents will one clay occur, to rouse people from their inattention. 2. The thickness of the walls of a house is an object nearly of e- qual importance, with that of uhc 336 HOU HOU first article. Independently of the increased durability of a house, ari- sing from thick walls, the consi- deration of our comfort ought to excite to improvement in that par- ticular. Houses with thick walls are cooler in summer and warmer in winter. In Calcutta the walls of houses are nearly three feet thick, and the outsides are covered with a mortar called Chunam, (see Cement) which reflects the heat, so that they are rendered cooler than many houses in the United States, notwithstanding the greater heat of the climate of India. In winter also, the quantity of fuel saved by the thick walls of a house confining the heat, must be obvi- ous. At present the walls of most houses built in Philadelphia are much too thin, as they seldom ex- ceed nine inches, and derive the chief part of their support from the adjoining houses. It is not unusual to perceive day-light thro' the walls of the garret of a house, a circumstance which must neces- sarily render these-apartments un- comfortable at all seasons; but there is another disadvantage which ought to be mentioned: should the house take fire and the rafters of the roof be destroyed, the gable end, for want of support will pro- bably fall in, and endanger the lives of those who meritoriously risk their safety for our benefit. Such an accident happened in a large brickhouselastspring,( 1803) and occasioned the death of one person, and seriously wounded some others. Count Rumford has clearly proved, that " though the indivi- dual particles of air, can receive heat from other bodies, or commu- nicate it to them, yet there is no communication of heat between one particle of air, and another parti- cle of air. And hence it follows, that though air may, and certainly does carry off heat, and transport it from one place, or from one bo- dy to another, yet a mass of air, with all its particles at rest, could it remain in that state, would be totally impervious to heat; or in other words, such a mass of air would be a perfect non-conduc- tor. " Now if heat passes in a mass of air merely in consequence of the motion it occasions in that air, it is clear that whatever can ob- struct and impede the internal mo- tion of the air, must tend to dimi- nish its conducting power. I found that a certain quantity of heat which was able to make its way through a wall, or rather a sheet of confin- ed air 1 an inch thick in 9| mi- nutes, required 21 § minutes to make its way through the same wall, when the internal motion of the air was Iknpeded by mixing with it Jg- part of its bulk of eider down, of very*fine fur, or of fine silk, as spun by the worm." Hence probably, if a room were lined with canvass nailed on bat- tens two or three inches thick, and the space filled up with rabbit-fur, cotton, feathers or wool, very great advantages would be derived in respect to saving the heat. On the north-west and north-east sides of an exposed house, the experiment might at least be tried. If fur be wanting, the same end may be nearly as well answered by the following plan. Place bat- tens from one and a half, to two inches thick, at proper distances against the wall, and the height of the room, and secure them by stay- HOU HOU 33T nails driven in between the joints. Upon the battens lay the laths. The stay-nails may be of the fol- lowing form. Thus by confining a column of air between the wall and the laths, the air of the room is less affected by the diminution or increase of heat in the external atmosphere; and the dampness which so com- monly penetrates walls, to the in- jury of paper, pictures and furni- ture, is effectually prevented..... It is a common practice to work blocksof wood into the walls, and to fasten battens to them for the pur- pose of lathing, but Mr. Evans, (before-mentioned) assured the edi- tor, that some walls thus treated, have been thrown several inches out of plumb, in consequence of the expansion of the blocks. 3. Cedar or cypres shingles are generally employed in the United VOL. III. States for covering houses : the clanger arising from their combus- tible nature, is obvious, and the ef- fects of this combustibility have been frequently felt. Houses distant from a scene of conflagration, have been often set on fire in consequence of sparks and burning flakes be- ing carried to the roofs by the wind. New-York indeed is an ex- ception to the general passion for shingling. There, tiles have been used for many years ; and, lately, from the fortunate discovery of a slate quarry in that state, this su- perior substitute is coming rapidlv into use. The expense of a slaje roof is but little more than a roof of shingles, and will last for ever,' whereas a shingle roof must be re- paired every twenty or thirty years. 4. Stone cornices are of great uti- lity in preventing the progress of fires. Where a row of houses is continued for some hundred feet, their utility must be particularly obvious in interrupting flames. A battlement,(parapet)and stone bracket in the cornice, (if of wood) would also answer the same pur- pose. There were formerly in use in Philadelphia, but have been abandoned in latter times. 5. Chimneys should uniformly be built in with the wall against which they are intended to run up; and when a chimney is carried up in a brick or stone house, not ori- ginally intended for a fire place, it should be clamped with irons, and pinned on the outside of the wall; otherwise in case of fire, the chim- ney will fall, when the trimming joices on which it rests are burnt, and endanger the lives of those who may be meritoriously exert- ing themselves to save our pro- perty. Such an accident, and from the very neglect, against which the X x 338 HOU ■ HOU reader is now cautioned, happen- ed lately at a fire in Water-street, Philadelphia ; where by the falling of a chimney, society and their families were deprived of some very valuable citizens. 6. The wind from the north-east in the United States being cold, and generally moist; and the north- west wind, though dry, being also cold ; a house should be so contriv- ed if possible, as to occupy the above quarters with entries and stair-cases. 7. Count Rumford has taken notice of the benefits that are de- rived in cold countries from the use of double windows, (that is, one paned window near the outer Surface, and another near the in- ner surface of the wall in each case- ment, with a vacant space between them) for a defence from the cold in high latitudes ; and he wonders that it never should have occurred to any one, that double windows would be equally beneficial in keep- ing out the heat as well as cold , but to render this contrivance as beneficial for the purpose of cool- ing houses, we must add the fol- lowing caution of Count Rum- ford. " When double windows are used in hot countries, to keep dwelling houses cool, great care must be taken to screen those win- dows from the sun's direct rays, and even from the strong light of day ; otherwise they will produce effects directly contrary to those intended. This may be easily done, either by Venetian blinds or by awnings. In afl cases where rooms are to be kept cool in hot weather, the less light that is per mitted to enter them, the cooler they will be." Dr. Anderson {Recreations, vol. I.) has suggested an improvement in the construction of double win- dows, but of a questionable nature. 8. The utility of stone stair- cases was mentioned under the ar- ticle " Fire." See also Stair- case. 9. In this climate, no house should be erected without a con- ductor of lightning. The prefera- ble mode of securing a house from this awful agent, is described under the article " Conductor." 10. Where shingles are used to cover roofs, the courses ought to be regulated by the following rules: When cedar shingles are used,. they may be laid in courses of nine or ten inches ; but when short cypres shingles are employed, the courses may be seven inches. In both cases,they will be but three shingles thick, which is a point to be aimed at. Such a roof will dry sooner than when thicker, and will not be so likely to leak as when thinner. An honest carpenter of note in Philadelphia, made his courses ve- ry short with the express intention of preventing the decay of the roof; but it was generally remarked that houses which had been shingled by him, required new roofs sooner than others which had been roofed by other carpenters. Some very old houses in Philadelphia, the roofs of which have not been renewed for many years, have their courses of shingles longer than more mo- dern houses. Shingles are of late bevelled at their butl-ends, to per- mit an easy passage to rain, which by dropping from the abrupt thick end of the shingle, has been found to wear the roof; the beveliing however should be done before the shingles are taken up to the roof; for, if afterwards done by a hatch- et: the part intended to be pared HOU HOU 339 -will be missed by that instrument, which will penetrate the shingles already laid on, thus making nu- merous cavities for the reception of rain, and cause a rapid decay of the roof. An instance occurs in Philadelphia, of three adjoining houses, on one of which the shing- les from being bevelled on the roof, leaks ; while on the other two, they were put on as they came from the yard, and do not admit a particle of water. Shingles if dipped in fish oil, will have their durability great- ly increased. * In South Carolina and Georgia, houses are built of a composition called tabby, which is ornamental, and very durable. It is made in the following manner. Oyster shells(of which immense banks are found in those states,) are burnt to lime, and mortar made, into which are incorporated as ma- ny small dead shells as it will con- tain : this semi-fluid mass is then poured into frames of the sizeof the intended walls, and well pounded ; when dry, the frame is raised, fresh tabby poured in, and again pound- ed : in this way the walls are built, and in a short time they become as hard as stone; and, being white, are particularly well calculated to reflect the intense rays of the sun. Mud-houses. " The way of building mud-hc eises, and walls for fencing, in several parts of Eng- land, is as follows. They take any kind of sod of a loamy or clay- ey nature ; but such as has been tempered in the bye-ways by cat- tle and horses is preferred : this is laid in a ring or circle, if-there be sufficient room, and thereon a quantity of coarse hay or cut straw about four inches loivj;, is laid, and upon that another coat of soil, and then oxen or horses (the former being preferred) are driven r >und over it as in threshing, and when sufficiently mixed by being thus trodden ; and occasionally forked up, it is fit to begin the building with. A foundation of stone, about 12 inches above ground being first laid, a man takes a three pronged fork, whose prongs are flatted ; and with it builds a wall of this tem- pered earth about 18 inches thick, and according as the weather is, sometimes two and sometimes three feet high, taking care to pack ^ it as closely as possible. If is now left to become sufficiently dry to bear another layer of 2 or 3 feet high upon it. The operation is thus continued until the desired height is obtained. If it be a house of more than a single story, a curb frame of light scantling may be thrown round, and buried in the next layer, upon which also the ends of the beams may be laid. When these walls are for fenc- ing orchards, gardens, &c. the top is capped with a thatch of stubble, covered in the centre with a light layerof mud; and when for houses, the roofs are generally thatched with straw, and without any cover- ing to the outsides of lime or plas- ter. These walls have been known to stand upwards of a century. The advantage of building in this way, over the pise building used in France, is peculiar to those countries where labour is high, because very little art is necessa- ry ; the commonest labourer being competent to the task ; arid there being very few situations that doth not admit of soils proper for the work ; moreover it is not necessary to have the mud freed from small stones ; whereas in the pise build- ings a considerable portion of art is practised in erecting the frames 340 HOU and in beating the work all over equally hard. for small dwellings, stabies, sheds, fences, ice-houses or other out offices, this is the cheapest and best mode that I know of; neither cold nor heat can penetrate these walls, and if plastered on the out- side, and painted or lime-washed, they would appear as elegant as any common stone house, and very far superior to brick. The advocates for pise building complain, but without reason, of the use of straw or hay in the fbove described buildings, but the author of this article has knoWn villages where almost every house was of this kind, and never re- membered any inconvenience to arise from the supposed decay of that article : indeed the quantity is too small, and the soils when tempered properly and well packed on with the fork, will not admit of air, nor derive injury, from the par- tial and very imperceptible decay of the hay or straw therein." For the above account of the mode of making mud-walls, the editor is indebted to S. W. John- son, esquire, of New-Brunswick, New-Jersey.] HOUSE-LEEK, or Sempervi- ium,\..a genus of perennial plants, consisting of 13 species, one of whicfi, the Sempcrvivum tectorum, Common House-leek, or Cyphel, is a native of Britain ; it grows on the roofs of houses and old walls, where it flowers in the month of July. This plant is eaten by sheep and goats : its juice, when mixed with honey, is said to be of considerable service in aphthous cases, or the thrush of children ; it also affords immediate relief, whether applied by itself or mixed with cream, in HUN burns and other external inflam- mations. Hoven, or blown Cattle. See [art. Cattle.] HUNGER, and uneasy sensa- tion, occasioned by long abstinence from food, when the body is in a state of perfect health. Without attempting to specify the different preparations used by the ancients, for the prevention of hunger, we shall merely commu- nicate such substitutes as have been judiciously recommended on sudden emergencies ; together with the most proper means of admi-' nistering food to persons who have for a considerable time been de- prived of aliment. In times of distress, life mav be protracted with less pain and mi- sery, by a moderate allowance of water ; because that fluid counter- acts the acrimony and putrid ten- dency of the humours, while it furnishes the lungs with the degree of moisture essentially requisite to the performance of their functions. It is, however, a matter of serious consequence to such as are expos- ed to this dreadful calamity, to be provided with the means of alle- viating its horrors, when about to undertake a long journey, in which they are apprehensive of a scarci- ty of provisions. The American Indians are sup- posed to use a preparation consist- ing of the juice of tobacco, and the shells of oysters, snails, or cockles, burnt so as to be reduced to the finest powder. These ingredients are dried, and formed into lozen- ges of a proper size to be held be- twen the gum and the lip, so that, being gradually dissolved, they ob- tund or mitigate the sensations both of hunger and thirst. A more palatable and efficacious HUN HUN 341 substitute for food, however, in a famishing situation at sea, is the powder of salep, which has been judiciously suggested by Dr.LiND, in order that it may form part of the provisions of every ship's com- pany. This powder, together with portable soup, when dissolved in boiling water, forms a rich thick jelly, and one ounce of each article will furnish a whole day's subsist- ance for an adult. Indeed, from the experiments made on salep, by Dr. Percival, it appears to con- tain a larger quantity of nutritious Y* ■ aliment, in proportion to its bulk, than any other vegetable matter hitherto known as food. It also possesses the valuable property of suppressing the nauseous taste of salt water ; and may thus be of \t great utility at sea, when fresh wa- ter is either wholly, or so far con- r sumed, that the mariners are " put upon short allowance." From the same mucilaginous property, it greatly tends to counteract the acri- mony of both salted and tainted meat. When provisions are nearly exhausted, the most beneficial me- thod of using salep in distressing circumstances will be, to mix it whh an equal quantity of beef- suet, and form the whole into little balls. By swallowing this compo- sition, at proper intervals,the coats of the stomach will be defended from irritation : and, these balls, like other oily and mucilaginous matters, being highly nutritive, and slowly digested, small portions are well calculated to support life, and thus to form an efficacious preservative against the most dreadful calamity that can possi- bly happen to mankind. Gum ara- ble is likewise a good substitute for, or addition to, salep, in the prepa- ration above mentioned; and as it renders the whole mass more so- lid, it will require a degree of mas- tication, by which the saliva is se- parated and conveyed into the sto- mach ; while it contributes to as- suage the pains, both of hunger and of thirst. In attempting the restoration of those unfortunate persons who have indured the horrors of fa- mine, we recommend the ut- most precaution. Warmth, cor- dials, and the most nourishing broths, or jellies, are to be admini- stered gradually, and with great circumspection; for otherwise, evnn these might prove fatal. The most judicious mode of commu- nicating warmth to the exhausted patient, will be to place a healthy person on each side in contact with him. Bathing the feet in warm water, and fomentations, may be advantageously employed ; but their temperature ought to be low- er than that of the human body, and imperceptibly increased. New milk, weak broth, or water-gruel, may be used for both purposes, as well as in repeated clysters ; be- cause nourishment may, in this manner,be effectually conveyed in- to the body by different passagt *., which are most pervious during a state of long abstinence ; provided the means of relief have not been too long delayed. Cordials should at first be given in very small do- ses, and much diluted : one of the best preparations is white-wine whey, which affords, both a gentle stimulus and easy nutrimer.:. When the patient's stomach ac- quires a little strength, a new-laid egg may be mixed with the whey, or given in some other foi m that may be more agreeable to his pa- 342 HUN late. Thus, he may progressively return to a more substantial diet; so that, by proper care and cheer- ful society, he will in a short time be restored to health. HUNTING, the exercise, or diversion of pursuing wild quadru- peds, whether those of game or prey. Hunting has at all time,s been a favourite amusement, as well among the rudest, as the most polished nations. Much, however. has been said both for and against the continuance of this practice. The late Frederic the Great, of Prussia, never joined in the chace. Where wild, or noxious animals abound, or where the object of hunting is to procure the necessa- ry supply of food, the chace is doubtless justifiable. But, when it is attended with such mischief as is often the case in highly culti- vated districts, we conceive, it ought to be gradually abolished. Nor should it be urged by professi- onal sportsmen, that, without be- ing chased, wild animals would multiply in such numbers as to be- come dangerous to man and cattle. This plea, however specious, is not conclusive ; because we are in pos- session of various methods by which animals of prey might be entrapped, taken or otherwise ex- terminated, without any danger or inconvenience to the huntsmen. But, while this amusement is re- stained within due bounds, and not carried to such extremes as are, or at least were, till lately, practis- ed in France and Germany, we hesitate to pronounce unqualified censure; especially as it frequent- ly contributes to the health and vivacity of its votaries. HUS Hurtle-berries. See Bil- berries. HUSBANDRY, strictly speak- ing, comprehends the whole busi- ness of a farmer, or a man who maintains himself and family by cultivating the earth. In this light, husbandry includes not only agriculture, but several other branches connected with it. Of this description are the rearing of cattle ; the management of the dairy, or the making of butter and cheese; the treatment of bees ; the raising of flax, timber, hops &c. To these may be added horticul- ture, as far as it respects orchards, and the making of cyder and per- ry ; the domestic economy of the farm-house, and various other ob- jects, of which we treat in their res- pective order of the alphabet. Such are the numerous branches which demand the husbandman's attention ; and so complicated in- deed are they, as to call forth every exertion and ingenuity, for the purpose of facilitating the differ- ent operations, and to promote their more or less important ob- jects. Hence various societies, both public and private, have been instituted; which, by judicioffs premiums, and other modes of en- couragement, hive advanced this interesting science perhaps to the highest degree of perfection of which it is susceptible, if the occa- sional difference of opinion were ultimately settled. We shall there- fore, subjoin a list of such works as will amply repay the time and attention which may be spent in pursuing them, and which reflect lustre and credit on the country in which they have been published' The Communications to the Board HUS H Y D 343 of Agriculture, and the Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, iJfc. possess the fir^t place in the scale of merit. With these may also be classed the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society and Mr. Young's Annals of Agriculture; works which have been carried on for a series years, and which pro- gressively become more interest- ing and useful. Beside these collective and na- tional works, there have lately ap- peared various detached treatises, relative to the principal branches of husbandry, the perusal of which cannot fail to be attended with con- siderable advantage. Among these are, 1. Lord Somerville's Sys- tem followed, during the two last Years, by the Board of Ariculture, &c. (8vo. pp. 300, 2d edit. Miller, 1800) ; a work replete with infor- mation and philanthropic propo- sals. 2. Dr. Anderson's Essays on Agriculture (8vo. 3 vols. 1/. 7s.) 3. The same practical writer's Recreations in Agriculture, of which five volumes have been already published, 4. Mr. Ellis's Hus- bandry abridged and methodized, (8vo. 2 vols. 10s. 6d.), 5. Mr. Harte's Essays on husbandry (8vo. 5*. 6rf.) 6. Mr. Parkinson's Ex- perienced Farmer (2 vols. 8vo. Ro- binsons, 1798); a work contain- ing a variety of useful hints and directions. Much valuable infor- mation may also be collected from the New fanner's Calender (8vo. p. 619. e be liberally used between the wall and body of ice. 2. A chimney, to convey away the heated moist air, is an essen- tial requisite to all ice-houses nftt much used, anil which are placed in unfavourable iituations : it is the want of this chimney which occa- sions the disappointment of many persons, anxious to preserve a sup- ply of ice in summer. ". Mr. Moore suggests the pro- bability of a thatcht roof being equal to any, for the pui pose of covering an ice-house ; but there can be no ?uoai to doubt of it raw being the very 6c> material for a roof within reach of the farmer. If a single roof be used, the thatch should be as thick as possible, but a double roof (each roof being thatched) would more completely keep out external heat. Where the roof consists of boards and shingles, the inside may be covered with straw, to be supported by battens. In South Carolina and Georgia, where the ice must be imported from the northern states, and still greater precaution is necessary, the space between the double roof may be lined with powdered charcoal, or ashes, which are well known to be the worst conductors of heat. The body of charcoal need not be more than six inches thick. 4. A floor over the body of ice would further protect it from waste by excluding heat. This floor should be covered with straw, and also have a door, to enable a per- son to descend to the ice. 5. Ice-houses should be filled in the coldest weather, and the ice broken into lumps about the size of a man's head. Cold water may be dashed on every layer of ice, but salt must not be used. During very cold nights, the door of ice- houses should be left open. 6. Pits for ice-houses should be dug down to gravel, or have a drain to carry off the dissolved water. Ice is not only a great comfort in summer, but may be rendered essentially profitable to the farmer, by enabling him to take butter and meat to market in such order, as to command an extraordinary price. A very simple plan has been contrived, for this purpose, by Mr. Mooke,before mentioned, and thus described in his treatise on ice- houses. JEL " I had a cedar vessel made in the form of an oval tub, nearly as wide at bottom as top; in this was fitted as large a straight sided tin vessel as it would contain, open at top. The interstice between the sides of the two vessels was co- vered by an edging of tin, soldered to the upper edge of the tin ves- sel, and extended on to the upper edge of the wooden vessel, to which it was nailed, [but this edg- ing ought to have been of wood]. Through this last was cut a hole about an inch and a half space on each side, for the purpose of put- ing in ice; over the whole was fitted a wooden lid fastened by a hinge on one side. A coat or case of coarse cloth lined with rabbit skins, the fur side next the cloth and the pelt next the wood. The coat was in two parts for the con- venience of raising the lid : the part attached to the lid, had an edging which hung down and co- vered the joint when shut. The tin vessel was 14 inches long, 6 wide, and 12 deep, and contained 221bs. of butter wrapped in linen cloth, and put in edgeways". Machines upon the principle of that just described, may be appli- ed, as Mr. M. observes, to a vari- ety of purposes in families. Mr. Moore's inventions are se- cured by patent, but his terms for permits are so ea^y, that no one tan object to them. He directs letters post paid, to be addressed to, Thomas Moore, Brookvillc, Maryland, and they will be at- tended to.] JELLY, a form of food, pre- pared either from the juice of ripe fruits, boiled to a proper consist- ence with sugar ; or without it, from the flesh, intestines, or bones J E L 33?- of animals, which are stewed so afr to become perfectly stiff and firm when cold. The jellies of fruits are cooling, and acescent; in all disorders of the first passages, they are of emi- nent service, especially when di- luted with water....On the other hand, those prepared from animal substances are very nourishing, and useful to invalids. They ought, however, to be uniformly madeof young meat; as the flesh of old qua- drupeds and birds is hard, tough^ and productive of a thick glutinous jelly, which is extremely difficult of digestion. A wholesome jelly may be ob- tained by boiljng a large portion of blanched oats, with some harts- horn shavings and currants, toge- ther with a leg of veal cut to pieces, and the bones of which are broken. These ingredients are to be boiled or stewed over the fire, in a suffi- cient quantity of water, till the whole be reduced to a kind of jelly, which, when strained, and suffered to grow cold, will become firm and elastic. Such a preparation is much used on the Continent, in all hectic disorders, and eaten with broth of snails, or cray-fish [ ! J ] A few spoonfuls of the jelly are taken every morning, diluted with a ba- son of either of those broths, or any other warm liquor ; a dish which furnishes grateful and invi- gorating aliment to phthisical pati- ents, or those who are afflicted with. lingering complaints. Although we are no advocates for liquid food in general, which is apt to distend the stomach, and impair the powers of digestion, by not affording them proper exercise: such preparations may occasionally be very useful if conjoined with a due proportion 360 I L I ILI ■o; either well baked bread, or other substantial nutriment.....See also Iroth. [Bones.] Jfuusalem-artichoke. See Artichoke. Jessamine. See Jasmine. JET, a black inflammable con- crete which becomes electrical by friction ; attracts light substances, in the same manner as amber, and, when burning, emits a bituminous smell. It has the grain of wood, is but moderately hard, and splits most easily in a horizontal direction. Jet is always found in detached masses, lodged in other strata; it abounds no where so plentifully as in England, being very common in Yorkshire, and other northern counties, though it is also disco- vered in many clay-pits about Lon- don. Ireland, Sweden, Prussia, Germany, and other parts of Eu- rope, as well as the East Indies, produce this fossil. It admits of a high polish, and is chiefly con- verted into small boxes, buttons, bracelets, and other toys. In con- junction with oils, it forms an in- gredient in varnishes , and, when mixed with pulverized lime, it is said to produce a hard and dura- ble cement. ILIAC PASSION, or Ileus, one of the most dangerous maladies with which mankind is afflicted, and in which the motion of the bow- els is totally inverted. It general- ly arises from spasms, or obstruc- tions in the alimentary canal, by which the passage or descent of the excrements is impeded ; an unna- tural stricture of the intestines, rup- tures, £cc. violent exertions of the body, such as leaping, running, or riding; the lifting of great weights; eating of unripe fruits, especially pears and nuts; the drinking of sour and ill-fermented liquors; the use of too strong laxatives; worm* and obstinate costiveness, are a- mong the many causes which ge- nerate this fatal disorder. Where the iliac passion pro- ceeds from a distortion of the in- testines, there is little hope of re- covery. Various remedies, how- ever, have been used, with different degrees of success. Thus, large blisters applied to the most painful part, while emollient clysters are injected ; fomentations ; camphor externally and internally; ipecacu- anhainthe smallest doses frequent- ly repeated ; linseed oil, both in small draughts, and in the form of clysters; as well as the warm, bath, have all been found some; times of service, but more fre- quently unavailing. And though experience has but too often evin- ced, that this obstinate disorder is not under the controul of medicine, yet it may, in many instances, be arrested in its progress, and perhaps eventually cured, when a just diag- nosis can be formed of its nature. [Frequent and copious bleedings, repeated clysters of cold water, oily injections, blisters to the bowels, and in case of obstinate costiveness, dashing cold water upon the feet, are the most effectual remedies for this- disease. Quicksilver has been often re- commended, and may be tried when other remedies fail.] The diet of patients affected with the iliac passion, ought to consist of very light food, taken in moder- ate quantities, and neither too warm nor too cold. Wines, spirits, acri- monious and irritating substances, as well as heating liquors, ought to be carefully avoided ; because they are always productive of bad consequences. Thin gruel, pre- pared from barley or oatmeal or IMP I N A 361 weak chicken broth, are equally proper; and the patient's drink ought to consist of decoctions of emollient vegetables, or water in which toasted bread has been boiled, or clear whey. Particular attention ought also to be paid to the mind, which should be pre- served in a state of cheerfulness and serenity. Impatient. See Balsamine. IMPLEMENTS of Husbandry, denote those machines or instru- ments wdiich are used in the dif- ferent branches of rural and do- mestic economy ; such as ploughs, harrows, hoes, churns, threshing- machines, straw cutters, &c. The improvement of husbandry, by the construction of more per- fect implements, calculated to fa- cilitate its operations, has within t!.e last fifty years become an ob- ject of general attention ; and, with this view, the patriotic agri- cultural societies, especially those of Britain, have granted liberal premiums to the inventors of use- ful and ingenious machinery on condition that such contrivances should be communicated for the benefit of the public. Much how- ever, remains to be done in this important department of economy; which, v.'e apprehend, will not be carried to its relative degree of per- fection, //// the science of husbandry form a more leading part of educa- tion at publicschooi.: The ancients have bequeathed to us a variety of excellent and classical books on the subject: hence it were sincere- ly to be wished, that, by accurate translations of these works, accom- panied with critical and explana- tory notes, by professional fanners, the study of agriculture may oa ;e- vivcd, and thus our knowledge of vc-i.. in. ibis important science progressive- ly enlarged. Lately, indeed, a repository for agricultural implements has been opened in the vicinity of Hanover- square, we believe, under the in- spection of Mr. Marshall, whose name we have had frequent occa- sion to mention in the progress of the present work. This repository is daily open to the view of the public, at a trifling expense ; and we understand, is designed to con- tain models and specimens of the most valuable and practical im- provements in husbandry : by such an institution, we trust that the pre- judice in favour of antiquated, and aukward implements, will be gra- dually vanquished. Several socie- ties of agriculture have lately been re-established in France, and they have devoted their attention more especially to this interesting sub- ject. Ploughs, adapted to differ- ent soils, are doubtless the most essential requisites to the success- ful management of a farm ; and several cf these primary imple- ments having recently been con- trived, which promise to be emi- nently useful, we shall give an ac- count of their construction, illus- trated with such cuts as may ap- pear necessary, under the article Plough. Imposthume. See Abscess. INARCHING, in gardening, is a method of engrafting, denomi- nated grafting by apfiroach; and is employed when the stock in- tended to graft on, and the tree from which the scion is to be taken, are situated so near that they may be easily joined. This operation is performed in the month of April or May, in the following simple manner : The 3 A 362 I N D IND branch designed to be inarched, is exactly fitted to that part of the stock with which it is to be united, after having previously pared away the rind and. wood on one side of both the stock and branch, about the length of three inches, that they may uniformly combine, and thus promote the circulation of the jui- ces. A little tongue is then cut upwards in the graft, and a notch made in the stock for inserting it; so that when they are joined, the tongue will prevent their slipping, and the graft more closely adhere to the stock. They are next tied with some bass, or worsted ; and, to exclude the air from the wound- ed part, it is covered over with grafting clay. Lastly, both the graft and stock are fastened to a smooth and proportionate stake, which is driven into the ground, in order to withstand the effects of high winds, that would otherwise displace them. After having re- mained in this situation about four months, they will be sufficiently combined, and the graft may then be separated from the mother-tree; sloping it close to the stock, and laying fresh clay around the wound- ed part. Inarching is chiefly practised with oranges, myrtles, Jasmines, walnuts, firs, &.c. which do not flourish by the common mode of engrafting. It ought, however, on no account to be performed on such orange trees as are designed to grow to a considerable size ; for they se.dom live long after this ope- ration. Inclosures. See Commons, Fence, and Hedge. Incuhus. See Night-mare. INDEX, in literature, expresses that part of a work, or single vo- lume, which fo generally subjoined to its conclusion, and arranged in alphabetical order, with particular references to the pages where the respective matters or subjects are discussed. An Index should be distinguish- ed from what is usually called, Table of Contents, which affords an analytical view of the different to- pics, progressively, while the index is intended to facilitate occasion- al reference. Both are useful: the former, to enable the reader to take a comprehensive survey of the whole work, and to appreciate at once the author's logical talents of diving and arranging the subject of which he treats, as well as to form an idea of its extent and im- portance. In an economical respect, however, the latter is a more valu- able addition to a book than an ana- lysis of its contents, which are in a manner evident from the heads of chapters or secdons : whereas an Index tends to save time and labour, that are often unnecessarily wasted in searching for particular passages. Hence a large, ponder- ous volume, without an alphabetical index, may be aptly compared with an extensive street, or town, the houses of which are not provided with numbers. Indian Berry. See Cocculus Indicus. Indian Corn. See Corn. [Indian Turnip. See Turnip.] INDIGESTION, or Dyspepsia, a complaint which chiefly consists in the loss of appetite, and is ge- nerally attended with nausea, fla- tulence, vomiting, heart-burn, cos- tiveness, as well as other unplea- sant symptoms, without any im- mediate afiection either of the sto- mach or other parts. 1ND I N D 363 Indigestion arises from a variety of causes, such as the eating of hard,unwholesome food,and unripe fruit; drinking too large draughts of liquor, during, or immediately after dinner; the immoderate use of opium, and of spirits; taking too large quantities of tea, coffee, or any warm relaxing liquors ; tam- pering with emetics or laxatives ; the want of free air, and exercise ; and in consequence of indulging in any of the depressing passions. Persons of weak, delicate habits particularly the sedentary and stu- dious, are frequently subject to in- digestion. A radical cure of it can be effected only by removing the debility of the stomach and whole system. With this intention, eme- tics, or gentle purgatives, should be previously administered, in or- der to clear the alimentary canal. Next, tonics, such as valerian, Peruvian bark, Sic. may be resort- ed to with advantage; and, if the complaint be accompanied with putrid eructations, or other signs of putrescency, it will be advisable to take the strongest antiseptics, especially the marine acid, or spi- rit of salt, sufficiently diluted with water. Many, however, have been effectually cured by the liberalise of cold water alone. In great lax- ity of the stomach, considerable benefit has been derived from the use of the columbo root, in small nnd frequent doses. The chaly- beate waters are, to phlegmatic habits, in general, of great service; and the moderate drinking of sea water has often been productive of good effects. Medicines, however, will be of little or no advantage, unless the patient take moderate and daily exercise in the open air, and en- deavour to preserve a cheerful, con- tented mind. Early rising ought to form an indispensable part of his attention ; while his diet should consist principally of solid, but ten- der aliment, which he, from expe- rience, has found easy of digestion. INDIGO, a drug for dyeing- blue, prepared from the indigo plant, or Indigbfera tinctoria, L. a native of the warmer parts of Asia, Africa, and America. Instead of describing the parti- cular culture of this exotic, which cannot be raised with success, even in the hot-houses of our climate, we shall briefly point out the cha- racters of the best indigo that is imported, and which has frequentr ly undergone the various processes of adulteration with earth, ashes, and pounded slate. The genuine drug ought to be of a rich dark blue colour, approaching to black, and, when broken, to display the lustre of copper : nor should it sink in water, or leave behind any sedi- ment, after being dissolved. The purest indigo is brought from Guatimala, in South America. Although large quantities of this dyeing material are annually pro- duced in the British colonies, and thence imported, yet we might easily dispense with thiscostlydrug, which, to the detriment of native productions, and especially that of woad, was first brought to Europe by the trafficking Dutch, about the middle of the 16th century. Indeed, there is every reason to believe, that many plants of English growth would yield excellent substitutes for indigo. We have, in the progress of this work, already hinted at se- veral vegetables of this description; and, as a repetition of their names and properties would be here super- fluous (though incomplete, at the present letter of the alphabet) we 364 I N D IND shall purposely delay that useful misery, extort alms from credulous task till the conclusion of our la- charity : nor is it consistent with bours, when it will appear in the good policy to tolerate those hordes General index of Reference. of idlers and drunkards, especially Indigo is much used in washing, in the metropolis; for numbers of to impart a blueish cast to linen ; such as do strictly belong to the list painters also employ it as a water- of mendicants, might be very proper- colour; and dyers consume large ly committed to the work-house, quantities in the various tints of under the description of vagrants; blue cloths. because they prey upon the vitals In March 1797, a patent was of a deluded public. On the whole, granted to Mr. Joseph Barton, however, we are of opinion, that in- chemist, for an improved method dustry would be more effectually of preparing indigo fordyeing wool, promoted, if the poor were allowed Sec. in a more perfect manner than to retain their little independence, has hitherto been discovered. As, and encouraged to persevere in their however, this patent is not expired, honest endeavours, by small boun- and the process is too expensive to ties,occasionally bestowed on them be attempted for the gratification of by the parish. At the same time, the experimenter, we refer the in- a comfortable provision might he quisitive reader to the 9th volume made for the infirmities of age, by of the Repertory of Arts and Manu- means of friendly societies, which Jacturcs, where it is minutely des- in the course of a few years, would cribed. supercede the necessity of build- INDUSTRY, Houses of, are ing houses of industry. And, if building's erected in various parts those benevolent associations could of England, in order to maintain be so organized that the rich and the sick, infirm, and aged poor ; poor should contribute according to while children and healthy adults, their respective abilities, we hesi- v.ho are received into the house, tate not to say, that the latter would labour for their support, and are be better assisted than they can be allowed a certain part of their earn- at present, on the irregular plan of ings, as an inducemet to industri- parochial assessments, which, in ous habits. too many instances, nearly double These buildings, doubtless, con- the rent of the premises. The opu- tribute to the comfort of the poor, lent would become better acquaint- and are calculated to lessen the se- ed with the real wants and miseries vere burthen of parochial rates: of the poor, while these would they conduce to the rearing of an gradually acquire both principles healthy, honest, and virtuous race and habits of industry : in short, of peasantry. Of this patriotic ten- they would thus be reconciled to dency is the Shrewsbury House of their lot, and prosper under the Industry; which, being excellently management of the wealthy. adapted to the purpose, has given Many objectionshavebeen urged birth to many similar institutions for and against houses of industry. lately formed in various parts of Those readers who wish to peruse Britain. We are no advocates for the arguments on both sides of the the toleration of beggars, who, un- question, will derive equal amuse- der the imposing appearance of ment and information from Mr. INF INF 365 Wood's pamphlet, entitled, Some account of the Shrewsbury house of Industry, (Bvo. 5th edit. 3s 6d. Longman and Rces, 1800) in which several objections are ably answer- ed. INFANCY denotes the first pe- riod of human life, previous to the age of seven years. Having already treated of the diet proper for infants, under the article Food, and of their amuse- ments, under the head of Exer- cise, we shall at present offer only a few remarks, chiefly relating to their dress. The most fatal period to infants is, doubtless, during the two first years of their existence ; for it has frequently been observed, that greater numbers die under that age than at any subsequent stage of life. This mortality is suppos- ed principally to arise from the er- roneous practice of confining their tender bodies, as soon as they be- hold the light, by means of tight bandages, so that neither the bow- els nor limbs have sufficient liberty to act in the easy manner designed by Nature. In order to obviate the abuses before mentioned, the infant's dress should be so contrived, that it be neither too warm nor too tight, and that not only the influence of the air may have its full effect, but also the motion of the body be duly facilitated. Hence a roller, about six or seven inches broad, should be made, either of linen or woollen cloth, as the season may require, though a knitted bandage would be far preferable ; as, from its more elastic nature, it may with less pressure or constraint be turned round its body. It would be super- fluous to enumerate the other parts of the upper dress, as every judi- cious parent will readily accommo- date it to age and circumstances. The head should be lightly cover- ed ; and, while travelling, in cold or hot weatlier, a cap or hat may be safely used, but again laid aside, as soon as the infant returns to the house, or to a mild temperature, where every compression of the head is useless, and frequently hurtful.....Indeed, the whole chess ought to be as loose as possible, be- cause ruptures, and other fatal con- sequences, often originate from a contrary treatment. Stockingshre by many considered as unnecessary articles of the dress of infants ; yet, as our offspring is not intended to go bare-legged, when adults, we conceive no rea- son for depriving them of proper hose, especially if they can be kept dry, and be adapted to the length of the foot, both in the winter and summer; though such covering will be more useful in the former season : their shoes also ought to be sufiieiently wide....See Foot. From the first moment of their existence, infants are liable to the attacks of disease. It deserves, however, to be remarked, that the descendants of sedentary, idle, ner- vous, or weak persons, are chiefly exposed; while those of the pea- sant and husbandman, being early inured to fatigue and hardships,are not only more healthy, but also less reduced by occasional indisposition, and better able to bear external in- juries.... We cannot, in this place, enter into any details respecting the management of infantine disor- ders, as they are discussed in the alphabetical series. (See also Viti- ated bile): hence we shall conclude these remarks with adding, that, 1. The dress of children ought materially to differ from that of 366 INF INF adults: 2. No distinction ought to be made in the dress of either sex during the first years of infancy : and, 3. Let the dress of children be clean and simple, but never too warm....See also Sleep. INFECTION, the communica- tion or contraction of some disease, from the effluvia, which arise either from the sick, or from the apart- ment in which they reside: hence itdoesnot necesssarily imply actual contact. Having already pointed out the proper means of avoiding personal infection, under the article Con- tagion, we shall at present con- fine our attention to the most effi- cacious method of preventing the propagation of infectious diseases. This important object has lately been investigated with equal zeal and success by the patriotic Society for increasing the Comforts, Sec. of the Poor; from whose abridged Account of the cure and Prevention cf Contagious Fevers in the Metro- polis, (8vo. 2d edit. 6d) it appears that not less than three thousand one hundred and eighty-eight per- sons have annually died, upon an average (within the last hundred years) in consequence of infectious fevers. The alarming increase of this malignant epidemic, is justly attri- buted to the close and confined dwellings of the poor, where the circulation of fresh air is almost entirely prevented. With a view to check such rapid progress se- veral benevolent members of the society above mentioned have form- ed a well-digested plan; in confor- mity to which, appropriate houses are to be opened, and provided with the requisite medical assistance of every kind for the reception of such diseased poor as it may be deemed necessary to remove from their own habitations: others in the mean-time, will receive profession- al advice at home, and be regu- larly visited by the physician ap- pointed for that purpose. This laudable establishment is support- ed by subscription ; and we trust, from the known liberality of Bri- tons, that it will never fail for want of effective support. In places where infection has actually prevailed, the necessary precautions are immediately taken to prevent its return ; and the so- ciety has, therefore, appropriated a certain sum of money for puri- fying the tainted habitations of the poor. Their method consists, sim- ply, in washing the walls of the room with hot lime which will ren- der the place perfectly sweet. The following rules are to be observed in houses during the pre- valence of contagious fevers: they are extracted from an interesting letter lately published by Dr. Hay- garth, on the prevention of in- fectious diseases. 1. As safety from danger de- pends entirely on cleanliness and fresh air, the door of a sick room, where a person labours under an infections fever (especially in the habitations of the poor), ought ne- ver to be shut: a window in it should generally be opened during the day, and frequently during the night. 2. The bed-curtains ought never to be closely drawn round the pa- tient ; but only on the side next the light, in order to shade the face. 3. Dirty utensils, clothes, &c. ought to be frequently changed, immediately immersed in cold wa- ter, and washed clean when taken out. INF INF 367 4. All discharges from the pa- tient should be instantly removed, and the floor near the bed be rub- bed every day with a wet mop or cloth. 5. As some parts of the air in a sick room are more infectious than others, both attendants and visitors should avoid the current of the patient's breath, the exhala- tion ascending from his body, espe- cially if the bed-curtains be closed, and also the vapour arising from all evacuations. When medical or other duties require a visitor or nurse to be in such dangerous si- tuations, Dr. Haygarth observes, that infection may be frequently prevented by a temporary suspen- sion of breathing. 