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NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
             Washington
Founded 1836
U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
             Public Health Service 
 
 
THE
 DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA;

                       OR,

       A DICTIONARY OF  FACTS,

            AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

                   COMPREHENDING

A CONCISE VIEW OF THE LATEST DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS,
               AND IMPROVEMENTS,

  CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.

                   TOGETHER WITH
 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ART?
    THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR
     DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND
       MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL.

   ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND CUTS.


               IN FIVE VOLUMES.


                     VOLUME I.
         BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D.
   AUTHOR OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, lAc. &C.


    FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS,
APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE UNITED STATES:

            BY JAMES MEASE, M. D.
  ' AMD FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
PHILADELPHIA
I'UBLISIIF.D BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, A!JD ABRAHAM SMALL,

          NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET.

               ROBERT CARR, PRINTER.


                     1804. 
 
  ^
*?
u
             District of Pennsylvania: to wit.
             Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty-
Q^-       seventh Year of the Independence of the United States of America,
«-       William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have
          deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they
          claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit:
          " The Domestic Encyclopaedia ;  or, A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful
             " Knowledge.  Comprehending, a concise  View of the latest Dis-
             " coveries, Inventions, and  Improvements; chiefly  applicable to
             " Rural and Domestic Economy. Together with Descriptions of the
             " most interesting Objects of Nature and Art;  the History of Men
             " and Animals, in a State of Health or Disease; and practical
             " Hints respecting the  Arts  and Manufactures, both familiar  and
             " commercial.   Illustrated with numerous Engravings and  Cuts.
             " In  Five  Volumes.  Volume I.  By A. F. M.  Willich, M. D.
             " Author of the  Lectures  on Diet  and Regimen, isrc isfc.  First
             " American Edition ; with Additions applicable to the present situa-
             " tion of the United States. By James Mease, M.  D. and Fellow of
             " the American Philosophical Society."
          In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled,
          "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of
          Maps, Charts,  and  Books, to the Authors and Proprietors  of such
          Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act, enti-
          tuled, " An Act supplementary to an Act,  entituled,  an Act  for  the
          Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts,
          and Books, to the Authors and  Proprietors of such Copies, during  the
          Times therein mentioned.  And extending the Benefits thereof to  the
          Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other Prints."
                ( L. S. )                D. CALDWELL,
                                  Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania.
•n
»A 
 
PREFACE, BY  THE AUTHOR,
      AS the nature and  practical tendency of the
Domestic  Encyclopedia have,  in some measure,
been anticipated, partly in the prefixed Title-page, a
few  remarks on the origin and composition of this
Work, will  suffice to convince the Reader, that it has
not been undertaken with a view merely to increase
the number of voluminous works already extant, and
of a similar complexion.
    It has been generally supposed, that the rapid suc-
cession of Cyclopaedias, and  Encyclopaedias, which
have appeared within the last twenty years, and which
often are more  distinguished by their alluring title-
pages, than by their intrinsic merit, affords so many
proofs of the progress of Science and Literature, as
well as of the increasing spirit of inquiry. This con-
jecture,  however, is extremely doubtful, if not totally
unfounded.
    When it is considered, that the Editors of these
bulky Compilations have directed their chief attention
to the quantity of materials, rather than to a critical se-
lection of facts; that,with a few exceptions, such works
have been conducted by persons better qualified to su-
perintend a printing-office, or a bookseller's shop, than
to arrange or explain the immense circle of the Sci-
ences ;  and that the auri sacra fames has almost uni-
formly been the principal object of these Speculators,
it will then be readily allowed, that their productions
afford only  negative advantages to the social world, 
VI.
PREFACE.
    Farther, the plurality of readers have conceived an
 opinion, that, by the possession of an Encyclopaedia,
 or what is pre-eminently termed,  " A Dictionary of
 the Arts  and  Sciences,"  their library, however defi-
 cient at length becomes complete.  But those who are
 only, in a slight degree, acquainted with the gradual,
 though daily, advancement both of the abstruse and
 practical Sciences,  will not be disposed to harbour a
 notion alike contracted, and fraught with consequences
 highly detrimental to the acquisition of knowledge.
 Nay, it may with equal truth be asserted, that the ear-
 lier impressions of books, which  have progressively
 received additions and improvements, will answer the
 purpose  as  well as the latest publications ; because
 they are comparatively cheaper, and fill a similar space
 on the shelves.....Such arguments may satisfy the An-
 tiquarian Collector, but they are inconsistent with the
 conviction of intelligent minds.
    On the other hand it cannot be  denied, that many
 attempts have been made  to supply the Public with
 works professedly commenced on a more economical
 plan ; by abridging the labours of others.   Without
 presuming to decide on their merits, we shall quote a
 passage occurring in the Preface to the illustrious
 Joh nsox's Dictionary, when he compressed his bulky
 XXiios, or quartos, into an octavo form....." For these
 purposes (says that  energetic writer), many dictiona-
 ries have been written by different authors, and with
 different degrees of  skill;  but none of them have yet
 fallen into my hands, by which even the lowest ex-
pectations could be  satisfied.   Some of their authors
 wanted industry, and others literature :  some knew
not their own defects, and others were too idle to sup,
ply them." 
PREFACE.
vii.
   In  regard to the composition,  and arrangement of
the Domestic  Encyclopedia, many circumstan-
ces might be pleaded, by way of apology, for occasi-
onal  inaccuracies and omissions ; but in a work, con-
sisting chiefly of practical information, and containing
perhaps, a greater number of useful facts  than have
ever appeared in the compass of four moderate volumes
it is  to be hoped, the discreet reader will naturally be
inclined to qualify his  strictures, by a large share of
candour and impartiality.   Conformably to his origi-
nal plan, the Editor has spared no pains, trouble, or
expense, to render this Economical Dictionary as com-
plete as the present advancement of Agriculture,
Gardening, of  the Familiar Arts and Manufactures,
as well as the  imperfect state of  Medical Science,
would respectively admit.  Many subjects, indeed,
might have been extended to greater length, and others
considerably abridged, had these volumes been pecu-
liarly calculated for the use of either town or country
readers.  Such, however, was not his design;  as the
Work now submitted to the Public, includes almost
every object, more or less connected with Rural, Do-
mestic, and Animal,  Economy.  Hence, the inquisi-
tive  Reader will find  numerous  experiments related,
many hundreds of which have not hitherto been pub-
lished in the English language.
   To facilitate the mode of consulting this Work,
a Table of Contents, and an Index to the correspond-
ing  Synonyms, or inversions of terms, have been pre-
fixed to each volume ; though a few provincial or ver-
nacular names,  which are now obsolete, have purposely
been omitted,  in order to avoid unnecessary repeti-
tion. 
viii.              PREFACE.

    It will not, however, be expected that the Editor
should be responsible for the accuracy of the result
of those Experiments, which he has faithfully reported
on  the  authority of others, whose names have been
quoted on almost every occasion;  but, in various in-
stances  where  no vouchers have  been adduced,  the
facts are either self-evident, or the account of the sub-
ject is given with a degree of diffidence, to induce at-
tentive readers to farther investigation.
    Although the Editor has, in the commencement of
this arduous task, inserted the Latin names of subjects
in alphabetical order, and referred thence to the appro-
priate English terms ; yet, as such a troublesome me-
thod promised no real  advantage,  he was induced to
relinquish it,  and to subjoin to  the Fifth Volume  a
complete Index to the Latin Names of Plants, Animals,
Minerals, Diseases, and other subjects occurring through-
out  this  Work.
    Lastly,  as numerous useful  and valuable sugges-
tions, connected with particular subjects, are scattered
in different  parts of this alphabetical  Manual, it has
been deemed  expedient to conclude  with a General
Index of Reference, both for Economical and Medical
purposes;  which is  accordingly subjoined to the Vth
Volume: thus, the reader will be enabled to find, at
one view,  whatever relates to the article under con-
sideration ; an advantage which few works of a similar
nature afford, and which cannot fail to be attended with
good effects.

" Ne tabulis  Is? picturis domum tuam circumda, sed temfierantiam
  ipsam depinge.   Illud enim alienum est, et oculorum modg jucunda
  prestigiatio: hoc vero indelibilis, xternusque domui  ornatus existit." 
PREFACE
BY  THE  EDITOR.
          IN presenting to the public, the First American Edition
of the  Domestic Encyclopaedia, the Editor has great pleasure in
thinking, that it will diffuse a large portion of highly useful informa-
tion among his fellow-citizens. In the impressive language of Lord
Bacon, the subjects treated of in the work,  " come home to every
" man's business and bosom;" and it will, no doubt, meet with a
reception justly proportioned to its extensive utility.

   The original work contained a variety of articles relating to the
local  customs,  laws,  police-regulations, mineral waters, l3"c. of
England, from  which the people of this country could derive no
practical or useful information ; all these have been omitted in the
present edition, and other matter substituted, which it is hoped will
be found nearly connected with the intercuts, or domestic comforts
of the citizens of the United States.

   Consistently with the original design of the author, the  Editor
endeavouring to keep in view the practical tendency of the work,
has avoided all  theoretical discussions, except when they appeared
necessary to place facts in such a light as  would tend to point out
relations and connections that might otherwise have escaped notice;
and thus as Dr. Anderson justly observes " by forming habits of
attention, call forth the discriminative powers, en the due exercise
of which all true knowledge must ultimately depend."

   It has been a principal object to direct the attention of the reader
to the native resources of our country, whether they refer to medi-
cine, the arts, or to the general purposes of life; that by employing
them we may become less dependant on foreign nations.

   In one respect the original arrangement of the author has  been
partially departed from.   Dr. Willich treats of plants under their
   vol.  i.                   A 
X
PREFACE.
trivial names, referring to the Botanical names; and as whim, or
false jud0ment give rise to the former, which are not only various
in different countries, but in different parts of the same country,
it was thought better in all the additional articles to give the Latin
name first, referring to the numerous trivial ones.  If this plan were
generally adopted, an universal language might soon take place, and
much confusion and embarrassment be avoided. The common objec-
tion to this plan, that it is difficult for those who are unacquainted
with the Latin language, to remember the names imposed by Botan-
ists, will be found unimportant, when we advert to the ease  with
which many of those  names are remembered by persons who are
entirely ignorant of the language.  Thus Anemone, Ranunculus,
Convolvulus, Daphne, Indicum,iSfc. are common, and others surely
may be remembered with  as much ease as the absurd trivial names
which are at present used. The " Sweet flag" of England is univer-
sally known in Pennsylvania, by its proper name Calamus : indeed
it only requires a little trouble by learning the botanical names at
first, to render them as familiar as the common appellations. 
CONTENTS
OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
	PAGE		page
ABDOMEN	1	Allspice	34
Ablution	3	Almanack	35
Abortion	4	Almond ...	ib.
Abraum	(i	Aims-Houses	36
Abridgement	ib.	Aloe	37
Abscess	7	Alum	39
Abstinence -	8	Amber	41
Acacia	9	Ambergrise	42
Acids,	11	Ambury	43
Acorns	12	Ammonia	ib.
Acre - -	14	Ammoniac	45
Actea Spicata	ib.	Amphibious Animals	ib.
Acute Diseases	ib.	Amputation	48
Adder - - -	15	Amusements	ib.
Adulteration	ib.	Anagallis Arvensis	49
Advertisement	ib.	Anchovy	50
^ther	16	Ancient Languages	51
Affliction	ib.	Ancient Learning	ib.
Agaric	17	Ancient Times	52
Age	ib.	Andromeda	ib.
Agitation	ib.	Anemometer	53
Agony	18	Anemone	ib.
Agriculture	ib.	Anemoscope (with a Cut)	56
Agrimony, Common	20	Aneurism	57
Ague	21	Angelica,	58
Air	23	Anger	59
Air-Bath	25	Angling	60
Air-Jacket	26	Animalcule	61
Alabaster	ib.	Animal Flower	62
Alarum	27	Animal Food	ib.
Albumen	ib.	Animal Kingdom	63
Alcarrazas -	28	Animal Life	64
Alchemy	ib.	Animal Magnetism	65
Alcohol	29	Animal Motion	ib.
Alder-tree	ib.	Animal Economy	66
Ale	30	Animal Spirits	ib.
Ale-House	31	Animation	ib.
Aliment	ib.	Anis - - -	68
Alkalies	32	Annealing	70
Alkanet	33	Annuity	ib.
All-Heal	34	Anodyne	72
 
xii.
CONTENTS.
	PAGE
Anotta ...	77
Ant --.	ib.
Ant-Hillf	79
Axthsax	80
Antidotes v	ib.
Antimony	82
Antipathy	84
Antiquities	85
Antiscorbutics	86
Antiseptics	ib.
Antispasmodics	87
Anxiety	ib.
Ape	88
Aperients	ib.
Aphoi-i:,;ra	89
Ap:.<plcxy	ib.
Appetite	91
Apple-tree	93
Application - - ' -	102
Apprenticeship	ib.
Apricot-Tree	ib.
A. ua-Forcis	105
Aqua Regia	106
Arable Lands	ib.
Aralia	108
Archery -	ib.
Architecture	109
Argument	111
Arithmetic	112
Aromatic	113
Arquebusade-Water	ib.
Arrack	114
Arrangement y-	115
Arrow	ib.
Arrow-Grass	ib.
Arrow-Head	ib.
Arrow-Root	116
Arsenic ...	117
Art	123
Artemesia Dracuncul'us	124
Artery ...	ib.
Artichoke	126
Artich ke, the Jerusalem	ib.
Articulation	127
Artificer	128
Artist	ib.
Arvenusly (with a Cut)	ib.
Asafetida	129
Asarabixca	130
Ascarides - • -'	131
Ash	132
Ashes -	135
Asparagus	138^
Asphcdel	141
Ass	142 1
Assembly	y>.
	PAGE
Assimilation	143
Asthma -	ib.
Astringents	146
Astrology	147
Astron'miy	ib.
Atamasco Lily	148
Athletic Habit	149
Atmosphere	ib.
Auction -	150
Autumn	ib.
Avarice	151
Avens	152
Aya pana	153
Avoirdupois	ib.
Baccharis Halimifolia	154
Bachelor	ib.
Bacon -	155
Badger -	156
Bag, in Commerce	157
Bag, in farriery	ib.
Bagnio	ib.
Eaiting	158
Baker -	ib.
Baking	ib.
Balance	160
Baldness	164
Ball	165
Balls	ib.
Horse Balls -	ib.
Portable Balls	ib.
Balm, Common	166
Balsam - _	ib.
Balsamics	ib.
Balsamine	167
Bamboe Habit	ib.
Bandage	ib.
Bandy-legs	ib.
Bane-berries	168
Bank	ib.
Bank-fence	169
Banks of R ivers	ib.
Banks of the Sea	171
Barbel	ib.
Barbies, or Barbs	172
Barilla	173
Baring of Trees	175
Bark	ib.
Barley	177
Barn - „	184
Barn-floors	186
Bare meter	188
Barrel	195
Barrenness	ib.
Basaitcs	196
Basilicon Ointment.	ib.
 
CONTENTS.
xm.
                            PAGE
Basket       -        -      197
Basket-salt      -        -    ib.
Bat          -       -        ib.
Bath                   -     193
Bathing, m general           207
Baths, Dry        -      -    ib.
Baths, Medicated,      -      209
Bath-Waters        -        210
Bay-salt      -               211
Bay-tree        -       -      212
Bean               -         213
Bean,the Kidney        -    217
Bear               -          218
Beauty         -      -     619
Beaver    -         -        221
Bed          -         -      222
Bed-room        -       -   223
Bed-stead      -     -        ib.
Bed-time           -    -     225
Bee      -     -             ib.
Bee-hives     -              226
Bees-wax       -     -      243
Beech-tree    ...   246
Beech-nut       -      -      247
Beech-mast Oil     -      -   248
Beef           -      -      ib.
Beef-tea      -       -        251
Beer      -      -      -    252
Beestings    -       -        258
Beet            -      -      ib.
Beetle      -      -      -   261
Belles Lettres        -       262
Bell-flower       -     -      ib.
Bellows      -      -  -      263
Belly -ach       -      -      ib.
Bene-seed    -            -   264
Bent-grass        -    -       ib.
Benzoine     -      -          ib.
Berberries      -       -      266
Bere       -      -       -   267
Bergamot      -      -      268
Berne-machine    -      -    ib.
Betony-Wood         -       269
Bezoar       -        -      ib.
Biennial Plants      -        270
Bilberry        -         -   271
Bile        -        -        ib.
l!ind-weed      -        -     273
Biography         -        -    ib.
Birch-tree     -        -       274
Bird        -     -      -     276
Kird-lime      -      -      278
Bird-cherry   .   -      -   2iA
Birds-foot, Common    -       ib.
Birth wort,  Slender       -   2b L
Biscuit              -         ib.
 Bismuth    ■•
\ Bistort
 Bite of a Mad Dog
I Bitter
 Bitumens
 Black
 Black-bird
 Black-bird (Red winced)
 Black Cattle              .
 Black Canker
 Black Fly
: Black Land
 Black Leather
 Black Legs
 Black Tin
 Black Wadd
 Blackberry
 Blacking
 Bladder
 Bladder-nut Tree
 Blain          *  .
 Blanching      _
 Blanket
 Blast
 Bleaching    ...
 Bleak
 Bleeding
 Blend-water
 Blight
 Blindness (with a Cut)
 Blindworm
 Blister
 Blite     -      -
 Blood
 Blood-hound
 Blood-shot Eyes
 Blood-spavin
 Blood-Stone
 Blood-letting
 Blood-vessels
 Blood-wort    -
 Blossom    ...
 Blow-pipe
 Blowing
 Blubber      -
 Blue
 Blue bird    -      -
 Blue Bottle
 Blueing
 Board    -
 Boat
 t;oat (Life)
 Boat (Ice)
 Body
 B.^>;
 Bohea
 page.
   283
   284
   285
   289
   290
   291
   292
    ib.
    ib.
   293
    ib.
    ib.
    ib.
    ib.
   294
    ib.
    ib.
   295
    ib.
   296
   297
    ib.
    ib.
    ib.
    ib.
    ib.
   305
-  306
    ib.
-  309
   312
    ib.
   314
    ib.
   316
    ib.
■   317
    ib.
    ib.
   319
    ib.
   320
    ib.
    ib.
   321
    ib.
   322
    ib.
    ib.
   323
 -   ib.
   324
   327
   328
   329
    ib. 
XIV.
CONTENTS.
Eoilers
Boi;ing
Boles
Bombast
Bones
Bone-spavin
Book
Book-Keeping
Boorcole
Boot
Borage
Borax
Botany
Bottle
Bottling
Botts
Bounty
Bow
Bowels
Box-tree
Boxing
Braces
Brain
Brake
Bramble
Bran
Brandy
Brass
Brawn
Bread
Bread-fruit Tree
Bream
Breast
Breach
Breathing
Breeches
Breeding of Cattle
...............of Fish
...........Good
Brewing
Briar
Brick
Bridge
Brine
Bristol, mineral wj
Broad-cast Husbandry-
Broccoli
Brome-grass
Bronze
Brook
Brook-lime
Broom
Broth
Bruises
Brush
PAGE		page
329	Brute	416
nor) 00.6	Bryony, the White	417
ib.	..........the Black	418
ib.	Buck-bean	419
ib.	Buck-thorn	ib.
336	Puck-thorn, the Sea	421
337	B'-ck-wheat	ib.
339	tiucking	425
342	Buckram	ib.
ib.	Bud	426
343	Buffalo	427
ib.	Bug	ib.
344	Bugle	428
346	Building	ib.
ib.	Bulb	455
ib.	Buifinch	437
348	Bull	ib.
ib.	Bullrush	440
349	Burdens	ib.
351	burdock, or Clott-burr	ib.
ib.	Burdock, the Lesser	441
352	Burgoo	ib.
ib.	Burial	ib.
354	Burnet	442
ib.	Burning	446
ib.	Burns	448
355	Burnt Grain	ib.
356	Bur-weed	ib.
358	Burying-Ground	449
ib.	Bush-vetch	450
376	Bushel	ib.
ib.	Bustard	451
377	Butcher	452
378	Butter	ib.
379	Butter-burr	462
380	! 'utter-cup	ib.
ib.	Butterfly	463
382	Butterwort	ib.
ib.	Buxton Waters	464
383	Buzzard	465
396	Cabbage	466
ib.	Cabbage, the Anjou	473
402	Cabbage-palm	ib.
405	Cabbage-tree	474
406	Cage	475
407	Cajeuut	ib.
408	Cake	476
409	Calamine	ib.
410	Calamint	ib.
ib.	Calandre	ib-
ib.	Calcareous Matter	477
411	Calcination	ib.
412	Calculary	478
413	Calender	ib.
415	Calf	479
 
CONTENTS.
xv.
	PAGE	PAGE
CALLICARPA AMERICANA	482 ; Cancer	492
Calico	ib. Candle	495
Calkins -	ib. Canker -	498
Calycanthus floridus	ib. 1 Canker Worm	499
Calx -	483 \ Caoutchouc	502
Camblet	ib. i Caper ...	503
Cambric ...	ib. 1 Capillaire	504
Camphor	ib. J Caraway	ib.
Canada Balsam	485 j Cardamom	505
Canal ...	ib. ' Canine	ib.
Canary Bird	486 Carmine	506
Canary Grass	492 1 Carnivorous Animals.	ib.
%* Additions by the Editor are enclosed in Crotchets.
     PLATES IN  THE FIRST  VOLUME.  ,

I.  Mr. Dearborn's Improved Balance, p. 161.
II. and III. Floating Baths at Hamburgh....Plate II.  p. 202.
    Plate III. p. 204.
IV. 3edsteads for the  Sick  and Wounded, invented  by Mr.
    Lambert, p. 224.
V.  Ice-boats, newly invented by  Mr. Thomas Ritzier of Ham-
    burgh,  p. 327.
VI. View of the Inside of a Brew-house, p. 388. 
INDEX
TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNONYMS, OR  INVERSIONS OF  TERMS,

              OCCURRING IN THE FIRST  VOLUME.
  Abele-tree;   see  Poplar,   the
White.                          i
  Acetite of Copper ;  see Verdi- '
grease.
  Agio;  ?ee Bank.               I
  Argentine, the  Common;   see
Thistle the Cotton.
.  Agriculture;  see Husbandry.
  Ale-hoof; see Ground-Ivy.
  Almond-leaved   Willow ;   see
Willow.
  Alpine Bistort;  see  Bistort the
Small.
  Apoplexy,  in  Farriery ;   see
Staggers.
  Apple-Quince;  see Quince.
  ........Rose;  see Rose.
  ........tree. Coccus;  see Coccus.
  Arbutus, the  Black-berried Al-
pine ; see. Strawberry-tree.
  Arcell; see Liverwort, the Dark-
coloured.
  Archangel, the  Red; see Dead-
nettle.
  Archairrcl, the White; see Dead-
nettle.
  Argil; see Orchal.
  Arrow-grass; see Barilla.
  Ash-weed; see  Goutweed.
  Asp;  see poplar.
  Asthma, in Farriery; see Cough.
  Balass; see Ruby.
  Balm of Gilead  ; see Gilead.
  Balsam  of Copaiba;  see   Co-
paiba.
  Balsamine-sage ; see Sage.
  Bank-cresses; see  Mustard, the
Common Hedge.
  Banstickle ; see Stickleback, the
Common.
  Bar lev-big; see Bere.
  Bastard-cress ;  see  Mithridate-
mustard.
  Bastard  Saffron;  see  Safflow-
er.
  Bath-cheese; see Cheese.
  ry-ach-sumach; see sumach, the
Narrow-leaved.
  Bear-berries, or Bear-whortle-
berries;  see Strawberry-tree.
  Beetle; see Chafer.
  Bidet; see WTater-closet.
  Bird-grass ; see Meadow-grass,
the Roughish
  Birds-foot  Trefoil; see Trefoil,
the Common-Bird's-foot.
  Bites of Dogs ; see Dog.
  Bitter-apple; see Cucumber.
  Blackberry-bearing Alder;  see
Alder  Buckthorn.
  Black-tegs ; see Quarter-Evil.
  Black-th*rn; see Sloe-tree.
  Bladder,  in Horses;  see Dia-
betes and Stranguary.
  Blader Campion; see  Spatling
Poppy.
  Bladder-locks;  see  Sea-wrack,
the Esculent.
  Blessed-thistle; see Thistle.
  Blowing of Fish ; see Fi:-.h.
  Blue Hawk ; see Hen-hairier.
  Blue Ink  ; see Ink.
  Branks;  see Buck-wheat.
  Breeze;  see Gad-fly.
  Brimstone ; see Sulphur.
  British  Viper;  see Viper, the
Common.
  Broken-Wind;  see Wind.
  Bruise wort; see  Soap wort, the
Common.
  Brussels-Carpet; see Carpet.
  Buck; see  Deer.
  Bucket ;  see Well.
  Bugloss,  the Greater  Gaiftlen;
see Alkanet.
  Bulbous  Crow-foot; see  Crow-
foot.
  Bullace-plum ; see Plum-tree.
  Bunt; see  Puff-ball, the Com-
mon.
  Burn-baiting;  see  Burning  of
Land.
  Burnet-rose; see Rose.
  Bur-reed ;  see Bur-weed ;
  Cabbage-lettuce ; see Lettuce.
  Cacoa-tree ; see Chocolate-tree.
  Calabash;  see G urd.
  Calaguala ; see C^ugh.
  Cam-ho-tea; see Tea-tree.
  Canal-coal; see Coal.
  Carolina-poplar; see Poplar.
  Caroline-thistle;  see Carline. 
DOMESTIC
            ABD

   ABDOMEN, or the lower belly,
is one of the  most important re-
gions of the human body, not only
on account of its various contents,
but also from its exposed situation.
   Although, to give a strictly ana-
tomical description of the different
parts composing the admirable fa-
bric of the animal frame, is not con-
sistent with the plan of this work,
yet, where the welfare and safety of
the body are essentially concerned,
we propose to add a distinct expla-
nation of the organs liable to injury,
and, occasionally, to point out their
proper management in a healthy
state, together with a few hints for
treating complaints, the source of
which is frequently not suspected.
   The abdomen extends,longitudi-
nally, from that cavity, or hollow,
which is usually called the pit of
the stomach, to the lower part of
the trunk : it is defended, in front,
by the abdominal muscles; behind,
by the vertebra of the back ;  and,
on both sides, by the false ribs.
   Instead of perplexing the reader
with a minute account of the three
regions, into which the lower belly
is  divided by anatomists, namely,
the upper, or epigastric ; the mid-
dle, or umbilical; and the lower,
    vol.  i.
the
ENCYCLOPEDIA.

            ABD

or hypogastric region ; we shall ra-
ther proceed to examine their dif-
serent contents.
   In the first place it deserves to
be remarked, that the whole intes-
tinal canal forms one continued tube,
ofgreaterorless capacity,beginning
with the stomach, and terminating
at the anus. This  canal  is,  gene-
rally, six times the length of the
whole human subject,in proportion
to the person's stature,  and  is by
Nature divided  into two distinct
parts ; namely the anterior, or up-
permost, that  is next to the sto-
mach, comprizing  what are called
the thin, or small intestines, which
fill the middle, or fore parts, of the
belly ; and  the posterior, or lower-
most, where we find the large intes-
tines occupying the sides, and both
the upper and lower parts of that
cavity. The former are  again di-
vided into the duodenum, or twelve
inch gut ;  the jejunum,  or empty
gut, and the ileum, or crooked gut;
and  the  latter, or large portion,
into the coecum, or blind gut ;  the
colon, <x* hollow gut,  being  the
largest of all the intestines; and
the rectum, or the straight excretory
gut, which  terminates in the  anus.
On opening the  abdomen, we  ob-
     B 
 2           ABD

 serve its viscera and intestines in the
 following situation: after having re-
 moved the skin and the muscles,
 we  discover the peritoneum,  or  a
 membrane which envelopes all the
 viscera  of the lower belly.  This
 being divided,  the  omentum, or
 cawl, appears floating on the sur-
 face  of  the intestines, which  are
 likewise seen in a moist and loose
 state, making numerous windings
 through the whole cavity. The vi-
 scera next  present  themselves in
 this order  : on the uppermost part
 of the belly,  namely,  under the
 midriff,  towards  the middle, but
 rather inclining to the right side,
 lies the liver,  and  near its concave
 surface is the gall-bladder;  some-
 what to the left is the stomach, and
 laterally, contiguousto it, the spleen.
 The kidneys are placed  about the
 middle  of the lumbar region, or
 the loins, while the urinary bladder,
 and the parts of generation, are si-
 tuated in the lower division  of the
 belly ; in  that bony cavity  which
 is  denominated   the pelvis,  or
 bason, and  the sides of which form
 what are  commonly  called  the
 hips.
   The  situation  of  these  parts,
 however in  a natural  state,  fre-
 quently undergoes considerable va-
 riations, especially  that of the liver,
 the stomach, and the spleen :  and
 these deviations, being produced by
 various  causes, as by a different
 posture of the whole  body ; disten-
 tion of the stomach with an unusual
 quantityof food, either in a solid or
 liquid form; or lastly, during preg-
 nancy ; hence it may be understood
 that,  with  every  preternatural
 change of their respective positions,
there may  arise ruptures, spasmo-
dic contractions, callosities, accu-
 mulations of water,  called dropsy,
 and many  similar  complaints. To
 prevent such disastrous consequen-
             ABD

 ces, we  cannot too  strongly incul-
 cate the necessity ofobserving strict
 temperance, particularly with  res-
 pect to  food, drink, and exercise.
 This proposition may be rendered
 more evident, by  appealing to the
 experience  of  those Europeans,
 who have long resided in warm cli-
 mates,  and  prudently  restrained
 their sensual appetites ;  in conse-
 quence of which, they have seldom
 been attacked with diseases of the
 liver; an organ which cannot fail to
 become  a  pvey to  an irregular
 mode of living.
   The intestines have certain gene-
 ral characters, though each of them
 manifests its peculiarities.  In  the
 former respect, we find  that they
 are all connected with the vertebne
 by means of the mesentery ;  that
 each of  them consists of different
 membranes, the innermost coat of
 which terminates in the  intestinal
 canal itself, and forms semi-lunar
 valves'inclining toward each other,
 contracting the tubeofthat passage
 and often appearing in several parts
 more numerous and conspicuous
 than in others.  Each gut is, far-
 ther, provided  with small glands,
 for the secretion of a viscid humour
 and many small vessels for the  ab-
 sorption of certain  fluids. Lastly,
 all intestines possess, in common,
 a certain  creeping, called the peris-
taltic, or vermicular motion; which
 is occasioned by the contraction of
 their muscular fibres, operating in
 a spiral direction, or obliquely from
 the upper towards the lower parts;
 and they are thus liable to alternate
 contortions in their respective situ-
 ations. This curious  phenomenon
 may be clearly perceived for some
 time after death, and especially in
 an animal recently opened.
   By inverting this motion  of the
 stomachand bowels, an effect which
 may be produced by certain stimu- 
ABD
ABL            3
 lating medicines, for in stance,! peca-
 cuanha, as well as by a local irrita-
 tion of the fauces, it will be easily
 understood,thateithernauseaor vo-
 miting will be the natural conse-
 quence, according to the different
 degrees of the stimulus applied.
   The viscera of the abdomen are,
 in common with other parts of the
 body,liable to a variety of disorders;
 the most formidable of which are,
 those arising from inflammation.
   An inflammation of the liver, hi-
 therto supposed by the generality of
 physicians to be a very rare disease,
 has by a late French writer,M.FER-
 rein, been affirmed to be of all dis-
 eases the most frequent, and least
 understood. It often occasions other
 lasting and dangerous diseases; and
 even when removed, unless proper
 precautions be observed,.is liable
 to return.  See the article Liver.
   The usual symptoms of inflam-
 mations of the lower belly are, pain
 attended with fever ; but these are
 by no means a  necessary  conse-
 quence ; as in this, and other dis-
 eases of the Animal Economy, a
 slight degree of inflammation may
 prevail  unaccompanied  either by
 febrile symptoms, or considerable
 pain. The mode of discovering the
 existence of inflammation is, to press
 with the tip of the finger on the seat
 of the complaint;  and if the viscera
 be inflamed, the pain will be increas-
 ed in such a manner, as when we
 touch a bruised or tender part. For
 the treatment of this dangerous af-
 fection, we must refer the reader to
 the article Inflammation.
  In order toprotectthetenderparts
 we have now described, from exter-
 nal injury, every judicious person
 will admit the necessity of adopting
 such a dress, as is best calculated to
 answer this useful purpose. Hence
no whalebone,or other str.ys tightly
 laced, should be worndpp women,
 nor high and straightJFaistbands be
 suffered to impede tMurec action of
 the bowels, either lti DCys or men.
 It is indeed unreasonable to expect,
 that the present  generation  can
 enjoy the ease and comforts of their
 less fashionable, though more pru-
 dent, forefathers,  so long as man-
 kind continue to  encourage those
 customs and habits, which almost
 every body deprecates, but which
 few have the resolution either to
 oppose or abandon.
   Abies. See Fir-tree, or Pinus
 Abies, L.
   ABLUTION, in its literal sig-
 nification, implies washing, and is
 usually confined to  purification by
 the aid of water;  but may also be
 applied  to  cleansing,  or washing
 with any other  pure liquid. It is a
 term well known  in the religious
 world.  As a practice, its antiquity
 is coeval with the  first  institution
 of religious  ceremonies.
   Ablutions were, on various occa-
 sions, enjoined by theJewishLegis-
 lator. TheMahoinetans frequently
 have recourse to them in the cele-
 bration of those rites prescribed in
 the Alcoran ; and  they form no in-
 considerable part in the established
 religion of almost every nation.
   Egyptians,Grecians,Romans. Sy-
 rians, Cophts, Jews, Christians, &c
 all admit them as forming a part of
 their ceremonials ; by total or par-
 tial  immersion  of  the  body,  by
 sprinklings,in baptism,and so forth.
   But though used in some mea-
 sure symbolically,  or as emblems
 of that inwurd purity requisite* to
 the discharge of duly, among the
 faithful disciples of religious insti-
tutions, yet the importance of ab-
lutions is very considerable, when
viewed in a  physical sense, as be-
ing instrumental to preserve health 
4            ABO
ABO
and beauty, and not only to prevent,
but in many cases to remove, dis-
ease. See this subject under the
articles  Bathing and  Washing.
  ABORTION, or miscarriage, is
in modern times, justly considered,
as a  misfortune; though the detest-
able and unnatural vice of procuring
it by art, was connived at by the
ancient Romans; whose disgraceful
fall,  as a nation, may  in a great
measure be attributed to their luxu-
rious manners, and immoral habits.
  As the history of this subject is
rather disgusting than instructive,
we shall proceed to state matters of
a more useful tendency ; we may,
however, previously  observe, that
those enemiesofhuman nature, who
attempt to procure artificial abor-
tion, generally experience  either
the punishment due to this out-
rage, by  the  fatal  consequences
which often destroy both mother
and child, or not less frequently all
the powers of art prove ineffectual,
and  the abandoned creature is tor-
mented only with bitter remorse.
  Weakly and irritable, hysterical,
passionate andespecially voluptuous
womenof a plethoric habit, are most
liable to miscarriage; though it may
alsohappen from ageneral defective
constitution, or rather  fromamal-
conformation of the sexual organs.
The most frequent causes of abor-
tion, however, are, the depressing
passions, such  as grief and  fear  ;
debility of the mother, especially if
occasioned by great loss of blood  ;
violent exercise of every kind, but
particularly sudden  stooping, and
lifting weights ; all diseases which
agitate the whole frame, as fevers,
convulsive fits, and coughing ; as
well as falls and blows on the abdo-
men ; an indolent and irregularmode
of living, whether too high, or on
too  poor  sustenance;  and  some-
times even offensive smells.
  The symptoms indicating abor-
tion  are, cold shiverings  of short
duration ; nausea seldom accompa-
nied with  vomiting; pain about the
loins, but  more frequently in the
abdomen,  below the navel, and in
the thighs; depression and softness
of the  breasts ; palpitation of the
limbs, and more  especially of the
heart; sinking of the lower belly ;
and a discharge, of various appear-
ance, from the uterus.
  One of the most general expedi-
ents adopted to prevent a miscar-
riage,  has  been periodical blood-
letting, either from the arm orfoot;
which,  in plethoric  constitutions,
has sometimes been carried to such
excess, as to be  repeated every
month, during pregnancy.   This
practice, however, so prevalent in
France and Germany, is hazardous
and liableto many strongobjections;
for, as abortions most generally oc-
cur in debilitated and nervous wo-
men, such losses  of the vital  fluid
cannot but be attended with' detri-
mental effects. According to the o-
pinion of experienced practitioners,
bleeding is advisable only  in cases
where  particular  circumstances
concur to render such a diminution
necessary, and even then, two small
venisections,  from  four  to  five
ounces each, within the space of
four or six days, are generally suffi-
cient to obviate  the most urgent
symptoms.
  The  most  effectual  method of
preventing such accidents, consists
in a regular mode of life previous to
pregnancy,  occasionally aided by
bracing remedies, such as the cold
bath, moderate exercise on horse-
backor on foot, the use of the mineral
waters ; in short, all those means
which tend to counteract nervous
and hysteric debility,  or,  in other
words,which are proper for irritable 
            ABO

habits. Yet the strictest observance
of dietetic rules will not be attended
with the desired effect, unless the
person who is desirous of becoming
a mother have sufficient resolution
to abstain from an immoderate in-
dulgence in sensual pleasures.....
These, indeed, cannot be too much
guarded against in a married state;
as the contrary practice seldom fails
to be attended with  the  most me-
lancholy consequences.  Hence we
find, that, in certain families where
temperance and prudence are strict-
ly observed, a miscarriage is a rare
event.
   There are, however, cases  in
 which mothers are constitutionally
 liable to abortion, and where  the
 combined efforts of art and nature
 cannot prevent a misfortune, which
 not only in a remarkable degree
 debilitates the constitution, but has
 also a tendency to return on a fu-
 ture  occasion.  The most critical
 period at which  abortion may  oc-
 cur, are those of the third, fourth,
 and fifth months of  pregnancy ;
 though  it may  happen  sooner or
 later.   If, therefore, a  woman  be
 affected  with a violent shooting
 pain in  the back, extending to the
 uterus,together with the symptoms
 already described, it will be neces-
 sary, either to bleed her, if she be
 of a full and  vigorous habit, or to
 adopt such a  treatment  as may be
 best calculated to obviate the por-
 tending danger.  This consists  in a
 very moderate, and chiefly liquid,
 nourishment, excluding whatever
 may rouse  and irritate the system;
 and a calm and composed state of
 body  and mind;  so that to prevent
 a relapse of painful symptoms, she
 must sometimes keep her bed for
 several weeks or months together.
 Cataplasms applied to the pit of the
 stomach, and opiates, may occasion-
            ABO          5

ally become necessary; but the lat-
ter ought never to be resorted to,
without proper medical advice; for
there can be no doubt, that tamper-
ing with  laudanum, or similar me-
dicines, has often been productive
of irreparable mischief. According
to the  uniform experience of pro-
fessional  men, however, the last-
mentioned  remedy may with more
safety, and greater advantage, be
employed  in the form of clysters.
Thus,  we may confidently say, that
an  injection  composed of six oz.
or a tea-cup full of cold chamomile-
tea, and  fifty  drops  of laudanum,
every  other night, or, according to
circumstances, more or  less fre-
quently, has been attended  with
the happiest effects, especially if, in
the intermediate days, when neces-
sary, an emollient clyster was ad-
ministered, with a view to  relieve
costiveness.   We cannot,  at the
same  time, too seriously deprecate
the custom of tampering with laxa-
tives taken by the mouth; a custom
very prevalent among the  vulgar,
who are not  aware of the  injury
thereby  inflicted upon their disor-
dered constitutions.
   With respect to the concomitant
 affections of pregnancy, we must be
very concise. The pain in the head,
 and tooth-ach, may, in generat, be
 relieved by  a cool regimen ; an
 emollient diet, chiefly consisting of
 mucilaginous and subacid vegeta-
 bles, such as fruit boiled in milk,
 artichokes, asparagus, parsnips, spi-
 nage, &c.  aided by  diluent drinks
 made of  rice, barley,  sago, the
 arrow-root, and similar vegetables;
 keeping the legs and feet sufficient-
 ly  warm, and occasionally soaking
 them  in tepid water ; shaving the
 head,  and washing it with  diluted
 vinegar. If these simple means do
 not prove  successful, bleeding with 
6           ABO
ABR
 leeches on  the  temples, or  even
 openingthe jugular vein, will some-
 times become necessary, especially
 in plethoric and bilious females. Be-
 side these remedies, a blister appli-
 ed to the  neck behind the ears, or
 to the part most sensibly affected, is
 often  of great service ; though, in
 urgent cases, this application should
 cover the  whole head.  In full and
 robust habits, issues are eminently
 useful, while the bowels should be
 regularly opened by the mildestpur-
 gatives.  Sometimes, however, the
 simple external application of a few
 drops of cajeput, juniper, or any
 other  essential oil, operates like a
 charm,in removingeither the tooth-
 ach,  or  violent pains of the head.
 In all the complaints of pregnant
 women, arising from too prevailing
 an acidity, such as heart-burn, vo-
 miting, cough upon  taking fogd,
 and  that feverish, restless state, so
 common in thelatter period of preg-
 nancy, Dr. John  Sims directs two
 or three spoonfuls of the following
 mixture  to be taken, either occa-
 sionally, or  when the  symptoms
 are continual, after every meal: viz.
 one  dram of calcined  magnesia,
 five ounces and a half of pure wa-
 ter,  three  drams of the spirit of
 cinnamon, and one dram of the
 water of pure ammonia. Magnesia
 has long been a celebrated remedy
 for these complaints; but the most
 efficacious ingredient in the  pre-
 scription, is the pure ammonia, as
 the effect will be nearly the same
 with the omission of the magnesia,
 which, without the ammonia, is of
 inferior efficacy.   This judicious
 physician farther remarks, that the
 vomiting,  which  occurs in early
pregnancy, seldom arises from, or
 is connected with, acidity; and  that
 the remedy before specified is, in
 that  case, not adapted to the pur-
 pose. When such vomiting is mo-
 derate, and  confined to the early
 part of the day, it appears to be use-
 ful ;  but if it incessantly continue
 for many days together, accompa-
 nied  with  great loss of strength,
 constant thirst, and an utter inabi-
 lity of retaining any thing on the
 stomach, in this state Dr. Sims as-
 serts,that themost effectual remedy
 is the application of leeches to the
 pit of the stomach; and  a constant
 attention to  diet,  that the  patient
 may  swallow nothing which has a
 tendancy to irritate or stimulate the
 organs of digestion.  He has  also
 found it  of great  service to allow
 no other drink'than ass's milk, and
 that by single spoonfuls only.  The
 use of leeches, applied to the pit of
 the stomach, for the relief of vomit-
 ing, is by no  means confined to the
 state  of pregnancy ; but when this
 symptom  occurs  in fevers, or is
 produced in consequence of taking
 any acrid or indigestable substance,
 he has repeatedly experienced  that
 their  application in those cases is
 of equal utility.
   ABRAUM, in natural history, is
 a term given by some writers  to a
 species of red clay found in  the Isle
 of Wight, and used by our artizans
 to impart a fine  red colour to  new
 mahogany  wood.
   ABRIDGEMENT, is the art of
 compressing any species of litera-
 ry composition, so as to convey its
 full and complete tenor in a small-
 er compass than the original.
   The talent of abridging the la-
 bours of others,  and of communi-
 cating much information  in  few
words, is an art not only eminent-
ly useful in itself, but productive of
great  advantages.   It enables the
reader to take a  concise and com-
prehensive  view  of those subjects,
which, in a more diffuse form, his 
            ABR

 leisure or his inclination may not
 permit him to consult; while it ex-
 ercises the mind of the writer in ha-
 bits of close reasoning and accurate
 investigation. The attention which,
 in works of a complicated or exten-
 sive nature, is often distracted by
 brilliancy of stile or variety of ma-
 terials, is, by a short and faithful
 analysis, fixed to the merits of the
 subject, and to the truth of its con-
 tents.  The chief end of abridging
 is rather to convey ideas, than mul-
 tiply words, and to retrench super-
 fluous  expressions.
   To offer any positive instiuctions
 for exercising this useful and valu-
 ale talent, is almost unnecessary ;
 since taste, judgment, and critical
 discernment, are the safest guides.
 A few suggestions, however,  may
 afford  some illustration of the sub-
 ject.
   In attempting to give an analysis
 or abridgment of any particular pro-
 duction, it will be requisite to read
 it with proper attention ;  to exa-
 mine the  design of the author, and
 to discover the leading features and
 plan of the whole.  Having perus-
 ed and digested the work, it  will
 be proper to transcribe only such
 parts as tend to convey  definite
 ideas,or explain its immediate pur-
 pose ;  omitting all such remarks as
 are cither inconsistent with, or in-
 applicable to, the subject.
  In works of a more abstruse and
 comprehensive nature,  it  will be
 preferable to convey, as far as pos-
 sible,  the  exact expressions of the
 author; but in those of a lighter
 description, such as works of ima-
 gination,  public lectures, orations,
 essays, &c. it will be sufficient to
 give an outline of the  substance ;
 without directing the attention to
the embellishments of style, or the
 structure of periods.
             ABS           7