6. Visitors ought not to enter infectious chambers^sm^; and, in doubtful circumstances, on their departure, it will be advisable to blow from the nose, and spit from the mouth, any infectious poison which may have been inhaled by the breath, and may adhere to those passages. As these directions are highly important, we trust they will be scrupulously followed, in all cases where any infectious disorders un- fortunately prevail. INFLAMMATION, in medi- cine, is a tumor attended with unnatural heat, redness, painful tension of the skin, and febrile symptoms, which are more or less violent, according to the nature of the part affected, and the extent of the swelling. Almost every part of the body is liable to inflammations, but chiefly the bowels, breast, eyes, &c. of which we shall treat in the pro- giess of this article. The termination of inflamma- tory tumors depends on their dif- ferent degrees of violence, andjthe causes whence they originate, as well as their treatment. Where they appear in consequence of colds, without any previous disposition of the system, they may often be dis- persed by the usual applications ; but after fevers, and in persons of gross habits, they generally termi- nate in suppuration. In aged, in- firm, or dropsical persons, how- ever, they frequently produce mor- tification in gangrene. In treating external inflamma- tions, the chief object is to relieve such of the smaller vessels as are obstructed ; thus to restore the na- tural circulation of the blood, and to effect the dispersion of the tu- mors. Swellings of this nature, if attended with mild symptoms, or arising from external injury, may be safely discussed. Hence various applications may be resort- ed to, according to the tempera- ment of the patient. For persons of hot, gross habits, cooling ex- ternal remedies are the most ser- viceable : by those of an opposite nature, cataplasms of warm emol- lient herbs may be used with ad- vantage. The effect of these ap- plications will be considerably pro- moted, by taking at the same time cooling and attenuating medicines while the diet ought to consist of nourishing aliment, that is easily- digested ; carefully avoidingall salt- ed meat, pickles, spices, fermented or spirituous liquors, and whatever tends to irritate and inflame the body. The most proper food in such cases, is broth, barley-water, and decoctions of sorrel, endive, or the like cooling herbs, mixed with small portions of lemon-juice, or other vegetable acids ; to which may occasionally be added a lit- tle nitre, when the inflammation 368 INF INF threatens to increase. But, if the tumor incline to gangrene, it re- quires a very different treatment, and more particularly relates to surgery. See the article Gan- grene. Inflammation of the Blad- der, or Cystitis, an affection of that part of the human frame, ac- companied with swelling and pain in the lower region of the belly, frequent and difficult discharge, or total suppression of urine, &c. Inflammations of the bladder arise from calculous concretions ; obstructions in the urethra ; Spa- nish flies, either taken internally,or applied to the skin ; from wounds, bruises, Sro. In this dangerous malady, it will be advisable to resort imme- diately to medical assistance ; but, if it cannot be easily procured, the patient may apply leeches round the abdomen. Purgatives should likewise be administered; and clys- ters prepared from a decoction of poppy-heads,may be injected every second or third hour. It will also be beneficial to apply continually fomentations of the same decoction to the lower belly, and to immerse the patient in the tepid bath. Should the disease, however, terminate by suppuration, and the matter be discharged with the urine, it will be requsite to use the utmost precaution. The patient's diet ought, during the whole pro- gress of the disorder, to consist of the mildest, though nutritive, ali- ment. He should also avoid every species of food and drink that is stimulant, saline or acrid ; and subsist chiefly on milk, puddings, weak broths, fruits, butter-milk, Sec. Infi.ammaticn of the Bow- ti s, or Enteritis, an acute, fixed, burning pain in the lower belly, which is attended with a considera- ble degree of tension in the epi- gastric region (seeABDOMEN).The principal symptoms that characte- rize this fatal malady, are obstinate costiveness; a hard and small pulse ; a painful, and almost con- tinual hiccough, together with fe- ver, and a constant inclination to vomit. Inflammationsof the bowels may arise in consequence of swallowing any acrid substance ; from violent passion ; drinking large draughts of cold water while the body is overheated; the suppression of any cutaneous eruptions ; repulsion of the gout; external injuries ; such as wounds, contusions, Sec. Per- sons of a plethoric habit suffer more acutely from this disorder than those of a contrary tempera- ment. Cure: If the belly be swelled, firm, and painful to the touch, while the pulse is hard and con- tracted, it will be advisable to take some blood from the arm. A blis- ter should next be employed as speedily as possible, and mild emol- lient injections of barley water, gruel, &c. administered, till stools be obtained : the patient should be placed between blankets, and sup- plied moderately with diluent li- quids, such as barley water, rice- gruel, &c. When the violence of the disorder is somewhat abated, opiates may be administered in clysters, which will be of great ad- vantage in mitigating the pain, As soon as the stomach is able to retain any laxative, the mildest aperients, such as tamarinds with manna, or phosphorated soda, may be taken by the mouth ; but, if the disorder tend to a mortification, the treatment before stated should be INF steadily pursued ; and, if gangrene eventually take place, or the dis- ease terminates in suppuration, its course must be left to Nature, the patient being kept as quietly as possible. During the continuance of this most alarming disorder, the diet ought to be very light; the drink- ing of all stimulating, fermented, or sprituous liquors carfully a- voided; and the mind preserved in a state of tranquility. [See Bowel.] Inflammation of the Female Breast, isgenerally occasionedby exposure to cold, repression of the milk, or external violence. It is known by the redness, heat and pain, either of part or the whole of the breast ; and, if the disease be considerable, it is usually pre- ceded by a shivering, and accom- panied by fever. Where the inflammation is vio- lent, the usual practice is to take large quantities of blood from the patient; but, in common cases, small local bleedings, by means of a few leeches, are fully sufficient. Considerable benefit will also be derived from the application of emollient poultices, prepared with bread, milk,and cold-drawn linseed oil. The maternal milk may like- wise be extracted at intervals, and the breast suspended by means of proper bandages. In some recent cases, a solution of sal ammoniac has been externally applied with success. If the inflammation continue, it will be requisite to persevere in the use of emollient cataplasms and fomentations ; but, as the com- plaint is of a delicate nature, it will always be advisable to resort to proper medical assistance. [See Breast.] vol. III. INF 369 Inflammation of the Ear, or Otitis, a painful affection of the cavity of the ear, which is some- times consequent on the Mumps, but is more frequently occasioned by exposure to the cold. In slight cases, this affection may be remov- ed by dropping a little warm oil of almonds into the ear, and by the application of a common poultice of bread and milk, or of a bag of chamomile flowers; either of which ought to be made sufficient- ly warm. Should the disorder, however, not yield to these reme- dies, surgical assistance ought to be procured without delay ; lest a suppuration take place, and be at- tended with total loss of the organ of hearing. Inflammation of the Eye, or Ophthalmia, an uncommon red- ness of, and acute pain in the part affected ; an inability to bear the light; and involuntary shedding of tears. This malady is often occasioned by external injuries, such as blows, burnu, bruises, and the like. It al- so arises from splinters, dust, sand, lime, acrid fluids, or other extra- neous substances insinuating them- selves under the eye-lids; from affections of the teeth ; the preci- pitate healing of old ulcers ; and long exposure to the night air. Peculiarities: Inflammations of the eye are frequently annual; and instances have occurred, in which they returned at stated periods, and even became chronical ; they are farther contagious, and may be caught by mere intuition of the ophthalmia in others. Method of cure : When the dis- ease is of a mild nature, it will be useful to put leeches to the tem- ple of the eye affected, in a num- 3B 370 INF INF ber proportioned to the age and strength of the patient: after the bleeding has ceased, a blister may be applied[behindtheear]and brisk purgatives given. To obviate the mischief arising from the use of quack medicines, such as lotions, &c. we shall briefly observe, that there is no better collyrium than simple rose-water[orweak lead wa- ter.] Beside these remedies, much benefithas been received from shav- ing the head, or cutting the hair; from bathing the feet and legs fre- quently in warm water; and, where the inflammation succeeds the small-pox, from applying infusions of marsh-mallows with sal ammo- niac to the inflamed parts. In case of periodical ophthalmia, emetics have been of eminent service, and in some instances completely re- moved the complaint; but, if it have arisen from particles of iron accidentally dropped into the eye, they may be easily extracted by means of the magnet, and thus the disease checked in its progress.... Thunberg advises the vapour of cajeputoil to be frequently applied; and Mr. Ware in his practical " Remarks on the Ophthalmy, &c." recommends a few drops of lauda- num to be introduced into the eye; such a powerful remedy, however, should be administered only by the expert practitioner. If the means before stated prove ineffectual, and the pain in the in- flamed parts rather increase than abate, professional assistance must be speedily procured. Meanwhile, the eye should be carefully seclu- ded from the influence of light, or the patient may confine himself to a dark room, having a temperature neither too cold nor too warm, and cautiously avoid a draught of air. His diet cannot be too mild..... Lastly, in this, as well as every other species of inflammation, it is of the utmost importance to ab- stain from all heating or stimulat- ing aliment and liquors, from all violent efforts both of body and of mind ; and to encourage an incli- nation to sleep. Inflammatory Fever, a sud- den and acute febrile disease, chief- ly prevalent in hot climates. It commences its attack with a con- siderable degree of shivering, and severe pain in the small part of the back which are succeeded by an intense heat of the whole body. The eyes are red, and incapable of supporting the light; the pa- tient suffers an insatiable thirst. The cure of thisfever is general- ly effected by repeated bleed- ings, proportioned to the patient's strength, and the violence of the disease : antimonial and aperient medicines ; the liberal use of ve- getable acids ; neutral salts ; and sudorifics, arc given in the va- rious stages, according to the ur- gency of symptoms. As, however, this fever is attended with great danger, it will always be more prudent and advisable, on its first appearance, to call in medical as- sistance. Regimen and Diet: The room of the patient should be kept cool, by a constant succession of fresh air, and somewhat darkened ; while every precaution is taken to ensure a state of tranquility. All animal food, and even broths, must be carefully avoided, as well as aromatic, fermented, and spiritu- ous liquors. The insatiable thirst during the proxysms of this fever, may be quenched by the free use of barley-water, balm tea, or other mild vegetable infusions, acidula- ted with the juice of oranges, le- INF ING 371 mons, currants, and other sub-acid fruits. Beside the different inflamma- tory diseases, of which we have briefly treated in the preceding sections, there are various other species, of inflammation, denomi- nated from the particular organs or parts affected. Thus, the rea- der will find some useful hints un- der the article Brain, and, with respect to the subsequent letters -of the alphabet, we refer him to the heads of Kidnies, Liver, Lungs, Mesentery, Pleurisy, Quinsy, Rheumatism, Spleen, Stomach, Tonsils, Sec. [iNFLAMMATION^S'/iOntatteCW.^J Many substances under certain cir- cumstances, are disposed to spon- taneous inflammation, respecting which, it may be useful to caution the reader. 1. Oiled cloth, which had been painted on one side, dried in the :-;un, and stowed away in a store- house in the town of Brest, inflam- ed, and destroyed the house. 2. Heaps of linen rags, which are thrown together in paper- manufactories, the preparation of which, is hastened by means of fermentation, often take fire, if not carefully attended to. 3. Parched Rye bran, wrapped up in a linen cloth, smoked in a few minutes, and in a short time the rag became black ; and the bran being hot, fell through it on the ground in little balls. Mr. Tooke, from whom the above fact is taken, accounts for the frequent fires in Russia, from the common practice of binding roasted bran about the necks of cattle, when af- fected with thick necks: 4. Mr. Tooke also mentions, that the hemp magazine at Pe- lersburgh, containing several hun- dred thousand pounds of hemp and flax, took fire without any apparent cause; that a roll of cere-cloth took fire in a vaulted shop, where neither fire nor can- dle were allowed ; and that a bun- dle of matting, containing Russian lamp-black prepared from fir-soot, moistened with hemp-oil varnish, caused a fire in a ship's cabbin, in the road toCronstadL. See the ac- count at length by Tooke, in the Repertory of Arts. 5.Pieces of woollen cloth unscow- ered, heaps of moist woollen yarn, or wool combings, impregnated with rape-oil mixed with butter, which is used in the combing ; and packed away in un ventilated rooms, have also inflamed. 6. Cotton cloth wetted with dry- ing linseed-oil, and confined in a box, began to smoke in three hours ; and on the box being open- ed it immediately inflamed. 7.A quantity of candles had been melted by a tallow chandler in Philadelphia, and put in a brass sieve to drain, in the evening: in the course of the night they in- flamed. A similar accident occur- red to the same person from a mass of candle-wick having been thrown into a barrel, after the fat had been melted from the candles. 8. A child at Hartford, Connec- ticut, having been burnt, was an- nointed with oil, in March, 1803. About three gallons were consum- ed, and a great part of that quan- tity was absorbed by the bed. The bed afterwards lay until June, in a garret, when it inflamed. 9. The spontaneous inflamma- tion of stacks of hay is well known to farmers. The method to pre- vent this accident, is detailed un- der the article' Hay, p. 265.] XNGROSSLNG, is the act of 572 INK INK accumulating or buying up corn or other provisions, by wholesale, with a view to sell the same ar- ticles at a higher price, and thus to oppress as well the poor, as those who cannot conveniently purchase a large stock. This i.ttrocious practice has at all times been subject to severe penalties ; mid, having already treated of them, under the head of Fore- stalling, we refer the reader to that article. INK, a black fluid employed in writing, and usually prepared with an infusion of galls, copperas, and gum arabic. The chief requisites forthe mak- ing of good ink, are, 1. Limpidity, so that it may flow freely from the pen. 2. A deep, uniform and black colour. 3. Durability, so that the letters be not liable to be effaced by age ; and 4. It should be divested of any corrosive quali- ty, by which the substance of the paper may be destroyed, or the writing rendered in any degree il- legible. No ink, however, hither- to used, possesses all these proper- ties ; hence several ingenious che- mists have been induced to make experiments, in order to render it more perfect. M. Ribaucourt, in the " An- nates de Chimic," directs eight ounces of Aleppo galls, and four ounces of logwood, to be boiled in twelve pounds of water, till the quantity is reduced to one half; when the liquor should be strained through a linen or hair sieve into a proper vessel. Four ounces of sulphate of iron (green vitriol;) three ounces of gum-arabic ; one ounce of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol,) and a similar quantity of sugar-candy, are now to be added: the liquid should be frequently shaken, to facilitate the solution of the salts. As soon as these in- gredients are perfectly dissolved, the composition is suffered to sub- side for twenty-four hours : when the ink may be decanted from the gross sediment, and preserved for use in glass or stone bottles, well stopped. This ink exhibits a purplish- black colour in bottles ; but the writing performed with it, is said to be of a beautiful black cast, which it retains, unaltered, for a consider- able length of time. Each quart of the preparation contains : oz. drs. grs- Of galls - - 2 5 20 Green vitriol 1 2 40 Logwood - 1 2 40 Gum - - 1 0 0 Blue vitriol ^ 0 2 40 Sugar-candy - 0 2 40 M. Ribaucourt is of opinion, that ink thus prepared, may be preserved several years in a state of perfection, without depositing either galls or iron. The ink commonly used, is ma- nufactured by stationers, according to Dr. Lewis's recipe ; but it is ill calculated for keeping, as it de- posits a black sediment, while the fluid itself is of a pale colour...... Each quart of this ink contains : oz. drs. grs. Of galls - - 3 0 0 Green vitriol - 10 0 Logwood - - 0 5 24 Gum - - - - 10 0 Neither blue vitriol nor sugar are employed in this preparation. As, however, both the ink made after the latter method, and that compounded according to other recipes^ are not adapted to resist INK I N K 473 4 the effects of acids, and are conse- quently by no means fit for records, deeds, and other documents, M. Westrumb recommends the fol- lowing ingredients, as being well calculated to remedy this incon- venience. He directs one ounce of Brazil-wood, and a similar quanti- ty of gall-nuts, [Nicholson directs three oz.] to be boiled in forty-six ounces (somewhat less than three pints) of water, till the whole be reduced to thirty-two ounces, or about two quarts. This decoction is to be poured, while hot, upon half an ounce of copperas, or green vi- triol; a quarter of an ounce of gum- arabic, and a similar quantity of white sugar. As soon as a perfect solution of these substances has taken place, one ounce and a quar- ter of indigo finely pulverized is to be added ; together with three quarters of an ounce of the purest lamp-black, previously diluted in one,ounce of the best brandy. The whole is to be well incorporated, and after it has subsided, M. Westrumb asserts that it will form an ink absolutely indestructi- ble by acids. [It is essential, that the above ink be well stirred, every time it is used.] A more simple composition, is that proposed by M. Bosse, who directs one ounce of Brazil-wood to be boiled in twelve ounces of wa- ter with half an ounce of alum, till the liquid be reduced to eight oun- ces ; when one ounce of calcined manganese is to be mixed with half an ounce of gum-arabic, and added to the liquor, which should be previously decanted, in order to render it perfectly limpid. This preparation is said to possess the property of being indelible by the use of any kind of acid, and to be superior to that proposed by M. Westrumb. A durable ink may also be pre- pared by washing paper, parch- ment, Sec. with the Prussic acid, which will not in the least injure ei- ther of these substances. The ma- terials, thus prepared,may be writ- ten on with common ink, and a ground of Prussian blue will be formed beneath every stroke, which will remain long after the black has decayed by the influence of the air, or been destroyed by acids. The latest, and perhaps most simple, preparation of black ink, is that contrived by Van Mons, who observed that sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, when calcined till it became white, uniformly afforded a very beautiful black precipitate. According to his experiments, the following ingredients produced an excellent writing ink: four ounces of galls, two ounces and a half of calcined vitriol of iron perfectly white, and two pints of water. The whole was infused in a cold place for twenty-four hours ; add- ing ten drams of pulverized gum- arabic, and preserving it in a glass bottle, or glazed earthen vessel, slightly covered with paper. [The best ink is thus made. To four ounces of good logwood well bruised or rasped, add four quarts, beer measure, of hot water. If the wood is only coarsly brui- sed, use 5oz. and keep the water in scalding heat (not quite boding) for near an hour. The next day strain off the liquor, add to it while hot, 16oz. of powdered blue galls, or 20oz. of galls in sorts. Calcine to whiteness five ounces of green vitriol, and grind it up with half on ounce of blue vitriol, and half IN K an ounce of alum : add thes^ to the logwood liquor : stir them well, then add four ounces of pow- dered gum arabic, and three oun- ces of white sugar. Let all the ingredients be well and frequently shaken together, and kept for a week in a warm place. Pour off the liquor for use, and the remain- ing ingredients wiil make another quart of good ink. To improve the colour and per- manence of ink. Take some of the above ink, and rub it in some Indian or China ink. To make an indelible Ink. The bleachers saturate any quan- tity of dilute nitrous acid with sil- ver, to which solution they add an equal quantity of thick gum wa- ter, with some lamp-black in it. They write on the unbleached lin- nen w ith this, and let it dry slowly: no bleaching destroys it. for common marking ink, iron may be used instead of silver. Cotton should always be kept in an inkstand; for the ink in the cot- ton is kept blacker by the suspen- sion of the colouring part; and if ro more ink lie present than per- fectly to fill the cotton, the pen will always receive a fiuid black ink, and may be charged at plea- f.ureby a greaterorlessgentle pres- sure, at the time of taking it up, or discharged, by lodging the point for a moment upon the cotton.] Indian Ink, a valuable black for water-colours imported from China, and other parts of the East Indies, generally in oblong square cakes, impressed withChinese cha- racters. The preparation of In- dian ink was discovered by Dr. Lewis, according to whom it can- sists of lamp-black and animal glue. In order to imitate it, he directs as much lamp-black to be mixed with the glue as will be sufficient to give it a proper tenacity for mak- ing it into cakes. This composi- tion is said fully to answer the dif- ferent purposes to which the genu- ine Indian ink is subservient, both with regard to the colour, and the facility with which it may be ap- plied. Dr. Lewis farther found that ivory-black : and other blacks obtained from charcoal finely levi- gated, may be advantageously sub- stituted for lamp-black : ivory and charcoal, however, are generally sold in so gross a state, as to prove gritty when worked, and to sepa- rate too speedily from the water. Ink-powder is prepared chiefly from the acid salt of galls, which may be obtained by the following process : Take two ounces of pul- verized galls, and infuse them in twelve ounces of rain or river wa- ter ; expose the whole for a few days to a warm temperature, and stir it occasionally ; after having extracted the colouring matter, fil- tre the solution, and suffer it to stand in the open air for several weeks, in a vessel slightly covered. A sediment will then be gradually formed; which, after removing the mouldy skin from the top of the liquor, should be carefully collect- ed. Hot water is next poured on this sediment, when it is again fil- tered and evaporated to dryness : thus, a grey crystalline salt will be produced, that is the essential basis of black ink; and which may be still more purefied by repeated solution, filtration, and evaporation. If one dram of this salt of galls be triturated with an equal quanti- ty of the purest vitriol of iron, and about twenty grains of perfectly dry gum arabic, a composition will be obtained, which on adding a proportionate quantity of warm wa-» i n :•: ter, instantly affords an excellent black ink. Blue Ink. One ounce of the finest indigo is first levigated in a glass mortar ; then four ounces of the most concentrated v itriolic acid are very gradually poured on the powder; and, on eveiy addition, it is stirred w ith a glass pestle, so that the whole mixture will require several hours. Such precaution is indispensiblc, as otherwise the heat .generated on adding the vitriolic acid, would impair the brightness of the colour. After standingfrom twelve to eigh- teen hours in a moderately warm lace, this dense mixture must e diluted with water ; hot by add- ing this fluid to the composition, but by introducing small portions of the latter into a vessel contain- ing such a quantity of water as may be requisite to produce a lighter or darker shade. In general, from 30 to 40 parts of water will be ne- cessary to reduce it to a fine blue liquid. Thisdiluted solution of indigo is, however, in too caustic a state to be employed either as a blue dye, or as writing ink. Hence the vitriolic acid ought to be divested of its corrosive quality, by means of such a substance as may form a chemical combination with the acid, and not precipitate the indigo. If the solution be intended merely for colouring or writing on paper, it will be Sufficient to add pulverized chalk in small portions, till it cease to effervesce; because a large quan- tity of this powder, at a time, would cau.e the liquid to rise above the brim of the vessel. It is easy to ascertain the point of saturation ; for, when the powder of chalk scat- tered on the surface no longer pro- I N K 375 duces any bubbles, the solution should be suffered to stand for -1 hours, then filtered through blot- ting paper, and preserved in bot- tles....If, however, this preparation be designed for dyeir.g silk, such as stockings, &c. it will be prefer- able to neutralize the vitriolic acid by the addition of aluminous earth, instead of chalk, as the former renders the colour more durable- And, if the solution is to be used for painting on silk, it ought to be previously mixed with gum traga- canth. Green Ink. Take a glass re- tort containing about one quart; pour into it one pint of distilled vin- egar ; place it over a sancl heat, and when it begins to loll, intro- duce into the liquid small portions of powdered verdigrease, till a sa- turated solution is obtained, or till no more colouring matter can be dissolved. In order to keep the: latter suspended, and prevent the formation of crystals, it will be re- quisite to add about the sixth part of gum-arabic, in proportion to the verdigrease. For preparing- red and yellow ink, see the articles Red and Yellow. * Printing or Printers* I nil, differs greatly from every ether species: It is an oily matter of the consistence of an ointment, the composition of which is, at present, very imperfectly known, excepting to the few who are employed iu its manufacture. The following recipe, however, has been found to make printinginkof atolerable good quality : Let two quarts of linseed oil be boiled in a vessel capable of holding a triple quantity, over a. strong fire, till it emit a thick smoke. It is then to be kindled with a piece of paper, and suffered 376 INK to burn for the space of a minute, when the flames must be extin- guished, by closing the vessel. As soon as the oil becomes cool, two pounds of black rosin, and one pound of hard soap, cut into thin slices, are to be added ; the mix- ture again placed over the fire ; and, when the ingredients are per- fectly dissolved, a pound of lamp- black, previously sifted, must be incorporated with the mixture, af- ter which the whole is to be finely ground on a marble stone. This method of making printers' ink is acknowledged to be prefera- ble to the different recipes hitherto published. It is, however, much inferior in beauty of colour to the ink generally used, and is apt to adhere to the types, so as to make an indistinct impression. Good printers' ink, which is easily work- ed, without daubing or tearing the paper, while it imparts a fine co- lour, is a desideratum that will amply repay, the attention and time bestowed upon its prepara- tion....See Printing. [T. Cooper, Esq. furnished the editor with the following receipt.... " Into a vessel that will hold about ten gallons, put six gallons of lin- seed oil, and one pound of litharge ; boil, or rather simmer the oil for about sixteen hours. About an hour before you finish, add three or four pounds of rosin, stir it well at the time. Take some of the oil, and while warm, grind it very well with lamp-black,of which the above quantity will take about 4 pounds. In a large way, it should be made in vessels, of which one close fire- place will heat above five vessels. A wet blanket thrown over the kettle, is the best thing to extin- guish, it." A vessel proper to boil INK oil in, will be described under the article Oil. A good copper-plate printing ink, is a great desideratum in the Uni- ted States.] Sympathetic Ink, a liquor em- ployed for writing on paper, so that it may return its natural white- ness after the letters are formed, till it is held near the fire, rubbed with another liquor, or some other expedient used to render the cha- racters legible. Sympathetic inks are prepared from various substances, such as bismuth, lead, Sec. Thus, a solu- tion of common sugar of lead in water, if employed with a clean pen, will remain concealed till it is wetted with a solution of the li- ver of sulphur, or is exposed to the vapours of such liquid ; in which case it will assume a deeper or lighter brown shade, in proportion to the strength of the sulphureous gas. By the same process, words written with a solution of bismuth in spirit of nitre, will appear of a deep black colour. Another sympathetic ink may be easily prepared, by diluting oil of vitriol with a sufficient quantity of water, to prevent the paper from being corroded. Letters drawn with this fluid are invisible when dry, but, on being held near the fire, they assume a perfectly black colour. The juices of lemons, or onions; a solution of sal ammoniac, &c. will answer a similar purpose, though their application is more difficult, and they afterwards re- quire a different degree of heat. On the subject of removing or discharging spots, occasioned by differents inks on linen, silk, or woolen cloth, we shall treat under the article Spots. IN O IN O IN NX a place appointed for the reception and entertainment of tra- vellers. INOCULATION, or budding, in horticulture, an operation per- formed on apricots, nectarines, plums, cherries, or other stone- fruit trees, and also upon oranges and jasmines. It is reputed to be superior to every other species of grafting, and is effected in the fol- lowing manner: A sharp knife, with a fiat han- dle must be first procured, in or- der to raise the bark of the stock for the insertion of the bud. Next, some strong bass should be soaked in water, in order to increase its strength, and to render it more pliable. The cuttings being then separated from the trees that are to be propagated, a smooth part of the stock must be selected, about five or six inches above the surface of the soil, if intended for dwarfs; but if designed for standards, they should be budded at least five feet above ground. An horizontal incision is now to be made across the bark of (lie stock, from the middle of which a perpendicular slit should be drawn, about two inches in length. The leaf is next cut off the bud, the foot stalk remaining entire; and a cross cut is made about an inch beneath the eye, afur which the bud is to be cut off, with part of the wood adhering to it. The bark of the stock is then lo be gently rai- sed with the handle of the knife, ami the bud inserted exactly be- tween the rind and the wood of the stock ; after which they are bound closely with the buss, euro being taken to leave the eye of the bud open. In the course of three weeks, or a month after the inoculation i .per- VOL. III. formed, those buds which have a fresh and flourishing appearance will be joined, when the bandage ought to be removed, in the sex- ceeding month of March, me stock must be cut off in a sloping direc- tion, about three inches above the bud : the shoot proceeding from it should now be hastened to the re- mainder of the stock for one year, after which the latter ought to he removed by the knife, immediately above the bud. The proper season for this oper- ation is from the middle of June to that of August. The fruit-tree first inoculated, is generally the apricot, and at length the orange- tree, which, however,ought not to be budded till the end of August. For this purpose, cloudy and moist weather is the most propitious ; for, if the inoculation be attempted in the middle of the day, the shoots will perspire so rapidly as to leave the buds destitute of moisture. INOCULATION, in medicine, is the transferring of distempers from one subject to another, parti- cularly of the small and cow-pox. The practice of inoculation is of great antiquity in the East, whence it was introduced into Britain,earlv in the 18th century ; though not without many struggles, and vio- lent opposition, under the frivolous pretext, that it was contrary lo the principlesofChristianity,and usurp- ing the sacred prerogatives of the Creator. On account of its supe- rior utility, however, ithasat length triumphed, and is now almost ge- nerally adopted, excepting among a few fanatics, who, from supersti- tious motives, confirmed by obsti- nacy ami ignorance, still object to it as an unlawful, and even sacrile- gious attempt. The curious rea- dy r. who is desirous to become ac- 3 C 378 INS IN S quainted with these objections, will find them stated, together with a defence ofinoculation,inDr. Lett- som's Medical Memoirs. Various methods have been adopt- ed, for the artificial communica- tion of the small-pox; the most ef- fectual of which appears to be that of making a puncture in the skin, or removing the epidermis of the upper arm w ith the point of a lan- cet, dipt in variolous matter. For the proper treatment of persons during the progress of inocula- tion, the reader will consult the article Small-Pox,where the com- parative advantages of its recent substitute, the cow-pox, will be con- cisely stated.. INSECTS, in natural history, form the most diminutive class of animals, which are distinguished by certain incisures or indentations found in their bodies....See also Animal Kingdom; vol. i. Having already stated, under the articles Apple-tree, Cabbage, Corn, Catterpillar, Fruit- trees, Hot-house, Sec. the most efficacious methods of destroying different kinds of insects, we shall at present communicate such ex- pedients as have not yet been spe- cified, but which deserve to be more generally known. Bute-insects, (aphides, or plant-lice), may be destroyed by the smoke of tobacco, or by scat- tering on them Scotch snuff. Ano- ther method is, to place a few of the larvx of the beetles, called Lady-birds, or Lady-cows (Cocci- nella scptcm-punctattz) on the plants infested with the blites, which, it is asserted, will be thus in a short time destroyed......Dr. Darwin, however, is of opinion,thatthe most ingenious, as well as the most ef- fectual method of preventing the- depredations of these insects, con- sists in artificially propagating the larvx of the aphidivorous fly, which has been observed by na- turalists to deposit its eggs where the aphis abounds. As soon as the larvae are produc- ed, they devour the aphides around them, seizing the latter in their mouth, and extracting their juices. We have not been able to ascertain their exact duration in a caterpil- lar state, but believe in, about a fortnight they contract, and attach themselves to some solid matter, by means of a little gluten which is discharged from their mouth ; and are thus converted into chry- sales or nymph*.. In this state the insect continues 10 or 1.1 days, when it bursts its cell, and emerges a perfect fly. If these insects could be collect- ed, carefully preserved during the whiter season, and properly dispos- ed on nectarine and peach-trees, early in the spring, Dr. Darwin thinks, it is probable that the de- predations of the blite might be counteracted, u by the natural means of devouring one insect by another ; as the serpent of Moses devoured those of the magicians." A kind of bellows has been in- vented by Mr. Green, of her Ma- jesty's flower-garden, Kew, for the purpose of destroying the red spi- der, and other noxious insects in hot-houses and pineries, with the fumes of burning tobacco. The same noxious vermin may likewise be exterminated by burning (when the hot-house is shut), matches- moistened with a spirituous tinc- ture of asa-fcetida, and rolled in a powder consisting of equal parts of sulphur and Scotch snuff. It will INS INS 379 tilso be of service to wash the • frames of hot-houses, &c. with four ounces of sublimate, dissolv- ed in two gallons of water ; but this operation should be performed with the utmost caution, on ac- count of the corrosive properties of the mercury. In the Annales de Chimie, M. Tatin gives an account of a com- pound which he has successfully used for exterminating insects. He directs 11 of a lb. of the best black soap; a similar quantity of flowers of sulphur ; 2 lbs. of any kind of mushrooms; and 15 gallons of rain or river water,to be employed. The fluid is to be divided into two equal parts, one of which is put into a barrel, together with the soap and mushrooms, after the latter have been somewhat bruised. The other half is to be boiled in a kettle with the sulphur inclosed in a bag, and fixed to the bottom of the vessel, by means of a stone or other weight. These ingredients are to be boil- ed 20 minutes, during which the sulphur should be wellagitated with a stick, that the water may be the better impregnated. When the li- quid is taken from the fire, it is to be poured into the barrel, and stir- red daily, till the mixture become in a high degree fetid : for the old- er and stronger the composition is, the more speedy and powerful will he its effects. The liquor is to be sprinkled on the plants infested with insects; great numbers of which it destroys on the first appli- cation ; it will, however, be neces- sary to repeat the aspersion, in or- der to exterminate ants, or other vermin that breed beneath the soil: and, for this purpose, from two to eight pints are required, according to the depth and extent of their nests. Although insects are very injuri- ous to vegetation, yet Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that they may be ren- dered extensively useful as a ma- nure. Hence, in the summer months, he recommended heaps of dung to be supplied with water, for promoting the propagation, and nourishment of myriads of vermin; which, when suffered to decay on thejsoil, would greatly contribute to its fertility. The catching and preservation of insects, for the collections of natu- ralists, is indeed a necessary prac- tice, though it has at all times been branded with cruelty. Hence, in stating the most proper methods of effecting this purpose, we shall likewise point out the easiest expe- dients to deprive them of life. Beetles, and other insects of the. same class, may be caught either with a gauze net, or with a pair of pincers covered with gauze. As soon as they are secured, it will be advisable to immerse them either in hot water, or in spirits of wine, where they will be instantaneously killed : next, they may be fixed to a piece of cork, in a creeping di- rection, and exposed lo the air till all their moisture be evaporated. Bugs, crickets, and other insects of the hemipterous class, may be put to death in the manner just mentioned, or by pouring a drop of etherial oil of turpentine on their head. Moths, butterflies, and all other flies which are furnished with membranous wings, may be taken with gauze nets; then pierced through the shoulders between the fore-wings, with a pin ; and, afo-r gently squeezing the breast of the insect, it will immedLtely perish. Lobsters, scorpions, oi juch ver- min as have no wings, may be pre- 380 INS served in spirits ; and the various other kinds of insects may either be killed with oil of turpentine, or the fumes of sulphur. After the insects are deprived of all moisture, they should be placed in the boxes or cabinets where they are to remain ; these should be kept very dry, and closely shut, to prevent the depredations of small vermin. The bottoms ought like- wise to be covered with pitch,.and paper on the surface ; or, they may be preferably lined with cork, which should previously be im- pregnated with corrosive sublimate, in a strong solution of sal ammo- mac. INSTINCT, denotes that facul- ty or disposition of mind, by which animals are led spontaneously to perform whatever is necessary to preserve the individual, or to con- tinue the species ; independently of any instruction or experience, and aiming at no determinate ob- 3ect' Thus, infants suck immediately after they are bom ; thus, too, in- sects deposit their eggs in all cli- mates, invariably in such situations as are peculiarly favourable for the hatching and support of their fu- ture progeny. In succeeding years, the facul- ties of the juvenile mind enlarge, and our conduct is, or at least ought to be dictated by reason; while the actions of the brute crea- tion are generally directed by in- stinct. With respect however, to the human instinct, philosophers are by no means agreed ; some af- firming that man possesses a grea- ter number of instincts than any species of brutes, while others as- sert that human nature is utterly destitute of any power or propensi- INS ty, that can with propriety be de- nominated instinctive. Amid such diversity of opinions, it is difficult to decide ; though it cannot be de- nied that infants afford very strong proofs of a natural impulse. But the inquisitive reader, who is in search of farther information, may with satisfaction peruse the late Mr. Smellie's Philosophy of Na- tural History, 8vo. and Dr. Rf.id's Essays on the Active Powers of Man ; in which the subject is con- sidered in different points of view. INSURANCE, in law and com- merce, denotes a contract by which one party engages to pay the other, for a certain premium or consider- ation, such losses as he may acci- dentally sustain. The common kinds of insurance are: I. Against loss at sea ; a most beneficial institution, eminently cal- culated for promoting the security of trade. It is at present conduct- ed by a regular system of rules, under the immediate sanction of the law, the decision of courts of justice, and the usage of merchants. There are severel societies for this kind of insurance in London ; but, as it would be incompatible with our limits to enter into any details, we shall point out Mi'.Pauk's mas- terly System of the Law of Insurances (3vo. Buttcrworth, 12s. 1801); in which the subject is fully consider- ed. A smaller work of reference, designed for the use of merchants, and relating to Insurance against losses at Sea, has lately been pub- lished by Mr. Burn. II. Against fire ; for which pur- pose various offices are establish- ed in Britain: the principal of them is, probably, the Sun Fire- office. This class is divided into 3 species, namely : INS INS 381 l. Common insurance: buildings, the whole external walls of which are of brick or stone, with cover- ings of slate, tiles, or metals, and in which no hazardous trades are car- ried on, or hazardous goods are de- posited. In this division are also comprised goods which are not hazardous, and which may be kept in such buildings. 2. Hazardous insurances, which includebuildings covered with slate, tile, or metal, whether built of tim- ber, plaister, timber and plaister, brick and timber ; and also build- ings, the external walls of which are not wholly of brick or stone, and in which no hazardous trades are car- riedon, or hazardous goods are de- posited : and brick or stone build- ings with the coverings above men- tioned, containing hazardous trades or wares. Also goods, deposited in all timber, plaister, timber and plaister; and brick and timber buildings ; hemp, flax, pitch, tar, cotton, turpentine,resin, oil,spirits, and the like, are classed among ha- zardous insurances, as likewise are the trades or manufactories using the last mentioned articles. 3. Doubly hazardous insurances: namely, all the buildings mention- ed in the preceding section, how- ever covered, if they be occupied by hazardous trades or goods ; and all thatched buildings. Ships, vessels, barges, and other craft, together with their cargoes ; glass, china, earthen-ware, pottery, bottles, bottled liquors in trade, ornaments, shells, fossils, ores, me- dals, curiosities, oil of vitriol, cork, statuary, and figures in wax, plais- ter, and marble ; are all included in this subdivision, to which may be added the trades of boat-build- ers, cart-grease-makers, cork-cut- ters, varnish, flambeau, and lamp- black-makers, hartshorn and vitriol works, oil, silk, and linen manu- facturers, and japanners. Such are the species into which insurances against fire are divided; and that our readers may form some estimate of the expense of insuring goods, Etc. against loss or damage by fire, we have subjoin- ed the following brief table, in which the different annual rates, payable at the British Fire office in the Strand, may be seen at one view...Beside these rates, however, there is a duty of three shillings lo be paid to government, for eve- ry policy of insurance where the sum insured does not amount to 1000/. and of six shillings, if it amount to 1000/. or upwards. Common. Hazardous. Doub. Hazard. {1000 2000 3000 5000 s. d. s. d. s. d. 2 0 3 0 2 6 4 0 2 6 5 0 3 0 5 0 5 0~] 6 0 1 _ - n ^>per Cent. J When the sum insured is large, described, in order that it may be a higher premium per cent, is de- insured at a lower premium, the manded ; and money, papers, pic- policy is justly void. An insurance tures, gun-powder, and jewels, are made on the same subject at dif- excluded....If an article be falsely ferent offices, must be specified by 382 INS INS indorsement on the policy ; and, in case of loss, the offices pay a sum in proportion ; as well as all the expenses incurred in attempting to extinguish fire, or to save goods, even though the endeavours should not be attended with success. And if the value of an article be partial- ly insured, and receive damage by fire, the society is bound to make restitution only to the extent of the sum for which the premium is paid. III.For lives: by virtue of which, on the demise of the party insured, a sum of money becomes due to the person for whose benefit the insu- rance was made. In this respect also, several societies grant polices of insurance for certain premiums: and, though our limits do not allow us minutely to specify the rules and rates of computation which differ- ent associations have adopted, yet we think it will be useful to exhibit a few particulars relative to the pre- miums paid by persons, who insure either their own lives, or those of others in which they have a certain interest. In the following table we have stated the rates of insurance on lives, fixed by the Westminster Society, (No. 429, Strand), which was established is 1792 : it is cal- culated to shew the premiums for insuring one hundred pounds, upon the life of an healthy person, from the age of 8 to 67 years, within the limits of Europe, but not upon the seas, viz. Age. Premium cent, for year. per one Premium per cent, per an-num, for an insurance for seven years. Premium per cent, per an-num, for the whole conti-nuance of life. /. s. d. /. s. d. /. s. d. 8 to 14 20 0 17 1 7 9 3 1 I 5 1 9 5 1 17 7 2 3 7 25 1 10 7 1 12 1 2 8 1 30 1 13 •-> 1 14 11 2 13 4 35 1 16 4 1 18 10 2 19 10 40 2 0 8 2 4 1 3 7 11 45 2 6 8 2 10 10 3 17 11 50 2 15 1 3 0 8 4 10 0 55 3 5 0 3 12 0 5 6 4 60 3 18 1 4 7 1 6 7 4 65 4 15 2 5 10 10 7 16 9 66 67 5 0 5 5 1 6 5 17 7 6 5 2 8 4 1 8 12 1 j Thus, a life not exceeding the age of 30 years, may be") /. s. insured for 100/. to be paid in case of death within one \- 1 13 year, for J Within seven years, by paying annually till the insured "" shall die, or the seven years be elapsed, Whenever the death shall happen, by paying annually tiil that event, d. 3 I 14 1! 2 i: INT I N T 383 Another method of insuring for the benefit r,f survivors, consists in paying an annual premium for a certain sum recoverable on the death of one person named out of two ; but, as this mode of securing a competency is doubtless more ob- jectionable to the party that is obliged to pay the annual premium, than either the preceding simple, or Age. /. s. d. 10 2 17 1 15 3 5 0 20 3 13 11 25 4 0 10 30 4 8 11 35 4 19 0 We have purposely omitted, in this table, the intermediate as well as the unequal ages of the parties whose lives are jointly insured ; be- cause the reader will be enabled to form a sufficient idea of the differ- ent rates, by comparing the pre- sent abstract with that of the pre- ceding calculation. Lastly, the same duties are imposed by go- vernment for insurance on lives, as those we have mentioned against losses by fire. INTEREST, implies the pre- mium or sum, paid for the loan or use of money. The rate of legal interest has va- ried, and been progressively re- duced, during the last two centu- ries }! according as the quantity of specie has increased by accessions of trade, the introduction of paper- credit, and other circumstances. INTERFERING, a local dis- ease incident to horses. It arises from various causes ; and though this malady is sometimes constitu- tional in the animal, yet it is more subsequenfefottd/e chance of obtain- ing an equitable reimbursement, we have been induced to subjoin the following table, which exhibits the premium of insurance of one hundred pounds, payable when ei- ther of two persons shall die within the limits of Europe, but not upon the seas. Age. /. s. d. 40 5 11 9 45 6 7 4 50 7 7 8 55 8 12 2 60 10 4 9 67 13 15 8 frequently occasioned by an im- proper method of shoeing ; in con- sequence of which the horse moves his hind feet so closely together, that hard scabs are gradually form- ed by their continual friction, and the disorder at length is attended with halting or lameness. According to professor Brad- ley, interfering may be cured by a compound made of three parts of fresh sheep's dung, and one part of rye or weaten flour, well dried. These ingredients should be form- ed into a cake, then baked in an, oven, and applied warm to the part affected, which will thus speedily heal; or, it may be anointed with a mixture of turpentine, and verdi- grease finely pulverized, by the use of which the scabs in general short- ly disappear. Interment. See Burial ; and Apparent Death. Intermittent Fever. See Ague. INTESTINES, in anatomy,are those hollow membranous tubes of 384 I N T the human body, commonly term- ed the guts or bowtl;, which ex- tend from the right orifice of the stomach to the anus. They are six times longer than the whole body, and by Nature destined to receive the chyme, or the aliment, so called after it is converted into a kind of pulp, which they retain for a time; then to mix it with the intestinal juice and bile, to separate and pro- pel the chyle into the milk-vessels, and to eliminate the excrements. The intestines are extremely ir- ritable. If one of the bowels be slightly cut, the edges of the wound retract equally ; and if it be pene- trated or cut through, they curl themselves back, so as to envelope the upper parts ; and the inside is thus completely turned outwards. For an account of the constituent parts and denominations of the in- testines, the reader will consult the article Abdomen.....See also In- flammation of the Bowels. INTOXICATION, is a term expressing thatdepravity of human nature, which requires no further explanation, as it is but too often practised both by the vulgar, and those whose professions lead us to expect a very different conduct. Having already exposed the mo- ral turpitude of Drunkenness, under that article, we shall now point out a few of the consequences that necessarily result from the brteal indulgence in that odious vice. The state of intoxication greatly resembles that of an incipientpalsy or apoplexy. Inebriated persons snigger in all directions; they stam- mer; every thing appears double ; their tongue is in a manner paralj- lic, and they are deprived of the facuhv of speech. This imbecility extends to the mind, which is thus INT rendered totally incapable of reflec- tion. As the brain is over charged with blood, the vessels pressing on that part are very liable to burst, from the least accidental concus- sion ; and the unfortunate victim of such folly may expire, while he remains insensible of his danger. Hence he ought to be conveyed into a cool rather than warm room, and placed between blankets, with his head considerably raised ; but the legs should be in a pendent situa- tion, and the feet bathed in luke- warm water. Every tight ligature of the shirt, waistband, garter, Sec. must be immediately relaxed, tmd diluent drinks, such as bailey or rice-water,plentifully given,though in small portions. Next, a gentle emetic is to be introduced, and the throat stimulated with a feather dipped in oil: after vomiting, the patient generally falls into a pro- found sleep, from which he awakes weak, trembling, and affected with a violent heart-burn, and acidity of the stomach; especially if wine has been the favourite liquor. To re- move the latter complaint, calcined magnesia may be taken with ad- vantage, and afterwards moderate draughts of negus or coffee. Ple- thoric individuals, however, will better consult their health, by drinking cold water only, which is one of the most salutary restora- tives : and during the fit of intoxi- cation, it will sometimes be neces- sary to open a vein ; an expedient which may rescue such persons from the brink of destruction. But, if they have been inebriated by ardent liquors, so that a vapour or smoke proceeds from their mouths, equal quantitiesof milk and barley- water ought to be instantly poured in ; or where these liquids could not be easily procured, the fresh JOI urine of a healthy subject has been found to afford an excellent substi- tute. Nor can there be any rea- sonable objection against this re- medy, in cases of a desperate and degrading nature. [A labouring man some years since assured the Editor, that a draught of his own urine would at any time restore him when drunk, to perfect sobriety.] Instead of expatiating on the long train of miseries and painful disorders with which habitual in- toxication is sooner or later at- tended, and of which we treat in the alphabetical order of human maladies, we shall conclude in the words of the philosophic Shake- speare, who very pertinently re- marks, that " Drink provokes or stimulates the desire, but it takes away the performance." JOHN's-WORT, or Saint John's-wort. See Hypericum. JOINT, generally speaking, sig- nifies the juncture of two or more things: it is also applied to the human frame, in which case the joints are anatomically called arti- culations. The joints, like other parts of the body, are subject to a variety of disorders, such as sprains, rheu- matism, 8cc. of which we treat in their respective order. We shall, therefore, briefly mention a patent granted in 1796, to Air. Francis Lowndes, for anew invented ma- chine, called Gymnaslicon, which is peculiarly calculated for exercising the joints and muscles. The whole frame may be constructed of wood only, or conjointly with metals, of any shape or dimensions, so ar- ranged, by means of cranks, fly- wheels, and treading-boards, as to give motion, both voluntary and involuntary, to the joints, limbs, vol. m. J O U 385 and muscles of the human body* As, however, this patent is unex- pired, and cannot be satisfactorily explained, without the aid of an en- graving, we refer the inquisitive reader to the 6th vol. of the Re-> pertory of Arts and Manufactures, where it is fully specified. JOURNAL, or Diary, properly signifies a day-book, register, or ac- count of particular circumstances occurring daily, and deserving to be noted. Journals are of extensive utility*' in an economical point of view ; and we are convinced, that all per- sons engaged in any active pur- suits, especially those of rural and domestic economy, would avoid many inconveniences, by keeping regular accounts. This object, we conceive, might be easily attained, by arranging the pages, ruled with columns, and pointing out the names of workmen, together with the several days of the week, in which the duration and nature of the work done, and the industry or idleness of labourers, might at once be exhibited, by means of simple characters. To these may be add- ed four columns ; one specif, ing the rate or price of the labour per day, another containing the num- ber of days, and length of time in- dividuals have respectively work- ed ; a third, for the sum total due to them ; and the last for the in- sertion of occasional remarks. This plan is well adapted to ge- neral purposes; but those who wish to avail themselves of an useful form, solely calculated for agricul- tural affairs, will find an excellent plan engraven, in the 17th vol. of Annals of Agriculture. Journal also denotes a critical account of literary performances. Of this kind we have several month* 3 D 586 JOU ly publications, which, in general, do strict justice to the works that pass under review. In the present state of society, however, it has of- ten been seriously lamented, that any journal should be made sub- servient to party principles ; espe- cially where religion or politics are concerned. Hence it has frequent- ly been suggested, that, instead of anonymously undermining the re- putation of literary works, and in- juring literary property, reviewers ought, on such occasions, to affix their signature to every critique, and support their strictures by fair quotations selected from the book which is submitted to their judg- ment. Thus, their criticisms would become less dangerous, but more authentic vehicles of information. The character of a new work would likewise claim greater attention, from those who are in any degree acquainted with the merits of the reviewer: and, though a plan of this nature may probably, at first, meet with many objections, especi- ally by those authors and publish- ers who are supposed to live upon friendly terms with the dictators of the secret tribunal; yet we hesitate not to say, that many and great ad- vantages would eventually result from this candid and impartial measure. On the other hand, it is maintained, that the free republic of letters, by disclosing the names of critics, would be deprived of numerous valuable observations, which are equally pointed and in- structive. This powerful objection, however, appears to be inconclu- sive ; because impartial justice is the first maxim of every moral institution. Besides, anonymous writers, when influenced by party- zeal, (as frequently happens), pos- sess an undue advantage over au- IPE thors who risk their reputation be-* fore a discerning public ; and ac- cording to general principles of equity, every man has a right to know his enemy, provided he does not conceal himself in an ambus- cade. JOY, one of the most powerful mental emotions, accompanied with an extraordinary degree of pleasure. The effect of this sen- sation, if not too violent, invigo- rates the whole animal frame, and facilitates the cure of diseases. Sudden joy, however, is often as injurious as the operation of either grief or terror; and many instances are recorded, in which the preci- pitate communication of unexpect- ed news has proved immediately fatal. In order to prevent so dread- ful a misfortune, such information ought not to be imparted, till the peison to whom it relates, has been cautiously apprised, and thus prepared to undergo the various emotions and sensations that ne- cessarily arise in an organized sys- tem. Hence we should fortify the mind equally, for encountering the most agreeable as well as the most disastrous tidings. IPECACUANHA, a medicinal root imported from the West-In- dies. There are three kinds dis- tinguished by the eye, namely, the ash-coloured, or grey, brown, and white ; but the first of these is justly preferred ; for it is more ef- ficacious than the white, and less violent in its operation than the brown sort. The ash-coloured ipecacuanha, as imported from Peru, is a small wrinkled root, bent and contorted into a great variety of figures ; its cortical part is compact, brittle,and on breaking, presents a smooth, resinous surface; it has little smell, !IPE but a somewhat bitter and sub- acrid taste, so that it covers the tongue with a kind of mucilage. According to Geoefroy, Neu- mann, Dale, and Sir Hans Sloane, the roots of a kind of dog's bane (apocynum), are fre- quently substituted for the genuine ipecacuanha, and have in various instances produced fatal effects.... But, if the above-mentioned cha- racters be attended to, accidents of a similar nature may easily be ob- viated. Ipecacuanha is one of the safest and mildest emetics, and possesses this peculiar advantage, that it passes off by the skin or bowels, if it should not operate by vomiting. In dysenteries, it }s almost a spe- cific, and often contributes toper- form a cure in a very few days.... When given in powder, its action is more certain than in any other form : hence it is now employed in many diseases, where full vo- miting is indicated ; for which pur- pose from 15 or 25 grains are pre- scribed for a full dose. It is also beneficially administered in very small doses, so as neither to ope- rate by vomiting, purging, nor sweating ; for instance, a third or fourth part of a grain, to be taken every half hour or oftener, with a view to vellicate the intestinal ca- nal, and by its nauseating effect, to give a different tone to the action of the stomach and bowels. Thus, it is recommended, to be given in the paroxysm of spasmodic asthma, as well as in obstinate coughs; and a dose of three or four grains every morning, in chronical asthmatic cases. [There are several native plants which, from possessing an emetic quality, are called in the country, Ipecacuanha. The chief are, 1, Eu- IRO 587 phorbia-Ipecacuanha, or Spurge.... This is very common in many parts of the United States, particu- larly in the dry and sandy soils of New-Jersey. It flowers early in the spring. The root boiled in watsr is extremely active, and should on- ly be used in cases where poison has been swallowed. 