   Abridgment  is  used also  in  a
 more circumscribed sense ;  to sig-
 nify a short analysis of reference;
 by which, from a few abstracted
 particulars, we recur to any subject
 which has been either neglected or
 forgotten ; and thus recal it to our
 recollection.   This is particularly
 useful to those engaged in a variety
 of literary pursuits, as it preserves
 a  free and unfettered application.
   Works of history, in which the
 leading facts are merely detailed,
 are often happily abridged for the
 use of the student.   See the article
 Memorandum.
  ABSCESS is a soft, circumscrib-
 ed tumor, containing matter, gene-
 rally attended with fluctuation, and
 sometimes,though not always, with
 considerable pain.  It is the conse-
 quence of some previous inflamma-
 tion, and is often a critical effort of
 Nature to relieve the patient from
 superfluous or  noxious humours,
 and  to remove an acute disease.
   The mode of treatment to be
 adopted  in the cure of an abscess,
 will be to assist its complete suppu-
 ration,and promote a free discharge
 of matter; for which purpose, all
 remedies that  have a tendency  to
 soften the skin, and encourage per-
 spiration, are eminently useful. In
 languid habits, however, and where
 the suppuration proceeds but slow-
 ly, it will sometimes be necessary
 to open it either by caustic applica-
 tions, or  the lancet.
   Warm fomentations, and emol-
 lient cataplasms made either with
 bread and milk, or oatmeal, renew-
 ed several times aday, are the usual
 poultices for an abscess. In large
 tumours, from which the disharge
of matter hasbeen considerable,and
 especially in those of the lower ex-
tremities, it will often be necessary
to haye recourse to such internal re- 
8            ABS
ABS
medies as may strengthen and sup-
port the system.  Bark, wine, and,
if considerable pain or irritation pre-
vail, opiates judiciously administer-
ed, will be highly beneficial.
  After an abscess has been opened,
it will require to be kept clean,  and
drest, either with dry lint, or some
mild digestive  ointment,  once or
twice a day, assisted by a compress
and linen bandage.
  Dr. HAKTUNG,an ingeniousphy-
sician at Erfurt, in Germany,  has
lately proposed a plan for the treat-
ment of  abscesses ;  which, for its
simplicity and novelty, is worthy of
attention. In their incipient stage,
he recommends the frequent appli-
cation of compressesmoistened with
simple warm water, and after the
suppuration has entirely ceased the
same fluid applied in a cold state in
order to  strengthen the surround-
ing parts..
  Abscesses, which are formed, on
any of the more important organs
of life, such as the brain, the lungs,
liver.  Sec. are particularly to be
dreaded ; as, by bursting, and  dis-
chargingtheir contents into the con-
tiguous cavities,they frequently oc-
casion instantaneous death.  From
neglect,  or mismanagement, ab-
scesses  sometimes  terminate in
mortification, or gangrene ; which
subject will be farther discussed un-
der the head of Inflammation.
  Absinthium vulgare. See Artemi-
sian Absinthium, L. or Mugwort.
  ABSTINENCEmay be defined,
the habit of refraining from what is
either useful, agreeable, or pernici-
ous ; and may be divided into gen-
eral and particular.  In the former
sense, it may signify a certain pri-
vation, whereby the senses are mor-
tified, and the passions restrained.
In  the latter, it is  confined to the
exclusion of certain substances, at
stated times and seasons,  in com-
pliance either with the customs of
particular countries, or with religi-
ous precepts.  There is, also, an-
other sense, in which the term absti-
nence denotes the limitation of any
usual indulgence, for the purpose of
preserving health,  and removing
the consequences of excess.
  In the religious institutions of all
countries, we find many regulations
on this subject.  The  Mosaic Law
forbids the eating of animals that
were  strangled, the use of swine's
flesh, the  exercise of daily labour
on the Sabbath, Sec. The Christian
system more particularly  enjoins
the discipline of the passions,  and
an abstinence from those pleasures
which have a tendency to degrade
our nature. In England, particular
days  have been appointed, called
vigils and fasts, in which flesh is
prohibited, and fish enjoined : this,
however, being more a political re-
striction than a religious obligation,
was  first  enacted in the reign.of
Queen Elizabeth, with a view to
encourage the fisheries.
  The effects of abstinence in the
preservation of health, and the cure
of diseases, are, by many physici-
ans, stated to be remarkable.  Dr.
E.  Miller, of New-York, in his
Original Observations, relates that
in a district of the United States,
which is particularly  obnoxious to
epidemic diseases the febrile attack
is often obviated and diminished by
a rigid abstinence  from food :  and
thecelebratedSYDENHAM declares,
that he has often cured the synocha,
or inflammatory fever, and other
fevers,by prescribing diluent drinks
and  prohibiting every kind of ali-
ment, even, to use their own words,
"for two or three days." The me-
thod, in  this respect, adopted by
Dr. Miller, was to commence his 
ABS
ACA           9
plan of abstinence on the first sen-
sations of indisposition, and  con-
tinue  it on some occasions for a
period  of  twenty-four,  and even
forty-eight hours, until these  feel-
ings had subsided, the appetite was
restored, and  the calls of  hunger
become not only frequent, but even
importunate. He concludes his in-
teresting remarks with  an'apho-
rism,  " That in those particular
states of the body, which denote the
approach, and at the commencement,
of acute diseases  the strict  observ-
ance of a rigid  and continued ab-
stinence has been productive of the
most beneficial effects"....The late
celebrated author of the ilElementa
Mcdicinee," Dr. Bhown, has,in that
work, particularly enjoined itt, as
one of the means to be employed in
the prevention and cure of sthenic,
or  inflammatory diseases ;  and he
declares that  the cynanche tonsil-
laris, or inflammatory  sore throat,
and the'catarrh,or common  cold at-
tended with hoarseness, may often
be cured by abstinence alone.
  Men of genius, and persons  who
lead sedentary lives, are more espe-
cially benefited  by  occasional ab-
stinence ; as these, from the want
of vigorous exercise, and their in-
tense application, are generally the
severest sufferers from diseases of
repletion. In the observance of the
rules of abstinence, due attention
must always be  paid  to the age,
strength, constitution, and habit of
the patient.
  Of the brute animals, many are
remarkable for  their long  absti-
nence  from food, such as the  ser-
pent,  the  rattle-snake, tortoise,
bear, dormouse, elephant, Sec.
  Instances may also be found, of
men who have been abstemious to
a degree almost incredible; and ex-
perience  has demonstrated that,
     VOL. I.
 from habit and use, the power of
 abstinence may be either increased
 or diminished.  Some persons will
 bear the attacks of hunger without
 any visible marks of  impatience,
 while  in others, a mere temporary
 privation will occasion the most ur-
 gent and distressing symptoms....
 See the article Fasts.
    [ACACIA.   Robinia,  Pseudo
 acacia, or false acacia, is a native of
 the United States. It is commonly
 termed locust tree.
   Di\Mitchell observes,that the
 Acacia is one of the most valuable
 trees now cultivated. It grows best
 in warm, sandy  land, and becomes
 fit for timber in about twenty-five
 years.  The greatest use made of
 the trees,  is for ship tunnels, fence
 posts, mill cogs, and fire wood; or,
 if worked into posts to be set into
 the ground for  garden fences, and
 other inclosures, they are superior
 in point of durability to almost any
 known wood.  The acacia is orna-
 mental as a  flowering tree.  The
 blossoms unfold in June, and per-
 fume the air to a considerable dis-
 tance with their sweet and fragrant
 odour.   It  is so easily cultivated
 that on Long-Island we  often see.
 large pieces  of  land entirely over-
 grown with artificial woods of these
 trees.   As our commerce and ma-
 nufactures improve,the demand for
 this valuable timber, will increase;
 farmers on whose lands the acacia
 will grow, ought to begin immedi-
 ately the cultivation of the trees.
   The  multiplication  of this tree
 has seldom been attemptedby seeds,
 but  almost  constantly  by young
 trees sprouting up from the wound-
 ed roots of the old one.  The readi-
 ness of the roots of the parent tree,
 to vegetate, soon after  the incum-
 bent sward is broken up  by the
plough, surpasses that of any other
     C 
10        AC A

tree; for in soils favourable to their
growth, the farmers are obliged to
grub with great labour to prevent
them from overrunning the land,
and whenever suffered to indulge
their native luxuriance, they will
soon convert apiece of cleared land
to forest.]
   Acacia may  be propagated by
setting  the seeds ; and, when it is
once introduced, numerous plants
may be  obtained, by cutting  its
roots near the surface of the ground.
As the roots  extend rapidly along
the surface of the earth, and shoot
up numerous  suckers, the Acacia
may be advantageously planted on
the banks of rivers,for consolidating
and securing the soil  from the en-
croachments of the current; farther
its wood is  eminently adaped to
ship-building ; and, though inferior
in point of durability to the oak, it is
perhaps  preferable to any other
timber for barges, and similar ves-
sels of a small size.
   The  leguminous seeds of this
tree, after being divested of  their
acrid taste, by  infusing them in
different waters, and  afterwards
ground into meal, are by the Ton-
gusian  Tartars converted into a
wholesome bread: these  seeds are
also eagerly eaten by poultry,which
may thus be speedily fattened.
   It has been ascertained by expe-
riments, that the leaves of this tree,
when prepared in the same man-
ner as indigo, may with  great ad-
vantage be substituted for that ex-
pensive dyeing drug. The foliage
of the smaller variety of the False
Acacia, however, is reputed  to be
better adapted forsuch purpose: its
culture corresponds with that above
stated ; and it certainly merits to
be more generally cultivated in or-
namental  shrubberies,  where it
thrives rapidly,  and produces ele-
            AC A

gant odoriferous  yellow  flowers,.
which abundantly supply bees with
honey.  The seeds of both varie-
ties also afford a large proportion
of expressed oil.  It deserves to be
noticed, that the yellowish wood of
these trees,though hard and tough,
is very brittle while the plants are
young, and they ought,therefore,in
exposed situations, to be supported
by stakes. Lastly, it is remarkable,
that no part of the  acacia  is sub-
ject to the depredations of vermin
or insects.  Dr.  Medicus, a pro-
lific, though esteemed German au-
thor, has published several volumes
on the culture  and useful  proper-
ties of the Acacia.
   The leaves of acacia are said to
afford an agreeable nourishment to
horses  and horned cattle.  They
may be given, either green or dry,
alone or mixed, with hay or chop-
ped straw.
  The flowers of the acacia are used
by the Chinese in making that beau-
tiful yellow  with  which they stain
their silks and  stuffs,  and colour
their paper, in the following man-
ner : take half  a pound of these
flowers before they are fully blown,
and roast them over  a clear and
gentle fire in a very clean copper
pan, continually stirring them with
a brisk motion  ;  when they begin
to turn yellow, pour on a little wa-
ter, and let  it  boil till it  become
thick, and acquire a deeper colour ;
then strain  the whole through a
piece of coarse silk.  To the liquor
thus expressed, add half an ounce
of alum, and one ounce of calcined
and finely-powdered oyster shells :
when the whole is well mixed, it
will be fit for use.
   The origin of the bezoar has been
attributed to the seeds of this plant,
which being browsed by certain ani-
mals, have, by their great aciditr 
ACI
AC I          11
and astringent  qualities, caused a
condensation of the juices of the
stomach,  and produced  this cele-
brated concrete.
  Acer campestre, L. See Common
Maple.
  Acerpseudo-platanus, L. See Sy-
camore  Tree.
  Acetite  of Copper ; See Verdi-
grease.
  Achillea millefolium, L. See Mil-
foil, or Common Yarrow.
  ACIDS are obtained from vege-
table and mineral substances,either
by fermentation or distillation.
  The vegetable  acids, however,
such  as the juice of limes and le-
mons, are frequently procured with-
out the aid of art.   They are of a
saponaceous consistence, and there-
fore,  in a variety of affections, emi-
nently adapted to the human consti-
tution. With respect to their gene-
ral effects, it may be said that they
attenuate  the  fluids,  remove ob-
structions, stimulate the appetite,
promote digestion,  quench thirst,
and, in hot seasons, counteract the
putrid tendency of the animal  hu-
mours :  they  afford an excellent
remedy in pectoral, bilious, and in-
flammatory diseases, but particu-
larly  in the  true  scurvy, as like-
wise  in all maladies of the kidnies;
and are the most effectual antidotes
against the narcotic vegetable poi-
sons.  Thus, a most powerful dose
of opium  may be checked in its so-
porific effects,  if a proper quantity
of the acid of lemons be taken with,
or immediately after it.  For in-
stance, four grains of opium, or one
hundred drops of laudanum, form a
large  and sometimes fatal  dose ;
but if one  ounce of pure lemon-
juice, or twice that quantity of good
vinegar, he added to every grain of
opium, or to twenty-five drops of
laudanum, we can  declare from ex-
perience,  that  such a compound
will produce a very different effect.
Instead of stupifying the head, and
producing troublesome costiveness,
it will not only relieve the bowels,
but also occasion a degree of chear-
fulness, never attainable by the use
of opium alone, or strong liquors,
and afterwards induce a composed
and refreshing sleep.  Hence the
use of acids, to persons who are ha-
bitually obliged to^take considerable
doses  of  opiates, cannot  be  too
strongly recommended. In the form
of clyster s,the mild vegetable acids,
such  as vinegar, diluted with an
equal quantity of cold water, are a
safe and effectual remedy for  cos-
tive  habits :  and few persons will
be inclined to doubt  their good ef-
fects,  when  sprinkled  about the
floors and walls of rooms inhabited
by patients labouring under putrid
disorders, especially in the heat of
summer.                  »
  The citricacid is a concrete juice
obtained principally from lemons :
it has also been discovered in the
red  wortleberry, cranberry, bird-
cherry, as well as in the fruits of
the woody nightshade,and the dogr
rose.
  In order to divest this acid of the
mucilaginous or other foreign par-
ticles, with which it is frequently
combined, the  juice obtained by
pressure from  lemons, or similar
fruit, should first be heated, then
strained,  filtered, and  afterwards
saturated  with pulverized chalk, or
the carbonate of lime, till all effer-
vescence cease.  The precipitate,
formed by this process, is called
citrate  of lime ;  and, being inso-
luble, it  must  lie separated  from
the liquor, washed with -cold wa-
ter till it become tasteless and per-
fectly  white  : next,  it ought to bu
decomposed in a gentle  heat, by 
12          AC  I

adding half its weight of sulohuric
acid diluted with six parts of wa-
ter.   As soon as the mixture be-
comes cool, it should be filtered  :
when the pure  citric acid will be
disengaged  from the sulphate of
lime.  Such acid may also be ob-
tained in  a  crystaline  form,  by
previously filtering, and then eva-
porating it to the consistence of a
clear syrup,  which concretes  on
exposing it to a cold temperature.
  Dr. Brugnatelli  has lately
published a  new method  of pre-
serving and concentrating  the acid
of lemon.   He  directs the newly
expressed  juice to  be  strained
through fine linen, a small portion
of rectified  spirit of wine to be
added, and the whole to be depo-
sited  for  several days in  a bottle
closely stopped: thus, a considera-
ble mucilaginous sediment will be
formed, but which may be easily
separated, by passing the liquor
through  blotting-paper.   If  the
quantity of spirit employed be con-
siderable,  it may be drawn off by
distillation in a glass retort: in the
contrary  case,  the  juice may be
exposed for some time in  a warm
temperature, and the alkohol  will
readily evaporate,  leaving  a  very
clear  acid of peculiar strength.
  The citric acid affords an agree-
able lemonade, by dissolving half a
dram in two  pints  of water ;  add-
ing a sufficient quantity of sugar,
and bitter-sweet, which is prepared
by rubbing the latter substance on
fresh lemon-peels, till the essential
oil be absorbed.
  [The following  methods have
been communicated, for preserving
the juice of  lemons or limes, by
different persons :
  1. Boil  the juice  after straining
it, if necessary,  and bottle  it.
             AC  O

   2. Squeeze the fruit, putthe juice
 and pulp into  a bottle* cover the
 top with an inch of oil. Cork and
 rosin the bottle. The juice is sup-
 posed to feed upon the pulp.  Be-
 fore usingthe juice, the pulp and
 oil must be carefully taken out.]
   As a proper  substitute for the
 acid of lemons, we refer to the ar-
 ticle  Berberries.
   The  mineral acids, however, are
 productive of very different effects:
 when applied in a  diluted  state to
 the human body, whether external-
 ly or internally,they generally con-
 tract, and gently stimulate, the ani-
 mal  fibre ; but, in a concentrated
 form, violently stimulate,  corrode,
 and destroy its texture.  With re-
 spect to their comparative  activity,
 the nitric acid, or aquafortis, is the
 most volatile ; the vitriolic acid, the
 most diffusible; and the marine acid,
 or  spirit of salt, perhaps the most
 active and permanent in its effects
 on  the human system.  Hence the
 last has lately  been used  by  Dr.
 Reich ofErlang, in Germany,with
 unexampled  success, in the cure of
 the true typhus, or putrid  nervous
 fever, after all other  remedies had
proved ineffectual. This bold prac-
 titioner did not hesitate to  give the
 muriatic  acid,  diluted with  the
 smallest possible quantity of water,
 to an extent  almost exceeding be-
 lief ;  though  his cures appear to be
 sufficiently  attested  by the royal
 College of Physicians  at  Berlin.
 The particulars of these extraor-
 dinary facts, we propose to lay be-
 fore the public  under the  head of
 Fever.
   ACORNS, or the seeds of the
 oak, though  not at present an ar-
 ticle of human subsistence, yet, if
 we may credit the testimony of an-
 cient writers, formed no small part 
           A C O

of the diet of the ancient Germans
and Britons; and the desire to pos-
sess what was then considered as a
table delicacy, was often a cause of
hostilities between various nations.
They have  seldom been used  for
medicinal purposes. We have, how-
ever, the testimony of several  fo-
reign practitioners in their favour,
and especially that of Dr. Marx.
In describing thevaluableproperties
of acorn-coffee, he asserts that this
preparation has often cured obstruc-
tions arising from an accumulation
of mucus in the viscera, and  re-
moved  nervous  complaints, when
all other remedies have been tried
in vain.  The following is his me-
thod of preparing tire acorn-coffee:
   Take sound and ripe acorns, peel
off their shells or husks, divide the
kernels, and,after gradually drying,
roast them in a  close vessel, keep-
ing them in continual motion.  In
this process,  however, particular
attention should be paid, that they
may  not be burnt, or roasted to
excess.
  Take of the powder, when ground
like other coffee, half an ounce, or
about   four  small  tea-spoonfuls
every morning and evening; using
it either alone or mixed with one
tea-spoonful of  real  coffee, and
sweetening it with sugar.
  This  kind of coffee has, by the
frugal house-wife, been employed
as an article of domestic economy,
but has  not obtained general sanc-
tion ; nor do we pledge ourselves
for its medicinal efficacy ; though
several  foreign practitioners affirm
that it is  an  excellent remedy in
asthmatic, and other pectoral com-
plaints.
  Acorns possess  an astringent
quality,  which may be extracted
by  steeping them in cold water,
or boiling them. On expression,
            ACO         13

they also afford an oil, which may
be  advantageously  used  in  the
burning of lamps.
   In the year  17.6, an  ingenious
gentleman,  Mr. Ellis, invented a
method of preserving acorns for a
considerable time, and of retaining
in them the  power of vegetation, by
encasing them in wax.  In  this
manner, they may be transported
to distant climates, and  preserved
in a fresh state for several years ;
so  that  they can  be transplanted
with hopes  of success.
   Lastly, acorns afford a very pro-
per and nutritious food  for hogs,
which are readily  fattened by their
use : and we are farther convinced,
from their  analogy to the horse-
chesnut, that, by depriving them of
their husks, soaking them carefully
in several infusions of fresh water,
then drying and reducing them to
flour, they would, in times of scar-
city, serve as a tolerable  substitute
for corn-bread : for by this simple,
though troublesome process, most
of the  astringent  vegetables lose
their acrid and bitter taste.
   [AcorusCalamus,L. The com-
mon Calamus aromaticus,or Sweet
Flag, grows in marshy  situations,
and in shallow  water, and may be
known  by its  long,  sword-shaped
leaves, resembling those of the flag,
but narrower, of a brighter green,
waved along one of the edges, and
also by  its oblong, cylindric spike
of flowers coming from the side of
the stem at  the  edge of the leaf.
The root is like that of the flar*-,
long, cylindric, tuberous, spongy,
marked with rings, and putting out
abundance of fibres, which, indeed,
are the proper roots. It has a strong
aromatic smell, and a w?rm pun-
gent, bitterish  taste.  The flavour
is greatly improved by drying.  It
possesses cainiinitive and stoma- 
 14         ACT

chic virtues, and is frequently us:d
as an ingredient  in  the  morning
bitters in this  country, in places
subject to ague.
 AccordingtoBechstein,theleaves
may be employed fordispelling ma-
ny noxious insects ;  hence we  re-
commend them particularly against
moths, infesting woollen cloth, and
the destructive worms in books ;
for which purpose they mightevery
year be  replaced in the corners of
the drawers and shelves.  M. Bau-
troh has used the whole plant for
tanning leather; and Dr. Bohmer
remarks, that the French snuff,crll-
ed a la violette, probably receives its
peculiar scent  from this  fragrant
root.  Neither horses, cows, goats,
sheep, nor hogs, will eat the herb
or roots of this vegetable.]
   ACRE, a denomination used in
the measurement of land : an acre
consists of four square roods, each
containing 40 perches, or poles.  In
different countries  it  varies,  ac-
cording to the length of the pole,
which is from  \6\ to 28 feet.  It
is,  also divided  into ten "square
chains of  22 yards each,  or 4840
square yards.
   The  English statute acre com-
prises 160  square poles, each of
which contains 161 feet. The same
measure of land, in Scotland, is re-
 gulated by the Scotch ell, which is
 37 -^ English inches:  thus,  36
square ells make  1 fall; 40 falls, 1
rood ; and 4  roods constitute  an
acre ; so  that the proportion of a
Scotch to an English acre is near-
ly as that of 5 to 4.  The acre em-
ployed in the Principality of Wales,
 is equivalent to two English ones;
 and the Irish acre is equal to  one
 acre, 2  roods,  and 19 perches ^7T
 of English statute measurement.
   AC-TEA SP1CATA, L.  Herb
 Christopher.   The dry leaves are
            ACU

extremely sharp and rough, so that
they may be usefully employed for
polishing hard wdbd and ivory. The
berries boiled wkh alum, yield a
deep, black dye ; and Thielbin, a
German  writer, asserts  that, the
red berries  of the actea  spicata
give a beautiful dye, equal to that
obtained  froni cochineal; after boil-
ing them with cream of tartar, and
dropping into the decoction, a solu-
tion of tin in aqua fortis, the colour
became permanent. We believe he
alludes to the berries produced by
another species of this herb, either
the actea alba, or racemosa of N.
America, or the cimicifuga of Si-
beria, which is  an  excellent pre-
servative against the worm in pa-
per, moths, and bugs ; because the
English  native  species  generally
produces black berries.
   [The  A. Spicata has two varie-
ties in the United States:  1. A. alba
with very white transparent berries;
2. A. rubra with red berries.
   Actea Racemosa, black snake
root,or rich weed,is a very beautiful
plant when in flower. The utility of
the root of this plant, is well known.
It is an astringent; and  Dr. Bar-
ton says, it was used  in the form
of decoction as a gargle,  with suc-
cess, in a putrid sore throat, which
prevailed in N. Jersey many years
ago.  A decoction of the root cures
the itch.  In North Carolina, it has
been found useful as a drench in
the  disease  of  cattle, called  the
murrain.]
   ACUTE DISEASES are such
as are either attended  with inflam-
mation, or other urgent symptoms,
which bring on  an early  crisis, and
render them dangerous in their con-
sequence : hence they are opposed
to chronic diseases, or those which,
though  of slower  progress, may
nevertheless terminate in  dissolu- 
AD U
ADV    ;    15
tion.  As the former are more in
need of theimmediate assistance of
art, we shall state the most proper
methods of treating them in their
commencement, as well as the suita-
ble diet and regimen to be observed
in them,  under the different heads
of Apoplexy,  Asthma (suffoca-
tive), Cholera Morbus, Colics,
Convulsions, Cramps or Spasms,
Epil kps y,Fevers (inflammatory),
Fractures, Hydrophobia,  In-
flammations, Sec. Sec.
   ADDER, in zoology, a name for
theviper.Asthis reptile iswell known
a particular description of it is un-
necessary ; but as  accidents  fre-
quently happen by its bite, we shall
present our readers with a list of the
most esteemed remedies to be re-
sorted to on such occasions,  toge-
ther with some account of this ani-
mal, and the means of destroying
it, under the article Viper.
   Adderwort.  See Great   Bis-
tort, or Polygonum Bistorta, L.
   Adonis Autumnalis, L. See Phae-
sant's Eye.
   ADULTERATION is the cor-
ruption, or debasement by an im-
proper mixture, of any  substance
that was originally in a pure state.
This art, though not unknown to
the  ancients, has in modern times
been carried to a great extent; in-
somuch  that we are sorry to ob-
serve, the rules and principles upon
which so  pernicious a practice is
founded, are considered  as qualifi-
cations essential to those persons
who supply others as well with the
common necessaries, as the luxu-
ries, of life.  We are, indeed, pro-
vided with  excellent laws against
adulterations; but crafty and  ava-
ricious dealers take frequent op-
portunities, either of eluding the
vigilance and severity of justice, or
of concealing their nefarious prac-
tices in so skilful a manner, as to
render their  detection extremely
difficult, and sometimes impossible.
We shall, therefore, consider it as
our duty to point out those articles
which are most liable to this species
of fraud. They may be found under
the  different  heads   of  Beer,
Bread,  Coffee, Hair-Powder,
Honey,  Oil,  Snuff,   Spirits,
Tea, Tobacco, Vinegar, Wax,
Wine, Sec. Sec.
  ADVERTISEMENT, general-
ly signifies any  information given
to those who  are interested  in  a
common concern.  It more parti-
cularly alludes to a short account
of  an  affair inserted in a newspa-
per. We should scarcely have no-
ticed this article, had it not been
with a view to caution the unwary,
and animadvert upon the fraudu-
lent practices to which the adver-
tisements of the present day are
frequently subservient; for instance,
those of money-lenders, servants'-
effice-keepers,  agents for place-
men,  adventurers, marriage-bro-
kers, and other unprincipled indi-
viduals, who  prey upon the credu-
lity of the public.  1 knee, we ven-
ture to suggest an opinion, that it
would be more  conducive to the
interests of society, if the public
prints were subjected to  some re-
gulations in this respect; and that
no advertisement could be inserted,
without being authenticated before
a magistrate. By this precaution,
the editor and printer of a newspa-
per, who sometimes  become the
innocent accomplices of fraud or
swindling, would be secured against
the attempts of those who frequent-
ly  avail  themselves of this mode
of publication, to make it a vehicle
for falsehood and depredation. 
16         /ETH
AFF
   Aegopodium Podagraria, L.  See
Gout-Weed, or Herb-Gerard.
   Aesculus Hippocastanum, L.  See
HoasE-CiiESNUT, and Flour.
   jETHER, a term formerly used
to signify a thin subtle matter, finer
than air, and completely filling the
whole space of the firmament.
   Various opinions have been held
respecting its precise nature : by
some it is supposed to be a fluid of
a peculiar kind, and confined to the
regions above our atmosphere  ; by
others, a substance so subtle  and
penetrating, as to be intimately dif-
fused through the air, and to insinu-
ate itself into the pores of all other
bodies.  Its existence, however, has
been denied by  many, who assert,
that the air, by  its tenuity  and ex-
pansion, is fully sufficient for  the
above-mentioned purposes.
   Whatever conjectures  may be
formed concerning the nature  and
properties of this subtle fluid, there
is every reason to believe in the ex-
istence ofamatter finer than the air
itself.  Sir Isaac Newton has ob-
served, that heat is readily commu-
nicated through a vacuum, which
cannot take place without the in-
tervention of some other medium.
This, being subtle enough  to pene-
trate through the pores  of  glass,
may readily be conceived to be ca-
pable of pervading all other bodies,
and diffusing itself through  every
part of space ; and thus it  conveys
a complete idea of an aethereal fluid.
   iEther is now principally  consi-
dered as a chemical composition....
It  is a combination of vitriolic  acid
and spirits of wine, and is used for
a variety of medical purposes. The
head-ach is said to have been often
cured by rubbing it on the temples;
and Dr. Conyf.r's declares  that a
tea-spoonful applied to the affected
jaw, and repeated till the pain ceas-
es, is a never-failing remedy for the
tooth-ach.   It has also been used
in cases of rheumatism, gout, and
hooping-cough, with great success.
In a paroxysm of suffocating asth-
ma,  and all those diseases  where
the organs of respiration are affect-
ed, half a tea-spoonful of vitriolic
.ether in a table-spoonful of  water,
quickly swallowed and occasionally
repeated has often produced instant
relief. Even the simple  evaporation
of this volatile fluid, a spoonful of
which may be placed at a time in a
shallow vessel contiguous to the pa-
tient, has frequently been found of
service, and alleviated the most dis-
tressing shortness of breath.
  A combination of spirit of sea-
salt with the flowers of zinc, pro-
duces the marine xther.
  JEthusa Cynapium,]^. See Fool's
Parsely.
  AFFLICTION, as opposed to a
state of joy and prosperity, cannot
be called a  disease, though when
indulged to excess, it may be pro-
ductive of many  mental and bodily
affections.   For whatever tends to
excite  anger, hatred,  envy, Sec.
cannot fail to bring on disorders
arising from tense or rigid fibres ;
as, on the contrary, fear, grief, and
excessive joy, engender those ma-
ladies which are the consequence
of relaxation.
  Hence we cannot be too much
on our guard against the invasion
of passions, which may be truly
styled the greatestenemies of man-
kind.  Lord Bolinguroki,, in his
Letters  " on the study and  use of
history," gives the following perti-
nent advice : « Let us  set all our
past and our present afflictions at
once before our  eyes.  Let  us re-
solve to overcome them, instead of
shrinking from the contest, or of
wearing out the sense of them, by 
AGA
AGI
17
long and ignominious patience.....
Instead of palliating remedies, let
us use the incision-knife  and the
caustic;  probe the wound to the
bottom,  and work an immediate
and radical cure."  Uninterrupted
misery, continues this stoic philo-
sopher, has this good effect,  that,
as it continually torments, it finally
hardens the sufferer.
   After-birth.   See Midwifery.
   AGARIC of the oak, or the A-
garicus Quercinus, L. is well known
as a styptic, when applied to exter-
nal wounds.   M. Adouillet, an
eminent French surgeon, has em-
ployed it,  instead of ligatures, on
the arteries, incases of amputation,
by applying small pieces of it to
the mouths of these vessels, and
afterwards covering the stump with'
lint.
   This species of agaric may be
usefully employed for the purpose
of dyeing silks of a black colour: to
succeed in the experiment, it ought
to be cut in small pieces,  and boil-
ed in a solution of copperas,  over
a  gentle fire,  till the dye  be  suffi-
ciently strong.
  Anothei speciesof agaric,namely,
the common puff-ball, has, by far-
riers also, been  used as a styptic :
and, in an experiment made  upon
a  horse, it completely  stopped, in
a few minutes, a hemorrhage from
one of the largest  arte;lies.  The
wound afterwards healed, without
any further discharge.
   We  cannot,  on this  occasion,
omit to remark, that persons living
in retired situations, and particular-
ly those employed in husbandry, as
well as artizans working with sharp
instruments, ought always to be
provided with some styptic, which,
at a distance from medical aid, and
in a moment  of emergency,  may,
sometimes, save an useful animal,
     VOL. I.
and even the life of a fellow-crea-
ture, by its timely application.
 The efficacy of agaric, as a styptic
for external wounds, has however,
been  disputed  by Mr. Neale,  a
surgeon of the London Hospital,
who  published  some observations
on the subject,  in the year 1757...
He asserts, that he bus seen it used
on several occasions, and frequently
employed it himself, without effect,
nay, to the detriment of the patient.
  Agaricus  Muscarius, L.  See
Musky Mushroom.
   AGE signifies any period of du-
ration.  It is indiscriminately used
to express many objects and situa-
tions, but is  more frequently ap-
plied to the latter or advanced pe-
riods  of human life; and  in this
sense, it is accompanied with the
epithet old.
  Human existence  has been di-
vided into four distinct periods, viz.
infancy, youth, manhood,  and old
age.  The  gradation through these
successive  stages is often slight
and imperceptible; it may be either
accelerated or retarded, according
to the more or less prudent conduct
of the individual,  the mode of life
which is pursued, and  the various
rules  and precautions' observed  in
diet, regimen,  Sec.
   Age, when  accompanied  with
other good qualities, is  more espe-
cially entitled to respect and reve-
rence; but if marked  with igno-
rance and folly,becomes disgusting
and contemptible. See the article
Longevity.
 AGITATION is the act of shak-
ing a bodv, or tossing it backwards
and forwards. In physics, this term
is often used for a commotion of
the parts of a natural body.  Fer-
mentation  and  eilervescence are
attended with a brisk agitation of
the particles.
     D 
18          AGR
AGR
  Agitation, is also one of the chief
causes or instruments of mixtion.
By the agitation of the parts of the
blood and chyle,  sanguification is
in a great measure effected. Butter
is also made  out of milk by the
same means; a separation of the
oleous from the serous parts taking
place, and a combination of the for-
mer among themselves. Digestion
is supposed to be accomplished by
an insensible kind of agitation.
   This term is also used in  medi-
cine to denote that species of exer-
cise, commonly  called swinging;
which has been found serviceable
in several complaints; and it is as-
serted, that even the tooth-ach and
deafness have sometimes  been re-
moved by violent agitations of the
body.  We propose to make some
farther observations on this species
of  exercise,  under  the  article
Swinging.
   AGONY is a term used  to sig-
nify an extreme degree of pain, or
the last pangs of death.   The  ter-
 ror of death  appears in a great
 degree, occasioned by the contor-
 tions and  convulsions with which
 the agony seems attended; though
 the general opinion of physiologists
 is, that in such cases the sensations
 of pain are not very acute; a course
 of affliction during sickness, having
 naturally indisposed the nerves for
 any quick sensations.
    Various means have  been em-
  ployed for mitigating the agonies
  of death,  such  as opium, Sec. but
  these attempts  are, by  judicious
  persons generally discountenanced:
  the conscious reflection of having
  spent an  active and useful life, is,
  on this occasion, the most effectual
  remedy which suggests itself to the
  christian  and the philosopher.
    AGRICULTURE is  the art of
  cultivating the earth, so that it may
  produce the vegetables we desire
in their  greatest  perfection.  It
may be divided into two branches ;
namely, theory and practice. The
former particularly treats of the
various means of  preparing and
managing the soil and manure, and
of the"different kinds of vegetables
which are  adapted to particular
soils, and most proper to be raised
for the consumption of men, cattle,
Sec.   The latter relates to the im-
plements of husbandry, the various
methods of cultivating land, raising
crops, and feeding cattle.
   Agriculture  is one of those arts
which, from the earliest periods,
have been deservedly held in the
highest estimation.  One of the first
injunctions upon our original pro-
 genitor, after his dismission from
 the garden of  Eden, was, that he
 should " till the ground."  Subse-
 quent experience has fully proved,
 that the cultivation of thisnecessary
 art essentially contributes to the
 prosperity of mankind, and that it
 ought to form a primary object in
 all moral and political regulations.
    In the earliest ages, and among
 those nations which have been ce-
 lebrated for their refinement and
 civilization, agriculture  has been
 highly prized, and carried even to
 considerable perfection.   Among
 the  Hebrews, high birth or rank
  conferred no exclusive distinctions;
  for it was  then considered as  the"
  most honourable of  human em-
  ployments.  By  this valuable art,
  the Chaldeansdiscovered the means
  of procuring  excessive  crops of
  corn, which enabled  them to  re-
  main stationary,  and not migrate,
  as their predecessors had formerly
  (lone, in order to obtain subsistence
  for themselves  and  their flocks.
  So sensible were many nations of
  its great importance, that, accord-
  ing to the history of the  ancient
  Persians, their kin^s, once in every 
            AGR

month, divested themselves of regal
pomp, and ate with husbandmen.
In China, a day is  still annually
appointed, when the emperor goes
in solemn  procession  to a field,
where he shews  his sense of  the
inestimable benefits of agriculture,
by undertaking,  for a  short time
the laborious occupation of direct-
ing the plough in person.  Among
the Romans,  the  rural art was
deemed so honourable a pursuit,
that the most  distinguished sena-
tors, at their leisure intervals,  ap-
plied  themselves to the cultivation
of the soil.   Numa Pompilius,
one of their first kings, was distin-
guished  as  much for  his skill in
agriculture, as for his exemplary
piety; and  such was the amiable
simplicity of those times, that their
greatest warriors and  legislators,
were  often called  from the active
labours of the field to the higher,
but not  more  dignified offices of
the state.  Cato, the censor, who
had governed  and subdued many
warlike nations, did not consider it
beneath him \o write a treatise on
agriculture ; and several valuable
works upon this  subject, appeared
at various periods of the Roman
empire.
  In the year 1756, a period of dif-
ficulty and distress, France began
to pay particular attention to this
important subject. Prize questions
were  annually  proposed by  the
academies of Lyons, Bourdeaux,
and by the society instituted for the
improvement of agriculture in Brit-
tany.  About this time, also, it was
greatly   encouraged  in   Russia,
Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Ger-
many, and Italy; in the last men-
tioned country, a private gentleman
about 40 years ago, left his whole
fortune  to  the establishment  and
support of an  agricultural acade-
my.
            AGR         19

  Whether we consider agriculture
as a means of procuring, as well the
necessaries as luxuries of life; of
providing a security against  the
aggregated calamities of scarcity,
famine and disease; or of engaging
the mind in active and extensive
pursuits of general knowledge, it is
one of the most useful and import-
ant of all the arts which have em-
ployed the attention  of mankind.
Its theory is, in a great measure,
dependent on several branches of
science,  such as  natural history,
chemistry, experimental philoso-
phy, and mechanics, all of which
may be successively  applied to its
advancement; and without a com-
petent knowledge  of these, it can-
not be properly understood.  Its
practical part,  however, may be
carried on, independently of scien-
tific  experiments.  No  person,
therefore, need  be deterred from
attempting any improvements, be-
cause he is not conversant with
the more abstract parts of physical
knowledge.
   The successful  advancement of
the rural  art depends  upon two cir-
cumstances ; the one, its improve-
ment by discovery or invention; the
other, a more extensive practice of
such improvements, when fully de-
monstrated.  The former is effect-
ed, by the contrivance of more per-
fect machines and implements of
husbandry, which facilitate the pro-
gress  of  labour; the  introduction
of new articles of profitable culture,
and the most advantageous method
of treating those which have already
been cultivated, though in a defec-
tive manner.  The latter, namely,
the practice, relates not only to
future improvements, but likewise
to those  which, thougli generally
known,  have been either  wholly
neglected, or adopted only in par-
ticular places. 
20         AGR
AGR
  Agricultural pursuits will always
constitute one of the principal em-
ployments of the bulk of mankind;
it is, therefore, as well the interest,
as the duty, of the higher classes,
to contribute every comfort in their
power, towards alleviating the bur-
dens inseparable from the lot of
the husbandman.  For, so long as
that valuable body of the people,
who cultivate the soil, were  duly
stimulated to habits  of  industry,
and encouraged  in the practice of
domestic virtues, we find no exam-
ple in  the pages of ancient  or
modern history, that such a nation
ever suffered a general calamity.
  [It has been justly observed, that
in America,  in particular, agricul-
ture is the foundation of productive
industry, and the bulwark of moral
habits.   Throughout the United
States, the land is distributed among
a great number of proprietors; and
these proprietors have  the entire
disposal of their freeholds; the ec-
clesiastical incumbrances of tythes,
and the feudal impositions of ser-
vices, which cramp   and paralize
every effort made towards the im-
provement of this science, are un-
known ; and the improvements of
the farmer  or planter, accrue to
themselves and  their families, in-
heritable as a clear estate, or trans-
ferable at their  option to any pur-
chaser. Where the soil is parcelled
out among millions of free citizens,
 each has more at stake in the com-
 munity, has greaterimportanceand
 higher responsibility, and as he va-
 lueshis actual enjoyment and future
 prospects of happiness, will become
 convinced that the self-government
 he exercises ought  to be founded
 on wisdom and virtue. From these
 causes may be deduced that inde-
 pendent  spirit, that honest demea-
nour, that unsuspicious frankness,
and that unaffected patriotismwhich
distinguish the sons of agriculture.
How worthy then of consideration
is  this noble art!   How laudable
the efforts of  those  who  detect
its errors,  or introduce  improve-
ments!  How  particularly com-
mendable  are  those  Americans
who labour and make experiments
for the instruction of their fellow-
citizens !]
   For an account of the different
subjects  connected with  agricul-
ture,  we refer the reader to the
articles, as they are classed in the
order  of the  alphabet.
   AGRIMONY,  Common  ;  or
Agrimonia Eupatoria, L.  It is re-
presented in the 6th and 7th plates
of Curtis's Flora  Londinensis,
p. 317.
  In a medicinal view, the leaves of
this  vegetable  are said to  be ape-
rient,  detergent, and to strengthen
the tone of the -viscera; hence they
have been used in laxity of the in-
testines, in scorbutic, and other dis-
orders arising from debility.  Di-
gested in whey, agrimony affords
a  diet-drink  grateful to the palate
andstomach; though itsleaves have
an herbaceous and roughish taste,
accompanied with an aromatic fla-
vour.  The leaves and stalks, toge-
ther with the closed flowers, afford
a  dark  yellow decoction, which
when previously impregnated with
 a  diluted solution of bismuth, im-
parts  a  beautiful and  permanent
 gold-colour  to animal wool.  We
 are  induced to state this fact upon
 the authority of M. Dambourney,
 who,  in the year  1793,  published
 a volume  of « Facts and  Experi-
 ments on  genuine and permanent
 Colours," printed at Leipzig, in the
 German language.
   The blossoms  of  the common
 agrimony have also  been occasion- 
AGU
AGU         21
ally employed by tanners, for cur-
ing soft and delicate skins.
  [A. Eupatoria is a native of the
United  States.   Kalm  says, the
Canadians use an infusion of the
root in fevers with great success.
Varieties of this species, are  A.
minor, or White A....A. odorota, or
Sweet-scented A...The A.passifio-
ra, is also found in the U. States.]
   Aggrostemma Githago,  L.  See
CORN-COCKLE.
   Agrostis  Spicaventi,  L.   See
Silky Bent-grass.
   AGUE is  a  general  term  for
those fevers which have periodical
intermissions, and are specifically
denominatedquotidian,tcrtian,quar-
 tan, according to the various pe-
 riods at which the febrile paroxysm
 returns.
   The symptoms generally observ-
 ed, during the cold fit  in agues are,
 strong  shiverings, succeeded  by
 great heat, and the usual concomi-
tants of fever, such as thirst, quick
pulse,  Sec.   The hot fit is termi-
nated by a perspiration more or
less profuse, according to the habit
 aud constitution  of the patient.
   Several other symptoms occa-
 sionally present  themselves in the
 different stages  of  the  disease.
 During tht interval of each parox-
 ysm, the patient  apparently enjoys
 as good a state of health, as pre-
 vious to the attack of this disease.
 Nevertheless, if it  be suffered to
 continue long, it weakens and ex-
 hausts the  constitution, and occa-
 sions  such  ravages as  medicine
 cannot  easily repair;  producing
 general debility, obstruction in the
 viscera, jaundice, dropsy, Sec.
    We shall proceed to point out a
 few of those  remedies which have
 been found effectual in this disease.
    A tea-spoon  full of powdered
 snake-root  mixed with a  glass of
brandy  and water, and taken be-
fore the approach of the fit, keeping
the body warm to induce perspira-
tion, has been of considerable ser-
vice. The following remedy is also
said to have been successfully em-
ployed in agues :
   Two spoonfuls of the juice of
sage, mixed with an equal quantity
of vinegar, and taken at  the ap-
proach of the fit.
   The regular method of eradicat-
ing an ague, after the disease has
been properly ushered in. by  a few
successive paroxysms, consists in
cleansing the first passages by pro-
per laxatives and emetics, as occa-
sion may require.
   The patient,duringthefit, should
drink  freely  of  water gruel, and
other warm diluents.  The  Peru-
vian bark may then be administer-
ed in  any form best suited to the
patient's stomach, either in decoc-
tion,  infusion, tincture, or in pow-
der, mixed with Port wine.  The
last mode, a3 being the  most effi-
cacious, ought, when practicable,
always to be  preferred.
   Dr. Lysons has observed, that
his patients derived  great benefit
from the use of the snake-root com-
bined  with bark.  His recipe is as
follow : Two  scruples of bark and
one of  snake-root.  He  says, that
two  or  three  doses rarely fail to
arrest the progress of a distinct ter-
tian,  or. quartan ague.  Should  a
farther repetition of this remedy be
requisite,  it will be  attended with
this advantage,  that the disorder
will be less likely to return, than  if
it were stopped by the bark  alone.
   Repeated shocks of the electrical
fluid have been said to cure agues ;
but this is a  precarious  and ha-
zardous practice. Even that sove-
reign remedy, the bark,  has some-
times been known to fail. 
22        AGU
AGU
  If no other means be found ade-
quate to the inveteracy of thiscom-
plaint, we cannot, in justice to Dr.
Fow ler, omit to mention his mine-
ral solution, or ague-drops, so well
known to all our apothecai ies, that
they require no farther description.
Yet, convinced of their violent ef-
fects  on the  human  system, we
seriously  recommend the  use of
the remedies above specified, be-
fore  arsenic be employed  as the
ultimate resource.
  [In most cases it is  necessary to
give a gentle emetic,  to clear the
stomach of bile before the bark be
taken.  Ipecacuanha  is the safest
emetic : fifteen or twenty  grains
will answer for most persons: three
or four grains of calomel may be
joined with the ipecacuanha to open
the bow els. The bark  may then be
commenced,  and  a   tea-spoonful
taken every three horn's during the
absence of the fever : beer is the
best  vehicle to disguise the taste
of the bark, but milk  answers the
purpose very well.  It  may also be
taken w rapped up in a wafer made
of flour and water, pressed between
two hot flat-irons, and in this way
proves less disagreeable to the sto-
mach.
  After a few days use of the bark,
the stomach commonly nauseates
it;  it may then  be omitted for a
short time, and strong snake-root
and chamomile tea, or a decoction
of dog-wood and black alder,  to
which  some shavings of sassafras
root have been added,  may be sub-
stituted. The diet may be more ge-
nerous than usual; and great care
taken to avoid any cause that  may
bring on a return of the ague, par-
ticularly cold,  damp air.  Should,
however, the usual symptoms of a
fit come on, 20 drops of laudanum
must be taken, and the person co-
vered up in bed.   The bark must
then be recurred  to and  steadily
taken.   The  complaint  is  very
apt to return, after being suspend-
ed for some time. To prevent this,
care should be taken not to go out
in the morning"before the ground
be dry, or with an empty stomach:
to avoid the hot sun, and chilling
damps of the night.  It often hap-
pens that a change of air, will prove
a cure, when  no internal remedy
avails.   A flannel shirt  is highly
useful in fortifying the body against
the attacks of intermittents ; and,
after a long continued indisposition
always ought to be worn, and re-
gularly changed once a week.
  In situations subject to intermit-
tents it is an excellent  practice to
keep fires in the common sitting.
rooms every morning and evening,
nay in the middle of the day, even
if it be necessary to keep the doors
open : for the air will be thus de-
prived  of its unhealthy moisture,
and the walls  kept  dry.   By this
practice I have known  the health
of a family in  the swamps of De-
laware, preserved during a whole
summer, while the neighbours were
all afflicted by agues.
  In obstinate intermittents, a slight
salivation  will prove a cure : blis-
ters applied to the wrists, will also
check the return of fits.  Dr. Ru s h
recommends the loss of some blood
when the disease  is  protracted to
the  winter  months, and I  have
known the remedy frequently suc-
cessful.
  Periodical head-aches, sore eyes,
and pains in otherpartsof the body,
frequently proceed from the same
cause that  produced the intermit-
tent fever, and may be cured by the
bark, or by the mineral solution of 
            AIR

Dr. Fowler.   The following are
the doses for various ages :
     Yearn.           Drops.
     5  to  7    from  5 to 7
     8    12          7   10
    13    18         10   12
    18  and upwards.      12]
  AIR, in a pure state, is a colour-
less, transparent, compressible and
elastic fluid ; and one of the most
important  elements ;  whether we
consider its application  to  pur-
poses of general economy,  or its
effects on animated nature.   It is
the  medium through which we
breathe, and  without which we
cannot exist. When perfectly freed
from all extraneous  and noxious
particles, it may be denominated
vital air,  or oxygen; and in this
state is capable of invigorating and
supporting tke human frame, in a
very eminent degree.  Mixed with
the common ingredients, it is called
atmospheric air, or that  by which
we are usually surrounded.
   [Before the modern discoveries
in chemistry, the atmosphere was
considered  as  one simple elastic
fluid: but it now appears that there
are four distinct elastic fluids found
it\ every portion of atmospheric air.
And these, for ought we know, are
totally independent of one another:
so much that if any one of them
were wholly withdrawn  from the
surface of the earth, the rest would
not at  all be effected by the cir-
cumstance either in  their density
or situation.]
   In diseases of the lungs, and epi-
demics arising from a confined or
vitiated atmosphere,  the adminis-
tration of air, in a pure  state, has
been attended  with singular  suc-
cess;  while, in such  complaints,
the most powerful remedies have
been unable to  compensate the
want of this necessary article.
            AIR          23