2. Spiraa, trifoliata, or Indian physic, Bow- man's root, is a common shrub : Its emetic power resides in the bark of the root. It may be safely given in doses of twenty-five or thirty grains ; and is a common remedy in the country for the in- termittent fever. It is also occa- sionally given to horses to mend their appetite....3. Asarum cana dense, or wild ginger; called colt's- foot in Virginia. This plant has already been noticed under the head Asarabacca. Both root and leaves are used, but the juice of the latter is commonly given, and is powerful in its operation....4. 7b- dophyllum peltatum. In South-Ca- rolina, this plant is called Hippo, and according to the information of Mr. Wm. Bartram, is also a powerful vermifuge. From twenty to sixty grains of the root are given, in proportion to the age of the pa- tient.] IRON, the hardest and most ex- tensively useful of the imperfect metals : it is naturally of a livid, whitisfogrey colour, and found in great aWlndance in various parts of the world, both in a pure state, and intermixed with other fossil mat- ters. The iron manufactured in Great Britain is obtained from three dif- ferent kinds of ores : 1. The Imu- cashire ore, thus denominated from the county where it abounds ; be- ing very heavy ; of a fibrous tex- ture ; a dark purple colour, in- 388 IRO IRO cling to black; and lodged in veins like other metals. 2. The bog ore, which resembles a deep yellow clay, and has probably been deposited by some ferruginous ri- vulets : it is found in strata from 12 to 20 inches thick, and of vari- ous breadth. 3. Iron stones, of an irregular shape, which frequently lie in beds of great extent, and, like other stony masses, are some- times intersected with seams or veins of pit-coal. After the ore is dug out of the earth, it is crushed in a mill, and washed in a stream, in order to separate the grosser particles of earth. Next, it is melted in fur- naces, heated with coke, charcoal, peat, or turf; near the bottom of which, by means of a tap-hole, the liquid metal is discharged into fur- rows made in a bed of sand. The larger mass, which settles in the main furrow, is called by the workmen, a now ; and the smaller ones, fig' of iron. Stove->, grates, Uc. are formed by ei -ting ladle- fulsof the rough metal into proper moulds made of sifted sancl. In this state it is called cust-iron ; but if cooled too hastily, it becomes brittle-, and is apt to crack like un- annealed glass : it is not malleable, and is so hard as to resist the file. With a view to improve it, the raw iron is now melted down a second time in another furnace,y»he re a strong blast of air is impelled on the surface of the metal ; in conse- quence of which its fusion is con- siderably facilitated, and the iron concretes into a mass called a l:>op, that is conveyed beneath a large hammer raised by the motion of a water-wheel. The metal is there beaten into a thick square form, again heated so as nearly to melt \t, and then forged. By repeating this process, the iron is rendered perfectly malleable, and at length formed into bars for sale. Lately, however, cast-iron has been reduced to a state of malle- ability, by passing it through rol- lers, instead of forging it. For this valuable improvement we are in- debted to Mr. Hi-nry Cort, of Gosport, who in the year 1783, ob- tained a patent for preparing, weld- ing, and working various sorts of iron, by means of machinery, &c. As, however, this specification would be intelligible only to iron manufacturers,theinquisitive read- er will consult the 3d. vol. of the Repertory of Arts, &?. Yet jus- tice requires us to observe, that the ivw, or cast iron is, by Mr. Cort's process, perfectly freed from those impurities which are not discharged by the common me- thods of rendering this metal mal- leable ; and that it has been proved by experience to be equal, and, in some cases, superior, lo the best Swedish iron. As Mr. C's patent is now expired, we trust it will be generally adopted at Birmingham, Co iron, Colebiook-Dale, and the other iron manufactories of Britain; because the metal thus treated, may not only be procured at a cheaper rate than it is sold at pre- sent, but a saving will be made of one million sterling per annum, which is now paid to Sweden and Russia for bars, while we possess a sufficient quantity of the raw ma- terials, which may be worked at home to that amount. Beside the cast and forged iron, there is an intermediate state, in which that metal is soft and tough. This is called steel, and is usually made from the best forged iron, by cementation with certain inflam- mable matters : some account of IRO the process will be inserted in its alphabetical series. Iron being of such essential ser- vice for a great variety of purposes, seveial persons have obtained ex- clusive privileges for different in- ventions to which it may be ap- plied......Among these, the patent granted to Mr. Jonathan Taylor for casting oval-bellied pots, and nealiug, turning, and finishing the same, &c. ; then Mr. Rowland Burdon's, in 1795, for a method of making, uniting, and applying cast-iron blocks, to be substituted for key-stones, in the construction ofarche3 ; and Mr. John Wilkin- son's in 1794, for making cast metal or pig iron from the ore, and manufacturing it into bar, or any other malleable iron, deserve par- ticular notice. The reader will find these,together with the various patents relative to the iron manu- factory minutely described in the different volumes of the Repertory if Arts and Manufactures. Beside its utility as a material for implements -f agriculture, &c. iron is eminently adapted to the purpose of dyting cotton. From the various experiments made by Chaptal, it appears that the oxyd of iron has so great an affinity for cotton thread, that if the latter be immersed in a saturated solution of this metal in any acid, it assumes instantaneously a chamoy-yellow colour, which becomes more or less deep, according to the strength of the liquors, and the length of time it has been exposed to the air. The colour thus communi- cated is fixed ; resists both air and water, and also alkaline leys ; nor is its durability in the least affect- ed by washing it with soap ; which on the contrary, imparts to it addi- tional brightness. The oxyd of IRO 389 iron, if precipitated on any stuff, easily unites with the fawn colour obtained from vegetable astrin- gents; and, by varying the strength of the soda, socp, or other mor- dants employed in dyeing, an in- finity of shades may be produced. Thus, by means of a boiling heat, the oxyd of iron may be more in- timately combined with the astrin- gent principle. These colours may likewise be rendered brown, as they are susceptible of a variety of shades, from a bright grey to a deep black tint; by simply passing the cotton impregnated with as- tringent vegetable matter through a solution of iron. When long exposed to the air, iron is very liable to become rusty, especially in moistsituations: hence an effectual method of preserving it bright, still remains to be disco- vered. Various compositions have indeed been contrived for this pur- pose ; but none appears to be more serviceable thancommonoil,though its use is on many occasions both troublesome and disagreeable. To obviate these inconveniences, it has been recommended to heat the iron to such a degree, that it can- not be touched without burning the hand, then to varnish it with new white wax, and expose it to the fire, till the wax is completely imbibed by the metal, which should next be rubbed over with a piece of serge.....According to others this metal may be perfectly secur- ed from the effects of rust, by plunging it, while red hot, into lin- seed oil, which is suffered to drop off till it become dry, and then wip- ing the iron with a clean cloth. Thus a black crust or varnish is formed, which renders it imper- vious to moisture. Again, others pour melted lead into the oil, be- 390 IRO IRO fore it is applied to the heated iron ; but both preparations require a considerable degree of skill and precaution. As vessels, made of this metal, are liable to cracks, which fre- quently render them useless, we insert on the authority of M. Kas- teleyn, the following directions for preparing a lute calculated to fill up such fissures : Take six parts of yellow potter's clay, and one part of iron filings ; incorpo- rate these ingredients with a suffi- cient quantity of linseed-oil, so as to form the whole into a paste of the consistence of putty. Although a variety of varnishes have been contrived for securing iron and steel, in a polished state, from the effects of rust; yet we are persuaded, that the following is the most simple and effectual method of preserving them. It is well known, that the oil expressed from the fruit of the chocolate-tree never becomes rancid, provided the nuts have been moderately roasted, before they are submitted to the press. This oil is asserted by M. Von Crell, to be eminently adapted to the purpose before stat- ed : and we may add, from recent experience, that the animal oil ob- tained from eels, if applied to po- lished iron, steel, or other metals, especially when used in machine- ry, such as wheel work, has been attended with similar good effects. In medicine, iron is chiefly em- ployed as a tonic and corroborant: when properly prepared, it is given with advantage in diseases pro- ceeding from laxity and inactivity of the digestive organs, such as in- digestion, flatulency, colic, Sec. It is also of considerable service in hypochondriacal affections, inter- mittent, tertian, quartan, and other fevers; but it seldom agrees with either bilious or plethoric constitu- tions, and is, like all active drugs, much abused by quacks and other pretenders, who should not be suf- fered to trifle with the health and lives of the multitude. Iron-moulds, are spots on linen, occasioned by its exposure to damp situations, and also by ink accident- ally dropped on the cloth. They may be removed by moistening the stained part, sprinkling it with a small quantity of the essential salt of lemons ; [See Lemons.] after which the linen is to be rubbed over a pewter plate, and the blot washed out with warm water. But a less expensive method consists in wet- ting the spot, applying to it a few drops of spirit of salt, or lemon juice ; then rubbing it for a minute or longer between the fingers, while it is carefully held over a hot smoothing iron, or a bason filled with boiling water, the steam of which greatly facilitates the re- moval of the stain. [Iron stains on Mahogany, are taken out by dilute spirit of salt confined to the spot by wax. The following account of the present state of the iron works in the state of Pennsylvania, was com- municated by John Kean, Esq. of Dauphin county, to John A. Han- na, representative in Congress for that state, and published in the spring of the present year. " I have long had a desire to know the state of the iron business in this commonwealth ; believing that correct information of that subject would be pleasing as well as useful to you in considering the great national interests, I send you the underwritten statement, which has been forwarded by application to the representatives from ihe dif- IRO IRtt 391 fcrent counties, and is certainly correct as far as it goes ; perhaps two or three forges and bloomeries have escaped our notice. " In Pennsylvania there are fur- naces 28 ; forges 72 ; slitting mills 11 ; tilt hammers 12; steel fur- naces 2, exclusive of air furnaces at and near Philadelphia. " The 28 furnaces, at a moderate calculation, will make annually each 750 tons of pig and castings, which would amount on the whole to 21 thousand tons; four furnaces in our neighbourhood have, for the last three years, each made yearly from 12 to 1500 tons ; I therefore think we calculate far within what they actually will make, when we state the annual amount at 20,000 tons. " Seventy-two forges, at 180 tons each'will annually make 12,960tons of bar-iron. Some forges run much higher, and some fall short of that quantity, but upon the whole I think we may safely calculate upon that average. " Eleven slitting mills using each 250 tons annually is 27750tons,and about 150 tons are yearly manufac- tured into steel. " If you were in possession of similar information from the other stales, Congress would then be able lo judge of the propriety of laying such protecting duties on iron im- ported as would properly encou- rage this manufacture in our own country. We are at present able to make not only all the iron want- ed in the United States, but a con- siderable quantity for exportation. Our iron is equal in quality to any in the world." The reader is referred to Nichol- son's Phil. Journal, and to Tilloch's Phi . Magazine for a body of very valuable information on the subject of the manufactory of iron. In the latter work, are contained several papers by Mr. Mushet of the Cal- der iron works, which deserve par- ticular attention, being the produc- tion of the important union of a philosophical inquirer, and practi- cal operator.] IRRIGATION, signifies the watering, or artificial flooding of land. The principal objects in irrigat- ing the soil, is a proper supply of water ; and, if that fluid abound with mud, the land will be more permanently improved, than by conducting a clear spring over its surface: hence it is certain, that if the liquor collected in farm-yards, the washings of different sinks, ditches, and the drains of the con- tiguous fields, could be conveyed into the common stream, the wa- ter would acquire a more fertiliz- ing property. But, in order to manage this im- portant branch of rural economy with success, it will be requisite previously to ascertain, whether the stream will admit of a tempo- rary wear or dam being construct- ed across it; whether the water can be raised to such a height as to overflow a particular spot, with- out injuring the contiguous land ; and whether it can be drawn off with the same facility as it is con- ducted on the soil. If these ob- jects can be attained, the process of irrigation may be undertaken in the following manner : When the descent cannot be de- termined with tolerable precision by the eye, an accurate level of the ground must be taken, and the most elevated part compared with the height of the stream to be em- ployed. The instrument used for 392 IR R IRR this purpose, is called a water- in the same manner. Thus, the level; and, as the common ma- precise direction which the stream chines are but imperfectly adapted should take will at once be disco- to the purpose, we have subjoined vered, without any trouble, or in- the following representation of a curring any additional expense by simple [American] implement for digging through the heights or taking levels. filling up cavities. The level being taken as direct- ed, a wide ditch is to be cut as near to ihe dam as possible, that the water may be conveyed to the highest part of the meadow ; the sides and banks of the ditch being uniformly kept at an equal height, and elevated about three inches above the surface. Where the meadow is extensive, and the soil uneven, it will be necessary to have three works or dams in different directions, each of which should It consists of two legs of common be five feet in width, if the meadow deal, A and B, about twelve feet contain fifteen acres ; and the in length, which are joined toge- highest part be the most distant ther at the top, and connected be- from the stream. A ditch, ten feet low by a cross bar, as above deli- wide, and three in depth, will, in neated. From the angle at the general, be fully adequate to over- top, a plummet C, is suspended flow ten acres of land ; and if there by a small cord ; which, when a be three works or dams in a mea- mark is made in the middle of the dow, and fiood-hatches, or flood- connecting bar, and the two legs gates, be placed at the mouth of are perfectly straight, will strike each, when the water is not suffi- such mark, so that the level may cient to irrigate the whole soil at be easily ascertained. once, it may be performed at three In the practical use of this in- different periods ; by taking out strument, a wooden pin, on which one of the hatches or grates for the one of the legs of the frame may space of ten days, at the expira- rest, is to be driven into the ground tion of which it is to be let down, at the level of the water, where the and the other two taken up alter- irrigation is intended to commence, nately for a similar period: thus The other leg is then to be brought each division will receive a proper round, till it touch the ground, on share of water in its turn, and de- a level with the top of such pin, rive from it equal benefit. when another is to be driven in. Where the fall of the meadow After the level has in this manner renders it practicable, the bottom been perfectly adjusted, the last of the first work should be made as mentioned pin is to be employed as deep as the bed of the river ; be- a rest for one foot, and the other cause the water in proportion to its turned about, till the level is found depth, will carry a larger or smaller IRR Tpjantity of mud with it, and conse- quently fertilize the soil in a more or less effectual manner. Small ditches, or troughs, ought likewise to be cut from the works at right angles, about 12 yards apart from each other, and their breadth should be adequate to the distance to which the water is to be con- veyed : thus a trough two feet in width, and one foot deep, will irri- gate a surface twelve yards wide, and forty feet in length. It will, however, be requisite to provide the ditches with occasional flood-gates or sluices, especially when the water is rapid, in order to keep it sufficiently high to flow through the perforations in the gates, or over the sides. Between every second trough, a drain is to be cut at equal distances in a pa- rallel direction, and of a proper depth for receiving all the water which overflows the adjacent lands, and conducting it to the pr'mcipal drain with such rapidity, as to keep the whole stream in constant mo- tion. For, if it be suffered to stag- nate, it will be productive of the worst consequences ; as the turf would become rotten, the soil be ■soaked without being ameliorated, and the land produce only coarse grass, rushes, or other aquatic •weeds. Where the meadows are cold, flat, and swampy, the width of the bed, that is, of the intermediate space between the trough and drain, >ought never to exceed six yards. In such cases, the land cannot be too much intersected, especially when there is an abundant supply of water. The fall of the bed in every meadow ought to be in the proportion of one inch to each foot; ibr a rapid current always contri- vol. in. A IRR 393 butes to produce fine and sweet herbage; but the water ought never to flow more than two inches, nor less than one inch deep, except during the summer months. Such is the method of irrigation practised in Gloucestershire, and likewise, with very few variations, in the counties of Wilts, Dorset, Cambridge, Hants, &c. Its advan- tages,indeed, are so important that, we trust, no rational agriculturist will hesitate to adopt the practice of floating land throughout Britain, in every situation where a command of water can be obtained. Com- mon meadows are not only enrich- ed, but those of a swampy nature are consolidated by means of the mud conveyed on them. They are also protected from the effects of frosts by the flowing water, or by the ice when it is frozen ; hence the roots of grass remain unaffected by the cold, and excellent crops are thus produced so early, as to be of infinite service for spring food, be- fore the natural grass appears. By irrigation, good pasturage may be procured in the beginning of March ; and, if the season be mild, much earlier. I'his crop is particularly excellent for feeding- such cattle as have been hardly wintered ; and so great are the benefits attending the flooding of lands, thatthe farmers of Glouces- tershire arc enabled to commence the making of cheese, at least one month earlier than those who do not possess the same opportunity. The utility of watering land is still far- ther evinced by this circumstance, that from the great forwardness of grass, the feeding between the months of March and May is wortli one guinea per acre ; in June one acre will yield two tons of hay; and 3 E 394 IRR the after-grass may always be esti- mated at twenty shillings, whether the summer be wet or dry. Land may be floated at any pe- riod of the year. In the months of December and January, the chief care consists in keeping the soil sheltered by the water from the severity of frosty nights. It will, however, be necessary to expose the surface to the air every ten days, or fortnight, during the win- ter, by laying it as dry as possible for a few days ; and to discontinue the flooding, whenever the land is covered with a sheet of ice. In February, greater attention is required ; for, if the water be suf- fered to flow over the meadow for several days in succession, a white scum will be generated, which is very pernicious to the grass ; and, if the water be drawn off, and the land exposed to a severe frosty night, without being previously dried for a whole day, the greater part of the tender plants will be to- tally destroyed. In the beginning of March, the grass on well-flooded meadows will, in general, be so forward as to fur- nish abundant pasturage; when the water should be drained for the space of a week, that the soil may become firm, before heavy cattle be allowed to graze on such land : ihese, however, if the season be cold, ought to be supplied with a little hay every night, during the first week. In the month of April, the grass may be eaten down closely ; but no cattle should be turned in later; as otherwise the crop of hay will be much impaired ; the grass be- come soft or woolly; and conse- quently its value be considerably diminished. 1 K U In the beginning of May, the water is again thrown over the soil for a few days, in order to moisten it ; but the practice ought on no account to be continued during the summer; for it has an unfavour- able effect on the after-math; and produces in sheep fed on it, the dis- order called the rot. Many other advantages arise from irrigation ; but, as our limits admit only of giving an outline, we refer those readers who are de- sirous to acquire farther informa- tion relative to this interesting branch of rural economy, to Mr. G. Boswell's Treatise on Water- ing Meadows, he. (8vo. 2s. -6d. 1780), in which the necessary im- plements, and terms employed in irrigation, are explained and illus- trated with engravings ; as like- wise to Mr. Wright's Art of Floating Land, &c. (2d edit. 8vo. Hatchard, 1799, pp. 95, 3*. 6d.); where the subject is perspicuously treated, and objections are ably answered. [The advantages of irrigation are well understood by the farmers of Pennsylvania, and carefully practised by all who have water at command. Contrivances are in some instances also made for this invaluable purpose, which are high- ly ingenious, and deserve to be ge- nerally followed. The one by Mr. Witmer, on the Lancaster road, near Conastogoe creek, shall be particularly described under the article Water. Dr. W. speaks of the irrigation of England ; but all the attempts of that country, are the mill-dams of school-boys, when compared with the great, the noble executions of the inhabitants of France and Spain. Arthur You kg speaks in • IRR IRR 395 high terms of the prodigious ex- ertions of the inhabitanlsof Langue- doc and Provence, to irrigate their lands. In Spain, the Nonas, or walled-mounds to hold water, ex- cite the astonishment of the tra- veller; and such a quantity do some of them hold, that serious conse- quences sometimes attend abreach. The city of Larca, in the province of Murcia in Spain, was last year inundated by the quantity of water reserved in a Noria, upon a neigh- bouring mountain. Simonde, in his late and excellent account of the agriculture of Tuscany, (Gene- va, 1801,) also details the exertions of the fanners and gardeners of the fertile Val de Nievole, in irrigation, which are worthy of attention..... Col. Tatham's late work, entitled " National Irrigation," (London, 1^01), has fully and ably treated the subject, and detailed the va- rious modes pursued in England, America, and Spain, and gives some plates, which may be useful- Iv consulted.] ' IRRITABILITY, denotes that essential property of animals, in consequence- of which their fibres, on being touched, contract or be- come short, in a greater or less degree. Chemists have lately endeavour- ed to shew, tfo.t edl aninv.d and ve- getable irritability originates from the oxygen, which is inhaled by the lungs, or respired by the leaves, or absorbed by the- root-.. And as re- spiration is every minute requisite to the support of animal life, Dr. I1»ak*.vin conjectures that some- thing immediately necessary to their existence, is required by the lungs of animals from the atmos- phere-, ivllu-r than from the food they digest ; and that this name- less something, perhaps oxygen, is mixed with the blood, and again separated from it by the spinal marrow, after having undergone certain changes in the course of its circulation, or secretion. In a similar manner, he considers it as probable that the spirit of vegeta- tion may be derived from that source, namely, the uncombined oxygen of the air, which is respired by the upper surfaces of the leaves, and not from that which is absorb- ed by roots, in a more combined state : farther, that this oxygen is again separated from the juices by the sensorium, or brain, of each in- dividual bud, after having under- gone some change in its passages through the secretory vessels. A long-continued, unusual, or unnatural stimulation of vegetable fibres, by an increase of heat, ex- hausts the spirit of vegetation: hence a slighter degree of cold will destroy such fibres ; because, after having been excited for a consider- able time by a more powerful sti- mulus, they will cease to act on the application of one that is weaker, so that in consequence of hot days, tender plants are more liable to perish from the coldness of the night. For this reason, gardeners in the more northern climates, shelter both the flowers of apricots, and the tender vegetables, during the spring-frosts, from the meri- dian sun, as well as from the de- structive cold of the night, which is generally the most intense about one hour before sun-rise. In the hot days of the month of June, 1798, Dr. Darwin twice observed several rows of garden- beans to become quite sickly; and some of them even died in conse- quence of being irrigated for one or two hours with water from an adjoining canal. This circumstance he attributes to the sudden appli- cation, of cold, after the plants had 396 IRR been greatly enfeebled, and de- prived of their irritability by the excessive heat of the season, ra- ther than to the too copious water- ing of the dry soil. Some vegeta- bles, however, such as strawber- ries, onions, Sec. which were equal- ly exhausted, are less liable to be thus injured, and even receive be- nefit from occasional irrigation in dry and sultry weather. On the contrary, the spirit of ve- getation acquires additional vi- gour, if plants have been exposed for a considerable time to a less than usual degree of heat: but, if they be suddenly removed from a cold to a warm place, they will ex- perience a similar fate with those hapless persons, to wdiose frozen limbs sudden heat was imprudent- ly applied: thus, too great in- crease of ac*tion occasions inflam- mation, which is generally suc- ceeded by mortification and death. This fact has been ascertained and confirmed by the experiments of M. Van Uslar, who kept two species of the spurge, or wartwort, namely, the Euphorbia Peplus, and E.-iula, L. secluded from the light and heat, with a view to render them more irritable : on exposing these plants afterwards to a meri- dian sun they became gangre- nous, and in a short time decayed. The increased, or diminished, degree of irritability in plants, is by Dr. Darwin attributed to their previous habits, with respect to the stimulus of greater or less heat. Thus, the periods at which vegeta- bles thrive in the spring* appear to be greatly influenced by their ac- quired habits, as well as by their present sensibility to heat: hence potatoes will germinate in a much cooler temperature during the spring than in autumn; hence also, the vernal months are the most fa- IRR vourable to the process of making good maltj because the barley will then sprout with a less degree of heat than at any other season. The irritability of plants has been discovered to be greater in the morning than at noon, and less in the evening than at mid-day ; though it is considerably augment- ed during cool and rainy weather. In a similar manner, the limbs of animals acquire a greater sensibi- lity of heat, after having been ex- posed to the cold: thus, the hands, after immersing them for a short time in snow, glow with warmth on entering the house ;....and the late celebrated Spallanzani ob- served several animals and insects, that conceal themselves under ground in a torpid state during the winter, and enjoy the genial warmth of the spring, again to disappear at a season when the heat of the at- mosphere was much higher than on their first emerging from their subterraneous abode. From these considerations, Dr. Darwin infers, that such plants as are sheltered in a warm room^ during the winter, ought to be oc- casionally exposed to a cooler at- mosphere, in order to increase their irritability; otherwise their growth in the succeeding spring will be much retarded. For the same reason, the continual vicissi- tudes of the air and weather are essentially necessary to mankind; as the frequent changes of heat and cold have an obvious tendency to preserve or restore their irrita- bility, and consequently the activi- ty of the system. Hence not only the health and energy of men are more conspicuous in our variable climate, but their longevity is com- paratively greater than on those tro- pical continents, which experience both a more considerable degree ISI of heat, and a more steady atmos- phere. Ischury. See Urine. ISINGLASS, or Ichthyocolla, a preparation from different species of a Russian fish, called sturgeon, of which we have given some ac- count in the article Caviare. It may also be produced from the air-bladders of the cod, or gadus, as well as from those of other fish inhabiting fresh waters. The method of making isinglass was for ages kept a secret with the Russians, but has lately been dis- covered. We extract the following process from the 63d vol. of the Philosophical Transactions : First, the sinewy parts of the fish are boiled in water, till they are dis- solved ; then the viscid liquor is strained, and suffered to cool..... When cold, the fat is carefully ta- ken off, the liquor again boiled to a due consistence, then cut in pieces and rolled into a semi-cir- cular twist, in which state they are suspended on a string, till careful- ly dried. The sounds or air-bladders of fresh-water fish, in general, are the most transparent, flexible, and delicate substances, and conse- quently furnish the finest isinglass. But the intestines and peritoneum of the fish constitute inferior sorts of this article, denominated book, and ordinary staple. The belugas, being the largest and most plenti- ful fish in the Russian rivers, yield the greatest quantity of this animal glue, which, on account of its strength, is preferred to all other kinds. Isinglass is most successfully prepared in the summer ; as frost changes its colour, deprives it of weight, and impairs its gelatinous principle; but the forms into which ISI 397 it is twisted by the Russians ars useless, and frequently injurious to its native qualities. These peculiar shapes were probably adopted with a view to conceal the real sub- stance, and thus to preserve the monopoly. The Newfoundland and Iceland fishermen split open the fish, as soon as they are taken, and throw the back bones, with the sounds an- nexed, into a heap ; but, before pu- trefaction commences, the sounds are cut out, washed and salted for use. In performing this operation, the best, namely, the intercostal parts, are left behind....the Ice- land fishermen are so sensible cf this circumstance, that they beat the bone upon a block with a thick stick, till the pockets come out easily, so that they preserve the sound entire. This isinglass is dried upon nets in the- open air, and resolves into fining like that cf Russian manufacture, in sub-acid liquors, such as stale beer, cyder; old hock, &c. while in equal quan- tities, it produces similar effects up- on turbid liquors, except that it falls sooner and closer to the bot- tom of the vessel; though foreign- isinglass, on account of the greater- tenacity of its native mucilage, re- tains the power of fining preferably in warm weather. With respect to the very exten- sive use that is made of isinglass by brewers, and wine-merchants, we have already expressed our dis- approbation, under the head of Clarification, and also recom- mended proper substitutes, especi- ally as Ii. Jackson informs us, in his F.ssays on British Isinglass, published about the year 1765, that its yearly consumption in the brew- ery was then calculated at 25 tons weighy and that 40,000/. annually 398 ISI ISS are paid for this article to the Russians. Hence it is sincerely to be wished, that this importation may be entirely superceded. [This wish may be well applied to the United States, as our rivers abound with sturgeon, and the use of isinglass is yearly increasing.] The finest and most transparent sorts of isinglass are consumed in making mock-pearls, and in stif- fening linens, silks, gauzes, Sec... It may likewise be reduced to a jelly, as it dissolves in alkaline li- quors ; and even cold lime-water converts it into a pulpy mass. Al- though such preparation would be extremely detrimental to health in fining liquors, yet it may be use- fully employed for another pur- pose ; because, on mixing this jelly with compositions of plaster, lime, kc.for ornamenting walls exposed to vicissitudes of weather, it forms a firm and durable cement; and, if worked up with common mortar, it soon acquires the hardness of bricks. With this intention, how- ever, it is more conveniently pre- pared by dissolving it in cold wa- ter, acidulated with oil of vitriol: thus, the acid quits the jelly, and forms with the lime a selenitic mass; while the jelly, being de- prived of part of its moisture, speedily dries, and hardens into a firm body ; whence its superior strength and durability may be ea- sily explained. In a medicinal view, isinglass is but seldom employed ; though it may with advantage be used in vio- lent bleedings from the nose, by- introducing into the nostril a pes- sary made of soft linen, and dipped in a solution of this glue, prepared in equal parts of spirit of wine and water. Isinglass also forms a prin- cipal ingredient in sticking-plaster ; and when boiled in fresh milk to the consistence of a strong jelly, it affords a very nourishing food to invalids ; though it should be eaten with precaution by those who pos- sess a weak stomach, or digest slowly ; as it has a great tendency to turn rancid and putrid. ISSUES, are small artificial aperturesor ulcers in the muscular parts of the body, for the purpose of draining superfluous moisture, or of giving vent to some noxious humours. Issues are usually made in the armsj.legs, or back, either by caus- tics, or by incision. They are chief- ly applied in disorders of the head, eyes, ears, teeth, Etc. which are thus relieved, and frequently cured. Inveterate complaints generally re- quire two or more issues to pro- duce any considerable effect,name- ly, one in each arm, or on the arm and leg of one side of the body. Artificial ulcers have been much recommended to the consumptive and asthmatic, though we doubt their efficacy when the patient's strength is already exhausted..... They have, nevertheless, often been found useful in cases of con- firmed melancholy, when placed near the spine, as the unhappy victim of that disorder can seldom be induced to take any internal remedies. The discharge from these orifices may be promoted by the application of issue pease, and by dressing them with mild blis- tering ointment. In order to close an issue, it is sufficient to discontinue the pea ; but in case any proud flesh should arise, it may be removed by strew- ing on it finely powdered loaf- sugar, or burnt alum : after which the wound will speedily heal, if it be properly dressed. ITC ITCH, a cutaneous affection, in which the skin is covered with small watery pustules, that appear first on the wrist, or between the fingers, then upon the arms, legs, e r. where they are accompanied with an intolerable irritating sen- sation. The itch is contagious, but sel- dom prevails where due attention is paid to cleanliness, fresh air, and wholesome food. Unless it be improperly treated, it is in it- self not a dangerous disease : but if it be too long neglected, the whole humours become corrupted; and if it be suddenly suppressed, without proper evacuations, it is apt to occasion fevers, inflamma- tions, pulmonary consumptions,Scc. Hence the extreme absurdity of having recourse to ointments which profess to cure it in a certain num- ber of days, or even hours : such imposition should be punished by the magistrate. When the patient is of a gross habit of body, it will be necessary first to administer one or two brisk laxatives, before he can with safety resort to the tepid bath. The parts affected may next be rubbed alter- nately, every second clay, one half of the body, with an ointment con- sisting of two ounces of flour of sulphur; two drams of crude sal ammoniac, finely pulverized ; and four ounces of hog's-lard, or fresh butter. To this composition may occasionally be added a small por- tion of the essence of lemons, by which the disagreeable smell of the sulphur will be greatly suppressed. During this treatment, the pa- tient ought to keep the body gently open, by taking every morning and evening from ten to fifteen grains of the flour of sulphur in honey, treacle, or new milk. The same ITC 399 clothes ought to be worn in the whole course of the disorder, ex- cepting the linen, and when a cure is effected, the former should by no means be touched, till they have been properly fumigated with sulphur, as otherwise the con- tagion will again be communica- ted. There is another species, called the dry, or malignant itch, which generally arises from the scurvy, and is very difficult to eradicate. In this case, the liberal use of anti- scorbutics, and a vegetable diet, are of equal importance. A strong decoction of tobacco has often been found an efficacious external ap- plication. Mercurial ointments have likewise been employed with advantage, but their use requires great circumspection, as it is abso- lutely necessary to keep the bowels regular, by taking the mildest laxa- tives, and to guard against cold or catarrhs. A new remedy for this loath- some affection, has lately been dis- covered by M. Grille. He had observed that persons employed in the manganese-mines, of Macon, in France, were not liable to this cutaneous disease ; and that the neighbouring workmen, when at- tacked by the itch, were accustom- ed to resort to these mines, with a view to be cured of their complaint: thus, the tormenting irritation speedily ceased ; the eruption dis- appeared ; and the skin became perfectly sound. Hence, M. Grille was led to conjecture, that manganese might be employed as a remedy for the itch. He therefore formed 6 parts of this semi-metal in a pulverized state, and 16 parts of fresh hog's- lard, into an unguent: several per- sons troubled with this disease were 400 J U I directed to rub such ointment over their bodies ; at the same time, the usual medicines for opening the bowels, were administered ; and the malady was, in a few days, completely removed. Itch, a distemper in cattle, v/hich is either occasioned by foul litter, and inattention to the skin of these useful animals, or is com- municated from others; though it sometimes arises from a disorder- ed state of the body. Prof. Brad- ley directs the infected creature to be well washed with its own urine previously warmed, and mix- ed with stale salt butter. JUICE, denotes the sap of ve- getables, or the fluids of animals. bee Blood, Plants, Sap, Sec. The juices of several plants and fruits are expressed with a view to obtain their essential salts, and for various medicinal purposes : they are used either without further pre- paration, or converted into syrups and extracts. Such juices are ge- nerally obtained by simply bruising the plant in a marble mortar, and then submitting the pulp to a press: some vegetables, however, require the addition of water in the mortar, to express then- juice with greater facility. The sap of most antiscor- butic plants, abounding with saline volatile principles, may be disposed to filtration, merely by pouring it in close bottles, and immersing them in boiling water: thus, the ealine and volatile particles, in which their medicinal virtues chief- \y consist, may be easily preserv- ed. See Filtration. fermentation is another method of clarifying juices that are sus- ceptible of it; for all liquors which have undergone that process, spon- taneously become pellucid....See Fermentation. JUL Most vegetable juices coagulate, when exposed to the air, whether they are extracted from the plant by wounds, or flow from it without any external injury : in the latter case, however, it is generally the effect of a disease in the plant, ei- ther from a species of canker, or some other internal cause. Different parts of the same plant often yield juices of opposite qua- lities. Thus, the sap in the root of the cow-parsnip is of a yellow colour ; while that obtained from its stalk is white. The wild or strong scented lettuce, affords the greatest abundance of milky juice, of any known British plant. On wounding the stalk with a knife-, there exudes a white ropy liquor; but, if an incision be made at the top of the stalks, a purple-tinged sap appears, as if cream had been sprinkled over it with a few drops of red wine. In a short time, it acquires a deeper purple, and thickens so, that finally a separa- tion takes place, when the watery part floats on the surface......See Lettuce. JULEP, a convenient form of medicines, which require no decoc- tion, and are mixed up with syrup or sugar, in order to dilute them properly, or cover their pungen- cy. Acid julep consists of 3 drams of weak vitriolic acid, 3 ounces of simple syrup, and two pounds of spring-water. These ingredients are to be gradually mixed and the whole carefully strained. See Vi- triolic acid. Amber julep : Let two drams of tincture of amber, and half an ounce of refined sugar, be mixed with 6 ounces of spring water, and strained in the manner above-men- tioned. Under this form, the tiao- JUN tureof amber is rendered an agree- able medicine, which may be sub- stituted for the amber itself, in nervous affections, &c. for which it is sometimes prescribed. Aether juL p is composed of two scruples of pure vitriolic xther, 6 oz. of spring water, and half an oz. of refined sugar, which ingredients are to be mixed and strained. In spasmodic affections, this prepara- tion is often given with advantage, in repeated draughts of about half a tea-cupful every hour, or oftener. Saline julep, is a mixture of 3 drams of purified pot-ash and half a pound of water ; lo which are to be added, one ounce of the syrup of black currants, and half a pound of lemon-juice ; or such a quantity of the latter as will be sufficient to saturate the alkali. This com- pound is often used in febrile dis- eases, by taking two or three table- spoonfuls every hour, in order to promote a slight perspiration. It also increases the secretion of urine, and is frequently employed to re- strain vomiting. JUNIPER-TREE, or Juniperus L. a native shrub, comprising se- veral species ; of which the princi- pal is the Juniperus communis, or Common Juniper-tree : it grows in many parts of Britain, upon dry, barren commons; on hills, or in vallies, in open sandy plains, or in moist and close woods, where it generally continues a low shrub : but, if planted in a good soil, it will attain the height of 15 or 16 feet, and produce numerous branches. The juniper-tree may be propa- gated by the berries, if they can be procured in a ripe state. It is remarkable, that no grass will grow beneath this shrubi though the lat- VOL. III. j U tf 401 ter is said to be destroyed by the meadow-oat. Juniper-berries possess a strong* not unpleasant smell; and a warm, pungent, sweet taste ; which, on chewing, or previously well bruis- ing them, is succeeded by a bitter- ish flavour. They require two years before they ripen, and yield, on expression, a rich, sweet, aro- matic juice, bearing some resem- blance to the taste of honey. These berries are useful carminatives; for which purposes a spirituous water, and an essential oil, are prepared from them. The Swedes eat them for breakfast, in the form of a con* serve....In Germany, they are fre- quently used as a culinary spice, and especially for imparting their flavour to sauer-kraut. The spirit impregnated with the essential oil of this fruit, is known by the nam® of Gin, to which we refer. According to Hoffman, a rob is prepared of the liquor remaining after the distillation of the oil: it is passed through a strainer, and gently exhaled to a due consistence. This he recommends as a medi- cine of great efficacy, in cases of impaired digestion and debility of the intestines ; it is also very ser- viceable to aged persons, labour- ing under diseases of the urinary passages. The rob is of a balsamic sweet taste, somewhat bitter, ac- cordingly as the seeds have been more or less bruised. One of the best fi;rms, however, is a simple watery infusion of the berries, or the tops with the addition of a small quantity of gin: thus, a very useful medicine is obtained for dropsical patients. Linnjeus in- forms us, that the Laplanders are accustomed to drink such infusions as substitutes for tea and coffee. 3F 402 J UN The oil of juniper, when mixed with that of nuts, makes an excel- lent varnish for pictures, wood- work, and for preserving iron from rust. The wood of the juniper-tree is of a reddish colour, very hard and durable : it is employed in mar- quetry and veneering; making cups, cabinets, &c while the bark may be manufactured into ropes. The charcoal made from this wood affords the most durable heat, so that live embers are said to have been found in the ashes, after hav- ing been covered for 12 months. The resin of this plant (gum San- darach,) when powdered and rub- bed into paper, is frequently used under the name of pounce....... Thrushes and grouse feed on the juniper-berries, and disseminate the seed in their dung. The sprouts are eaten by horses, sheep, and goats. In the u Transactions of the Eco- nomical society of Petersburgh, Mr. Alopaeus has published the fol- lowing facts relative to the more extensive utility of the juniper-tree in Finland. 1. The water used for brewing malt-liquors, is previously boiled with juniper-twigs ; which are be- lieved to improve both the salubrity and flavour of the beer. 2. The leaves are employed for fumigating houses, with a view to correct foul air, or expel pernicious vapours. 3. Milk-vessels are preferably made of juniper wood, which is supposed to contribute to the pre- servation of milk in a sweet state, and to render it more palatable.... When other woods are used for •uch vessels, they are, for the same I vo purposes, washed with water i«. which juniper - twigs have been boiled. 