  Air vitiated by the different pro-
cesses of respiration,  combustionr
and putrefaction, or which is suf-
fered to stagnate, becomes preju-
dicial to the human frame : hence
large cities, public assemblies, hos-
pitals, burying-grounds,  Sec.  are
injurious to  health, and often pro-
ductive of contagious  disorders.
  Plants and vegetables possess the
wonderful property of restoring the
purity of air. This, however, takes-
place only  in the day-time, and
when they are exposed to the light
of the sun ;  for  at night they dis-
charge their noxious particles, and
corrupt the  atmosphere.  Never-
theless, the disadvantage arising
from their impure exhalation dur-
ing the night, is far exceeded by
the benefits produced in the day-
time; as the former does not amount
to a hundreth  part of the pure
vital air, which is generated by the
same plant, in the  course of two
hours of a fine day.  It has been
asserted,  that the  purity of air
may be also restored by wetting a
cloth in water mixed with quick-
lime, hanging it in a room till it
become dry, and renewing the ope-
ration so long as  it appears needful.
  A mode of forwarding the distil-
lation of salt-water at sea, has been
discovered,  and  consists simply in
blowing  currents of  air,  through
the distilled fluid.  The same me-
thod has also  been  successfully
employed to take off the unplea-
sant taste  which  is  sometimes
found in milk.
  Dr.  Reich of Erlang, describes
a particular machine  for  the pur-
pose of extracting air from the in-
testines, and thus procuring instant
relief in a complaint called tympa-
nites, or the dry  windy dropsy.  A
small  tube  with a cock having a
valye on its side, and so constructed 
24         AIR
AIR
 as to turn quickly, is affixed to the
 common clystering machine. Up-
 on  each  successive introduction,
 the cock must be turned, in order
 to admit the air into the tube, and
 then quickly closed.
  Air which  is  rarefied, ascends.
 This is  particulc.vly exemplified in
 the periodical sea and land breezes
 of hot climates ; where, in conse-
 quence  of the  reflection of the sun
 from the earth's unequal surface,
 the lower land-air becomes highly
 rarefied, and rises  into the upper
 atmosphere, while the  sea-air, be-
ing cool and dense, rushes  in  to
 supply its place.  Upon this prin-
ciple, M. Van Marum,  a Dutch
chemist, has discovered a method
of purifying assembly-rooms  by  a
tin tube  of nine inches diameter,
and ten feet in length, to the lower
surface  of which lamps  are sus-
pended, for the purpose of rarefy-
ing the air, and urging it to ascend
through the ceiling of the room.
  Dr. Hales  has  described the
useful effects  produced in  French
prisons, by long air-trunks fixed
through  the ceilings of wards in
gaols, to carry off the foul vapours
which exhale from the prisoners :
he declares that it has not only pre-
served many of their lives, but pre-
vented them from communicating
infectious distempers to persons as-
sembled in the courts of judicature.
  We are happy to add, that this
valuable improvement  has  also
been adopted in  this country.
  An apparatus invented by  Mr.
Salmon, of Canterbury, for the
expulsion of noxious air from wells,
 has been employed with consider-
able success.
 Air-baloons are constructed upon
 similarprinciples; they continue to
 ascend,  so long as the inflammable
gas with which they are filled is
 lighter than the atmosphere with
 which they are surrounded.
   Noxious and mephitic vavours,
 arising from wells and other sub-
 terraneous places, may be effectu-
 ally corrected  by  simple ventila-
 tion, or the admission of such por-
 tions  of vital air, as will render the
 whole sufficiently  respirable.
   To ascertain whether the air of
 a mine, well, cellar, or large cask,
 be safe, a lighted candle suspend-
 ed by a cord, ought to be conveyed
 to the bottom, before  any person
 venture to approach it.  Should a
 slight explosion take place, or the
 light burn dimly, or even be extin-
 guished,the air is certainly noxious;
 but if the flame  continue bright,
 no danger is to be apprehended.
  Another easy expedient of puri-
 fying foul air may be adopted, by
 pouring several vessels of boiling
 water into such recepticles, before
 any person be suffered to descend.
  A still better method of dispel-
 ling the deleterious air from deep
 wells or pits, is the following: Take
 a leather tube of sufficient length
 to reach the bottom of the shaft or
cellar ; fix the  nozle of a pair of
large  bellows to the top, and work
them  briskly for a few minutes :
thus fresh air will be  introduced,
the flame  of the candle, on  trial,
will not be extinguished, and we
 may descend without any danger.
  [This  last is  the plan recom-
 mended by Mr.  Robertson  of
 Philadelphia, in the Amcr. Phil.
 Trans.  It is a tedious method ; a
 much better one will be described
 under the article Well.]
  Artizans who are employed over
 charcoal-fire, such as dyers,' gilders,
 refiners of metals,  &c. are exposed
 to considerable danger from the vi-
 tiated state of the air : to avert the
 injury to which their lungs are thus 
AIR
AIR         25
 exposed,  it would be  advisable to
 place  near  them a  flat-bottomed
 vessel filled  with lime-water, and
 to renew  it every other day, or so
 often as a variegated film or pellicle
 appear floating on such water. This
 powerfully attracts and absorbs the
 pernicious  exhalations  produced
 from the burning of charcoal.
   Likewise, in the construction of
 chemical   laboratories, smelting-
 mills,  and similar offices, proper
 attention  ought to be paid to their
 free and constant ventilation; as the
 metallic fumes, and other noxious
 vapours which they generate, are
 highly detrimental to health.
   In chronic diseases, especially
 those  of the lungs, a change of air
 is strongly recommended.  It has
 sometimes, independently of any
 other circumstance, proved highly
 beneficial ;  inasmuch as patients
 have breathed more  freely, even
 though removed to a damp and
 confined  situation.
   In a late volume of the " Annates
 de Chimic, we meet with a memoir
 by M. Deyeux, on the means of
 purifying  infectious air ; and which
 is extracted from  a   work of M.
 Guyton De Morveau, who made
 numerous experiments with differ-
 ent matters, in order to ascertain
 those which were best calculated to
 prevent the diffusion of contagious
 atoms in the atmosphere. As, how-
 ever, we cannot enter  into an ana-
 lysis of his experiments, we shall
 briefly  state their results.   Accord-
 ing to  these, the nitric acid is well
 calculated to destroy the putrid ef-
 fluvia ;  but, as it cannot without
 greatdifficulty be divested of nitrous
 gas,  the action of which is always
 prejudicial to the health  of those
who  respire it, M.  Morveau re-
marks, that the use of this  remedy
is still attended with great inconve-
     VOL.  I.
 nience. He is, therefore, of opinion,
 that the muriatic acia\ affords very
 great advantages in dispelling con-
 tagion, by the uncommon expansi-
 bility of its vapours; which thus pe-
 netrate every part of the substance
 on which the operation may be per-
 formed. Nevertheless,he conceives
 oxygenated muriatic acid to be su-
 perior to every other  remedy, both
 for the celerity and  facility with
 which it is diffused,  and likewise
 for the certainty of its action ;  in
 consequence of which, it instantly
 destroys all  putrid miasmata, that
 may either be floating in the air, or
 be fixed upon bodies.
   [With regard to Guyton's pub-
 lication, the editor agrees with Dr.
 Mitchell in thinking, that soap-
 suds, alkaline ley, and lime-water,
 properly used, by an active woman,
 will much more effectually extin-
 guish contagion and infection, than
 any acid fumigations, whether ni-
 trous or muriatic ; and that there is
 no need of books, or chemical pro-
 cesses, when the best possible me-
 thods are in daily use already, and
 only want  to be carried rigorously
 into execution. It is curious to ob-
 serve that while Dr. C. Smyth, who
 has lately  been rewarded by the
 British Parliament with 5000/. for
 the discovery, insists upon the effi-
 cacy of the "nitrous vapour," Guy-
 ton is  equally positive that the suf-
focating fumes of the  muriatic acid
are the most certain destroyers of
contagion.   Both methods are at
variance  with the  common  expe-
rience  of mankind.]
  Aira Cespitosa, L.  See Tukfy
Hair Grass.
  AIR-BATH, in its general ac-
ceptation, implies a contrivance for
the reception offresh air. All per-
sons, but especially children, ought
to resort, at least for a short time,
    E 
26         AIR
ALA
every day to this method of enjoy-
ing the salubrious influence of that
universal agent.
  To persons of a robust and vigo-
rous habit, we cannot recommend
a more bracing and pleasant reme-
dy.   In this  place, however, we
shall give only an historical sketch
of the simple air-bath, without ex-
patiating on its nature and effects.
Its  benefits were first pointed out
by the late illustrious Franklin,
who describes it with his peculiar
simplicity, in the following words :
" Every  morning at day-break I
get  out  of bed, and pass  half an
hour, or an hour, in my chamber,
according to the season, in writing
or reading, without any clothes; and
this seems rather   pleasant than
otherwise : and if I return to bed, as
is sometimes the  case, before I
dress myself, I have an  addition to
my night's  rest  of one  or  two
hours sleep, sweeter than you can
imagine."
   The late  Lord  Monboddo, a
man of an amiable,  though eccen-
 tric character, was so  decided an
 advocate for the air-bath  that he
 accustomed himself to take violent
 exercise, when quite undressed in
 the open air.   In  this  practice he
 persevered till within a few  years
 of his death (which happened in
 May, 1799) ;  he also anointed his
 body, like the ancients, with aro-
 matic oils, especially in  a moist and
 heavy atmosphere.  Whether by
 these singular expedients, or by a
 frugal and philosophic mode of life,
 he enjoyed that extraordinary de-
 gree of mental serenity and bodily
 energy, which prolonged  his exis-
 tence to the 90th  year of age, we
 shall not pretend to decide.
    AIR-JACKET, a dress made of
 leather, in which are contained se-
 veral bags or bladders, composed of
the same materials, and communi-
cating with each other. These are*
filled with air blown through a lea-
ther tube, having a brass stop-cock,
accurately ground at its extremity.
In order to confine this elastic fluid,
the jacket must previously be wet-
ted ;  and thus the person is sup-
ported in the water without any ef-
fort, by the aid of these  bladders
placed near the breast. Those who
are proficients in the art of swim-
ming, condemn such  artificial as-
sistance as cannot always be readily
procured : in our opinion,  the most
proper and easy method of acquir-
ing this useful talent, is that men-
tioned by Dr. Struve, in his Ger-
man treatise on the Physical Educa-
tion of Children, lately published,
with  three  Introductory  Lectures
by the Editor of this-Encyclopaedia.
See the article Swimming.
   Aix-la-Chapelle.  See Mineral
Waters.
   ALABASTER, is  a species of
stone, the basis of which is calca-
reous earth. Mixed with  any acid,
no effervescence  takes place ;  in
this respect it differs from marble,
but in its chemical properties it re-
sembles gypsum, selenite, and plas-
ter of Paris. There are three spe-
 cies of alabaster: the white-shining;
 the yellowish ; and the variegated,
 a mixture of yellow and red/ The
 last, indeed,violently ferments with
 aqua-fortis, and burns to a pale yel-
 low. It was  formerly brought from
 Egypt, but  is now obtained in se-
 veral parts of England.
   Mr. Boyle, speaking of the first
 sort, says, that, if finely powdered,
 and  set in a bason over the fire, it
 will, when hot, assume the  appear-
 ance of  a  fluid, rolling  in waves,
 yielding to the smallest touch, and
 emitting vapour. On the  departure
 of the heat, it loses these  proper- 
ALA
ALB         27
ties, and again becomes a mere in-
coherent powder.  So great is the
transparency of this stone, that it
has sometimes been employed for
windows, and at Florence a church
still receives its light through the
medium of alabastar.   It is found
in the greatest abundance near Co-
blentz, in  Germany ;  near, Cluni,
in France ;  near Rome, in Italy ;
and in some places of Lorrain.
   Alabaster, or  marble,  may be
cleaned by the following process :
beat pumice stones to an impalpa-
ble powder,  and mix it up with ver-
juice :  let it stand for two hours,
then dip into it a sponge, and rub
the marble  or alabaster, wash it
with a linen cloth, and fresh water,
and dry it with clean linen rags.
   ALARUM, a term employed to
signify any instrument, or contriv-
ance, for the purpose of awakening
persons from sleep,  at a certain
hour, or of  alarming them when
exposed to danger.  In the former
sense,  it  is  generally  a part of
clock-work,  and deserves  here no
farther notice ; but in the latter, we
strongly recommend the utility of
alarums to  every family, whether
living in towns, or in solitary situa-
tions in the country.       f
   Many  ingenious  suggestions
have been devised, for  affording
security to the industrious, against
the audacious  attempts of house-
breakers : the most  common  of
these  are, hanging  bells to the
windows, or larger bells and rattles
kept in readiness for  giving early
notice to the  watchman absent from
his duty, or to the peaceful neigh-
bour whose aid is required.
   In the year 1771,  Mr. Henry
invented a curious alarum, which
was highly approved of by Sir John
Fielding.   All burglaries  being
perpetrated  at night, this piece of
mechanism deserves  peculiar en-
couragement.  On being fixed up
by a bell-hanger, with wires fasten-
ed up to the windows  and doors, it
will, upon the least attemptto break
into the house, go off with a noise
sufficient to awaken the family. As
every clock-maker is  acquainted
with the construction of this ala-
rum, we think it unnecessary to
give a particular description.
  ALBUMEN, properly signifies
the white of an egg, but has lately
been used in chemistry to  denote
likewise one of those elementary
constituents  of vegetable  bodies,
which, in its colour and properties,
bears an exact resemblance to the
animal  substance  known   under
this denomination.
  The white of eggs if taken warm
from the  hen, especially in luke-
warm milk, is uncommonly nou-
rishing  to the weak and infirm ;
but, when boiled hard, its nutritive
quality  is  in a great  measure de-
stroyed, and it then becomes very
difficult  of digestion.
  If the white of a fresh egg be ap-
plied  to burns, immediately  after
the accident, it generally prevents
them from rising in blisters : it al-
so tends to abate recent inflamma-
tion of the eyes, when spread upon
soft linen, and placed over the parts
affected.  Used as a lotion  on the
face, it preserves it from sun-burn-
ing or freckles, in the heat of sum-
mer. On the contrary, a very small
portion  of the white of  an  egg, if
swallowed in a putrid state, is at-
tended with dreadful effects  ;  such
as nausea, horror, fainting,  vomit-
ing, diarrhcea, and gripes,  accom-
panied by  heat,  thirst and  fever,
while it inflames or  violently sti*
mulates the  bile, and, not unlike
the plague, promotes  a speed} dis-
solution of the humours. 
28
ALB
ALC
   It is remarkable that, according
 toBoERHAAvE, the white of eggs
 was employed by the reputed Pa-
 racelsus, as a menstruum of ex-
 traordinary properties; and which
 greatly contributed to his fame.....
 When boiled hard in the shell, and
 then suspended in  the air by a
 thread, it dissolves and drops down
 into a flavourless liquor; which,
 though destitute of acrid, oily, or
 saponaceous ingredients, makes a
 more  perfect  solution of myrrh
 than either water, oil,  spirits, or
 even fire itself can effect.
   In domestic economy, the white
 of eggs  is usefully employed for
 clarifying ale, wine, Sec. for which
 purpose it should be mixed with the
 liquor, and the whole boiled toge-
 ther ;  thus all the gross particles
 of the latter will subside, or be car-
 ried oiY with the former, which, by
 this  process, is reduced to a con-
 crete state, and  is either precipi-
 tated, or combined with, the fecu-
 lent  ingredients of the liquid.
   The vegetable albumen is one of
 those primary constituents of plants,
 which may be separated by chemi-
 cal aid,  without undergoing  any
 change of their  native pr inherent
 qualities.   It  is found principally
 in cresses, scurvy-grass, hemlock,
 and  most abundantly  in the anti-
 scorbutic andnarcoticplants, where
 it  generally resides in the leaves.
 Its existence may be easily disco-
 vered,  by  mixing the freshly ex-
 pressed juice of these plants with
 spirits  of wine, or by macerating
 them with hot water, nearly to the
boiling point: in both  cases, the
albumen  will be coagulated and se-
 parated from the other fluids in the
form of cheesy matter.  It is, per-
haps, superfluous to observe, that
this vegeto-animal production may
in times of scarcity serve as a pro-
 per substitute for the white of eggs;
 it being possessed of similar proper-
 ties.   See the article Eggs.
   [ALCARRAZAS.   A  kind of
 vessels used in Spain  for cooling
 water intended  for drinking.   As
 they  are  exceedingly porous, the
 water oozes  through them on all
 sides ; the air which comes in con-
 tact with  the water by making it
 evaporate, carries oft" the caloric or
 the principle  of heat in the water
 in the vessel, and by these means
 renders it remarkably cool.   The
 most celebrated place for  this spe-
 cies of pottery is Anduxas in An-
 dalusia.   These  vessels might be
 easily imported  from  Spain, and
 would be  found of singular use in
 the United States.]
  Alcea rosea, L. See Hollyhock
 and Paper.
  Alchemilla vulgaris, L. See Com-
 mon Ladies' Mantle.
  ALCHEMY is the art  of trans-
 muting metals into gold, or chang-
 ing the inferior into more  precious
 ores.  It was  formerly much culti-
 vated, and held in high estimation
 by  fanatics, as  well as by many
 learned but deluded men : in latter
 times, however, it has been almost
 generally exploded, and is now pur-
 sued only  by crafty impostors.
  The ruin which frequently at-
 tended this popular delusion, be-
 came so extensive, that  alchemy
 has, at various times, been proscrib-
 ed in several states. The  Romans
 banished such persons as professed
 it;  and Dioclesian and  Caesar
 ordered all books on this subject to
 be publicly burned.   In England it
 has, at no period been  much  en-
couraged ; for the native  good sense
of the inhabitants  generally  pre-
 vailed, so  that this useless art, has
by  the more  enlightened, always
been considered in its true colours. 
ALD
ALD         29
  ALCOHOL, in chemistry, sig-
nifies spirit of wine, in a more ar-
dent and purified state, obtained by
distillation.  Its specific gravity is
to that of distilled water, as 815 to
1000.   When diluted, in the  pro-
portion of about twenty ounces to
seventeen  of  water,  it  is  called
proof spirit, and  is used for tinc-
tures, distilled cordials,  Sec.   See
the article Spirit of Wine.
  [The following method of recti-
fying weak spirit of wine, will be
found very advantageous to artists.
  Take well dried potash and pour
over it spirit  of  wine:  the latter
will not unite with  the potash, but
the  water which it  may contain
will be taken up  by that alkali.....
The spirit of wine is then to be
poured into another glass, and sub-
jected to the same operation as be-
fore. This process is to be repeat-
ed till it is observed that the potash
is no longer very moist.  Such spi-
rit of wine is  exceedingly strong,
but  rendered a little impure by the
pot-ash, as will appear from its yel-
lowish colour.  It must, therefore,
be poured into a retort, having  a re-
ceiver adapted to it, and distilled to
a fifth part over a slow heat. What
comes over is alcohol.]
  ALDER-TREE, or the Betula
Alnus,of LiNN^us,is so well known
by the name of common birch, as
to require no particular description.
There are three species, 1. the  alba,
or common ; 2. the nana, or dwarf;
and 3. the lenta, or Canada-birch:
the  last of which grows to a height
of upwards of sixty feet.   The al-
nus, or alder-tree,is,properly speak-
ing, another species of the Canada-
birch.  When suffered to grow in
an open situation, it has  an agree-
able appearance.   Whenever  any
soil  is intended for  pasture, the al-
der  should by no  means be encou-
raged,as it poisons the herbage,and
renders the soil moist and rotten.
  The alba, or common birch,  is
easilypropagated; either from seeds
or layers, and will flourish in most
soils.  While in the nursery, they
should,  in  dry weather,  be con-
stantly weeded  and watered.  Ac-
cording to Hanbury, the best  me-
thod of producing them, and  pre-
serving their varieties, is by  dis-
tributing them  in layers.
  The wood of this tree was,  in
ancient times,  used for the con-
struction of boats, and at present,
on account of its hardness, is  em-
ployed in the North of Europe for
making carriages and wheels.  In
France, it is  generally used for
wooden shoes ; and in England for
women's shoe-heels, travelling box-
es, Sec.; it also affords very good
fuel.  In Sweden it is employed for
covering houses, and is very dura-
ble. On deeply wounding, or boring
the trunk of this tree, in the begin-
ning of spring, a sweetish'juice ex-
udes in large quantities ;  and one
branch alone will yield a gallon  in
a day.  This juice is recommend-
ed in scorbutic disorders, and other
impurities  of the blood.  Its most
sensible effect is in promoting the
urinary discharge.  By proper fer-
mentation, and  with the addition of
sugar, it makes a "pleasant wine....
The plant itself is astringent, but
the bark of the black berry-bearing
alder, is affirmed to be the most
certain purge for horned cattle.....
The leaves, when eaten by cows,
are said greatly to increase their
milk.
  [There are several species of al-
der peculiar to the  United States.
  The bark is  used by dyers,  tan-
ners, and leather dressers.  It dyes
a yellow; and with a little copperas,
a yellowish gray, very useful in the 
30        ALD
ALE
 demitints, and shadows of flesh in
 tapestry. The shoots cut in March
 will dye a cinnamon colour; and
 a fine tawny if they be dried and
 powdered.  The fresh wood yields
 a dye the colour of rappee  snuff....
 The catkins dye green.  The bark
 is also used as  a basis for  blacks;
 an ounce of it dried and powdered,
 boiled in three quarters of a pint of
 water,  with an equal  quantity  of
 logwood, with  solution of  copper,
 tin, and bismuth, six grains  of each,
 and two drops  of solution of sul-
 phate of iron (copperas) will dye a
 strong deep boue-de-Paris, or Paris-
 mud.  The leaves have been some-
 times employed in tanning leather.
 The whole tree  is very astringent.
   The alder-tree thrives in swampy
 ground.  The wood of this tree is
 in great esteem in Europe  for ma-
 chinery. The cogs for mill wheels
 formed of it are deemed superior
 to any other. It is commonly used
 for bobbins.  It resists water pow-
 erfully, and hence is of great value
 for pump trees, pipes, drains, con-
 duits to reservoirs, piles under wa-
 ter, and all kinds of wood work,
 kept constantly  wet.  In Flanders
 and Holland it is raised  for  this
 purpose.
   The alder is highly useful as a
 medicine.   I have heard of a well
 authenticated instance of the effica-
 cy  of an infusion of the  catkins
 or candles taken internally, having
 effectually cured a boy of&ore eyes,
 which apparently proceeded  from
 a scrophulous cause, after a variety
 of remedies had been used without
 effect.  A decoction of the barks
 of black alder and dogwood (cornus
fiorida) is a common and success-
 ful remedy in the United States for
 intermittents.  The roots  of the
 liriodendron  tulipifera,  or  tulip
 poplar  tree, and of the sassafras
(laurus sassafras) are sometimes
joined with the alder and dogwood.
Medical gentlemen  who  practise
in the country would render a ser-
vice to the public by stating the pro-
portions of each  remedy, which
produce the best effect.]
   ALE, a fermented  liquor, ex-
tracted from malt by the process of
brewing.  It  differs from beer, in
having a less proportion of hops....
This  beverage was  first made in
Fgypt,  and used as a substitute in
those climates which were unfavor-
able to the production of the grape.
Among  the  Anglo-Saxons  and
Danes, it was a favourite drink, and
they believed, that large  and fre-
quent potations of it constituted one
of the chief enjoyments  of those
who were admitted into the Hall of
Odin.
   There are various kinds of ale,
particularly the pale and brown; the
former,  being brewed  from  malt
slightly  roasted, is esteemed more
glutinous and wholesome than the
latter, which is made from malt of
a drier nature. It may be prepared
in  various ways, from  wheat, rye,
millet, oats,  barley, Sec.   Its con-
sumption  in  England, was  about
twenty years  ago, computed at the
value  of four millions sterling an-
nually, including Great Britain and
Ireland.  See the articles, Beer,
and Brewing.
   In c old countries, and to persons
who take considerable exercise, ale
may be  of service, but in weak and
lax habits, it is often attended with
disagreeable  effects, such as indi-
gestion,  flatulency, Sec.  When
drank to excess, it has sometimes
occasioned cholera morbus, and se-
vere colics.
   Various methods of preserving
this valuable  liquor from turning
sour on long voyages, have been 
ALI
A LI           31
proposed ;  of which the following
appears to be the most effectual:  it
was first published by Dr. Stubbs.
in the 27th Number of the Philo-
sophical transactions.  For its dis-
covery  we are indebted to an ale-
seller at Deal, and it was tried with
success in a voyage to  Jamaica.....
" To every runlet of five gallons,
after being placed in a cask on ship-
board, not to be stirred any more,
put in two new laid eggs whole, and
let them lie in it; in a fortnight, or
little more,  the  whole egg shells
will be dissolved, and the eggs be-
come like wind-eggs, inclosed only
in a thin skin ; after this, the white
is prey ed on, but the yolks are not
touched  or corrupted,  by .which
 means the ale was so well preserv-
 ed, that it was found better at Ja-
maica than at Deal."
   ALE-HOUSE, a public place of
resort for drinking ale or beer.
   The utilityof ale-houses has been
much questioned ; they certainly,
in some degree, encourage habits
of intemperance and  dissipation ;
 yet, we must acknowledge, that by
the subsistence which they afford to
 a considerable part of the commu-
 nity, the facility with which they
 enable those who cannot brew for
 themselves, to procure their liquors
 at intervals, and in small quantities;
 and the social  relaxation they pro-
 cure for the weary traveller, as well
 as the'industrious peasant, they ma-
 terially contribute to the ease and
 enjoyment of a  portion of society,
 over whom the moralist  may  be
 safely  allowed  to exert the sober
 influence  of persuasion, but with
 whose amusements the legislature
 should cautiously interfere.
   ALIMENT.    By this term is
 understood the nutritive quality of
 such substances as are dissolved and
 mixed in the stomach, and convert-
ed into chyle, by the digestive pro-
cess.   It may be considered rather
as the consequence of food taken by
a healthy individual, than as an ar-
ticle of food itself ;  for all kinds of
animal and vegetable bodies do not
furnish an alimentary supply, or at
least, not in the same proportion.
   Of those articles which afford it
in the highest degree, animal  food
is the principal; being most easily
digested, and furnishing a  greater
quantity of that milky fluid, called
chyle.   For this purpose, however,
a due mixture of vegetables  must
be added,  in  order to  correct its
high luxuriance, and to render it
more congenial to our nature.
   Fresh air is one of those agents
which are necessary to the digestion
of food, and the consequent produc-
tion of aliment:  as, without a re-
newal of this salutary medium, the
most wholesome diet will be pro-
ductive of but little benefit.
   It is asserted that substances have
been discovered, which have ena-
bled men  to exist without proper
food, for a considerable length of
time ;  and as a proof of this asser-
tion, the following instance of an
extraordinary powder,  which was
given to six pensioners of the Roy-
al Hospital of Invalids at Paris, is
recorded in the Gentleman's Maga-
zine for January, 1755. Itissup-
posed to consist of Turkey corn.
 roasted, powdered, and mixed with
 a small quantity of  sea-salt: six
ounces of this composition, with less
 than a pint of water, afforded suf-
 ficient nutriment to one person for
 twenty four hours.  No other pro-
 vision was taken for  fifteen days,
 during which time, it is said, these
 invalids continued well and hearty,
 though one was seventy  years of
 age, and the other five were young
 men,  who had lost some of their 
32         ALK
AL K
limbs.  None experienced any in-
convenience, either from faintness
or hunger ;  several of them being
employed in such bodily exercises
as were suited to their years ; and
they  frequently did not  eat the
whole of their allowance.  To pre-
vent any deception, they were con-
stantly guarded by a centinel.
   Previous  to  its  administration,
the powder was prepared in the
manner as follows  : six ounces of
it were shaken by degrees into boil-
ing water, and briskly agitated with
a spoon ; after having acquired the
consistence of a thin panada, it was
fit for use.  The invention of it is
ascribed to M. BoucH,late surgeon-
major of a regiment in France.  Jt
is  recommended  to an army on
forced marches, a  besieged gam-
son,  and to  the poor at a time of
scarcity, or when other provisions
cannot be easily procured.
  Among the articles of diet afford-
ing aliment  in an uncommon pro-
portion, we  may  enumerate the
following, to which we refer the
reader, under the heads of Arrow-
Root, Rice, Sago, Salep-Pow-
der,  Tapioca, Sec. See also Food
and Drink.
  Alisma Plantago, L. See Great-
er Water Plantain.
  ALKALIES, in chemistry, sig-
nify those substances which possess
the following properties : viz. they
are 1. incombustible ; 2. capable of
converting a vegetable blue to a
green colour; 3. they manifest a
hot and caustic taste ; and 4. are
soluble in water.
  Alkalies are divided  into two
kinds^-red and volatile. The fixed
are subdivided  into vegetable and
mineral; the former being the pro-
duction of burnt vegetables in the
open air ; and the latter have some-
'imes been  found  native in the
earth, though we generally obtai*
our soda by the calcination of ma-
rine plants, chiefly from the differ-
ent species of the  glass-wort,  or
Salsola,  L. as well  as  from other
saline vegetables growing near the
sea-shore.......See the  article Ba-
rilla.
  Both  the fixed  alkalies endure a
very intense degree of heat, with-
out dissipation, and are used in the
composition of glass :  the volatile
are produced  by1  distillation  from
animal  substances ;  in their  pure
state they are invisible, and so pun-
gent to the smell that they  can-
not be  approached  without great
danger.
  All vegetable substances contain
fixed alkali, in greater or less pro-
portion. M. M. Deyeux and Vau-
qyELiN have proved by recent ex-
periments, that one pound of the
ashes of horse-chesnuts yields near-
ly six ounces and a half of pot-ash ;
nay, the same quantity of the burnt
husks  produced  more  than  six
ounces.   But, according to an ac-
curate   analysis   made  by  these
chemists, the greatest quantity of
vegetable alkali is contained in the
fruit of the Spanish lilac, or sy-
ringa Vulgaris,  L.  the ashes of
which yield more than one-half of
pure alkali,  or in  proportion  of
eight  ounces  and three  drams to
a pound.
  M. Jacobson,  the editor of the
German Technological Dictionary,
asserts,  that  the  dry or withered
leaves of the  beech-tree, or  the
Fagus sylvatica, L. afford the vege-
table alkali in great abundance, in-
somuch that ten pounds weight of
the ashes thence obtained, are equal
to thirty pounds of common wood-
ashes....We have purposely men-
tioned the results of these experi-
ments, as the vegetables alluded te 
ALK
ALK          33
 may be readily procured, and sub-
 stituted for the very expensive arti-
 cles of pearl-ashes and soap. A far-
 ther account of useful substitutes
 will appear under the different heads
 of Soap, Soda, and Washing.
   It is  affirmed  that pestilential
 fluids  are rendered  harmless and
 inactive by alkaline substances; and
 Dr. Mitchill, of New-York,  in
 two letters written to a young lady
 has ingeniously and humourously
 described  their  good  eHects.   As
 these refer to many articles of do-
 mestic economy, which are more
 or less composed of  alkaline pro-
 ductions, we shall present our read-
 ers with an extract, nearly in the
 author's own words....It is a stale
 and  indelicate  subject of jesting
 among men,  how much time and
 labour are consumed by women in
 scrubbing, scowering, whitening,
 and washing.   These  operations,
 however,  are not performed for
 mere pleasure,  but to prevent the
 conversion of impurities  to infec-
 tion ; or to destroy it if already pro-
 duced. For this purpose they em-
 ploy potash and its ley, soap, lime,
 calcareous earth, Sec. to scower the
 porous materials of their floors and
 stair-cases; to purify garments that
 have become soiled or contaminated
 by long use, or wearing; and with
 good reason,  as these saline sub-
 stances are capable of drawing forth
 and rendering harmless, those ani-
 mal exhalations which are ready to
 be converted into  pestilential  poi-
 son—The  ladies have indeed prov-
 ed from  long  establised  experi-
 ence, that " infection is uniformly
prevented aud extinguished by the
 use of alkalies."
  Dr. Mitchill also recommends
-the use of potash cakes for chil-
 dren, to prevent the  injurious ef-
 fects of an acid upon their stomach,
     VOL. I.
 and mitigate the disorders to which
 their bowels  are  liable.  He ob-
 serves, that those infants who have
 been  accustomed to eat cakes a
 little  tinctured with  this excellent
 ingredient,  grow fat and healthy ;
 and concludes with advising alka-
 line washes and powders as denti-
 frices; which, in his opinion, have
 been  beneficial only in proportion
 to the alkali,  of  which they are
 partly composed.
   [For a large body of evidence in
 favour of the  antiputrefactive and
 antipestilential properties of alka-
 lies, and of their virtues in curing
 various diseases, See  the Medical
 Repository of New- York.]
   ALKANET, Evergreen,  or
 Bugloss; the Anchusa sempervirens,
 L. of eight species, the only one
 which is indigenous ;  it is  repre-
 sented in Soweruy's  Eng. Bot.
 45, p. 5...7.
   The Anchusa officinalis, or great-
 er garden-bugloss, is  a native  of
 the warmer parts of Europe; but
 will also thrive in Britain.   The
 flowers of this  species  which blow
 during the whole summer, have ob-
 tained the name of cordial flowers,
 as they moderately cool and  soften
 the palate and stomach.  They are
 much visited by bees....the young
 leaves afford a good substitute for
 early  garden vegetables,  and the
 whole plant is  an excellent fodder
 for cattle...If the juice of the fresh
 flowers be boiled with a solution of
 alum, it  yields  a green colour,
 which is vised for dying.
   The .Inchusa lutea,  or Onosma
 echioides, L. is a native of France,
 Italy,   Switzerland, Austria, and
 some  parts of Russia.   Its peren-
 nial and woody root is, as it were,
externally varnished with a  beau-
tiful carmine colour; hence the fe-
males of the last mentioned  coun-
    F 
34         ALK
ALL
try steep it in oil, for the vain pur-
pose of painting their faces.
   Another  species, the Anchusa
linctoria. L. is imported from the
Levant, but unprincipled dealers
frequently dye the common gar-
den-bugloss in a decoction of Bra-
zil wood,  and substitute it for the
genuine root, which, as obtained
from Montpellier,  is of a woody
texture, externally blood-red, but
internally  white, without flavour,
and of an acrid taste. DoDONiEUS
affirms that, when  transplanted to
a cold climate, it loses its red co-
lour.
   The Spanish Wool, or Charta
Hispanica, is  said  to be prepared
of this root:  and  Ruger, a late
German writer, gives, in his "Pock-
et-book for Painters," the following
directions for obtaining from it  a
beautiful  purple  lacker: take two
ounces of the root finely powdered,
 and boil  it for a few minutes in
 a lixivium made  of potash suf-
 ficiently  diluted:  and  after the
 liquor  has grown cold, precipitate
 the colouriug matter with a strong
 solution of roach-alum. The pre-
 cipitate thus obtained must not be
 edulcorated or washed with water,
 as is done in similar  processes;
 because this ablution would carry
 off too many  of the colouring par-
 ticles.
    All  the species  of Anchusa may
 be propagated  by  seeds, which
  should be sown either in the spring
  or autumn,  upon a bed  of light
  sandy earth ; and  when the  plants
  are strong enough to be removed,
  they should be planted in beds two
  feet distant from  each other, and
  watered,  if the  season require  it,
  till they  have taken  root.  The
  alkanet reared in this country,  is
  greatly  inferior to that which  is
  imported from the Levant.
   ALL-HEAL,   Clown's,  or,
Marsh Woundwort, the  Sta-
chys palustris, L.  is an indigenous
plant, growing on the sides of rivers
and lakes,  in  low, moist grounds,
and sometimes in corn-fields.  It
is  represented and described in
Curtis's Flora Londinensis, pi. 8,
p. 248.
   This plant has  a fetid smell, and
bitter  taste.  Formerly,  it  was
employed in medicine as a vulne-
rary ; but at present we shall con-
fine our account to its economical
purposes.
   Linn^us the illustrious author
of the prevailing system of botany,
informs us, in his account of escu-
lent plants, that the creeping roots
of the all-heal are sought after with
avidity by  hogs ; and that,  from
their farinaceous nature, they would
well repay the trouble of collecting
and converting them into flour, for
the purpose of making bread.  In
the present distressing condition of
the industrious poor, we feel it our
duty to take particular notice of all
such substitutes  as would, if pro-
perly and  timely resorted  to, in  a
great  measure  tend  to avert or
relieve a national calamity......See
Bread.
   Allium.   See Garlic k.
   ALLSPICE,  Pimento,  or  Ja-
maica pepper.  The berry, in its
 smell,  resembles  a  mixture  of
 cinnamon, nutmegs,  and  cloves,
 whence it has derived its name.  It
 is milder than the East India pep-
 per, and, when employed in whole
 grains, makes an useful ingredient
 in broth, and stewed dishes. In me-
 dicine, it forms the basis of a dis-
 tilled water, a spirit and an  essen-
 tial oil; in which different forms it
 is efficaciously  employed  as  an
 aromatic, for cold and phlegmatic
 habits....See the  article Spices. 
ALM
ALM         35
  ALMANACK, a term derived
from two Arabic words, al and ma-
nack, a diary; and is, as its name
imports, a table or register contain-
ing a calendar of days and months,
the rising and setting of the sun,
the age of the moon and the eclipses
of  these  luminaries.   It is also
used to foretel the change of sea-
sons, the state of the weather, the
ebb and flow of the tide, Sec.
  A great number of such diaries
are annually printed in Britain; and
we understand,   that of the cele-
brated Moore's Almanack,  notwith-
standing all  the  superstitious no-
tions perpetuated in this popular
book, not less than 400,000 copies
are, every year, ushered into public
notice.   It is, therefore, sincerely
to be wished, that such publications
as  are  addressed immediately  to
the bulk of the people, may  in
future be rendered the  vehicles of
more useful information.   Hence
we presume to  remark, that an
annual publication, conducted upon
the plan  of  Poor Richard's Alma-
nack, in  Pennsylvania, would be
attended  with  great advantages,
both to the  husbandman and  me-
chanic, in this country.  The great
Franklin,  who is said to have
edited that popular work for many
years, furnished it with various sen-
tences  and   proverbs,  principally
 relating to subjects of industry, do-
mestic  economy, and frugality.
   ALMOND, a tree, eminent both
for its fruit,  and for the ornament
which it affords to a shrubbery.  It
is the original of the ancient genus
amygdalus, and by the botanic cha-
racters of the flowers comprehends
also the peach and nectarine. Bota-
nists admit but of one real species
of the common almond  tree, which
they term Amygdalus communis....
Not being  indigenous, we shall
omit its particular description, and
proceed to state the properties and
effects of its fruit on the human
body.
  Sweet almonds are supposed to
afford but little nourishment, and
are not easily digested, unless tho-
roughly triturated.  Six or eight of
them peeled and eaten, sometimes
give immediate relief in the heart-
burn. In medicine, they are chiefly
used for preparing emulsions,  as
they abound not only with an oil,
but likewise with a mucilage fit for
incorporating oil and water.  We
have  already observed that this
fruit is difficult of digestion, on ac-
count of the oil it contains, which
quickly becomes acrid in the sto-
mach; hence it is particularly im-
proper for   bilious  constitutions.
The various preparations of  al-
monds are liable to similar objec-
tions : and it is therefore absurd to
give almond milk  as a  common
diet-drink to febrile  patients:  for,
as  it consists entirely of  oily and
insoluble parts, it not only heats
and vitiates the  stomach, but at
the same time occasions an accu-
mulation of bile.
   Almonds, as well as nuts, ought
to be eaten only while fresh, and
without their skins.  They should
be  well chewed; for every piece
swallowed  entire  is  indigestible.
The use of a little salt,  however,
renders  them  miscible with  our
fluids, as a saponaceous muss; but,
if indulged in to excess, they are
productive of alarming, and some-
times fatal disorders.
   The expressed oil of bitter  al-
monds, is, in cases of poison, recom-
mended preferably to all others;
but care must be taken not  to use
the chemical, instead of the natural
oil, as the former is itself a poison.
  Bitter almonds are now generally
disused.  They have  been found
to destroy some  kind of  animaVs 
36         ALM
ALM
  hence modern physicians prescribe
  them with more caution; they are
  nevertheless,  frequently  employ-
  ed, for making orgeat and other
  liquors, without producing any bad
  effect.
    AUhough we have declined to
  give a particular description of the
  Almond-tree, yet as it is frequently
  cultivated in shrubberies, both on
  account of its beautiful flowers, and
  also for its fruit, we shall here add
  an outline of the manner in which
  it should be managed.
   Almonds are propagated by Ino-
  culation, or  budding on  plum or
 peach stocks, in the month of Au-
 gust,  at such height as may cor-
 respond to that of  the stem in-
 tended to be raised : at the expira-
 tion of two years, the trees may be
 finally planted  out.   If the soil be
 dry, this operation should be  per-
 formed in October,when the leaves
 begin to decay; but, in case the
 ground  be wet, the proper season
 is the month of February.'
   When the young  trees are  re-
 moved from the nursery, Mr. For-
 syth is of opinion, that they should
 never be cut, or pruned, " till the
 new shoots begin to break;" and,
 as these frequently perish during
 severe winters, that  succeed  wet
 autumns, when the wood is  not
 well-ripened, he directs them to be
 cut down to the sound wood; care
 being  taken to   extirpate with the
 knife all cross shoots, so as to make
 the tree open in the middle, and to
 leave the principal shoots, accord-
 ing to their strength, from six to
 sixteen inches long.  Those parts,
 which  are affected with the Can-
 ker,  must also be cut  out; and
 such excision ought farther to be
extended to all  decayed wood.
  Almond-trees being very deli-
cate, it will be  advisable to place
 them in a southern aspect, and in a
 sheltered situation, either among
 tall flowering-shrubs, or to thatch
 their  tops with fern, or other light
 covering; in order  to  prevent the
 blossoms from being killed by the
 frost, during the months of Febru-
 ary and March.  When the fruit
 is set, and the leaves are sufficiently
 long to cover it, such shelter ought
 if the weather be warm, to be re-
 moved, towards the end of April,
 or early in May; by which expedi-
 ent an abundant supply of almonds
 may be obtained for the dessert both
 in autumn and in the winter.  The
 fruit of  the  almond-tree is chiefly
 valued on account of its kernels; it
 may  be  preserved  either in dry
 bran, or in sand ; but it ought pre-
 viously to be dried,  on shelves  or
 boards in an open situation;  as it
 is otherwise apt to become mouldy,
 and consequently the kernels will
 be unfit for use.
   ALMS-HOUSES are asylums
 for the support and maintenance of
 a certain  number of poor, aged, or
 infirm persons, during  their lives.
 When these institutions are  of a
private nature, and limited in their
 extent, they are certainly beneficial
 to society; yet it may on the whole
 be  doubted,  whether such public
 establishments, especially as  they
 are generally managed under the
 absolute controul of rapacious trus-
 tees, do not in a great ineasuretend
 to relax  the springs of industry,
 and encourage  habits of indolence.
 For, by accustoming people rather
to resort to eleemosynary sources,
than exert their own strength and
abilities, they cannot fail  to degrade
the moral feelings of human na-
ture, and to destroy that independ-
ence which constitutes  its noblest
support...See the articles Charity
and Hospitals. 
ALO
AL O         37
  ALOE is a beautiful exotic plant,
the flowers of which grow in um-
bels on the tops of the stalks, are
of an elegant red colour, and ap-
pear in the months of August and
September.  It consists of ten spe-
cies, all  of which are propagated
either by off-sets, or by planting
the leaves.  The proper earth for
this vegetable, is one-half of gar-
den-mould, or fresh earth dug from
a common ; the other half consists
of an equal proportion of white sea-
sand, and sifted lime-rubbish. This
mixture  should be made, at least,
six or eight months previous to its
use.  The common aloe will  live
in a dry green-house in w inter, and
in summer may  be  placed under
shelter, in the open air ; but should
have very little water, and none on
the stem of the  plant;  the other
species  require  to be kept in an
airy green-house, in  which there
is a stove to make a fire in cold
weather.
   Among the Mahometans,  and
especially in Egypt, the aloe is held
in high estimation, and even dedi-
cated to  religious offices.  These
superstitious people believe, that it
prevents evil spirits from entering
their houses: for this purpose, both
Christians and Jews place it over
their doors ;  and whoever  returns
from a pili^rimage,exhibits it as an
emblem  of  his having peformed
that journey.
   Its properties are various ;  and
applied to numerous purposes,both
medicinal and domestic. The leaves
of  the Guinea-aloe, as described
by M. Adanson, in his voyv.;. e to
Senegal, are employed in making
very good ropes, not liable to rot
in the winter.
 ' Dr. Sloane describes two sorts
of  aloe,  one of which is used for
fishing  lines,  bow-strings, stock-
ings,  and hammocks;  the other
produces leaves capable of holding
rain water.
   In  Mexico there is a species of
aloe called the Maguei, which is
applied to  almost every  purpose
of life.  Besides making excellent
hedges and inclosures for .their
farms, its trunk  serves as beams
for the roofs of their houses, and its
leaves instead of tiles.  From this
plant, the natives make their pa-
per, thread, needles, and various
articles of clothing,  and cordage  ;
while, from its copious juice, they
extract wine, honey, sugar and vi-
negar.  Of the trunk, and thickest
part  of the leaves, when baked,
they  prepare an excellent dish. It
is likewise employed by  them in
several diseases,  but especially in
those of the urinary passages.
   In  this country, aloe is princi-
pally  known as a medicine in the
form  of an inspissated juice, which
consists of three sorts :  1. the Aloe
perfoliata, or Socotrine Aloe; 2. the
Hepatica, Barbadoes, or Common  ;
and 3. the Caballina, fetid or Horse
Aloe.  The first of these is the pur-
est, and is brought from the island
of Socotora, wrapt in skins.  It is
of a glossy surface, and  in some
degree pellucid, of a yellowish red
colour, with a purple, cast, and when
reduced to powder,ofa bright gold-
en shade. In winter, it is hard and
friable, but  in summer pliable, and
grows soft, when pressed between
the fingers. Its taste is bitter, ac-
companied with  an aromatic fla-
vour ; the smell is not unpleasant,
and slightlyresembles that of myrrh
   Aloe is  considered  as a good
opening medicine for persons of a
lax habit, and those whose stomach
and bowels are loaded with phlegm
or mucus, and also for worms ; be-
cause, while it carries off viscid 
38        A  L O
AL O
humours, it serves by its stimulat-
ing qualities  to  strengthen and
brace the system.  When given in
small doses of a few grains, repeat-
ed at intervals, it not only cleanses
the alimentary canal, but tends also
to promote the menstrual discharge
in women :  hence, its use in the
green sickness, and all female ob-
structions.  We  must, however,
observe, that, though it be a good
stomachic laxative, it ought to be
employed with  great  precaution,
being an acrid and heating  medi-
cine, and therefore  not proper in
bilious complaints, or in a febrile
state of the body. Its continued use
sometimes produces the piles and
habitual costiveness. When given
in substance, without any mixture,
it frequently adheres to the coats of
the intestines, where it occasions
griping and uneasiness : for which
reasons,  and in order to destroy its
viscid properties, it should be pre-
viously combined  with some sapo-
naceous or resolvent medicine, such
as a small quantity of alkaline salts,
the yolk of an egg, Castile soap, or
mucilaginous  vegetable' extracts.
  We have purposely given a more
minute account  of the medicinal
effects of this plant, than the limits
of our work will admit, on similar
occasions: this exception, however,
has not been  made with a view to
encourage the sale of those  aloetic
preparations,  so generally known
and vended under the name of "An-
debson's Pills ;" which, like most
patent and quack medicines, have
unquestionably contributed  to in-
crease the number  of patients a-
mong those credulous victims, who
are frequently obliged to seek relief
in public dispensaries and hospi-
tals. Convinced of the mischievous
tendency thence  resulting to the
 community, we devoutly hope that
the wisdom of the legislature will,
at length, be effectually directed to
the suppression of those destructive
practices, the pretended success of
which, we almost blush tosay,ise.r-
ultingly related in our daily prints !
  With respect to the economical
purposes to which the aloe may be
rendered subservient, we shall in
this place relate only the principal.
  It is asserted by an anonymous
writer,  in  the  Gentleman's Maga-
zine for July, 1754, that a varnish
made of the extract of the Hepatic
aloe, turpentine, tallow, and white
lead, or Spanish brown, when  ap-
plied to the bottoms of ships, is the
most effectual means of preserving
them from the sea-worm : the dis-
coverer remarks,  that a plank co-
vered with this mixture, was sunk
with a  proper  weight and  ropes,
together with another in an unpre-
pared state, both in an equal depth
of  salt-water,  where the  worm
abounded; and, upon raising them,
after they had remained there from
5 to 8 months,  the former was per-
fectly  sound and untouched, while
the latter  was  eaten to  a honey-
comb.  This hint was adopted by a
gentleman at Bermudas, who ob-
served the inhabitants employ  a
few sliced leaves of the plants,from
which the hepatic aloe is extracted,
in  addition to the oil and  tallow,
which are  boiled together and used
in  careening their fishing-boats.
  Another valuable property of the
horse-aloe, beside its being an ex-
cellent purgative for horses, is its
bitter principle,  which renders  it
eminently useful in watery solu-
tions, not  only for preserving  ten-
der plants  from the depredations of
vermin and insects, but likewise for
 preventing putrefaction in  certain
 vegetable  and animal bodies, such
 as dried plants, stuffed birds, quad- 
            ALO

rupeds, Sec.  Proper care, however,
should be taken,  that solutions or
mixtures  made  with aloe  be not
exposed to be swallowed by dogs,
cats, or other domestic animals, as
to them  the consequences would
be fatal.
   Several species  of this useful
plant have also been employed for
manufacturing a cloth, resembling
linen in  its texture,  and paper of
various qualities.   Clusius made
shirts of it at Madrid, and Bourgo-
ing,  in his travels  through Spain,
informs us, that the natives of that
country manufacture their horse-
bridles from the filaments of aloe-
leaves.  Minasi, an Italian,  pro-
duced from similar materials, dif-
 ferent  kinds of  coarse and fine
 paper.
   Lastly, we find, in the " Experi-
 ments and Observations" published
by Pokrner, a credible German
writer, in 1772, that a watery de-
coction made of the resinous  gum
of the aloe, without  any further
addition, produces  a beautiful dark
cherry-brown colour  on woojlen-
cloth, by simple immersion.  This
fact may be easily ascertained by
dyers.
   According to M. Fabroni, the
leaves of the Socotrine aloe afford
 a beautiful violet colour, which re-
 sists the action of oxygen, acids,
 and alkalies. He directs the juice to
 be extracted from the fresh leaves,
 and then exposed to the air: thus,
 the liquid  will  become gradually
 red, and at length be converted into
 a deep violet purple which is pecu-
 liarly calculated for dyeing silk, a
 stuff that readily imbibes the colour
 without any aid of mordants.  M.F.
 observes, that such juice may also
 be inspissated; in which state it
 forms a  beautiful  transparent co-
 lour for painting in miniature.
            ALU         39