4. Warm decoctions of this shrub are frequently given to cows, and sometimes to sheep ; in order to enrich the quality, and increase the quantity, of their milk. Lastly, juniper-berries are roast- ed, ground, and prepared in the manner of coffee, for which they are frequently substituted ; afford- ing an excellent palliative in calcu- lous and gouty complaints. From these berries may also be brewed a cheap, wholesome, and well-fla- voured beer, by the following pro- cess, which has but lately become generally known in Sweden : Let 30 lbs. of clean juniper-berries be pounded in a mortar (we suppose, without bruising the stones, and be put in a common mash tub, together with 2A buckets of cold water ; suffering the whole to stand 42 hours. When the juice of the berries is sufficiently extracted, the liquor must be drawn off, and boiled in a copper, being carefully skimmed during the ebullition. A due portion of hops is then to be boiled with a little of the wort; in- corporated with the whole ; and,. as soon as it becomes lukewarm, the yeast ought to be added in the usual manner. When the fermen- tation ceases, the beer should be poured into a barrel containing a little isinglass; and carefully closed with a bung. Such beverage is very salubrious and aromatic; but as it ferments more tardily than common malt liquor, it is apt to become sour: hence, M. Alo- paeus advises only a small quan- tity to be brewed at a time. IVORY, the tooth or tusk of an IVO elephant, growing on each side of Tiis trunk, and somewhat resem- bling the shape of a horn. Ivory is much esteemed for its remarkable whiteness, its polish and'beautiful grain. Dioscorides asserts, that if this substance be boiled with the root of mandrago- ras, for six hours, it may be ren- dered soft and flexible. By steep- ing small pieces of ivory in vine- gar or any other acid, they become ductile, and may be preserved in that state for a considerable time, by keeping them in common wa- ter. This hard substance may also be softened and whitened, by immersing it in a hot decoction made of red sage leaves, in double- distilled white-wine vinegar, with the addition of a little quick-lime. For removing spots, the ivory should be laid in unslacked lime, -and a small portion of water pour- ed on it,lest the heat be too intense, and the ivory scale, or become ■brittle. Others discharge the stains by merely steeping it for some time in strong lime-water. Ivory may be dyed green, either in a solution of copper or verdi- grease in aqua-fortis ; or by grind- ing together two parts of verdi- grease and one of sal ammoniac, and dissolving them in strong white-wine vinegar. Farther, by employing four ounces of aqua regia and one ounce of sal am- moniac, a fine purple colourwill be the result. Ivory, bone, horn, and other solid parts of animals, may be stained yellow, by previously boiling them in a solution of one pound of alum in two quarts of water ; then im- mersing them for half an hour in a liquor prepared by boiling half a pound of turmeric in a gallon of watet, till it be reduced to three IVY 403 quarts, and afterwards plunging the coloured substance into alum water. All bony matters m.iy al- so be stained blue : they are first to be tinged with green, then dipped in a strong and hot solution of pearl-ashes. See also Bones, Tortoise-shell, and Wood. Ivory may be prepared as a ground for miniature-painting, by cleansing the leaves or plates- and rubbing them over with the juice of garlic. This method is prefer- ably recommended for removing its greasy quality, which prevents the colours from fixing on the ground, and is said to be more useful than either soap or ox-gall. With respect to the medicinal properties of ivory, its shavings, like those of Hartshorn, may, by boiling, be converted into a jel- ly, and possess similar restorative virtues. Ivory-black........See vol. i. p. 295. IVY, the Common, or Hedera Helix, L. a native plant growing in woods, hedges, and about old buildings : it flowers in the month of October. This plant was first brought to Europe from Canada, and has been long cultivated in the British gar- dens, chiefly for the purpose of co- vering walls or buildings. It shoots almost 20 feet in one year, and gradually extends to the top of the highest building. It is easily pro- pagated in autumn, by its trailing branches ; and will thrive in almost any soil or situation , so that in the following October it is fit to be transplanted to those places where it is destined to remain. The leaves of ivy possess a nau- seous taste, though in Germany they are employed as a specific in the atrophy of children. Among 404 IVY IVY the lower class of people in Eng- land, they are applied lo issues ; and Ihe Scotch Highlanders pre- pare an ointment from the leaves, which is much esteemed for the cure of burns. The berries are of a fine gold colour, and possess a slight degree of acidity : when swallowed by children or adults, they occasion vomiting, diarrhoea, and profuse sweating. The roots of this plant are employed by lea- ther cutters to whet their knives. Boh mer informs us, that both the leaves and branches are useful in tanning. Apricots and peaches, when covered with ivy during the month of February, have been ob- served to bear abundant fruit....... Horses and sheep eat the common ivy, but it is totally refused by cows and goats. K KAL KAL KALE, the Sea. or Crambe, L. a genus of perennial plants com- prising three species one of which is a native of Britain, namely, the maritima, Cliff-kale, Sea-cabbage, or Sea Colewort. It growson sandy soils, near the sea-coast,and flowers in the months of May and June. This phint is relished by horses, cows, goats, hogs, and sheep. It's young and tender leaves are boiled and eaten as cabbage ; but, when full grown, they frequently occa- sion giddiness. The sea-kale is cultivated in many gardens as an esculent ve- getable. It is also reared in plea- sure-grounds, as a flowering peren- nial ; because the stalks divide into fine branching heads of flowers.... For either purpose it is propagat- ed by seed, sown in autumn or spring in any common light soil, in which the plants are intended to remain. At the end of two years, they will produce shoots fit for use, and multiply exceedingly by the roots, which continue for many seasons. [The proper directions for cul- tivating sea-kale, were improper- ly given by the author Dr. W. un- der the head Cabbage. See vol. ii. p. 467.] KALENDAR, or Calendar, denotes either the distribution of lime, accommodated to the pur- poses of life ; or a table or alma- nack, comprising the order of days, weeks, months, Sec. There are various systems of chronological computation, accord- ing to the different forms of the year and the division of time adopted in particular countries ; such as the Julian, Gregorian, and the new French kalendar. The Julian kalendar received its name from Julius Casar, the reformer of the old Roman kalen- dar, and is divided into periods comprising four years j the first KAL KAL 405 three of which are called common, was not introduced into Britain till and consist of 365 days ; the fourth it was enacted by the 24th Geo. II. has received the appellation of bis- c. 23, that the Gregorian compu- sextile, or leap-year, and contains tation should be adopted ; and it 366 days, on account of the six accordingly took place in the year hours, which in the space of four 1752. years form a day, within a few mi- The kalendar at present used by mutes, and thus in the course of the French, was invented by Fahre 134 years, render it necessary to d'Eglantine, during the late re- subtract an intercalary day. volution. It commences with the For this reason, Pope Gregory autumnal equinox, and is divided XIII, with the advice of able ma- into twelve months, each of which thematicians, appointed that the contains 30 days, and three de- hundredth year of each century cades, or periods often days : thus, should have no bissextile, except- a decade is a day of rest, similar to ing in every fourth century, on ac- our Sunday. To the 12th month, count of the deficiency of eleven or Fructidor, are added five super- minutes in the six hours of which numerary days called sanculottides: a bissextile consists. and thatthe reader may form some This reformation, or the new idea of the new French kalendar, style, as it is now termed, com- we have annexed the following menced on the 4th of October, tables, in which the new and old 1582, when ten days were omitted methods of computation are placed in the old kalendar; but that change in parallel lines : Years of Commencement the Gregorian Year. of the September. Republic. French Year. 10 1801—C2 1801 23 11 1802-r-OS 1802 S. 23 12 1803—04 B. 1803 24 13 1804—05 1804 B. 23 14 1805—06 1805 23 15 1806—07 1806 S. 23 16 1807—08 B. 1807 24 17 1808—09 1808 B. 23 18 1809—10 1809 23 19 1810—11 1810 23 20 1811—12 B. 1811 S. 23 B. Signifies Bissextile, or Leap-Year...S. Sextile, or French Leap-Year. 405 KAL KAL By means of the next Table, the first day of each Month of the New French Kalendar, is made to correspond with that of the common Kalendar. 1. Vcndemaire, or Autumnal Month. 1. Bruinaire, or Hazy Morr.h. 22 Septemb. 22 October 23 24 24 1. Frimaire, or Hoar-frost Month. 1. Nivost; or Snow Month. 21 Novem., 21 Decem. 22 --- 22 23 ---- 23 1. Pluxiose, or Rain Month. 1. Ventote, or Wind Month. 20 January, 19 Feb. 21 ---- ' (20 ---- 22 ---- 21 ---- 1. Gc Germinating Month. 1. Floreat, or Flower Month. 1. Prairial, or Meadow Month. 1. Messidur, t.Thermidor, Harvest Month. Hot Month. 1. Fruai.ior, or Fruit Month. 21 March* 22 ---- * 23 ---- * __________ First Intercalery Dav 19 July i20---- 21---- 17 Septem 18 ---- 19 ---- * When a Gregorian Leap-Year occurs, one day must be subtracted from all those days in the year which _ are marked with an asterisk. In tiie following Table, the first day of each Month of the common Kalendar is arranged according to the first day of the French Ka- lendar; and it deserves to be remarked, that when a Leap-Year occurs, one day must be superadded to each of the following days. Commencement cf ihe year in the foregoing Gre-gorian year. 1 January I February 1 March 1 April 22 Sepember 12 Nivose 11 13 Pluviose 12 ---- 11 11 Ventose 10 9 12 Germinal 11 11 m 10 1 May I June 1 July 1 August 12 Floreal 11 i ■ ■ ■ 13 Prairial 12 13 Messidor\l4: Thermid. 1° 13 \ i................ 11 llO 1 Septemb. 1 October I Novemb. 1 December 15 Fructid. 11 .... 10 Vendem. 9 11 Brumair. 10 ------- 9 11 Frimaire 10 13 .. _ ___ KAL K E L 407 The Monthly Reviewers, in their Journal for March 1797, observe that the new French year appears to astronomers better calculated than our own, because its com- mencement forms a natural date in both the hemispheres, and its four quarter days coincide very nearly with the solstices and equinoxes. The French months, too, are of equal length ; and divided regular- ly by their decades, without a frac- tion ; by which the remembrance of dates, circumstances, Sec. is con- siderably promoted. In the con- clusion of their criticism, however, the Reviewers admit that the namesare ill-adapted to themonths, which are accommodated only to the climate of Paris: hence they are of opinion that these innova- tions, as well as those respecting weights and measures, ought to have been reserved for discussion in a congress for general pacifica- tion. [KALMIA, a genus of native plants, of which there are certain- ly four species,viz. 1. K. latifolia, or broad-leaved laurel, winter green, callico tree. This is the largest of all the species, growing to the height of seven or eight feet, and sometimes higher. The wood is hard, compact, and is employed, by turners and joiners, in making work requiring such wood. It also furnishes handles for scythes. The leaves are highly poisonous to hoises, but deer, and the pheasant eat them with impunity. They how- ever, when eaten late in the winter by pheasants,once communicated a quality to the flesh of these birds, which occasioned alarming symp- toms, in many persons, and the death of others who eat of them, during the latter end of the winter of 1790-91. An account of the fact as recorded by the Editor oF this work, may be found in the New-York Med. Repository, vol. 1. 2. K. angustifolia, narrow leav- ed, or dwarf-laurel grows on san- dy heaths, and dry, poor soils.... Bees collect a deleterious honey from the flowers of both species of this plant, which produces very disagreeable symptoms in those who eat of it; as mentioned under article Bee. An ingenious experimental in- augural dissertation was publish- ed in Philadelphia in 1802, by Dr. Thomas, upon the above species of Kalmia ; from which it appears that the leaves of both abound with resin, but that the last is the most active of the two. From the same dissertation we find, that a decoc- tion of the K. latifolia, prepared by putting one ounce of the leaves in eight ounces of water, and boiling it down to four ounces, cured a diarrhxa of eight weeks continu- ance. The dose at first was thirty drops six times a day, but pro- ducing vertigo, it was diminished to four times a day. The itch was speedily cured by washing the parts with the decoction. The Scald head, Tinea Capitis^ was also cured by anointing the head with an ointment made of the leaves and hog's fat. Dr. Barton bears testimony of the efficacy of this ointment in the Tinea. See " CollectionsJor a Materia McdicaA 3. K. Guinea of Aiton. 4. A". Hir&uta of Walter, or K. ciliata of Bartram. The last is a na- tive of the Southern States.] KELP, a term used to denote a species of pot-ash, employed in glass manufactories for chrystalliz- ing the metal. Kelp consists of the calcined ashes of the sea-wrack and other 408 K E L KEI* plants growing on the sea-shorcS, between high and low water-mark. The preparation of this useful ar- ticle should be commenced in the spring; for, if the burning be de- layed till the harvest is far ad- vanced, the rainy season of autumn renders the process more tedious and difficult. To prepare the ma- terials for producing kelp, the sea- weeds should be cut with hooks or sickles ; but the aspect of the shore, together with the time and rapidity of the tides, should be pre- viously ascertained. If the coast be level, the plants may be speedi- ly conveyed by horses and carts to the place where they are to be dried and burnt. On the contrary, when the shore is rugged, a strong rope should be laid at low water, around the cut grass; and, in order to increase the diameter of this rope, the longest sea-plants ought to be twisted round it. With the returning tide, the whole spot thus surrounded will soon be set afloat, and the cut vegetables may be readily collected ; for. as the water advances, they may be gradually dragged towards the shore, by means of the rope serving as a net. To facilitate their removal, one end of the cord should be drawn through a ring, applied to the other end, and tightened so as to contract the plants into a small bulk: thus, they may be easily moved along with the tide. After the herbage has reached the place of its destination, it must be dried in a manner simi- lar to hay ; coiled and stacked up for burning; proper care being taken to form the stacks, so as effectually to secure it from the rain. With respect to the burning or melting of kelp, a process very te- dious, and not strictly connected with domestic economy, the inqui-. sitive reader may consult the 12th vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures; where it is minute- ly described. KENNEL, or Channel, gene- rally signifies a small cavity or hol- low for conducting water through the streets ; but, in its present sense, it is peculiarly applied to denote a house or building for the reception of a pack of hounds. A kennel ought to be situated on an eminence, in a dry situation, and in the vicinity of a brook or running stream. The strictest cleanliness is necessary, both for promoting the health of hounds, and also to preserve their sense sufficiently acute: for this purpose, kennels should be well aired, and strewed with fresh straw, to pre- vent the mange, or other infec- tious distemper. Mr. Blckfoud recommends these buildings to be erected in the vicinity of the man- sion ; and, on their first establish- ment, to construct them of the re- quisite capacity; because every subsequent addition impairs their external appearance. Those read- ers who wish to acquire farther in- formation on the management of the kennel, will meet with amuse- ment in Mr. B.'s Thoughts on Hunting ; of which, we understand, a new edition will shortly appear. KERMES-MINERAL, one of the best preparations of antimony, which is so termed from its close resemblance to the insect called Kermes, or Coccus ilicis, L. It is prepared by boiling together half a pound of crude antimony reduced to powder, and two pounds of pu- rified pot-ash in eight pints of pure water, for fifteen minutes; stirring the mixture with an iron spatula; and then expeditiously filtering it KID while it is hot. The liquor is now suffered to stand in a cool place, where it soon deposits a powder that ought to be repeatedly wash- ed, first with cold, and afterwards with hot water, till it be complete- ly divested of its taste. This medicine was originally contrived by Glauber, whose suc- cessor sold the secret of preparing it to the French King; in conse- quence of which, it was published in 1720. If judiciously adminis- tered, kermes-mineral is a com- pound of great efficacy, on account of its exciting and evacuating pro- perties. According to the quantity that is taken, it will operate either as an emetic, purgative, sudorific, or expectorant; for it is equally attenuating and resolvent, especi- ally in disorders of the breast, pro- ceeding from obstructions. The particular closes of this powder are mentioned in the accounts of the different disorders in which it is recommended; but, in general, o;ie grain only is prescribed for adults, to be taken every third or fourth hour. KEY, a well known instrument employed for opening Locks, of which we shall give some account under that article. Key also denotes an extensive wharf for the convenience of load- ing and unloading goods on board of merchantmen. See Quay. KIDNEY-VETCH, Anthyllis, L. an indigenous biennial plant, comprising several species,of which the vulneraria, or Lady's-finger, is the principal: it grows in meadows and pastures, in a chalky or calca- reous soil; produces yellow flowers from May to August, and its seeds ripen in October. In the cultivation of this vegeta- ble, no particular care is necessary, VOL. III. K ID 409 farther than to keep it clean from weeds. It affords excellent pas- turage for sheep. Linnaeus re- marks that, when the-kidney-vetch grows on a reddish clay soil, the blossoms present a red colour: but, in white clay-land, they are uni- formly white.....Although these flowers were formerly celebrated as vulnerary, yet we believe they might be more usefully employed as a dyeing material, and perhaps, as a substitute for indigo ; because in a dry state, they acquire a blue colour. Country people obtain from them a fine yellow dye. The plant is relished by cows and goats. KIDNlES,in anatomy,are those two viscera which separate the urine of animals. They are situ- ated in the lower part of the cavity of the abdomen, on each side of the vertebrae of the loins, between* the last false rib and the hip bones. The right kidney lies beneath the great lobe of the liver; and the left, under the spleen : they are gene- rally about five inches in length, three inches broad, and one inch and a half thick, in adults. Their excretory ducts are called ureters, or canals which convey the urine into the bladder. The kidnieS of animals are, in general, tough, acrid, and difficult of digestion : hence they ought not lo be eaten by persons of a delicate habit, cr of a sedentary life. Those of calves, lambs, and othet young animals, may however be used with safety ; as they afford a more palatable and congenial food. Inflammation of the Kidnies, or Nephritis, a painful affeclio'i of these parts, attended with a fre- quent discharge of water, which is either thin and colourless, or very red ; with vomiting, coldness of the extremities, difficulty of breathing, 3 G 410 KID numbness of the thigh, and other febrile symptoms. The remote causes of this in- flammatory disease are, stony con- cretions, external contusions, vio- lent or long continued riding,strong diuretic medicines, such as the spi- rit of turpentine, Sec. The more immediate causes, are the same as induce other local inflamma- tions. Cure : In this, as in similar com- plaints, bleeding is the first reme- dy to be resorted to, especially by. means of leeches. It will also be advisable to apply cloths immersed in hot water and wrung out, as nearly to the part affected as the patient can bear, and to renew them as often as they grow cool. Emollient clysters are also to be frequently administered ; and the same treatment must be adopted, as has been already pointed out un- der the article Inflammation. Should these remedies fail to afford relief, and the numbness of the part affected, together with the other symptoms, continue to in- crease, a suppuration will imme- diately ensue. In this disease, the patient must avoid all acrid, sour, and salted provisions, and subsist entirely on mild, mucilaginous ve- getables. Butter-milk, if used to a considerable extent, has been found of excellent service, and in some cases, even proved a specific re- medy for ulcerated kidneys. Goat's milk, and the balsams of Copaiva, or Canada,have been recommended as eminently useful. Those per- sons who are liable to frequent re- turns of inflammation, or obstruc- tions of the kidneys, ought rigidly to abstain from wines, and all ar- dent spirits , their food should be of the lightest kind, and easy of digestion : they must likewise not KIN attempt to lie on feather-becK, or be covered too warm ; never sleep on their back ; and carefully take daily, though moderate exercise. KILDERKIN,aliquid measure, consisting of two firkins ; and two kilderkins make a barrel. See Firkin. KILN, a stove used in various manufactures. It also denotes a building for the admission of heat, in order to dry or burn certain ma- terials deposited in such an edifice. See Brick, Malt, and Lime. In 1796, a patent was granted to Mr. J. Pepper, of Newcastle- under-Line, for his invention of a kiln, for the purpose of drying malt or other grain. As, however, the ingenious inventor's plan would be understood only by architects, or builders, the'curious reader will resort to the 5th vol. of the Reper- tory of Arts, &c. where it is illus- trated with two engravings. KING-FISHER, or Alcedo, L. a genus of birds frequenting every quarter of the world, and compris- ing numerous species ; the prin- cipal of which is the ispida, or com- mon king-fisher. The bird is about the size of a swallow ; of a clumsy shape ; and the bill disproportionately long.... But the great beauty and variety of its plumage amply atone for its inelegant form. The crown of its head, and the coverts of its wings, are of a deep blackish green, spot- ted with a bright azure tint; the back and tail exhibit the most re- splendent shades: the whole inte- rior side of the body is of an orange cast; and the tail, consisting of twelve feathers, presents a rich deepblue. When flying, in a bright day, the plumage of this bird exhi- bits a variety of the most dazzling colours. KIT KIT 411 The female king-fisher constructs her nest in holes scooped out of the sides of cliffs, lo the depth of three feet; and deposits from five to nine eggs, of a semi-transparent white. She begins to lay early in the sea- son, and excludes her first brood about the month of April; as the period of incubation does not ex- ceed twenty days. While she is brooding, the male plentifully sup- plies her with fish ; and, unlike most other birds, the female in that season is muscular and plump. King-fishers are the most rapa- cious little animals that skim the deep ; and, though of diminutive size, they devour almost incredible numbers of fish. Hence, their flesh is unfit to be eaten; but their beau- tiful plumage retains its lustre longer than that of any other bird. KINO, a gummy resinous sub- stance, exuding from incisions made in a tree called Pan de San- gue, a native of the inland parts of Africa, but of which there is no botanical account. From its sensible qualities, and also by its striking a black colour with a solution of green vitriol, this drug is remarkably astringent. It was first recommended by Dr. FoTHERGiLL,andis now often pre- scribed in diarrhoeas, fluxes, &c. It affords an extract both in spirits and in water, but is more generally given in the form of a tincture, from one or two tea-spoonfuls, three or four times in 24 hours. KITCHEN, an apartment or room destined for the dressing of provisions, and preparing them for the table. In 1794, a patent was granted to Mr. G. Stratton, for an im- proved kitchen-range, or stove, with an apparatus for the prevention of smoky chimnies. His invention is stated to be an improvement upon fire-places, by which great heat may be obtained from a small fire; by means of flues, connected either with the front, sides, back, or bottom of such grates, as occasion may require : it farther contains a contrivance for the immediate extinguishing of fire in chimnies. We refer the reader for particulars to the specification, given in the first volume of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures where it is illustrated with an engraving. A patent was likewise granted in 1780, to Mr. Bkodie, for his invention of a ship's kitchen, includ- ing a stove, hearth, smoke-jack and iron lioilers. These contriv- ances, however ingenious, are not connected with domestic economy; and the curious reader will find them detailed in the 7th vol. of the work before quoted. [The very great improvements lately made by our countryman Count Rumford, in the Science of Cooking ; deserve a particular no- tice in an American edition of a work, expressly compiled for the purpose of increasing our know- ledge of domestic economy. Hence the Editor has been at the pains to condense the most important mat- ter on the subject, which is diffused through two thick octavo volumes; and also introduce cuts of some of the kitchen utensils, which from. the simplicity of their construction, are most liable to meet with ap- probation in the United States. ; Some general observations shall first be made. 1. Count Rumford has fully shewn, that, water just on the point of boiling, is as hot as it can possi- bly be made in an open vessel; that 412 KIT consequently all the fuel used in making it boil with violence, is wasted, without adding a single de- gree to the heat of the water, or expediting the process of cooking a single instant; and that it is by heat, its intensity, and duration, that the food is cooked, and not by the boiling*. 2. Food, long and violently boil- ed, is rendered much less savoury, in consequence of the finer and more volatile parts being carried off in the steam rising therefrom, and is also less nourishing. 3.26-t lbs, of dry pine wood are recjuired to heat 300 lbs. of water, and 100 lbs. of beef, (both at the temperature of 55) boiling hot, and 3 lbs. more of wood to keep the whole boiling three hours : in all, equal to | of a peck of pit coal. Count Rumford objects, 1st, to the kitchen ranges of England, (and he might include with gr,eat propriety our wood-devouring wide- throated chimnies.J 2. To the iron ovens, and boilers heated by lateral flues, and 3. To smoke-jacks: both of which are creeping into use here just as they are exploded in Eng- land ! He prefers common jacks, as being less troublesome, less ex- pensive, and not so liable to get out of order, or to make the kitchen smoke, and lays down the following objects to be had in view, in at- tempting to improve kitchen fire- places. 1. In general, the boiler, kettle, and stewpan, should have its sepa- * An attention to the regularity of heat is of great Consequence, not only in cook- ing, but also in various arts requiring much beat. The success "f many processes de- pends upon it....Editor. KIT rate closed fire-place; its separate grate, on which the fuel must be placed; and separate ash pit, closed by a well fitted door ; furnished with a register in the middle of this door, for regulating the admis- sion of air ; and a separate canal with a damper, for carrying the smoke into the chimney. The ca- nal may open into the chimney about a foot above the level of the mantle. 2. In the fire-places for all boil- ers and stewpans, which are more than eight or ten inches in diame- ter ; or which are too large to be easily removed with their contents, with one hand ; an horizontal open- ing, just above the level of the grate, must be made, for introduce ing the fuel into the fire-place : which opening must be nicely clos- ed by a fit stopper, or by a double door. In the fire-places for small stewpans, this opening may be omitted, and the fuel may be intro-. duced through the same opening, into which the stewpan is fitted. 3. All portable boilers and stew- pans, should be circular, and be suspended by their circular rims. Fixed boilers, should be an oblong square, to permit the free repairs of "flues; and all boilers rather broad and shallow, than narrow and deep. 4. All boilers should have co- vers, made of tinned iron, of the form of a hollow cone, as in the annexed cut. KIT K I T 413 The height of the cone to be one third its diameter ; and the bottom closed by a circular plate, or thin sheet of tinned iron ; and fitted to the top of the boiler ; which is to be completely closed by means of a rim, about two inches wide, and made to enter the boiler, and soldered to the flat sheet of tinned iron, which forms the bottom of the cover. The steam to be carried off by a tube one half inch in diameter, passing through the cover, and projecting £ an inch above the top, and sol- dered above and below, in such a manner, that the air in the cone may remain completely confined. The same fire-place may serve occasionally for.several boilers or stewpans. But those used in the same closed fire-place, must be of the same diameter, and of different depths : and have their diameters marked on their handles or brims, or covers ; these fire-places also should be marked with the same number: and to guard against mistakes respecting the sizes of utensils, and the fire places to which they belong : the difference of the diameters of two boilers or stew- pans should never be less than one whole inch. In some they have been made of 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 inches in dia- meter ; and ■}, -i, and ■§ their dia. meters in depth. The boilers should be placed near the chimney, and in general, in one range, or rather in one mass of brick work. The distance of fit- ting up or setting boilers and sauce- pans, may be taken at a width of a brick or 41 inches ; and the same space allowed for the distance of the side of the boiler, from the out- side or fronts of the mass of the brick work. The readiest way of proceeding in making a plan of the kitchen machinery, is, to form it on the plan of the room ; and having set- tled the places of the boilers, to trace on this plan, a ground plan of the whole ; and a sufficient num- ber of sections and elevations should be drawn to shew the situations, forms and dimensions of the fire- places, and of all the other parts of the apparatus. The ash pits are first to be sunk, the ash doors placed, and the foun- dations of the brick-work laid. The separate closed fire-places under iron ovens or roasters, must be made very small, otherwise the cook will make the fire too large : and it is a great fault to overload the fire-place with fuel, especially when the fire is first kindled. The fire-place must be situated directly under the oven or boiler. The fuel should be burnt upon a grate in the form of a segment of a hollow sphere, or of a dish, .that the solid pieces of the inflam- ed fuel may fall together in the cen- tre of the fire-place, without any assistance. As to the size of the grate, make it's diameter equal to the diameter of the boiler at the brim. See the following figures. 414 KIT K I T air into the fire-place,will,in a great measure, be prevented. These holes ought to be smaller above than below, to prevent their being choaked. This evil may be also prevented, when circular hollow iron grates are used ; by narrowing the fire-place immediately under the grate, in the form of an inverted, truncated hollow cone, the open- ing or diameter of which,above,be- ing equal to the internal diameter When wood is used, it must be of the circular rim of the grate, cut into lengths of six inches. and that below (by which the air When the fire-place is closed on rises to enter the fire-place) about all sides by a wall, and when the one-third of that diameter. See opening by which the fuel is intro- the cut p. 413. This opening be- duced, is kept closed ; no air can low, through which the air rises, press in laterally upon the fire ; must be immediately under the but yet, when the grate is larger centre of the grate, and as near to than the heap of burning fuel, it as possible : care must be taken, which must often be the case, a however, that a small space be left great quantity of air may insinuate between the outside or underside of itself by the sides of the grate into the iron bars which form the hol- the fire-place, without going thro' low grate, and the inside surface of the fire : but when, instead of an this inverted hollow cone, in order iron grate, a perforated hollow that the ashes may slide down in earthen pan is used, by making the the ash pit. These directions are bottom of the pan, two, three, or more peculiarly applicable to fire- four inches, and making all the air places of a moderate size. holes point to one common cen- The construction of the ash pit tre, (to the focus or centre of the door with it's register, may be un. fcre) this furtive entrance of cold derstoodfrom the following figures. KIT KIT 415 The above is a front view of the door with it's register. The whole is constructed of sheet-iron, except the narrow pieces at the four cor- ners, which hold down in its place the circular plate of the register, and the small circular plate (as large as an half crown) in the cen- tre of the register, which are made of brass, on account of that metal not being so liable to rust as iron. The above cut represents the it, by which the other parts of the plate of sheet-iron, which forms the machinery are fixed to it. front of the door, with the holes in The above represents the circu- lar plate which forms the register. To this plate is fixed a projecting knob, or button, by which it is turn- ed about. In constructing these register doors, and in general, all iron doors for fire-places , the flat surface of the inside of the door should mere- ly shut down on the front edge cf the door frame, or lie against it, touching in all its parts. This 416 KIT KIT edge, by grinding it on the flat sur- face of a stone, should be made level to receive it: doors fitted in rabbits or grooves, are troublesome. When the heat is very intense, the frame of the door should be made of fire stone, [or soap-stone cut edgewise, the necessity of which was stated under article Fire- place.] And that part of the door exposed to the fire, should be co- vered, either with a fit piece of fire- stone, fastened to it with clamps of iron ; or a sufficient number of strong nails, with long necks and flat heads; or of staples, being driv- en into that side of the plate of iron which forms the door exposed ; that side of it should be covered with abody about two inches thick, of strong clay mixed with a due portion of coarse powder of pound- ed crucibles; which mass will be held in its place by the heads of the nails, and by the projecting staples. This mass being put on wet, and gently dried, the cracks being carefully filled up as they appear, and the whole well beaten together into a solid mass, will, when properly burned on by the heat of the fire, form a covering, which will effectually defend it from all injury from the fire : and be very lasting. The contrivance for closing the doors for the introduction of fuel, most approved of, is a tile with a conical hole in its centre, 6 inches in diameter externally, and 5| inches diameter within, provided with a fit baked earthen stopper. The annexed cuts will give an idea of their forms. The doors of closed fire-places, if constructed of sheet-iron, must be double, or be covered on the out- side with a pannel of wood. By a double door, is meant, one door constructed of two sheets or plates ofiron,placed parallel toeach other; and so constructed, that the air which is between the two plates may be shut up and confined. The plates must not touch except at their edges, in order to their being fastened together: they need not however be more than one inch, or one inch and a half asunder. One of the plates may be quite flat, and the other a little convex. The end of the oven must be made quite flat, or level, so as to be perfectly closed by a flat surface placed against it. The door is that fiat surface; and the greatestcare must KIT KIT 417 be taken, that it apply with accu- racy, or touch the end of the oven in every part, when pressed against it, to prevent the escape of heated air. In constructing closed fire-places for kitchens, I have found it to be a good general rule, to make the distance between the fire-place door, and the hither end of the bars of the grate, just equal to the width of the fire-place, measured just above the bars. In fire-places of moderate size, where double'doors are used, it will suffice, if the dis- tance from the hinder side of the inner door, to the hither end of the bars, be made equal to the width of a brick, or 41 inches; but if the door be not double, it is necessary thatthe length of the passage from the door, into the place occupied by the burning fuel, should be at least six or seven inches. In setting the iron frame of the door of all closed fire-places, care should be taken to mask the metal, by setting the bricks before it in such a manner, that no part of the frame may be seen, (if I may use that expression) by the fire. Other- wise the frame of the door will be heated; its form destroyed by the frequent expansion and contraction of the metal; the frame of the brick-work loosened, and air ad- mitted over the fire, between the frame and the brick-work, and like- wise between the frame and its door, which will no longer fit each other. A good idea of the general plan adopted by Count Rumford, in constructing his kitchen apparatus; may be formed from the annexed cut of thatof baron Li.ucht.nmki.d at Munich, which the Count ac '• knowledges to be the completest i f any he ever caused to be construct- ed. Every man may accommodate this plan lo his own kitchen, and to his own wants. 418 KIT KIT The mass of brick-work projects flues, that carry off the smoke from into the room, and the smoke is the boilers, stew-pans, and sauce- ^tarried off by flues concealed in pans, into the vertical canals, which this brick-work, and in the thick convey it into the chimney. The walls of an open chimney fire-place smoke from three of the principal which standing on it, on the farther boilers, situated on the left hand, side of it, where it joins to the side is carried by separate canals to a Of the room, is built up perpendi- circular cavity, over which a large cularly to the ceiling of the room, shallow boiler is placed, in which At the height of about twelve or water is heated, (by this smoke), fifteen inches above the level of the for the use of the kitchen. This mantle of this open chimney fire- boiler has a wooden cover, consist- place, the separate canals for the ingof three pieces of thin flat board smoke concealed in its walls, and united by two pairs of hinges*. in the larger canal of this fire-place: The five fire-places on the left which last-mentioned larger canal hand side of the mass of brickwork sloping backwards, ends in a neigh- have doors or openings, closed bouring chimney, which carries off with stoppers, for introducing fuel the smoke through the roof of the into these fire-places, and three of house into the atmosphere. The these openings are represented in canals are cleansed by means of a the plan as being closed by their strong cylindrical brush, of hog's stoppers, while the fourth (that bristles fixed to a long flexible situated on the right hand) is shown handle of twisted iron wire. open, or without its stopper. The above cut shews an hori- As all the rest of the fire-places, zontal section of the mass of brick being without any lateral openings, work in which the boilers are set, when any fuel is to be introduced, taken at the level of the horizontal the stew pan or sauce-pan must * In the Kitchen of the Military Academy at Munich, he added this contrivance. One of the three pieces of flat board forming the cover, is fastened down to the wooden rim of the boiler, by means of two small hooks of iron; and from the middle of this part of the cover, a long tin tube, about li inches in diameter, rises up perpendicularly to the ceil- ing of the room, and carries off the steam from the boiler out of the kitchen. In the kitchen of Baron L. a steam-tube with a register rises from the ceiling of the room, ends in the open air, and is alwaya opened to clear the room of any vapour. In the Public House of Industry at Munich, the steam was carried up into rooms over the kitchen, where it passed through a spiral worm placed in a cask of cold water, which was thus warmed, and made use of the next day for filling the boilers. That this water might not be cooled during the night, the cask containing it was put into another cask still larger ; and the space between the two casks was filled with coal....... [Charcoal or ashes will answer ; both these substances being bad con- ductors of heat......These hints may be very usefully improved, and" acted upon, on various occasions in domestic life......Editor.] KIT KIT 419 be removed for a moment for that puqiose. It will be observed, that several of the horizontal canals that carry off the smoke from the boilers, are divided into two branches, which unite at a little distance from their fire-places ; this contrivance is ve- ry useful, as it occasions the flame to divide under the bottom of the boiler, and to play over every part of it a thin sheet. The reason ivhy flues were not made under these boilers, was, to render it possible to use occasion- ally several boilers of different depths in the same fire-place ; a convenience of no small impor- tance. Circular flues prevent this convenience, though they econo- mise fuel. They will be rendered unneces- sary, provided that the flame be made to divide under the bottom of the vessel, (which may be done by causing it to enter the horizon- tal canal by two opposite openings), and provided that this canal be furnished with a good damper, WHICH OUGHT NEVER TO BE OMITTED. The dotted lines leading from the front of the brick work to the .fire-places, shew the position and dimensions of the ash pit. The whole length of the mass of brickwork from A to B is ele- ven feet, and its width, from A to C, is seven feet four inches. The space it occupies on the ground may be conceived to consist of six equal squares of forty-four inches square each : these two rows being joined to each other by their sides, and forming together a parallelo- gram. And in laying out the work, when a kitchen is to be fitted up on the plan here described, it will always be best to begin by actually drawing these six squares on the floor of the kitchen. Nearly the whole of the middle square of the back row is occupied by the open chimney fire-place, and the greater part of the middle square of the front row, is left as a passage for the cook to come to the open chim- ney fire-place. All the boilers, stew-pans, and sauce-pans, are fitted into circular rings of iron, which are firmly fix- ed to the brick work ; and are sus- pended in their fire-places by their circular rims. Large boilers have two rings fitted to their rims. Deep boilers economise space, and when furnished with good re- gisters and dampers, the additional quantity of fuel they require, will be too trifling to be considered. Common bricks were used in the construction of the fire-places, but care was taken to lay them in mortar composed of clay and brick dust, without any sand, with only a very small proportion of lime. Dampers are essentially neces- sary in the chimney or canal by which the smoke is carried off. These dampers should be opened more or less, as the quantity of air is greater or less, which is ad- mitted into the fire-place. The register and damper will also be found useful in putting out the fire when not wanted. It is of little importance whether the dampers be placed near the fire, or far from it; or what is their form; provided they be so constructed, as to dimi- nish at pleasure, and to close en- tirely the canal by which the smoke makes its escape.* * A p:ece of sheet-iron is the simple! damper we can use.....Editor. 420 KIT KIT Of the Construction of Kircnr.u U'TESSILS. Iron is certainly the best and safest metal for all Kitchen Uten- !■■.[>.. The insides should not be tcoured, as they are thereby dis- posed to rust : but merely washed out and rinsed with warm water, and wiped with a dry dish-cloth; the surface of the metal will soon be- come covered with a thin crust or coating of a dark brown colour, re- sembling enamel ; which covering, if suffered to remain, and to con- solidate, will at last become so hard, as to take a very good polish, and defend the surface from fur- ther corrosion ; and consequently to prevent the food from acquiring that taste and colour, which iron is apt to impart to it. Iron utensils designed for fry- ing, or cooking in fat, must never have hot water put in them. But when washed out, must be well wiped with a dry cloth before they are put away. The most wholesome material for stew-pans and sauce-pans, is earthen ware, glazed with salt.... [See article Pottery.] But the application of sudden heat and sud- den cold, must be avoided, as it will crack. The globular form is the strongest, and the thinner the utensil is made, consistent with strength, the better it will be. The handlesof sauce- pans should be rivitted lo their insides, and the cover so contrived, as to fit the opening of the sauce-pan, by mak- ing a notch in one side of it to re- ceive that part of the handle which is in the way. But when new pans are to be constructed, a circular rim of iron, flat on the under side, should be provided for each sauce- pan, with a handle belonging to it, of the form here presented. And by forming this sauce-pan to its rim, its form at its brim will be circular, within and without, kept more easily clean, and rendered more durable, by reason of there being no iron rivets to be acted upon by the copper of the pan..... The circular plate of tin, or of thin sheet copper tinned, which forms the bottom of the covert should be of the same diameter precisely, as the outside of the brim of the sauce- pan. The bottom of the cover may either be made quite flat, concave, conical, or concave and of a spheri- cal figure. The handle of the sauce-pan should be bended up- wards, so as to be above the level of the brim of the sauce-pan ; other- wise, when the utensil is in its place, there would not be room between the handle and the sur- face of the brick-work, for the fin- gers to pass in taking hold of the K IT KIT 421 liandle to remove the sauce-pan. represents the section of a sause- This is evident from a bare inspec- pan, fitted in its fire-place. tion of the following figure, which Of the management of the fire in heating an iron oven. The strong draught into a well construced fire-place, renders it necessary to keep the fire-place door constantly closed, and to leave but a small opening for the pas- sage of the air through the ash-pit register. The fire-place should be small, and particularly the grate on which the fuel burns. For an oven or roaster of sheet-iron from eighteen to twenty inches wide, and from 24 to thirty inches long, and from twelve to fifteen inches high, the fire-place should never be more than six inches wide, six inches deep, and about nine, or at most ten inches long : the grate should be placed twelve inches below the oven, and this fire-place should seldom be half filled with coals, if the oven, or roaster (which see) be set in a man- ner that the flame or smoke from the fire spread round it on every side, there will be no want of heat for any of the common purposes of cookery, and its intensity may af- ways be regulated by means of the damper in the chimney, and the register in the ash-pit door. It is of great importance to cause the smoke that heats the oven, to descend at least as low as the level of the bottom of the oven, after it has passed round and over it, be- fore it is permitted to rise up free- ly and escape by the chimney in- to the atmosphere. The oven will thus retain its heat for a great length of time. More effectually to prevent the fire from operating 422 KIT with too much violence, upon any one part of the bottom of the oven, the brick-work may be sloped out- wards and upwards on every side from the top of the burning fuel, to the extreme parts of the sides and ends of the bottom of the oven, that the whole of the bottom may be exposed to the direct rays from the fire. In some cases the flame passes up both sides, and then de- scends by the end lo the level of its bottom, or rather below it ; and passes off backward and forwards in horizontal canals by the sides of the oven, before permitted to go off"into the chimney. Either of these methods will answer, pro- vided the smoke be made to de- scend, after it has left the top of the oven, as above and provided the smoke canal be furnished with a damper. In setting an oven, provision should be made,by leaving holes, to be stopped up with stoppers, for cleaning out all the canals in which the smcuka circulates ; these canals must never be less than two inches wide ; and where they are not more than four or five inches deep, they should be from three to four inches wide, otherwise ihey will be very often choaked up with soot. Holes closed with stoppers, must also be left in the brick-work, for cleaning the flues. The fire-place for an oven of the smallest size should be nearly as capacious as one which is de- stined for heating a much larger oven ; and I have found by repeat- ed experiments, that a nest of four small ovens, set together, and heat- ed by the same fire, will require but very little more fuel to heat them than would be necessary to heat one of them, were it set alone. KIT A cottage oven eleven inches wide, ten inches high, and sixteen inches long, will require a fire- place five inches wide, five inches high, and seven inches long: and for four of these ovens, set together in a nest, the fire-place need not be more than six inches wide, six inches high and eight inches long. I have in my house two iron ovens, each eighteen inches wide, fourteen inches high, and twenty- four inches long, set one over the other,and heated by the same fire ; and their fire-place is only six inches wide, six inches high, and nine inches long. Having been thus particular in detailing the important principles respecting the economy of fire ; and the arrangement of the kitchen apparatus of Count Rumford ; the reader must be referred to the ar- ticles Oven and Roaster for ad- ditional information upon this in- teresting subject.] KITCHEN-GARDEN, a piece of ground laid out for the cultiva- tion of fruit, herbs, pulse, and other culinary vegetables. A kitchen-garden ought to be situated on one side of the house, adjoining to the stable, whence the dung may be easily conveyed into the inclosure. As soon as the wall is built, Miller directs a border to be formed beneath it,from 8 to 10 feet in breadth, on which, if in a southern aspect, the earlier plants may be raised. On those borders which are exposed to the north, some late crops may be ob- tained ; but no pease, beans, or other deep-rooted plants, should be set too near the fruit trees. The ground is next to be divided into quarters, the size of which ought to be proportioned to the ex- KIT KIT 423 tent of the garden : because if important point in this, as well as these divisions be two small, the every other branch of horticulture, soil will be wasted in walks ; and consists in digging and manuring as the quarters are generally in- the land well; in allowing a proper closed by espaliers of fruit-trees, distance to each plant, according to the vegetables which may be plant- its different growth ; and, particu- ed there, will not thrive for want larly, in eradicating all weeds ; an of sufficient exposure. The walks object that will be considerably fa- should, therefore, be proportioned cilitated by continually extirpating to the size of the ground : and in them from the dunghill; as, other- a small garden, they ought not to wise, their seeds or roots will be exceed 8 feet; or, if it be a large constantly introduced into the gar- one, from 12 to 14 feet in breadth, den, and propagated with the ma- It will also be advisable to place a nure. border, 3 or 4 feet wide* between Another circumstance of equal such walk and the espalier, in importance, is the watering ofgar- which may be sown small salads, dens, for which the implements or any similar vegetables, that do commonly employed appear to be not take deep root, or continue long very inadequate. The filling, and in the ground. These quarters, carrying, of these vessels to the however, ought not to be planted, spot where they are to be used, are or sown, for raising the same crops attended with great labour and loss two successive years ; and the of time. To remedy these incon- warmest soil, or that which is next veniencies, different machines have to the stable, where it is best shel- been invented : one of the most tered from the cold winds, will be ingenious and useful, is that con- the most proper for hot-beds, to trived by M. Stlvestre, and of promote the growth of early cu- which the following is an accurate cumbers, melons, &c. The most representation : 424 K N A It consists simply of a cask, ca- pable of holding a sufficient quan- tity of water, for the purpose of irrigating the garden. The hinder part of this vessel is furnished with a cock that communicates with the watering pipes, and the cask is sup- ported on a strong frame, with one or two wheels, calculated for walks about 18 inches wide. The carriage may be drawn by a mule or an ass, and requires a person to guide the animal; to support the vessel when it is liable to be overturned ; and to open and shut the cock as often as is necessary. Thus, one man will be able to water a considerabe space of ground in a short time, and to sprinkle that fertilizing fluid in an equal and regular manner. KNAWELL, or Scleranthus, L. a genus of plants comprising three species, one of which is a native of Britain ; viz. the annuus, Annual Knawell,tor German Knot-grass, which grows in sandy soils and corn-fields ; flowers in the months of July and August. The Swedes and Germans intro- duce occasionally the steam arising from a decoction of the knawell into their mouths, with a view to cure the tooth-ach. Its sweetish leaves are astringent. Goats and sheep eat this plant, but cows to- tally refuse it. Knee-grass. See Rough Pa- nick-gkass. KNI KNEE-HOLLY, or Rnscus, L. a genus of plants, consisting of se- veral species, one of which is in- digenous, namely, the aculeatus, Common Knee-holly, Butchers'- Broom, or Prickly Pettigree. It grows in woods, thickets, and hedges ; flowers in the months of May and June. This plant is much used by butchers, for brooms to sweep their blocks. Branches of it are likewise employed by hucksters, to defend their bacon and cheese from mice; because these vermin cannot pene- trate through the prickly leaves.... The root of the knee-holly is re- puted to be aperient, and is chiefly used in diet-drinks, for removing slight obstructions of the viscera, and promoting the fluid secretions. [KNIFE-BOARD. A common knife-board covered with thick buff- leather,on which are put,emeryone part, Crocus Mortis three parts in very fine powder,mixedinto a thick paste with a little lard or sweet-oil, and spread on the leather the thick- ness of a quarter-dollar, gives a far superior polish and edge to knives, and it does not wear the knife near so much as the com- mon method of using brick-dust on board. These buff-leather boards are sold in London ready made.] Knot-berries. See CLOUD- BERRY. L. LAB LABDANUM, or Ladanum, a resinous juice exuding from the Cistus creticus, L. a native of the Levant, whence it is imported.... The best sort, (which is extremely rare even in Turkey), consists of very dark-coloured, soft masses, and almost liquefies, when held in the hand : it emits an agreeable odour, especially while burning, and has a slightly pungent, bitter- ish tase. This medicinal drug is chiefly used externally, for atte- nuating and discussing tumors. [LABORATORY,'is an essen- tial part of the farm establishment. In this house, all the operations, which are too commonly perform- ed in the kitchen, to the great dan- ger of those present, may be safely attended to. An important use to which this house may be ap- plied, is, that of smoking the meat hanging on cross-beams above, with the smoke from the fire be- low : For this purpose, there should be dampers of sheet-iron through the flue of the chimney, and holes of the size of a brick edgewise left for the smoke to issue. When the vol. in. LAB smoke is not wanted, these may be easily stopped.] LABOUR, in a general sense, implies the exertion of human strength in the performance of any- kind of work. The price of labour has, at all times, varied ; and, as the poorer classes feel, with additional rigour, every evil arising from the pressure of the times, different expedients have been devised, with a view to alleviate their burthens, supply their wants, and render them more comfortable. From these investigations, it ap- pears that, in the middle of the fourteenth century, [in England,] the usual price of labour was 2d. per day ; and wheat was sold at from 3s. 4c/. to 4s. per quarter, of eight bushels. In the middle of the fifteenth century, the pay of a labourer per day, was 3d. ; and wheat cost from 5s. to 5s. 6d. per quarter. In the earlier part of the six- teenth century, the price of labour rose to 3jd, and that of a quarter of wheat to 7*. id. About the 3 I 42(5 LAB middle of the seventeenth century, the pay of a labourer, upon an ave- rage, was in Essex 13d. ; and corn had risen to 40s. per quarter. Toward the latter end of the eighteenth century, the daily pay of a labourer was from 14c/. to 18d. in the country, and from 2s. to 2s. 6d. in the metropolis ; while the price of wheat was 48s. per quar- ter....We forbear to state the ave- rage pay of labour during the late exorbitant prices of grain, and eve- ry other article of food ; when all proportion between merit and reward appeared to have been sus- pended. The payment of daily wages, however, serves but imperfectly to ascertain the real price of labour ; as a considerable portion of work is performed by the piece ; so that a labourer in general earns from 3d. to 6d. per day more than by the common pay. For, without this, or some similar method, the reward of labour would be inade- quate to the maintenance of those numerous persons, who possess no other means of providing for their infirm wives, or hapless children. And we conceive, that if their wages could be so regulated as to rise and fall with the price of wheat, considerable benefit would thus result to society. The curious and philanthropic reader, who feels an interest in this popular inquiry, will be fully grati- fied by a perusal of Mr. Davies' Case of Labourers in- Husbandry stated and considered, Sec. (4to. pp. 200, 10*. 6d. Robinsons, 1795,) and Sir F. M. Eden's State of the Poor, &c (3 vol. 4to. 3/. 3s. White, 1797,) in which the situation of the labouring classes is clearly de- veloped. LABURNUM, the Broad- LAC LEAFED, Cytisus laburnum, L. a valuable exotic tree, introduced from the Alps, into the Highlands of Scotland. This plant is- very hardy, and will thrive on poor shallow lands, and in exposed situations: it is propagated by seeds, which should be deposited in March, in a light and rather moist soil, where the tree is intended to remain; and, in the succeeding month, young shoots will appear. But, if sown in autumn,the seeds do not germi- nate till the following spring. The broad-leavedlaburnum forms an agreeable ornament for parks- and gardens ; as it grows rapidly* with a straight stem, and, in the course of four years, is generally twelve feet high. Its wood is fre- quently employed on the Conti- nent, and in the Highlands, for making chairs, tables, and other articles of househould furniture, which are said to resemble the finest mahogany. Suckow re- marks-that a decoction of the fresh branches and leaves of this tree, imparted an excellent dark-brown colour to cloth prepared in a solu- tion of green vitriol. Labyrinth. See Maze. LAC, or Gum-lac, a species of wax, with which the Lac-insect, or Coccus Lacca, L. that frequents se- veral species of the fig-tree, forms cells resembling the honey-combs of bees. Gum-lac has received various names, according to the different states in which it is obtained. The stick-lack is the wax adhering to the smaller branches of the tree, and which is unprepared. This is first separated from the twigs to which it is attached ; and after being grossly powdered, and divested of its colour, by digesting it in certain LAC liquors, is called seed-lac. When the stick-lack is melted over a mo- derate fire, then freed from its im- purities, and formed into cakes, it is denominated lump-lac. The last species is termed .hell-lac, and is prepared by liquefying, straining, and reducing the cells into thin transparent plates, in a manner pe- culiar to the natives of India. Lac is applied to various pur- poses of ornament and utility..... Considerable quantities are used in ■the making of sealing-wax ; in ja- panning ; for varnish ; and in paint- ing. It also imparts a fine red co- lour to silk and cotton, when these have previously been immersed in a weak decoction of the bark, known among dyers by the name of load. Lac is likewise of service as a medicine : for which purpose the stick-lac is in great esteem on the Continent, especially for relaxed and spungy gums arising from cold, or from a scorbutic habit. With this intention, it is either boiled in water, with the addition of a little alum for promoting its solution, or it is used in the form of a tincture, prepared with recti- fied spirit: the latter has a grateful odour, and a bitterish, astringent, though not unpleasant taste, and is chiefly recommended in scorbutic and rheumatic disorders. LACE, in commerce, a texture composed of several threads of gold, silver, silk, or thread, which are interwoven and worked on a cushion with spindles, according to the pattern designed. There are various kinds of lace, denominated either from the place where they are manufactured, or from the particular method of working. Such are Point, Brus- sels, or Flanders lace, made in the LAC 427 Netherlands; and blond or bone- lace, which is produced in Eng- land, chiefly in the county of Buckingham. When gold or silver lace hap- pens to be tarnished, the best li- quid that can be used for restoring its lustre, is spirit of wine, which should be warmed, before it is ap- plied to the tarnished spot. This, in Dr. Lewis's opinion, is far pre- ferable to soap, or the alkaline li- quors usually employed ; as the former does not remove the colour of the silk or other embroidery, with which the lace maynw con- nected. Method of separating gold or sil- ver from lace, without burning it..... Let the lace be first cut to pieces, tied up in a linen cloth, and boiled in soap-ley, till its size be consi- derably diminished: the cloth is now to be taken out of the liquid ; rinsed repeatedly in cold water ; and beaten with a mallet, in order to extract the alkaline particles. On opening the linen, the metallic part of the lace will be found pure, and undiminished, while it retains its natural brightness. LACKER, or Lacquer, is a kind of varnish, applied to brass, tin, and other metals, in order to improve their colour, and to pre- vent them from tarnishing. The best laquer is prepared from rectified spirit of wine, and seed-lac, in the proportion of three ounces of the latter to one pint of the former. The mixture is di- gested for some hours in a mode- rate heat; when the liquor is strained, aud left to subside. In this state, it is ready lo receive the shade required, by adding gam- boge, annotto, or other tinging drugs. With a view to impart a golden JL28 LAD colour to metals, two parts of gamboge are usually added to one of annotto ; but, a better method is, to dissolve those substances se- parately, and to ascertain the par- ticular shade, by mixing different proportions of the two solutions. If silver or tin are to be lacquered, it will be necessary to employ a larger quantity of the colouring matters than is required, when this kind of varnish is to be applied to brass. LACKEY-MOTH, or Phalana Bombyx Neustria, is a species of moth that commits great depreda- tions on fruit-trees; around the branches of which it deposits nu- merous eggs, that exhibit the ap- pearance of a necklace. These are very hard, and adhere closely to the bark ; so that it becomes ne- cessary to remove them by a knife; care being taken to spare the bark as much as possible. Next, the composition and powder mention- ed in the article Tree, must be applied to every part which may have been wounded by the instru- ment. LACTEALS,in physiology, are the absorbing vessels of the mesen- try, and consist of certain small tubes, situated in the intestines; whence they convey the chyle, or that milky fluid which is generated from the food in the first passages, into the common reservatory, or the mass of the blood. They are furnished with an incalculable number of valves, which prevent the return of the chyle into the stomach: in their passage through a number of glands, the nature of the last mentioned fluid is consi- derably altered, and prepared for its assimilation with the blood. LADIES'-MANTLE, or Alche- milla, L. a genus of plants com- lising four species, three of which L A K are indigenous, and of these, the principal is the vulgaiis, or Com- mon Ladies'-mantle, growing fre- quently in meadows and pastures : it flowers from June to Septem- ber. This plant might be easily cul- tivated, eitherby dividing the roots, or scattering the seed in autumn. It requires a moist soil, a shady situation, and to be kept clean from weeds. Theleavesofthe Ladies'-mantle are mildly astringent; though at present seldom used in medicine. .....According lo Glfdisch and Bautsch, the whole plant may be advantageously employed in tann- ing.....Horses, sheep, and goats, eat this vegetable, but it is not re- lished by cows ; and hogs totally refuse it. LADIES'-SMOCK, or Carda- mine, L. a genus of plants consist- ing of sixteen species, seven of which are indigenous : the princi- pal of which is the pratensis, or Common Ladies'-smock, growing in meadows and moist pastures ; it flowers in the month of May. According to Dr. (now Sir George) Baker, the flowers of this plant may be used with great advantage in hysteric and epileptic cases, if taken twice a day, in doses of from twenty to ninety grains each. In Cornwall, the flowering tops have successfully been em- ployed for the cure of epilepsy, for several generations. Goats and sheep devour this herb, but cows dislike it, and neither horses nor swine will touch it. LAKE, in geography, a collec- tion of waters of a considerable ex- tent, and having no immediate communication with the ocean. Lakes are divided into two classes: 1. Those, which contain fresh water ; and, 2. Such as are L AK LAM 429 saline. The chief lakes in England are those of Keswick and Winan- der-mere, in the northern coun- ties : there are likewise several in Scotland, which are distinguish- ed by the name of Lochs. In cold climates, lakes are of considerable utility ; for the warm vapours exhaling from them, miti- gate the intense frost that prevails during the winter season. They are of still greater advantage in the southern regions, when situated at a distance from the sea ; because the evaporation caused by the heat of the sun, refreshes the adjacent country with frequent showers, and thus renders it a beautiful gar- den. Beside the genial tempera- ture to which the British lakes greatly contribute, they contain abundance of fish, and might be rendered still more profitable by conveying to ihem the spawn of fish from rivers, by means of jars. This method has been long prac- tised in China, and, we conceive, might be productive of great ad- vantages, if it could be adopted in this country.[See Fish.] LAKE, in the imitative arts, signifies a red colour employed by painters, which was originally form- ed of gum-lac. It is at present pre- pared chiefly from scarlet rags, cochineal, or Brazil-wood. The best, however, is obtained from the first of these articles, in the fol- lowing manner: First, let a pound of pearl-ash be dissolved in two quarts of water, and the solution be filtered through paper. A pound of clean scarlet shreds, and two quarts of water, are next to be added to the liquor, and the whole boiled till the rags are perfectly divestedof their tinge; w hen they are to be taken out and pressed. Three additional pounds of shreds are now to be boiled in the same solution; and, during this process a pound and a half of the bone of cuttle-fish are to be dissolved in one pound of aqua- fortis. This liquid is next to be combined with the former solu- tion; and the whole, on being suf- fered to subside, will deposit a sediment, which forms what is called lake. The liquor is then to be strained, and the sediment mixed four or five times, success- ively, in two gallons of spring wa- ter, till all saline particles are ex- tracted ; lastly, it is to be drained, and dropped through a funnel on clean boards, when the lake will assume the form of cones or pyra- mids, in which it must be suffered to dry, and the preparation will be fit for use. For a more simple method of preparing different lakes, or pig- ments the reader will consult the article Colour. LAMB, the young of a sheep ; which, if a male, is during the first year, called a wedder, or wether- hog ; and if a female a sheave. The most proper time for ewes to lamb, is from the latter end of April to the beginning of June ; and, in the course of sixteen or eighteen weeks, the young ani- mals may be taken from their dams: they are, however, verv tender, and require the greatest attention, especially during snowy weather, when they not unfre- quently perish from want of fresh grass, and their aversion to eat hay. In order to remedy this inconve- nience, it has been recommended to turn a few old sheep that are ge- nerally fond of hay, among the lambs, which will thus be speedily induced to follow their example. Lambs are subject to few disor- ders:....when they are sick, the drinking of mare's or goat's milk, 430 L A M LAM diluted with warm water, will greatly tend to preserve them from taking cold ; and as many, when yeaned, are apparently dead, it is advisable to blow into the mouth and nostrils ; by which simple me- thod numbers have been imme- diately restored. The most fatal distemper, how- ever, with which lambs are affect- ed, is the blood or red-water. The disordered animals are, in general, Seized with lameness, and a slight swelling of the joints, but which is attended with a violent inflam- mation, that spreads over the whole body, and, if neglected, proves fatal in the course of twenty-four hours. The red-water is occasioned by too great a quantity of undigested food remaining on the stomach. As soon, therefore, as the lambs are attacked, the best method hi- therto known is, to take them from grass, bleed them, and administer an emollient clyster, which is to be repeated, in case no evacuation take place in a short time. Two or three grains of tartar emetic, or as many ounces of sweet-oil, are now to be given and the bleeding repeated, if the animals do not ap- pear to recover. This treatment is to be continued for the space of four or five days, during which the diseased creatures should be fed with milk. Lamb forms a considerable ar- ticle of food: being light and wholesome, it is well calculated for weak and delicate stomachs. though less nourishing than mut- ton. House lamb, which is thus de- nominated from the animals being fed and fattened within doors, is neither so wholesome nor so nu- tritive as the natural meat. Its flesh is devoid of taste, and eaten only by epicures; who, regardless of the dictates of reason, and the rules of temperance, attend only to the gratification of their sensual appetites....[See Sheep:] Lamb's-Lettuce. See Corn Salad. Lamb's-Quarters. See Wild Orache. LAMENESS, a weakness that may arise from various causes, in any part of the body. Where this defect originates from natural deformity, it is gene- rally incurable; few instances, however, occur in which lameness is hereditary ; though it may also be induced by causes that are dif- ficult to be discovered. If it be occasioned by external accidents, such as luxation of the thigh at the birth, fractures, Sec. it can be cured only by a skilful reduction of the dislocated limbs, though it will al- ways be attended with halting. Frequently, however, the leg, in consequence of the rigidity of the muscles destined to put it in motion, contracts to such a degree that it cannot be moved without limping. In this case, it will be advisable to apply emollient fo- mentations ; to immerse the part affected in mollifying baths ; or, for very robust individuals, to ex- pose it frequently to the action of a pump from mineral springs, and to wear a shoe furnished with a leaden sole, the weight of which should be proportioned to the con- traction of the limb. Much lameness, as well as de- formity, might certainly be pre- vented, if a stricter attention were paid to the early treatment of chil- dren. These are often afflicted with a weakness of the hips, ac- companied with a lameness of both sides of the body ; which is wholly occasioned by inducing them to LAM L A M 431 walk without any assistance, be- fore they have attained sufficient strength to support themselves. Such debility may, in some mea- sure, be counteracted by tying a girdle round the waist, that should extend to the whole circumference of the belly; and which, if well braced at the hips, will invigorate the loins, while it gradually ena- bles children to walk. It will also be advisable to bathe such weak limbs in astringent decoctions, fre- quently in the course of the day, for several months.......See Rick- ets. Beside these common causes of lameness, there are various other circumstances which our limits will not permit us to discuss, as they relate peculiarly lo surgery. A practical work on this subject is much wanted ; and we conceive it would be of essential service to society, if a popular treatise were properly executed, in which the manifold causes of lameness might be discriminated, and the most ap- propriate remedies judiciously stat- ed,according to the different stages of the affection. Lameness, hi Horses........See Halting. LAMP, a vessel containinf; oil, or other inflammable matter, for the purpose of affording light. The utility of lamps in domestic life, is universally acknowledged ; we shall, therefore,proceed to state such patents as have been granted for the inventions or improvements relative to this branch of manufac- ture, without discussing those theories in which ingenious men have occasionally indulged. The first we shall notice is that of M. Argand, who obtained a patent in 1784 : his privilege be- ing now expired, and his invention generally adopted, we shall briefly observe, that the superiority of his lamp depends on the admission of a larger volume of air to the flame, than is practicable on the common plan. This object is effected by employing a circular wick, so that a strong current of air rushes into the cylinder round which the wick is placed, and thus, together with the atmosphere, excites the flame to such a degree, that the smoke is entirely consumed. The light and heat are by this method re- markably increased, while the ex- pense of the oil is considerably re- duced ; because those particles, which, in the usual lamps, are,dis- sipated in smoke, will, by M. Au- gand's invention, be converted in- to a brilliant flame. A patent was granted in 1787 to Mr. Miles, for his new method of making lamps of different forms, so as to emit an undiminished light, however it may be agitated ; and which may also be fixed in halls, shops, Sec. As its specification is* too complex to be understood by those who are unacquainted with the manufacture, inquisitive read- ers will consult the 3d vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures. f Another patent was obtained in the same "year, by Mr. Peter Keir, for a contrivance of raising the supplytofoil in lamps. Tha whole effect is produced by the ap- plication of another fluid, the spe- cific gravity of which is greater than that of oil; and which com- municates with the latter,by means of certain receivers, tubeb, or con- ductors. These are so arranged, that the heavier liquid may press a column of oil upwards to anv requisite height, for tin* purpose of supplying the lamp. 432 LAM Farther, by prolonging the con- ductor of the heavier fluid beneath the lower surface of the column of oil, the weight of the former will hydrostatically act upon such sur- face, and raise the column. Thus, the lamp will not only be furnish- ed with the purest particles of oil from the upper part, but the flame will also be considerably elevated above the body of the vessel; and, being supplied from a contracted surface of oil, it will consequently afford a more diffused light, with a considerable diminution of shade. For a more minute account of this ingenious contrivance, we refer the inquisite reader to the 8th vol. of the work before quoted. The last patent we shall notice, was granted in 1800 to Messrs. White and Smethurst, for their Improved Lamp-burner. The whole is modestly called an improvement on the burner of the common Ar- gand lamp; and the object of which is, to afford a more free and plenti- ful supply of oil to the ignited part of the wick; so that it will burn better, require less frequent snuff- ing, and answer well, even with oil of an inferior quality. These advantages are obtained simply, by leaving a larger than the usual space between the two tubes, with- in which the wick is placed. Yet it is necessary to contract such space towards the top, in order that the burnt crust or cinder may be more conveniently removed; an object which may be effected by applying a ring or piece of metal, conically or otherwise formed, so as to reduce the space in the upper part of the lamp to the usual di- mensions. The advantages of Messrs. White and Smethurst's im- provement, are: 1. That the in- LAM convenience hitherto complained of, respecting the mode of cleaning and dressing the lamps, is thus re- moved ; as, upon their plan, the capillary tubes of the cotton wick are prevented from being at any time obstructed by the viscid na- ture of the oil, while its ascent is promoted by such capillary attrac- tion. 2. The quantity of oil con- sumed by these improved lamps is, by the patentees, stated to be less in the proportion of atleastfour to five. 3. One of the most im- portant advantages thence derived, is, that of the wick being rendered fit to burn common whale, or seal- oils, which are sold at about half the price of the best spermaceti oil, the only inflammable fluid hitherto used in Argand's lamps ; while the former produce an equal de- gree of light. We have already pointed out,(in article CANDLE)the superior utility of lamps, especially for sedentary or studious persons ; but as the light emitted by them is frequently too vivid for weak, or irritable eyes, we would recommend the use of a small screen, which should be pro- portionate to the disk of the flame, and be placed at one side of the light, in order to shade it from the reader's eye, without excluding its effect from others, or darkening the room. Such a contrivance is equally simple and useful: it may consist of either paper, or taffety, slightly gummed; and,being easily folded snd carried in the pocket, is far superior to the common screens. We cannot conclude this article, without pointing out another cir- cumstance in which lamps are su- perior to candles, namely, their cheapness. From experiments made some years since, with the express view of ascertaining the expense of LAM "burning chamber-oil, it appears that a common taper-lamp, with eight cotton threads in the wick, consumed in one hour t££$ Parts' or about one-third of an ounce of spermaceti oil. which at that time cost 2s. 6d. per gallon; so that the expense of burning for 12 hours, amounted to 4-57 farthings, or about 1£ of a penny. The light emitted by such lamp was as clear and bright as that yielded by can- dles, which run from eight to ten in the pound. Subsequent trials were made with M. Argand's lamp; the result of which was, that the latter will continue to burn three hours for the value of one penny. And though a candle, when newly snuffed, may appear to be preferable, yet the lamp is ultimately superior, both for steadi- ness and durability of light. Nay, one good lamp proved equal in its effect to half a dozen tallow candles, consisting of six in the pound, the expense of which was eight pence, while that of the lamp amounted to only two pence halfpenny, in the space of seven hou'^s. LAMP-BLACK, is one of the black colouring matters, the pre- paration of which has already been stated, vol. ii. p. 179. We again introduce this sub- stance, as it possesses several re- markable properties: thus, lamp- black is liable to undergo spontane- ous inflammation, if it be kept for some lime closely confined, and be afterwards suddenly exposed to the air: there have been instances of its taking fire in shops, and occa- sioning the most distressing scenes of conflagration. But, when lamp- black is combined with oil, so as to form a black varnish, it appears from various experiments, that bo- dies painted with this compound VOL. III. LAM 433 resist the effects of electricity in a most surprizing degree ; and that they have, in a variety of cases, even repelled lightning. In 1798, a patent was granted to Mr. William Row, for a new invented mineral lamp-black. This is obtained from pit coal, or any other kind of fossil coal; the black- estparticles arising from the smoke of which, are deposited in certain tubes, or receptacles, whence they are removed in the course of six or eight days, and packed up for sale. For the particulars of this unex- pired patent, the inquisitive reader will consult the 10th vol. of the Repertory of Arts, isfc. where the process is duly specified. LAMFAS, in Farriery, de- notes an excrescence in the roof of a horse's mouth, which is some- times so luxuriant that it grows above the teeth, and thus prevents his feeding. This malady may be cured by cauterizing the flesh with a hot iron ; an operation which should be carefully performed by a skilful Veterinary Surgeon, lest the swell- ed part be penetrated so deep, as to scale oft' the thin bone, that lies under the upper bars: after having thus extirpated the tumor, it will be necessary to anoint the sore parts with burnt alum and honey, which form a ve^y proper applica- tion to an ulcerated mouth in ge- neral. LAMPREY, or Petrcmyzon, 1^ a genus of fish comprising three species, which are chiefly distin- guished by their peculiar back fins. 1. The marinus, or-Sea Lam- prey, which, in shape, resembles an eel. has small eyes, covered with a light blue membrane, and the pupil is encompassed with a gold- coloured ring. During cold wea- 3 K 434 LAM LAN ther, this fish conceals itself in the crevices of rocks ; on the peb- bly edges of which it ic, an usual expedient among anglers, to form pits extending to the water-side : into these a little blood is thrown, to induce the lamprey to put forth its head between two rocks. As soon as the hook, which is to be baited with crab, or some other fish, is presented, it is greedily swallowed, and thus the prey is easily taken. 2. The fiuviatilis, or Lesser Lamprey ; the mouth of which is like that of the preceding, but the colour of its back is either brown or dusky, sometimes mixed with blue, the whole underside being silvery. ' These fish sometimes grow to the length of ten inches, are found in the rivers Thames, Severn, and Dee ; are potted with the larger kind, and occasionally preferred, on account of their milder flavour..... Vast quantities are taken about Mortlake, and sold to the Dutch, who employ them as bait for their cod fishery. It is computed that above 430,000 have in one season been vended to them at 40s. per thousand ; as they possess the se- cret of preserving the lamprey till the turbit fishery commences. 3. The bronchialis, on ^am- tern, which is found in the Isis, near Oxford, and other British ri- vers; it is about eight inches long, and the body does not exceed the thickness of a swan's bill. Unlike the other species, lamperns conceal themselves in the mud, and never adhere to stones, or other matters. The flesh of these fish, in gene- ral, is white, fat, soft, and easy of digestion: it has an agreeable taste, and is not less nutritive, though more wholesome, than that of the eel: those of a larger size, however, possess a superior flavour. LAND, in general, signifies any kind of ground, but is particularly applied to such as is ploughed, or tilled for agricultural purposes. As we treat, in alphabetical or- der, of the different methods of cultivating the earth, we shall at present confine our attention to the proper modes in which waste, or other soils, may be most advan- tageously converted from a natural and unproductive, into an artificial stale. The best method of meliorating swampy ground, after it has been properly drained, is to pare and burn it. Where the earth, how- ever, is dry, and the soil or mould so thin that it will not admit of paring the surface, the most effec- tual mode of bringing it into tilth, will be to plough it well, and turn the grass-sods inward. As soon as the new surface is mellowed with frost, the field should be harrowed, in order to fill up all the seams: thus, the air will be excluded, and the sod become perfectly rotten. In this state, it ought to lie during summer, and the succeeding win- ter; but early in the following May, it will be requisite to cross-plough the whole, after which the earth must be well pulverized with a brake-harrow, and thus prepared for a future crop. [Swampy land is recovered soon- er by sowing Herd-grass than by any other mode. See that article.] Old heath-lands maybe advanta- geously reclaimed from their barren condition, by first passing a drill roller over them; after which they should be sown with oats and grass- seeds, at the same time. When the harvest is finished, the soil is directed to he fed hard with sheep, LAN For two years ; then repeatedly ploughed and harrowed, so as to render it fit for the reception of cole-seed: this vegetable islikewise to be fed off with sheep, and the soil worked in a similar manner for rye, together with which grass seeds are again to be sown. Such crop should now be suffered to re- main as a layer, till it can be well manured with marl, in the ptopor- tion of about sixty loads per acre ; after which it may be brought into a regular course of tillage. By this method, the whole fiag will have sufficient time to putrefy, and the soil will not be easily exhaust- ed, as is frequently practised with new lands. Ground thus managed, has been found to be well calculated for buck-wheat. In the 13th vol. of the Transac- tion of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, &c. Mr. Rich. Ramsden Bramley communi- cates the most beneficial method of cultivatingmeadowsorpasture land that is over-run with coarse grasses, or which is either naturally, or has from neglect become rough and uneven. The firstprocess he states to be paring, after which a small trench should be dug, in which a row of potatoe-sets may be planted, and slightly covered with the sods, serving as a nourishment to the rising crop, while they greatly contribute to form a light soil. The ground is next to be com- pletely cleaned by ploughing, har- rowing, &c.; then sown either with oatsor barley intheensuingspring; after which sixteen bushels of hay, and ten pounds of clover-seeds per acre, should be uniformly scatter- ed, and harrowed in. Thus, the soil will be rendered very fertile for-.the culture of corn, or other LAN 435 grain ; and Mr. Bramley adds, that the paring and digging affords so decided an advantage to the crop as amply to compensate for the ad- ditional expense : besides, the land will afterwards be ready for cab- bages, carrots, or onions, in case such crops should be wanted ; and, if there be any inequalities in the ground, they will, by this manage- ment, be speedily remedied. For the most effectual method of breaking up and meliorating marshy, or moorish soils, the read- er will consult the articles Marsh and Moor. In the year 1799, a patent was granted to Mr. Hayes, for his invention of various machines or implements for agricultural pur- poses, upon a new construction.... These are applicable to the tillage and culture of every k;nd of soil; but as (hey are too numerous to be detailed here, and as the manufac- ture of them is confined to the pa- tentee, we purposely omit their specification, and refer the inqui- sitive reader to the 12th vol. of the Repertory of Arts, lAc. where the various articles are minutely de- scribed, and illustrated by an en- giaving. [The following excellent prac- tical directions, for bringing waste lands into cultivation are taken from Dr.James ANDERsoN'sUural Essays, vol. iii.; a work which cannot he too warmly recommend- ed to all those who wish to derive the greatest profit from their farms. The object that an improver of waste land ought to have chiefly m view, should be to have it laid down, into profitable grass land, so soon as that can he properly accomplish- ed ; and the undertaker should be cautious not to push forward with his improvements faster than the 436 LAN circumstances he is in will permit; and,in particular, never to go be- yound the bounds .that the manures lie can command are sufficient to accomplish completely. Lime is more valuable than any other manure, and the first ques- tions ought to be,in an undertaking of this sort, where can lime be ob- tained, at what /'rice, and in what quantities ? But lime on poor soils is an inefficacious manure, unless where it is applied in very consider- able quantities at once. Less thin 300 bushels he accounts too lit'ie, in almost any case: and dungouijht to be used the same set son, as they will produce more powerful a<;d aggregate efforts, than if either .iad been separately applied ; the l.m.: enibling dung to operate upon the soil in a manner it never ohcrwise would have done ; but care must be taken not to exhaust the soil after it has been thus enriched, be- fore it be laid down to grass. In every case, he adds, the sooner the lime is laid upon the soil, after the trenching process has been completed, and the surface smooth- ed, and the more quickly and in- timately it can be blended with the mould, the better it will be on every account. Hence lime should al- ways be spread while it is yet in its dry and powdery state ; and ploughed and harrowed in, as soon as possible after it is spread, to prevent its running into clots by moisture. Dr. A. further observes that it is most advisable to spread the lime when in its dry, powdery state, im- mediately after slaking, and to plough for the first time after, with a more shallow furrow than usual, because at that time, a larger pro- portion of it is turned into the bot- tom of the last made furrow than LAN at any succeeding ploughing and therefore more of it will be buried beneath the staple, than at any other time, if the furrow shall have been deep. If manure be not at hand, it is necessary to bring crude soils into a proper tilth for grass, by sumnur fallow \g. In general, one year of fallow will be required at fust, a crop of tui nips may be had the second se;.v<;i, by which time the field will be i educed to thai hus- banil-ii!;e slate, \"hich a good far- mer ought ever to aim at. The second ploughing ought to be as deep as the nature of the soil will admit. Ii the subsoil be re- tentive end ihe stratum below of a good quafoy, or bttter than that on tlie surface, (which is common where heath abounds) it ought to be opened to the depth of twelve inihes, and if it be to fourteen or sixteen inches, the soil being still good, so much the better. No plough in stiff soils, will goto such a depth at once ; where, therefore^ stones are absent, it may be done by means of two strong ploughs, the one following the other in ihe same furrow. In this case the first plough must have it's mould-board set so as to make a very wide fur- row, and the plough that follows,. ought to have a narrower mould- board, so as to lift up the earth loosened by it's share, to the top of the other furrow.* * Richard Peters, Esq. of Philadelphia, has the mortice in the plough beam long, fjr trench ploughing, so as to admit of altering the inclina'ion of the couker, as he wishes to go deep or shallow. He first runs as deep a furrow as possible, and then pares ott the sod two inches deep with a light plough, and broad furrow, turning this sod into the trench, with aB.- LAN Turnips are proper for unmel- lowed soils. The Swedish turnip, Rut a baga, is particularly proper. ....It thrives exceedingly on stiff ground : .but the turnips ought to be drilled, and thoroughly horse- hoed. The dung should be applied in drills before sowing. Two crops of turnips may be taken in succes- sion, and they will reduce it to a fine tilth, and render it in excellent condition to be laid down with grass-seeds along with the first corn (grain) crop. Peas, or vetches, may be sown on stiff soils, where turnips cannot be ventured : and those that run much to haulm, should be prefer- red*. Potatoes may also be raised as a first crop, to advantage. Rye and oats likewise succeed well on unmellowed ground. Grass-seeds should be sown with the first corn (grain) crop, with an intention to allow the field to re- main in grass, till the whole por- tion of waste has been brought un- der culture. Burn breaking....where the sur- face of waste grounds is covered with a thick coat of dry benty grass, it will often prove beneficial to pare and burn the surface. This oper- ation does not consume the mould, nor change the soil of waste ground for the worse. All that the fire does is to consume the dried ve- getable fibres intermixed with the Its weeds and roots. These are covered with the large plough, somewhat nar- rower than the small one, which runs in the same furrow. He is satisfied with finishing three cuiarteis of an acre in a day ....Edi'tor. * The Ma;-o'.hay, Bav-be?.i:, would answer very well, see article Cassia, Chamaerista: as also the Lady-pea, and Indian-pea of Ncv-Jerie;.....Euitor. LAN 43T soil, during which process a small proportion of alkaline salt is gene- rated, which is known to act as a powerful manure. See also Par- ing. Experience confirms the propri- ety of giving only a very slight ploughing after the burning, before the seeds are sown. If the sward be properly burned and spread in due time, and if lime be mixed with it, and slightly ploughed in for turnips, an abundant crop will be obtained without dung. This crop will afford a great quantity of dung while the soil will be more mellow- ed than if it had been left under a bare summer fallow. If the same field be next year dunged, and sown with turnips, it will afford a still more abundant crop, and the soil will by this time be reduced into the most excellent tilth for being laid into grass. Sheep are the stock best fitted for the most barren soils. The propriety of Trfnching, above recommended by Dr. An- derson, cannot be too warmly urged to farmers who wish either to renew their worn out soil, or to cultivate unimproved land. R. Pk. ters, Esq. in his address to the Blockley and Merion Agricultural Society, in the county of Philad.' has borne a decided testimony in favour of it; but properly observes that the depth of trenching must be regulated by the staple : and that there are some soils not proper for wheat, and evidently improper for trenching, though these are few. He asserts that wheat will pene- trate three feet, if the soil permit; * See C AREY'i American Mv.mvm, vol. Lx. page -11. 458 LAN and that some horizontal roots have been measured ten feet. It can hardly be expected that the plants will therefore perfect themselves in a depth of three or four inches. The advantagesof the practice of trenching and deep ploughing, are also detailed by Dr. De Norman- die, in his address to the Burling- ton Agric. Soc. (Carey's Museum, vol. xii. 191.) and in a late pam- phlet by T. Moore, of Montgo- mery county, Maryland, entitled, « The great Error of Amer. Agri- culture exposed," p. 72, Baltimore, 1801; Dobson, Phil, price, -^, a work which should be in the hands of every farmer. The utility of paring and burning, recommended by Dr. Anderson, is enforced in the last vol. of the " Trans, of the Board of Agric. of England," in several papers ; from one of which, by the Rev. E. Cartwright, a practical farmer, an extract may be found under the head Paring,] LAND-DITCHING, or Hol- low-draining, is practised chief- ly in the counties of Essex and Hartford. It consists in digging both main and side-drains, similar to those generally adopted in drain- ing land : the former are usually made from 22 to 24 inches, the latter from 20 to 22 inches, in depth. The soil is previously ploughed ; and the length to which the main drains may be protracted, without a vent, depends upon the situation of the land : when it has a regular declivity, the most pro- per method will be to carry off as much water as possible, by means of side-drains : but if the ground be irregular, it will be requisite to form additional main-drains, so that every advantage may be derived from the vallies, into which the LAN latter must often be conducted to a considerable extent. The length of the side-drains varies according to the elevation of the soil: in general, they need not be more than one rod apart from each other; though, in very loose or porous grounds, they may be dug at a distance of one rod and a half. When the trenches are cut to a sufficient depth, they are filled up, and covered in the usual man- ner with straw and bushes. The expense of this method of draining is computed to be nearly 3/. per acre. Land-ditching, not only carries off the water from wet or marshy soils, but also meliorates stiff loamy clays ; which, being thus better enabled to resist the long-continu- ance of moisture on their surface during the winter, promote vegeta- tion very early in the spring, and the grass is rendered of a superior quality. The weeds, &c. change their colour, and are totally divest- ed of their rankness; the corn also increases both in quality and weight. Another important advantage aris- ing from this practice, is, that it will admit of the soil being plough- ed at an earlier period of the spring, and later in autumn ; while it may be tilled with greater facility, and kept clear from weeds at a very small expense. LANGUAGE, signifies the ex- pression of our ideas, and their dif- ferent relations, by means of arti- culate sounds; The acquisition of languages is an object of great importance.... Without entering into a discussion concerning their origin, we shall briefly observe, that the power of speech is not naturally acquired; because, when considering its me- chanism, certain positions and mo- LAN tions of the organs of the mouth, such as the tongue, the teeth, lips, and palate, &c. are necessary for uttering sounds, which cannot be imitated by persons livingina state of Nature, and must, therefore be the effect of art. Hence civil soci- ety alone could produce a lan- guage ; and, as the former is not from Nature, or coeval with the animal, it follows that both must have had a beginning. The same cause that first pro- duced ideas, and made men ra- tional creatures,also rendered them social or political, and in process of time produced all the arts of life : this cause, in the opinion of the late Lord Monboddo, is no other than the necessities of human life. These are either the want of subsistence, or of defence against superior force and violence; so that without the operation of one or other of these causes, there never would have been society,language, or arts, among men. The most easy and correct me- thod of acquiring languages, is, however, of greater consequence than the history of their origin.... Singular as this assertion may ap- pear to many of our readers, it is nevertheless true, that a just model, or plan of teaching, so useful an art as that of speech, lo children or adults, has long been, and still remains, a great desideratum. And though we are not in possession of a perfect system of grammar, yet many excellent treaties have been written on that subject by ingeni- ous men, who have, individually, contributed to render the art of speaking and writing more familiar to persons of ordinary conception. Unfortunately, however, less at- tention has, in general, been paid LAN 439 to the acquisition of modern lan- guages, than to those of the an- cients. Hence we may confidently recommend the method pursued by Dr. Egan of Greenwich, on whom the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. in 178 I, conferred a gold medal, for teaching youth to write and speak Latin in common conversation, both fluently and cor- rectly. His plan is to divest in- struction of that harshness, which intimidates juvenile minds, and re- tards their progress in learning.... And he hassucceeded in rendering the hours of amusement subservi- ent to the promotion of the classi- cal part of education, by inducing his pupils to speak Latin with equal ease and precision. To effect this purpose, he prohibits boys of a cer- tain standing, from practising any language except the Latin or French ; and a mark is circulated for the prevention of solecisms and barbaious expressions. If a pupil, who has this mark, hear another speak ungrammatically,itis passed to the latter, and he who receives such mark most frequently in the course of the day, incurs a small fine. To avoid this penalty, Dr. E's scholars pay the strictest at- tention to the choice and arrange- ment of their words, the construc- tion of their sentences, as well as the style, purity, and harmony of their diction. Thus a considerable portion of time and expense is saved, inde- pendently of the numerous other beneficial consequences that result from this plan, as it may be easily applied to the different living lan- guages. Hence it well deserves to be more generally known, and adopted in those schools where years are wasted by the old me- 440 LAN thod, which is comparatively ab- surd. The English language undoubt- edly possesses a superior degree of excellence, blended with a greater number of defects, than that of every other nation in Europe....... Bold and energetic, it is admirably calculated alike for history and the drama : at the same time, from its smoothness and copiousness, it is peculiarly adapted for the different brunches of poetry. But, with all these advantages, it labours under an infinity of monosyllables, which will ever prevent it from attaining that swelling fullness of sound, which so essentially contributes to produce both harmonious dignity and graceful cadences in literary composition. To this imperfection must be added the letter s, which, by its very frequent and inevitable recurrence, communicates to the whole such a general hiss, as can- not fail to be unpleasant to every impartial person, who has the least conception of musical harmony.... We have neither room, nor an op- portunity of pointing out a reme- dy for this harshness ; yet if the syllable en, which was formerly ap- pended to the plural number, were restored, to its ancient place, we presume that many of the difficul- ties would be removed ; and that, trilling as this alteration may ap- pear, the language would thus be greatly improved. LAN THORN, or Lantern a well-known contrivance, which serves to carry a candle, without exposing it to the air, or otherwise inclining danger. Lanthorns are usually made of glass, horn, c r other transparent matter, for the transmission of light; but, if they were covered LAR externally with thin wire-work, many accidents mightbe prevented in stables and barns, as the lan- thorns might thus be rendered less liable to injury from external acci- dents, while the communication of light would not be impeded. LAP\YING,or Tringa Vantllus, L. a British bird distinguished by its black bill, crown of the head, crest, and throat ; red legs, black and while w ings and tail: it is above 12 inches in length, and weighs about eight ounces. The female of this bird con- structs her ne^t with a few bents, and deposits four eggs of an olive shade, spotted with black : these are, on account of their delicacy, much esteemed, and sold by the London poulterers for three shil- lings and upwards the dozen. During the winter, lapwings fre- quent ferns and marshy places, where they join in numerous flocks : and, though remarkably shy, are then easily taken in nets similar to those employed for catch- ing ruffs. They are rot preserved for fattening, but killed when caught : their flesh is very palat- able and nutritious. LARCH-TREE, or Pinus La- rix, L. one of the most valuable exotics, which was introduced into Britain from the Alps towards the end of the 17th century, and has been lately cultivated with parti- cular attention. The larch will grow in any soil, but it flourishes most luxuriantly on cold and gravelly lands, or such as are neither too stiff nor too dry; provided its roots can penetrate through the soil to a sufficient depth. It is propagated from seeds first put in a light earth ; and, at the end of two years, the young LAR plants are usually removed to those spots where they are destined to remain. This useful tree should be transplanted immediately after shedding its leaves: during the first four years, it grows slowly, and seldom exceeds three feet in height; but in the course of 20, it will surpass both in length and girth, a fir-tree 40 years old ; at the age of 24, it is, in general, from 50 lo 60 feet high; and, in 50 or 60 years, it often attains the height of 120. The most proper season for fell- ing the larch, is in the month of July ; because the liquid which oozes from the tree at that time, is speedily changed into a gummy- resinous matter, so that the wood is not drained so much as at other seasons, but hardens, and may thus be sooner employed. The larch is of singular utility for various purposes, in which du- rability and strength are required. Hence it is peculiarly calculated for ship-masts and the building of ves- sels, or for strengthening the wood- en frame-work of bridges : for it is capable of supporting a much greater weight than the oak itself, and almost petrifies under water... It also resists the intemperature of our climate, and is of excellent service for gates, pales, and other works which are exposed to all the vicissitudes of the weather. Larch timber is equally durable withindoors; and houses construct- ed with it, have a whitish cast for the first two or three years ; after which the outside becomes black, while all the joints and crevices are firmly closed with the resin extract- ed from the pores of the wood by the heat of the sun ; and which, being hardened by the air, forms a kind of bright varnish, that has an VOL. III. L A R 411 elegant appearance. Nor is there any wood which affords such dur- able pipe-staves for casks, while the flavour of the wine is at the same time preserved and improv- ed. It's trunk, when perforated and tapped between the months of March and September, yields the purest Venetian turpentine, that is of considerable use in medicine.... It's large branches produce small sweetish grains, resembling sugar; and which are known under the name of manna, from their possess- ing similar purgative properties with that drug. The larch is likewise an excel- lent nurse to the more tender trees; as it is furnished with severalsmali, pliant branches abounding with leaves; which, from their flexibili- ty, readily yield to the contiguous trees, admit rain more easily than Scotch firs, and receive no injury from inclement snowy winters ; when the branches of the latter are frequently stunted, and the trees themselves totally destroyed. Beside the manifold uses lo which this inestimable tree is sub- servient, we shall mention a few additional facts, chiefly extracted from foreign writers, with the con- fident hope of promoting its more general culture....From the inner rind or bark of the larch, the Russi- ans manufacture fine while gloves, not inferior to those made pf the most delicate chamois, while they are stronger, cooler, andmore plea- sant for wearing in the summer...A gummy matter, partaking of the properties of animal glue, and ve- getable mucilage, is obtained by a curious- process from the sap of this tree; and which greatly resem- bles the gum arabic of Senegal, though it is of a brown colour ; it is known in Russia bv the name of 3 L 442 L A R Orenberg Gum. Pallas informs us, that the untutored natives cut a hole at one side of the trunk, near its root, then burn the wood to the very pith, by applying com- bustible materials: in consequence of the heat thus generated, the cir- culating medullary juice descends in drops, which concrete into a transparent gum, forming various fanciful configurations....In coun- tries where the larch-tree abounds, its firm and compact wood (a cubic fool of which, or 144 solid inches, weighs 41 pounds, and exceeds that of the fir in the proportion of 8 to 7,) affords a very superior char- coal : this, likewise, in quantity, measured one-third more than that burnt from the fir-tree ; and its specific gravity, on weighing and balancing it with the latter, was as 8 to 5. It is, however, remarkable, that the larch contains more aque- ous ingredients than the fir-tree, insomuch that five measures of the oily water collected during the combustion of the former, yielded, on evaporation, only 3-| ounces of pitch ; whereas four and a half measures of the latter, produced 4 ounces.....Buildings erected of larch wood, have been observed to remain sound for 200 years ; as it is eminently adapted to resist the effects of air and water, while it is exempt from the depradations of the worm ; hence it is peculiarly excellent for shingles; but, on ac- count of its combustible nature, it would be advisable to prepare them in the manner directed by Mr. Knox.....[See article Fire.] Lastly, the bark and other parts of this profitable tree, have been found, by experiment, to be pro- per substitutes for that of the oak. [The fullest account of the nu- merous good qualities of the larch, LAR is to be found in Dr. Anderson's Rural Essays.] LARK, or Aluada, L. a genu* of birds comprising twenty-eight species, of which the most remark- able are : 1. The arvensis, or Common Sky-lark ; a long-lived, and hardy bird, mounting high, raising its notes as it soars, and lowering them as it descends. It is remarkable, that this, and the following species, are the only known creatures that sing during their flight. The fe- male sky-lark constructs her nest in fields productive of high grassy or in marshes, on the ground, be- neath some clod ; forming it of hay, dry fibres, See. she deposits four or five eggs, and produces young ones three, and often four times in a year. In the neighbour- hood of Dunstable, these birds are taken in great numbers, from the 14th of September to the 25th of February ; during which time about 4000 dozens are caught, to supply the markets of the metropolis-. 2. The arborea, or Wood-lark, is distinguished by an annual white fillet about the head. It is of in- ferior size, and its notes are weaker and less musical* This little war- bler, when in the cage,often strives to e.