  Alopecurus pratensis, L.    See
Meadow  Fox-tail.
  Alopecurus  agrestis, L.    See
Slfndek Fox-tail.
  Alsine media, L.   See Common
Chick-weed.
  Althaa officinalis, L. See Marsh-
mallow.
  ALUM is a concrete salt, trans-
parent,  and of a  very austere and
astringent taste.  It is in general a
chemical preparation, being rarely
found in a natural state, or freed
from other ingredients. In Egypt,
Sardinia, Spain, Bohemia, Sec. it is
said to  be sometimes discovered
in crystals.
    There are various kinds,  but
that which is called  the Roman
alum, is  preferable to any other.
This is  usually found  in  small
crystals, and of a reddish colour,
probably owing to a small quantity
of  calx of iron,  which, however,
does not in the least impair its
qualities.   The  other kinds con-
tain a proportion either of vitriol-
ated tartar, or sal-amoniac.
  In medicine  it has been consi-
dered as an astringent, and  is of
great  service in restraining he-
morrhages, and other immoderate
secretions.   It is likewise exter-
nally used in lotions and  eye-wa-
ters : and- one scruple  of  burnt
alum has been found beneficial in
removing violent colic-pains aris-
ing from flatulency, bile, or  great
relaxation of the bowels ; but in
other cases it may prove hurtful.
  It is used for various purposes by
dyers to fix different colours upon
cloth ;  in the making of candles,
to give  them a gloss and firm con-
sistence ;  wood soaked  in a solution
of alum, does not readily take fire ;
and paper impregnated with  it,  is
the most  proper for the preserva-
tion of  gun-powder> as it also ex- 
40         ALU
ALU
 eludes the moisture of the air.....
 Tanners employ it to restore the
 cohesion of those skins which have
 been almost entirely destroyed by
 lime ;  and vintners  in fining  their
 wines, Sec.  Fishermen dry  their
 cod-fish by means of it; and it is
 asserted, that bakers generally use
 it as an ingredient in bread: the
 truth  of  this assertion, however,
 has been much questioned, and the
 sole reason ascribed for its use, is,
 that corrupt flour,being mixed with
 good, thus acquires a proper de-
 gree of cohesion, as the aluminous
 particles equally pervade the whole
 mass and render it of a clue  con-
 sistence.   Although some writers
 have maintained, that this styptic
 salt " is entirely innocent, and now
 seldom used"  in  the process of
 making bread, yet we have but too
 much reason  to believe the   con-
 trary.   The English translator of
 Tissot's excellent " Advice to the
 People in general," Sec. very perti-
 nently remarks, that the abuse of
 alum,  and other pernicious mate-
 rials, introduced by  our bakers,
 may  too  justly be  considered as
 one lamentable source of the nu-
 merous diseases of children.  The
 Monthly Reviewer of that book, for
 July 1765, adds, with equal justice,
 the following commentary: "Hence
 obstructions in the bowels and vi-
 cera, feebleness, slow fevers, hec-
 tics, rickets, and other lingering
 and fatal diseases."
  To discover such unlawful prac-
 tices, requires no chemical skill:
 on macerating a small piece of the
 crumb of new-baked bread in cold
 water, sufficient to dissolve it, the
 taste of the latter, if alum has been
 used by the baiter,  will acquire a
 sweetish  astringency.   Another
method of detecting this adultera-
tion consists in thrusting a healed
 knife into a  loaf,  before it has
 grown cold ;  and if it be free from
 that ingredient,  scarce any altera-
 tion will be visible  on  the blade ;
 but, in the contrary case, its  sur-
 face, after being allowed to cool,
 will  appear  slightly covered with
 an aluminous  incrustation.   This
 method,  we understand,  is gene-
 ally preferred  in the experiments
 made by country-justices.   It de-
 serves, however, to be remarked,
 that a  very small  proportion of
 alum, such as a few grains to a
 quartern-loaf, cannot be productive
 of any serious effects.  In relaxed
 and scorbutic  habits, or  to those
 persons who are troubled with fla-
 tulency, bilious colic, and jaundice,_
 such medicated bread may be con-
 ducive to the recovery of health;
 while others, of a  plethoric can-
 stitution,  and a rigid fibre, it can-
 not  fail  to aggravate their com-
 plaints.  In short, such addition to
 a common article of subsistence is,
 to say the least  of  it,  highly im-
 proper, and ought not be  entrust-
 ed to the hands of a mechanic.
   One of the most important pur-
 poses, to which  this concrete salt
 may be readily applied, is that of
 purifying  and  sweetening water
 that has become  fetid and unfit for'
 use.  On long voyages, or at a dis-
 tance from clear  rivers and wells,
 each gallon requires, according to
 its impurity, only from five to ten
 grains of calcined alum, and dou-
ble or triple that proportion  of
powdered  charcoal,  in  order  to
render the most offensive water
perfectly sweet and pellucid : both
ingredients, however, ought to be
preserved  in   close vessels,  or
otherwise  their  efficacy   will be
considerably diminished.
   Alum has also been tried in the
boiling of salt, to render it of a firm 
ALU
A M B         41
consistence, but the  good which
was supposed  to be derived from
it, is now solely attributed to the
effects of the slow and gentle heat,
So that in this process  it has of late
been discontinued.
   The manufacture  of alum  was
first invented in the year 1608, and
greatly encouraged in England, by
Lord Sheffield and other gentle-
men of the county of York.  King
James the 1 st assumed a monopo-
ly of that article, and prohibited its
importation.
   Beside the methods of detecting
alum in bread, already stated,there
is a chemical process, that consists
in combining  a little chalk with a
small  portion of  aqua fortis and
pouring the mixture  on water, in
which the suspected bread has been
immersed for  some time.  If there
be any aluminous acid, its presence
will become evident, by a gypseous
or chalky  mass deposited at the
bottom of the vessel: in the contra-
ry case no sediment will be formed.
   In October, 1794, a patent was
granted  the Earl  of Dundonald
for his method of preparing alum,
vitriol of argil, and other saline sub-
stances.   He directs aluminous,
vitriolic or pyrituous  schist  to be
mixed with sea-water, or  with so-
lutions of sea-salt, kelp, sandiver,
soap-boilers' ashes, or any saline
matter, containing muriat of soda.
The liquor resulting from  such
mixture, is then boiled till it be suf-
ficiently concentrated  for  crystali-
zation ; after which it is mixed with
a  due proportion  of alum-schist,
clay or other argillaceous engredi-
ent.  The materials are next dried,
pulverized, and  submitted to the
action of heat, tiil the muriatic acid
be expelled : the result of these va-
rious processes, is alum. The sub-
stance remaining may, by repeated
    VOL. I.
washing and drying be used as a
pigment; and, by  collecting  the
muriatic acid in proper vessels, and
combining it  with  volatile alkali,
Lord D. procures sal ammoniac...
A more  diffuse account of his  in-
ventions, is inserted in the 4th vol.
of the " Repertory of Arts," Sec.
   Alyssum sativum, L. See Gold
of Pleasure.
   Amaranthus Blitum,  L.    See
Small Red  Blite.
   Amaurosis.  See Gutta  Se-
rena.
   AMBER (Succinum) is a hard,
bituminous substance, possessing a
subacid resinous taste, and a fra-
grant aromatic smell. It is the pro-
duction of many countries, but the
best sort is that which is found in
various parts of England, especial-
ly in the clay and  gravel-pits be-
tween Tyburn and Kensington, as
well as behind St. George's hospi-
tal, near Hyde-Park Corner, where
fine specimens of this concrete are
occasionally  discovered.   Prussia
possess   it  in  great  abundance,
and the king derives from this ar-
ticle alone an annual revenue of
26,000 dollars : on which  account
the late Frederic professed him-
self to belong to the trade of amber-
turners.
   Those parts of the earth which
produce this bitumen, are generally
covered with a soft slaty stone, and
abound with  vitriol.   Its most re-
markable properties  are, that it
attracts other bodies to its surface,
such as paper, hair, wool,  Sec. and
that it presents a luminous appear-
ance in the dark. In its native form,
under ground, it resembles various
substances, such as pears, almonds,
peas, Sec. but, when broken* leaves,
insects, and  other  small  objects,
frequently appear inclosed : hence
it has been supposed, that amber
    G 
>o
AMB
A MB
was originally  in a fluid state, or
that from its exposure to the sun
it become softened, so as to be sus-
ceptible to those impressions. As
these insects are never found in its
centre, but always near its surface,
the latter seems the more probable
conjecture.   Animals of all kinds,
are e:»tremely fond of it, and pieces
are frequently  discovered in their
excrements.  Several centuries be-
fore the  Christian  sra, it  was in
high  esteem as a medicine; and
Plato,  Aristotle,  and  other
writers, have commended its vir-
tues : among the Romans, it was
valued as a gem, and in the reign
of NERO,broughtin immense quan-
tities to the  capital, where it  was
highly prized by the fashionable la-
dies, who decorated themselves with
trinkets made of that substance ; a
custom which is still prevalent at
Munster in Westphalia, and other
catholic countries, where it is con-
verted into amulets, crosses, kc.
  As a medicine, amber is at pre-
sent but in little repute, though it
is still given in fiuor albus, hysteric
affections,  and  in  those diseases
which proceed from debility.  For-
merly it was used in a  variety of
preparations, but of late, an aro-
matic balsam,  a powder,  and  an
essential oil, are the only forms in
which it is employed.
  Lastly, this  bituminous  matter
constitutes the basis of several kinds
of varnish.  It is used for the coat-
ing  of various toys,  for  staining
the papier mache, and for the var-
nishing of carriages ; for which last
purpose, however, it is  more pro-
fitable to dissolve the gum copal.
  A  method of making  artificial
amber has lately been  discovered
fcy Prof.  Hermbstaedt, of Ber-
lin. He placed recitified petroleum,
about one line in thickness, on wa-
ter, in a china saucer, which was
exposed to the rays of the sun, for
several months, beneath a glass-
bell containing oxygen. At length,
the petroleum had  absorbed the-
oxygen and sunk a  little beneath
the surface : the glass was remov-
ed ; when after pouring off the wa-
ter, and evaporating by  a  gentle
heat,  that part of the  petroleum
which retained its fluidity, the con-
densed residuum was found to pos-
sess all the properties of amber....
Such mode of preparing that valua-
ble bitumen, however, would be too
tedious to be  generally  adopted ;
but Prof. H. from this  ingenious
experiment, justly infers,  lhaf am-
ber  originates  from  petroleum,
oxygenated and inspissated by its
contact with the atmosphere, under
the action of the  sun.  See Var-
nish.
  AMBERGRISE,  or Grey Am-
ber, is a solid opake, bituminous
substance, of a greyish or ash-co-
lour, usually intermixed  with yel-
low and blackish veins.   This con-
crete is found floating on the sea, or
thrown on the shores, and is pro-
duced in the greatest quantity  by
the Indian Ocean.   It  has been
sometimes also discovered by fish-
ermen in the bellies  of whales, in
lumps of various sizes, from half an
ounce  to one  hundred  pounds in
weight.  Hence it is supposed to
be an animal production.  Clusius,
however, asserts, that it is an  indu-
rated and indigested part of the food
collected by these fish, and forms  a
similar concretion with that of the
bezoar found  in  the stomach of
other animals. When pure, it sof-
tens between the fingers: melts
into an oil, in a moderate degree of
heat, and, in a stronger one, proves
highly volatile.  Slightly  warmed,
it emits a fragrant odour, and wheu 
            AMB

set on fire, smells like amber.  It
dissolves, though with difficulty, in
spirits of wine, and essential oils,
but not in those which are express-
ed from vegetables, nor  in water.
  In Asia, and part of Africa, am-
bergrise is not only used in medi-
cine,and as an article of perfumery,
but also applied to the purposes of
cookery,  by adding it as  a spice to
several dishes.  It is valued by the
Turks, as  an aphrodisiac, and  er-
roneously  supposed  to  promote
longevity.
   It was formerly esteemed a cor-
dial, and to be of great service in
disorders of the head,  and nervous
complaints;  but it  now  chiefly
serves as  an agreeable  perfume,
and is certainly free from many of
those inconveniencies which usu-
ally accompany substances of this
description.
   Ambergrise may be considered
as genuine, when  it emits a fra-
grant smell,  on thrusting  a  hot
needle into its substance, and melts
like fat of an uniform consistence.
   AMBURY, in farriery, signifies
a tumour, or wart which is soft to
the touch, and full of extravasated
blood.   It is a disorder incident to
horses, and may be cured by the
following method.
 Tie a strong hair very tight round
the part affected ; and, after it has
spontaneously  fallen   off,  which
usually  happens in about 8 days,
sprinkle  powdered  verdigrise  on
the place,  to prevent  a  return of
the complaint.   When,  from  its
local situation, it cannot be tied, it
may be either cutout with a knife,
or burnt away with a sharp,  hot
iron;  or, where this cannot  be
practised with safety, for instance,
in sinewy parts, it may be removed
by applying oil of vitriol,  or corro-
sive sublimate to the tumour. Dur-
            AMM        43

ing the cure, the  animal must be
kept quiet, and free from every ex-
ertion.
   AMMONIA signifies a salt,  of
which there are two sorts, the na-
tive  and the factitious.  The for-
mer, described by Pliny, and Dio-
scorides, was generated from the
urine of camels, in the inns, or cara-
vanseras, where the pilgrims, re-
turning from the Temple of Jupiter
Amnion,  used to lodge : whence  it
derived its name.   The latter is a
chemical preparation, formed ei-
ther of  the  acetous or  muriatic
acids, combined with volatile alkali.
A salt nearly of the same kind  is
thrown out by Mount  Etna.   The
ancient  sal ammoniac was said  to
possess  the  properties of cooling
water, and dissolving gold.
   Great quantities of this concrete
were formerly brought from Egypt
where it was originally prepared
by sublimation from the soot  of
animal dung ,  though  at  present
we are principally supplied from
our own manufactories,  several  of
which are  established in different
parts of Britain ;  but  that  in the
vicinity of Edinburgh is one of the
most extensive. '
   Although the cheapest and most
convenient method of preparing it
is not generally known, yet  it  is
conjectired to be chiefly formed  of
a combination of sea-salt and soot.
It is commonly crystallized in the
form  of large,  round cakes, and
sometimes in conical loaves.  The
best sort is colouv'ess, almosttrans-
parent, and free from visible impu-
rities.  The taste of this salt is very-
sharp and penetrating! It dissolves
in rather less thai: thrice its wei.ht
of water ; and upon evaporating, a
part of the liquor  concretes again
into thin shining spicules, or \! ites,
like feathers.  In  frosty weather, 
44         A M M

these are remarkably beautiful,and
resemble trees, plants, Sec.
   Sal ammoniac, when puie, pro-
motes perspiration,  and  in some
cases,  increases  the  secretion of
urine.    A dram of it, dissolved
in water, if the  patient  be  kept
warm  after  taking  it, generally
proves sudorific.  By moderate ex-
ercise in the open air, it  benefici-
ally operates on the kidneys; given
in a large dose, it proves aperient;
and  in  a still  larger, acts  as  an
emetic.
   As a cooling and diaphoretic me-
dicine, the sal ammoniac dissolved
either  in vinegar and water,  or
combined with small  doses of the
Peruvian bark, has often been  at-
tended with the best effects, when
taken in fevers, and especially in
intermittents,  after the  intestinal
canal has been properly evacuated.
Mr.  C.  Lynam, a medical practi-
tioner in the metropolis,  has  for-
merly favoured the editor of this
work with an  account of  a cheap
and expeditious manner of saturat-
ing the  common solution  obtained
by dissolving  this salt in  vinegar,
with fixed air, or carbonic acid gas;
which is a valuable addition to that
liquor.  His method is in effect as
follows; take  one ounce  of pure
sal ammoniac, and one pint and a
half of  distilled vinegar;  put the
latter in a decanter provided with
a closs  glass-stopper; then  intro-
duce  the  salt, previously broken
into  lumps,  but not too small ; as
by plunging it too suddenly into
the liquor, the extrication of the
gas would be too quick, and a quan-
tity of it be dissipated.  Next, the
stopper  of the bottle should be tied
over with a piece of  leather, and
the whole be left  undisturbed.  It
would farther be useful to add, on
the top of the  bottle, some weight
           AMM

or pressure, by which means tb«
combination of the  carbonic acid
gas with the water will be greatly
facilitated.  After having  stood a
few hours, the ammonia will be dis-
solved,  and the carbonic acid ab-
sorbed by the liquor.
   By this simple process, the ace-
tated water of ammonia becomes
strongly impregnated  with fixed
air, while it is almost entirely de-
prived of that disagreeable taste
which is peculiar to this medicine,
when prepared in'the usual way.
   Mr. Lynam speaks from expe-
rience, of the superior qualities this
preparation possesses as  a febri-
fuge ; beside the very great advan-
tage, that it tends to keep the bow-
els open, even under the immediate
influence of opiates.   It likewise,
generally,  agrees  with weak and
irritable  stomachs, which  can re-
tain  scarcely any other  medicine.
  This salt has also been employed
externally in lotions and embroca-
tions, for scirrhous and other indo-
lent  tumours ; for removing warts
and other excrescences, and in gar-
garisms, for inflammations of the
tonsils.
   Ammonia pura, ;or the caustic
vegetable alkali, possesses uncom-
mon alexiteric powers, in the cure
of persons bitten  by  snakes, and
other venomous animals.   Sixty
drops of it, sufficiently diluted with
water, make  a  moderate  dose,
which ought to be repeated accord-
ing to the urgency  of the symp-
toms. At the same time, the wound
should be washed  with a similar
mixture.
 It is possitively asserted, that such
treatment has been  attended with
uniform success, when the patiait
was able to swallow the  medicine.
  [Mr. J. Williams in a late pub-
lication speaks in the most posjilve 
AMM
AMP         45
manner of the good effects of the
volatile alkali,(spirits of hartshorn,
or spirit sal ammoniac)in curing the
bites of venimous snakes intheEast
Indies.   The cure  consists in the
immediate application of a bandage
around the bitten limb  ; in wash-
ing the wound with volatile alkali;
and in the repeated administration
of the same medicine, in doses  of
from 30  to  60   drops, in  water,
every five, eight, or ten minutes,
till the  patient  is  completely re-
lieved.   Though the medicine  is
directed to be administered imme-
diately, yet one instance occurs  of
its obviating the effects of a bite
which had beed inflicted more than
an hour.  Relief is given in a few
minutes.  As this  remedy is  kept
 in most families, an opportunity is
 afforded of trying its effects in the
 case of a bite of our American cro-
 talus horridus or rattle-snake.
   For a  very interesting  account
by Dr.   Mitchill, of the  anti-
pestilential  quality  of  vol. alkali,
See the Medical Repository, parti-
cularly vol. 4,  p. 257.]
   AMMONIAC  is a concrete,
 gummy-resinous  juice,  usually
brought from the  East Indies  in
large masses composed of lumps
or tears of a milky colour, but  on
exposure to the air, it  quickly ac-
quires  a yellowish  appearance.....
 Hitherto we have no certain ac-
 count of the plant which affords
 this juice, but it has, and with some
 probability, been  asserted, that it
 is a species of the ferula,  from
 another species of which is also
 produced the   asa f<etida....it  is
 said to grow in Nubia, Abyssinia,
 and the interior parts of Egypt.
   This gum has a nauseous sweet-
 ish taste, succeeded by  a sensation
 of bitter; and a smell somewhat  re-
 -embling, but  more grateful  than,
galbanum.  When chewed, it sof-
tens in the mouth, and becomes of
a white colour. It may be partially
dissolved, in water, or in vinegar,
with which it assumes the appear-
ance of milk, but the resinous part,
amounting to about one  half, sub-
sides when suffered to rest.  A si-
milar composition, but much infe-
rior in virtue, is frequently  sold
under the  name of strained gum
ammoniac. Those tears which are
large,  dry, and  free from  little
stones, or other impurities, should
be selected and  prepared for in-
ternal use ; the coarser kind may
be purified by  solution and strain-
ing, but  unless  this be carefully
managed, it will lose a considerable
portion of its tine and more volatile
parts.
   In medicine, it is prescribed for
removing obstructions of the abdo-
minal viscera ; in hysterical com-
plaints occasioned by the deficiency
of  periodical evacuations, and in
long and obstinate colics, proceed-
ing  from viscid  matter  lodged in
the intestines. A solution of it, in
vinegar  of squills,  has proved of
considerable service in the humid
chronic  asthma  of  the  aged  and
decripid.  The most  convenient
form for its  exhibition,  is that of
pills; a scruple may be given every
night, or oftener.  Externally it is
used for softening and ripening in-
dolent tumours ; and with a mix-
ture of squill vinegar, forms a plais-
ter which has sometimes been suc-
cessfully recommended for white
swellings.  A solution  of  it,  in
penny-royal  water, is usually kept
in the shops, under  the name of
ammoniac milk.
   AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS are
so called, on account of lheir living
partly on  land, and  partly in the
water. 
46        AMP
AMP
  We cannot, consistently with our
plan,  enter into  a  disquisition re-
specting theirnature and functions;
and  shall therefore content our-
selves with observing, that in their
structure, they are principaliy dis-
tinguished" from land animals, by
having red cold  blood,  and instead
of lungs, either gills or bronchia, as
is generally  observed  in snakes,
eels, and fish, which chiefly inhabit
the water.   Sometimes,  however,
they have the oval hole  open be-
tween the right and left auricles of
the heart; and, in many, the arteri-
al canal is also free. This is a dis-
tinguishing character of the phoca,
of such animals as enjoy their chief
functions on land,  for instance, ot-
ters,  beavers,  frogs,  crocodiles,
some kind of rats, birds, Sec. While
these remain  under water, where
they may safely continue for seve-
ral hours, their respiration is inter-
rupted ; and the blood not finding a
free  passage  through the pulmo-
nary  artery,  rushes  through the
hole from the right to  the left au-
ricle, and partly through the arte-
rial canal; having but a short course
to the aorta, the largest  of all the
blood vessels, and thence circulat-
ing to every part of the body. But,
on rising to come ashore, the  blood
makes its way  again through the
lungs, as soon as the animal begins
to respire.
   As in all land  animals a  large
portion of the mass of blood conti-
nually circulates through the lungs,
which would be stopped,  if the free
access of air  were excluded ; so
we find in fish a great number of
blood vessels passing through the
gills, which must  be  perpetually
wet, lest the blood should, in like
manner, be  checked, and conse-
quently  stagnate  in its  progress.
Hence, when the latter are removed
from  their  natural element, the
bronchia very soon grow crisp and
dry, the vessels become corrugat-
ed, and the blood finds no  outlet;
likewise,  when land-animals are
immersed under water, or in any
other maimer deprived of respira-
tion, the circulation ceases, and the
aiimal inevitably dies.
  Inquisitive physiologists have ad-
vanced, that man may, by art, be
rendered amphibious, and enabled
to live under water, as well as the
beaver, or turtle; because the  foetus
in utero lives without air, and the
circulation is continued by means
of the oval hole : if therefore, this
important  opening  could  be pre-
served after the birth of the child,
the same  useful faculty might still
remain.
  This proposition isplausible; and
we do not hesitate to declare, that
in a maratime country,such attempts
ought by all suitable means  to be
encouraged: for the advantages re-
sult! Dg from a  successful  applica-
tion of the theory, would indeed be
incalculable.  In its support, and
as an instance of the wonderful
power we possess over the organs
of respiration,it may be urged, that
expert divers feel no inconvenience
from remainingfor several minutes
under water,   at  a considerable
depth ; the individuals affected with
asthma  (among whom the writer
of this article is a living evidence)
have by mere force of habit obtain-
ed effectual and permanent relief in
that dristressing complaint, by ac-
customing  themselves from the
commencement of it,  to  respire
principally through the  nostrils,
whether in a waking  or  sleeping
state ; and lastly,that none of thein^
tcrior organs possess  a flexibility 
AMP
AMP          47
und power of expansion (unattend-
ed with loco-motion) equal to those
of respiration.
   After this short  digestion, we
shall proceed to state the means by
which  that desirable faculty of re-
spiring under  water, may  be ac-
quired by the human subject.
   It should previously be remark-
ed, that the lungs  of the embryo
are compressed during its confine-
ment, so that the pulmonary blood-
vessels are impervious, and conse-
quently the circulation  must  take
place through  the  oval hole, and
the arterial canal before-mention-
ed : hence the amphibious animal
and the  fetus  in utero are so far
analagous in   their  nature ; and
though this hole  generally closes
at an early period of infancy, yet
there are- instances,  well attested
by anatomists, where it has been
occasionally found not quite closed
in human subjects, who have died
at an  advanced  age.  There is,
however,  one  material difference
between  them :  the  foetus never
having respired, is sufficiently nou-
rished by the maternal blood circu-
lating  through  its whole  body,
which  progressively grows, till its
birth, without feeling the want of
repiration during the  whole period
of pregnancy ; on the contrary, ter-
raqueous animals having  respired
from  the moment of their birth,
cannot support life  for any length
of time without it ; because both
the hole and canal above alluded to
would  be closed, or  at least con-
stricted in them, as is the case in
land animals, if they did not in-
stinctively, soon afttr the birth of
the cub, instruct it in  the exercise
of that vital function.   This is ef-
fected,by frequently carrying it into
the water....a  practice by which
those passages  are kept open dur-
 ing life, and the creatures enabled
 to procure that kind of food which
 is designed for them by the provi-
 dential care of Nature.
   Thus we  may easily  conceive
 that, in infants, the  oval  hole, by
 proper expedients and persevering
 exertions, might, without much dif-
ficulty, be preserved in  an open
 state; for instance,   by gradually
 accustoming young children, soon
 after their birth, to  suspend their
 breath  once,  or oftener  in a day,
 increasing the duration of the ex-
 periment with every attempt, so
 that the blood may at length be di-
 rected to  circulate through its ori-
 ginal  passage,  which, by several
 trials, cautiously repeated, would
 no doubt  remain sufficiently  lubri-
 cated, and never again be closed
 in the manner we generally find it
 in the deceased body.
   That these are rational, and, we
 may venture to  add,  well founded
 conjectures, few will dispute ; es-
 pecially if it be considered that or-
 dinary clivers, without having been
 trained to this practice from early
 infancy, are capable  of retaining
 their breath, and continuing much
 longer under  water, than persons
 in whom  that primitive  organ of
 respiration, having never been ex-
 ercised, has become unfit to act as
 an useful  substitute for the lungs,
 while immersed under water. Nay,
 there are  well  authenticated in-
 stances of persons who were in the
 full possession of the uncommon
 faculty  here described : of others,
 we shall relate only that of a Sici-
 lian, named  the Fish-Colas,  who
 possessed it in  so eminent a degree,
 "that he lived rather after  the man-
 ner of a fish than a man," in con-
 sequence of having from his youth,
 and by an assiduous practice, suc-
cessfully acquired the habit of living 
48        AMP
AMU
 in water and thus affected a com-
 plete change of his physical nature-
    AMPUTATION  is a term in
 sm^e1 v, and signifies the cutting
 orl' a limb  from the body.   It is
 sometimes  rendered  necessary,
 when a part is so diseased as either
 tobe wholly useless, or threatening
 danger, if not removed^. The cases
 in which this operation is usually
 performed, are severe, compound
 fractures of the  bones,  attended
 with splinters; extensive lacera-
 tions, and contusions  of wounds,
 with great loss of substance, and
 pouring  forth a profuse discharge;
 wide - spreading  mortifications ;
 white swellings of the  joints ; can-
 cers, or  other incurable  ulcers ;
 exostosed,  carious  and distorted
 bones, Sec. Sec.
   Amputation is one of the most
 important operations  in  surgery,
 and has lately been brought to the
 highest perfection. Previous  to the
 invention of the tourniquet, and the
 method of securing the blood-ves-
 sels from hemorrhages, by  liga-
 tures,  it  was  rarely undertaken,
 and a great  proportion of  those
 who  submitted to it,  afterwards
 died.  But in consequence of mo-
 dern improvements, there seldom
 happens  more than one death in
 twenty or thirty cases.  In per-
 forming this operation, some par-
 ticular cautions are necessary, viz.
 to make  the incision at a proper
 place ; to save a quantity of skin
 and cellular substance,  sufficient to
 cover the muscles and bone com-
pletely, without being stretched ;
to prevent hemorrhages ; to secure
the arteries carefully,  without in-
cluding the nerves, or any of the
contiguous parts ; and to  prevent
the retraction of the integuments.
Where part of a limb is either car-
ried off, or much shattered, it will
 be necessary to amputate above the
 diseased  surface, to ensure a spee-
 dier and  safer cure. Should morti-
 fication have previously taken place,
 every other remedy  ought to be
 timely and vigorously employed,
 till  its progress  be arrested ;  the
 first symptom of which will be, an
 inflamed  circle separating the dis-
 eased from the  sound  parts:  as
 soon as  this  has taken place,  no
 time should be lost in resorting to
 the operation, lest the patient suffer
 from the absorption of putrescent
 matter, which  readily occasions a
 hectic fever.
   As the privation of a limb, and
 the great  destruction of  animal
 parts, are often attended with fatal
 consequences,nothing but extreme
 necessity, or the failure of all other
 means, can justify the choice of this
 formidable expedient. Some emi-
 nent authorities   have altogether
 questioned its utility ;  and M. Bil-
 guer, late surgeon-general to the
 Prussian armies, in his observations
 on this subject, declares, " that the
 cases in which amputation is ne-
 cessary, are less frequent than has
 hitherto been supposed." He says,
 that during  the late war, it proved
 unsuccessful in a  variety of instan-
 ces ; and that he himself had, with-
 out resorting to operations, cured
 many patients, whose limbs  had
 been so much bruised and shatter-
 ed, that the ablestsurgeonsthought
 it advisable  to employ their instru-
ments.  See Tourniquet,
  AMUSEMENTS, may be divid-
ed  into public and private ; and
they are either of an  active or se-
dentary nature.   The  former usu-
ally  consist of balls, plays, enter-
tainments, Sec. the  latter,  of the
various diversions of cards, chess,
 back-gammon, and other games of
chance or skill. 
AMU
ANA         49
   Those of an active kind ought
 always to be preferred, as they not
 only relieve the mind, when weari-
 ed with intense application, or de-
 pressed with  grief;  but by their
 agreeable  variety, together with
 the advantages of air, exercise, Sec.
 they are highly conducive to health.
 On this account, they are  particu-
 larly serviceable to such persons as
 are subject to nervous and hypo-
 chondriacal complaints,  and to all
 those  who lead a confined or se-
 dentary life. Private amusements,
 on the contrary,are principally em-
 ployed with a  view to consume
 time, and frequently  require more
 application than either study or bu-
 siness.  Those amusements which
 afford  the most violent  exercise,
 and ought, therefore, to be pursued
 only by the healthy and robust, are
 hunting, shooting, cricket-playing,
 hand-ball,  and similar games......
 When  these are undertaken with
 the necessary  adaptation  to   the
 strength of the indiv idual, they  pro-
 mote perspiration and other secre-
 tions, expand the  lungs, and give
 firmness and agility to  the whole
 frame.SeeGAMiNG,and Theatre.
   With respect to the amusements
 of children, we shall here only re-
 mark, that they may be compared
 to the labours and pursuits ofadults,
 and that their influence, as  well on
 health,  as on the future  inclina-
 tions and desires of the individual
 is much greater, and more  perma-
 nent, than  is generally supposed.
 Hence  we  should advise parents
 and  guardians to encourage   no
 games,  or play-things, which have
 a tendency to impair  the constitu-
 tion, or deprave the morals, of their
 o,vspring ; of this nature are,  im-
 proper and unnatural postures, or
 gesticulations of the body;  wanton
jumping up and down high places;
    vol. i.
 forcible exertions of muscular pow-
 er, .by* lifting great  weights  and
 carrying  ponderous  bodies ;  the
 partial exercise of one arm or leg;
 sedentary plays of long duration ;
 the standing for hours on their legs;
 musical  wind-instruments;  toys
 manufactured by common potters,
 or made of Plaster of Paris; drink-
 ing-vessels of lead,  pewter, white
 iron, bell-metal, or  earthern-ware
 imperfectly burnt and glazed; play-
 things coloured or painted with
 noxious metallic preparations, such
 as verdigrease, orpiment, minium,
 as well as those devices and similar
 trifles produced by the confection-
 er, Sec.   On  this interesting sub-
 ject, which cannot fail to engage
 the attention of every judicious pa-
 rent, we presume to refer the read-
 er to a work lately published, from
 the  German of Dr. Struve. enti-
 tled, " A Familiar Tra'ise on the
 Physical  Education of' Children ;"
 with three Introductory Lectures,
 and  Notes, by the Editor of this
 Encyclopaedia.  [See also " Edge-
 worth on  Education" 2 vols.]
   Amygdalus.. See Almond.
  [AN AGALLISARVENSISjL.
 or CommonPimpernel,has two strong
 varieties,  a, fiore caruleo, b, flare
phantceo: these have been distin-
 guished by late botanists as distinct
 species, leaving the name arvensis
 for a, or  calling it coerulea; b, is
 their phcenicea.  The  coerulea I
 have not seen,the phcenicea is com-
mon, perhaps  a native. (Dr. Muh-
 len htRG, in a letter to the Editor.)
   This plant  affords another  in-
stance among many others, with
which the  records  of  medicine
abound, of remedies obtaining a
high character without the small-
est pretensions thereto.  Crowned
heads  and republics, have passed
laws to preserve it from destruction,
     H 
50         ANA
ANC
and learned doctors have celebrat-
ed in classical Latm, its imaginary
virtue in preventing the  effects of
the bite of mad dogs. In this coun-
try it  has  long been celebrated
among the Germans, two of whom
kv pt tl;; sam*. remedy a great se-
cret.  One of these persons, a Mr.
Kettemng, of Dauphin County,
communicated  the Knowledge of
the plant to the k gislature of Penn-
sylvania last  year.  It failed in the
case of a child of a citizen of Phila-
delphia, and  in that of a Mr- Hu-
EEii of Lancaster, both  of whom
died last summer.  To  the  latter
it was given  both as  a preventive
und as a cure.   The  Rev. Dr. H.
Muhlenburg  of Lancaster, who
thought well of the remedy, never-
theless candidly informed me, that
he heard of one case in which  it fail-
ed....Prof. Murray,  in  his excel-
lent work, apparatus medicaminum,
 gives a long account of this  plant,
 and of the authorities by which its
 character was  supported, but he
 doubts its efficacy, and says that J.
 Bauhan also disbelieved  its suppos-
 ed virtues. " At Viriscum too,  in
 the hands of the celebrated  Rou-
 let, it failed to save the life of a
 woman.  At  Marseilles there were
 two  cases  of  similar failure, al-
 though other remedies against this
 dreadful disease were prescribed at
 the same Xmu.  Another case  is
 recorded, where, notwithstanding
 the anagallis hi:d been  given, the
 hydrophobia came on and proved
 fatal.  To the celebrated Tissot
 also after '4  laborious investigation,
 it appeared  of a  very doubtful na-
 ture." It argues little short of mad-
  ness to trust this remedy.
    The causes producing the repute
  of this and oti:  r nostrums for this
  disease, shall  be fully  di-.cusstd,
  when we com t to the article " Bite
  of a uiad dog."']
  Ananas.   See Pine-Applit.
  ANCHOVY, or Clup, a encrasi-
colus, L. a small fish of the herring-
kind, taken  in immense quantities
on the coast of the Mediterranean
Sea, whence they are imported into
Britain, in  a pickled state.  They
are in  general from  3 to 4 inches
in length, have a  pointed  head, a
wide mouth, destitute of teeth, and
the gums are uncommonly rough.
According to Collins, these dimi-
nutive fish  are, likewise, found in
abundance, on the western coasts
of England and Wales.
   The fishing for anchovies is prin-
cipally car-led on during the night;
when  a  light being affixed to  the
stern of a small vessel, the ancho-
vies are  thus attracted, and caught
in nets.   It is, however,  asserted,
that they are neither so good, firm,
nor so proper for pickling,  as those
taken  without  this stratagem.  Af-
ter  having secured these  delicate
fish, their heads are cut off; the in-
testines extracted ; and the bodies
 salted, and deposited in barreL.
   In the choice of anchovies, such
 as are small,  round-backed, fresh
 pickled, white on the outside, and
 red within, deserve to be preferred;
 because those  of a  flat, or large
 form, are frequently a spurious sort,
 called Sardinias.  Independently of
 these qualities, the  pickle should
 possess a  fine taste and flavour.
    Anchovies are variously prepar-
 ed : after boning them, and  taking
 off the  tails and fins, they may ei-
 ther be  eaten with oil and  vinegar;
 cr, by mincing them with pepper,
  Sic. be formed into sauce  for other
 fish.  They are likewise packed in
 earthen vessels, closely covered, so
 as to exclude  the air :'by  this sim-
 ple precaution, their flavour may,
  for a  long  time be preserved.  But
  the mosi effectual method of keep- 
A NC
ANC          51
ing  these fish in  a concentrated
state, is that of reducing the fleshy
part to a soft pulp, of the consist-
ence of butter ;  and, after  adding
pepper or other spices, the extract
of anchovis thus prepared,  should
be  put  in  gallipots, rirst covered
with a round piece of fine writing
paper, or hog's bladder; and then
melted beef suet in a luke-warm
state, must be poured over the whole
so as to leave about half an inch
space between this air-tight cover-
ing and the top of the vessel, which
is again secured with strong paper.
   Anchusa sempervirens,  L.  See
Evergreen  Alkanf.t.
   ANCIENT LANGUAGES are
those which are no longer spoken
by a living people, such as the Fle-
brew, Greek, and  Latin : they ge-
nerally form a part of the education
of those students who are intended
for the  learned  professions.  The
utility of employing so much of the
time of children  at  schools, in clas-
sical pursuits, and the study of the
dead languages, has been much
questioned :  upon  this  subject,  a
humorous  writer  thus  expresses
himself: u Who can patiently en-
dure to see persons so  studiously
going back two thousand years, in
search of that  perfection which lies
so plainly still  before them ? To
see  men  of  sense and learning
spending their whole time  and at-
tention about jEolic Digammas, the
use of accents, or  the meaning of
a passage in Horace, whilst, at the
same time, they are suffering the
finest language in  the world, their
own,  to lie  entirely uncultivated,
unless by the laudable and occasion-
al efforts of some individual? Had
the  same  been practised by  the
Greeks or Romans....had they stu-
died nothing  but Egyptian  hiero-
glyphics, we might at this day, have
been obliged to travel to the Pyra-
mids to learn the classics, whilst all
the letters in the world would have
been nothing more than the ill-imi-
tated forms of men, animals, imple-
ments, &c.  If we think that they
did right, why  do we not  imitate
their  example  ?   What  possible
reason can be alledged why the En-
glish  might  not,  by  similar care
and attention,  be made as good a
language as either the Greek or
Latin ?   Had  we the address of
Swift, or Addison, what a peti-
tion might we draw up in favour of
our poor mother tongue,  setting
forth  the many hardships she has
long  endured ; the various insults
and barbarous  injuries she,  from
time  to time, has suffered,  and is
still obliged to undergo, from the
unduli fulness of her own children,"
Sec. [See this subject fully and ably
discussed by Dr. Rush, Miscella-
neous Essays: Philadelphia, 1798.]
   ANCIENT  LEARNING sig-
nifies a thorough acquaintance with
the writings of the ancients.  A
very  great and illiberal prejudice
has for some time since existed,
which has induced us to give a con-
stant preference to the ancients, for
their genius, as well as their virtue.
Their innocence, courage, and skill
in writing,  have  been extolled as
superior to our modern acquire-
ments,  and proposed to us  as  a
standard of real perfection.  Few
authors, indeed, have been suffered
to wear th; ir laurels  during life ;
these  have been generally reserved,
either to crown  their sy tues, or en-
twine around their tombs. Homer,
in his days,  was  considered as a
mere  ballad singer  ;  he  is now a
bard.   Shakspeare  lived a pre-
carious hireling. Mn.-n n's divine
poem  lay long  neglected, and was
sold for a song. Otvvay lived and 
52         ANC
AND
died in a corner ; Cervantes pas-
sed his days in povertv and obscu-
rity, a living reproach  to Spain ;
and the first of our English  philo-
sophers,  the immortal  Newton,
was  indebted to the officious kind-
ness of a Barrow, to announce his
merit to the worid. Praise is slower
than censure, because the former is
retarded  by  envy  and contention,
which time alone, the final subduer
of all things, can effectually remove.
'Tis the same in the moral as in the
natural world : the sun exhibits the
largest'disk, when about to quit
our  hemisphere.   The  ancients
have acquired a prejudged hereoi-
tary admiration,and their only solid
grounds of preference arcthat they
had the good fortune to come first
into  the worid.   Thus, by the laws
of primogeniture,  the eldest son
inherits the patrimony, to the de-
triment of the rest of the  family.
  It cannot, however, be disputed,
that the  ancient  writers have left
us performances which would  re-
flect the highest honour on any age
or nation ; but to allow them the
merit of exclusive  excellence, is
injustice  to their competitors.  A
principle  of tenderness has been
urged as  a plausible reason for en-
tertaining a partiality for the an-
cients, and that the infant state of
learning  ought to experience the
same flattering indulgence  which
is shewn  to young children.   The
weakness of this plea is evident:
and candour obliges us to declare,
that  it is equally unjust and impro-
per to consider the Greeks and Ro-
mans,  with all thtir inaccuracies
and defects, as perfect models of
imitation. Many an ancient writer,
whose real beauties have been just-
ly admired,  has  also frequently
been  praised for  his faults : thus
his reputation has been sullied ;  in-
stead of being indebted to his pane-
gvrists, he has excited doubts and
censures, where he had  least de-
served them.
   The  remarks  made in the pre-
ceding article, may with equal pro-
priety  be  applied  to the present
subject: but we shall content our-
selves  with observing,  that those
persons who have imbibed an early
prejudice for the learning of the
ancients, are generally deficient in
active discernment, and incapable
of ascertaining the merits of mo-
dern improvements.
   ANCIENT  TIMES are those
which  refer to remote periods of
antiquity.
   The degeneracy and corruption
of modern  times,  as  opposed to
those of the ancients, have afforded
a fruitful source of peevish invec-
tive, and an endless cause of que-
rulous complaint, to both the learn-
ed and the  illiterate.  It  has been
the constant custom, at all times,
to  declare  every succeeding age
more wicked than the  former ; to
represent the world as  perpetually
increasing  in vice and folly ; to la-
ment the good old days that are
past, and to anticipate nothing but
misery from the  future. Yet, how-
ever corrupt or vicious may be the
age in which we live, let us but im-
partially compare the history of
past times with those  of  our own,
and we shall find no great  reason to
unite in the general outcry : on the
contrary, it is highly probable, that
our successors will attribute more
virtues to us, than are possessed by
themselves ; though, perhaps, nei-
ther may be less virtuous, or more
depraved, than the most celebrated
nations of antiquity.
   [ANDROMEDA.  Sorrel  tree,
Indian  Pipe-stem,  Wickie.  An ex-
tensive genus,muny species of which 
A N E                          A N E         53r
abound in the United States, they
occupy lands of  similar soil and
situation  with the heaths in the old
continent.  He-wortleberry is the
most common trivial name in the
United States for  all the  species,
because  they bear no berries, and
resemble the wortle berry bushes.
They are all handsome flowering
shrubs, the a.formosissima  of Bar-
tram, or Indian pipe-stem,  is the
most beautiful. It is an evergreen.
The Creek Indians set a high va-
lue upon the  shoots  two years
old, for  making their pipe stems,
being very straightr and from 12
to 15  feet long.  Dr. Barton in-
forms us, that a decoction of the A.
mariana, -or   broad  leaved moor-
wort, is  used as a wash, in a disa-
greeable ulceration of the feet at-
tended with  an intolerable  itching,
which is common among  the ne-
groes of the  southern states. The
plant is there called u wickie". It
is suspected  to be poisonous, and
Shoepf  says, that it is hurtful to
sheep : no doubt he spoke from the
information of our farmers.]
   ANEMOMETER  signifies  a
mechanical  instrument for ascer-
taining the power and velocity of
the wind.
   Successful  methods have,been
discovered to determine, with pre-
cision the various properties of the
air, its temperance, humidity, and
weight, by means of the thermo-
meter, the   hygrometer,  and the
barometer; but, till lately, no  at-
tempts have  been made to ascer-
tain the  force of the wind.   Seve-
ral instruments for this  purpose
have, indeed, been contrived ; but