-xel the nightingale ; and, if not speedily removed from the place where he is suspended, will certainly fall a victim to emulation. Wood-larks perch on trees, and their whistle resembles that of a black-bird ; the female builds her nest on the ground, a.ul furnishes it externally with moss, but inter- nally with dried bent-grass, See- She lays five eggs, of a dusky co- lour, interspersed with deep brown spots. The common food of young larks reared in an aviary, is a lien's- egg boiled hard, and chopped or L AR L A T 443 •grated very fine, together with the crumbs of bread, and hemp-seed ; but, if diseased, a few wood-lice may be given them : a little li- quorice, and a blade of saffron, may also be infused in their water, which will contribute to their spee- dy recovery. Method of catching Larks....The usual practice of taking these birds is, by trammels, or a kind of nets, generally 36 yards in length, and about 6 yards in breadth, having six ribs of pack thread, which are fastened on two poles, about 16 feet long. After selecting the darkest night for this sport, the net is to be drawn over the ground by two men, who frequently drop h, lest they should pass over the birds ; as soon as the latter are per- ceived to fly up against the tram- mel, it is instantly clapped down, and thus the larks are secured.... This net is also well calculated for catching various other kinds of birds, such as partridges, quails, woodcocks, &c. LARK-SPU R, or . Delphinium, L. a genus of plants, consisting of fourteen species, one of which only is indigenous, namely, the conso- lida, or Wild Lark-spur; Field Lark-spur, or Lark's-heel: it grows in corn-fields, and flowers from the month of June to September. The expressed juice of the petals of this plant imparts a green co- lour ; and with the addition of a lit- tle alum, will produce a good blue ink. The seeds are acrid and poisonous. Sheep and goats eat the lark-spur ; horses do not relish it ; while cows and swine totally refuse it. Bees are remarkably at- tached lo its flowers, which are likewise gathered by the country- people of Germany, cut small, and mixed with tobacco ; as they are said to improve its flavour. LATH, in building, a long, thin, narrow slip of wood, which is nail- ed on the rafters of a roof, in or- der to support its covering. Laths are divided into three classes, according as they consist of different kinds of wood : viz. 1. Such as are formed of heart of oak, and which are used only for tiling ; 2. Sap ; and 3. Deal-laths ; both of which are employed ex- clusively for ceiling and making partitions. They are farther dis- tinguished, with respect to their length, into five-feet, four-feet, and three feet laths, though the statute allows only laths of two lengths, namely, those of five, and three-feet: each of these is direct- ed to be an inch and a half in breadth, and half an inch in thick- ness. For an excellent method of laying laths, so as to make them fire-proof the reader will consult pp. 1 and 2 of this volume. Laths are sold by the bundle, which is generally called a hun- dred ; it should be observed, how- ever, that seven score, or 140, are computed in the hundred for three- feet laths ; six score, or 120, in such as are four feet in length ; and for those which are denomi- nated five-feet, a full hundred, or five score. LATH-BRICKS are a particu- lar kind of that article, made in the county of Stafford, and other parts of Britain : they are twenty- two inches in length, and six inches in breadth, being used as a substi- tute for laths or spars, and sup- ported by pillars in casts, for the drying of'malt. This excellent contrivance deserves to be more generally known; for, indepen* 444 L A T dently of the security which lath- bricks afford against fire, they re- tain heat much longer than wood- en-laths ; and, after having been once thoroughly warmed, they re- quire a very moderate fire, to pre- serve the proper temperature. LATHE, a very useful engine for turning wood, ivory, metals, and other hard substances. The invention of this instrument is of great antiquity, for, according to Virgil, the ancients availed themselves of it,in forming various kinds of vases, which they enrich- ed with figures and ornaments in basso-relievo. It is composed of two wooden cheeks or sides, paral- lel to the horizon, with a groove between them: perpendicular to these are two other pieces, called puppets, constructed so as to slide between the cheeks, having two points meeting the opposite cen- tral sides or ends of the article in- tended to be worked, so as to sus- tain it : thus, the piece is turned round in both directions, by means of a cord attached to it, fastened above to the end of a pliable pole, and underneath to a treadle or board, which is moved by the foot. To such aparatus, a rest is also subjoined, which supports the in- strument, and keeps it steady...... This useful machine has lately been much improved, and we had an opportunity of comparing a va- riety oflathes manufactured of steel in the metropolis, and designed chiefly for private use and exer- cise ; among which, for neatness and simplicity, we are inclined to give the preference to those con- trived by Mr. Holtzapfel, an ingenious young artist^ of Long- acre. With respect to the manner of applying this curious instrument L AU to the various purposes to which it is adapted, we refer the reader to the article Turning. Lattin, or Latten. See Block- Tin. [LAUDANUM. Tincture of Opium. The occasions for the use of Laudanum in families are so numerous, that the utmost cer- tainty with regard to the dose, ought to prevail. This can only be effected by families making this medicine themselves, or by purchasing it of apothecaries of reputation, who will consent to make it agreeable to a prescrip- tion given to them. The following is the form prescribed by the Lon- don College of Physicians : Purified Opium, ten drachms; Proof-Spirit one pint. Digest for ten days, and then strain. Dr. Donald Monroe observes, " one drachm (sixty drops) of the above tincture,, contains, by expe- riment, 3| grains of opium : so that three drachms of it contains eleven grains: hence if we mix eight drachms of proof-spirit, with three drachms of the above tinc- ture of opium, we form a tincture, each drachm of which contains one grain of opium ; if we want a still weaker tincture, we may add eleven drachms more of proof- spirit, when we shall have a tinc- ture, each drachm of which con- tains half a grain of opium." In most cases, however, it will happen, that this medicine must be purchased, as prepared by the apothecary's particular receipt ; and therefore, to prevent the ad- ministration of an over-dose, it should be given in small quantities, (say fifteen drops to a grown per- son), at a time, until the desired effect be produced. A single full dose of 20, 30, or 35 drops, will LAV frequently disappoint our wishes, by proving either too great, or too small a quantity for the necessi- ties of the system. Laudanum should . always be given in a perfectly bright state : when kept some time, it will de- posit a portion of what had been previously held in solution ; and being solid opium, will greatly in- crease the strength of the dose. Such thick laudanum should be marked, and reserved for external applications.] LAVENDER, or Lavandula, L. an exotic genus of plants, com- prising seven species ; the princi- pal of which is the spica, Laven- der spike, or Common Lavender : it flowers in the month of July. This herb may be easily propa- gated : in March or April, take a quantity of slips, or cuttings, from three to four inches long ; having stripped off the lower leaves, plant them in a shady border, four inches apart. If occasionally watered in dry weather, they may be trans- planted early in autumn ; remov- ing them, if possible, with balls of earth. When they are intended for a crop, it will be requisite to set them in rows two or three feet separate, and at the distance of two feet from each other ; but, if de- stined for the shrubberry, they should be planted singly, at proper distances. Lavender is employed both for medicinal and domestic purposes. The flowers should be gathered in July, when the spikes being cul off close to the stem, in a dry day, and tied up in bundles, are much es- teemed, not only for their grateful odour, when deposited in chests, or boxes, among linen ; but chiefly for preventing the depredations of moths and other insects. By dis- LAU 445 tilling these flowers, they yield a compound spirit, which is of con- siderable service in palsies, verti- goes, lethargies, tremors, &c. The distilled oil possesses the power of destroying the pediculi inguinales, and other cutaneous vermin. If soft, spongy paper be clipped in this oil, and applied at night to the parts infested with the insects, they will, according to Geoffroy, be found dead in the morning. LAVENDER-THR1F1\ or Sea Lavender, Statice Limonium, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing on the sea-shore; in salt- marshes ; and the fissures or clefts of rocks, near the sea-coast: it is in flower from July to September. This vegetable deserves the at- tention of tanners, on account of its red, astringent root, called by the Russians, Kermeck: and from which they prepare that valuable kind of leather distinguished by its peculiarly strong, though not un- grateful odour, and on the Conti- nent termed Jufcen.......Gulden- stakdt, in his Travels through Russia, observes, that on the coast near Azof, he met with a tan- work in which the root of the Sea- Lavender was employed in dress- ing the hides of oxen, both for the celebrated Russia, and common sole-leather. The roots are previ- ously dried in the sun, and finely pulverized: next, the hides are cleaned with ashes obtained from the roots of the oak, and suffered to lie a month in this preparatory lixivium ; after which they are im- mersed into the-liquor made of the pounded roots before mentioned. He adds, that there is not the least doubt of this root proving a com- plete substitute for the more ex- pensive oak-bark. LAUGHTER, a sudden and 446 LAX convulsive expression of mirth, pe- culiar to the countenance of man; and which is occasioned by some object that surprizes the fancy. This emotion, however, more frequently arises from an unex- pected disappointment of the mind, while its attention is arrested by an object apparently of great im- portance ; but suddenly terminat- ing in ridicule, or insignificance.... With respect to its influence on the body, moderate laughter is ve- ry beneficial; for it contributes to promote the circulation of the blood through the lungs, and has fre- quently removed colics, pains in the stomach, and similar com- plaints. Various instances have likewise occurred, in which deep- seuted ulcers of the lungs and li- ver, that could not be relieved by any remedies, bursted, and were perfectly cured by a fit of laughter, artificially excited- Beside the pleasing sensations with which it is accompanied, this affection pow- erfully operates on the organs of digestion, and greatly contributes to the assimilation of food. Laurel. See Bay-tree. LAXATIVES, or Aperient Medicines, are such as promote a loose state or disposition of the bowels, for the more easy and re- gular evacuation of the feces. On account of the gradual effect which laxatives produce on the body, they are distinguished from the more powerful or drastic purges, which operate more speedily.... Hence, with the former intention, castor-oil, or cold-drawn linseed- oil, are alike calculated to afford relief, especially if they be taken in small doses, such as a table- spoonful every hour, with a draught of warm ale, till they mildly ope- rate. As, however, the difference LAY between these, and the more brisk cathartics, greatly depends on the manner of administering them, we shall communicate a few observa- tions on both, under the article Purgatives. LAYERS, in horticulture, de- note certain tender shoots or sprigs of trees, which are buried or depo- sited in the ground, till they have taken root; when they are sepa- rated from the parent stock, and become distinct plants. The method of propagating trees by Jayers, is performed in the following manner: A small cut or slit is first to be made in the branch- es, which should then be laid about half a foot deep, in light, rich mould, and gently watered; but, if they do not retain the position in which they were placed, it will be necessary to fasten them down with wooden hooks. The best season for propagating layers is, for evergreens, towards the end of August; and for deci- duous trees, in the beginning of February: after having taken root, they may be separated from the parent stock, and planted out in the succeeding w inter. Some horticul- turists, however, recommend strip- ping off the rind or bark; others direct the branch to be twisted, previously to setting it in the ground; but these operations are not essentially requisite, as the lay- ers will flourish, if proper attention be paid to water them regularly during their early growth. [A better way is to inclose a branch in a fiower-pot or keg divi- ded, and filled with earth, having previously made a circular incision through the bark of the branch down to the wood. The keg or pot must be supported by a frame, and may be thus watered at plea.- LEA sure, and preserved from that de- cay which frequently attends layers in the earth. A bearing branch of a fruit-tree, it is said, will thus be brought to produce fruit in one year. See article Fruit.] LEA, a measure used in some parts of England, to express a cer- tain quantity of yarn. The statute 22 Car. II. directs a lea of yarn, at Kidderminster, to contain two hundred threads, on reels that are four yards in circumference. LEAD, one of the imperfect metals, is of a dull white, inclin- ing to a blue colour; and, though the least ductile and sonorous, it is the heaviest of metallic bodies, ex- cepting mercury, gold, and platina. Lead is found in various coun- tries ; but it abounds in England, especially in the counties of Derby and Devon. When dug out of the earth, it is crushed in a mill, and smelted in a manner similar to iron-ore, of which we have already treated. A patent was granted in 1779, to Mr. W. Roe, for his new-in- vented process of extracting sul- phur from poor lead ores, and ren- dering these as valuable, and sale- able, as any other ores of this metal. As this patent is now ex- pired, and the principle of the in- ventor is equally simple and inge- nious, we trust it is, or will be, ge- nerally adopted in our smelting- houses : the inquisitive reader will find it fully specified in the 6th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufactures." Lead is employed in making va- rious vessels, such as cisterns for water, large boilers for chemical purposes, Sec. Considerable quan- tities are likewise used.in the cast- ing of shot, for which a patent was granted in 1782, to Mr. William LEA 447 Watts, in consequence of his invention for granulating lead solid throughout, without those imper- fections which other kinds of shot usually present on their surface.... The patentee directs 20 cwt. of soft pig-lead to be melted in an iron pot, round the edge of which, a peck of coal-ashes is to be strew- ed upon the surface of the metal, so as to leave the middle of the latter exposed. Forty pounds of arsenic are next to be added to the uncovered lead, and the pot closely shut; the edges of the lid being carefully luted with mortar, clay, or other cement in order to pre- vent the evaporation of the arsenic. A brisk fire is then kindled, so that the two substances may be properly incorporated ; when the metal ought to be skimmed and laded into moulds, that it may cool in the form of ingots or bars,which, when cold, are called slag, or poi- soned metal....20 cwt. of so^ pig- lead, (according to the quantity of shot intended to b'e manufactured) are next to be melted in the man- ner above directed ; and, when it is completely liquefied, one of the ingots or bars of slag must be add- ed : as soon as the whole is com- bined, a small quantity of the liquid metal is to be taken out with a ladle, and dropped from a height of about two feet into the water. If the shot be not perfectly round, it will be necessary to add more slag,tillit drops in a globular form. The metal is next skimmed, and the scum poured into an iron or copper frame perforated with round holes, according to the size of the shot designed ; the scum is then to be squeezed while soft, through the frame, into which the liquid should be poured, and dropped through the holes. For the small- 448 LEA LEA est shot, the frame must be at least ten feet above the water, and for the largest, about 150 feet ; the height being increased or dimi- nished, in proportion to the size of the shot. There are various other pur- poses to which lead is usefully ap- plied : it unites with almost every metal, except iron ; but, if both metals be exposed to the fire in a proper vessel, the former scorifies the latter, and melts with the calx into a dark coloured glass. On account of this property of vitrify- ing the imperfect metals, lead is often used in the purification of gold and silver, neither of which combine with it, but remain pure on the bottom of the cupel. It is also frequently employed by un- principled dealers, for correcting the rancidity of damaged rape-seed mis, and those of almonds or olives. This dangerous abuse may be dis- covered, by mixing a small quan- tity of the suspected oil with a so- lution of orpiment, or liver of sul- phur, in lime-water: as, on shaking the two liquids together, and suf- fering them to subside, the oil will, if it be adulterated with lead, ac- quire an orange-red colour; but, if it be pure, it will assume only a pale yellowish shade. A similar pernicious fraud is practised with acid wines, which dissolve a suffi- cient portion of lead, so as to ac- quire a sweetish taste: this may be detected by means of the same solution, which forms the chief ingredient of the different liquid tests sold for that purpose. Lead, when taken or inhaled in- to the human body, is productive of various fatal disorders, to which miners, potters, and all other per- sons concerned in its manufacture, are peculiarly subject. Hence, culinary vessels, or other domestic utensils made of this metal, are highly objectionable, especially if they are intended to conlain cyder or other acid liquor. To this cause the Devonshire colic is justly at- tributed ; for great quantities of cyder are, in that county, kept in vessels, consisting either wholly of lead, or such as are soldered with this pernicious metal. The dry belly-ach of the West Indies is of the same origin, and is occasioned by distilling rum through leaden worms. In these dreadful complaints, the patient is siezed with an acute i# spasmodic pain in the stomach, which extends gradually to the whole intestinal canal: the bowels are frequently inverted and drawn towards the spine, so as to render the application of clysters imprac- ticable. At the same time, a most obstinate costiveness prevails; and the affection at length terminates in palsy, or in fixed contractions of the limbs. For the cure of this painful ma- lady, gentle clysters and laxatives may at first be administered ; but, if these are not attended with be- neficial consequences, Dr. Perci- val decidedly recommends the internal use of alum; which, in slight cases of the Devonshire co- lic, has generally effected a cure, when used to the extent of fifteen or twenty grains every fourth or fifth, or sixth hour. Balsam of Peru, in doses of forty drops, to be taken two or three times in the course of the day, has also been advantageously prescribed ; at the same time, castor-oil, ov other mild laxatives, conjoined with gentle opiates, have greatly contributed to afford relief....The patient's diet ought to consist of nourishing LEA LEA 449 broths,'panada, and gruel, or simi- lar light dishes. In whatever form lead may be introduced into the human body, it is equally deleterious and fatal, whether its vapours be inhaled through the lungs, absorbed through the pores of the skin, or particles of the metal be taken into the stomach. The only effectual antidotes to this insidious po'son are, antimonial emetics; and af- ter them, the internal use of liver of sulphur, together with vegetable oils, both'externally and internally, should be liberally continued. Red-lead, or Minium, is a calx of lead of a lively red colour, which it acquires by slow calcination and reverberation. Its preparation is as follows : A quantity of lead is first burnt in a furnace, till it is con- verted into a kind of litharge,being ■stifred continually with an iron spatula, while it is melting: it is then ground in a mill to a fine pow- der, after which it is again put in- to the furnace and stirred as before, when it assumes first a blackish hue, then a yellow cast, and at length becomes of a deep red co- lour. While this operation is per- forming, the greatest caution is re- quisite to keep the fire at a certain height, in order to prevent the ma- ter from adhering, and running to- gether. The bright colour of minium would render it a valuable pigment, if it could stand either in oil or in water.: but, being apt to become black, it is seldom employed, ex- cept as a ground for Vermillion.... The genuine quality of red-lead may be ascertained by the bright- ness of its colour ; and, as it is fre- quently adulterated, such fraud may be easily detected, by mixing equal quantities of minium and vol. in. charcoal-dust in a crucible, and placing the whole over a fire suffi- ciently intense to melt lead. VV hen it has continued for some time over the flame, it must be remov- ed; and, when cold,stricken against the ground. Thus, the red-lead will be reduced to its metallic state ; and, when freed from the charcoal, its diminished weight will shew the proportion of adulter- ated matter. In medicine, red-lead is only employed externally: it obtunds the acrimony of humours; miti- gates inflammations ; and, if judi- ciously applied, is of excellent ser- vice in cleansing and healing old ulcers. ♦ White-lead, or Cerussa, is prepared by placing a vessel con- 9 taining vinegar in a moderately warm place, and over which thin plates of lead are suspended, so that the vapour arising from the acid may circulate freely round the plates. A white powder settles in the course of two or three weeks, on the surface of the metal, which is now removed into another room, and passed beneath a screen, and pair of rollers, for separating the corroded from the sound part; that is again suspended, till it is wholly converted into a white calx ; when it is called cerusse, or while-lead. During this operation, a considera- ble portion of fine dusty particles settles on the skin and lungs of the workmen, to whom it is attended with the most pernicious conse- quences. In order to counteract such injurious effects, Mr. Ward, in the year 1795, laid a machine before the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, 8c. and was con sequently rewarded wilh their gold medal. It consists of a vessel 12 feet in length, six feet wide, and 3 M 450 LEA LEA three feet ten inches deep, in which a pair of brass rollers is fixed, one above the other: the centre of these is about ten inches beneath the top of the vessel ; and, one inch lower, a covering of oak- boards or riddles, about an inch thick, is inserted in a groove on the inside of the vessel, so that it may be occasionally removed.-... These boards are perforated in the centre with several holes, each of which is about five eighths of an inch in diameter. Previously to the working of this machine, the vessel is filled with water, abotit three inches above the oak-boards ; when the v.-^ole of the lower brass-roller,and half the upper roller, are complete- ly i^nersed : the lead on being corronld, is passed through these cylinders ; and, by stirring the me- tal with a copper rake, the cerusse is forced through the riddles, and the blue or uncalcined metal re- mains above. Thus, white-lead is prepared ; and by such useful con- trivance, the minutest particles are prevented from ascending, and con- sequently their pernicious influence on the health of the workmen is ef- fectually obviated. Among the different patents re- gistered for the manufacture of white-lead, we shall mention only those granted to Mr. James Tur- ner, in 1780 ; to Mr. Richard Fishwick, in 1787 ; and to the Earl of Dundonald ; of which the reader will find ample speci- fications in the different volumes of the " Repertory," &c. A patent was also granted in 1799, to Mr. John Wilkinson, for a new me- thod of making white-lead : he di- rects any quantity of litharge to be ground veiy fine in sea-water, or other saline mixture ; and by re- peatedly triturating, washing, and bleaching it, the patentee asserts, that white-lead of the best quality may be obtained. No vinegar, or other acid mixture, is necessary in this process ; as levigation, repeat- ed ablutions, and drying, are amp- ly sufficient, provided more time be allowed for the operation, by the medium of the common atmos- phere. The last patent we shall notice, was obtained at the commence- ment of 1801, by Mr. Thomas Grace, for a contrivance of mak- ing an acid to corrode lead, and also for a new process of manu- facturing white-lead. In either respect, however, the usual me- thod is but little varied: the acid re- quired for the purpose is generally prepared by fermenting molasses and water, together with other materials, which are well known to vinegar-makers, and which it would be needless to detail. Among other articles, he makes economi- cal use of the sours, or water in which wheat has been steeped for converting it into starch ; as like- wise of the water employed for distilling oil of turpentine ; both these liquids possess a considerable portion of acidity, which has hither- to been generally wasted. All the different methocis of pre- paring white-lead, however are extremely pernicious, as well to the manufacturer as those who use vessels that are glazed with it. Hence we have already under arti- cle Glazing, pointed out proper substitutes for this destructive me- tal, which, were invented by fo- reign chemists ; and shall, there- fore, conclude with an account of the patent granted in 1796 to Mr. John Keeling, for his contri- vance of a substitute, both for redj LEA LE A 451 and white-lead, in glazing earthen wares, glass, enamel, See. He di- rects any quantity of lead ore, to be put into a reverberatory or other furnace, and to be roasted till it become of a white-heat, dur- ing which process the metal will emit a considerable portion of fumes. The fire must be continu- ed till about an hour after the va- pour is dissipated ; and, when the mass grows cool, it is to be remov- ed from the furnace, and ground with water to a fine liquid state, when the other ingredients, usu- ally employed in making glazes, may be added; and the prepara- tion will be complete. Thus ihe injuries occasioned to the work- men, by the dusty particles which settle upon their skin and lungs, will be effectually prevented ; but this succcdaneum does not remove the poisonous qualities of the me- tal in the glazing of earthen-ware. White-lead is employed in paint- ing, and furnishes a* tolerable white.....See articles Colour and Paint. Cerusse is likewise used in sur- ■gery ; and, on account of its cool- ing, drying, and astringent pro- perties, is of considerable service when sprinkled over running sorts or ulcers. Black-Lead, or Plumbago, a genus of inflammable substances, found in various parts of the world ; but most abundantly at Borrow- dale, in Cumberland ; whence Britain, as well as the greater part of Europe are supplied with this article. Pure black-lead is of a very deep colour: when newly cut, it pre- sents a blueish-white cast, and shines like common lead. It is insoluble in acids; but, ii it be put into a vessel placed over a strong fire, and exposed at the same time to the air, it is aimost entirely vo- latilized, depositing only a little iron, and a small portion of silice- ous earth. Black lead is chiefly used in the manufacture of pencils for draw- ing ; and though paper can be marked with them for a time, yet every trace may afterwards be to- tally rubbed out by means of soft bread, or elastic gum. In forming such pencils, the lead is divided into long pieces, and fixed into square grooves, cut in cedar or other soft wood : another piece is then glued over, and the whole worked into thin cylinders. A coarser kind of pencils is manufac- tured, by mixing pulverized black- lead with sulphur; which, bow- ever, are calculated only for car- penters' marks, or very coarse drawings. The powder of black- lead also serves to cover razor- straps ; and considerable quantities of it are used for imparting a bright gloss to cast-iron grates or stoves. It may also be advantage- ously applied tosmoothen the inner surface of wooden-screws, packing presses, and other wood-work that is subject to frequent friction, for which purpose it is far superior to greasy, soapy, or oily matters. LEAD-WORT, or Plumbago, L. a genus of exotic plants, con- sisting of four species ; the most remarkable of which is the Euro- paa: its root is perennial, strikes deep into the ground, and grows naturally in the southern parts of Europe. This very acrid and poisonous vegetable maybe propagated either by parting the roots, or by the seeds ; as it will grow in the open air of our climate, and is far from being an useless plant. Its root' 452 LEA was formerly kept in the shops, and is still occasionally employed for drawing blisters, and exciting salivation. The leaves of lead- wort, according to Bechstein, are vulnerary, and may be advan- tageously applied to the back of horses injured by the pressure of the saddle, or for healing other sores. LEAF, a distemper incident to lambs, when about a week or fort- night old. It has received this ap- pellation ; as the creatures feed on oak and howthorn leaves, which cause them to foam at the mouth, reel and stagger, so that they sud- denly drop down and expire. Although we are not acquainted with any certain remedy for this malady, yet we believe it may be cured in its early stages, by giving the young animals thus injured, a mixture of equal parts of oil and vinegar, in frequent small draughts poured into the throat, and at the same time administering clysters composed of similar ingredients. LEATHER,the skins of various quadrupeds dressed in a particular manner, for the use of manufac- tures. See Currying and Tan- ning. Dyeing of Leather: Different colours may be imparted to leath- er, according to the uses for which it is designed. Thus, a blue is given by immersing the piece for the space of twenty-four hours in urine and indigo, after which it is boiled in alum; or this colour may be communicated by tempering the indigo with red wine, and steeping the skins in the mixture. A red colour is obtained, by first washing the skins, which are then soaked for the space of two hours in galls, wrung out, and immersed in a liquor prepared by a solution LEA of privet (Ligustrum vulgare, L.), alum, and verdigrease in water; when they are steeped in a dye made of Brazil-wood boiled with ley. In order to communicate a purple, the skins arc wetted with a solution of Roman alum in warm water; and when dry, they are rubbed by the hand with a decoc- tion of log wood in cold water. Leather acquires a light-green tinge, by applying to it sap-green diluted with boiled alum-water..... a dark green cast is communicated by means of steel-filings and sal ammoniac, steeped in urine for a considerable time, and well rubbed into the skin, which is then to be dried in the shade. A yellow colour is given, by anointing the skin with a decoction of aloes and linseed-oil, previously strained: or, by immersing it in a solution of dyer's-green-weed.... Lastly, if fustic-berries be boiled in alum-water, and the skins dip- ped in the Jjquor, they will acquire a light orange shade ; but, if a deeper hue be required, it will be necessary to substitute turmeric for the berries. For an account of the preparation of red, yellow, or other Turkey leather, we refer the reader to the article Morocco. Leather being an article of ex- tensive utility, especially for shoes and boots, various processes have been contrived for rendering it water-proof; we have already stat- ed a simple method to this effect (vol. i. article Boot) ; and, that our readers may become fully ac- quainted with this interesting branch of economy, we shall now give a supplementary account of the different preparations, Sec. in- vented for that purpose. A patent was granted in 1794, to Mr. John Bellamy, for his LEA new invented method of making all kinds of leather water-proof...... For this purpose, the patentee has contrived two compositions, which are prepared in the following man- ner : First method; One gallon of nut-oil, and an equal quantity of poppy-oil, are to be mixed with three gallons of linseed-oil ; or, one gallon of nut, or poppy-oil, may be added to three of that ex- pressed from linseed : or, two gal- lons of the latter may be combined with one pint of nut, and a similar quantity of poppy-oil. These in- gredients (in the proportions above mentioned, or such as the nature of the oil may require) are to be poured together in an iron pot, and placed over a gentle fire : to each gallon of oil must be allowed one pound of white copperas, sugar of lead, colcothar, or any other dry- ing substance. The whole is to remain for the space of six or se- ven hours over such a degree of heat, as it will bear without rising, till it become sufficiently dry ; when it may be taken off; and, as soon as it is cool, the compound will be fit for use. Second method : Gum resin, one pound ; pitch, half a pound ; tar and turpentine,of each four ounces, are to be added to one gallon of the oils prepared according to the first method : these ingredients are to be well mixed with the oils, first by gently heating the whole mass, then increasing the fire, till the whole become thoroughly incor- porated. The patentee specifies various proportions, in which the ingredients may be used ; but ex- perience will be the best guide to ascertain them. When the oils, prepared con- formably to the first method,or the LEA 453 gums, &c. according to the second, are sufficiently cool,Mr. Bellamy directs a brush to be dipped in the preparation, which should be rub- bed into the leather. As soon as that article is thoroughly impreg- nated, it ought to be laid on an even board, and the superfluous matter removed from its surface. With respect to sole leather, or si- milar thick substances, he observes, that they should first be gently warmed ; the composition is then to be applied till they are fully sa- turated ; and, after being properly dried in a warm place, they will be ready for use. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences of Turin, for 1789, we meet with an interesting commu- nication by M. de S. Real ; on the means of rendering leather (especially that destined for soles) impermeable to water, without di- minishing its strength. This ob- ject, he conceives, may be effect- ed, without any alteration in the usual method of tanning, by the common operations of currying; provided the skins be compressed in certain heavy rollers, after being previously immersed in beef-fat, or oil. The additional greasing, and pressing, will not greatly in- crease the price of sole leather ; which, after being a whole year in tanning, imbibes water in a much smaller proportion than cow-leath- er, when dressed with fat. We regret that our limits do not per- mit us to specify the very ingeni- ous experiments mads by M. de St. Real ; as we are convinced they will contribute to improve the art of tanning. Another method of preventing leather from being penetrated by water, consists in exposing it with the flesh-side towards the fire : af- 454 LEA ter which, a coat of warmed tar is to be applied with a proper brush, three or four times successively, according to the thickness of the leather, till the liquid matter pene- trate through the whole skin. The durability and strength of shoes, ^c. will be considerably increased, if, in laying on the last coat of tar, they be sprinkled over with a small quantity of fine iron-filings, which will, in a manner, fill up the pores of the leather. Lastly, shoes may- be rendered impermeable to mois- ture, by occasionally rubbing the soles with hot tar ; thus the feet may be preserved dry and warm ; an important object in this climate, especially during the winter season. [Leather-wood.. See Dirca Palustris.] LEAVEN,strictly signifies sour dough, which acquires its acidity, when preserved after kneading flour with yeast, in order to fer- ment a larger quantity of paste..... It is a very imperfect substitute for yeast; and, as it communicates to the bread an astringent taste which fevv, persons relish, it ought to be used only where barm cannot be procured. As, however, the lat- ter ferment is sometimes difficult to-be obtained, especially during the winter, we shall communicate the most simple methods of pre- paring as well as of preserving it, under the article Yeast. LEAVES, in botany, are defin- ed by Linnjeus to be the organs of motion, or muscles of a plant: according to Dr. Darwin, they constitute the lungs of each indivi- dual bud. See Bud. Leaves are of a deeper green co- lour than the foot-stalks on which ihey stand; being formed by the expansion of the vessels of such stalks that produce several LEA ramifications; mutually intersect- ing each other, and thus making a kind of net: the meshes of which are filled up with a tender porous substance, variously called the pulp, pith, or parenchyma. This net is provided, chiefly on the surface of the leaf, with a great number of porous or absorbent vessels, which are destined to imbibe the humidity of the air. The upper surface serves as a defence to the lower ; and so essential is this disposition to the vegetable economy, that, if a branch be inverted so as to de] stroy the natural direction of the 1 aves, these in a short time, will spontaneously resume their former position. Leaves,therefore,are not merely ornamental to plants, but contribute in a very considerable degree to promote vegetation : thus almost every class of the vegetable crea- tion is furnished with them, ex- cepting mushrooms, and one or two other productions of the earth. Indeed, if any tree be deprived of its leaves, it cannot shoot vigorous- ly ; and if it be totally divested of them, it speedily perishes. When, however, vegetation ceases, these organs of respiration and inspira- tion • become superfluous ; hence there are but few plants furnished with leaves throughout the whole year ; the greater part is entirely deprived of them, and remains nak- ed during the winter, producing new foliage with each returning spring. The utility of leaves, in an eco- nomical respect, is very great, even after they cease to be essential to veg'etation. Hence they should nbt be suffered to rot upon the ground, but carefully gathered in autumn, then exposed to a dry air, frequent- ly turned, and thus made subser- LEA yient to various useful purposes.... Such leaves furnish an wholesome winter fodder for cows and sheep, either of which animals devour them eagerly. With this intention, they may be dried in a similar manner, and even mixed, with hay; and, if properly kept free from moisture, they may be easily pre- served throughout the winter. Nor are the leave* of vegetables, especially those of beans, less ser- viceable as a manure, for clay-soils, because the lower ones are very substantial,and yield,in the opinion of Dr. DARwiN.aconsiderable por- tion of carbonic acid: hence it may be explained, that bean leaves, by continually dropping on the suiface of the land, supply the earth with carbon, and thus render it more nutritive to such vegetables as may afterwards be cultivated. In this j-espect, they are greatly preferable to sheep's or cow's dung, because they never stock the soil with weeds, the roots or seeds of which are frequently propagated by the compost of ordinary dung-hills. The leaves of trees may also be advantageously substituted for saw- dust, in wine-cellars; and for horse- litter, or tanners'-bark, in hot-beds, for which they are eminently cal- culated; and, if trodden down close- ly, and properly moistened, they will gradually ferment, while their heal is more uniform and perma- nent than horse-dung: besides, there is no danger of burning or suffocating the plants in the frame.* Vegetable foliage, likewise, affords an useful mate-rial for the stuffing of beefs, bolsters, mattresses, and cushions. But, to prevent them from crumbling into dust, when frequently shaken,a correspondent, in the 1st vol. of the Mueeum Rus- ficum it Commercial, observes, that L E E 45 they should be moistened while drying; as their contexture will thus be rendered more tough and, elastic: we are inclined to recom- mend, with this intention, a weak solution of glue or isinglass. They certainly merit a fair trial; and, as we have no doubt of their salubri- ty or softness, they might be bene- ficially employed by the poor, who may gather and prepare them with little trouble or expense. Lastly, the leaves of the oak, ash, and alder, have lately been substi- tuted for their respective barks, in the tanning qf leather. Concern- ing the physical properties of leaves, in general, we are silent; as we treat of the more valuable me- dicinal plants in their alphabetical series; but we cannot conclude this article, without stating an in- genious remark of Dr. Darwin : who is of opinion, that after their bitter particles have been extract- ed in a hot-bed, the leaves may be selected and converted into a spiri- tuous drink, similar to small beer, without possessing any disagree- able flavour: there is every reason to believe that such object may be effected by proper management; and the drink thus produced will doubtless be more wholesome than the adulterated liquors, which are imposed upon the public by design- ing and avaricious persons. LEECH, or Hirudo, L. a genus of insects comprising several spe- cies; the most remarkable of which are: 1. The medicinalis, or Mkdici- nal Leech, from three to four inches in length : its body is of a dark brown colour, with six yellow spots on the back ; and a similar yellow line on each side , (though in some seasons, these distingu.>J.- ing marks are rather imperfect, 456 LEE and almost totally disappear) : its head is smaller than the tail, and adheres very firmly. This species is viviparous, inhabits clear running waters, produces in July only one young insect at a time, and is va- lued for its use in drawing blood. 2. The sanguifuga, or Horse- Leech, which inhabits stagnant waters, and is larger than the pre- ceding ; its skin is smooth and glossy; the body is depressed ; the back is of a dusky colour ; and the belly of a light green, with a yel- low lateral margin. 3. The Geometra, or Geome- trical Leech, is only li inch long, and has a smooth, glossy skin, of a dusky brown colour, but in some seasons is greenish, spot- ted with white. When in motion, its back is elevated, so as to form a kind of ridge, and it then appears to measure the space itpassesover, like a compass ; its tail is remark- ably broad; and the insect holds as firmly by it, as by the head. This species is commonly found attach- ed to stones in shallow running waters ; and it likewise fastens it- self on trout and other fish, after the spawning season. The medicinal leech is the only one used for local bleedings. It may be applied with great safety and advantage, especially for ob- stinate head-aches arising from fulness of blood, as well as in many cases of external inflammation, with a view to extract the thick and superfluous humour with which the vessels are overcharged. If the leech will not readily fix itself, a few drops of milk may be rub- bed on the spot where it is to per- form the operation ; or a little blood may be drawn, by making a slight puncture, after which it will immediately settle. When em- LEE ployed for relieving the piles, or to extract blood from the gums, it is requisite to secure the insect with a piece of rush to prevent it either from creeping into the anus or gul- let, in which cases it would occa- sion great distress, in the stomach or intestines. To induce the leech to quit its hold when it adheres longer than required, oil of tartar, volatile alkali, pepper, or acids, are occasionally employed ; though a little common salt, strewed on its head, will answer the same pur- pose. On the contrary, if it be intended to draw a larger quantity of blood, the tail of the leech should be cut off; in consequence of which it continues to draw blood, in order to repair the loss it has sustained. The discharge occasioned by the puncture of a leech, is easily stop- ped with brandy, vinegar, &c. or may be kept open by applying warm fomentations. As the geometrical leech often occasions great damage among trout and other fish, it has been recommended to throw a little salt water into the pond ; but we doubt whether this expedient, by reme- dying one evil, would not be pro- ductive of still greater injury, by destroying the fish. LEEK, or Allium porrum, L. a well-known vegetable, the native place of which is at present un- known, though it has long been cultivated in Britain. The leaves of this plant possess a flavour similar to that of onions ; affording a constant dish at the tables of the Egyptians, who chop them small, and eat them with their meat. They are also in great esteem among the Welch ; and their general utility as awholesome pot-herb, renders them a valuable culinary spice. For the proper L E M L E M 457 method of cultivating the leek, see Onion LEG, the lower extremity of animals, which serves both for their support and motion: it is general- ly divided into three parts ; 1. the thigh ; 2, the leg, properly so call- ed ; and, 3. the foot. The human legs are subject to few complaints, except the com- mon ulcers, the proper treatment of which we propose to state un- der that article. They are like- wise apt to be sprained, fractured, or broken ; in which cases great caution is requisite ; but as those accidents are briefly discussed in their alphabetical series, the reader will consult the articles Frac- tures and Sprains. See also Bandy-legs. Leguminous Vegetables. See Pulse, LEMON-TREE, or Citrus Li- ma, L. an elegant evergreen, indi- genous in Persia, rising from 5 to 10 feet in height, producing beau- tiful large leaves, with a profusion of sweet flowers in the spring and early in summer ; which are gene- rally succeeded by an abundance of fruit, that sometimes arrives at to- lerable perfection even in Britain. The culture of this plant is, in all respects, similar to that of the Citron ; for an account of which we refer to the 2d volume. Lemon-juice, an agreeable acid, obtained from the fruit of the lemon-tree. This juice, as well as that of the citron, and orange, is of considerable utility in medicine.... Sir John Pringle highly praises its efficacy in the sea-scurvy; it is also frequently used for neutraliz- ing alkaline salts in the prepara- tion of saline draughts. The yel- low peel of lemons has a more con- YOL. III. centrated aromatic flavour than that of the orange ; and like that of the citron, is often candied, and sold under the name of sweet-meac. The dried peel is a good stomachic, promotes the appetite, and imparts warmth to the whole frame ; but it should not be combined with spi- rituous liquors in afresh state, a«s it renders the punch or negus still more heating and hurtful, by its highly inflammable oil ; which is, therefore, employed chiefly by per- fumers. The juice, as well as the oil of lemons, may be usefully com- bined with the saccharine and tar- taric acids, in the for/n of laxative Powder, by the following easy pro- cess : Half a pound of refined su- gar should be rubbed on the peels of two lemons, till the yellow part is entirely consumed ; then the su- gar is to be triturated in a glass or marble mortar; the juice of the same lemons dropped on the mass, and the whole suffered to stand in a glazed vessel, till it become suffi- ciently dry to be again reduced to powder. Eight ounces of pulve- rized crystals of tartar are now to be incorporated with the former : a few small tea-spoonfuls of this mixture, in half a tea-cupful of spring water, taken at night, or an ounce of the powder given in divid- ed doses through the day, general- ly produce a mild laxative effectj in costive habits. Lemon-juice is one of the most cooling and antiseptic vegetable productions : it ought to form an article of the side-board, as well as the medicine-chest; for it improves the taste, and corrects the putrid tendency of animal food in the summer. Hence lemonade affords a grateful and cooling beverage for febrile patients : but it should 3N 458 LL E N be remarked, that the acid of le- mons must never be freely given to persons, whose breast or respi- ration is affected. [In England, the " Essential salt of Lemons" is sold to make punch, and to take out ink-spots and iron- moulds. This essential salt is the acid of tartar procured thus :.... Boil thirty.two ounces of white tartar, (or cream of tartar,) in ten pints of water in a pewter vessel. Then add about nine or ten ounces of pounded chalk or whiting, till the effervescence ceases ; the cal- careous earth combines with the acid of tartai\and sets free the al- kali, which remainsin the solution. Wash this precipitate well. Then add eight ounces of strong oil of vitriol, diluted with^about one gal- lon of water. This should be done in a glazed earthen vessel. The vitriolic acid, being placed in a warm place for twenty-four hours, decomposes the tartareous sele- nite, and forms gypsum, with the chalk, and the liquor contains dis- engaged acid of tartar : evaporate, and you obtain the acid in chrystals. A little lemon-peel squeezed on it makes it pass for salt of lemons ; this rubbed on ink-spots acts like other acids, and takes them out.... The Editor is indebted to T. Coop- er, Esq. of Northumberland, for the above.] LENITIVE Electuary a pre- paration kept in the apothecaries' shops, and consisting generally of two parts of pulverized senna ; one part of coriander seeds in powder, incorporated with four parts of the pulp of tamarinds ; a similar portion of prunes ; and a sufficient quantity of simple syrup, so as to reduce the whole into an electuary. It is chiefly employed as a gentle aperient in doses of one tea-spoon- LEN ful, taken frequently in the course of the day; but, as it is apt to be- come mouldy, and to lose its effi- cacy if kept too long, it ought to be newly prepared, and may be more advantageously employed as a vehicle for administering the more active medicines. Nor should this compound be indiscriminately swallowed by the lower classes of people, who thus cloy their sto- machs on every occasion, without knowing whether it be a proper medicine for their complaint. LENTIL, or Ervum Lens, L. an useful exotic vegetable of the pulse kind, that has long been cul- tivated in Britain. It is propagated from seeds, which are either sown in the pro- portion of from one bushel and a half to two bushels broad-cast, or are drilled in rows one foot and a half apart, in order that the inter- mediate soil may be properlyclean- ed with the Dutch hoe. Some- times, however this vegetable is put in the ground together with oats or barley, at the rate of one bushel of the latter to two bushels of the former. The lentil is an annual plant, growing to the height of about 18 inches, and producing pale purple flowers, which are succeeded by small flat pods, containing two or three round seeds. These are fre- quently used in soups, the flavour of which is thus much improved : the plant itself affords an excellent fodder for cattle. When, how- ever, lentils grow among oats or barley, they should be cut while in full sap ; for, if well dried and preserved, they afford an inviting food, though of a heating and fla- tulent nature. Nor is the fruit it- self more wholesome to mankind ; and Bechstein observes, that it LEO LEO 459 is hurtful, nay, sometimes fatal to horses. There is another kind of lentil cultivated in this country, under the name of French Lentil or Tills. It is in every respect a plant twice as large as the preceding, and is supposed to be a distinct species. It is raised from seeds, which are sown in March, in a soil that bore corn in the preceding year, and has been once ploughed. Manure is not absolutely necessary, though it will greatly increase the crop ; which is said to be very copious, and may be mown several times in one season. The stalks and foliage of this kind of lentil, furnish an agreeable and wholesome food to horses, sheep, and particularly to cows : while they considerably increase the quantity, and improve the qua- lity of their milk. Its long and nu- merous pods ripen late in autumn, and produce a new species of pulse, which may be dressed in the same manner as the common lentils : in a fresh state,they may also be used as an excellent ingredient in soup ; and, when dry, they are eagerly eaten by poultry. The dried herb, likewise, furnishes a good winter fodder for cattle ; and, as this ve- getable thrives on the poorest land, it deserves to be more gene- rally cultivated. LEOPARD's-BANE, or Doro- nicum. L. a genus of plants com- prising seven species ; the princi- pal of which is the only indigenous one, termed Pardalianches, Great Leopard's-bane, or Wolf's-bane, growing on the banks of rivers, and in the Lowlands of Scotland ; it produces yellow flowers in the months of May and June. This plant delights in a moist soil, and a shady situation : its spreading roots multiply so rapidly, and the seeds, if carelessly scat- tered about the land, produce plants so abundantly, as very soon to become a most troublesome weed. The roots of the Leopard's-bane were formerly employed in medi- cine, as alexipharmics and puri- fiers of the blood ; but, on account of their violent operation, have been justly exploded. LEOPARD's-BANE, the Ger- man, or Arnica montana, L. an exotic plant growing wild on the Alps, and on the high mountains of Germany. This vegetable delights in a moist, shady situation : it may be propagated in autumn, when the stalks begin to decay, either by parting the roots, or by sowing the seeds, soon after they become ripe. It is a very hardy plant, 'and re- quires no other care than to be kept clear from weeds. The German Leopard's-bane possesses an acrid bitter taste ; and on bruising it, emits a pun- gent odour, which excites sneez- ing. Hence the country people, in some parts of Germany, em- ploy it in snuff, and smoke it as a substitute for tobacco. Various medicinal properties are attributed to this vegetable : it has been chiefly recommmended in paralytic affections, and in cases of gutta serena. For the removal of such disorders, an infusion is to be made, of from one to four drams of the flowers in a pint of boiling water ; and the liquor to be taken in divided closes, in the course of the day. Although the use of this remedy is frequently attended with no sensible operation, yet some- times it produces vomiting, sweat- ing or acopious discharge of urine ; 460 L E P LET and, in some paralytic cases, the cure is said to be preceded by a peculiar prickling sensation, and by shooting pains in the affected parts. It has also of late been re- commended as a very powerful an- tispasmodic ; and it is said to have beer, successfully employed in agues, as well as in gangrenous affections ; where it is asserted lo be equally efficacious as the Peru- vian bark, wnen administered in the form of an electuary with honey. But, as the alledged vir- tues of the German Leopard's- bane, have not hitherto been con- firmed by the experience of British practitioners, the real efficacy of this active plant remains to be as- certained by future observations. If, however, too large a dose of this medicine should have been swallowed by mistake, its most ef- fectual antidote will be vinegar, which ought to be taken without delay, in copious draughts. LEPROSY, or Lepra, a cutane- ous disorder, in which the skin is rough, with white eschars resem- bling bran, though they are some- times moist beneath the surface, and accompanied with an intense itching. This loathsome distemper, though at present very rare in Britain, is sometimes caused by the gout; melancholy ; by touching the tor- pedo ; but more frequently arises from the eating of impure flesh, especially that of swine which had been infected with the murrain. Various remedies have been de- vised for the cure of the leprosy : among these, mercury, both inter- nally and externally ; sea-water ; the cold bath ; and the purging mineral waters, have been success- fully employed. The expressed juice of the common fumitory (in doses from twenty to sixty drops', frequently repeated,) has likewise been prescribed with advantage; and, according to Dr. Lettsom, a decoction of the inner bark of the elm has removed the complaint, even after antimonialsand mercu- rials had failed. The diet of pa- tients aifiicted with this malignant eruption, ought to consist chiefly of milk, carefully avoiding what- ever may irritate the system...... Their daily drink should be either whey or butter-milk. [Many cases of this disease are said to have been cured in New- Jersey, by bathing the parts affect- ed with the following application, twice every twenty-four hours, for two months : Bruise the leaves and berries of night-shade, and let the juice stand twenty-four hours in the sun, then mix gun-powder with it very thick, and reduce it to a thin consistence with sweet oil.] The leprosy is not peculiar to man, but frequently appears among quadrupeds, especially hogs; when it is generally called the Murrain ; under which article we shall point out a few of its appropriate reme- dies. LETHARGY, or Lethargus, a species of apoplexy, which is ma- nifested by an invincible drowsi- ness, or inclination to sleep, from which the patient is with difficulty awakened ; and, if, roused, he re- mains destitute both of sense and memory ; so that he soon relapses into his former sleep. It is attend- ed with an increased degree of heat; slow fever ; full pulse ; pale- ness ; swelling of the eyes ; and a coldness of the extremities. Various circumstances concurto produce this affection : the more remarkable of these are, injuries of the brain, arising either from ex- LET LET 461 ternal or internal causes ; conges- tions of blood in the head ; terror, anger, or other depressing pas- sions ; to which may be added, sneezing medicines, and strong exhalations of flowers. Many remedies have been em- ployed to remove this growing drowsiness, with different degrees of success. In plethoric persons, blood-letting, blisters, and emetics, •have often procured relief. Con- siderable benefit has also been de- rived from the sudden affusion of cold water upon the head ; from the use of stimulant clysters; and the burning of feathers, or other fetid substances, held near the nostrils. The patient ought to avoid whatever is difficult of diges- tion such as heavy salt meats, fish, milk, and cheese. His diet should be light, and taken in small quanti- ties ; while he must endeavour to resist and counteract the propensi- ty to sleep, by frequenting chearful company, taking daily and mode- rate exercise in the open air, or similar exhilirating means. Lethargy, in Farriery, a dis- order lo which horses are frequent- ly liable. It is easily discovered, when the animal rests his head with his mouth in the manger ; is often inclined to eat, but generally falls asleep with the food in his mouth, and frequently swallows hay or corn without chewing it.... In such case, emollient clysters are equally useful and necessary : it will also be advisable to take a little blood, if the horse be young and robust, but in old animals, di- ligent curry-combing, and mode- rate walking, or occasional bath- ing in the sea, or a river, will be more conducive to their cure. Vo- latile salts, and other pungent odours, are here likewise of ser- vice, and should be often applied to the nostrils....The following al- terative purge may be administer- ed, and repeated, if there be a pros- pect of recovery : Take one ounce of socotrine aloes, half an ounce of myrrh, two drams of asafcetida, a similar quantity of gum ammoniac, and one dram of saffron. These ingredients are to be carefully mix- ed, and formed into a ball, with syrup. Such remedies are generally at- tended with success, if the horse be not old, but in the possession of its vigour. Farther, it is a fa- vourable sympton, if he have a tolerable appetite ; drink freely, without drivelling ; lie down and rise carefully, though seldom. But, if the contrary circumstances oc- cur, and the animal be altogether listless, taking no notice of what- ever happens about him; if he dung and stale rarely, while he is sleeping and dozing ; these ap- pearances prognosticate a speedy dissolulion, which cannot be pre- vented by art. LETTER, in its primitive sense, denotes a character of which the alphabet is composed ; but it is commonly used to signify a written address to an absent person. The term letter is often, though ironi- cally, confounded with epistle, which more properly applies to scripture, or the writings of the ancients ; but, according to its mo- dern import, to a poetical, or other formal declaration. If the nature and dignity of style be considered, a letter admits of every modification of language..... Hence a confidential tone may pre- vail in friendly and facetious cor- respondence ; a middle style, par- taking of the serious and didactic, in letters on business, as well as in 462 LET narratives of events, and philoso- phical disquisitions ; lastly, a sub- lime style, when sacred duties are to be inculcated, or exalted ideas to be excited. As a letter is intended to supply the place of verbal conversation, it follows, that the language of civi- lized life, or social intercourse, is the safest guide to epistolary com- position. Let us therefore write as we would speak, if the person to whom the letter is to be directed, were actually present. Hence an easy and simple arrangement of ideas will, in general, be the most suitable. But, as a letter is a more permanent declaration of senti- ments than a verbal profession, the former consequently requires a greater choice of expression, pru- dence and reflection, than is gene- rally bestowed on oral conversa- tion ; hence, it is not entitled to those concessions or indulgencies which are readily granted to the transitory words of the former. Thus, purity of diction, perspicuity and precision of ideas, together with a lively and unaffected mode of expressing them, are the princi- pal requisites of a good letter. One of the most necessary rules of letter-writing is conciseness. In addressing our superiors, we ought therefore to make use of no phrases or circumlocutions, which tend to confound rather than to explain the subject. Diffuseness breeds ambi- guity, and often represents a num- ber of words without meaning. Hence a long letter may not unapt- ly be compared with a tedious per- son, who is constantly moving, as it were in a circle, but never ar- rives at the end of his journey. A short and satisfactory treatise on the subject of writing letters, appears to us still wanting ; though LET many useful remarks and rules are interspersed in the works of Ward Johnson, Blair, and other didac- tic writers. A new method of copying let- ters has lately been proposed; which is certainly less expensive, and promises to be nearly as expe- ditious, as that obtained by means of Copying Machines: we have, therefore, been induced to subjoin the following directions. First, the letter to be copied, must be written with good black ink, in which a little sugar has been dissolved. Damp, unsized paper, or such as has previously been ren- dered sufficiently porous by sus- pending it over steam, is then to be adapted to the size of such let- ter, and be laid on the writing, which ought to be in a dry state. Several clean sheets are now to be arranged on the copying paper; and a flat iron, moderately heated, should be passed uniformly over the whole, till it be thoroughly dried. If the original be written on both sides, it must be placed between a double sheet of such un- sized paper, and managed in the manner above directed ; when an exact copy will be procured. In this instance, however, the iron must be applied with the greatest expedition, lest the unsized paper become too dry, or communicate its dampness to the ink ; in which cases, either no impression would be taken, or the ink would sink: lastly, the iron ought to be pressed on the paper longer than is usual for single sheets; in order that the heat may be regularly diffused, and the full effect be ensured. LETTUCE, or Lactuca, L. a genus of plants comprising 15 species, two of which are natives ef Britain : the principal of these LET LEV 463 is the virosa, Wild or strong-scent- ed Lettuce, that abounds on chalky soils, and dry banks of ditches; flowers in the months of August and September. It has a strong odour, not unlike that of opium, and is possessed of similar nar- cotic properties, that reside in its milky juice ; small doses of which, newly expressed from the plant, are recommended in the dropsy. It is said to agree with the sto- mach, to allay thirst, and to be mildly laxative. Several other species and varie- ties of the Lettuce have, at differ- ent times, been introduced into Britain, and are now cultivated for culinary purposes. The principal of these are : 1. the Common or Garden Lettuce, which is propa- gated from seeds that are general- ly sown early in the spring, that the plant may be cut and mixed with other salads. In its more cultivated state, this kind is known by the name of Cabbage Lettuce. 2. The Silesian. 3. The Impe- rial. 4. The Royal Black ; and 5. The Upright White Cos-Let- tuces, which are the most valuable plants of this nature now reared in our gardens. They are likewise raised from seed, which should be sown towards the end of February, or in the beginning of March, on a warm light soil, and in an open situation. As soon as the plants shoot forth, it will be necessary to thin them, so that they may be 15 inches apart in every direction, after which they will only require to be carefully weeded ; and, as the Black Cos-Lettuce grows large, it will be necessary to tie its leaves together, in order to whiten the inner part. There are two other sorts,known under the name of Dutch brown and Green Capuchin Lettuce,which may be sown late, under walls ; being very hardy, they withstand the severity of the winter, and will be valuable when no other green salad can be procured.......Bech- stein states a curious fact, which deserves to be recorded, namely, if the two varieties last mentioned be planted together, and suffered to bear seeds, in a rich, warm, but moist soil, the future produce of such seed will be a new and very excellent kind of this plant, form- ing extraordinary large heads, the leaves of which are sprinkled with deep red spots, and uncom- monly tender. Properties....The various kinds of garden-lettuce are emollient, cooling and wholesome salad- herbs ; they are easy of ingestion, somewhat aperient, and supposed to possess a soporific qualitv : there is no doubt, that by abating heat, and relaxing the fibres, they in many instances contribute to procure rest. But, for this pur- pose, lettuces should not be eaten with oil and vinegar, as the former renders them less digestible ; but, if either or both of those condi- ments must be used, it will be ad- visable to add sugar, which will counteract the rancid nature of the oil; though simple salt is the most proper spice for salads. Lettuce, the Hair. See Com- mon Sow-Thistle. LEVEL, an instrument, by means of which a line may be drawn parallel to the horizon, in order to determine the height of one place with respect to another; for laying grounds even, conduct- ing water, regulating descents, draining fens, &c. There are various kinds of levels, adapted to different purposes, of 464 LEV which we shall notice only such as are of a simple construction, and in general use. 1. The Carpenters' and Paviors' Level consists of a long ruler, in the centre of which is fixed, at right angles, another somewhat larger, and at the top of which is fastened a line, that shews the base to be horizontal. 2. The Masons' Level is com- posed of three rules, so joined as to form a rectangle somewhat si- milar to the letter A ; from the top of which a plummet is sus- pended, by means of a thread that passes over a perpendicular line marked in the middle of the base, if the object to which the level is applied be horizontal; but which deviates from such mark, in case one side be lower than the other. 3. The Water Level, which shews the horizontal line by means of water or any other fluid, is founded on the principle that water is always level. The most simple instruments of this kind are made of a long wooden trough or canal, the sides of which are parallel to the base ; so that, when it is equal- ly filled with water, its surface points out the actual degree of de- clivity. Or, it may be made with two cups fitted to each end of a pipe, three or four feet long, and about one inch in diameter, so that the water may communicate from one cup to the other : and, as this pipe is moveable on its stand, by means of a ball or socket, when the two cups become equally filled with water, their surfaces shew the line of level. Instead of cups, however, two short glass cylinders, three or four inches in length, may be fixed to both extremes of the LEV pipe, with wax or mastic. Some- water, either plain or coloured, is now poured into the pipe, when the liquor appears through the cy- linders, ; nd thus the horizontal line is determined. This contriv- ance is very simple, and of great service for taking the level of small distances. There are various other kinds of water levels, which have been de- signed with a view to ascertain de- clivities, for the purpose of irrigat- ing land : as these, however, are either too complicated, or other- wise defective, we refer the reader to the article lRRiGATioN,where he will find an account of a more sim- ple contrivance, illustrated with a cut, and which is calculated to re- move these difficulties. Lastly, though we have several other in- struments for taking levels in par- ticular situations, yet, as their ap- plication requires a previous know- ledge of mathematics, and is not strictly connected with domestic economy, our limits do not admit of farther descriptions. LEVER, a bar made of iron or wood, one part of which is sup- ported by a fulcrum or prop, so that all the others turn upon it as their common centre of motion. Levers are of various kinds, ac- cording to the purposes for which they are designed ; and, being eminently serviceable for the lifting of weights, we have subjoined the following representation of a Cross- bar-lever, which is particularly cal- culated for raising earth that abounds with great quantities of stones ; though this machine is likewise applicable to other objects. It was invented by Mrs. Wynd- ham, of Petworth, in Sussex, Eng- G-amet Terry's Mill. LEV land, on whom the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Ifc. in 1796, conferred their silver medal. A, is the lever. B, an upright piece of wood, to be affixed to the lever; care being ? taken to place the side markeij with this letter opposite to that marked A on the lever; by flphich means it inclines backwards, and thus in- creases the power. C, is a cross-bar, being the hand by which the workmen exert their strength. D, is another cross-bar, to be placed at the bottom, behind the upright piece of wood, on which the labourers ar» to stand, and through which the end of the lever passes. These additions are so constructed, that they may be oc- casionally fixed and removed ; be- cause they are to be employed only, when the strength of the rock, or earth, requires an increase Of power. VOL. III. LIB 465 Should the rock be elevated so considerably above the ground, as to endanger the men by its fall, when the separation takes place, the lever may be reversed ; so that the labourers will stand upon the bar intended for the application of their hands, in common cases ; and thus all danger will be effectu- ally prevented. Various other levers have been contrived ; but, as they relate to particular branches^ of mechanics ■we shall only take notice of Mr. Snart's sliding lever; which he quaintly calls an aUxippos; and which was also laid before the pa- triotic Sociisjly above mentioned.... As various accidents happen to horses that frequently fall, while they are inf the shafts; and the pre- sent construction of carts, as well as other two-wheeled carriages, is especially unfavourable to the ani- XI in such a situation, by pre- iting him from being speedily raised ; Mr. Snart has contrived a lever for the express purpose of relieving the unfortunate quadru- ped. He farther states, that it may occasionally be of service in loading carts, where the common lefigth of lliose vehicles is not in proportion to the articles to be car- ried. The contrivance is ingenious, and, notwithstanding its pedantic name, deserves to be more gene- Tally known : but, as we are not disposed to enter into particulars, the inquisitive reautr will" resort to the 18th volume of the'Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, lAc. wfcere this invention is fully described, and il- lustrated with an engraving. [LIBRARY. In Vol.1, p. 339, mention was made of an excellent mode of constructing book-cases, - 3 O 466 L I F so as to permit the ready removal of the shelves. The cut intended, as an illustration of the plan, was however, so badly executed, that it has been deemed necessary to give an engraving of it; referring, as above, for a more particular des- cription. a a, the upright pieces of wood in which the teeth are cut. b b b b, cross-bars for the shelves to rest on.] LIENTERY, or Lienteria, is a species of diarrhoea, in which the food passes through the intestines, almost without having undergone any change: it is not attended with pain, but the patient is fre- quently affected with an intolerable hunger. This disorder is occasioned by the relaxed state of the stomach, and is sometimes the consequence of dysentery, though it generally occurs during the earlier periods of life. Considerable benefit may be de- rived by administering rhubarb, combined with magnesia; but, if the patient be an adult, it will be necessary to resort to stomachics and tonics, especially the Peruvian bark. The lientery is seldom a very dangerous disease, unless the pa- tient be of an advanced age ; or the constitution be broken by ex- cess, or acute diseases: in either cases, the diet and treatment must be the same as in the Dysentery, to which we refer. LIFE, in a peculiar sense, de- notes the animated state of living creatures, or that space of time during which the soul is united to the body. Longevity has always been high- ly estimated by man ; hence the art of preserving life has become LIF an important study, and ought u» form part of the education of every individual. There is, however, a period at which mankind cease to grow , and beyond which our ex- istence continues for a limited time. Thus, if a person attain his full growth at the age of fifteen, he generally dies at that of sixty; provided that no accidents inter- vene, by which the vital principle be affected, and prematurely extin- guished. According to the calcu- lations of others, every animal body is by Nature destined to live eight times the length of its growth. From the most accurate political accounts, made by comparing the bills of mortality published in dif- ferent countries and climates, we shall insert the following result: Of one thousand persons living in large cities, no less than thirty- five or thirty-six die annually; while, in country places, or small towns, only from twenty-eight to thirty deaths happen in a similar period. Among 1000 children, five die during parturition ; and scarcely half that number in child- bed ; but about 300 are computed to fall victims to a perverse mode of education, though suckled by their mothers; and not less than 500, or one half of all that are bora, if reared by wet nurses. The mortality of infants, indeed, has in- creased to a most alarming degree in this luxurious age; as the plu- rality of them is carried off by con- vulsions, and difficult teething. Among 115 dead persons, there is only one woman deceased in child- bed ; and, of 400 mothers, only one by previous pains. A greater pro- portion of boys than of girls die of the natural small-pox. There are always to be found more aged per- sons in hilly or mountainous coun- L IF L IF 467 tries, than in low situations ; and it source, the following is the most is proved by the most authentic probable chance which persons computation, that of 3,125, only may have for the duration of their one individual survives the bun- lives, after a certain fixed period j dredth year. From the same namely, A new-born infant A person of 1 yeai 3 will probably live old Tears. . 34 . 41 45 Month 6 9 7 S . 46 4 10 • . • 44 9 15 . . . 41 6 20 . . 38 3 25 . . 35 3 30 . • • 32 3 35 . 29 8 40 . . 26 6 45 . 23 0 50 . . 20 11 55 . . 17 0 60 . . 14 2 65 . 11 5 70 . . < 8 11 75 . . • 6 3 80 • ■ « 4 10 85 . . 3 3 90 • . < 2 0 The proportion of the female sex to that of males, with respect to the number of deceased, is as 100 to 108. Previously to the 60th year, the chance of survivorship is in favour of women ; but, after that age, men generally survive them. Married women, on the whole, live longer than those in a state of celibacy. From observa- tions made for the space of fifty years, it is evident that most per- sons die in the months of March, August, and September ; but the fewest in November, December, and February. In populous cities, however, such as London and Pa- ris, death makes the greatest ha- vock during the winter. One half of the human race is doomed to dissolution, before they have completed the 17th year of their age ; but, after this critical period, the survivors' chance of life becomes more valuable with every year : hence, for instance, a person thirty- years old, according to the precedingcalculation,will probably live thirty-two years longer; so that he may attain the age of sixtyr- two ; whereas a youth of fifteen, though he have a chance of living forty-one and a half years longer, will nevertheless arrive only at the 56th or 57th year of his age. Conformably to the observations of Boerhaave, the most healthy children are born in the months of 468 LIF LIF January, February, and March : indeed, the greatest number of births takes place during the two months last mentioned. The pro- portion of boys, annually born, is to that of girls, as 104 to 100 ; but, on the other hand, a greater num- ber of the former die during infan- cy than of the latter; so that, about the age of puberty, both sexes are nearly equal. Among 65 or 70 infants, there is generally but one instance of twins. The number of marriages, compared to that of the whole population of a country, is as 175 to 1000. Four children are generally computed to arise from each married couple; but, in towns, only thirty-five children from ten families. Last- ly, it is proved from the records of the most experienced physicians, that, among 100 persons living in cities, throughout the year, only twenty are indisposed, or confined to their beds for one month ; or twenty-four for the space of a fort- night. With a view to prolong human life, Lord Bacon recommends the bath, after which unctions of salves and oils are to be applied, in order to exclude the influence of the ex- ternal air. [Lord Monboddo, of Scotland, who lately died 90 years old, and upwards, was in the practice of anointing his whole body with oil, and believed it greatly contributed to his health.] We have already pointed out the most proper treatment of persons in a feeble state, under the article Debility ; and, at the same time, stated the necessary rules and di- jections for the preservation of health, and consequently the pro- longation of life. There is, how- ever, so much justice in the obser- vations ofthe late illustrious Hau- ler, on this subject, that we are induced to insert the following brief statement. He remarks, that some of the causes which contribute to protract life, beyond its usual pe- riod, are external. Such, for in- stance's climate : hence, the more northern latitudes, or about 50 de- grees, are the most proper for youth ; because, in such a region, the circulation is less rapid, and acute diseases seldom occur. But in a more advanced age, when the pulsations of the heart are faint or slow, and its irritability is dimi- nished, a warmer region is more salutary; and he recommends aged persons to migrate 30 or 40 degrees, or even nearer to the equator, where they may enjoy, at pleasure, the genial warmth of the sun, or the cooling shade. Among the internal causes of longevity, the rudiments of a sound body, descended from parents un- contaminated by hereditary dis- ease, are to be considered as the principal: thus dropsy, gout, apo- plexy, consumption, and the long train of disorders that are too fre- quently transmitted from one ge- neration to another, will in a great measure be prevented. With res- pect to the mode of living, Hal- le r recommends abstemiousness during youth ; the drink should be water, which Nature has provided for our common use ; and he justly considers wine as a species of me- dicine. Animal food should be sparingly eaten, together with a large proportion of vegetables, and but a small addition of valine or aromatic substances. i emper- ance is, in every respect, an essen- tial point; so that the quantity eaten may be well digested, and perfectly assimilated ; that the LIG L I G 469 blood may circulate regularly, and free from all corruption or infec- tion, similar to that of an infant. Aged persons, however, may somewhat more freely indulge in the use of animal food : on the other hand, tranquility, both of body and mind, is of the greatest consequence ; as nothing is more detrimental, than an irritable or irascible disposition. Hence, a due mixture of a lively and placid temperament, is a very desirable condition, so as to be neither in- sensible of pleasure, nor too much addicted to the gratification of sensual desires. Moderation is, therefore, here likewise a benefi- cial attribute ; but, with regard to sleep, old and decrepit people may be more indulgent. Those read- ers, who are anxious to become acquainted with more minute rules and directions for prolonging hu- man life, both in a state of health and disease, will derive consider- able information from Professor Hufeland's " Art of prolonging Life" (8vo.2 vols. 10s. Bell, 1797), and from Dr. Struve's Asthenolo- gy ; or, The Art of preserving fee- ble Life" (8vo. 8s. Murray and Highley, 1801), in which the sub- ject is amply and philosophically discussed. LIGHT signifies that invisible fluid which renders objects percep- tible to the sight. The velocity of light is almost inconceivable, though its motion is not instanta- neous : the particles of light fly nearly 200,000 miles every second of time, which is above a million of times swifter than the passage of a cannon-ball. And, as half the diameter of the Earth's orbit, extends to 90,000,000 of miles, the rays of the sun travel that yast distance in 8i minutes, before they illuminate our earth. The nature of light has, at all times, been a subject of specula- tion among philosopers; and va- rious theories have been formed and rejected, or succeeded by others that were more plausible, though inconclusive. Sir Isaac Newton conjectured it to consist of rays, some of which possessed a great- er degree of refrangibility than others : subsequent philosophers are not yet agreed, whether light and heat are* the same fluid under different modifications, or two dis- tinct fluids which are frequently united. Amid this concussion of opinions, it is difficult to select the most probable ; we shall therefore briefly state the effects of this agent upon the vegetable and ani- mal creation. Light is essentially necessary to vegetation : in our climate, it is seldom productive of injury by its excess, though the want of it is often pernicious. This fluid acls as a kind of stimulus on the more irritable parts of plants ; as ap- pears from the sun-flower and others, that expand or bow when exposed to the rays of the sun : hence Dr. Darwin supposesthcre may be diseases in plants, arising from the excess of this stimulus, but which, he thinks, have hitherto been disregarded. To corrobo- rate this conjecture, he specifies the Goat's-beard, or Salsafie (tra- gopogon, L.) and some other vege- table productions, which closes their flowers about noon, in order to prevent the influence of such sti- mulus. On the contrary, the absence or defect of light produces a disease called etiolation, or blanching, be- 470 L I G LtG cause vegetables deprived of that fluid become white. It has a simi- lar effect on animal bodies ; which, as Dr. Darwin has pointedly re- marked, are in consequence ren- dered pale and inert: this is con- firmed by the languid and etiolated countenances of the young ladies in some boarding-schools, where, from false motives of delicacy, they are secluded both from the light of the sun, and the invigorat- ing influence of the air : it is still farther evinced in those studious persons, who pass their waking hours in unventilated apartments, especially during a considerable part of the night. But, though such etiolation be naturally injurious to vegetation, it has been artificially employed with success, in rendering certain plants esculent, by depriving them of their acrimony, cohesion, and colour. This method is chiefly practised on celery, by earthing up that plant nearly to the top ; on sea-kale, by covering it entirely with horse-litter or straw; and lastly, on lettuces and endive, by tying the root-leaves together with a bandage. On the chemical ef- fects of light, we are silent ; for the opinions respecting them are not less unsettled than those con- cerning its nature. The inquisi- tive reader will find ample infor- mation on this subject, in the writings of Dr. Priestley, and also in the different volumes of the Transactions of the Royal Society. LIGHTNING, a vivid bright flash of fire, which suddenly ap- pears in the atmosphere, and in- stantly vanishes : it is sometimes attended with heavy clouds and thunder: but often occurs while the sky is serene, especially in sul- try summer evenings; The phenomena accompanying this meteor are always surprising ; but, in many casts, truly terrific : various causes have been assigned by philosophers with a view to ex- plain them. It is, however, now generally understood to be an elec- trical phenomenon. In common with electricity, lightning possesses the property of burning and dissolving metals ; it rends bodies, often deprives per- sons of sight, and sometimes ex- tinguishes the vital principle ; di- vests magnets of their virtues, and reverses their poles. Indeed, there is no appearance in nature, that presents a greater diversity to the contemplative mind; for each flash is widely different from another j nor are its effects alike fatal. When the igneous meteor exhi- bits a deep red colour, it is sel- dom accompanied with dangerous consequences ; but, if the flashes be bright, pale, and in a zig-zag direction, destruction generally marks their course. The most mischievous form, however, which lightning assumes, is that of fiery balls : wherever such masses de- scend, they burst, and occasion ex- tensive damage. As lightning uniformly strikes the most -elevated objects, such as lofty trees, steeples, and particu- larly the masts of ships and chim- nies of houses, various expedients have been contrived, in order to divert, or at least break its force. These efforts of human ingenuity were first published, or recom- mended to public notice, by Dr. Franklin ; and, from their ac- knowledged utility, Conductors are now generally adopted : We have already pointed out the most judicious form of constructing them in our 2d volume. LIG L I G 471 Another method of preventing the fatal effects of lightning, con- sists in the artificial attraction of electrical matter from the clouds, be means of a Kite. Persons struck with lightning may, in many instances, be restor- ed by proper and timely applica- tions. In slighter cases, where particular limbs are affected, the wounded part has been cured by washing it with a solution of sugar of lead. According to Tode, con- siderable relief has been derived from applying opium to the painful part of the breast, after being hurt with lightning; and a person wounded by this meteor, was per- fectly cured in the course of ten days, by the application of ley to the part affected, and by the inter- nal use of carbonate of pot-ash, or fixed vegetable alkali dissolved in water. Should, however, any per- son be apparently killed by such an accident, he ought by no means to be neglected, or precipitately com- mitted to the grave; for we are per- suaded that many might be restor- ed, if proper resuscitative means were employed. In general, there are no exter- nal marks discoverable, when Ihe body has been injured by a flash of lightning ; though sometimes red streaks appear on different parts, especially on the chest and arms, in which the patient, after recovery, experiences a sense of burning heat. The first step should be, to remove the body from the farther influence of mephitic air of the place, where the unfortunate blow was inflicted. Clothes and band- ages of every kind must be remov- ed ; the body placed in a reclining posture ; and the head raised, somewhat leaning to the right side: ihus the subject is to be covered with warm blankets or clothes ; while both the doors and windows are opened for admitting fresh air. Resuscitatives: Sprinkle the face with cold water; put the whole body up to the neck, if convenient, in the earth-bath, where it should be kept for several hours, till cer- tain signs of returning life appear: or expose the subject, if robust, to the influence of the shower-bath ; apply cold poultices to the head ; cloths dipped in vinegar to the pit of the stomach ; and gentle fric- tion, which should be resorted to, alternately, with the sprinkling of cold water, from the beginning of the process; at first with great caution,over the lower extremities, and gradually extending it upwards to the left side of the body. In particular cases, where the means before stated prove ineffec- tual, it will be advisable to open a vein, or to electrify the patient, by directing the shocks through the breast, so that this fluid may per- vade the heart. Meanwhile, pure air may be blown into the lungs (see article drowning,) ; and if anxiety appear to prevail, blisters should be applied to the chest. When signs of returning life be- come evident, the mode of treat- ment before pointed out, must be continued for some time, though with great moderation. The cloths applied to the pit of the stomach, should now be dipped in wine, or warm vinegar ; common poultices applied to the injured parts ; and emollient clysters muy be occa- sionally given. Lastly, when the patient is able to swallow, a mix- * ture of wine and water, or balm- tea, may be safely administered. Dr. Franklin suggests to those persons, who are apprehensive of 472 LI G danger from lightning, the propri- ety of sitting in the middle of a room on one chair, and to lay their feet on another; provided they be not placed beneath a metal lustre suspended from the ceiling by a chain. He farther observes, that it is still safer to fold two or three mattrasses or beds in the middle of an apartment, and to place the chairs upon them; for, as the for- mer do not conduct lightning so readily as the wall, the flashes can- not penetrate their substance. But the most secure place, in his opin- ion, is a hammock, suspended by silken cords, in the centre of a room. The curious reader, who wishes to obtain farther information res- pecting electrical meteors, will be amply gratified, by perusing Dr. Franklin's Experiments and Ob- servations on Electricity, (4to. 1769, 10s. 6d.) ; and Dr. Priestley's History of Electricity, 4to. in which this interesting subject is perspi- cuously treated. The effects of lightning are fre- quently not less fatal to vegetable productions. Wheat-plants are peculiarly susceptible of this in- jury ; and Mr. Tull is of opinion, that not only their health is thus greatly impaired, but also their immediate decay, is thereby often occasioned. Such consequences, he observed, were evident from the black spots or patches in a field of corn, especially in those summers which were visited by frequent thunder storms: and he adds, that there is no remedy against this evil. Forest-trees, in particular, ex- perience similar blasts ; and, on sawing them, numerous instances have occurred, in which they were found cracked, split, or otherwise mutilated by lightning. Dr. Dar- L IL win conjectures that vegetable* are affected by this meteor in a manner similar to that, when their succulent shoots are frozen ; that is, their vessels burst, as the light- ning passes through them, in con- sequence of its expansive power. Lignum ViT-ffi. See Guaiacum,. LILAC, or Syringa, L. a genus of exotic- plants, natives of Persia, consisting of three species, the principal of which is the vulgaris, or Common Lilac. It has long been cultivated in our gardens, on account of its ornamental flowers j and, if properly managed, will grow to the height of 18 or 20 feet This shrub thrives on almost any soil, but it produces the most beautiful flowers on rich, light land, though it flourishes best on wet grounds. It is propagated by suck- ers, which should be separated from the parent plants in the month of October, and set in a nursery, in rows three feet asunder, each sucker being one foot distant from the other. In the second or third year, they may be removed to the spot where they are intended to re- main. After this operation, no farther attention will be required, except digging about their roots once in the course of the year, and cutting off the suckers; which not only destroy the beauty of the plant, but likewise deprive it of its nourishment. The leaves of the Common Lilac are frequented by the Spanish Fly: ....the yellowish and red streaked wood of old trees is valuable to turners and cabinet-makers; as the vessels or utensils manufactu- red of it, are equal to those made of olive-wood, and almost indes- tructible ; by immersing such ar- ticles in a cold dye, consisting of aqua-fortis largely diluted with wa- LIL ter, they acquire a fine red colour. From the flowers of this plant may be distilled an essential oil, similar to that of roses. LILY, or Lilium, L. a genus of exotic plants, consisting often spe- cies, all of which are remarkable for the beauty of their flowers ; but the two following deserve a distinguished place: 1. The candidum, or White Lily, which produces a beautiful flower, the fragrant odour of which is so powerful as to induce faint- ing, if numbers of it be kept over night in a close apartment: an essential oil may be obtained from them, in a manner similar to that described under the article Jas- mine. 2. The bulbiferum, or Fire Lily, which also bears fine flow- ers of a flaming red colour, and which, by culture, sometimes be- come double. The Russians and Tungusians eat the roots of this species, either roasted, or boiled in milk; and Dr. Franke informs us (in his System of Medical Police, printed a few years since, in Ger- man), that these mealy roots might in times of scarcity, be prepared into wholesome bread. On ac- count of their emollient and matu- rating properties, they have been greatly recommended in the drop- sy ; but are chiefly employed in cataplasms, when boiled, and bruis- ed into a pulp, with oil : in this manner, they are said to form an efficacious application to recent burns. [In the United States, we have the following native species cf lily. L. Superbum. This grows in Bar- tram's garden, and well deserves its name, as it is a truly elegant plant. The stem rises 13 feet in height, and is crowned with a pan- vol. in. LIL 473 nicle of between 40 and 50 flowers of a red colour, yellow within, and spotted like a Leopard's skin with dark crimson, almost black. 2. L. Philadelphicum. 3. L. Canadense. 4. L. Carolinianum, all elegant flowering plants. In Kamskatska, the inhabitants eat the root of the lily, boiled or roasted.] LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY, or May-Lily, Convallaria Mujalis, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing in woods, heaths, and at the foot of hills : it flourishes in the month of May. This vegetable is eaten by sheep and goats, but refused by cows, horses, and^hogs; ils flowers are in a high degree fragrant; but, when dried,they acquire a narcotic scent, and, if reduced to powder, excite sneezing. Both the flowers and roots have a bitter taste ; and an extract, made from either, pos- sesses similar purgative proper- ties with aloes ;....the dose being from 20 to 30 grains. A beauti- ful green colour may be prepared from the leaves, with the addition of lime. LILY, the Water, or Nym- phtea, L. a genus of plants com- prising nine species, two of which are natives of Britain, namely, 1. The lutta, iellovv Water-lily, or Watercan ; which grows in gentle rivers, pcols, and ditches ; blows in the months of July and August. When the small yellow flowers begin to fade, the seed re- turns to the water, in which ele- ment it attains to maturity, and again germinates. This aquatic vegetable is eaten by bogs ; but goats do not relish its flavour, and it is totally refused by horses, cows, and sheep. The flowers possess an odour similar to that of brandy; and the roots, if moisten- 3 P 474 LIL LIM ed with milk, are said by Ltn- mzu i to destroy crickets an J cock- io-y.cs. 2. "t he alba, White Water-lily, Canee^.v, or Water-socks, which grows in ponds and slow rivers ; ilouers in the month of July. This species is one of the most beauti- ful British plants, and may be pro- pagated by transplanting its bul- bous roots in the winter. It is eaten b> in.'g-, but disliked by goats, and totally rejected oy cows iv..-[ horses. The roots are em- ployed in Ireland, and the Island of Jura, for dyeing a dark brown colour ; but the Egyptians eat them boiieci, and convert the seeds into hi.ad. The Swedes also, in pre- vailing dearth, have used the root c." this plant as a substitute for corn ; Uiojgh it requires to be pre- viously divested of its bitter taste, by frequent ablutions. According to Gi.kditsch, the roots of the white and yellow lily are equally useful in tanning and currying. [Several species of Nymph&a, or Water-lily, are natives of the Unied States; as A*, alba, N. lutata, N. odorata, N. advana, N. sagitti- fjlia, N. reniformis, A". Lotus, .V. Nelumbo. The two last are parti- cularly wor'hy of notice. 1. .A. Lotus is also a native of Fgypt; where the roots boiled in water, have been eaten from the earliest antiquity. It is distinguish- ed from all the other species, by having dentated leaves. 2. .'.'. NtLanbo. This plant is known by the name of Nelumbium Sfieciosum. It abounds in Brog- den's creek, between Philadelphia and Gloucester-point, and.Mr.Wi'i. Bartram informs the Editor, that it is found in lakes, ponds, and stagnant bays of large rivers, on the Atlantic coast from New-Jer- sey to East and West Florida; and Westward, as far as Lake-Erie.... The leaves are orbicular and pel- tated, and very large, particularly those lying on the surface of the va-.er, many of them being eigh- teen inches, and two feet over.... The flowers appear in Pennsylva- nia in August, and when expand- ed, are four or five inches in di- ameter, and of a lemon colour, and make a fine appearance. The [lower is succeeded by a turbinated pericarp, containing many oval pointed seed of the size of an acorn; their points perforate the horizon- tal surface of the seed vessel, and when fully ripe, are black, and hard. The kernels resemble in taste, that of the chinquapin (Ja- gus fiumila). Sir George Staun- ton informs us, that in China, the roots of this plant are highly es- teemed, and are sliced and served up at table with ice in summer.... In winter, they are preseived in salt and vinegar. A conserve is also said to be made of the nuts when not quite ripe, and given as a restorative after sickness. This plant ought to be cultivated in every creek having a muddy bot- tom. The seeds must be placed in the spot they are intended to occupy, immediately on being ta- ken from the seed vessel.] LIME, a white, soft, friable substance, prepared of marble, chalk, or other calcareous earth, by burning them in a kiln. [The common form in which lime-stone is found, is that of com- bination with the acid of charcoal, or fixed air. The lime is obtained, in a c?.ustic state, by exposure to a high degree of heat, whereby the carbonic acid is driven off in the state of gas, or air. It is then L IM tailed quick-lime, and in that con- dition, is employed in husbandry and the arts. After having been deprived of its fixed air, the lime is constantly, though slowly, re- gaining it from the atmosphere, and all other bodies with which the lime comes in contact, and capa- ble of furnishing it; but quick- lime must be previously moistened to enable it to unite with the air. According to Mr. Kikwan, 100 parts of quick-lime, absorb about 28 of water ; and to regain its full proportion of air from the atmos- phere, it requires a year or more, if not purposely spread out. Pure lime-stone, says Dr. An- derson, when fully calcined and slaked, is reduced to a fine impalpa- ble powder of a bright white, that feels soft between the fingcis, without the smallest tendency to griltiness. When it has any co- lour, it proceeds from the sand, or other foreign matters in the com- position. If the lime-stone loses much of its weight in calcination, and the lime-shells are extremely light ; if the shell require a very large pro- portion of water to slake them fully : if it is long before they begin t6 fail ; if the lime-stone is not apt to run, (or be vitrified) in the ope- ration of burning ; if it fall entirely when it gets a sufficient quantity of water, after it has been properly calcined: if it swell very much in slaking, and if the lime is light, fine to the touch, and of a pure white, we may be satisfied that it is extremely good, and may use it in preference to any other lime that is inferior to it in any of these respects.] The chief uses of lime are, 1. As an ingredient in mortar to cement biick or stone buildings ; L I M 475 for which purpose, being divested of its humidity, and its pores being at the same lime opened by the action of the fire, it is so eminently calculated, that it may be easily reduced to powder, and mixed with sand or other matters.....See Mor- tar. 2. As a manure, it is of the most extensive utility : we shall, there- fore, concisely state the properties of the best lime-stone, as well as the proportionate quantities in which it is to be spread on lands ; and at the same time point out those soils that are really amelior- ated, and likewise such as receive no benefit from its application. Formerly an opinion generally prevailed, thatthe most efficacious lime for manuring lands, was pro- duced from the hardest calcareous stones, which most intimately ap- proached the nature of matble: modem experience, however, has amply refuted this supposition..... It appears, indeed, that there are two sorts ; namely, magnesian and calcareous limestone ; the latter of which is attended with the most beneficial consequences, while the former is highly injurious to land. This remarkable-fact was first pub- lished by S. Tennant, Esq. in the " Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society," for 1799 ; who, be- ing informed of the opposite na- ture of the two species, made va- rious experiments, in which their respective properties were clearly ascertained. The barren, or magnesian lime, is found in various parts of Eng- land, but especially in the county of Nottingham, where a quarry of it is worked to the extent of thirty or forty miles ; also in the coun- ties of Derby and Northumber- land, in the latter of which it is 476 L I M J^ i iVI known by the characteristic name of hot, in contradistinction to the mild, or calcareous lime, that abounds in all parts of Britain. We regret that we cannot enter into a detail respecting Mr. Tennant's important discovery ; the particu- lars of which are recorded in the volume above mentioned. The magnesian lime may be further distinguished from that made of pure calcareous stone, by its slow and difficult solution in acids. The hardness or softness of lime- stone, however, is of no impor- tance, provided it be pure, that is, free from sand, clay, or other sub- stances, which render the mass less fertilizing. With respect to the length of time the materials should be exposed to the fire, it has been found by experiment, that lime burnt in four hours, has a much greater disposition to recover its fixed air from the atmosphere, than that which has been burning for the space of twenty four hours; and, as the excellence of this ma- nure is supposed to depend on its re-attraction of fixed air, the pro- cess of calcination ought to be re- gulated accordingly. In this state, it is called quick- lime, and should hi spread as speedily as possible, immediately before the plough ; so that the greater part may be slacked in the soil. The proportion used, depends much on the custom of the coun- try ; but should more properly be adapted to the nature of the land. In the county of York, thirty-six bushels only are carted on an acre ; in Wales, a quantity somewhat larger: in Ireland, from five to six hundred bushels are spread on eve- ry English statute acre ; and in various parts of England, very small portions are injudiciously scaltered: for it is the opinion of the most experienced agricultu- rists, that t/nee or four hundred bushels at the least, (if the price be not too high) should be allowed to each acre ; especially when the soil has long been in an unculti- vated state. One good liming is, in such cases, decidedly preferable to small quantities frequently re- peated. In common situations, however, where the land does not abound in putrescible matters, and is not vi- tiated by acids, Mr. Young is of opinion, that 160 bushels per acre, will produce a considerable effect; but, on stiff strong clays, he thinks at least double, or triple, that quan- tity ought to be allowed. If lime be applied without any other manure, it is said to exhaust the most fertile particles of the soil. Some agriculturists, there- fore, suggest the propriety of form- ing small heaps, and covering them with earth: as soon as the soil has, by its moisture, slacked the lime, the heaps are to be opened, and as much dung buried in each as the earth will cover. A more econo- mical and judicious method, is that stated by Mr. Andrews, in the 4th vol. of Annals of Agriculture. He directs about 140 loads (each containing 40 bushels), of moist dung to be heaped up in the month of December, when 200 bushels of lime are to be well incorporated. The whole is then suffered to lie for three months, after which the heap is to be well stirred : when the harvest is completed, the com- post is to be spread on a pea-stub- ble, and ploughed in for barley : but, if the season should not favour the purpose, he directs these la- bours to be performed after the first frost that occurs. Mr. An- L I M LIM 477 brews farther observes that, in consequence of such management, his barley-crops have, upon an average of twelve years, amounted annually to four quarters and six bushels per acre. The advantages arising from this treatment, are, 1. The total destruction of the seeds of weeds, so that the land on which this mix- ture had been spread, was uni- formly the clearest: and, 2. The increased fermentation of the dung, by which its fertilizing properties are more speedily excited. Lastly, the expense of the lime was to him 10*. per acre ; and its beneficial effects continued for four years. The soils peculiarly susceptible of improvement, by means of lime, are : 1. Rich black or brown friable crumbling loams, which abound with vegetable matter ; its general putrescency being accelerated by the lime, such land is so greatly meliorated as to yield crops, which they could never have produced by the application of any other ma-" nure. 2. On low, rich, drained mea- dows, that have formerly been bogs, and the black soil of which abounds with vegetable fibres. 3. On old sheep-walks, heaths, and commons, which have been Under grass for time immemorial, and are first to be converted into arable land ; but lime will not be of any advantage, after they have been cultivated for several years. j\nd, though such manure will produce favourable effects upon old lay soils, abounding in vegetable particles, yet when the latter are putrified by liming, and exhausted by repeated cropping, it will be of no service. 4. On moory, boggy, moun- tainous land; and, according to Dr. Hunter, on black peat-earth. In his opinion, lime prevents the spontaneous growth of heath, and produces a new family of vegeta- bles, especially white clover. He farther remarks, that the greatest improvements ever made on moors, in any country, have probably been effected by means of lime. There prevails, however, a diversity of opinion on this subject, which we are unable to reconcile. In the 16th vol. of the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of ' Arte, &c. Thomas Davis, Esq. (steward to the Marquis of Bath), states that, though lime is the only proper manure for such soil, which is thus qualified to produce crops of corn for the first three or four years, after converting it into ara- ble or meadow land ; yet this ma- nure loses its ameliorating pro- perties in the course often years; [during which time the vegetable roots, according to Dundonald's Theory, might be supposed to have been dissolved] : and he never found a second liming to be pro- ductive of any beneficial effect. 