  * Some botanical writers confound this plant with the Arcmor.epidsatdla, L. which
is a distinct specks. The Anemonepratensis, I., is a native of Germany, where ir dow-
ers in the beginning of May: it  was thence imported into England, and cultivuted
»n our gardens by the late and justly celebrated Miller, abont the year 17.51.
they are in  general  more compli-
cated, and les3 to be depended on,
than the machine  which we shall
describe under the head of Ane-
moscope.
  ANEMONE, or  Wind-Flow-
er, is the name of a plant chiefly
distinguished  on  account of  its
beautiful flowers,  which  by  the
Greeks, were supposed not to open
till the wind blows ; whence it has
received its  original  name.   Lin-
naeus enumerates  21 species, of
which  the following five  deserve
particular notice, though the first
of these is not indigenous.
   1. Anemone pratensis,  L.  the
dark-flowered,  or  Meadow  Ane-
mone, as described and represent-
ed in Dr.  Woodville's  Mtdical
Botany, vol. iii.  p. 400, plate 148. »
It produces beautiful dark violet,
or almost black flowers, which blow
in March and April*, and never
expand.
  In its recent state, the meadow-
anemone   is  almost  flavourless,
though  its taste, when chewed, is
extremely  pungent, and corrodes
the tongue and fauces ; a property
also manifested  in  a slight  degree
by the dried leaves. Hence we may
conclude, that this plant possesses
considerable medicinal virtues ; a
supposition    amply  confirmed,
though  often contested, by  various
practitioners of great respectability.
Chemists,  however, have  proved
by experiment, that one of its con-
stituent parts is  camphor, which
has been obtained  in the form  of
crystals.  Hence it  has been suc-
cessfully employed in  the cure  of
chronic affections of the eyes, espe- 
54        ANE
ANE
 cially in gutta serena, cataract, and
 opacity of the cornea. But, on ac-
 count of its  singular eiTicacy,  it
 has generally been used in external
 applications, as an excellent aperi-
 ent, detergent, and vulnerary me-
 dicine, with whose virtues the an-
 cients were  well acquainted, though
 they accounted  for such effects
 from superstitious notions.
   The juice of the anemone root,
 chewed in small quantities, stimu-
 lates the salival  glands, and  fre-
 quently affords sudden relief in ex-
 cruciating tooth-ach, if it proceed
 from an acrimony or superfluity of
 humours, in phlegmatic habits.....
 When boiled in rich wine, and ap-
 plied as a  cataplasm, it  not only
 abates inveterate inflammations of
 the eyes, but also cleanses indolent
 and foul  ulcers.   Its leaves and
 stalks,  slowly simmered in  ptisan,
 and occasionally eaten, are said un-
 commonly to increase the maternal
 milk.   If credit be due to the  an-
 cients, they also cure that frequent
 and destructive complaint of young
 females,  called   chlorosi*;  and,
 when beaten up with a mixture of
 bees-wax and  turpentine, so as to
 form a  pessary, tend to restore  the
 catamenia.   We  doubt,  however,
 whether the numerous other vir-
 tues ascribed to this vegetable, be
 founded on  truth ; yet we believe
 that external applications of it, pro-
 perly re peated,especially the leaves,
 bruised together with marshmal-
 low  root or other cooling  herbs,
 may cure paralytic; attacks in their
 commencememyherpetic eruptions,
 and even the leprosy; though  we
 would not reiy upon its efficacy in
 true syphilis, in caries or mortifi-
 cation of the bones, and  still less,
 in cases of  melancholy, or mania.
   The  dark violet leaves of this
species, when boiled together with
those of the Serratula tinctoria,  L.
 or common  saw-wort, and a pro-
 per addition  of alum, affords,  ac-
 cording to Prof. Pallas, an excel-
 lent water-cclour for landscape and
 other paintings.
   2.  Anemone  Pulsatilla, L.  or
 Pasque Floner, so  called because
 it generally blossoms about Easter,
 when it adorns  some of our dry,
 chalky-hills.   In  April  it bears
 beautiful  bell-shaped flowers, of a
 purple or reddish colour.   A de-
 scription  and representation of it
 may be found in Sowerby's Eng-
 lish Botai.y. p. 4. 3.....--1.
   Although thisspecies may not be
 possessed of healing virtues similar
 to the preceding, yet it  is asserted
 that its flowers are of great efficacy
 in curing inveterate ulcers, in man
 and cattle.   As  it is  a poisonous
 plant,the inhabitants of Kamtschat-
 ka use its leaves for staining their
 arrows ; which unless the wound
 be immediately  cleansed, and the
 communicated virus extracted by
 the  mouth, are said to prove inevit-
 ably fatal: in like manner, these un-
 tutored savages destroy the whales
 which frequent their coast.
   Both the flowers and leaves of
 this species  are employed by fo-
 reign  dyers for  green colours  of
 various shades. From the expres-
 sed juice of the leaves, a green ink
 may be prepared ; and if the florets
 only be used,  it will be a  lighter
 shade, but from the whole flower,
 the colour will be much deeper.....
 Relying on the authority of Dam-
 bourney, we shall add, that animal
 wool previously immersed in a so-
 lution of bismuth, acquires a pleas-
 ing light vigogne colour.
   3.  Anemone nemorosa, L. or the
Wood-Anemone; another wild sort,
bearing only one  white, or some-
times purplish,  flower on a plant.
-.See Curtis's  Flor.  Lond. ii. 
ANE
ANE          55
  In medicine this plant may be
usefully employed as  a substitute
for cantharides. or Spanish flies; for
it produces not only a more speedy,
but less painful effect.   Its juice is
so extremely acrid, that it has been
justly  suspected  to  occasion the
dysentery among cattle.and inflam-
mation, accompanied  with a dis-
charge of bloody mine, in sheep.
Hence the  necessity  of guarding
these animals against the  cause of
distempers which aie frequently so
formidable in their consequences,
as to deprive the unwary husband-
man  of  a  great portion of  his
most valuable live-stock.
   4. Anemone ranunculuides, L. or
 the Yellow Wood-Anemone. See
 p.  5. Gerard's i'-erbal, 3t;3.  1.
   On account of its corrosive acri-
 mony, the juice of this vegetable is
 also used  by the inhabitants  of
 Kamtschatka, for a similar delete-
 rious  purpose as  is mentioned of
 the second species.
   [In the United  States, we have,
   1. Anemone Virginiana,
   2. *1. Pennsylvania,
   S. ./. Quinquefolia,
   4. A.  Thalictroides.   This last
 grows near the city of Philadelphia
 in  the woods, and deserves  to  be
 cultivated for its elegant simplicity.]
   ANEMOSCOPE, a mechanical
 ins'rument  for  determining  the
 course and velocity of the wind....
 That part which  exhibits the for-
 mer, or shows from what point of
 the compass  the wind blows, con-
 sists of an index, moving  round an
 upright circular plate, like the dial
 of  a clock ; on which, instead of
 the hours, the thirty-two points of
 the compass are represented. The
 index which points to the divisions
 on  the dial, is turned by a horizon-
 tal  axis,  having a trundle-head at
 its  outward extremity. This trun-
dle-head is moved by a cog-wheel,
on a perpendicular axis ; at the top
of which  is fixed  a  vane, moving
with  the  course of the wind, and
imparting motion to the whole ma-
chine. The contrivance is extreme-
ly simple, and requires in its con-
struction  only, that the number of
cogs  in the wheel, and rounds in
the trundle-head, be equal; because
when the vane moves entirely round,
the index of the  dial should also
make a complete  revolution.   An
anemoscope of this construction is
placed in one of the  turrets of
Buckingham-house,  the residence
of Her present Majesty.
   The  anemoscope   invented by
 Mr. Pickering, and published in
 the Philosophical Transactions, No.
 473,  is a machine four  feet  and a
 quarter high, consisting of a  broad
 and weighty pedestal, a pillar, at-
 tached to it, and an iron axis, about
 half an inch  in diameter, fastened
 into  the  pillar.   Upon this axis
 turns a wooden tube ; at  the top
of which is placed a vane, of the
 same materials,  21  inches  long,
 consisting of a quadrant, graduated,
 and shod with an iron ring, notch-
 ed  to each degree ; and a counter-
 poise of wood on  the other,  as re-
 presented in the figure.  Through
 the centre of the quadrant runs an
 iron  pin ; upon which are fastened
 two  small round  pieces of  wood,
 serving  as moveable  radii to des-
 cribe the degrees upon  the  quad-
 rant, and as handles to a velum or
 sail; the pane of which is one foot
 square,  made of  canvas stretched
 on four battens, and painted.  On
 the upper batten, next to the shod
' rim  of the  quadrant,  is a  small
 spring,  which  catches at  every
 notch, corresponding to each de-
 gree, as the  sail may be raised on
 the pressure of the wind, and thus 
50        ANE
ANE
 its falling back  prevented,  when
 the force of the wind decreases.....
 At the bottom of the wooden tube
 is an iron index,which moves round
 a circular piece of wood fastened to
 the top of the pillar, on the pedes-
 tal, where the thirty-two points of
 the compass  are described.   We
 have annexed a representation  of
 this machine  : a is the pedestal ; b
 the pillar on which the iron axis is
 fitted ; c, the circle of wood repre-
 senting the points of the compass ;
 e, the  wooden tube  upon  its  axis;
/,  the velum ; g,  the  graduated
 quadrant ; h,  the  counterpoise  of
 the  vane.  The subjoined figure
 represents the velum, which may
 be  taken off;  a is the plane of the
 velum ; b, the  spring ; cc, the wood-
 en  radii ; d, d, the  holes  through
 which passes  the pin, in the center
 of the quadrant.
   This  instrument  serves the fol-
 lowing useful  purposes.
   1.   Having a circular  motion
 round  the iron axis, and being fur-
 nished with a vane at the top, and
 an index at the bottom, as  soon  as
 the  artificial  points  described on
 the round piece of wood on the pil-
 lar are fixed  to the  corresponding
 quarters of the heavens, it faithful-
 ly  points out the  quarter from
 which the wind blows.
   2. Being furnished with a velum,
 or sail, elevated by the wind,  along
 the  arch of  the quadrant,  to an
 height proportionate to the power
 of  the column of wind pressing
 against it, its  relative force and its
 comparative  power, at  any two
 times  of examination, may be  ac-
 curately taken.
   3. By means of a spring fitted to
 the notches of the iron, with which
 the quadrant  is shod, the velum is
 prevented from returning upon the  ment, without the trouble of ■< ■:■■'■ ch-
 fall of the wind ; and the instru-  ing it, ascertains the force of the
c
 
ANE
AN E         57
Vlghest blast, since the last time of
examination.
 This machine may be confidently
depended upon, as the  velum is
hung so nicely, that  it is suscep-
tible of the most gentle breeze, and
will also describe the force of  the
wind in a violent storm.  There is,
however, reason to apprehend, that
by exposing the anemoscope  to all
winds, i specially to irregularblasts
and squalls, for a length of time, it
may become inaccurate.  The  ob-
server ought, therefore, to take  the
tube with its vane and velum,  in his
hand, with a view to learn the force
of the wind; and, after having  made
his observation, he should return
with the machine into the house,
 till the violence of the storm sub-
 side.
   ANEURISM,  in  surgery,  sig-
 nifies a throbbing tumor, occasion-
 ed by the dilatation or rupture of an
artery :  it consists of three kinds,
viz. the true or encysted, the false
or diffused, and the varicose.
   The true aneurism, when  situa-
ted near the surface  of  the  body,
produces a tumor, at first  small
 andcircumscribed,but, when press-
 ed by the finger, it manifests a  dis-
 tinct pulsation.  By degrees  it in-
creases, and  becomes  more pro-
 minent; still,  however, the patient
 does not complain of any pain.  As
 it grows larger,  the skin  turns
 more  pale than usual, also  more
 phlegmonous, or  swollen, and at
 length assumes a livid and gangre-
 nous appearance.  A bloody serum
 now oozes  through  the  integu-
 ments ; the skin cracks in several
 places ; and the artery, being  de-
 prived of the  usual resistance,  dis-
 charges its blood with such velocity
 as to occasion almost instantaneous
 death.
     VOL.  I.
  The false aneurism consists of a
wound or rupture of an artery, and,
by the extravasation of blood, pro-
duces a swelling of the contiguous
parts. If not improperly treated by
constant and close pressure, it ge-
nerally remains nearly of the same
size, for several weeks.  Instances
have occurred, where the blood has
diffused itself over the whole arm
in a few hours;  as, on the contrary,
swellings of this kind have been
months, nay, even years, in arriving
at any considerable size.
  The  varicose aneurism  i-s that
which arises from the puncture of
an artery, and sometimes happens
in blood-letting. This circumstance,
it is hoped, will  point out the ne-
cessity of persons applying to regu-
lar practitioners, who are acquaint-
ed with the situation of the blood-
vessels, and not employing, as is
too frequently  the case, ignorant
and  unskilful  pretenders, for the
performance of this important oper-
ation : soon after the injury has
been  committed, the vein  which
immediately communicates with
the wounded artery, begins to swell,
and  gradually  to  enlarge.  Upon
pressure, the tumor disappears, be-
cause the blood contained  in it is
pushed forwards in its circulation
to the heart; and when large, there
is a  singular tremulous motion, at-
tended with a  hissing noise, as if
air were passing through a small
aperture.
   The causes which generally pro-
duce aneurisms, are a peculiar pre-
disposition  of  the arteries, when
they are in a relaxed state; a par-
tial debility of their coats ;  exces-
 sive bodily exertions; stooping, and
 lifting great weights; acrid matter
 contained in a neighbouring sore ;
 intemperance,  &c.  Where they
      I 
58        ANG
ANG
arise from  any external  accident,
an operation may be attended with
success; but, in all other cases, art
can afford but little assistance.
  In a complaint of this nature, it
is presumed that the earliest ap-
plication will  be made to profes-
sional men ; and as the narrow li-
mits of this work do not permit us
to enter into a more minute inves-
tigation, we shall close this article
with describing a new method  of
treating an aneurism,  recommend-
ed by Mr.  Lambert, surgeon at
Newcastle  upon Tyne, in a letter
to Dr  Hunter.  This was  suc-
cessfully practised, by passing  a
steel pin, one-fourth of an inch in
length,  through  the  lips of the
wounded artery, and then securing
it, in the same manner as in the
operation for the hare-lip, by twist-
ing a thread  round it. It was per-
formed on  the 15th of June,  1763
and on the  19th of the following
month, the patient was dismissed,
perfectly well; the pulsation of that
arm remaining nearly as strong as
in the former.
  Anethum  Foeniculum,  L.  See
Common Fennel.
  ANGELICA, is a plant of whieh
there are  seven  species, though
only two of them may be ranked
among the indigenous.
  1. Angelica Archangelica, L.  or
the Garden Angelica, is  a large
umbelliferous plant.  An accurate
botanical description anddelineation
of it may be  seen  in  Dr. Wood-
ville's Medical Botany ; vol. i. p.
13S. pi. 50.The stalk ofthis magni-
ficent plant,wheu properly cultivat-
ed in a moist soil, rises to the height
of seven or eight feet; its flowers
are  of  a greenish white colour,
or sometimes yellow.
  Every part of this  useful  vege-
table, the  root,  stalk, leaves, and
seeds, partake of the aromatic pro-
perties ;  whence the Germans de-
nominate it angel-root,  or breast-
root, being one of the most  spicy
plants  of European growth.  Its
resinous  root, and  the  seeds, are
chiefly esteemed in medicine, and
the former, when fresh, affords by
distillation a  strong and  fragrant
spirit,  and an essential  oil, in the
proportion of a whole  dram, and
upwards, from one  pound.  A
tincture made of one ounce digest-
ed in twelve ounces of proof spirits,
yields, on evaporation, two drams,
of a very pungent  and spicy ex-
tract.   This is generally preferred
by the Medical College of Berlin;
a valuable member of which, the
late Dr.  Gleditsh, gives the fol-
lowing account of its effects :
  Fifteen grains of this  extract,
which are  equal to one ounce, or
two table-spopnfuls, of the  tincture,
diluted with water, and taken  three
times or  oftener in a day, prove a
gently stimulating  medicine, well
calculated to strengthen the solids,
and especially serviceable for dis-
pelling flatulency, removing pec-
toral complaints,  and affording ef-
fectual relief in hysterics. Theoily,
spirituous and resinous part of it,
tends  to resolve  viscid humours,
while   its  gummy  and balsamic
constituents beneficially act on the
fluids.  Being very mild  in  its  oper-
ation,  the angelica deserves the
preference to many other roots of
this nature, and may therefore be
usefully employed in flatulent co-
lies, obstructions of the  breast, and
uterus, malignant  fevers, and the
true  scurvy,  in   doses   of two
drams   in  substance,  conveyed
either in tea, or mild wine. Exter-
nally it may be applied to scorbu-
tic  gums ; and,  when boiled in
water, it affords a good gargle for 
             ANG

 swellings of the throat and fauces,
 as well as for cleansing ulcers.  It
 may farther be  used with advan-
 tage in a bruised state, as an in-
 gredient in cataplasms and fomen-
 tations on the abdomen, to relieve
 painful distentions  of the bowels,
 or to strengthen a weak and disor-
 dered stomach, if the patient at the
 same time pay proper attention  to
 diet and regimen.
  2. Angelica Sylvcslris, L. or Wild
 Angelica, is a much smaller plant,
 of a  thinner and  less  succulent
 stem than the former. It grows  in
 marshy woods and in hedges, flow-
 ers in June or July, and is repre-
 sented in Gerard's Herbal, 999.1.
   This spdtaes, however possesses,
 but in an inferior degree, the medi-
 cinal properties of the  preceding,
 which may always be more readily
 procured.
   Both  the garden and wild an-
 gelica, delight in a moist soil; the
 seeds should be sown immediately
 after they are perfectly ripe.  As
 the leaves of the y oun g plants spread
 wide,  and require  much ground,
 they should  be  transplanted at  a
 considerable distance when  they
 are about six inches in height.
  Unless the roots  be thoroughly
 dried, they are apt to grow mouldy,
 and  be preyed  upon by insects :
 hence the necessity of kecpingthem
 in a dry  place,  which  should be
 frequently aired.  It has been sug-
 gested, for   the  preservation  of
 these useful roots, that they should
 be dipped in boiling spirit, or ex-
 posed  to its steam, in a dry state.
 We believe, however, that this ex-
 pensive process may be  rendered
unnecessary, by gathering the root
in a dry season, suspending  it in
 an  airy room, upon threads, and
guarding againstlhe attacks of ver-
min.
             ANG         59

   Cattle are exceedingly fond of
 eating the fresh springleaves of the
 wild angelica, which to them are
 a good cleansing and strengthening
 medicine : bees visit its white flow-
 ers, and extract from them a more
 balsamic honey. Hence its growth
 should  be encouraged,  and  even
 artificially promoted, especially as
 it is one of those plants which have
 lately been used with success as a
 substitute for oak-bark, in tanning
 leather,  and particularly in prepar-
 ing a kind of morocco from sheep,
 calf, and goat-skins.
   Lastly,  Dam bourney  asserts,
 that, from  the leaves of the last
 mentioned species, he produced a
 beautiful and permanent gold co-
 lour, in  dying  wool properly pre-
 pared by a solution  of bismuth.
   [We have some species of An-
 gelica in  the   United  States;  a.
 spinosa,  a. atropurpurea, or purple
 angelica; a.  lucida,  or shining; a.
 sylvestris, or wild angelica.   The
 latter dyes a good yellow.]
   ANGER may be defined to be
 a violent passon of the mind,  aris-
 ing from a sense of personal injury
 and attended with an ardent desire
 of. revenge.
  It is either deliberative or in-
 stinctive; in  the latter case, it is
 rash and precipitate, and blindly
 operates, regardless of the present,
 or of future consequences ; in  the
 former it anticipates the  moment
 of revenge, and  meditates retalia-
 tion.  It is not always, however, a
 selfish passion,  since it is as fre-
 quently excited by injuries offered
to others  as  to  ourselves, and is
often the distinguishing character-
istic, of a susceptible and vigorous
mind.
  Indulged to excess, and excited
by every petty  provocation, it be-
comes habitual,  and is sometimes 
60         ANG
•  ANG
productive of the most fatal effects.
Independent  of its moral conse-
quences, excessive anger produces
spasmodic contractions, and stagna-
tion  in the liver and its vessels ;
and, by these means, renders thtm
schirrous, often generating stones
and gravel in the gall-bladder and
biliary ducts. When accompanied
with affliction, it usually occasions
paleness of the countenance,  pal-
pitation of the  heart, faltering of
the tongue, trembling of the limbs.
and jaundice. When the  hope of
revenge is the predominant feature
in anger, it causes violent commo-
tions  of  the whole system, strong
pulsation  of  the arteries, and  a
quick circulation ; the  vital spirits
flow rapidly and irregularly through
the whole  body ; the muscles are
contracted, and some of them ap-
pear almost palsied ;  the cheeks
are flushed, the eyes sparkle  with
additional lustre,  and  the whole
frame feels unusual animation, and
a desire  of motion.
  Anger is particularly  injurious to
infants, who, from the sensibility
of their frames, are extremely sus-
ceptible  of this passion,  and are
sometimes so severely affected as
to die suddenly in convulsions, or
to retain, ever after, an imbecility
of mind  and body, arising from its
powerful  impression.  Persons of
an  irritable habit are  more  fre-
quently liable to its attacks ; hence
it generally appears m individuals
who  are troubled with  nervous,
hysterical, and  hypochondriacal
complaints.  Those  of a hot and
dry temperament  of strong black
hair,  and great muscular strength,
are likewise much exposed  to its
influence.
   We ought, as rational agents, to
beware  of encouraging such de-
i'.ruclive emotions; for  it is certain,
that  men and women, possessing
an irascil le temper, generally die
of puh.io'i ry consumptions ;  and
yount'- pt.-sons. especially females^
should be iofori.ieu, that indepen-
dently of its moral turpitude, it de-
forms the face, steals the rose from
the cheek of beauty, and not pnly
tends to extinguish  the most  ten-
der affections, but sometimes even
produces aversion.
  On its first approach, persons
subject to the invasion of thistur-
bulent passion, should as  much as
possible, divert their attention from
the cause,  by an  application to
some other object.   A propensity
to anger is increased by  want of
sleep, stimulant food, spices, wines,
and such things as have a tendency
to inflame  the blood. Hence  they.
ought to make use of diluent, aci-
dulated, and gently aperient drink;
and in every respect observe  the
most rigid temperance:they should
allow themselves more sleep,  em-
ploy the luke-warm bath, and in-
dulge the  eating of fruit, butter-
milk, whey, vegetable aliment, &c.
...See Grief,Passions,Revenge,
Terror.
  ANGLING, among sportsmen,
is the art of fishing with a rod, to
which are fitted a line, hook,  and
bait.  The season for this amuse-
ment commences about the month
of June, and the proper hours  are,
at the dawn of day, and about threa
o'clock in the afternoon ;  at which
times the fish, in ponds and small
rivers,  are  accustomed   to  feed.
Easterly winds afford  but  little
sport to the angler; for those blow-
ing from the south, are  the most
conducive to his  purpose ; and a
warm; but lowering day, is of all
others  the  most  propitious.   A
cloudy day following abright moon-
light ni-ht, is always an auspicious 
            ANG

omen ;  as the fish do not love to
seek for food in the moon-shine,
and are, therefore, always hungry
the next morning.   The  observa-
tion of small fish, confined in ajar,
either refusing or taking  food, af-
fords a  good  criterion of the most
convenient season.
  Upon taking his stand, the angler
should shelter himself under some
tree or  bush, or  remain at least so
far from  the  brink  of the  water,
that he  may just discern his float;
as the fish are timerous, and easily
frightened away. The rod must be
preserved  in a  moderate  state,
neither  too dry  nor  too moist, as
in these cases it will be either brit-
tle or rotten.   Various baits  are
used: such as worms, artificial flies,
paste made of boiled cheese, beat
up with powdered quick-lime, See.
when these last are  employed, it
will be proper to cement them with
a little tow, and rub them over with
honey.  The  best method of using
the fly,  is down  the current of the
stream ; and  half a  dozen trials
will  be  sufficient to  determine,
whether the fish  will  take or refuse
the bait....With  respect to the ha-
bitations most congenial to particu-
lar kind of fish,  it deserves to be
noticed, that bream are to be found
in the  deepest   and most quiet
places :  eels,  under the banks of
rivers ; perch and roach, in a pure,
swift stream ; chub, in deep, shad-
ed holes; and trout, in clear, rapid
brooks.    Situations abounding in
weeds, or old stumps of trees, often
harbour  numbers of fish, which
bite  freely ;  but there  is  great
hazard of breaking the line, or en-
tangling the hook. The openings
of sluices and mill-dams always in-
vite them up the current, to seek
for the food which is conveyed with
             ANI          61

 the stream ; and angling in  these
 places is generally successful...See
 Fishing.
   ANIMALCULE, in its general
 acceptation, merely signifies a little
 animal, but  is usually applied to
 those living objects, which are in-
 visible to the naked eye, and can be
 discoverable only by the assistance
 of glasses.
   By the invention of the micros-
 cope, we  have become acquainted
 with a variety  of animals, which,
 from their minuteness, would other-
 wise have escaped our observation;
 and there is reason to believe that
 myriads of them exist, both in  the
 atmosphere and on the earth,which
 elude the human eye, even  when
 assisted by this instrument.  They
 are of various kinds, and to be met
 within different natural bodies.. By
 the assistance of magnifying glass-
 es, they may be seen in water, vine-
 gar, beer, milk, &c.  they are also
 found  in  corn, paste,  flour, and
 other farinaceous substances.
   In  the  year 1677, M.  Lewen-
 hoeck first discovered their  exis-
 tence in the human semen,and that
 of the lower animals ; their num-
 ber is'inconceivable.   On viewing
 with a microscope the milt or seed
 of a male cod-fish, he  found  thern
 in such swarms, and  of so diminu-
 tive a size, that he supposed 10,000
 of them, at least, capable  of being
 contained in the bulk of a grain of
 sand ; whence  he concludes, that
 the semen  of this fish produces
 more  animalcute  than there are
 found living persons  in the whole
 world.  They  appear  to  be  very
 vigorous and tenacious of life,  as
 they continue to move long  after
the animal, from which they are
 taken, is dead.  They  also  have
this peculiarity, that they are  in 
62         AN I

constant motion, without intermis-
sion, provided there be sufficient
fluid in which they may swim.
  Great numbers of  animalculx,
some of  which are  of an  oval
figure, and others resemble  eels,
are to be found in the whitish  mat-
ter that adheres between the human
teeth; but they have never hitherto
been  discovered,  either  in  the
blood, saliva, urine,  bile, or chyle.
   Animalcule are  generated by
putrefaction,  and are  supposed to
produce many diseases, such as the
plague, typhus, marsh miasma, &c.
The small-pox, measles, and other
cutaneous  eruptions,  are  also by
many  conjectured  to owe  their
origin to this source.
   The existence of animalculx in
the semen, has by several authors
been denied, and among others by
Mr. Needham, who, in an inqui-
ry into the  generation or produc-
tion of animals, observes that seeds
macerated in water,  first disunite
into small,  motionless, and ap-
parently  inert  particles, but that
these afterwards possess power of
motion, and seem alive, though in
reality they are not so. He asserts,
thatthereare no pre-existent germs
formed for the  production of ani-
mals, or vegetables, but that mat-
ter, organized  in a peculiar  man-
ner,  in  its  minute  assemblages,
produces them.   In this opinion
he is supported by  M. Buffon,
Reaumur,  Maupertuis,   and
other  French   Naturalists......See
 Generation and Microsco?e.
   ANIMAL FLOWER  (Actinia
 Sociata) from its supposed proper-
 ty of stinging, was  formerly called
 Sea-Nettle, or Sea-Anemone, but
 by late English writers has receiv-
 ed its present name. This singular
 animal was  found in some of the
 islands, which  were ceded to this
            ANI

country in the late treaty of peace
with France.  It is of a tender,
fleshy substance, which consists of
many tubular bodies, gently swell-
ing towards the upper part, and
terminating  like a bulb,  or  very
small onion : its only orifice  is in
the centre of the uppermost  part,
surrounded with rows of tentacles,
or claws, which when contracted,
appear like circles of beads.  This
opening is capable of great exten-
sion, and it is amazing to see what
large fish some of them can  swal-
low, such  as  muscles, crabs, &c
When  the  animal has scratched
out  the fish, it throws  back the
shells through the same passage,
From this aperture likewise, it pro-
duces its young ones alive, already
furnished with little claws, which
they extend in search of food, as
soon as they are fixed.  At low
water, they are found on the rocky
coasts of Sussex and Cornwall, at-
tached in the shallows to some solid
substance, by a broad base, like a
sucker.   This base is worthy of
notice...the knobs observable on it,
are formed into several parts, by its
insinuating itself into the  inequali-
ties of rocks, or grasping pieces of
shells,  part  of  which frequently
remain  in it, covered  with the
fleshy  substance.  By its assist-
 ance, they are enabled to preserve
themselves from the violence of
 the waves, and withstand the fury
 of a storm.   Animal flowers very
 much resemble the exterior leaves
 ot the anemone, and their  limbs
 are not unlike its shag,  or inner
 part.  They are said to possess, in
 an extraordinary degree, the  power
 of re-production, so that to  multi-
 ply them at pleasure, nothing more
 is necessary  than to  cut  a  single
 one into several  pieces.
   ANIMAL FOOD.  See  Food. 
            ANI

   ANIMAL KINGDOM, an ex-
pression which includes all orga-
nized living bodies capable of sen-
sation and voluntary motion :  and
essentially differing  from plants
and minerals,  which  have neither
organs of sense, nor  the power of
loco-motion.
   Another circumstance affords a
criterion  to  distinguish  animals
from vegetables and fossils; which,
in many instances, so closely border
on each other, especially the two
former, that naturalists  have fre-
quently  hesitated,  to which  of
these  kingdoms  certain  marine
productions, for instance, the po-
lypus, may  with the  greatest pro-
priety be referred....See Vegeta-
 ble and  Mineral Kingdoms....
The circumstance alluded to is the
following:
   1. All  bodies which  grow from
without, that is, derive their origin
and  increase in such  manner as to
approximate to themselves certain
foreign and inert particles, and are
incapable of motion,  consequently
inanimate, are called minerals or
fossils.
   2. Bodies having no aggregate
form  but growing from within,
being provided with  certain tubes
or vessels adapted to the circulation
of fluids,  which afford them nou-
rishment, and promote their exten-
sion, may be said to  enjoy a pas-
sive  life, and are therefore termed
vegetables, or plants.
   3. Living creatures which like-
wise grow from within, and are en-
dowed not only with those vessels,
but also with organs of sense, the
faculty  of loco-motion, and  the
power of distinguishing one external
object from another, yet do not en-
joy the advantages of reason, are
generally denominated animals.
            ANI         63

  Hence arise the three divisions
of natural bodies, consisting of the
Animal, Vegetable, and Mine-
ral Kingdoms.
  Although naturalists, in general,
have  included  man in the  first of
these kingdoms, yet the  propriety
of this classification may justly be
doubted.   He possesses,  indeed,
organs  and faculties in  common
with the brute  creation, yet no in-
stance has  been discovered, which
evinces that the inferior animals
enjoy that  noble  and most impor-
tant of all the gifts of Providence,
" reason."
  On account of this distinguish-
ing characteristic, we are irresisti-
bly induced to separate man from
the ape, the elephant, the lion, and
all  irrational animals, over which
no other than the reasoning faculty
could confer upon us the exclusive
dominion.    Trusting,  therefore,
that naturalists will, without hesi-
tation, agree with us in the neces-
sity of rescuing the human race,
however at present depraved, from
the humiliating situation in which
it is placed among the inferior ani-
mals, we venture, with due defer-
ence to their judgment, to exclude
our  species from the subsequent
division of the animal kingdom,
which consists of 6 distinct classes.
  I. Mamillary Animals are furnish-
ed with a  heart of two ventricles
and two auricles; have a red, warm
blood, breathe through lungs, pro-
duce living young ones, and suckle
them with their milk.
  II. Birds likewise have a  heart
of four cavities, red, warm blood,
respire through lungs,depositeggs,
and are uniformly provided with
beaks and  wings.
  III. Amfihibious Animals possess
a heart, but    has only  one ven- 
64         ANI
ANI
 tricle and one  auricle ; they have
 red, but colder blood than the lat-
 ter and live alternately on land and
 in water.
    IV. Fishes have also a heart with,
 two cavities, red, cold  blood, are
 provided with gills, and can sub-
 sist only in water.
    V. Insects, or  creatures, that
 have a heart with one ventricle, but
 no  auricle ; cold,  and   generally
 white blood;  are furnished with
 antenna, or feelers, on their heads,
 and undergo a  change of their na-
 ture and appearance, previous to
 their dissolution.
   VI.   Worms  also  have a heart
 with one ventricle, without an auri-
 cle ; cold,  white blood ; are pro-
 vided with  tentacula, or  feeling
 threads, but undergo no change.
   Conformably to this division, we
 shall give a more  or less detailed
 account of the  different domestic
 and wild animals,  which, either
 from their peculiar  nature, habits,
 and form, deserve to be noticed in
 this  work, consistently  with its
 original  plan; or which, in an eco-
 nomical view, contribute to relieve
 our necessities:  while a more ac-
 curate knowledge of useful crea-
 tures cannot fail to improve the
 mind, and gratify the laudable cu-
 riosity of an intelligent reader.
   ANIMAL LIFE is that organ-
 ized principle which distinguishes
 animals  from vegetables, and  is
 susceptible of sensation and reflec-
 tion.
   Various conjectures have, at dif-
 ferent periods,  and  by  eminent
 philosophers, been held respecting
 the nature and  origin of this im-
 portant principle, but it  still re-
 mains involved in obscurity. In a
late  Dissertation, addressed to the
President and Fellows of the Col-
lene of Physicians, Dr. Beattie
 resolves it into that inherent ten-
 dency to approximate  and cohe-
 sion, in some parts of matter, and
 that  resilition  and  elasticity  in
 others, the source of which is yet
 undiscovered,  and which  is  not
 deducible from any  material, se-
 condary  cause.  As  it was found
 that no animal could exist when
 suddenly deprived of large quanti-
 ties of blood, it was  inferred that
 this  fluid was  the vital principle;
 an  opinion,   indeed,  which was
 much strengthened by the injunc-
 tion  of the Mosaic law, not to eat
 meat in which there was blood,
 " that being  the Ke."  A late ce-
 lebrated  anatomist  adopted  this
 opinion,  and  boldly  declared tnat
 the blood was alive. By some phy-
 siologists it has been conjectured,
 that  the electric fluid is the  source
 and  principle  of animal life: on
 the  contrary,  modern  chemists
 maintain that it is conveyed by that
 elastic elementary  gas, termed
 oxygen, or vital air, which accord-
 ing to their  notions, is  the true
 principle of vitality.
   Without entering into a minute
 investigation  of these theories,  it
 will be sufficient to state a few of
 the  leading  circumstances  which
 accompany the progress towards
 animation.
   Heat is a material agent  in the
 production and continuation of life,
 as is  beautifully illustrated  in the
 incubation, or hatching of an egg;
 the progress of which towards ma-
 turity,  is nearly as  follows: On
 the first day, no perceptible altera-
 tion takes place ; on  the second,
 the treadle changes to a  pale yel-
 low  colour;  and every following
 day  it  becomes yellower, till at
length it grows red, and afterwards
of a deep blood-colour, which soon
thickens to a firmer substance; this 
             ANI

 speedily  assumes a form, which,
 when it quickens into life, is nour-
 ished by  the yolk,  and laid in the
 white as  in a bed provided for its
 accommodation ; thus it continues
 increasing, till  it grows too large
 for  its narrow  bounds, when  it
 bursts the walls of its  prison,  and
 comes forth a perfect  animal. -
   ANIMAL  MAGNETISM, or
 the  art of curing diseases by the
 magnet, was invented by a Germ an
 philosopher, named Father Hehl,
 of Vienna, who first applied it to
 medicine: but the noted Mesmer,
 a physician of the same city, by
 adopting  his principles, and after-
 wards carrying  them to a greater
 extent, has been generally consi-
 dered the author of this splendid,
 but fanciful system.   The princi-
 ples of that delusive art, are  de-
 scribed by him in  the following
 manner :  Animal magnetism is an
 universal  fluid, constituting an ab-
 solute plenum in nature, and  the
 medium of all  mutual influence,
 between  terrestrial, animal, and
 celestial  bodies.   It  is a most
 subtle fluid,  capable of flux and
 reflux, and of receiving, propagat-
 ing,  and continuing all  kinds of
 motion.   The human  body has
 poles, and other properties, analo-
 gous to the magnet and is subject-
 ed to its  influence, by means of
 the nerves.  The action and virtue
 of animal magnetism maybe trans-
 ferred from one body  to another,
 whether animate or inanimate.  It
 operates at a great distance, with-
 out the intervention  of any sub-
 stance ; is increased and reflected
 by mirrors ; communicated, pro-
 pagated, and augmented by sound;
 and  may  be  accumulated,  con-
 centrated,  and transported.  By
 means of this fluid, some nervous
disorders are cured immediately,
     VOL. I.
              ANI         65

 and others mediately; its virtues, in
 short,  extend to the universal be-
 nefit and preservation of mankind.
   From this extraordinary theory,
 Mesmer  fabricated a paper,  in
 which he asserted that all diseases
 arise from one common source ;
 that they may be removed by one
 mode of cure ; and  that this cure
 consists in the application of ani-
 mal magnetism.  The  folly  and
 credulity of the times soon gained
 partizans to this new and plausible
 theory : it  became  at  length so
 popular and fashionable in France,
 that the jealousy of the faculty was
 awakened, and an application  was
 made to government.  A commit-
 tee, consisting of physicians  and
 members of the royal academy of
 sciences,  of which the late illus-
 trious Franklin  was a principal
 member, was immediatelyappoint-
 ed, to enquire into its merits,  and
 to ascertain its effects.  The con-
 sequence of this examination was
 such as  might have been anticipat-
 ed by every rational mind.   The
 spell was quickly broken, and the
 whole disclosed to be an artful impo-
 sition on the weakness and credulity
 of mankind.  It is now almost uni-
 versally exploded, and treated with
 merited ridicule and contempt.....
 The practice, however, and  sub-
 sequent detection of this wild, and
 visionary doctrine, have not been
 altogether useless ;  since  to  the
philosopher, it has added one more
to the numerous catalogue  of  the
errors and illusions of the human
understanding ; and affords a me-
morable instance  of  the power of
imagination.....See Electricity
and Magnetism.
  ANIMAL MOTION : various
conjectures  have been  broached
with a view to account for the ori-
gin of this important function in
    K 
66         ANI

the animal economy: but,like most
other  springs  of action,  arising
from a first cause, it is only in a
slight degree  cognizable  to  our
senses, by its evident,  mechanical
effects.
  Anatomists have, indeed, in their
dissections demonstrated, that the
contraction of the muscles causes
motion, but by what peculiar pro-
cess,  or  how  produced,  remains
still doubtful,  and involved in ob-
scurity.  Among other hypotheses
advanced concerning  animal mo-
tion, there prevails an opinion that
it is occasioned by an impulse or
irritation of the  nerves ; which,
communicating with  all  parts of
the  body, produce muscular con-
traction,  and consequent  motion,
either to a part or to the whole of
the  frame, in   proportion to the
force or frequency of  the  impres-
sion.  The difficulty  of  compre-
hending, how mere impulse, or ir-
ritability  of the  nervous  system,
should alone be sufficient to pro-
duce such powerful effects, as of-
ten  follow  muscular  contraction,
has induced others, while they ad-
mitted this  principle  as a first
cause of animal motion, to believe
in the intervention of  some other
matter,  which  is the more imme-
diate agent,  in effecting  a closer
contact  of the  muscular  fibres,
and  greater energy  during  the
time of  their contraction.
   The existence of such  a subtle
matter, as may be capable of per-
forming  these  wonderful pheno-
mena, has been considered as high-
ly  probable ; and is  supposed to
reside in the medullary substance
of the nerves.   This opinion has,
lately been  in a great  measure
corroborated by  the discovery of
valves of various sizes attached to
the nerves, which valves are found
in greater or smaller numbers, ac-
            AN I

cordingly as the animal is either of
a quicker or slower  motion....See
Muscles.
  ANIMAL ECONOMY, in  its
more extensive sense, implies an
accurate and physiological know-
ledge of  the use,  structure and
component parts  of all animal bo-
dies ; but is here intended to sig-
nify only such a view of the human
system, as may afford the means
of  preserving health,  and  pro-
moting  the useful   purposes  of
life.
  The  enjoyment of "  a sound
mind" in a healthy body, being the
greatest of earthly blessings, a por-
tion of the  time and industry of
every rational being  ought to be
employed in the  acquisition of so
desirable a state.  For this purpose,
nothing is  more  essential than a
proper knowledge of the various
branches of animal economy, by
the assistance of  which we are not
only enabled to preserve ourselves
in perfect  health, but to remove,
and frequently to  obviate the attack
of many disorders to which we are
liable, and which, from our igno-
rance and mismanagement, might
otherwise  be  productive of the
most fatal  consequences.
    Animal   economy,  therefore,
ought certainly  to form part of a
liberal education.  It is not, how-
ever, necessary,  nor is it  conveni-
ent, that all persons  should be mi-
nutely instructed in  the more ab-
stract and difficult   branches  of
medical or anatomical science ; but
an acquaintance with such familiar
and practical parts as are of gene-
ral use  and application, should
never be superceded by other less
serviceable pursuits.
  ANIMATION, is that property
which  distinguishes living from
dead or inanimate matter, and is
frequently used to denote the prin- 
ANI
ANI         67
ciple of life itself. Strictly speak-
ing, however,  it is that which im-
parts  energy  and activity to the
vital powers ;  and these may still
continue, when animation is either
suspended or destroyed.   It is ca-
pable of modification, and varies in
its proportion  at particular times,
and in different  persons.
  In a moral or intellectual sense,
it denotes an elevated state of the
mind,  in consequence of the pre-
dominance of  some  powerful pas-
sion, such as love, anger, ambition,
Sec. or the vigorous  application of
stimuli, such  as wine, spirits, air,
exercise, Sec.
   Of those causes which produce
it in the highest degree, the chief
 and most essential is air ; given
 either in its purest state, or in cer-
 tain combinations with other gases,
its effects  are  so singular,  as to
resemble those which were former-
ly said to  be produced by magic.
   Animation may be either dimi-
nished, or suspended, without in-
juring or  destroying  the  living
principle.  The former effect may
be seen in those persons who have
suffered from long and close con-
finement   in  prisons,   hospitals,
crowded  and  heated assemblies,
as well as in fevers, consumptions,
and other chronic complaints.  In
these cases, a proper and moderate
application  of the necessary sti-
muli,  such  as  air, exercise,  a
nourishing diet, Sec. will generally
accomplish, either  its  partial or
complete  restoration.  Of the lat-
ter, various instances have lately
happened : persons' who were ac-
cidentally  suffocated or drowned,
have, by timely and  proper means
(particularly those recommended
by  that  excellent institution, the
Royal Humane Society),  been suc-
cessfully re-animated, when life it-
self seemed on the eve of depart-
ing.
  Among those causes which prin-
cipally tend to  preserve  and  in-
crease animation, are temperance,
gentle exercise,  nourishing diet,
wine, moderate gratifications, and
constant  activity, both corporeal
and mental.
  Various methods have, at differ-
ent times,  been  recommended to
restore animation when suspend-
ed,   either  from suffocation  or
drowning.   In  Spain, they first
lay  the body with its head down-
wards, near a fire,  till it begins
to feel warm, and eject water from
the trachea, or windpipe; they then
foment the whole breast, and seat
of the heart, wilh spirits of wine,
brandy, or bread dipped in strong
wines.   By this means,  if  the
vital principle be not extinct, the
circulation  of  the blood is usually
restored.  The  Frejich Academy
advise tobacco-smoke  to be forci-
bly  injected into the anus  and
lungs, after which  a  vein to be
opened in the  arm and foot: it is
asserted, that by this method, per-
sons  who have   lain many hours
under water,  have   been  happily
resusc tated.
  In the Journal Historique sur la
matures  du terns, for  Dec. 1753,
a case is related by  Dr. Du Mou-
lin, who succeeded in recovering
a young woman, after she had lain
for several hours under water.  All
pulsation having  ceased, he consi-
dered it as a desperate case,  and
was  induced  to  try a method he
had frequently observed to be suc-
cessful with flies and other insects,
which, when drowned or apparent-
ly dead,  had been revived by  half
burying them  in ashes or salt. He
accordingly  ordered  a  quantity of
dry pot-ashes to be strewed, about 
68          ANI
ANI
 three inches deep, on a bed : upon
 this layer his patient was  placed,
 and another, about two inches in
 depth was spread over her.  The
 head was covered with a cap con-
 taining some of these ashes ;  and
 a stocking filled with the same ma-
 terial was placed round her throat.
 Blankets  were then laid on  the
 bed ; and in half an hour her pulse
 began to beat;  after which  she
 quickly recovered.  If pot-ash can-
 not be readily  procured,  dry  salt
 may be used as a substitute.
   In  Russia, the common people
 are frequently deprived of sensa-
 tion, by pestilential vapours arising
 from the following cause :  Persons
 of rank, in that country, have dou-
 ble windows  to  their houses in
 winter, but  those  of the poorer
 classes are  only single.   During
 frosty weather, an  incrustation is
 formed on the inside of those win-
 dows, from a condensation of  the
 breath, perspiration, Sec. of a num-
 ber of persons living together in
 the same room.   This mephitic
 crust is  mixed with the  noxious
 fumes of candles, and of the oven
 with which the chamber is heated.
 When a thaw succeeds,  and this
 plate of ice is converted into water,
 a  deleterious principle is disen-
 gaged, which produces effects si-
 milar  to those  arising  from  the
 fumes of  charcoal.  The  method
 of recovering persons affected by
this effluvia,  is as follows: They
 are immediately carried  out  of
doors,  and placed  on the snow,
with no other covering but a shirt
and linen drawers. Their temples,
and  region of the stomach  are
then well rubbed with snow ; and
cold water and milk  is  poured
down  their throats.   The  friction
is continued  till  the livid hue of
 the  skin  disappears, and the sur-
 face acquires its natural colour.
   In cases of apparent death, from
 drowning, it  is necessary to rub
 the breast and temples for a consi-
 derable time with salt, and all the
 other  parts  with  warm cloths.....
 Bladders  filled  with warm water,
 or bricks  heated  and wrapped in
 flannel, should  be applied  to the
 soles of the feet, under the aim-
 pits, and between the thighs.  The
 head should be covered with blan-
 kets, to preserve  the lungs from
 too sudden an ingress of the air,
 on the renewal of  respiration.....
 When symptoms of returning ani-
 mation appear, a few ounces of
 blood may be taken from the arm.
   Farther directions for  the  ma-
 nagement of bodies in that unfor-
 tunate  situation,  we propose to
 communicate under the articles of
 Drowning,  Suspension by the
 cord, Lightning, &c.
   As a proof of the success which
 has attended the exertions of medi-
 cal men in this country, who have
 liberally co-operated with the be-
 nevolent design  of the Royal Hu-
 mane Society, under the immedi-
 ate patronage of our august Sove-
 reign,  we  shall  adjourn  this sub-
ject, in the  words  of our  wor-
thy friend, the  philanthropic Dr.
 Hawes, a gentleman whose inte-
 grity and  disinterested activity de-
serve equal commendation: " Ani-
mation (says this noble  veteran),
has been given to thousands since
 1774, the  birth  of our life-saving
labours."
  ANISE, orPimpinella, in botany,
is  an annual, umbelliferous  and
aromatic plant, of  which  there are
ten species.
  TheCommonBurnetSaxifrage,or
the Pimpinella Saxafraga,h. grows 
ANI
ANI          69
on a dry, calcareous, gravelly soil,
blossoms in July and August; and
is described in Dr. Withering's
Arrangement of British Plants,  p.
311, and Eng. Bot. T. 437.
  Every part of this useful plant
has a fragrant smell and taste, and
is  subservient to many beneficial
purposes.
  The  white  root of the burnet-
saxifrage is of a very hot, pungent,
bitterish taste, which may be en-
tirely extracted in rectified spirits
of wine, and affords a medicine of
great efficacy in scorbutic and cu-
taneous disorders in general, but
especially  for dropsical  and asth-
matic complaints, in which it has
been administered by the great Bo-
 erhaave, with singular success.
 Although  he directs it to be taken
only in a watery infusion, yet we
would prefer the tincture,  as pos-
sessing in a superior  degree the
medicinal virtues of the  root.   In
short, the physicians of Germany
frequently  prescribe  it  in  cases
where emollient, resolvent, deter-
gent, diuretic,  and stomachic re-
medies are indicated,  as well  as
for removing tumors and obstruc-
tions in the glands.
   Frederic  Hoffman asserts,
that this vegetable is an  excellent
medicine for promoting  the men-
ses ;  while other  writers recom-
mend it in all cases where pituitous
humours are supposed to prevail,
such as catarrhal coughs, hoarse-
ness, and humid asthma, but par-
ticularly in a  symptomatic  sore
throat, called the mucous quinsy.
   There is a variety of the burnet-
saxifrage  growing wild  in Bran-
denburgh,  and  denominated by
Elsholz, a Prussian botanist, the
Pimpinella coerulea  or  the  blue
pimpinella; as it differs  from the
former  oply, by yielding a  blue
colour in rectified spirit, a similar
oil on  distillation, and a fine blue
juice on expressing the fresh root.
For  this  reason, we have  men-
tioned it, as it may probably afford
a proper  substitute  for indigo, in
remote places  where that cannot
readily be obtained.
  The young leaves and shoots of
this species are very palatable, and
are eaten as sallad: small bunches
of them tied together, and suspend-
ed in a cask of table-beer, or ale,
impart to it an agreeable aromatic
taste;  and, it is affirmed, that they
likewise tend  to  correct tart  and
spoiled wines, which, by this sim-
ple expedient,  may be restored to
their former briskness.
   As the herbs  of  this plant are
acknowledged to be  a very whole-
some fodder for cows, to increase
their milk,  and to preserve them
against epidemics, we presume to
recommend its culture  to the far-
mer and grazier.
  The Great Burnet-Saxifrage, or
the Pimpinella magna, L. delights
in shady  places, on a  calcareous
soil,  also   flowers  in  July  and
August; and is described by Wi-
thering,  p. 313, and  Eng. Bot.
T. 408.
  It is stated to possess properties
similar to the former, though cat-
tle refuse to browse upon  it, on
account of its  hard  stalks, which
often attain  the height  of four
feet.
  The Dwarf Burnet-Saxifrage, or
Pimpinella dioica, L. only grows
on hilly  pastures and  calcareous
soils, for instance, on St. Vincent's
Rock, near Bristol, and  above Up-
hill,  in Somersetshire.
  It bears flowers in May and June;
is ^described by  Withering, p.
313; and delineated  in Gerard's
Herbal, 1054.  3. 
70
ANN
ANN
   Its properties are not sufficiently
ascertained ; but being a dwarfish
plant, the two preceding  species
in every respect  deserve the  pre-
ference.
  ANNEALING, by artificers call-
ed mating, is a part of the process
of making, or finishing, glass; and
consists in placing bottles and other
vessels, while hot, in a kind of oven
or furnace, where they are suffered
gradually to cool.
   The difference between unan-
nealed, and annealed glass, is very
remarkable.  When a glass vessel
that has not undergone this process
is broken, it often flies into a small
powder with  a violence apparently
disproportionate to the stroke which
it received.  In  general, it is  in
greater danger of  being  broken
from  a very slight blow,  than from
a  more considerable  one.   Such
vessels will often resist the  effects
of a pistol bullet dropt into it, from
the height of two or three feet, yet
a grain of sand falling into  it, will
break it into small fragments. This
sometimes takes place immediately
on dropping  the  sand into  it, but
the vessel will  frequently  remain
apparently sound, for several mi-
nutes  after;  when,  without the
least touch, it will suddenly fly  to
pieces.  If the glass  be very thin,
this effect does  not take place; and
on the contrary,  it seems to pos-
sess all the  properties of such  as
are annealed.
 Glass is one of those bodies which
increase in bulk,  on passing from
a fluid to  a solid  state.  When it
is allowed to crystallize regularly,
the particles  are so arranged, that
it  has a fibrous texture; but, when
a mass of melted  glass is suddenly
exposed to a cold tempevature, the
surface crystallizes,  and forms  a
firm shell round the interior fluid
parts, by which  they become solid,
and  are  prevented  from expand-
ing.
   By the process of annealing, the
glass is  preserved  for  some time
in a  state approaching  to fluidity;
the heat increases the bulk of the
crystalized part, and renders it so
soft, that the internal  fibres have
an opportunity of expanding and
forming a regular crystalization.
   A  similar process is now used
for rendering kettles,  and other
vessels of cast  iron, less brittle;
which admits of the same  expla-
nation as that above stated.   The
greater number of metals diminish
in bulk when they pass from a fluid
to a solid state.   Iron, on the con-
trary,  expands.
   ANNUITY implies a  sum of
money payable.yearly, half-yearly,
or quarterly, to continue for a cer-
tain  number of years,  for life,  or
for ever.
   An  annuity is  called an arrear,
when it continues unpaid after it
becomes due; and is said to be in
reversion,  when  the   purchaser,
upon paying  the price, does  not
immediately  enter  upon  posses-
sion : the annuity not commencing
till some time after.
   The interest upon annuities may
be computed either  in  the simple
or compound manner.   But  the
latter,  being  most  equitable,  is
generally preferred.
   In  the first class, viz.  in those
which  extend for a limited period,
the principal considerations are the
annuity, rate, and time being given
to find the amount, or sum of year-
ly payments, and interest. These
are readily ascertained,  by a series
of algebraical calculations.
   In freehold estates, the principal
circumstances to be attended to,
are :
  1. The  annuity or yearly rent.
 2.The price or present value; aud, 
ANN
ANN
71
  S. The rate of interest.
  The value of life-annuities is de-
termined by comparative observa-
tions and calculations derived from
the  bills  of  mortality.   Several
computations have been made for
this purpose ; the most esteemed
of which  are those by Dr. Hal-
ley,  Mr. Simpson, and  M. De
MOIVRE.
   Breslaw,  the capital of Silesia,
being a central place, and not much
crowded,  was fixed upon by  Dr.
Halley, who had recourse to the
bills of mortality, when he com-
 posed his table.  He selected 1000
 persons, all born in one year, and
 observed, how many of these re-
 mained alive every year from their
 birth, to the extinction of the last;
 and, consequently, ascertained the
 number which died in each year,
 as follows:
Age.	Persons living.	Age.	Persons living.
1	1000	24	573
2	855	25	567
*J	798	26	560
4	760	27	553
5	732	28	546
6	710	29	539
7	692	30	531
8	680	31	523
9	670	32	515
10	661	33	507
11	653	34	499
12	646	35	490
13	640	36	481
14	634	37	472
15	628	38	463
16	622	39	454
17	616	40	445
18	610	41	436
19	604	42	427
20	598	43	417
21	592	44	407
22	586	45	397
1 2\J 579		46	387
~"V*			
Age.
Persons
 living.
Age.
Persons
 living.
47	■377	70	142
48	367	71	131
49	357	72	120
50	346	73	109
51	335	74	98
52	324	75	88
53	313	76	78
54	302	77	68
55	292	78	58
56	282	79	49
57	272	80	41
58	262	81	34
59	252	82	28
60	242	83	23
61	232	84	20
62	222	85	15
63	212	86	11
64	202	87	8
65	192	88	5
66	182	89	3
67	172	90	1
68	162	91	0
69	152		
  As there  is  allowed  to  be a
greater  disparity between births
and burials in the city of London,
than in any other place, Mr. Simp-
son selects 1280 persons,  all born
in the same year, and records  the
number remaining alive each year,
till none be left, in order to form a
table particularly  suited  to  this
populous city.
   The following is Mr. Simpson's
table on the  bills of mortality, at
London:
Age.	Persons living.	Age.	Persons living.
0 1 2 3 4	1280 870 700 635 600	5 6 7 8 9	580 564 551 541 5 32
 