5. On all other waste soils that have been over-run for ages with furze, heath, broom, fern, bushes, or wood; and which, though richly stored with vegetable food, have contracted an acidity, in conse- quence of their long rest, and the spontaneous growth of roots. On the contrary, lime is of little service on poor, light, and thin soils ; or such as are on a quarry of lime or other stone, especially after they have borne crops for a considerable number of years. Nor is it productive of any advantage on strong, stony land ; on wet,cold loams, which have not been suffi- ciently drained ; or similar clays 478 L I M that are tenacious of moisture ; but Mr. Arthur Young is of opinion, that large quantities of wt/l-drained lime, laid on very stiff clay, would be attended with a favourable effect; though he candidly adds, that it never has been tried to his satisfaction. Quick-lime is also of great utility in rending rocks and stones,wdien mixed with gun-powder in the proportion of one pound of the former, well dried and pulverized, to two pounds of the latter. This singular property of lime was dis- covered, and is related, by H. D. Griffith, Esq. in the 8th vol. of the Transactions of the Bath and West of England Society; where he states, that the mixture above specified, caused an explosion with a force equal to three pounds of gun-powder : hence, in those ope- rations, one-third of the expense may be saved. [It has been said in alate French publication, that the mixture of salt with lime for white-washing, is an Egyptian practice ; and that experiments were made at the Prytaneum in Paris, to prove the advantages derived from it. The philosophers who accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, were more observant than those who visited the United States during the Ame- rican war ; otherwise, the know- ledge of the effect of mixing salt with lime-wash, in rendering walls on which it is put, smooth and glossy, which is familiar to every notable housewife in the United States, would not have been con- cealed, until last year, from the European world.] Lime-water was formerly in great repute as a solvent of the itone, and a remedy in scrophu- lous affections. It has likewise LIM been used both externally and in- ternally for cutaneous eruptions ; though we by no means approve of its indiscriminate use, which may be attended with dangerous effects. On account of its astrin- gent properties, this preparation has also been successfully prescrib- ed in cases of diabetes, or immo- derate How of urine ; and other disorders proceeding from laxity or weakness of the solids. At pre- sent, it is chiefly used for washing foul or ill-conditioned ulcers. [Lime-water is an excellent re- medy for a broken winded horse.] Notwithstanding these useful qualities of lime, it is, if acciden- tally swallowed, or inhaled in any quantity, one of the most fatal poi- sons. Hence, persons employed in lime-works become subject to blood-spitting, asthma, painful constipations of the bowels, and consumption : their countenance turns unnaturally pale ; and, after languishing for years, these un- happy victims die in a sleepless state. Bread, adulterated with lime, absorbs all those juices of the stomach which ought to pro- mote digestion ; obstructs the ali- mentary canal ; occasions almost constant thirst; and at length pro- duces the most violent colics, fe- vers, and death. As soon, there- fore, as it may be discovered that a person has taken into the sto- mach either lime or gypsum, the first step will be to administer an emetic, consisting of \~ or two ounces of vinegar of squills, and 20 or 30 grains of ipecacuanha in powder : large drafts of sour whey should next be given, to facilitate the operation of the medicine. In order to counteract the causticity of lime in the stomach and intes- tines, it will be advisable to drink, LIM alternately, a mixture of vinegar and water, lemonade, or similar acidulated beverage, for one day ; and, on the other, to make use of mucilaginous decoctions, such as barley or rice-water, gruel, fat broths, oils, or sweet whey in which a small quantity of white soap has been dissolved ; to eat salads with a large proportion of oil and vinegar, and ripe and sub- acid fruit. To complete the cure, it will perhaps be requisite to ad- minister, according to circum- stances, emollient or laxative clys- ters. [The calcination of lime-stone by fire, is only a cheap way of re- ducing it to powder; but where lime-stone is found, and fuel is ex- pensive, the lime-stone may be powdered and spread to an excel- lent purpose, according to the ex- perience of Du HAMEL....For this purpose mills may be constructed on the principles of an ordinary mill for breaking plaster of Paris ; but burning ought always to be pre- ferred, where convenient, because it is impossible, by mechanical means, ever to reduce it to such a fine powder, as it naturally falls into after calcination. The theory of the action of lime upon soils, is by no means settled ; and until the precise circumstan- ces under which it may be ad- vantageously applied to as a ma- nure be ascertained,farmers will be at much unnecessary expense and labour, without a certainty of pro- fit. The chief theories of the principle upon which this substance acts, shall now be detailed. 1. According to Dr. Ander- i.on, lime acts, in manuring land, as a mild calcareous earth. Hence he says, the first year after it is ap- plied to the soil, its effects are in- L I M 479 considerable, in comparison of what it produces in the second and succeeding years, when it has re- absorbed its carbonic acid, which had been expelled in calcination ; and hence he deems one large liming more advantageous than smaller quantities more frequently repeated. Hence too, the utility of powdered lime-stone as a ma- nure. The mode of applying lime, agreeably to this theory, is pointed out under the artile Land. 2. The followingis lordDuNDON- ald's theory of the action of lime. " When applied to organic bo- dies, containing moistures, lime rapidly destroys their cohesion, or continuity of parts, and disengages from them inflammable air, and azotic or phlogisticated air, form- ing volatile alkali. The residuum will consist of charcoal, and of a combination of lime with the phos- phoric and other acids, forming saline matters, which are nearly insoluble....Lime is known to have a tendency lo sink below the upper surface, and to form itself into a regular stratum between the fer- tile and the unfertile mould ; this tendency, (which by the way, can- not be accounted for simply on the principle of gravity) is of great utility, as the staple or depth of the soil is always increased and ren- dered less retentive of water in proportion to the distance which the lime descends, and thus affords a greater scope for the expansion of the roots, and nouiishment of vegetables. " An application of a moderate quantity of lime, from time to time, is much to be preferred to the prevailing practice of laying it at once, and in great abundance, upon ground. Abundant dressings 480 L I M occasion a too immediate dissipa- tion, in a gaseous state, of the ve- getable matters contained in the soil, from which the succeeding crop can only be benefited by the proportion it is able to receive dur- ing the dissipating process ; abun- dant dressings, moreover, cause an action on the soil more powerful and violent, than is conducive to, or compatible with a continued state of fertility. " Lime should be considered, 1st, in a chemical ; 2d, in a medi- cinal point of view, when so ap- plied, acting as an alterative, cor- rector, and decompounder ; a dis- engager of certain parts of the ani- mal and vegetable substances con- tained in soils, and as a retainer and a combiner with others ; and it is not to be regarded by the prac- tical farmer as a substance fit for the immediate food and nourish- ment of vegetables, like dung, or decayed vegetable or animal mat- ters. For, although calcareous matter, or lime, forms a compo- nent part of vegetable and animal bodies, still the quantity that can be obtained from the annual pro- duce of most crops, from an acre of ground, will not exceed eighty pounds weight. "The effects produced on organic bodies by lime, clearly point out, that lime should never be mixed •with dung, or with any substances which of themselves or by the ap- plication of saline matters, would easily become putrid and rotten. Lime not only puts a stop to the putrefactive processjbutdisengages r.nd throws off, in a gazeous state, ;>. certain portion of the component parts of such substances; whilst, with those which remain, it forms insoluble compounds that are inca- pable of promoting vegetation, \m- LIM till they are again decomposed and brought into action by other sub- stances. In making composts, rich surface mould is, of all sub- stances, the most proper, when mixed in moderate quantities, to promote the dissolution and com- plete putrefaction of the dung..... [See article Compost.] This pro- cess would be greatly accelerated by the further addition of a due proportion of the vitriolic neutral salts."* See Treatise on the Con- nection of Agriculture and Chemis- try, Lond. 1795. On this subject, Dr. Mitchell observes, " ifcarbonate of lime [See Calcareous Earth] be thrown into a heap of manure, the fixed air will be expelled, and the septic acid take its place. Thus calca- reous nitre is formed when quick- lime is employed as a manure upon land impregnated with pu- trifying matter, provided there is more lime than the septic acid can saturate ; the surplusage may re- attract carbonic acid, if no stronger one prevent. If mild lime be added instead of quick-lime, the septic acid will, as in the former case, constitute with it calcareous nitre ; but will also cause an extrication of fixed air, which acts, when applied in a moderate quantity, both as a sti- mulant and nutritive ingredient in plants....M?d Repos. Vol. I. p. 45. Dr. Darwin supposes thatlime, and all calcareous earths, prove useful in vegetation : 1. by uniting with the carbon of the soil, or with that of vegetable or mineral re- crements during some part of the * The manufacturers of marine salt, at Barnstaple, may profit by this hint....... Editor. LIM L I M 481 process of putrefaction ; and thus rendering it soluble in water, and capable of being absorbed by ve- getables. 2. A second mode, according to Dr. D.of lime serving the purposes of vegetation, is by its union with carbonic acid, and thus rendering it soluble in water, instead of being expanded into a gas ; and thus a great quantity of carbon may be drank up by vegetable absorbent vessels. 3. Lime may promote vegeta- tion by the phosphorus it contains; lime may be thus converted into an hepar, and in this way rendered soluble in water, without its be- coming an acid by the addition of oxygen. Phosphorus is probably as necessary an ingredient in ve- getable, as in animal bodies, which appears by the phosphoric light visible on rotten wood during some stages of putrefaction, which he sup- poses to be the phosphorus set at li- berty from the calcareous earth, (in which it is known to abound) or from the fixed alkali, or the carbon of the decomposing wood, and ac- quires oxygen from the atmo- spere; and both warmth snd light are emitted during their union. 5. Lime may prove useful by destroying the cohesion of dead vegetable fibres, and thus reducing them to earth. This effect of lime must be particularly advantageous to newly inclosed commons when first broken up ; [and hence the propriety of Anderson's direc- tions, as statedinthearticleLAND.] Lime, by being mixed with clays, it is believed, will make them less cohesive, and thus admit of their being more easily penetrated by vegetable fibres. It destroys worms, snails, and all other in- sects, with which it happens to VOL. III. come in contact, and with which almost every soil abounds. This minute investigation into the theory of the action of lime, as a manure, was deemed necessary, on account of thevariety of opinions entertained on the subject by agri- cultural writers, and by prac- tical men. It is not for the Editor to decide, or to attempt to reconcile the opposite theories ; and yet a decision is necessary by every prac- tical man, before he attempts tne use of this valuable manure ; a random use of a substance which may prove useful or injurious, or perfectly inert, is very dangerous; for, in any of the above cases, a greater or less loss of money, and certainly of time, wdll be sustained. The farmer, therefore must make small experiments for himself, as a guide for future conduct in his more extensive cultivations : and, let him be persuadi d to keep minutes of these experiments, and the re- sults, and to communicate them to the public, as it is only in this way, that a decision upon the subject can be obtained, and the true mode of applying lime imder various cir- cumstances, be ascertained....For other remarks on lime, see articles Manure. Peter Lossing, of Beckman town, Duchess county, New \ oi k, has obtained a patent from the United States for an improvement in the mode of burning lime, which promises to be of great uti- lity. A kiln, containing 1500 bushels, may be completely burnt in forty-eight hours, whereas,in the old mode, at least double that time is required. The saving of wood is said to be in the proportion of one half. Persons, who wish to adopt the above mode of calcining lime-stone, are requested to :. oly 3Q 482 L I M LIM to Mr. Lossing, whose terms are moderate. LIME-GRASS, or Elymus, L. a genus of plants comprising twelve species, three of which are natives of Britain : the principal of these is the arenarius, or Upright Sea Lime-grass, which grows on the sea coast, and flowers in the months of July and August.....It is eaten by cows, horses, and goats, but refused by sheep ; Dr. Wi- thering questions whether it may not be advantageously formed into ropes, in the same manner as the Tough Feather-grass (Stipa tena- cissima, L.), is manufactured in Spain. This plant is of essential service on the coast, for preventing the encroachment of the sea, in which respect it saves millions of florins to the Dutch, who culti- vate it with great industry. Its mealy seeds and roots have, in times of scarcity, been converted into bread; and the grass itself, while young, affords proper food for cattle. LIMES, the fruit of a variety of the Gitron-tree (which see ;) grow- ing abundantly in Jamacia, and other warm climates; it is the smallest production of the kind; has scarcely any pulp ; but con- tains a very sour juice, of a yellow greenish colour. On account of its strong acid, it is by the West Indians generally used as an in- gredient in punch, though it is fre- quently productive of the most alarming colics, especially the dry belly-ache of the cure of which we have already treated under the ar- ticle Lead. The inspissated juice of limes possesses a fine flavour; but, as it is one of the most corrosive acids, which is not suffered naturally to arrive at maturity, we cannot re- commend it for its salubrity. Ne- vertheless the negroes in the West Indies employ this fruit with singu- lar success for the cure of " scor- butic swellings of the legs, and stains of the skin, merely by rub- bing, the affected legs, knee?, and hams, three or four times a day, with a fresh-cut lime." The same remedy is used in Jamacia, for mitigating those violent pains in the bones, which precede the disorder called the yaws. LIME - TREE, [Linden - tree, Black poplar or Belstead,] or Ti- lia, L. a genus of trees consisting of seven species ; the principal of which is the Europxa, Common Lime-tree, or Linden-tree, grow- ing in woods and hedges ; flower- ing in the month of July. In a rich soil, it attains a prodigious size, being sometimes twenty feet in circumference, but frequently hollow : there are instances of lime - trees having survived 800 years, in different parts of Ger- many. The linden-tree is erroneously supposed to be a native of Britain; for, according to Mr, Pennant, it was imported into England pre- viously to the year 1652. The blossoms of this tree are of a whit- ish colour, possess a fragrant smell and supply the bees with the best honey. Whether fresh or dry, they easily ferment, and Marggraf distilled from them a very fine fla- voured brandy. The wood is f-.ol'L, light, and smooth ; close-grained, and not easily subject to be infest- ed by the worm, if kept in* dry places. It is used for making lea- ther-cutters' boards, for carved work, and likewise for turnery- ware. The leaves may be dried, and preserved as winter fodder, be- ing eagerly eaten by sheep and LIM goats. Cows also relish them in the autumn, but their milk thus acquires a very unpleasant taste. Excellent ropes are made of the inner bark on the Continent, and which do not soil the linen sus- pended on them for drying: from the same substance the Russisns manufacture mats, shoes, and other rustic garments. Linden cordage is so remarkably strong and elas- tic, that in this respect it is superior to iron chains. The lime-tree is remarkable for the excrescences, or galls, which appear on the edges of its leaves during the spring : they are of an oblong irregular shape ; of a red- dish colour, and occasioned by a worm, that inhabits them while alive, and which was first discover- ed by Reamur. These animo— vegetable productions being very numerous, he was of opinion that they might be advantageously em- ployed in dyeing : and, to ascer- tain their properties, he made va- rious experiments, by rubbing the galls on linen, to which they im- parted a beautiful red colour that was not discharged, though it had been washed two or three times... Hence, it is highly probable that lime-galls may be rendered valua- ble in the art of dyeing; and a considerable expense, which is at present incurred by the importa- tion of cochineal, and similar drugs, might thus be saved. 'I'his useful tree farther contains a mucilaginous juice, which, by repeated boiling and clarification, produces a substance similar to su- gar : we conceive it may be ex- tracted from it in the manner al- ready stated under the article Birch-trek. The wood of the lime-tree, LIN 483 though affording an indifferent fuel, may be converted into excel- lent charcoal for drawing, and for the manufacture of gunpowder. From the external bark, ruger prepared a fine rose-coloured lake. Both the bark and leaves afford materials for a coarse, but smooth, brown paper, of a reddish cast: and that manufactured of the for- mer, is peculiarly well calculated for drawings. The seeds yield,on expression, a sweet and agreeable oil, similar to that which is found in ripe cocoa-nuts : and is of equal service as an ingredient in choco- late. [The wood of this tree makes durable, but light timber. It will not bear much weight. The heart of the tree will last as long as oak .in the ground. An infusion of the bark or flowers, in water, is a very useful remedy for sore eyes....... Good coarse paper has been made of the inner bark. The charcoal of this tree is highly esteemed in Europe in the manufactory of gun- powder. This fact may be of use to the inhabitants of the western parts of Pennsylvania, where the linden-tree abounds.] LINE, for angling, a series of threads, or horse-hairs, twisted to- gether, suspended on a rod, and furnished at the end with a hook for catching fish. The best material for making lines, is horse-hair, which should be uniformly twisted,as its strength will thus be considerably increased. Silk is also occasionally employed: but it is by no means equal to hair. The best colours for lines are, sorel for turbid waters, and white, or grey, for clear streams. A light green tinge may be imparted to fishing-lines, by immersing the 484 LIN hair in a liquor prepared of alum, soot, and walnut-leaves boiled to- gether. LINEN, a well known kind of cloth, made chiefly of Hemp and Flax. Having already described the different processes which these substances undergo, before they are converted into cloth, we shall at present add only such facts as may tend to render our former statement more satisfactory. After the fih.ments have been properly dressed and combed. See the arti- cle FLx. The flax is spun into the yam by the hand,in the usual man- ner : instead, however, of moist- ening the threads with spittle, or common water, we would recom- mend the mucilage prepared from the Common CoMFREY(which see) te be preferably employed. By such simple means, the saliva, so useful in the process of digestion, may not only be saved, but the yarn will be totally divested of its brittlentss, and, in other respects, considerably improved. Next, the yarn is conveyed to the loom, ■where it is woven into cloth (a process similar to that practised with wool, and described under the article Cloth, vol. ii.) ; after which it is bleached, in the man- ner stated under that head in our first volume. Linen is more difficult to be dyed of a black colour, than either wool or cotton. The black, im- parted to it by means of green vi- triol and galls, soon disappears by washing. It is, therefore, a desi- deratum of considerable import- ance, to procure such a preparation as will strike a beautiful, deep, and permanent black: for this pur- pose, we subjoin the following ac- count, by Mr. Vogler, of Weil- burg. One quart of pure, soft LIN water, is to be mixed in a large bottle, with two ounces, or two ounces and a half of common aqua- fortis ; to which a similar quantity of litharge should be gradually added : the bottle, after being slightly corked, must be kept in a warm place, and occasionally shak- en. In the course of a few days, the liquid may be poured into a deep earthen, leaden, or pewter vessel; when the linen intended to be dyed, should be well washed (though not bleached), and im- mersed in it for ten or twelve hours. It is then to be taken out, and, after being washed and rinsed three times in pure cold water, it ought to be dipped in a weak solu- tion of common glue ; again rins- sed, and then placed in the shade to dry. Three quarters of an ounce of galls, well bruised, are now to be boiled in a quart of rain, or other pure, soft water, for eight or ten minutes; when a similar quantity of common salt is to be added ; and, as soon as the latter is dis- solved, the linen should be boiled in the liquor for seven or eight mi- nutes ; then taken out, washed, wrung three times as before, and dried in the shade. By these ope- rations, the stuff will imbibe a dark grey-yellowish tine;':, that dis- poses it for the better rectption of the colour. Three quarters of an ounce of copperas, or vitriol of iron, and. a similar quantity of common salt, are now to be dissolved in a quart of pure, hot water, and the linen immersed in the liquid for eight or ten hours; when it must again be washed, rinsed, and suspended for drying in the shade. In order to strike the black co- lour, M. Vogler next directs LIN three quarters of an ounce of log- wood lo be boiled for seven or eight minutes, in somewhat more than two quarts of rain or river water, when a quarter of an ounce of white starch should be added, having previously been mixed with a small quantity of fresh water, to prevent the rising of lumps. As soon as this is perfectly dissolved, the stuff ought to be boiled in the liquor for seven or eight minutes, after which it must undergo the same treatment as has been re- peatedly specified. The linen will thus acquire a fine black tinge ; but, if the dye be not sufficiently deep, it may again be immersed in the decoction of logwood, and treated in the man- ner above stated, till the requisite shade be obtained. But as the stuff, in this state, will not admit of be- ing washed in ley, or soap-water, without losing its colour, M. Vo- gler farther directs il to be dipped in a cold solution, prepared by boil- ing an ounce of galls, well bruised, for seven or eight minutes, in a quart of the glue-water, in which an ounce of copperas should then be dissolved. After the linen has remained one hour in this liquor, it must be pressed and dried in the shade : in consequence of these processes, it will acquire a beauti- ful and permanent black colour. A durable, but expensive, purfde dye, may be communicated to li- nen, by immersing it in a solution of gold, in aqua-regia. For this purpose,the latter ought to be fully saturated with the metal, and be diluted with a triple quantity of water : if a deep colour be requir- ed, tlie piece, when dry, must be repeatedly steeped in it; and as the tinge frequently does not appear for several days, the stuff should be LIN 485 exposed to the sun or free air, and be occasionally removed to a damp place or moistened with water. Various patents have been grant- ed for different processes relative to the bleaching, Sec. of linen cloths. Several of these have al- ready been noticed under the arti- cles Bleaching, Cloth, See. we shall, therefore, mention only a few others, to render our account more complete. Among these are, 1. Mr. Ten- nant's, in 1799, for preparing the oxygenated muriates of calcareous earths, &c. in a dry form, and ap- plying them to bleaching, Sec. 2. Mr. Gillespie's, in the same year, for a new mode of printing linens, ,lli!liiillli!llllllillllill^ �2995095 LOU LOU 507 slats likewise turn on their centre; and when it is required to liftthem, a person takes hold of the handle which is fixed about the centre of the post and turns it round, the pro- jecting pieces then pass under the slats and elevate them. The an- nexed cut will give a good idea of this contrivance, which, though common in curriers' shops, and breweries, is introduced with a view of recommending them to fanners for barns and granaries.] LOUSE, in zoolog/y, a genus of insects too well known to require any description. Lice are not peculiar to man- kind, but infest quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and vegetables. Each class of animals is troubled with a parti- cular species of those vermin ; and birds are remarkably obnoxious to their attacks. There are forty dif- ferent species of lice that prey on the fluids of living animal bodies, and which are distinguished by their colour, shape, and size ; nay, even insects, such as snails, spi- ders, and bees, are not exempt from them. The human race is liable to be exclusively invaded by three dif- ferent species of lice, namely, 1. The Crab, or Body-louse, which never appears in clothes, or on the head, but harbours only in some parts of the bodies of uncleanly, or such persons as are disordered by dissipation : it is easily exterminat- ed, by applying a strong decoction of tobacco, or mercurial oint- ment. 2. The Clothes-louse is larger than the next species, and has a thick head ; it visits the skin only for imbibing the neces- sary portion of its nourishment, when it retreats to the folds and seams of clothes: these vermin may be speedily destroyed by fu- migating the articles of dress with sulphureous vapours. 3. The Head-louse frequents only that part of the body, and is so p. olofic, that each female, in the course of twelve days, deposits several bun- dred eggs, or nits, which are closely cemented to the hair, and hatched in six or seven days, by warmth and perspiration : after 3 weeks, the young brood is fit for propa- gating their species ; and as there are, perhaps, a hundred females to one male insect, their rapid in- crease may be easily conceived.... Want of cleanliness ; immoderate warmth ; violent perspiration ; and a corrupted state of the human fluids, remarkably promote their generation. Among the most sim- ple and harmless remedies for ex- tirpating these vermin, is the seed of parsley reduced to a fine powder. But, if the humours of the whole animal body are in so vitiated a state, that the blood is contami- nated by sensual excess of every kind, there arises the morbus pedi- cularis, or the most dreadful of ail diseases, in which those disgust- ing insects are bred in ulcers, and cover the whole frame, so that the ill-fated victim cannot be relieved. Some constitutions, however, are more exposed to these odious vermin than others ; and it is re- markable, that sea-faring men, per- forming voyages to the East-In- dies, though infeSted with them on leaving Europe, lose them in a certain degree of latitude during their voyage ; but, on their return, are again liable to their incursions. Beside the remedies already suggested, we shall only observe, that in cases where danger is ap- prehended from lice, it will be useful to take nourishing, succu- lent food, and lo use wholesome 508 L O Z drink. As a cure for the pedicu- lar disease, Mercurialis advises frequent purgatives ; at the same time, to anoint the parts affected with garlic and mustard ; to make use of Sidled and acid food ; to bathe, and to foment the body with a decoction of gall-nuts; but the most effectual remedies are, sul- phur and tobacco, mercurial oint- ment, black pepper and vinegar. Louse-berry. See Spindle- tree. LOUSE-WORT, or Pcdicula- ris, L. a genus of native peren- nial plants, comprising two species, viz. 1. The palustris, or Marsh Louse-wort, which grows in marshes, ditches, on moist mea- dows, and in pastures ; where it flowers in the months of June and July. This vegetable is eaten by goats, though not relished by hogs; and refused by horses, sheep, and cows ; in the latter of which, if ac- cidentally swallowed among other grasses, it occasions bloody urine. Hence this dangerous and trouble- some weed ought to be diligently eradicated. 2. The sylvatica, Common or Pasture Louse-wort, thrives on wet pastures, and heaths ; it flow- ers in June and July. This plant is refused both by cows and swine : it is particularly noxious to sheep ; which, if fed withk, will, in a short time, be covered with scabs and scurf; their wool will become loose, and be over-run with vermin : the expressed juice, or a decoction of this herb, has been advantageously applied, by way of injection, to si- nuous ulcers. LOZENGE, a form of various medicines moulded into small, fiat cakes, lo be held or chewed in the mouth, till they are dissolved. LOZ As lozenges are of considerable utility for various purposes, we shall give a few instructions for preparing them,. together with some simple recipes. First, parti- cular care ought to be taken that no decayed or impure matter be admitted into the powder ; the dry aromatics should be moistened with a little water during the pul- verization ; and those which pos- sess a greater degree of humidity, ought to be gradually dried in a gentle heat, before they are com- mitted to the; mortar. If the mass prove so viscid as to adhere to the fingers in mixing the ingredients, the hands may be rubbed with any sweet oil; or some pulverized li- quorice, starch, or flour, may be sprinkled over them during the process. As soon as the lozenges are formed, they must be placed on an inverted sieve, in a shady but airy situation, where they should be frequently turned, in order that they may be perfectly dried ; and, when all moisture is exhaled, they should be preserved in glass, or in well-glazed earthen vessels, secure from the influence of damp air. Liquorice Lozenges : Let four ounces of the extract of liquorice, (Spanish juice); a similar quanti- ty of gum-arabic, and tight ounces of double-refined sugar, be dissolv- ed in warm water, and strained ; after which the ingredients are to be evaporated to a proper consist- ence. This preparation is an agreeable pectoral, and may be used at pleasure : it is well calcu- lated to allay that tickling sensa- tion in the throat, which excites coughing. White pectoral Lozenges. Con- sist of one pound of double-refined sugar ; four ounces of gum-arabic, LUC LUC 509 and one ounce of starch : these ingredients should be finely pulve- rized, and formed into a mass of a due consistence for lozenges, which in their effects are similar to those of the preceding compo- sition. Liquorice Lozenges with Opium: ....Take two drams of pure opium, and half an ounce of tincture of Tolu: let the opium be ground with the tincture till it be perfectly dissolved, when eight ounces of common syrup, and five ounces of extract of liquorice previously soft- ened in warm water, are to be gra- dually added. While these ingre- dients are triturating, five ounces of pulverized gum arabic are, by degrees, to be sprinkled in the mixture ; and, as soon as the whole is incorporated, it may be formed into lozenges, each of which should weigh ten grains....These are very serviceable for troublesome coughs that depend on an irritation of the fauces, which they remarkably tend to relieve ; but should not be used too freely, as the large pro- portion of opium they contain, can- not fail to render the body costive. Lozenges of Magnesia....L,et four ounces of magnesia, two ounces of double-refined sugar, and one scruple of pulverized ginger, be incorporated with the mucilage of gum arabic, and worked into a pro- per form. This preparation is emi- nently useful to those who are troubled with the heart-burn ; es- pecially if that complaint depend on acidity generated in the sto- mach. LUCERN, or Medicago sativa, L. a valuable exotic plant, which sometimes grows naturally in mea- dows, pastures, and on ditch-banks; flowers in the months of June and July......It was introduced from France into Britain, about the mid- dle of the seventeenth century. Lucern thrives best in deep, rich, friable loams, whether they abound in sand or gravel ; as well as in all good dry soils, and in the coldest climate. As the luxuriance of its crops depends entirely on keeping the soil clear from weeds, this circumstance ought to be par- ticularly attended to, while the plant is young. The land ought, therefore, to be previously cleaned ; for which purpose Mr. Young re- commends two successive crops of turnips or of carrots, as the most successful mode of preparing it; but, if a fallow be found more con- venient, a man should follow the ploughs or harrows while work- ing ; collect all roots, weeds, &c. and clear away such as have taken too deep root, to be eradicated by those implements. The soil must be ploughed and harrowed three times in the second spring, pre- viously to the sowing, in order that it may be perfectly pulverized. There is no absolute necessity for manure; though, when laid on, it should be spread with the first crop of carrots or turnips. The land being thus prepared, lucern may be propagated either by sowing it broad-cast; by drill- ing ; or by transplanting it; all of which methods have been attend- ed with such success, as lo render it difficult to decide which is the most advantageous. The proper season for sowing, is towards the end of March, or in the month of April: if broad-cast, 20 lbs. of seed will be required for one acre ; if drilled, 6 lbs. will suffice, provided the seed be set in equi-distant rows of two feet; and, if the lu- cern be sown with corn, the value of the crop will be considerably in- 510 LUC LUC creased. The best grain for this purpose, in Mr. Young's opinion, is oats; six pecks of which should be sown on an acre of very rich land; but, if the soil be indifferent, two bushels are requisite ; and, if it be poor, three bushels are to be allowed to each acre. As soon as the oats arc sown and harrowed, the lucern should be deposited in the ground, and a light harrow passed over; a similar method ought to be adopted if the seed be drilled ; but, if sown in a nursery, with a view to transplantation, it should not be mixed with any corn, but committed to the ground early in the spring; after which the young plants.ought to be carefully hand-hoed, to facilitate their growth till the month of August, when they will have attained sufficient size to be removed to the field.... This operation is performed by taking up the plants with a sharp spade, during moist weather ; then cutting off the tap-roots, eight, nine, or ten inches beneath the crown of the plant; though the lateral fibres must be somewhat shortened, and the stalks clipped off about five inches above the crown. After these operations by the knife, the plants are to be thrown into a vessel of water, and placed in the shade, that they may retain their freshness. Holes are next to lie made with a dibble, and filled with ivater, in which the roots are set at the distance of 40 inches from each other, the stalks being earthed up to the height of two inches. Should a dry season suc- ceed, it will be requisite to water the plants liberally ; as they will thus not only be invigorated, but the soil will be settled around their roots. The intermediate spaces ought to be carefully cleared from weeds after every cutting : and when the plant arrives at perfec- tion, it will admit of being mowed five and even six times in one season. Lucern is of great value, and fully merits the commendations bestowed upon its culture. On rich and well-tilled soils, its growth is so rapid, that it rises to the height of eighteen inches within thirty or forty days; and its pro- duce on poor land is fully adequate to maintain three horses per acre: though, if the ground be well ma- naged, it will readily support from three to six horses. The expense of raising this plant is very consi- derable : Mr. Haute, in his Es- says on Husbandry, (8vo. 5s. 6rf. 2d edit.) estimates it, when trans- planted, at 6/. 12s. per acre for the first year ; and the cost of the Se- cond, as well as each subsequent year, during the continuance of the plant (which may be fixed upon an average at ten years,) will amount to about 21. per acre. The first use of this beneficial plant is that of soiling horses in the stable : for this purpose it is pecu- liarly advantageous ; few other ar- ticles of food agreeing so well with those animals. It is likewise emi- nently adapted to the soiling of working oxen, cows, young cattle, and even hogs in a farm-yard. In short, Mr. Young conceives lu- cern to be well calculated for fat- tening oxen, though it has never been tried with such design. Far- ther, as hogs do not bite so closely as sheep, he supposes that the for- mer might eat it with safety, and that a small field, planted with it, near the farm yard, " would be of admirable use and profit." Beside these various purposes to which lucern is subservient, it ame- LUC LUN 511 liorates the soil so that consider- able crops of corn have been ob- tained after it; nay, instances have occurred, in which a complete ploughing, that was given with a view to eradicate it for corn, has renovated this plant, to such a de- gree, that it was left again for ano- ther series of years. Those of our agricultural readers, who wish to acquire more minute information relative to the management of lu- cern, will consult Mr. Harte's classical work above mentioned, and also Mr. Rocque's Practical Treatise on cultivating Lucern Grass (8vo. Is. 6.) in which this inter- esting subject is fully discussed, while its advantages and expenses are fairly appreciated. [Under the article grass, some observations were given upon the culture of lucern, in this country, which being the result of experi- ence, deserve attention. A friend informs the editor, that he tried it many years since, near Charleston S. C. in drills, and that it succeed- ed admirably. The long continued heat enabled him to cut it five times in one season. Dr. Muhlenberg of Lancaster cultivates it, and " sows it alone, after potatoes or Indian corn, or in preference after cabbage crops, about the 2d of May ; he cuts and feeds it green," and speaks highly of it. Lucern certainly is well calculat- ed for the hot summers of the United States ; its long tap root seeking nourishment from a great depth, enables it to withstand the destructive droughts, which so fre- quently occur. The Editor saw it in July last, near Philadelphia, in a field with clover, green and fresh while the clover was nearly des- troyed, no rain having fallen for tome weeks. The seed should be fresh, and if sent for to France, (whence the British seedsmen obtain it) care should be taken to procure that of the last season.] Lumdago. See Rheumatism. Lunacv. See Madness. LUNGS, in anatomy, denote the two viscera or lobes in the cavity of the breast by which we breathe. They are connected with the neck, and situated on the right and left side of the heart. Being furnish- ed with innumerable cells, which are formed by the descent of the wind-pipe into the lungs, those bronchial tubes communicate with each other ; and the whole appears not unlike a honey-comb. The most important use ofthe lungs is that of respiration, by which the circulation of the blood is supposed to be effected; and by the consequent alternate pressure of the different parts of the lower belly, the digestion of food is pro- moted. Besides, not only the ex- pulsion of the feces and urine greatly depends on the constant action of the lungs, but likewise the sense of smelling is enjoyed by in- haling the air ; and it is chiefly by the organic structure of these ves- sels, that mankind are enabled to speak. Lastly, they perform the office of excretion, and expel those useless matters, which if retained in the system, would be produc- tive of fatal consequences. The organs ofbreathing are sub- ject to various affections, such as Asthma, Catarrh, Cough, &c. which are discussed in their alpha- betical series. Hence, we shall at present treat only of the Peripneu- monia, or Inflammation of the Lungs. This dangerous affection manifests itself by a moist ccugh, in which the o.pcctorated matter 512 LUN is frequently streaked with blood ; by an obtuse, dull pain under the breast-bone, or between the should- ers ; anxiety and difficulty of breathing; the face is swelled, and appears of a purplish hue. It chiefly attacks persons of gross ha- bits, who eat strong food, and drink viscid liquors : it is general- ly fatal to the asthmatic, especially if they be of an advanced age. Causes. An inflammation ofthe lungs is not always a primary dis- order, but mote frequently is the consequence of a quinsey, pleurisy, catarrh, and other diseases. It al- so arises from an obstructed per- spiration produced by cold ; from the wearing of wet clothes ; from too violent exercise ; fractures or other injuries of the ribs; suppres- sion of the itch, rose, and other cutaneous eruptions ; as well as from the exhalation of noxious or sulphureous particles ; and lastly, from worms. The peripneumony is divided into the sfiurious, which is occa- sioned by pituitous or viscid mat- ter obstructing the lungs; and the catarrhal, which may orginate from any of the causes already spe- cified, but more especially from a defluxion of thin acrid matter on these organs. The treatment of both, however, being similar, we shall briefly state the chief points relative to this subject. Without exception the most efficacious remedy in pulmonary imiammaiion is blood-letting, which may be performed in either arm; and the quantity of blood to be taken away must be in pro- portion to the patient's strength... Leeches may alsobe advantageous- ly applied , and, if a large portion of blood is to be drawn, it will be safer to have recourse to cupping LUN and scarification, as nearly as pos- sible to the part affected. Next to bleeding, the antiphlogistic or cooling regimen should be strictly adhered to ; the patient not be in- dulged in feather-beds, or warm couches, so long as he can support himself; and warm diluent drinks, impregnated with vegetable and nitrous acids, should be given in copious draughts. Poultices and fomentations have alsobeen applied to the painful side with considerable success; but the repeated use of blisters has been found more effectual. Much, how- ever, depends on an easy expecto- ration, for which purpose linseed- oil, or other mucilaginous demul- cents, are eminently serviceable... De Haen recommends the use of oil mixed with opium; Dr.Hamil- ton found the latter drug, when combined with calomel, to be very beneficial in this and other inflammatory diseases; and his ex- peri ence of this medicine has been amply confirmed. Among the various remedies proposed with the view to afford- ing relief in the commencement of this formidable disease, few have been more efficacious than the steam of warm water impregnated with vinegar, and copiously inhaled by means of Dr. Mudge's ma- chine, of which we have already given some account, in our 1st vo- lume. (See Inhaler)...One ofthe most powerful expectorants, howe- ver, appears to be the tartarized an- timony, given in very small or nau- seating doses. And, as inflamma- tions of this nature frequently ter- minate in what are called critical and spontaneous sweats, these ought to be cautiously promote*i, but without the aid of stimulant medicines...Lastly, the diet cannot LUN be too slender; it should, indeed consist chiefly of weak broths, slightly acidulated with the juice of oranges or of lemons ; and the patient's drink ought to be thin water-gruel, sweetened with honey, or a decoction of liquorice, the roots of fennel, and the like, in which a small portion of currant or similar jelly, may be dissolved. Inflammation of the Lungs, in Farriery, a disorder lo which horses are occasionally subject. It is indicated by the animal's rest- lessness, as he never lies down during the prevalence of this ma. lady : his fever is violent, and he breaths with difficulty. The mouth is generally open, whence a kind of ropy slime flows copiously,while a viscid reddish or yellowish water runs from his nose, and likewise adheres to the inside of his nostrils. The first remedy in this com- plaint is bleeding : three English quarts of blood should be taken from the animal, on the first day ; and four pints, on the succeeding morning. If the unfavourable symp- toms do not abate, it will be ne- cessary to draw blood repeatedly, one quart at a time ; but, if the creature be old and weak, the bleed- ings ought to be sparing in quan- tity, and more frequently repeated. Next, some sweet hay and bran should be cut very small, scalded together, and placed in the man- ger, in order that the fumes may be inhaled. Mr. Taplin directs this internal fomentation to be at- tended to every fourth or fifth hour, and the following decoction to be immediately administered.... Let six ounces of pearl-barley, a similar quantity of split raisins and Turkey figs cut in slices, and two ounces of bruised stick liquorice, be boiled in a gallon of water, till VOL. III. LUN 513 the liquid be reduced to three quarts. It is then to be strained, and a pound of honey added, while it is hot; and, as soon as it is cold, a pint of distilled vinegar. Of this decoction he prescribes one pint to be given, with the addition of an ounce of nitre, every fourth, fifth, or sixth hour, according to the greater or less urgency of the symptoms. Should the disease progressively become more obstinate, and the animal be costive, a clyster ought to be given ; consisting of two quarts of common gruel,six ounces of coarse sugar, four ounces of Glauber's salt, two ounces of tinc- ture of jalap, and a quarter of a pint of olive-oil. The injection is to be repeated once in twenty-four hours, or oftener, if necessary. But, if the virulence of the disorder abate in consequence of these appplica- tions, the subsequent treatment may be similar to that stated in p. 256 of our second volume : be- side which, one of the following balls may be administered every morning, for a fortnight :....Take Castile soap, six ounces ; gum am- moniac, two ounces ; anise seeds and cummin seeds, of each four ounces, in powder. These ingre- dients are to be incorporated with a sufficient quantity of honey to form a mass, which should be di- vided into twelve balls. The horse's diet, during the progress of the disease, ought to consist of warm mashes of scalded bran, sweetened with four ounces of ho- ney ; while his common drink may be thin gruel, in each draught of which two ounces of cream of tar- tar should be dissolved. These pre- parations, however, may be gradu-. ally relinquished, as the animal re- covers ; and the mode of treatment 3 U 514 LU? be varied as circumstances may re- quire. LUNGWORT, or Pulmonaria, L. a genus of perennial plants, comprising six species; three of which are natives of Britain : the principal of these is the officinalis. Common Lungwort, spotted Lung- wort, Cowslips of Jerusalem, or Broad-leaved Lungwort; growing in woods, and flowering in the months of April and May. This species is eaten by sheep and goats, but is not relished by cows, and totally refused by horses and hogs. It is cultivated in gardens, on ac- count of its leaves, which, in a fresh slate, possess a slightly as- tringent and mucilaginous taste. They are recommended in tickling coughs, pulmonary consumption, Sec. but are more useful as a culi- nary vegetable, and as salad, espe- cially in early spring. When burnt, the common lung- wort affords a larger proportion of ashes than almost any other plant; the produce, in general, amounting to one-seventh part of its weight. LUPINE, or Lupinus, L. a ge- nus of exotic plants comprising nine species, most of which are cultivated in gardens, on account of their beautiful flowers: they are raised from seed, which may be sown in any open borders, where they thrive, and present a pleasing variety. The seeds of the White-Lu- pine (Lupinus albus) haveale- guminous,though disagreeably bit- ter taste, and are said to be vermi- fuge ; both when taken internally, and applied externally. Some au- thors, however, suppose them to be of a poisonous nature ; yet such seeds were much used by the Greeks as an article of food, and have been recommended by Ga- lut len as affording wholesome ali- ment. In the Transactions of the Patriotic Society of Milan (vol. ii. p. 243, Ital. edit.) there is an ac- count of the manner in which this plant may be converted into cord- age or ropes, and likewise into paper.....Bechstein says, that its flowers furnish the bees with abun- dance of honey. LUTE, a composition of certain viscid or tenacious matters, which becomes solid, when dry ; and which, on being applied to the junc- tures of vessels, closes them so ef- fectually as to prevent the admis- sion or egress of air. Though lute is chiefly used by chemists, it also comprehends any species of cement, applied to ves- sels, or furnaces, which are ex- posed to an ardent heat. It is va- riously prepared of rye-flour and water; quick-lime and the whites of eggs ; iron-filings, brick-dust, and linseed oil ; potters earth, ri- ver-sand, horse-dung, pulverized glass, or flocks of wool mixed with salt-water or bullocks blood. The best lute, however, and which is most easily procured in London, is Windsor-loam : it should be mode- rately stiff, so that, when moisten- ed with water, it may be pressed into the side, or crevices of the furnace, &c. As soon as the clay begins to dry, it must be beaten closely down to the sides, and the fissures repeatedly filled up, till the whole be perfectly closed. The late Dr. Black recommend- ed a simple mixture of sand and clay, as preferable to any other composition. The proportions for resisting the violence of fire are, four parts of sand to one of clay ; but, if the lute be intended for lin- ing or coating fu.naces, he directs six parts of sand to be taken to one LUX ofclay in order that the contraction ofthe latter may be effectually pre- vented. This compound is to be applied in a manner similar to that above stated, but it must be allow- ed to dry for a considerable time; after which a fire may be kindled, and the furnace gradually heated for one or iwo days. The heat should then be raised to the high- est degree of intensity, by which the lutting will acquire the hard- ness of free-stone, and afterwards be as durable as any other part of the furnace. [See Cement.] LUXATION, signifies the dis- location of any bone ont of its na- tural articulation, so as to impede or destroy its proper motion. The general symptoms of this com- plaint are, inability to move the in- jured limb; pain; tension; and de- formity of the part affected : it is also frequently attended with in- flammation and fever. In the treatment of simple luxa- tions, if the contiguous skin and muscles be much inflamed, leeches ought first to be applied, and the dislocated limb kept in the most easy posture, before the reduction of the bone can be attempted; be- cause the stretching of a limb, while the surrounding muscles are in a state of inflammation, may prove highly injurious: the upper part should likewise be held steady, while the surgeon is replacing the bone. And, as the contractile power of the muscles frequently resists every mechanical effort, they ought to be previously relaxed by emollient poultices or fomenta- tions, in consequence of which the bone may be easily replaced. After the operation* the limb must be kept in a relaxed state, and the bone supported with a bandage, till the parts have recov- LUX 515 ered their proper energy ; but where any visible inflammation re- mains, it will again be requisite to apply leeches. If dislocation be accompanied with a fracture near the joint, such injury must be allowed to heal previously to reducing the bone.... Where, however, any tumour or collection of mutter near the joint is the cause of luxation, this affec- tion may be considered as incura- ble ; but, if it proceed from too great relaxation of the ligaments, or tendons of the joint, the com- plaint has frequently, though gra- dually, been removed by support- ing the limb with a proper band- age ; by the use of the cold bath, and by electricity.......During the whole period, between the setting, and healing of a luxated bone, the patient must preserve the disor- dered part in a state of rest; sub- sist on mild but nutritious aliment; and carefully avoid the influence of the depressing passions. LUXURY denotes voluptuous- ness, or an extravagant indulgence in whatever pleases the senses, such as the articles of food, dress, and equipage. The utility or detriment of luxu- ry to a State, is a subject on which great difference of opinion prevails among political writers. Nor is it easily decided, whether this pre- dominant feature in mankind im.v with mone propriety be called the oii'sjM^of vice or folly f but luxu- ry doeWRfess increases in proportion to the influx of trade; and, though it may by prescription be justifia- ble at court, in public officers, or on particular occasions, yet in private individuals it will ever remain : n object of just reproach. For, by increasing the expenses of a fami- ly, it presents-fin insupeiable bar to 516 LUX LUX matrimonial establishments, and thus contributes to the depopulation of a country. Farther, it impairs the health and ruins the constitu- tion of its votaries; and as the opu- lent leave their rural seats, in order to reside in cities, such change is attended with many bad conse- quences to themselves, as well as to their numerous domestics. Thus, the country is in a manner desert- ed ; and thence we may account for the long train of evils arising from the indolence and libertinism of a city-life. One of the most pernicious con- sequences resulting from the rapid progress of luxury, is the high price of provisions, which is, in a great measure, occasioned by the keeping of useless servants, as well as of unnecessary horses: these partly consume, and partly waste such a portion of food as might be more beneficially employed in the sup- port of the industrious poor. Last- ly, though luxury be the attendant on wealth ; though it encourage arts, manufactures, agriculture, and commerce ; and, when its preva- lence does not corrupt the morals of a people, becomes a national benefit, by diffusing riches among all ranks, and enabling the poor to pay the most exorbitant prices of provisions; yet we presume to say, that the greatest benefit would re- sult from the observance of sump- tuary laws, which should limit the expenses of individuals from ex- ceeding a certain point; because that money, which is at present spent in the purchase of articles not strictly necessary to domestic life, might thus be diverted into its proper channel, and be more gene- rally circulated throughout the country. END OF VOLUME THIRD. PRINTED BY ROBERT CARU, NO. 10, CHURCH-STREET. t Vi The Domestic Encyclopaedia. Volumes 2-5. Willich, A.F.MX^ Philadelphia: William Young Birch..., 1804. 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