72        ANN                         ANN
	Persons	Age.	Persons
Age.	living.		living.
10	524 .	53	180
11	517	54	172
12	510	55	165
13	504	56	158
14	498	57	151
15	492	58	144
16	486	59	L37
17	480	60	130
18	474	61	123
19	468	62	117
20	462	63	111
21	455	64	105
22	448	65	99
23	441	66	93
24	434	67	- 87
25	426	68	81
26	418	69	75
27	410	70	69
28	402	71	64
29	394	72	59
30	385	73	54
31	376	74	49
32	367	75	45
33	358	76	41
34	349	77	38
35	340	78	35
36	331	79	32
37	322	80	29
38	313	81	26
39	304	82	23
40	294	83	20
41	284	84	17
42	274	85	14
43	264	86	12
44	255	87	10
45	246	88	8
46	237	89	6
47	228	90	5
48	220	91	4
49	212	92	3
50	204	93	2
51	196	94	1
52	183	95	1 °_
  But these tables, however per-
fect they may be in themselves,
must be considered only as proba-
ble conjectures, founded on  the
usual period of human life, which
is estimated as  follows :     ,
   1. The probability that a person
of a given  age  may live a certain
number of  years, is measured by
the proportion which  the number
of persons  living at the proposed
age bears to the difference between
the said number, and that of per-
sons existing at the given ages.
  Thus, if it be required to know
what chance a  person 40 years of
age may have to live  seven years
longer,  the reader should refer to
Dr. Halley's table, and from 445,
the number of persons living at 40
years of age, subtract the number
of persons living at 47  years of age,
and  the remainder being 68, will
be the number of those who have
died  during those seven  years.
The probability, that the person in
question will live these seven years,
is in the proportion of 377 to 68, or
nearly as 5*  to 1.  By Mr. Simp-
son's table,  the  chance  is some-
what less than  that of 4 to 1.
   If it be desirable to ascertain the
year, which  a  person of a given
age  has an equal chance of attain-
ing, the inquirer ought to find  half
the  number  of persons living at
that given  age, in the tables;  and
the  year required will appear in
the column of ages.
   The* premium of insurance upon
lives may  also,  in some degree,
be regulated by these tables, as
follows:
   The chance which a person of
25 years has to live another year,
is, by Dr. Halley's tables, as 80
to  1; but the chance that a person
of 50 years has to live a year long-
er,  is only  30 to  1; and conse-
quently the premium for insuring
the former ought  to be the  pre-
 mium for  insuring the  latter for
 one year, as 30 to 80, or as 3 to  8. 
            ANO

  Life-annuities  are  commonly
bought or sold at a certain number
of years' purchase.   The value of
an annuity of one pound for an age
of 50 years, at 3  per cent, interest,
is about  12/. 10«. or twelve and a
half years' purchase.
  Among those who have written
on this  subject, none is more de-
servedly celebrated than Dr. Price,
the author of Observations on  Re-
versionary Payments, Annuities, &c.
published in  1771;  and his cu-
rious remarks  on this subject, in-
serted  in the  LXYth vol. of the
Philos.  Transactions, for 1775, p.
424, are  well  worthy of perusal
and attention.
  In our opinion, life annuities,
when granted by individuals whose
property is  already involved, or
who by  such an expedient injure
the just expectations of their rela-
tives, ought not to be  connived at
in a well-regulated state....Viewed
in a commercial light, this species
of gambling, in a certain degree,
resembles the furious rage for the
hazard  or pharo-table ;  to  which
all those adventurersand avaricious
money-lenders   generally  resort,
who are anxious  to amass large
sums of money,  which,  by mo-
derate legal interest, could not be
realized.
  ANODYNE, is a term applied
to medicines which have a tendency
to assuage pain.  This  desirable
purpose  may be attained in three
different ways :  1.  By paregorics,
or such remedies as are calculated
to ease pain ; 2,  By soporifics, which
relieve the patient by causing arti-
ficial sleep ; and 3. By narcotics, or
such as stupify, by their action on
the nervous  system.
  This division, though sanctioned
by general authority, is  very  im-
perfect ; and we shall attempt to
     VOL. I.
            ANO         73

explain the subject  in  a  manner,
perhaps, more consonant with just
principles of animal economy....not
from the result, but from the cause
by which a proper  application of
anodynes induces certain changes
in the  human body.  In order to
give a  distinct view of the subject,
we shall arrange them under three
classes ; namely,
   I. Such remedies  as tend either
to remove the offending cause, or
prevent the part affected  from re-
ceiving a sensible and painful im-
pression, viz. in consequence of the
amputation of a  limb ; the draw-
ing of a tooth  ; the burning of
parts either by the cautery, or by
means of a red-hot iron ;  the ap-
plication of the tourniquet, a tight
ligature, compresses, &c.  To this
class also belongs opiates, and other
stupifying medicines, administered
for the  suspension  of pain  ;  but
which may be justly  termed, " poi-
sons of the sensitive faculty," How-
ever liberally  others may  explain
the effects of opium on the organs
of the  mind, we  cannot avoid ob-
serving,  that its  operation on the
sensoriumcommune is always attend-
ed with violence, and that so pow-
erful a medicine ought not to be in-
trusted to the  hands of those who
are but little  acquainted  with its
nature.  Nay, we are of opinion,
that even medical men cannot be
too careful in its exhibition ; but far
from wishing to deprecate the use
of this invaluable drug, which can-
not in the present state of medical
science, be excluded from the list
of medicinal substances, we  shall
here venture to suggest a few ideas
respecting the propriety,and great-
er safety, of its external use.
  In very painful wounds, excruci-
ating  rheumatism,   contractions,
and paralvtic affections arisingfrom
    L 
74
ANO
ANO
frequent spasms and strictures, the
external use of opium is both safe
and beneficial,  especially if  com-
bined with antispasmodic and emol-
lient remedies, such as canfphor,
linseed  oil,  marsh-mallows, See.
These alone  are  frequently  suffi-
cient  to relieve distressing  pain,
without the assistance of anodynes
properly  so  called;  as the latter
generallydetermine the circulation
of blood towards the head, and oc-
casion giddiness, stupor, and  a re-
laxation of the nerves.  With the
above  additions,  however, opium
may be advantageously employed
in the form of baths, fomentations,
ointments, cataplasms,  and parti-
culaily in clysters.....(See the arti-
cle Abdomen, p. 5.  laudanum.)
  When the pain is in the interior
organs, and its seat cannot be pre-
cisely ascertained, or when  it rises
from causes which neither the pa-
tient nor  physician  can discover,
we would prefer the  following ano-
dyne  liniment, a timely application
of which has frequently procured
immediate relief:  take one  ounce
of the dried leaves of the common
henbane, or  four  ounces  of the
green plant, and  half  a pint of
sweet olive-oil, .digest them near a
fire for a  few days,  then express
the leaves through a coarse piece
of linen, filter the decoction, and
preserve  it  in  a vessel closely
stopped.   This preparation, if ap-
plied  warm, or rubbed into painful
parts, has, according to our own
experience, proved of singular ef-
ficacy.
  II.  Those remedies  which are
calculated to change, suppress, or
evacuate the material cause of pain,
and are therefore the  most rational,
though, un'brtunately, not  always
within the reach of  the medical
practitioner.   Thus, if the  intes-
tinal canal be obstructed,  or the
stomach clogged with acrid matter
that cannot fail to produce violent
colics,  and  other disorders,  the
principal aim will be to evacuate it
by  purgatives, or  emetics,  and
thereby not  only cure  the com-
plaint, but, at the same time, save
the patient's  life, which, by  means
of opiates, given either by  the
mouth  or clyster,  without  such
previous evacuations, would  be ex-
posed to imminent danger.  Hence
we are induced to express our opi-
nion decidedly in  favour of those
who, from a conviction of the great
importance of the trust reposed in
them, seriously hesitate to employ
anodynes, so  long as there is a pos-
sibility of dispensing  with such
precarious remedies. But, in cases
where the morbid matter cannot be
expelled, a skilful practitioner will
endeavour, at least, to deprive it of
its activity, or to neutralize it, while
in the human body.   In this man-
ner, pains  arising from acrimonious
humours,  are relieved by drinking
bland,   diluent,  and   saccharine
liquors:   from  intestinal worms
(though resisting every vermifuge)
by  remedies  which  destroy  them
before they are carried off  by the
feces ; from  a pleurisy,  by such
means  as resolve  the  stagnant
fluids, and promote  their circula-
tion through  the constricted capil-
lary vessels :  from  stones in  the
bladder, if they be  too  large for
expulsion, by  the  use of  lime-
water, which  tends  to blunt their
edges,  &c.   These illustrations,
however,  might  be  accompanied
with a variety of practical hints and
precautions, if we did  not  intend
to reserve such  observations, till
we have  occasion to treat  of the
different acute and painful diseases,
under their respective heads. 
ANO
ANO         75
  III. The last class of anodynes
comprehends all those  which, by
exciting impressions and represent-
ations of a different kind, either
counteract or subdue  the pain......
These are  generally resorted to,
when neither  the affected organs
can be locally  relieved, the mate-
rial cause removed, nor the senses
stupified by narcotics. Hence phy-
sicians are frequently  obliged to
employ such  expedients as may
suppress  the partial affections, by
exciting feelings of a different na-
ture, and perhaps to a more intense
degree than those occasioned by
the original complaint.  These re-
medies,  however, require equal in-
genuity  and precaution. Thus, for
instance, violent  head-ach, tooth-
 ach,  pains of the breast,  Sec. may
 be alleviated  by blisters, or cata-
 plasms  made  of onions, garlic,
mustard-seed with vinegar, horse-
radish,  and similar  stimulants;
rheumatic and gouty affections, by
early friction  with flannel, which
for many reasons, is preferable to a
flesh-brush. All these applications,
nevertheless, ought to be maturely
considered, previous  to  their use,
with respect to the place, strength,
and duration, of the stimulus.
   To this  class may  also he refer-
red, diversions of the mind ; incli-
nations and passions artificially ex-
cited, in order  to direct the atten-
tion of the patient to a different ob-
ject : such expedients are frequent-
ly of excellent service, especially
in chronic diseases, and to invete-
rate hypochondriacs.  In a similar
manner, terror and  anger some-
times instantaneously suppress the
painful  sensations of* gouty and
rheumatic  patients.    Thus, the
pleasures of conversation,  a coun-
try life, theatres,  music, dancing,
hunting, and similar  amusements,
are often more effectual anodyne
than wine, brandy, or  laudanums
the former agreeably cozen  and
delude the mind ; the latter always,
sooner  or  later, aggravate  the
complaint.
  Having given this concise view
of the subject, we shall  add only
a few general observations relative
to  the  manner  of  determining,
whether,  and  when a patient may
with safety resort to anodynes ; be-
cause, in this place, we cannot en-
ter into particulars, which it would
become necessary to repeat, when
treating of those substances them-
selves.
   If a person be suddenly  seized
with  violent pains, the  cause or
source of which cannot be cleariy
ascertained, it will be of the  first
consequence to  inquire, whether
the  patient be at the same time
subject to febrile heat,  accompa-
nied by  an unusual determination
of blood towards the head, and a
strong, full pulse.   In such case,
if the pain should not abate on the
friction of the parts affected, or on
plunging the legs in warm water, it
would be  proper to take  a few
ounces of  blood  from the arm or
foot.   In many instances of acute
pain, however,  the  pulse  is con-
siderably depressed, and  the circu-
lation  of the  fluids in general so
languid, that  the extremities ap-
pear rather pale and cold;  yet,
under these circumstances also, it
may frequently  become  necessary
to bleed  the patient without delay,
in order  to  restore  an uniform
action of the vessels; a  point to be
determined by the judicious practi-
tioner.
  From whatever cause an internal
or deep-seated pain may arise, it
will always be useful to  allow the
patient considerable portions of di- 
76        ANO
ANO
   luent drink,  such  as  luke-warm
   water mixed  with  a  fourth part
   6f milk, or decoctions of barley,
   blanched oats, rice,&c.; to adminis-
   ter emollient clysters, consisting of
   six parts of warm water, two of oil,
   and one of soft sugar ; to wrap the
   suffering part  in soft flannel,  or, if
   it can bear the application of heat,
   to cover the whole with a common
   poultice,  made  of the crumb of
   bread boiled in milk, with the ad-
   dition of a little sweet-oil; to  place
   the patient, if his peculiar situation
   and  circumstances admit of  this
   practice, in a tepid bath,  of a tem-
   perature not exceeding  98° ofFah-
   renheit ;  and, lastly, if none of
   these expedients should afford the
. X, desired relief, to resort to opium, or
   laudanum, as the last resource : one
   grain  of the  former, or twenty
   drops of  the  latter, with a proper
   quantity  of diluent beverage, is
   generally a sufficient close, to per-
   sons not accustomed to its use. But
   let us here observe, that even in
   very desperate paroxysms  of pain,
   there is no  necessity of  giving an
   indiscriminate preference to opium,
   till every other method has been
   previously tri&d : thus, for instance,
   the  most  excruciating  head and
   tooth-ach, have often been sudden-
   ly dispelled, by applying horse-rad-
   ish  in  fresh  shavings, or bruised
   garlic, between two fine pieces of
   muslin, to the bend of both  arms,
   or the hams.
      Another sH*.ple remedy, of equal
   efficacy, in periodical  head-achs,
   especially in the morning,  is a thin
   piece of  fresh  lemon-peel  freed
   from the soft fibrous parts, and plac-
   ed on each of the temples, before
   the  volatile  oil be  evaporated.....
   These  external  applications  are
   perfectly safe ; for, as  their action
   is confined to the part which they
stimulate, they occasion a  degree
of irritation different from the ori-
ginal complaint, and thus produce a
cessation of pain.  In the last-men-
tioned case, we would also recom-
mend the timely  application of a
few leeches, either  to the temples,
or rather to  the lateral part of the
neck, behind the ears, where the
effect is almost instantaneous.
  Lastly, opium may be called an
almost divine  remedy, when judi-
ciously   administered,  in   gan-
grenes,  after painful amputations,
fractures of bones, and, in short,
every   operation   attended  with
spasms  and  great  prostration of
strength ; but especially in diseases
of the eyes, such as the cataract,
or gutta serena.
  [The apprehensions  expressed
by  Dr.  Willich,  with respect to
the bad effects of anodynes are in
a great measure  groundless ; and
the substitutes he recommends,
will do more injury  than the opium,
by  their inefficacy  in relieving the
system  from violent pain, which an
anodyne might soon dispel. Thus
in very  vioierlt colics it is always
more advisable to take an anodyne,
when first seized,  and afterwards
to purge, and bleed, if necessary....
(See Colic) In the head-ach also,
commonly  termed nervous, but
which  most frequently is caused
by  affections of the stomach, 15,
20, or 30, drops of laudanum, taken
on the first attack, will, nine times
out of  ten,  remove  the   disease,
which,  with any  substitute, might
be protracted for two or three days;
a  cup  of  coffee,  without sugar
will relieve the  sickness and unplea-
sant sensations which  commonly
follow the use  of opium.   It must
be  acknowledged,  however,  that
cases often occur where anodynes
cannot  be  safely given internally, 
ANO
ANT         77
inconsequence of the derangement
they create in the system ; in such
cases, opium may be safely  appli-
ed externally, in the form of lauda-
num, with great advantage ;  or the
following  prescription   may   be
used:
  Take opium, in  fine powder,
    half a dram.
  Camphor, four grains.
  Hog's lard,  four scruples.
  Olive-oil, one dram....Mix.
  This mixture may be rubbed on
the inside of the legs and thighs,
as often as the symptoms require.
In the course of this work, the va-
rious cases in which anodynes may
be given with safety, shall be point-
 ed out.]
   ANOTTA, is an  elegant red
 colouring substance, prepared from
 the pellicles,  or pulp, which  sur-
 round  the  seeds  of the Arnotto
 Tree, or  Bixa,  L. a  native  of
South America.
   According to Lae at, thelndians
prepare an anotta far superior  to
that imported into Britain : it is of
a bright, glossy, red colour, little in-
ferior to Carmine. For this pur-
pose, instead  of steeping and fer-
menting the  seeds in  water, they
rub them  with the hands,  previ-
ously immersed in oil, till the pel-
licles are separated, and reduced
to  a  clear  paste ;  which is then
scraped off with  a knife, and ex-
posed on  a  clean leaf in the shade,
 where it is  gradually dried.
   Anotta  is chiefly  used for im-
 parting to  wool or silk, a deep,
 though  not  permanent,  orange
 hue.   Considerable quantities  of
 this dyeing drug are likewise em-
ployed in the colouring of Cheese;
and also as an ingredient in  var-
nishes,  for  communicating  an
orange shade to  the  simple  yel-
lows.
  From the wax or pulp, in which
the seeds of the amotto-tree are in-
closed, the Indians and  Spaniards
prepare a cool, agreeably rich cor-
dial, which  they  mix with  their
chocolate, for  improving its fla-
vour, and heightening its colour.
The roots possess nearly similar
properties, but operate more pow-
erfully by the urinary passages....
they are employed by the natives
in broths, and answer all the pur-
poses  of the  pulp,  though in a
weaker degree.
   ANT, or Formica, in zoology,
is a genus of insects belonging to
the sixth class of the animal king-
dom. The characters ©f this insect
are, that there is a small scale be-
tween the breast and belly ; and
the joint is so deep, that the animal
appears as if it were almost cut
through the body.   The females
and the neuters,  or working ants,
which have no sexual characteris-
tics,  are furnished  with a  secret
sting ; and both the males and fe-
males have wings, but the neuters
have none.   There  are eighteen
species, which are in general dis-
tinguished by their colours.
   These insects  cohabit in  nume-
rous parties,  and maintain a sort
of republic, not unlike that  of the
bees.  Their nests are in the form
of an oblong  square, and  contain
paths which lead to different ma-
gazines.   Their method of con-
structing these habitations is truly
wonderful.   Some of the ants are
employed in  making the  ground
firm by mixing it with  a kind of
glue, to prevent its crumbling, and
falling upon them : others may tie
seen gathering several twigs,which
they use forrafters, by placing them
over the paths to support  the co-
vering : they  lay others across and 
78          ANT
ANT
upon  these,  rushes,  weeds, and
dried  grass, which they form into
a double declivity,  and thus con-
duct the water fromtheir magazine.
 For  provisions they secure every
thing which, to them, is  eatable,
and we  may  often  observe one
loaded with a dead fly, sometimes
several together with the carcase
of a may-bug, or other large insect;
and,  if they cannot transport  it,
they consume part of it upon the
spot,  at least so much as may re-
duce it to a bulk adequate to their
strength.   They lay up hoards of
wheat and other corn:  and, for
fear it  should sprout  from  the
moisture  of their  subterraneous
cells,  they  gnaw off the end which
would produce  the blade.  It is re-
markable, that  if one ant  meets
another which is loaded, it always
gives way, or will help it, if it
be  over  burthened.   Indeed,  the
strength of this  little animal Is
astonishing, as one of them  will
frequently  drag a burthen many
times heavier than itself!
  On depriving a mouse or other
little  animal of its skin, and placing
it on  an ant-hill, in  a  little box,
perforated  in several parts, so as to
admit a free passage for the ants, it
will be found, in a few days, con-
verted into the most perfect skele-
ton.
  The ant deposits her eggs in the
manner  of the common flies, and
from these eggs are hatched the
larva, a sort of small maggots, or
worms without legs; which, after a
short time, change into large white
aurelia, or chrysalids, usually call-
ed ant's eggs.
   Although ants are considered as
injurious to husbandry, by making
their hills, and impairing the grass
upon pasture  land,  yet they are
unjustly reproached with damaging
fruit-trees.   In  Switzerland,  they
are made cubsorvient  to the de-
struction of caterpillars, by hang-
ing a pouch filled with ants  ,ipon
a tree, whence they are  suffered
to make tl.-eir escape, through  an
aperture,  and  over-run  all  its
branches, without being  able  to
reach the ground, as the trunk has
been previously smeared with wet
clay, or soft pitch, in consequence
of which, impelled by hunger, they
fall upon the caterpillars, and de-
vour them.
  Ants have also been successfully
used in medicine. By distillation,
they afford an acid liquor, which,
when mixed with  brandy, is  by
many considered as a  strengthen-
ing nervous cordial; they have also
been added  to warm baths,  when
used  for  the  gout and  sprained
limbs.
   We shall now  proceed to  state
several methods of destroying this
numerous insect.  The most simple
of these is  to pour boiling water
into the apertures of their hillocks.
By mixing  soot  with  cold water,
and pouring it at the roots of trees
infested by them,  they will speedily
be destroyed. Besides that already
mentioned, there is another simple
expedient  to  prevent  them  from
descending  a tree which they visit.
Nothing farther is required than to
mark with a piece of common chalk
a circle round  its  trunk, about two
feet from the ground, and about an
inch or two in breadth : as soon as
the ants arrive at this ring, not one
\yill attempt to cross it. This  cu-
rious experiment, however, should
be performed in dry weather, and
the ring  must be renewed,  when
partly washed off by rain.
   The small garden-ants,  which
are supposed to devour the young
shoots of fruit-trees,  may be des- 
ANT
ANT         79
troyed  by placing among them a
number of large ants,  which are
commonly found in the woods ; as
there prevails between these two
species of insects so strong an anti-
pathy,  that the larger sort attack
the smaller,  and never relinquish
the combat till they have extirpat-
ed, or driven their antagonists from
the neighbourhood.
   Mr.   Clutterbuck,   jun.  of
WTatford,  washed the walls of his
hot-house with a painter's brush,
dipped in  a solution made of four
ounces of sublimate, in two gallons
of water; and since that application,
neither the  red  spider,  against
which this remedy was employed,
nor ants have made  their appear-
 ance.
   One of the most  effectual me-
 thods of dispersing these trouble-
 some insects from plantations and
 gardens, we believe, is that men-
tioned  in the Encyclopadia Britan-
 nica; on  the authority of which
we  shall  communicate  it to our
readers : " A small quantity of hu-
man feces, when  placed  in their
hills, will  not only destroy  great
numbers,  but expel the rest from
their habitations."
   A new method of exterminating
.these insects, is recommended by
Mr. Forstth; with a view to prer
vent them traversing walls, and in-
juring  fruit. He directs a hole to
be drilled in the  ground, with a
sharp-pointed wooden stake, close
to the side of the wall, and at such
depth as the soil will permit.  In
consequence of the  earth being stir-
red, the insects will be induced to
move about: the sides of the hole
are  then to be made smooth, so
that the ants, on approaching the
edge of the orifice may fall in, and
be unable  toclimb upwards. When
a considerable number is  collected
at the bottom water may be poured
on them, and thus thousands may
be drowned. Great numbers may
likewise  be killed  by strewing a
mixture of quick lime  and soot,
along such places as are much fre-
quented by ants: they may further
be banished from trees by scatter-
ing a little pulverised Staves-acre
on the ground, around their stems;
but,  where  it  is practicable, it is
best  to open  the  nest  of these
insects, and throw in them a piece
of quick  lime  with  a  sufficient
quantity  of water for slacking it;
when the heat, together  with  the
suffocating air  thus evolved, will
certainly destroy them.
  Antelope. See Deer.
  Anthemis. See Chamomile.
  Anthericum. See  Spiderwort.
  ANT-HILLS are so well known,
that  they require no additional de-
scription to  that given under the
article Ant....They are very inju-
rious to dry pastures, not only by
wasting the extent of soil which
they cover, but by  impeding the
scythe at the time of mowing, and
yielding a poor food pernicious to
cattle. The manner  of  reducing
them,  simply consists in cutting
them into four parts from the top,
and then digging deep enough  to
take  out  the core  below, so that
when the turf is replaced, it may
be somewhat lower than  the level
of the rest of the land :  thus the
place will be more wet, and the
ants  prevented from returning  to
their former situation. The earth
taken out should  be scattered, or
removed to a considerable distance
lest they might collect it, and soon
form another hill.  This useful kind
of work ought to be performed in
winter ; for if, at that season, the
places be left open, the frost and
succeeding rains will destroy those 
80         ANT
ANT
 ants which are in the lower part of
 their habitation.  In  Hertfordshire
 and  Somersetshire,  a  particular
 kind of spade is used for this pur-
 pose ; its blade  is very sharp, and
 so  formed that  the  whole  edge
 describes  about three-fourths of a
 circle.
    St. Anthony's Fire.   See Ery-
 sipelas, or Rose.
    [ANTHRAX, or  Carbuncle...A
 large inflamed painful tumour ;  it
 commonly seizes the backs of old
 people. Several cases of this com-
 plaint have occurred in  Philadel-
 phia within a few years past.   I
 have seen a dreadful case in which
 the muscles of the  back were  as
 completely laid bare, as if dissected
 by a surgeon's hand. It was cured
 by the late eWnent  Dr. J.  Jones
 of  this city, by  emollient  poul-
 tices  frequently  renewed,  bark,
 wine, and generous diet duly  regu-
 lated, and opium : and by removing
 the mortified edges when their se-
 paration from the living parts did
 not go on  fast enough, or when the
 edges of the sore were left with
 large flabby  irregular lips  which
 gave room for matter to lodge and
 prevented  a reunion.  The dis-
 charge of matter was very great, to
 prevent the smell of which a large
t cloth dipped in brandy was put over
 the dressings,  and  frequently re-
 newed, bee another case described
 by Dr. Jones in the transactions of
 the College of Physicians of Phila-
 delphia.
    As  a violent inflammation is al-
 ways the first symptom, might not
 the application of twenty or thirty
 leeches to the part, prevent the
 progress  of the disease ?   They
 might be renewed if necessary.]
    Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. See
 Sweet-scented Spring-grass.
  Anthyllis  vulneraria,  L.   Set
Kidney-vetch.
  ANTIDOTES, are  medicines
which prevent or cure the effects
of deleterious  substances, either
taken into the stomach,  or exter-
nally  applied to the human body.
  Of those poisons which general-
ly prove mortal when swallowed,
the principal are arsenic, corrosive
sublimate, glass of antimony, ver-
digrease, and  lead.  Mineral poi-
sons  apparently  attack  the  solid
parts  of  the  stomach;  and,  by
eroding its   substance,   occasion
death. Antimonials rather injure
the nerves, and destroy by produc-
ing convulsions.   Most  vegetable
poisons seem  to  operate in this
manner ;  but fatal accidents  more
frequently happen from the former.
  In  the year  1777, M. Navier
advised large quantities of milk to
be administered to persons who had
swallowed  arsenic ;  a metal, the
virulence  of which  is  effectually
counteracted by this  liquid,  as it
allays the irritation of the viscera,
and prevents  the inflammaton of
the intestines.  The patient' is  af-
terwards directed to  take a  dram
of the liver of sulphur, in a pint of
warm water ;  but when  this can-
not be procured, he may  substitute
a gently alkaline lixivium, or soap-
water, a solution of iron in vinegar,
or any  other acid, or even a por-
tion of ink,  if nothing else can be
readily  procured.  The cure  may
be completed by the  constant use
of milk and warm sulphureous wa-
ters....See Arsenic.
   The remedies most suited  to ob-
viate the effects of corrosive  subli-
mate, are different preparations of
the liver of sulphur, which decom-
posesor resolves the mercurial salt;
and,  by the addition  of the  alkali 
ANT
AN T         81
 to the acid, forms an  inoffensive
 neutral salt. Acids, therefore, even
 of the mildest kind, are fatal, if ap-
 plied to counteract this poison, as
 they render it more active : thus,
 even lemonade, or treacle, are per-
 nicious, as they  contribute to in-
 crease pain and danger. Common
 salt dissolved in water, readily pre-
 cipitates the mercury, and thereby
 greatly abates its virulence.  This
 article being always ready, it ought
 to be resorted to preferably to any
 other : especially as, when taken in
 a large quantity, it operates as an
 emetic, or carries off the mercury
 by stco!.
   Volatile and fixed alkaline salts
 and spirits,  also  precipitate mer-
 cury,  such  as spirits of hartshorn,
 or  sal  ammoniac,  salt of tartar,
 wormwood, &c. but, as  these can
 seldom be obtained  on  an emer-
 gency, the following articles may
 be substituted, viz.  pot-ashes dis-
 solved in warm or cold water, but
 the  lixivium  should not  be  too
 strong.  When pot-ashes are not
 at hand, warm water may be strain-
 ed through ashes of bean-stalks,
 broom, straw, or any other  vege-
 table that can be most readily burn-
 ed.  White or black sonp should be
 injected by way of clyster, and like-
 wise dissolved in all the water that
 is drank.
   Those poisons  which  may be
 called  culinary,  are  perhaps the
 most destructive ; because they are
 generally the  least suspected. No
 vessels,  therefore, which  contain
 copper in their composition, should
 be used in cookery, &c.   In  cases
where   the poison of verdigrease
 has been recently swallowed, eme-
tics should first be  given, and after-
 wards cold water gently alkalised,
••ught to be drank in abundance.
     ▼OL. I.
   Though lead may not be consi-
 dered a as corrosive poison,its ef-
 fects are nevertheless deleterious,
 and may  be corrected  by the re-
 medies already suggested, namely,
 by drinking large quantities of aci-
 dulated liquors, or solutions of the
 liver of  sulphur,  and completing
 the cure by gentle laxatives ; but,
 in the commencement of the com-
 plaint, drastic purgatives should be
 carefully avoided.
   The poisonous effects of mineral
 acids may be counteracted by the
 administration of calcined  magne-
 sia.   M. Desgranges  relieved a
 soldier in the agonies of death, who
 had swallowed  a  glass of the sul-
 phuric acid  or oil of vitriol, by\
 prescribing the following antidote, \
 viz.  a dram and a half of the  car-  *%
 bonate of magnesia (magnesia usta
 grata,) dissolved in a tea-cupful
 of pure  water.   This dose  pro-
 duced excessive vomiting. He re-
 peated the magnesia in the quanti-
 ty of half a dram every half hour,
 giving, at intervals, a' solution of
 gum-arabic and  sugar till the cure
 was  accomplished.
   To  obviate  the  ill  effects of    m
 opium, emetics should be given as
 speedily as po'ssible.  If the  first
 symptoms only appear, which are
 the same as those of intoxication,
 the following emetic will be of ser-
 vice, viz. Simple spearmint water
 and oxymel of squills, of each one
 ounce, and half a scruple of ipeca-
 cuanha : frequent draughts of  wa-
ter-gruel should be given, to assist
tiie operation.   If the poison has
been swallowed  in  a liquid state,
which may be ascertained from the
smell of the first discharge, four or
five vomitings may be sufficient ;
but, if in a  solid form, two or three
more must be procured,  by giving 
82        ANT
ANT
  fresh doses.  Should the symptoms  nium, or  Thorn-apple : 6.  Vera-
  continue  violent, it will  be neces-  trum album, or White Hellebore ;
  sary to increase the quantity of the  and 7. Mezereum, or Spurg Olive.
  medicines, in proportion to the ur-  Against the  violent operation of
  gency of the case, and the strength  these  medicinal drugs,  Professor
  of the patient.  The principal ob-  Hufeland,  of Jena,  at  present
  ject to be kept in view,  according  physician to the King of Prussia,
  to Dr. Seaman, of New-York, is,  has from experience  found,  that
  to produce such a degree of irrita-  the first is most effectually coun-
  tion,as may counteract the narcotic  teracted by taking internally  pro-
  effects of this deleterious drug.....  portionate doses of opium ; the se-
  Hence it is very useful to stimulate  cond, by the copious use of vinegar;
  the nostrils with spirits  of harts-  the third, by moderate portions of
  horn, and to apply friction with salt  camphor ; the fourth, by swallow-
  over the whole body. [The Editor  ing alkaline solutions in water ; the
  has known copious bleeding save a  fifth, by either vinegar, or the acid
  person, who was  labouring under  of lemons ;  the  sixth,  by  strong
  the effects of a very large dose  of  decoctions of coffee; and the seventh
/laudanum.]                       by camphor.
    Lemon juice, a solution of white     There are, however, many other
  vitriol, and other  acid substances,  vegetable, animal, and mineral sub-
  have long been considered as effec-  stances, sometimes taken  by mis-
  lual antidotes against opium ; but  take,  or administered from malig-
  they do not afford  sufficient secu-  nant motives, and the fatal effects
  rity.                              of  which  may  be  obviated by a
    As  we seriously advise all  per-  timely use of their respective anti-
  sons in this unfortunate  situation,  dotes.  In order to conclue this
  immediately to avail themselves of  article, within its due limits, we are
  medfRd  assistance,  it  would be  obliged to refer the reader to the
  needless to expatiate farther on the  following heads, where he  will find
  subject:  we  shall only Lobserve,  each  subject discussed as it occurs
  that there is a remedy at^nce sim-  in the order of the alphabet, viz.
  pie and effectual for all kinds  of Balsamine Seeds, Cassava,Coloquin-
  poisons, to be found near every cot-  tida,   Water-Crowfoot,   Wild Cu-
  tage,  as well as in  the  palaces of cumber, Bearded Darnel, Euphor-
  the  great.   This is pure water,  bium, Spanish Flies,Foxglove,Glass,
  which when taken at an early pe-  Gyjmim, Hellebore, Hemlock, Hen-
  riod, and insufficient quanti'v, has  bane, Lead, Leaflwort, Lime, -Lob-
  the beneficial tendency of dilutiAt" sters,   Putrid  'Meat,    Metallic
  and neutralizing  most of the po?' ^Pointed Substanceffhluscles, Dead-
  sons introduced into the stomach,  ly Nightshade, Nujfffoomica,  Oys-
    VVith  respect to those vege-  ters,  Meadow  Saffron,  Saltpetre,
  table substances which sometimes,  Scammony,  Sowfaad,  Stavesacre,
  though rarely, require antidotes, we   Wolf's-bane,  aiiW^oisons  in ge-
  shall in this place mention the fol-  neral.      >
  lowing:  1.  Camphor ; 2 Arnica,     ANTIMONY is a heavy, brittle
  or German  Leopard's  bane ;  3.  semi-metal  composed   of  long
  Cocculus Indicus, or India  berry ;  bright streaks, rambling needles,
  4. Gamboge ; 5. Da.ura stramo-  of a dark lead colour, and without

                                            ..   a." 
ANT
ANT         83
taste or smell.  It is found in Ger-
many, France, and also  in Eng-
land.   The impurities which  are
found in  the  foreign  sorts, are of
the infusible  stony  kind,  and are
extracted by melting the antimony
in vessels,  the bottoms of which
are perforated with small holes, so
that the lighter and drossy matter
rises to the surface, while the more
pure and ponderous sinks, and is
received into  conical moulds.  This
mineral,  'when analyzed,  is found
to consist of  a metal united with
common sulphur.
   [It is found in nature in the me-
talic state ; in the state of calx mi-
neralized, most generally with sul-
phur, called  Crude Antimony.
   a. Native Antimony, usually mix-
ed with  iron  and arsenic  It con-
tains so  large a proportion of the
latter, that by fusion with  sulphur,
the product  resembles realgar, or
red arsenic,  found in a matrix of
calcareous spar or limestone.
   b. Muriate  of Antimony,  more
rarely occurs.  White antimonial
ore :  combined with muriatic acid
of a greyish  White colour,  found in
oblong, rectangular four-sided la-
minx.
   c. Sulphurized Antimony....Its co-
lour is blueish or  sicel grey, cor-
responding to that of the common
antimony of the shops, which  is in-
deed nothing else than this ore se-
parated from itsimpuritiesbytneans
of fusion.  It is of metallic lustre,
and often variegated on the surface.
It occurs in lumps, interspersed, or
more or less crystalized.   In the
mass its  texture is either compact,
granular or foliated; more common-
ly, however,  divergingly  striated,
or  fibrous ;  when crystalized, its
form if determinate, is that of com-
pressed  hexahedral prisms,  with
obtuse tetrahedral pyramids, which
are  either  comparatively  large,
massy, and longitudinally grooved;
or more frequently in lengthened
needle-like, or capillary prisms di-
verging from different centres and
variously decussating each  other.
It is opake, brittle,  very  easily
scratched with a knife, sometimes
so soft as to soil the fingers....gives
a blackish powder; it is very easily
fusible,giving out a white sulphur-
ous smoke  ; on  the dissipation of
its sulphur by a  more gentle heat
it leaves  gray  verifiable oxyde,
equivalent, according to Bergman,
to about 74 per cent, of regulus....
It is frequently found in limestone,
indurated clay,  and  iron  pyrites;
but  most  commonly  associated.
with different forms of quartz.....
The French regulus of antimony
according  to  the experience of
Messrs. Binny and Ron a ldson of
this city, is 15 per cent, better for
types than the English.  Antimony
being of very great use in medicine
and  the arts, particularly  in the
very  important  manufacture of
types, which  are now made by the
above mentioned  ingenious men,
in every- respect equ|l to those im-
ported, It wojild :be  of immense
consequence to discover a mine of
antimony in the United  States....
A few years since, a large lump of
this  metal  was brought  to an apo-
thecary  of this city, to sell for
plumbago, or (black lead) Dr. Sey-
bkrt analyzed it, and found it a
rich  ore of antimony.   The apo-
thecary now  forgets  whence the
specimen came.
   Antimonial Wine, is prepared by
simply infusing  either  the  crocus
or <int. vit. in wino: from  ten to
fifty  or  sixty drops of  which are
usually prescribed as an alterative
and  diaphoretic.  In large  doses,
it acts as a diuretic and cathartic; 
84         A N  T
ANT
ana three or four drams prove, in
general, violently emetic. For this
las: purpose, it has been frequent-
ly employed in madness and apo-
plexy.
  It is, however, a  very  uncer-
tain medicine, because the more
acid the  wine,  the  stronger will
the tincture prove.  Hence scarce-
ly two preparations of antimonial
wine, are of erual  strength : ten
drops fromone shop will sometimes
vomit  more  than a  tea-spoonful
from  another shop.  It ought to be
given up, and tartar emetic in mi-
nute doses, substituted.]
  Dr. James Walker, late sur-
geon to the uavy, gives a remark-
able account of the effects produced
by a large quantity of antimonial
wine.  liaving ordered some whey,
in consequence of a cold, that wine,
in a mistake, was used instead of
Lisbon.  Of this,, whey, he drank a
full English pint, in which was con-
tained not less than a gill and a half
of antimonial  wine ;  but,  instead
of  producing the  effects  which
might naturally be expected, it was
attended with an unusual propensity
to sleep, with a lassitude and numb-
ness of the limbs.   His two medi-
cal pupils, who had eaten the curd,
were  affected in a similar manner.
He consequently asks," Whether,
if its emetic quality be destroyed
by its  combination with milk, and
exchanged for that of a narcotic
kind, some useful hints might not
be drawn from this case, and intro-
duced in o medical  practice ?"
   An  improvement in the prepar-
ation of the  antimonial  powder,
which is  substituted in  regular
pharmacy, for  Dr.  James' Fever
Powders, has lately  been proposed
to the Royal Society, by Mr. Che-
venix. He directs equal parts of
phosphat of lime  and pulverized
algaroth  to  be dissolved in the-
smallest possible quantity of mu-
riatic acid ; some caustic ammonia
must then be mixed with  distilled
water,  and the muriatic  solution
dropped gradually into the mixture:
the resuit of such combination will
be a copious  white  precipitate ;
which,  by washing  and  drying,
is rendered fit for use. This medi-
cine,has already been administered,
by some eminent practitioners; and
according to the account of Mr. C.
it possesses the valuable properties
of the  antimonial powder, though
in a less concentrated form, so that
the  former may be  exhibited in
doses of less than  eight  grains,
without exciting vomiting.
  ANTIPATHY, in physiology,is
used to express the natural  aversion
which an animated or sensitive be-
ing feels at the real or ideal pre-
sence of any  particular  object....
Such are the reciprocal hostilities '
subsisting  between  the  toad and
the  weasel;   between sheep  and
wolves, and the aversion of particu-
lar persons against cats, mice, spi-
ders, &c.
   This prepossession is sometimes
so  violent as to induce  fainting,
even upon  beholding their natural
enemies.   Most animals  likewise
evince a remarkable antipathy to
the sight of the blood of their own
species.
  To explore this subject, without
prejudice,  it will be necessery to
exclude those antipathies which are
not authenticated, such as those be-
tween the weasel and toad, 'jwhich
can be extinguished or resumed at
pleasure ;  or those, the causes of
which  are  evident....we shall then
be inclined to admit but a very in-
considerable number.
   The aversion which prevails be-
tween  the sheep and the wolf, can- 
ANT
ANT          85
not certainly be called an antipathy,
as its origin is obvious ; the latter
devours the former, and every ani-
mal  naturally shuns pain, or de-
struction.   From  similar causes
proceeds that dread which many
persons feel  of serpents and  rep-
tiles.  During the period of infan-
cy, pains arc taken to impress the
mind with the frightful idea that
these animals  are  of a venomous
nature, and that their bite is mor-
tal.   Such apprehensions  are ag-
gravated by the relation of dismal
tales, which often  make  a lasting
 impression.  When ojlhers, at their
 approach,have exhibited symptoms
 of terror, we have been persuaded
 to avoid them  ; and hence it is not
 surprising that we should entertain
 an aversion for such objects.  Our
 emotions  at the sight of what we
 fear, being  excited while we are
 unprepared, will  be in proportion
 to the sensibility of our frame, and
 the irritability of our nerves.
   A person, who formerly had no
 dislike to particular objects, by as-
 sociating with those who are sub-
 ject to  such idle  fears, often ac-
 quires an unfavourable bias against
 things which, prior to those con-
 tagious examples, he  beheld with
 perfect indifference. Thus, many
 evince an aversion to eel.-;, which,
 however, arises chiefly from their
 resemblance to serpents.
   There are other antipathies,which
 do not originate from the source of
 the  imagination, but from some
 natural loathing, such as is  often
 perceptible in children, for particu-
 lar  kinds of victuals, which, though
 not  distasteful, yet, from a weak-
 ness of the digestive organs, are
 disgorged as soon as swallowed.
   Antipathies, in general, owe their
 origin to objects  which are con-
 ceived to be dangerous; to a terror
of imaginary disasters,to a squeam-
ish delicacy ;  and of a rooted dis-
like to things supposed to be detri-
mental.  Those of children are to
be conquered by teaching them the
means of defence and security, or
the methods of avoiding the influ-
ence of noxious agents ;  and when
age has strengthened the judgment
by  demonstrating to them  the na-
ture and properties of those natural
bodies, or phenomena, which they
fear, they will thus gradually over-
come  their early prejudices  and
antipathies....See Sympathy.
   ANTIQUITIES, is a term  sig-
nifying those  testimonies,  or au-
thentic records of the early ages,
which arc transmitted to posterity
by tradition.
    The study of antiquities forms a
very extensive science, including
an historical survey of the  ancient
edifices, magistrates,  officers, ha-
biliments, manners, customs, cere-
monies, religious institutions, Ecc.
of the various  nations of the earth.
It  is equally useful and interesting
to the lawyer, physician,and divine.
    Antiquarian science  may be di-
vided into sacred and profane, pub-
lic and private, universal and par
ticular.
    The antiquities of Greece and
Rome attract the  curiosity of every
scholar ; and though including the
history  of the  Jews,  Egyptians,
Persians, Phoenicians, Carthageni-
 ans, and in short, every celebrated
 nation, they, by no means, contain
 the whole of this branch of learn-
 ing.  For, if to the  general be
 added  a  particular acquaintance
 with  statues,  bas reliefs,   medals,
 paintings, and the venerable re-
 mains of ancient architecture, this
 aggregate information constitutes a
 very interesting and extensive sci-
 ence. 
86      , ANT
ANT
   To acquire a knowledge of the
works of sculpture, statuary, grav-
ing, painting, Uc. which are called
antiques, strict attention ought to
be paid to the substance, on which
the  art has  been  practised:  as
wax, clay, wood, ivory, stones, mar-
ble, bronze, and every kind of me-
tal :  because, on comparing this
with tjie subject,itfrequently serves
to discriminate the true from the
counterfeit specimens.
  Many of our great antiquaries
(who are  not the most skilled in
designing)   frequently  grant the
preference  to the ancients, rather
from prejudice  than  judgment.
That striking peculiarity which to
them appears"so marvellous in the
works of antiquity, is often a mere
chimera :  for most of the antique
figures and statues are totally void
of expression, and  we  can  only
fancy their characters.
   We are, however, greatly indebt-
ed  to the  persevering  exertions,
and the laudable spirit of enquiry,
which  have lately been  displayed
by the Royal Antiquarian Society,
inasmuch as the members of that
learned and patriotic body have in-
dividually and collectively contri-
buted to the acquisition of those
valuable materials which are now
converted into their  proper use....
Mr. Burgess, in hisingenious Es-
say " On the study of Antiquities,"
printed  in  1783, justly, observes,
that *' this study, once far removed
from all the  arts of elegance, is
now become an attendant  on the
Muses, and a handmaid to History,
Poetry,  and Philosophy.
   .Antirrhinum.  S-.e Snapdragon,
i'i.uellin, and, Toadflax.
   ANTISCORBUTICS,  signify
those applications and  medicines
which are found useful  in the cure
of the scurvy, such as pure air.
gentle exercise, milk, vegetables,
fruit,  &c...See Scurvy.
  ANTISEPTICS, a term applied
to those substances which resist or
check putrefaction.
  Numerous trials have confirmed
Sir John Pringle's opinion of the
antiseptic  properties  of alkaline
salts,  though they appear to be in-
ferior to some resinous substances,
and other vegetables. Thus myrrh,
in a watery menstruum, has been
found twelve times more antiseptic
than sea-salt.  Two grains of cam-
phor  were  a better preservative of
flesh  than sijcty grains of common
salt.  An infusion of a few grains
of powdered Virginian snake-root,
exceeded  in  antiseptic  property
twelve times its weight of chamo-
mile  flowers, and the Peruvian
bark possesses nearly the same ex-
traordinary quality.   These balsa-
mic vegetables are the more valu-
able, as they are usually free from
acrimony,  and  may  be  taken in
much greater quantity than either
spirits, acids, resins, or even neu-
tral salts.
  To the  class of antiseptics we
may  also  add fermented liquors,
acids, vinous spirits, and even those
plants called ant-acids, which for-
merly were erroneously supposed
to accelerate putrefaction, particu-
larly  the scurvy-grass and horse-
radish.
  Antiseptics  are prescribed in
all putrid and malignant diseases,
though not without due precaution,
as to the proper time for their exhi-
bition, and the  different stages of
the disorder.  Thus, for instance,
bark  is  a specific in mortifications,
or gangrene, when the vessels are
relaxed, and the blood disposed to
putrefy ;  but will be unavailing,
when the  intestinal  canal is  ob-
structed, or if there prevail a pre- 
            ANX

ternatural tension and fulness.  In
cases where astringent  remedies
cannot be employed with safety,
contrayerva,  snake-root,  camphor,
&c. may serve as excellent substi-
tutes....[For an account of the an-
tiseptic propei-tiesof alkaline salts,
See  the  Medical Repository of N.
York.] See  also Putrefaction.
  ANTISPASMODICS are those
medicines, which are  calculated
to  relieve  persons  afflicted with
cramps, spasms, or convulsions :
such are opium, Peruvian balsam,
and the essential oils  of different
vegetables.   The most speedy an-
tispasmodic, with respect to its im-
mediate  effects, is,  doubtless, the
juice of the poppy ;  but the Peru-
vian balsam produces more  per-
manent benefit, and  has  frequently
been of eminent service, after opi-
um had failed to afford any relief.
   Essential oils act  principally on
some  particular part,  rather than
on the system in general ;  and
are  seldom  attended with any  so-
porific effects.   But, beside these
internal medicines, there are some
which instantly remove spasmodic
contractions by  contact;  for in-
stance, cream,  oil of almonds, and
asses'-milkj; white  sulphur,  sal
ammoniac,   nitre,   kc   mitigate
these  painful complaints,  by di-
minishing heat.  Where, however,
spasms  originate from  inanition,
and a defect of vital heat, the b^t
antispasmodics are, valerian, musk,
and castor ; because these medi-
cines  tend  to  restore the  animal
spirits, and at the same time ope-
rate as corroborants.
   ANXIETY, is that st-.te of the
mind  in which  it is uneasy about
some  future event; eflhei from an
apptdk-nsion of danger, or a soli-
citude of being relieved from sus-
pense.
            ANX         87

   The causes of anxiety may  be
 various ; but, in general they arise
 either from too long continued and
 forcible an  impression of external
 objects, or  a diseased state  of the
 nerves, in which they are liable to
 be too powerfully affected  by the
 usual  action of such objects.
   Concerning the effects  of this
 mental disorder on the human sys-
 tem, we agree in opinion with the
 late Dr. W. Battie, that they are
 particularly obvious from the spas-
 modic strictures which seldom fail
 to accompany persons  subject to
 that afflictive passion ; hence pal-
 sy, asthma and similar complaints.
 When the  body is thus constantly
 influenced  by an elfcess of sensa-
 tion,  it  may  be easily conceived
 that its consequences on a torment-
 ed mind, or deluded  imagination,
 must  frequently be serious and  in-
 curable.
   Dr. Ari-uthnot appears.to con-
 found the cause, with the effect, of
 anxiety, when he advisesgto  al-
 low febrile  patients,  troubled with
 anxieties, u a warmer regimen, af-
 ter the cold fit is over;" while he
 recommends " spices as useful, be-
 cause anxieties often happen  by
 spasms, from  wind."  The futility
 of this advice is evident; for though
 aromatics, or carminatives, will un-
 doubtedly afford a temporary relief
 from  flatulency, yet the cause will
 not only remain, but even  be more
 deeply rooted into the system, by
 tills mode of tvtalme- t.  ,
    A  more e.ieuual  remedy  for
 obviating the causes of anxiety, in
 a h'-althj state 01 the  body, is per-
 haps the following: When  persons
. of a settle  1 age are too anxious in
 all  their  expectations and  under-
 takings, it v.iil only Be necessary to
 enlighten  thtir  contracted  minds,
 by teaching them to form a proper 
88         APE
APE
estimate of those things which, in
a moral point of view, are of little
consequence  to human happiness.
Thus instructed, they  will learn
more reasonably to appreciate their
own merits ;  and,  by comparing
these with the frequent failure of
success in others,  who have ex-
celled them in virtuous as well as
in useful deeds, they v, ill gradually
be enabled to reduce their own ex-
pectations to a proper standard.
  APE, in zoology,  an animal of
which we find more than fifty spe-
cies; it is more remarkable  on ac-
count of its peculiar instincts, bodi-
ly structure, and habits oflife, than
from either its dangerous or useful
tendencies.
  Apes were formerly considered
as a degenerated cast of mankind,
because some of them, such as the
troglodytes, or the  African  wood-
man, and the ourang-outang, bear
a great resemblance to the  human
form.  These creatures, and espe-
cially ihe former species, are gre-
garious, inhabit  the  thickest for-
ests, are from four to  five  feet in
stature, very ferocious and  strong,
and do not hesitate to attack  even
men.   Several of those audacious
bipeds  possess such  a degree of
muscular strength, that ten unarm-
ed  persons are inadequate  to the
task of reducing one of them to
obedience.
   On  a close examination of their
external shape, however, and par-
ticularly of the head, it clearly ap-
pears that their structure is essen-
tially  different from  that  of our
 species.  From the natural consti-
tution of their bodies, they  are not
 only deficient  in  the organs of
speech, but do not even display the
 sagacity of  dogs,  not to mention
 that dignified criterion between man
 and the inferior animals....reason.
As an instance of their deficiency
of judgment, we shall only men-
tion, that,notwithstanding their ex-
cessive  fondness of enjoying the
warmth and light of a fire in the
woods, made by the natives,  who
seldom  take  the trouble of extin-
guishing it, those whimsical imita-
tors  have not even the ingenuity of
supplying it with fuel;  and there-
fore  afford no proof of their reason-
ing powers.
   Nevertheless, they are justly en_
titled to the next place to  man
when we consider some extraordi-'
nary qualifications with which they
are  preferably  endowed.  Of this
nature is their uncommon talent of
imitation, which to them, is so far
from being advantageous, or con-
ducive  to  their safety,  that  it is
ingeniously employed for ensnaring
them into captivity. Thus the In-
dians wash their faces in the pre-
sence of apes with water, for which
they substitute a solution of glue,
or gum arabic:  on leaving the ves-
sel with this seductive liquor, the
animal, without suspicion, imitates
the  natives, and being neither sen-
sible of the danger attending this
experiment, nor the means of pre-
venting the effect, its eyes are soon
pasted up, and it is  exposed to the
mercy of its enemy.
   Besides making good use of their
teeth and nails, apes defend them-
selves with branches of trees, stones,
and the like.....Their maternal af-
fection is  so great, that they fre-
quently smother the dearest of their
offspring; and  hence it has been
proverbially applied to mothers who
spoil their children, by excessive
indulgence in the articles of food
and drink.
   APERIENTS, in medicine, sig-
nify those substances which possess
 a gentle, purgative quality, and fa- 
            APO

cllitate the circulation of the fluids,
by  removing obstructions.....See
Laxatives.
  Alphanes Arvensis,~L. See Pars-
ley-piert.
   Apuernously.   See  Arve-
nuslv.
  Aphis.  See Plant-louse.
  APHORISM, is a term used to
denote  either an   unconnected
maxim, or a short, pointed  sen-
tence, comprising much in a few
words.   It  is at present  chiefly
used in medicine, and law :  thus
we say, the  Aphorisms of Boer-
haave, Hippocrates, of the Civil
Law, &c
   It would be highly conducive to
the progress of learning, if all ele-
mentary works, which treat of any
particular art or  science,  were
written in an aphoristic form, so
that every detached  fact, or asser-
tion,  might  be reduced, to a dis-
tinct  proposition.
   Apium graveolens,  L. See Smal-
lage.
   APOPLEXY  is  a disease in
which the patient is suddenly de-
prived of sensation,  and incapable
of voluntary  motion.  It is usually
divided into two kinds, the sangui-
neous and the serous. The symp-
toms  which  distinguish the for-
mer are,  a sound sleep,  preceded
by  giddiness, and attended  with
snorting, noise in the ears, corrus-
cations before the eyes,and redness
of the face.   If any  thing  be put
into the mouth, it is immediately
returned through the nose; nor can
it be swallowed_unless the nostrils
be closed, in which  case there is
danger of suffocation. If the  patient
appear insensible, there is but little
hope of his recovery. Sometimes
the consequence of  this attack is
hcmiphlegia, or palsy of one side of
the whole frame,  which is evident
     VOL.  I.
            APO          89

from a distortion of the mouth to-
wards the sound side, a contraction
of the tongue, and  stammering of
speech.
 The general cause of sanguineous
apoplexy, is a plethoric habit, with
a peculiar determination of blood
towards the head. Whatever tends
to accelerate the circulation, such
as surfeits, intoxication,  immode-
rate exercise, and violent passions
of the mind, may sooner or later
occasion this disease.   It seldom,
however, occurs,  till persons have
passed the age of sixty,  and after
a fulness of the veins has for a long
time prevailed in the system.  In
many instances, it proves fatal on
the first attack ; and few survive a
repetition of the fit.   Those who
apparently recover, are frequently
carried  off,  without being warned
of its approach.
   The usual method of treatment
consists in placing  the body in an
erect posture, and supporting the
head in that situation ; in copibus
and  repeated bleedings  from the
jugular veins and temporal arteries,
cupping, and  the  application of
blisters  to the head, or between the
shoulders.
   In  the serous, or  watery apo-
plexy, the pulse is small and  fee-
ble, the  complexion pale, and there
is a diminution of natural heat.....
Upon dissection,  the  ventricles of
the brain have  been found to con-
tain a larger quantity of fluid than
they ought in a natural state.  This
species  is equally fatal as the other,
and  may arise  from  any  cause
which induces  a debilitated state,
such as mental depression, exces-
sive studyi long watching, &c.  In
this alarming complaint, bleeding
cannot be attempted with safety:
acrid, stimulating purgatives, and
emetics, have been employed with 
90         APO
APO
a view to carry off the superabun-
dant serum; but, in debilitated ha-
bits, they are liable to strong objec-
tions.Volatile salts, cephalic elixirs,
and cordials, are usually prescribed,
which, if a hemiphlegia supervene,
may be aided by cathartics, and su-
dorifics, gentle exercise, especially
in a carriage ; blisters,  and such
other stimulating medicines, as arc
proper in paralytic affections.
  The opinion, that the immediate
cause of apoplexy is an extravasa-
tion  of fluids, or  a  preternatural
fullness of the vessels, has afforded
a  subject  of much   controversy
among medical writers.  To  re-
fute this conjecture they  have quo-
ted an instance of  the  hydroce-
phalus, or  dropsy  of the  brain,
where the head was  increased  to
more than double its natural size,
without producing one apoplectic
symptom.   Le Cat, in his inge-
nious Reflection, published in the
Philosophical Transactions, relates,
that, when he opened the  head of
M. De FREQUiKNNE,late president
of the  Parliament of Paris,  who
died  of  an  apoplexy,  he found
about a tea-spoonful  of  blood ex-
travasated  between the  third and
fourth ventricles of the brain: hence
Le Cat deduces the impossibility
of s*o trifling a quantity  being ca-
pable of pressing  on the origin of
the nerves, so as  totally to inter-
cept the course of the animal spi-
rits.  According to this writer, the
extravasated blood, usually found in
the brain of a person dying of  an
apoplexy,  so far  from  being the
cause of death, is an accident owinq;
to the convulsive motions  of  the
dura mater (a strong membrane,
covering  all the cavity of the cra-
nium) as well as the vessels of the
whole basis of the scull; and that,
in general it is occasioned by the
matter of gout,or rheumatism, set-
tling on this source of the nerves.
The swelling and distension of the
dura mater  causes  a  stagnation of
the blood-vessels of the brain, some
of  the  weakest  of  which burst,
while all the canals of the nerves
become constricted and closed;  a
circumstance which sufficiently ac-
counts  for  the  consequent  fatal
event.   It  will not surely be con-
tended, that these ruptured vessels
concur in the  production of those
spirits which impart motion to the
heart, as it  is  well known that this
organ receives the  influence of nu-
merous nerves at a time, all which
ought to share in an accident con-
sisting merely in the rupture of a
capillary vessel.
   These reflections are here offer-
ed,  to repress  that  hypothetical
confidence  which many practition-
ers profess for their  theories; and
to discountenance the precipitate
and excessive  use  of the lancet....
Thispractice is plausibly suggested
by an idea, that it is  too  great a
proportion  of blood which destroys
the patient; but, besides that so ill-
founded an  opinion may prove fatal
to those persons who are liable  to
 apoplectic  attacks, a prejudice  in
 favour of the  theory may prevent
 others from inquiring into the true
 cause, and  discovering the reme-
 dies  adequate to the cure of that
 fatal disorder.
   In Heister's Medical Observa-
 tions,  a case is related, of a person
 who died of an apoplexy,  in con-
 sequence  of  his being constantly
 exposed to the scent of three or
 four flower-pots of white  lillies,
 which were kept  in his chamber.
 This melancholy fact should deter
 those to whom such  odours  arc 
APO
AP P          91
sensibly prejudicial, from continu-
ing long within the sphere of their
deleterious influence.
  [The distinction of this disease
into sanguineous and serous,is now
usually  given up, and  the  gene-
ral state of the system attended to,
in forming our indications of cure.
In  nineteen  cases out of twenty,
the disease is attended with  a full,
strong, and slow pulse: and requires
copious bleeding for a cure.   The
sooner bleeding is performed after
the attack, the better   The  quan-
tity  of blood to  be taken  away,
must be in proportion to the  vio-
lence of  the symptoms: but, in
strong  vigorous persons,  accus-
tomed to  full living, from two to
four pints may be safely drawn in
the course of the first twenty-four
hours, at  two or more bleedings....
Powerful  purges of jalap and calo-
mel (15 of the former, and 10 of
the latter), ought also to be  given,
and purging clysters  frequently
administered.  The head must be
shaved, and cold water applied to it
by means of cloths.  Cupping the
head  and  back  of the neck, is  also
proper to relieve the vessels,  and
may be useful, when general bleed-
ing is deemed improper, owing to
the pulse sinking: when leeches
can be had they may be substituted.
A blister  applied over the  whole
surface of the head is often of great
service ; it must be kept on twenty-
four  hours,  and prevented from
healing, by mixing some cantha-
rides with the ointment used to
dress the blister.   All tight liga-
tures must be removed from about
his  body,  and the head well raised.
The air of the room should be  fre-
quently renewed, and no persons
admitted but those necessary to ad-
minister to the sick.  To prevent a
a return of this disease, it will be
highly necessary to guard against
too much fullness in the system,
by  proportioning the quality  and
quantity of diet to  the  exercise
taken ; to avoid intense application
of the  mind to any  one subject,
great fatigue of body, violent anger,
indigestible  food,  especially  at
night, and wet feet: As the disease
seldom  comes  on  without some
premonitory symptoms, attention
ought to be paid to them, and the
proper  remedies administered in
time. These symptoms are a gid-
diness, dimness of sight, head-ach,
faultering of the tongue, or drowsi-
ness. When any of these appear,
some blood should be taken away,
a purge given and low diet enjoin-
ed until the danger  be  over.  No
usual evacuation ought to be sup-
pressed, without  supplying its plac-j
by means of an issue in the arm.]
See  Dropsy of the Brain,  uiid
Epilepsy.
  APPETITE,  in general,  signi-
fies  the natural  instinctive desire,
by which the animal is  led to pur-
sue the  gratifications of sense.  In
the present instance, however, we
shall confine its meaning to the
craving for food.  In this respect,
the appetite of man may be divided
into three different species though
that evinced by  inferior animals is
naturally simple, because it is not
impaired by art.  Thus,  if children
were never enticed  by weak pa-
rents, and  ignorant nurses,  to eat
more than their own inclination di-
rects them, or to partake of highly
flavoured artificial dishes which sti-
mulate the palate, and preternatu-
rally distend the stomach, there is
every reason to believe that the fol-
lowing classification would be  un-
necessary.
  1. The natural appetite, wh'ch
is contented, as well with the most 
A P P                           A P P
simple as the most compound and
delicious dishes : such  is that of
country people employed in  hard
manual labour; of children who
have not been mismanaged in the
nursery; and of every rational per-
son w-ho is convinced of the advan-
tages resulting to both mind and
body, from a simple  and a frugal
diet.
  2. The artificial appetite of the
epicure, the hypochondriac,  and
the tipler; all may be ranked under
the same class.  It would be need-
less to add in this place, any other
remark, than that such  an inclina-
tion for sensual enjoyment remains
only  so long as the operation of
these  exquisite stimulants  conti-
nues.  When the papillary nerves
of the palate can be no longer in-
fluenced by such excitement, the
sensualist loses his appetite, and is
punished with all the concomitant
symptoms  of indigestion.
  3. The habitual appetite, though
partly  acquired is  not liable to
those serious objections which ap-
ply to' the latter species : nor is it
attended with any other disadvan-
tages than those arising from long
fasting, or an  undue allowance of
food on particular occasions.  Thus
after fatiguing exercise, when the
fibres of the digestive  organs are
already weakened, and the circula-
tion  of the  blood  to those  parts
is unusually increased, the nourish-
ment then  received can be digested
only  with  great difficulty, and to
the detriment of the  body.
    Want of appetite  may proceed
either from a defective energy of
the stomach, originating more fre-
quently from an immoderate quan-
tity, than the improper quality of
food;  or it may be occasioned by
the sympathy of  other diseased
parts, such ae.  the  liver,  bowel a,
uterus, &c. or by intestinal worm^
obstructions of the mesentery, and
many other causes.  Hence it will
be understood, that there can be no
specific remedysuggested to remove
the complaint; but that the treat-
ment must be regulated by the na-
ture of the case,  and the constitu-
tion of the  patient.    In general,
however,  the following hints de-
serve attention. When the stomach
loathes wholesome  food, and  is
troubled with habitual  flatulency,
and eructations, of a bitter, rancid,
or saline taste, it should be previ.
ously ascertained, whether an erne-
tic  be proper, or necessary, to eva-
cuate  its  foul contents.  Yet  to
determine this point, requires a de-
gree of skill and experience which
few persons in common life pos-
sess :  on  the other hand, the ad-
ministration of a simple emetic may
be  attended with  serious conse-
quences. For this reason, we would
previously recommend  a change
of air and diet; early rising in the
morning ; gentle exercise ;  absti-
nence from all hot drinks, particu-
larly tea, punch, and  hot broths,
fat or hard meat, spirituous liquors,
tobacco, Sec. to avoid the influence
of depressing passions, such as ex-
cessive grief,  fear and anxiety,:
and, if this treatment, after having
been rigorously pursued for several
days or weeks, produce no change
in  the appetite, then  to have  re-
course to gentle emetics, or rather
to the operation of nauseating me-
dicines.  According to.our experi-
ence, the  powder of ipecacuanha,
in  the smallest doses of a quarter
or sixth part of a grain, in a little
cold water, repeated every ten mi-
nutes for two or three hours  to-
gether, before  breakfast,   stands
eminently recommended in disor-
ders of this nature, and has seldom 
APP
A P P          93
failed to be of service to phlegma-
tic or corpulent individuals,  when
continued for several mornings....
But  if there appear to  be  great
fulness of the stomach, or bowels,
attended with the symptoms before
described,  it will sometimes  be
necessary to give such an  emetic as
may, according to circumstances,
at the same time relieve the bow-
els.   A mixture of two parts of
ipecacuanha wine, and  one part of
antimonial wine  taken in  single
tea-spoonfuls every quarter  of an
hour, without any farther drink till
it begins to operate,  generally pro-
duces the desired effect.
   After  the  stomach  and bowels
have, by such, or similar means,
been evacuated, it will  be useful to
strengthen the  tone of the  fibres,
by drinking small draughts of cold
camomile-tea,  or an  infusion of
quassia, or simple toast  and water
well prepared, which last may be
justly considered  as  one of the
mildest and  most grateful  corro-
borants.
   An insatiable appetite may arise
from too  great a distention  of the
stomach in early infancy; from an
over-abundant secretion of the gas-
tric   or  digestive  liquor;  from
drinking large quantities of stimu-
lating acid beverage, such as cider,
perry, butter-milk, See.  but espe-
cially from a bad habit of fast eat-
ing, without  properly  masticating
hard substances.  Hence the first
maxim in diet should be,  to  eat
slowly, in order to prevent a sudden
distention of the digestive organs,
and to allow sufficient  time for  the
food  to be duly prepared, and gra-
dually mixed with the gastric juice.
It would be superfluous to add any
other suggestions,  respecting  the
treatment and cure of  this trouble-
some complaint, which in the pre-
sent times of frugality, cannot fail
to find its own remedy.
  The appetite for certain whim-
sical dishes, peculiar to females in
particular states of the body, be-
longs to the articles, Green-Sick-
ness and Pregnancy.
  APPLE-TREE, the common,
or  Pyrus  malus, L.  is  too well
known in this country, to require a
minute description.  It frequently
grows to the height of twenty or
thirty feet, and produces  a consi-
derable variety of fruit.  Botanists
are  of opinion,  that  the  wilding,
or  crab-apple of  the woods  and
hedges, is the original kind, from
the seeds of which the apple flow
cultivated was first obtained.
   The varieties of this species are
multiplied to some hundreds, in
different  places,  all  having been
first accidentally procured from the
seed or kernels  of the fruit,  and
then increased by  grafting upon
crabs, or any kind  of apple-stocks.
Notwithstanding   the  numerous
sorts, not above forty or fifty, are
reared in the nursery. Their fruit
arrives at full growth in successive
order, from  July  to  the  end of
October,  but comes  to  maturity
only after  gathering;  and several
of  the winter kinds,  may be pre-
served for many months.
  Apples serve  as excellent fruit
for  the dessert, the  kitchen, and
for making cyder.  The following,
which are most  esteemed for eat-
ing, are ranged according  to the
successive order  in  which they
ripen: the white juncating, marga-
ret apple, summer pearm'ain, sum-
mer queening, embroidered apple,
golden rennet, summer white cal-
ville, summer  red calville, silver
pippen, aromatic pippen, la rcinette
grise, la haute bonte, royal russet-
ing,Wheeler's russet, Sharp's rus- 
APP                          APP
set, the spine apple, golden pippen,
nonpareil, andpomme d'api. Those
for culinary use, are, the  codling,
summer marygold,  summer  red
pearmain, Holland pippen, Kentish
pippen, courpendu, Loan's pear-
main, the French  rennet, French
pippen, royal  russet, monstrous
rennet, winter pearmain,pomme vi-
olette, Spencer's pippen. the stone
pippen, and oaken pippen.  Those
most  esteemed for making cider,
are, the Devonshire royal  wilding,
red-streak apple, whitesour, Here-
fordshire  under-leaf,  John-apple,
or deux ames, everlasting hanger,
and gennet moyle.
   Among all the fruit growing in
this country, says a celebrated bo-
tanical writer, apples justly deserve
the preference.  In raising these
useful trees for orchards, or fields,
whether for cyder or baking, the
wild  crab  kernels are the most
suitable, as they yield hardy stocks,
which are better  able to endure
cold and coarse lands, take firmer
root and produce  larger  trees.....
Where these seeds cannot be con-
veniently procured, the kernels of
common apples maybe substituted,
especially with a view of ingrafting
them. Although the former do not
bring forth trees bearing the same
kind of apples, yet they thrive with-
out grafting,  and  their hard fruit
may, notwithstanding its astringent
and acid properties, be advantage-
ously converted into cyder.
   Cul'ure...The method of propa-
gating the cyder-fruit trees in He-
refordshire,  is by  grafting. Verv
large, and even old trees, may be
grafted, so as to  bear fine heads
of other sorts, and thus  they will
produce  a crop cf fruit  quicker
than  by any other method.  New
orchards are raised by  planting
well-grown crab stocks, and graft-
ing them the year after.
  If the trees  are full  sized, the
tops of them must be  cut off in
winter, otherwise when  grafted,
they will, as it  is termed, bleed so
much, that the  grafts will  not suc-
ceed.  The trees should not be cut
down to the trunk, but as many
branches must be left as look kind
above, where it branches out about
the thickness of one's a'm; the
tops of these must be taken off,
about two  or three feet above the
part where  they project from the
trunk.  Good crab-stocks, for rais-
ing new orchards, generally cost
from Is. 6d. to 4s. each,  accord-
ing to their quality.
   Linnaeus considers the apple
and the quince as species of the'
pear-tree, or Pyrus, all the varieties
of which  are hardy, and  will suc-
ceed  in any commoh garden soil,
if planted in a free situation. They
are  propagated by grafting  and
budding upon  any kind  of  pear-
stocks, occasionally upon quince,
and sometimes upon  white-thorn
stocks.
   Apples  of every kind  may be
reared in  the  manner above des-
cribed ;  and,   according to Dr.
Anderson, the  pure  paradise-
stock is the best graft.  They will
not thrive, however, in a low and
moist soil, where they are apt to
 canker, and speedily decav.  In a
friable loam, they generally pros-
per extremely well.
   Pru/iihg....If a tree be very old,
 and much incumbered, the stumps,
 v\ith  -..!! the decayed,  rotten,  and
 blighted branches, should be care-
 fully  removed: but instead of de-
 laying this operation till the trees
 become  too  old,  it ought to be
 commenced even in  the nursery, 
APP
APP          95
and regularly continued; as, by the
use  of  medications,  the  wounds
will  heal,  without causing   any
blemishes.
  When the trees are so luxuriant,
as not to bear those prolific spurs
from which  the fruit proceeds, the
too abundant flow of their juices
must be checked by the following
method :  the  tops of most of the
shoots  are  to be pruned off in
August, the bark  perpendicularly
slitted in different places, and the
trunk cut about one-third through
with a saw, but so as not to injure
the heart.  For the first  year, or
two, after  this  experiment, the
tree will not bear more fruit than
 usual,  but  afterwards its produc-
 tion will be adequate to every ex-
 pectation.
    From this operation, a still fur-
 ther benefit may be derived. When
 there is a superabundance of moist-
 ure, the trees are liable to be cover-
 ed with moss, which affords shelter
 for caterpillars and other insects;
 but this process in a great measure
 cures it, especially if the moss be
 carefully scraped  off,  or rubbed
 with a  coarse, wet cloth.
   The pruning of the tops diverts
 the channel of circulation, and ac-
 celerates the growth of  the fruit-
 bearing shoots; while  the cutting
 of the trunk, across, moderates the
 great rise of nourishment, or sap.
 Thus the sawed part will overgrow
 in so complete a manner, that it
 cannot be  discerned, except from
 the freshness of its bark.
    Apple Blossoms  are,  in  some
 seasons, injured by the devastations
 of  an  uncommon number  of in-
 sects, produced from a species of
 black flies which deposit their eggs
 in the bud at its  first  opening;
 and which, by feeding on the heart
 of the bud, soon occasion it to con-
tract, and drop..  To remedy this
fatal effect,  Mr. C. Gullett ad-
vises to collect heaps of long dung,
wet  straw, weeds, See.  to dispose
them in different parts of  the or-
chard ; and set fire to the heaps in
that quarter from which the wind
blows, so that the smoke may tho-
roughly  fumigate all  the  trees.
Thus the insects, which are sup-
posed to be brought by the wind,
will be prevented from depositing
their eggs.
   As very  serious apprehensions
were lately entertained in the cyder
counties, that the moss growing on
apple-trees,  and the millions of
insects which harbour in it, might
be destructive to orchards, we shall
 here insert another  remedy disco-
 vered by Mr. Tench of the  Mi-
 nories:  " Take a quantity of un-
 slacked  lime,  mix it with as soft
 water as your situation will furnish,
 to the consistency  of  very thick
 white-wash; this  mixture, with a
 soft paint-brush, apply to your ap-
 ple-trees, as soon as you judge the
 sap begins to  rise,  and wash  the
 stem  and large boughs well with
 it, observing to have it done in dry
 weather, that  it may adhere  and
 withstand rain: you will find, that
 in the course of the ensuing sum-
 mer,  it will remove all the moss
 and insects, and give to the bark a
 fresh  and green appearance,  and
 that the tree will shoot much new
 and strong wood;  at least, it did
 so  in Nova Scotia.  The  trial is
 simple, and can neither be attend-
 ed  with much expense, trouble, or
 danger."
   In justice to Mr.  Forsyth, his
 Majesty's gardener at Kensington,
 we cannot  omit to mention his
 composition  used  for  the same
 purpose, and perhaps, of superior
 efficacy, if the nature of its ingre- 
96          APP
APP
dients be considered:  To one hun-
dred gallons of human urine, and
ene bushel of lime, add cow-dung
sufficient  to bring it  to  the con-
sistence of paint.......After having
carefully brushed off all the moss,
the infected trees should be anoint-
ed with this mixture, about the lat-
ter end of March; which simple
precaution, it is said, fully answers
the desired effect.
  Concerning the physical proper-
ties of apples, it deserves to be stat-
ed, that beside their aromatic qua-
lities, they are wholesome and lax-
ative, when fully ripe.  In diseases
of the breast, such as  catarrhs,
coughs, asthmas, consumption, &c.
they are of considerable  service:
for these beneficial purposes, how-
ever,  they ought not to  be eaten
raw, but either roasted, stewed, or
boiled: they also may be usefully
employed in decoctions, which,  if
drank  plentifully,  tend  to abate
febrile heat, as well as to relieve
painful strictures, in pectoral com-
plaints.
  With regard  to their  sensible
properties, apples have been divid-
ed into spicy,  acidulated,  and wa-
tery.  To  the first class belong the
various species of rennet,  which
possess a most delicate flavour,
contain the least proportion of wa-
ter, and, on account of their vinous
nature, are not apt to excite flatu-
lency.  Pippens,  on the contrary
though affording  more nutriment
than the former, are more fibrous,
and consequently  require a more
vigorous stomach to digest them:
hence they may be ranked under
the second class.   Lastly, those
sweet and tender apples which are
very  juicy and palatable, are the
least fit to be eaten in a raw state,
unless with the addition  of bread
or biscuit: when baked, or dried
in the  open  air, they make  at»
excellent  substitute for raisins or
plums, in puddings, pies, and other
dishes prepared of flour.
   Sour apples may be  much  im-
proved, both in taste and quality,
by either baking, or digesting thera
in a close vessel by steam, over a
very slow  fire: thus the saccharine
principle  is disengaged, and they
undergo  a  speedy and complete
change.
   As apples are very liable to de-
cay, especially in hard winters, va-
rious  methods of preserving them
have been tried, with different de-
grees of success.
   One  of the best expedients to
preserve them for winter use, is,
to let them remain upon the trees
till there be danger of frost; to ga-
ther them in dry weather, and lay
them  in large heaps  to sweat for a
month or  six weeks.   At the end
of that time, they should be care-
fully examined, those which have
the least appearance of decay re-
moved from the others, the sound
fruit wiped dry, and packed in large
dry jars, and then closely stopped,
in order to exclude  the access of
air.   If this plan be properly fol-
lowed, the fruit will keep sound for
a long time: it is,  however, fre-
quently impossible  to procure a
sufficient  number of jars for  this
purpose;  hence,  in considerable
quantities, the following'methods
are generally adopted:
   In North America, as well as in
Germany, apples are  often  pre-
served  during  the  most   severe
frosts, by placing them in an apart-
ment immediately under the roof
of the house, but without a fire; a
woolen cloth being thrown ovev
them before the frost commences.
This experiment, however, has no.
succeeded in Britain. 
APP
APP
97
  In  some parts, a coarse linen
cloth  is spread upon the floor of an
upper room, and a layer  of apples
is placed on it;  this  is  covered
with a cloth of a similar texture,
on which  another layer is spread,
and again covered: in this manner
the pile may be increased to any
height, with  alternate  strata of
linen   and  fruit;  after  which a
cloth, of  sufficient dimensions to
communicate with  the  floor on
every side,  is thrown  over the
whole heap.  This practice has
been  attended with success.
  Another method is, to put a layer
of apples, and a layer of dried fern,
alternately in a basket, or box (the
latter is considered  the best,  as it
admits less air), and  cover them
closely. The advantages of fern,
in preference to straw, is,  that it
does  not impart a musty taste.
   Apples, in small quantities, may
be  preserved for a greater length
of time by the following, than by
any of the  before-mentioned pro-
cesses.....First, completely  dry a
glazed jar, then put a few pebbles
at the  bottom, fill  it with apples,
and cover it with a piece of wood
exactly fitted, and  fill up the in-
terstices with a little fresh mortar.
The  pebbles attract the  moisture
of  the apples, while the mortar
excludes  the air  from   the  jar,
and secures the fruit  from  pres-
sure
  This useful fruit may likewise be
occasionally  preserved from frost,
by placing one or two tubs, or pails
of water, in the room where apples
are stored,  taking  care  daily to
break the ice, and, if thick, to re-
new  the water, which,  having a
much stronger attraction for cold,
protects the apples.
   Gathei i.;/,■-....This  fruit should be
gathered with the ha?id,  and care-
      VQL. I.
 fully placed  in baskets ; rejecting
 those which  spontaneously fall, as
 unfit for  long keeping.  Moving
 the  apples,  in order  to examine
 them whether sound, is  likewise
 injurious to their preservation.
   [Apples abound  in Pennsylva-
 nia,  and in  every state in the
 union, except in  the maritime dis-
 trictsof the Carolinas and Georgia,
 which are sandy  and level, and the
 air  replete  with humidity......In
 Pennsylvania we  have a very great
 variety of apples, many of which
 are  equal in  size, beauty and fla-
 vour, to  any  found  in  the world.
 Some begin  to ripen in June, after
 harvest, and others ripen in suc-
 cession until frost.  A particular
 account  will  be given of the  Ame-
 rican apples when we come to the
 article " fruit trees."
   A very interesting paper by W.
 Denning, Esq.  on the subject of
 the  alarming decay of apple-trees
 is inserted in the 1st.  vol. of the
 Transactions  of the N. York  Agrim
 cultural Society :  from which it ap-
 pears, that on cutting down  some
 apple-trees which were far decay-
 ed,  he discovered two  worm  holes
'running perpendicularly from the
 tap  root through the heart;  these
 holes were large enough to aJ.mit
 a pipe  stem, and reached  about
 fourteen inches above the surface,
 and from  each  hole a worm was
 taken.   In  some trees eight or
 ten  holes were found.  They  re-
 sembled l he  peach-tree worm.....
 Mr. D. proposes no remedy, but
 as it is probable that the worm first
 penetrates the tree from without,
 and then takes a  perpendicular di-
 rection,  the  only way to save the
 tree will be : either to destroy the
 egg when deposited on the bark by
 the  fly, by frequently washing the
 trunk during the  summer with
     O 
98         APP
APP
warm urine, or warm soap suds ;
or to take out  the  worm at an
early period.   When  the worm,
has entered the tree, it may be dis-
covered by  uncovering the root,
and searching for  the spot where
the gum exudes: this will be found
to be the entrance of the worm ;
to discover which a knitting needle
must be used to perforate the hole.
If  the  cavity  be  horizontal  the
worm may  be  easily  bored out,
but if the direction of the wound
be round  the  root,  the whole
course of the worm must be laid
open with a  small  pointed knife
until it be discovered. The wound
must be then filled up with melted
wax  and oil,  or Forsyth's com-
position.
   Several species  of cerambyx or
goat beetle,  likewise  prove very
destructive to apple-trees.  They
attack the trees about the surface
of the earth.   The female when
in the perfect or beetle state  lays
her egg on the bark, where it  is
hatched ; and, gradually gnawing,
the insect works itself inwards : as
it increases  in  size and strength,
 it perforates the trunk,  from side
 to side in various directions, which
 renders it porous  and hollow ; the
 tree becomes sickly, the  leaves
 small, of a yellowish green colour
 and blotched ; the extremities  of
 the branches decay, and soon after
 the whole tree dies as it stands :
 at other times  it breaks off even
 with  the  surface  of the earth....
 Young trees attacked in this man-
 ner seldom  recover, and after the
 trunk arrives to the diameter of 12
 inches, they seem to be able to re-
 sist the assaults for some years lon-
 ger.   The entrance of the  insect
 may be discovered by a powder like
  sawdu .t issuing from the hole: this
 may be perforated, and the insect
taken out:  the wound made in the
tree must then be carefully filled up
  As insects have increased great-
ly since  the birds have been thin-
ned by  the increased  number of
sportsmen, and  as  we know that
insects are  the favourite food of al-
most all kinds of birds, particular-
ly of the smaller kind; (See Bird),
" let us" says  the  amiable Wil-
liam  Bartram,   "  recall those
benefactors, and put  them again
in possession of their natural rights
and privileges ;  let them at least
for a time  be protected by law."
Let. to the Editor.
   Dr. Anderson describes an in-
sect of the coccus  tribe, that lives
upon apple-trees,  and throws out
such a quantity  of cotton-like mat-
ter, as sometimes  to  cover every
twig of the young  trees.   It com-
municates a corrosive ichor,  that
affects  the tree, after the insect
itself is recovered, like a gangrene;
so that the tree becomes blotched,
uneven  in the  bark,  and full of
deep holes that soon  produce de-
cay and death.  When  these in-
sects are  discovered,  they should
be rubbed off, and the limb cover-
 ed with cow-dung and  urine, by
 means of  a paint-brush.
   Dr.  Mitchell, in the 1st vol.
 of the  Transactions of the Agricul-
 tural Society of .V.  York, describes
 a phalcena, or miller, which  con-
 ceals itself during  the day in holes,
 and  spaces  under the loose  bark
 of apple-trees,  and may be "easily
 found  by  searching.   The male
 has wings, but the female appears
 to have none :  they  were seen as
 early as the 25th  of March in the
 state of X. York, crawling towards
 the extremities of the twigs to de-
 posit their eggs.  Thus, as soon as
 the leaves unfold and sprout forth,
 the worm bursts from the eesr. The 
            APP

insect preys upon the leaves, blos-
soms, and fruit.
  The method of  preventing the
destruction caused  by these mil-
lers, will be,  to  keep the female
from ascending the tree : for this
purpose the tree may be encircled
by a streak  of tar early in the
spring ; but probably a more cer-
tain remedy will be found in the
following observations.
  A writer under signature " Via-
tor,"  who dates  from  Hartford
county, August, 1792, and whose
paper  is  preserved in  Carey's
American'Museum, says, " Canker-
worms never destroy  apple-trees
which stand on a stiff clay, or  in
low ground,  where water stands
long  in the spring.  The  reason
for this is obvious.  The canker-
worm about the tenth of June de-
 scends into the  earth,  there to  lie
till the next spring, when the mil-
ler (pbalrena)  rises and ascends
the trees. This worm is not strong,
nor furnished with the necessary
instruments fordigging into a hard
stiff clay : of course it cannot bury
itself in  clay, and is  not fond of
gravel. The writer, therefore, pro-
poses to lay a covering of stiff clay,
round trees which  stand on sand,
or other light earth.  This cover-
ing or layer, may be thrown upon
the top of the natural soil, which
may be renewed to the depth of a
few inches.   If the clay be  laid  on
in summer  or autumn,  after,the
descent of the worm ; it may pre-
vent the miller from rising in the
spring ; if when the worm is upon
the tree, it may prevent its finding
a lodging ;  but as in the  latter
case,  the worm might travel some
distance  beyond the limits of the
layer,  it might  be better to form
the layer round  the tree  after the
descent of the worm in June."
            APP          99

   From some experiments of Dr.
Mitchill, (Medical Repository,
vol. 3), it appears, that apple-trees
may  be barked with  safety, and,
indeed, apparently with advantage.
The  farmers say, that taking off
the bark will make old trees young
again.  By an extract from the
Miscellanea Bcrolinensia, in the Me-
dical  Repository, vol. 4, p.  102 ;
the advantage ofdecorticating trees
is confirmed.   Whenever  it was
apprehended,  the growth  of the
tree was impeded by  a disease of
the bark,  the practice was to strip
it off;  a new and  healthy bark
succcede-l. Pear and cherry-trees
were treated in the same way.....
 The  summer solstice was the pe-
 riod  for performing the operation.
   Apple-trees have not succeeded
 so well,  in the course of the last
 8 or  10 years, as formerly.  Be-
 sides the worm, the decay may be
 owing  to the winters becoming
more mild, which occasions  an
earlier circulation of  the sap, and
thus  disposes  the fruit-buds to be
destroyed by late frosts ; formerly,
when the winters were coid and
long, the vegetation was retarded
until the dangerof frost was passeu.
• Another  reason  may be, the neg-
lect of pruning; for it is well known
that this important operation is sel-
dom  performed upon our trees, and
thence they are overgrown with old
and decayed wood, and after bear-
ing 30 or  40  years,  they die,  or
cease to bear.   In this situation are
most of the old orchards near Phi-
ladelphia.   Those in the  remote
counties of the state, which have
been recently planted,bear well,but
in a few years they will be  in the
same situation with  the  former,
unless attention be paid to them.
Besides pruning, the  moss should
be rubbedoffand manure put round 
100       APP
A P P
 the roots every year or two. This
 manure  may  consist  either  of
 rotten stable'dung, or the blood of
 all slaughtered animals, which is
 too  commonly thrown away ;  or
 the  black water from the manure
 heap, which is shamefully permit-
 ted to go to waste, though abound-
 ing with the  very essence of the
 food of  plants.
   The  following  directions  are
 abridged from  Mr.  Forsyth's
 Treatise on fruit.
   Choice....\n choosing apple-trees
 from the nursery, observe that they
 have  strong,  straight and clean
 stems.
   In heading old, decayed apple-
 trees, cut at  the forked branches,
 as near  as can be to the upper side
 of the fork, in a sloping manner,
 and round off the edges.   Begin at
 the  lower  branches,  and proceed
 upwards, cutting  from one to six
 joints or forks according to their
 strength.   Cut  away  cankered
 parts :  apply the composition  to
 all  the cut limbs,  and finish with
 the  ashes, and  burnt bones.   A
 tree  thus  prepared,  will, in  the
 course  of three or four years, pro-
 duce more and  finer fruit than a
 maiden tree, that has been planted
 upwards of twenty years.
   Never shorten the young branch-
 es  except they are very thin, when
 it  will  be necessary  to do so, to
 fill the  trees  with young wood ;
 nor prune any of the young shoots
  the second year (that is.the year
  after they are cut), as many of the
. eyes almost to the end of the shoot,
  will, if it be strong, become fruit-
  buds next year  ;  and so on every
  year.
    In the month of May, in the first
  year after the  trees have been so
  cut, it  will be necessary to go over
  them,  and  rub off all superfluous
  young shoots, leaving from 3 to 6
eyes on each  shoot,  according
to the  size  and strength of the
branch  cut.   These shoots will
bear from three to four years, by
which  time they  will be  pretty
much  exhausted,  by  the  great
quantity of fruit produced from
them; they should  then be cut
down  to  two  eyes,  to  produce
new wood.
  Mr. F. always leaves the branch-
es  of three different years on the
trees,  and thus keeps them in a
constant bearing state, whereas, if
left to nature, they would only pro-
duce a crop of fruit once  in two
or three years, as almost constantly
happens in the United  States.....
When the shoot has done bearing,
cut it  off,  apply  the composition
immediately, and rub off the shoots
where they are too numerous.
   Pruning: The best time to prune
 apple-trees in the United  States,
 is  in the month of  March.  The
 small  shoots that cross each other,
 should be  cut off,  leaving the
 strongest  to  fill up the tree, and
 make a handsome head.  Grub up
 suckers from the roots.  Pare away
 knobs  where  branches  have been
 cut off, leaving the surface of the
 tree as smooth as possible; and
 apply the composition.
    Apple-trees which grow in low
 situations,  or  within fifty miles of
 the sea  coast, and  have  not the
 soil tilled round them, are subject
 to be overgrown with moss, which
 in a few years, will cause the trees
 to become bark bound, and greatly
 diminish their growth and produce.
  To cure these defects, and prevent
  their return,  Mr.  M. Ogden, of
  Flushing,  Long-Island, keeps the
  ground of his orchard ploughed ;
  and scrapes off the moss from the
  trunks and branches of the trees
  with a hoe or drawing knife, and
  then  spreads over them  a small 
            APP

quantity of new, strong, soft soap,
by means of a  long haired brush.
The soap destroys the moss and
softens the bark ; and when washed
eff, by rain acts  as  a manure to the
roots.  When Mr. Ogden began
this process his trees were covered
with moss, and  old scaly bark, and
bore bad crops ; but, in two years,
all the old bark dropped off, and
the bodies became as  smooth as a
young poplar.  The soaping may
be done at any season, and repeat-
ed if necessary.  When the tree is
bark bound, it will be necessary to
slit the bark in two or three places
down the bodies,  observing not to
let the knife wound the wood of the
tree ; the best season for this work
is early  in the  spring.
   Apple-trees raised from thepum-
mice, if transplanted  in time, nip-
ping off the end  of the tap root,
may be fit for grafting one or two
seasons earlier, than  if left in the
place where sown. This observa-
tion is the  result of the  experi-
ments of the  Agricultural Society
of Nova Scotia.
   The following inestimable obser-
vations were communicated to the
Editor, by Mr. J. Cooper  of New-
Jersey, and  will  therefore com-
mand serious attention. They  re-
fer in part  to  subjects   already
mentioned, but it was deemed best
to  insert them unconnected with
the observations of others.
   " Experience for more than fifty
years has convinced me, that altho'
seedlings from  apples will scarcely
ever produce fruit in  New Jersey,
exactly similar to  the original, yet
many of them  will produce excel-
lent fruit: some will be even supe-
rior to the apples  from which the
seeds were  taken. This fact has
led  me  to  plant  seeds from  the
largest and best kind  of fruit,  and
            APP         101

from trees of a strong and rapid
growth ; and to let all young trees
bear fruit before grafting, which
produced  an  uncommon  strong
shoot, or large rich looking leaf....
I have seldom known them fail of
bearing fruit  having  some  good
quality ; at all events they make a
stock to put any good kind on which
may afterwards present itself."
  " In  grafting or budding apple-
trees, it is best  to perform the
operation within or near the earth,
if of such kinds as produce an erect
strong stem ; but on such kinds as
incline horizontally, or small weak
shoots, the  preferable mode is, to
insert the bud or graft high enough
to form a top.
   " I have  in numerous instances
seen the stock have great influence
on the  fruit grafted thereon, in re-
spect to bearing, size, and flavour ;
and, also, on the durability of the
tree, particularly in the instance of
a number of vandevere apple-trees,
the fruit of which was so subject
to the bitter rot as to be of little use.
They were ingrafted fifty years ago,
and ever since, those of them hav-
ing tops composed of several differ-
ent kinds, though  they continue to
be more productive of fruit than
any others in my orchard, yet are
subject to the bitter rot, the origin-
al and  well known affection of the
fruit  of the  primitive  stock.  I
have had frequent  opportunities of
observing the same  circumstance,
in consequence of receiving many
scions from  my friends, which after
bearing I have engrafted, and the
succeeding fruit uniformly partoo!;
in some degree of the qualities of
the former, even in  their disposi-
tion to  bear  annually or bienniallv.
  " Pruning is an affair  requiring
great care  and judgment, as ths
future  prosperity of the tree great- 
 102        APP

 ly depends thereon.  In the first
 place young fruit trees should not
 have the side  shoots cut close to
 the  stem, as  the  whole  growth
 is  thereby  forced  to  the  top,
 which soon  becomes so weighty
 as to bend and spoil the tree.   I
 have found it better to cut the ends
 of the side shoots so as to keep the
 tree  in a spiral form which will en-
 courage  the growth of the trunk,
 until it acquires strength to sup-
 port  a good top.  The side shoots
 may then be trimmed close.   In
 forming  the top, I have  found it
 necessary to  lighten the east and
 north-east sides, as fruit-trees gene-
 rally incline that way ; and to en-
 courage  the branches on the oppo-
 site quarters to keep the sun from
the trunk, otherwise the rays of
that  luminary, when striking at
nearly right  angles will kill  the
bark, bring on  canker, and ruin
the tree.  The best method that
 I have found to heal such wounds
is a  composition of  resin, tallow,
 and bees-wax of a  proper consist-
 ence to stick, applied after taking
off the dead bark ; and if suckers
 shoot out below the wound, they
ought  to be  trained so  as  to
 shade the affected part, until  the
branches  above will answer  the
purpose.  By these means I have
 recovered many trees which would
have perished if neglected....I also
 endeavour to prevent acute angles
in any  part of the  tree, as  the
 growth takes  in bark which is  the
 general  cause  of  the  branches
 breaking off or splitting from the
 weight  of fruit or  from  high
 winds."
   APPLICATION, in a general
 sense, signifies the art of  bringing
 things together, in order  to disco-
 ver their mutual agreement or re-
 lation to each other.  It is also fa-
            APR

miliary used to express the study
or consideration of  any  subject,
and includes the idea of assiduity
and persevering attention.
  In the Economy  of Human Life,
wc meet with the  following short
sentence, in praise of application :
" Since the days that are past, are
gone for ever, and those that are
to come, may never appear, it be-
hoveth thee, oh !  man, to employ
the present time without vainly re-
gretting the loss of  that which is
past, or  too  much depending on
that which is to  come.   This in-
stant is thine ;  the next is in the
womb of futurity ;  and thou know-
est not what it may bring forth."
  APPRENTICESHIP,  is  the
binding of a person by covenant,
to serve  his master  for a limited
period, on condition of being in-
structed in his trade or occupation.
Its usual duration  is for the term
of seven years, after which the ap-
prentice himself is entitled to be-
come a teacher, and to engage pu-
pils to serve under him.
  Apprenticeships were  unknown
to the ancients.  The Roman law-
makes no mention of them ;  nor
is there any Greek or Latin word
which expresses the idea now an-
nexed to this appellation.
  APRICOT-TREE, the Prunus
Armeniaca, L. is  a species of the
plum, or  cherry-tree.   Although
Linnmus has reduced  these dif-
ferent trees to one genus, which he
calls Prunus, yet we shall in this
place enumerate only the varieties
known under the  name of apri-
cot :
  1. The male, or early apricot,
which  produces  a small, round,
reddish fruit; has more  stone than
pulp, ripens in  July, and has but
an indifferent flavour. As this tree
blossoms early in spring, it is liable 
APR
APR         103
tobeinjured by night-frosts,against
which it ought to be protected, by
placing contiguous to  it shallow
vessels filled with water.
   2'. The white apricot is oblong,
flat at both ends, and of a pale co-
lour : its tree  is not only  less in-
fluenced by  cold, than any other
sort, but also bears fruit in greater
abundance.
   3. The orange apricot acquires,
when ripe, a deep yellow colour, is
distinguished  by a sweet kernel,
but its fruit is more fit for preserv-
ing, drying, and  using it in pas-
try, than for the dessert.
   4. The red apricot is of an oval
 size, its pulp likewise reddish and
 juicy,  and the kernel sweet like a
 hazle-ntit: the leaves  of this tree
 are longer than those of any other
 variety.
    5. The large or Turkey apricot,
 exceeds in  size and beauty all the
 other sorts, has a deep yellow pulp
 and sweet kernel, but  is not pro-
ductive.
   6. The Breda  apricot, a native
 of Africa,  is one of the finest and
 most delicious:  its fruit is large
and round, externally  of a  deep
yellow, and internally of a golden,
 colour.  Its kernel is the largest of
 the kind ;  and if this fruit arrive at
 maturity in an airy situation, it de-
 serves  an  unqualified preference.
   7. The Brussels apricot is of a
 middle  size,  somewhat  oval; on
 its  southern  exposure red, with
many  dark spots,  and greenish or
 deep yellow on the  opposite side.
 Its fruit is firm, and of a  delicious
taste ; the skin is apt to  burst be-
 fore the fruit is mature, and  it sel-
 dom ripens until  August or Sep-
 tember.   Some  amateurs   even
prefer it to the preceding species.
Lastly :
   S. The  peach  apricot is more
spherical and larger than any other
species ;  while  it  possesses the
sweetness of the apricot combined
with the acidulated vinous taste  of
the peach.   This tree, however,
requires  a temperate climate, and
will not  thrive in the open air  of
this country.
   Culture.....All  the  varieties  of
apricot-trees have originally been
raised from their  stones:  they
were then  propagated by budding
or grafting on  any  plumb-stock.
The soil  most congenial to their
nature, is a rich black mould ; for
they will not prosper in a loamy,
sandy,  gravelly,  damp, or cold
ground.   As they  are  generally
placed near walls, an eastern aspect
will be the most eligible and pro-
per, because they are apt to grow
mealy, from the  strong and con-
stant heat of the sun, in a southern
direction.   In a luxuriant bottom,
they may  be planted at a distance
of sixteen or twenty feet from each
other ; but in an inferior soil, from
twelve to fifteen. When transplant-
ed in the  month  of October,  no
other branches ought to be pruned
off, except such as cannot be fixed
to the wall.  After the tree has
been properly set in the ground,
its branches should be loosely tied,
and the  surface  of  the soil sur-
rounding the stem covered with
good manure, partly to prevent in-
jury from frost, and to afford more
nourishment to the roots. Towards
the end of February, or  beginning
of March, the  branches must  be
untied, and the top of the tree cut
off', while the operator's foot should
be  placed close to  its  trunk, and
only four or five eyes are to be left
above the place where it has been
grafted :  taking care  that the ob-
lique side of the cut be  turned to-
wards the wall. 
104        APR
APR
  During a dry spring, the roots
may be occasionally watered, and
covered with a little straw or grass
plats, in order to  protect  them
against night-frosts,   and   afford
them additional moisture in sum-
mer.  Ail the young shoots should
be trained horizontally. About the
t:v\ of September, the branches are
aeain to be loosened, and pruned,
so that two only may remain, one
of a larger size, from eight to nine,
and an inferior one, from  five to
six inches  long.
   In the second  summer,  all the
straight shoots ought to be remov-
ed, as in the first, while the  new
sprigs are transversely fastened
close to the wail, so that the trunk
of the tree remain free : the prun-
ing, however, should  not be at-
tempted later than in the course of
April. About the 28th September,
the young shoots are again to be
dressed, as in the preceding year ;
and the most  vigorous left from
eight to ten, hut the weaker  ones,
only six or seven inches long.
   A similar treatment mustbe pur-
sued in the  third and  following
years.  It deserves farther to be
remarked, that apricots bear their
buds and blossoms not only on the
branches of the preceding year, but
likewise on the  young shoots and
 tops of these branches : hence the
 dressing of them, during summer,
 ought to be  performed with  addi-
 tional care.
    Uses....Yrom the vinous and sac-
 charine nature of this  fruit we may
 readily conclude that  it is possess-
 ed of antiseptic, cooling, and nu-
 tritive properties ; yet, unless fully
 ripe, it is apt to ferment and turn
 acid in weak stomachs, especially
 those of persons who are subject to
 flatulency and eructations :  hence
 apricots ought to be  eaten in mo-
deration, with the addition of a lit-
tle bread, and rather before, than
after meals.   In  short, they are
more useful  to bilious and ple-
thoric,  than  to  phlegmatic  and
hysterical  individuals,  or  those
troubled  with   hypochondriacal
complaints.
  In France  and  Germany, the
orange  apricot is  usually preserv-
ed in a dry state, for the winter,
when it forms a  delicious ingredi-
ent in,pyes, tarts, &c.
  The kernels of  several species
of apricots contain a sweet oil, on
account  of which  they  were for-
merly,  like sweet  almonds, used
in emulsions, and  considered as
vulnerary and anodyne : at  pre-
sent, however, their use is confin-
ed  to  external  applications,  in
whi.ch the expressed oil of these
kernels has sometimes been of ser-
vice, for a contracted and chapped
skin of  the  hands and lips, sore
nipples, painful ears, and  similar
cases.
   [Dr. Willich recommends an
easterly aspect  for apricot trees:
but in the United States, an east-
erly, north, or north-easterly expo-
 sure is highly injurious to this fruit.
 Apricot trees should be screened by
 a high wall,  fence,  or building,
 from the winds of those quarters,
 otherwise the trees will not bear,
 though  they may grow  large.
   The best  time  for planting apri-
 cots, according to Forsyth, is in
 autumn, as  soon as the leaf is ob-
 served to fall.  Choose trees with
 the strongest and cleanest stems.
 The ground must be a light, fresh
 loam.   When  the trees are plant-
 ed, they should, by  no means, be
 headed  down  till  they begin  to
 throw out fresh roots. Strong trees
 should then be cut a foot from the
 ground, and those  that are wuak 
AQU
AQU        105
about half  that length....In back-
ward seasons, they should not be
headed  down  until the buds  are
fairly broken ; always observing to
cut sloping towards the wall, and
as near to an eye as possible, that
the young leading shoot may cover
the cut.....The shoots then thrown
out, must be trained  horizontally,
to cover the wall, or attached to a
railing near the border.  The num-
ber of shoots left out ought to  be,
from three to  six on each side, ac-
sording to the strength of the main
shoot, taking  care  to rub off the
fore right shoots all over the tree,
except  a few which may  be want-
ed to fill up the wall near  the body
of it.
   Apricots, and other stone fruits,
thrive best in paved yards, or where
the ground is permitted to remain
undisturbed round the roots...They
succeed no where  better than in
confined paved yards in our cities.]
   AQUA  FORTIS, the nitrous
acid of a certain strength, and so
called from its  dissolving power;
but, when in  a concentrated and
smoking  state,  it is  denominated
spirit of nitre   It is  made by dis-
tilling equal parts  of crude  nitre
with calcined  vitriol;  or  by  care-
fully mixing one part of oil of vit-
riol with  nine  of pure  spirit of
nitre....See Acids.
   As  this powerful liquid is used
for various purposes in the arts and
manufactures, but chiefly by dyers,
brass-founders, hatters, &o.  great
caution should be  observed, both
in preparing and employing it, be-
cause it possesses  a very caustic
property, and  its fumes are highly
deleterious to the organs of respi-
ration.   Hence  those artisans  fre-
quently become subject to convul-
sive coughing and  blood spitting,
paralytic affections, trembling,pale-
     vol.  1.
ness of countenance, loose  teeth,
the loss of smell and taste, and at
length,  pulmonary  consumption.
In order to prevent these fatal ef-
fects, we seriously advise them to
make use of oily and bland nourish-
ment, and externally to secure the
mouth and nose, by tying a hand-
kerchief round those parts, while
they are exposed to the fumes of
this volatile acid.
  But in casualties where a person
has, by  mistake, swallowed a por-
tion  of aqua-fortis,  the following
treatment will be the most proper
for averting the imminent danger
of suffocation.  Immediately after
the  accident,  hike-warm  water
ought to be drank in the greatest
possible quantity,  even to  the
amount of several gallons, to weak-
en  the  causticity of the poison.
Next, a solution of half an  ounce
of salt of tartar, or clean pearl-ash-
es, in one pint of water, should be
taken in about six or eight small
draughts ; and as the effervescence
thus occasioned in  the stomach,
greatly tends to weaken that organ,
it will be necessary to make use of
more water,  and  other diluent,
oily, or mucilaginous drinks.
   We are of opinion, that a solu-
tion of borax, or tincal,  in the pro-
portion of three drams to a pint of
water, forms a more effectual anti-
dote than the vegetable alkali; be-
cause the former, by uniting with
acids, causes no effervescence......
There  are  instances  of persons
having  completely obviated the ill
effects  of  this poison, simply by
drinking  small portions  of  sweet
oil,  frequently repeated,  for three
days successively.
   If, however, the sensation of  a
burning pain in the  stomach andT
bowels  should not  subside,  after
plentiful vomiting, large draughts
     P 
106        A R A
AR A
  of sweet cow's milk must be swal-
  lowed,  w ith  the addition of 01 e
  dram, or sixty drops of liquid tar-
  tar, usually called oil of tartar, to
  each pint.   But  previously to the
  expulsion of the poison by  vomit-
  ing, or the neutralizing of it with
  alkaline  solutions,  neither  milk,
  oily, nor saponaceous diaughts can
  be  taken with advantage.  Hence
  those ought to conclude the cure ;
  during which the paiiei-.t may fre-
  quently usegargursn.s .-.i.d clysters
  of the same liquids,  which are di-
  rected to bt taken internally.  In-
 deed, after the  poisonous f uid has
 left the stomach, and  entered the
 intestin; 1 canal, ti.c principal ben-
 efit wili be  derived from emollient
 and balsamic injections.
   AQUA REGIA is a compound
 of the nitrous and marine acids, in
 different proportions, according  to
 the purpose for which it is required ;
 and usually made, by  dissolving sal
 ammoniac, or  common salt, in ni-
 trous acid.  When  the former  is
 employed,  the usual proportion  is
 out of this salt to four of the acid ;
 but equal parts will be necessary  to
 dissolve platina.
   Aqua regia is  used as a men-
 struum for gold ; it  likewise dis-
 solves all other meials, silver alone
 excepted.   The best kind for the
►above-mentioned purpose, is a pre-
 paration of three parts of the pure
 marine, with one  of the nitrous
 acid.  One hundred grains of gold
 require for their solution, two. hun-
 dred and fcnjty-six of this mixture.
 Concerning the nature and cure  of
 those casualties which may arise
 from  an  improvident  use  of this
 powerful solvent, we refer to the
 preceding article.
 ' Aquilcgia.  bee Columbine.
   ARABLE LANDS, in general,
 are those naturally fit for tillage, or
 which m~y,  by proper means, be
 prepared  for the  production of
 grain.
   'I he just proportion between ara-
 ble and pasture lands,  has in  this
 country,  of late years, been much
 exceeded in favour of the latter....
 It is asserted by competent judges,
 that though the prevailing rage for
 breeding cattle of the finest quality;
 and to the  greatest  extent,  has
 doubtless benefited the grazier, and
 the lord of the manor, yet this prac-
 tice must certainly be attended with
 disadvantages to the community at
 large.  We cannot,  in this place,
 enter into a minute discussion of
 this important subject; but it clear-
 ly appears, from the present prices
 of corn, when compared with those
 of animal food,  that they bear no
just proportion to each other.
   With respect to the general me-
 thods of improving arable land, we
 are induced to avail ourselves of
 the excellent remarks of M.Duha-
 mel, who mai:.tt ins that it is much
 more profitable  to increase the fer-
 tility  of land by ullage, than ma-
 nure:   1. Because  only a certain
 quantity of dung can be had ;  the
 produce  of  twenty  acres  being
 scarcely  sufficient  to  dung one;
 whereas the particles of the earth
 may be pulverized and divided at
 pleasure : 2. Phu.ts reared in dung,
 do net  possess  the  fine flavour of
 those produced by a natural soil:
 3. The plough  not only separates
 the panicle . in a manner exactly
 similar to the fermentation occa-
 sioned by dung, but also changes
 their  situation,  by turning up the
 earth, and thus exposing the whole,
 at different times, to the influence
 of the sun, air, and dews; all which
 greatly conduce to render it fertile:
 4. Dung breeds  and harbours in-
 sects, which afterwards feed upon 
            AR A

and spoil the plants.  To remedy,
this inconvenience, he recommends
the following expedient: " Let  a
reservoir of quick-lime be kept in
a very dry place.   When you be-
gin to make your dunghill, sprinkle
each layer of dung with quick-iime,
till the  whole is  finished.  This
lime kills most insects, perhaps en-
riches the manure, and renders  it
more serviceable.  It will likewise
destroy  the seeds of weeds, which
are generally in dung, and hurt the
wheat when they shoot up."
   Various methods  of improving
poor arable land,  have been sug-
gested  by different  writers.   But
as we  consider  old Duhamel's
plan of ploughing, and then pulve-
rizing the soil properly by the har-
row, the most effectual, where suf-
ficient manure cannot be procured,
we  shall only relate two sugges-
tions which deserve notice, chiefly
on account of their originality......
John Mordant,  in his "Com-
plete Steward, published in 1761,
advises  a  method of improving
poor, worn-out land, as he terms
it ;  which not being an expensive
one, may well deserve a trial: " A
pound of turnip-seed sown,  after
harvest, upon an  acre  of light,
sandy, or gravelly land, that is poor
or worn out by over-ploughing, and
where manure is wanting (the crop
of which being ploughed in, when
grown high,) will, in two months'
time, die away and rot, and enrich
the  land, so as  to prove as good
a manuring  as  twenty loads  of
dung, or more, upon an acre"....p.
457.
   Another  manner of recruiting
worn-out land, is that proposed by
Mr.  Randall, in his " Semi-Vir-
gilian Husbandry," which appeared
in 1764.  We likewise communi-
cate  it in the authors own words :
            A R A        107

" The loam, immediately after har-
vest, is to be turned up ; and as we
shall  suppose  it  will allow the
ploughma.j to go very deep, this is
a point to be obtained at any rate,
for a worn  out soil.  In order to
effect this, one plough is to go to the
usual depth, and another plough to
follow at the same  depth, and in
the same furrow,  which will throw
the mould over it, and bury the
stubble.  In this case, the field will
lie  under the advantage of being
turned upside-down,  as if it were
double spitted,  more than a foot
deep, and the stubble will be soon-
er rotted.  When this is done,the
harrows must make the ground as
fine as the  bad condition of it, or
the season will permit"....p. 12.
   We shall conclude this article
with an useful  hint,  given by Mr.
R. Price,  of Knelworth, Herts,
to the Society for the Encourage-
ment of Arts,  Manufactures, and
Commerce; respectingthedamage
done to arable land, by carrying off
the small stones and flints from the
surface, for the purpose of making
turnpike-roads.   This practice is
highly detrimental to almost every
kind of ploughed land, but particu-
larly to what are called thin stapled,
or light soils.  Mr.  Price  justly
observes, that "stones are of sur-
prising and  manifold uses: for in-
stance,  they  greatly assist the
plough in working the land  ; they
also prevent land of a  binding quali-
ty from running together, and hard-
ening, like mortar in a wall; they
screen the tender blade from blasts
and blights ; they not only prevent
the crop, where the  staple is thin,
from being scorchedup in summer,
but also the exudatioris of the earth
from  evaporating;  and by that
means greatly promote  vegeta*
ti»n." 
108       ARC

  It is almost superfluous to add,
that this reasoning is equally appli-
cable to fields and gardens......See
also  the  articles   Husbandry,
Lands, Soil, and Tillage.
  Arachis hypogaa.....See Earth
or   Ground-Nut,   and  Choco-
late.
  [ARALIA. Four species grow-
in the United States.
    ].  Aralia  Spinosa,  Angelica
tree, prickly ash, tooth-ach tree.  A
docoction of its bark and root has
often succeeded when taken inward-
ly,  in  removing  rheumatic com-
plaints.  It excites a gentle perspi-
ration.   The berries are used to
put into  a hollow tooth  when ach-
ing.  A tincture of them in spirits
is also used for the  same purpose.
  2. A. racemosa, Spikenard, Wild-
Liquorice, Berry-bearing ^....Par-
kinson says, the berries are eaten
in Canada,and both leaves and roots
are used as sallads  and  pot-herbs,
by  the natives.
  3. A. nudicaulis, Sarsaparilla....
The roots are used as a substitute
for sarsaparilla.   A decoction is
used in the country, for that erup-
tive complaint called the shingles.
It is also esteemed  as a remedy ^o
restore the tone of the  stomach.
  4. A. hispida....The root of this
is highly emetic]
   Archangel, Yellow....See Wea-
 sel-Snout.
   ARCHERY, is the art, or exer-
cise, of shooting with  a bow and
arrow.
   Among' ancient nations, the bow
was  the priucij al  instrument of
war; and the skill of the archer of-
ten decided The fate of battles and
of  empires.
   The  English were  particularly
' expert  in  the  use of this instru-
ment;  and their ever  memorable
 victories at  the  battles of Cressy
            ARC

and Poictiers, were chiefly ascribed
to their valiant archers.
  James the First of Scotland, who
had seen and admired the dexterity
of English archers, and was him-
self a skilful bowman, endeavoured
to revive that exercise among his
own subjects, by  whom  it had
been neglected ; but the untimely
death of that excellent prince, pre-
vented  the effectual execution of
this useful project.
   In  the time  of Edward  the
Third,  there was an act of parlia-
ment, which obliged  the English
archers, even in  times of peace,
to erect butts in every parish, and
to shoot on Sundays and holidays.
By this constant practice, the Eng-
lish armies possessed an exclusive
advantage over their enemies.
   Charles the First of England,
from a  treatise entitled "The  Bow-
man's Glory," also appears to have
been an archer.  In the eighth year
of his reign, he issued a commis-
sion to the Chancellor, Lord Mayor
and Privy council, to  prevent the
fields near London, from being so
much enclosed,  as "to interrupt the
necessary  and profitable exercise
of shooting."
   The  use of the long-bow continu-
ed in estimation for more than two
centuries after the introduction of
gun-powder;  which was probably
owing to the weight and unweildi-
ness of muskets.
   The distance  to which an arrow
may be shot from a long-bow, de-
pends,  in a great  degree, on  the
strength and size of the archer, but
in general is reckoned from eleven
to twelve score  yards.
   Archers consider  an  arrow of
from twenty to  twenty-four drams
weight, to be the best for flight, or
hitting a mark at a  considerable
 distance; and yew, the best mate- 
ARC
ARC        109
rial of which they can be made....
The feathers of a goose are gene-
rally preferred;  two out of three
are commonly while, being taken
from the gander;  the  third  is
brown or grey; and this difference
of colour informs the archer when
the arrow is  properly placed.  The
long bow is of the same height as
the  archer himself: and in Eng-
land a peculiar manner is practised
by drawing  the  arrow to the ear,
and not towards  the breast; which
is  doubtless more  advantageous
than that  adopted  among  other
nations.
   The  force with which an arrow
strikes  an object at a moderate dis-
tance, may be conceived, from the
account given by  King Edward
VI. in  his Journal,  where he  says,
that one hundred  archers of  his
guard,  discharged in his presence
two arrows each; that they shot at
an inch board, and many of them
pierced  it quite through, though
the timber was well seasoned.
   It may  perhaps be  a subject
worthy  the consideration of go-
vernment, whether the revival of
archery, by uniting military disci-
pline with  manly exercise, might
not become an  additional means,
both of preserving health, and pro-
Heeling  us against foreign enemies.
According to  Neade,  an  archer
might shoot six arrows in the time
of charging and discharging a mus-
ket; and an ounce of fire-work may
also be discharged ir ni an arrow,
to the dis'.ince of 2^0 yards.
   The  oiliest histories of archery
in England, are  those b-.  Ascham,
who  v.'iote  his Tcxof 'ulus  in the
reign of Hknr\VIII; Markham's
ArtofArc/ury, which appeared in
1634; and Wood's  Bowman's Glo-
ry,  in  1682:  but the  latest, and
most complete work on the  sub-
ject, is, " An Essay  on Archery,"
describing the practice of that art,
in all ages and nations; by W. M.
Moseley, Esq.  8vo. pp. 348. 7s.
boarfis. Robson, 1792.  In  this
classical treatise, the author con-
siders bows, arrows, quivers, butts,
targets, and cross-bows, under dif-
feie.it  heads;  and his account is
illustrated by plates.   Ease and
perspicuity; richness without ver-
bosity; and elegance untainted with
affectation, are  the characters of
this entertaining v oik.
   Archery continues to be prac-
tised by the inhabitants of Geneva,
and in many parts of Flanders.  In
Britain there are several societies
of archers, the principal of which
are the Woodmen of Arden,  the
Toxopholite, and the  Roijal Com-
pany of Archers  of Scotland.....See
also, Arrow.
    ARCHITECTURE, a  term
which denotes the art of building
in general, though chiefly applied.
if the construction of edifices ap-
pi■•-.pri .ted to the purposes of civil
life, such as houses,  churches,
halls,  bridges, &c. &c.
   The origin of this art is involved
in  obscurity.  All  regular build-
ings,  however,  hath  by several
authors, been  generally, and very
plausibly  deduced from the  con-
struction  of  the meanest huts.
These were, at first, probably made
of a conic  figure, which  is  the
simplest  in structure,  but  bung
inconvenient on  account  of  its
inclined sides, both the figure and
construction  of the  huts were
changed,  by giving them a cubical
form.
   At length,  mankind insensibly
improved in the  art of building,
and invented methods of rendering
their habitations durable and hand-
some, ..s well as  convenient.  They 
116       ARC
ARC
deprived the trunks of trees of their
baik, and other inequalities of sur-
face, raised them above the wet, or
humid soil, by means of stones,
jmd also covered  e. ch with  a flat
stone, or slate, to exclude the rain.
The interstices between  ihe ends
of the joists, were closed with wax,
clay, or similar -substances:  the
position of the roof was likewise
altered; and, as on account  of its
level surface, it was unfit to  carry
off the  abimdimt  ram-water,  they
elevated it in the middle, by placing
rafters on the joists, to support the
earth and other materials of the
covering.   From this simple con-
struction, the orders of arcnitecture
undoubtedly took their origin; for,
when the rude builder  began to
erect stately edifices of stone, he
imitated those pai\s which, from
necessity,  had composed the  pri-
mitive huts.  Thus,  the upright
trees, with  stones at each end,
were the origin of columns, bases,
and capitals; and the beams, joists,
rafters,  See.  which formed the co-
vering,  gave rise to  architraves,
frizes, trigliphs, cornices, &c.
  Although the first buddings were
rough  and  uncouth,  because the
artificers of those remote  ages pos-
sessed  neither skill,   experience,
nor tools,  yet, when by  length of
practice, certain  rules had  been
established, and many new instru-
ments  invented,  the  art rapidly
advanced  towards  perfection:  a
variety  of  style,  or different  me-
thods of building were discovered,
which, by succeeding generations,
have been  held in the greatest es-
teem.
   The  Egyptians, from  the  ear-
liest ages of antiquity, have been
considered as the inventors of arts;
and,  among  other contrivances,
may be numbered  that species of
original architecture, in which the
strong'h of the fabric  was more
regarded than either its elegance,
or symmetry.  The Greeks, whose
sublime  and  penetrating  genius
prompted them to  combine  ele-
gance with convenience, derived
their first ideas of building from
the Egyptians.
  The orders, as now executed by
architects, are  five, viz.  1. the
Tuscan;  2.  the  Doric;  3.  the
Ionic;  4. the  Corinthian; and 5.
the  Compo.itr.  The  first, from
its robust appearance,  is  used in
works  where  strength and  sim-
plicity are the essential  requisites;
the second is  nearly similar to the
Tuscan  in  strength, but  is enli-
vened by its  peculiar ornaments;
the  third  is  more  delicate  than
either of the former; but the fourth
displays morebeautyand ornament
than  the others,  and is therefore
frequently used  for the internal
decorations of stately rooms; the
fifth order is nearly the  same as
the Corinthian.
   In the 12th  century, architec-
ture revived, and experienced very
great  improvements,  in conse-
quence of the religious zeal of the
clergy; and, in the  15th and  16th
centuries, the chaste  style of the
Greeks and Romans was displayed
in Britain.  For,  though the Ita-
lians for a long time  maintained
their superiority, in  this as well as
in other arts, over all the European
nations, yet as men of genius  from
distant  parts constantly resorted to
Italy for the  purpose of improve-
ment, since that period architects
have arisen in Britain,  equal to
any  that  ever appeared on the
classical ground of  Italy.
   The  latest and  most splendid
publication on this  subject, which
is intended as a Supplement to that 
ARC
ARG        111
magnificent work, " Vitruvius Bri-
tannicus," and which contains the
studies ofthe most celebrated artists
of the present day, is the following:
" A Collection of Plans and Eleva-
tions of modern  Buildings, public
and private, erected in Great Bri-
tain, kc."  It is engraved in aqua-
tinta,  from original drawings  by
G.   R.  Richardson,   architect.
Seven numbers at  10s. 6d.  each,
are  already  published,  and the
whole is  to  be  completed  in ten
such  numbers.
   Another very useful work has
lately appeared, under  the  title,
" Pints for  swellings,  Sec."  By
D. Laing, architect and surveyor,
4to. 34 plates, 11. 5s. Taylor, 1800.
 It  consists of original designs  for
 cottages, farm-houses, villas, &c.
 plain and on.amental: with plans
to  each,  uniting convenience and
elegance  with  economy.   The
Monthly Reviewers  say:  " We
recommend  the present work,  as
one of the best of that kind, to the
attention of those  who wish  to
amuse themselves  with  brick and
mortar."
   Beside these, we shall mention
the following architectural works,
which reflect credit on the artists
of this country : " The Rudiments
of Ancient Architecture, &c." royal
 8vo.  edit.  2d.  price  6s.  boards,
published for Taylor,  in 1794......
*  Sketches  in  Architecture;"  by
J. Soank, architect,  &c. 54 folio
plates, 21.12s. 6d. half bound, 1793.
" A Treatise on  the decorative part
of Civil Architecture ;" by Sir Wm.
Chambkrs, &c. edit. 3d. Imperial
folio, price 31. 3s. Cadell,  1791.
   Architecture, being an  useful
and elegant art, is  carried on  in
three different ways: first, for uti-
lity ;  secondly, for ornament; and,
thirdly, for the construction of such
buildings as require the combined
effect of both.
  Buildings of such a nature only,
are compatible with our plan, and
of these we shall give a more par-
ticular account  under the article
Building.
  Arctium.   See Burdock.
  Areca.  See Faselnut, Cate-
chu, and Caubage-Palm.
  Arenaria.  See Sandwort.
  Argemone. See Prickly Poppy.
  ARGUMENT, when applied to
logic, signifies an inference drawn
from premises, the truth of which
is  either indisputable, or highly
probable. In matters of literature,
itdenotes the abridgment, or heads,
of  a  book,  history, chapter, &c.
Considered in the former sense, in
which it solely  relates to  reason,
and to the investigation of truth,
it is,  in its principle, of a simple
and homogeneous nature;  and re-
quires no particular  explanation.
For, pleasure being the chief end
of  poetry,  and persuasion that of
eloquence, the real constitution of
things is often  perverted, or dis-
guised, and compelled to adapt
itself to  the  imagination  and the
passions ; but truth, being the ulti-
mate object of argument, stands in
need of no dazzling colours, or the
figurative language of rhetoric.
   It is not, however, unusual (both
in  private  life and in the senate)
to draw from an argument, a con-
clusion very  different from what it
really  implies.  Cunning and bold  «
disputants  frequently avail them-
selves of ambiguous  expressions,
which easily engender a confusion
of  ideas; and thus the fallacy of
their  incongruous  reasoning  but
too often escapes detection, as it
remainsinvolved in  sophistical per*
plexity.....For a farther considera-
tion of this interesting subject, we 
112        ARI
ARI
refer our readers to the article of
Logic, where it will be more ap-
plicable than under the present.
  Jristolochia. See Birth wort.
  ARITHMETIC,  is a  science
which teaches the method of com-
puting numbers, and explains their
nature and peculiarities.  At what
time it was invented, is altogether
unknown;  though  the  four  first
fundamental principles, viz. addi-
tion,  subtraction,   multiplication,
and  division,  have  always,  in  a
certain degree, been practised by
different nations.
  The  Greeks  were among the
first who brought arithmetic to per-
fection; and they are supposed to
have originally made use of pebbles
in their calculations.  The  most
complete  method  of  numbering
now used in this country, was in-
troduced into  Europe by the Ara-
bians, when they were in possession
of bpain.  These people, however,
acknowled; ed that they derived
their information  from the  Indi-
ans.   How the  latter became  ac-
quainted with it, we are entirely
ignorant.    The earliest treatises
extant  upon  the  theory of arith-
metic,  are, the 7th, 8th, and 9th
books of Euclid's Elements, in
which he treats of  proportion; of
prime  and  composite  numbers.
Nicomachus,  the  Pythagorean,
also wrote concerning the distinc-
tion and division of numbers into
classes, as plain, solid, triangular,
 &c. in which he  explained  some
 of the leading peculiarities of the
 several kinds.
   As learning advanced in Europe,
 the knowledge of numbers also in-
 creased, and the writers  on this
 subject  soon became  numerous.
 Ramus was  the  first who,  in his
 Treatise on Arithmetic,  published
 in 1586, used decimal periods, for
reducing  the   square  and cube
roots to fractions; but the greatest
improvement  which  the  art  of
computation  ever  received, was
from  the  invention of logarithms,
the honour of which is due to John
Napier, Baron of Merchiston, in
Scotland, who  published his disco-
very about the beginning  of the
17th century.
   Arithmetic  may  now be consi-
dered as having advanced to a de-
gree of perfection which, in former
times, could  scarcely have been
conceived, and to be  one of those
few sciences which have left little
room  for  further  improvement.
It is, however, a  serious  and  al-
most general  complaint, that few
children, while at school, make any
tolerable  progress  in arithmetic;
and that the generality, after hav-
ing spent several years under the
tuition of a  master, are incapable
of applying the few rules which
they may have learned, to the use-
ful purposes of life.  A little  re-
flection will suffice  to convince us,
that not much benefit is to be  de-
rived from  the usual mode of in-
struction.  A  few elementary prin-
ciples are  acquired  by rote, and
therefore quickly  forgotten;  be-
cause the most essential  particu-
lars,  viz. the reasons on which
these rules  are founded, and their
extensive use in the various con-
cerns of  society, are  generally
omitted.   Teachers, as  well  as
 writers., cannot be wholly exempt-
 ed from the charge  of having, in
 some degree, contributed  to  this
 evil; for, by stating the rules with-
 out their corresponding  reasons,
 they act upon mechanical princi-
 ples, and thus encourage the idea,
 that  demonstrations in every in-
 stance are  useless, and in some.
 impossible. 
             ARI

  Every young arithmetician should
 remember,  that before he forms
 any particular question or numeri-
 cal proposition, it is absolutely ne-
 cessary to  consider  whether the
 terms be directly proportionate to
 each  other ; for otherwise he will
 be  liable to commit  gross errors.
 Although in buying and selling, the
price  increases or decreases in the
 same relative proportion  as  the
 quantity of  goods,  yet in geome-
 try, natural philosophy, &c. those
 things which, at first sight, appear
 to be in simple proportion to each
 other, may, on  a mature  investi-
 gation,  prove the  contrary.  Pre-
 viously, therefore, to the solution of
 questions respecting these scien-
 ces, he should be made acquainted
 with  those elementary principles
 on which they are  founded.
   Another material error commit-
 ted in the  inferior  schools, is the
 admission of boys under the age of
 ten or twelve, often  for the sake
 of early fees, though they are inca-
 pable of being instructed by rea-
 soning with them.  Hence we are
 decidedly of opinion, that this is
 one of  the  negative  modern  im-
 provements , and that the earliest
 periods  of fixing the attention of
 youth on scientific  objects, is, ac-
 cording to their individual capaci-
 ties,  from  the  twelfth to the fif-
 teenth year  of their age.
   Among the latest, and most in-
 structive works on this subject, we
 enumerate the  following......" An
 Introduction to Arithmetic and Al-
gebra ;" by  T. Manning, two vo-
lumes, 8vo.  10<s. boards.  Riving-
tons,  1798...." Arithmetical Ques-
tions  on a  New Plan;"  by W.
Butler, 8vo. edit. 2d. 4s. boards.
Dilly, 1797...." The Arithmetician's
Guide;"  by  W.  Taylor, 12mo.
21.  6d. bound. Baldwin,  17(28.-
    VOL. I.
             ARQ       113

  [To this list may be added Pike's
 Arithmetic, a work originally pub-
 lished in  the  United States, and
 esteemed by  competent judges, one
 of the best on  the subject.]
   See also Education and Blind-
 ness.
   Arnica montana,  L.....See Ger-
 man Leopard's Bane.
   AROMATIC, an epithet given
 to such substances as yield a strong
 fragrant smell, and impart a warm
 taste.   In this class are included
 the various  spices, such as  nut-
 megs, cloves,  cinnamon,   mace,
 Sec.  Some of them have a sweet-
 ness  mixed  with  their aromatic
 principle ; such as the angelica
 root, anise seed, and fennel;  some
 are astringent, as cinnamon; others
 afford a strong mucilage, as the
 Cassia lignea;  and  again, others a
 bitterness, as orange and  lemon-
 peel.
   The aromatic ingredient is ex-
 tracted  in  different  proportions
 from various substances, by  recti-
 fied  spirits of  wine ; though it  is
 sometimes obtained by mere infu-
 sion with water.
   Aromatics form an useful and
 agreeable ingredient in many arti-
 cles of cookery, but especially in
 dishes prepared of watery and fla-
 tulent  vegetables,  of which they
 are the best correctors : they warm
 the  stomach,  and  stimulate  the
 whole system;  raise the pulse, and
 quicken  the  circulation.  In cold,
 languid habits,  and a relaxed state
 of the  solids, they support the ani-
 mal  spirits,  or increase vital ac-
 tion, and promote the salutary se-
 cretions : but to hot, bilious  tem-
 peraments, full habits, and inflam-
 matory dispositions, they are cer-
 tainly pernicious.
  ARQUEBUSADE WATER,a
medicinal preparation, which  has
    Q 
114        A R R
ARR
received this name, from its great
efficacy in healing gun-shot wounds,
though it. is, at present, with more
propriety, applied  to bruises,  tu-
mours arising from blows, and par-
ticularly to suggillated parts, con-
taining coagulated blood.
  Various  mixtures are used  for
this purpose, but according to our
experience,  the following deserves
the preference, both on account of
the easy manner of preparing it,
and its superior virtues : " Take
distilled vinegar and rectified spirit
of wine, of  each one pound and a
half, double  refined loaf-sugar, half
a pound, and  five  ounces of  com-
mon oil of vitriol.   This composi-
tion may be applied to the  injured
parts  in a cold or lukewarm state,
and the compresses should  be kept
continually moist;  for, as soon as
they become dry, the pain is liable
to return.   By its  astringent pro-
perty it contracts the skin;  and the
■sugar which settles on it,  not un-
like a coating of glue, ought to be
carefully washed off every other,
or third day,  with  Goulard-water.
   [The virtue of these healing wa-
ters are more imaginary than real:
for most wounds, nothing  more is
required, than to join the separated
parts, and bind them up in the ef-
fused blood  ; the separated vessels
will soon unite.  In warm weather,
the parts may be  covered with  a
cloth dipped in spirits or brandy....
No remedy, for a  bruise,  is  equal
to an ounce of sal  ammoniac  dis-
solved in a pint or a pint and a half
of vinegar,  with which  the  parts
must  be bathed  every  hour, or
oftener.]
   ARRACK, Arac, or Rack,  is a
spirituous liquor imported from the
East Indies,  and used either as  a
cordial, or an ingredient in punch.
It is  obtained by distillation from
rice, or sugar, fermented with the
juice of cocoa-nuts.   Goa and Ba-
tavia  are the chief  places  from
which  arrack is  exported.  At the
former, there are three sorts, viz.
the single, double, and treble dis-
tilled.   The double is but a weak
spirit,  in comparison with that ob-
tained at the latter place ; but, on
account of its peculiar flavour, it is
preferred to all  the others.
   The arrack now in general use
contains but  a  sixth,  and some-
times  only an eighth part of  alcor
hoi, or pure spirit.   A spirituous
liquor  of this name is also extracted
by the Tartars of Tungusia, from
mare's milk, which is  first suffer-
ed to  turn sour, and then distilled
two or three times,  between two
close carthern pots, from which it
runs through a small wooden pipe.
It is possessed of the most intoxi-
cating qualities; so that, according
to  Professor Pallas,  men, wo-
men,  and   children,   frequently
drink  themselves into a semi-deli-
rious  trance, which  continues for
48 hours.
   Various penalties are attached to
the sale of arrack,  without con-
forming to  the usual duties and
regulations established by several
acts of parliament, with which we
shall not trouble our readers, but
refer  them  to  the statutes made
concerning this  article.
   Genuine arrack is said to possess
balsamic,  softening, and restora-
tive properties, and to be less lia-
ble to produce  the usual inconve-
niences of  other spirits.    It  is
farther supposed to  contain a fine
subtile oil,  so minute as to  incor-
porate readily with  water :  hence
it  is generally  preferred in  those
cases, where repeated debauches
have abraded the internal sides of
the vessels.  Persons who are un- 
ARR
ARR        115
fortunately addicted to the use of
ardent spirits,  as well as  those
troubled with the gout or rheuma-
tism, and who cannot  comply with
the rules of sobriety  and temper-
ance, may use arrack in preference
to Hollands, or  brandy.   On ac-
count of its strong empyreumatic
oil, however, it is difficult of di-
gestion, soon turns rancid, causes
numerous obstructions, and is con-
sequently injurious toindividuals of
lax solids, and thick or sizy fluids.
Happy, therefore, are those who
can entirely  banish  spirituous li-
quors from their tables ;  as,  from
their  stimulating and pernicious
qualities,  they have  destroyed in-
calculable  numbers of human be-
ings.....perhaps  exceeding, in the
aggregate, all the victims that ever
fell under the combined  scourges
of war, hunger, and pestilence.
    ARRANGEMENT,  a  term,
which denotes a distribution of the
various component parts of  any
whole, in a certain order, or pro-
portion ;  and refers either to sub-
stance, time, or place. In the first
instance, we  may  say,  that  the
diversity observable in various co-
lours is owing to a peculiar arrange-
ment of those parts which reflect
the light;  in the second, that re-
gularity and order in human trans-
actions are the result of a methodi-
cal distribution, or arrangement of
time ;  and to explain the  last, it
may be  said, that the  different
genera and species of plants and
flowers are, by botanists, arranged
under their respective classes, and
in their proper places.
   A happy arrangement of ideas,
words, and sentences, forms one
of the principal beautiesof a speech,
or dissertation.   The  reverse im-
plies confusion, which  is frequently
glossed over by a torrent of ambi-
guous and flowery expressions, so
that it requires no small degree of
critical acumen, to distinguish the
philosophical speaker from the ver-
bose orator....See  Argument.
  ARROW, is a  missive weapon
of defence,  used by archers.  Its
form is slender, pointed, and barb-
ed.....Arrow-makers were denomi-
nated fietchcrs ;  men of considera-
ble importance to  the state.
  Arrow-heads and quarrels were
required to be well boched or bras-
ed, and hardened at the points with
steel ; the finishing of which ap-
pears to have been the business of
the arrow-smith. A more particu-
lar  account  of  bows  and  arrows
will be found under  the title of
Archery.
   ARROW-GRASS, is a plant of
which there are  three species , but
two only  are natives  of Britain,
namely, the Triglochin palustre, or
Marsh, and the  maritimum, or Sea
Arrow-grass.  The former is fre-
quently  met  with   in   marshy
grounds,  and the  latter  near the
sea coast,  and in saline tracts.  As
they  are  eaten with  avidity by
sheep, for which they serve as an
excellent and wholesome food, we
presume strongly  to  recommend
their culture.   An additional mo-
tive for the propagation of the ar-
row-grass, may be suggested to the "
farmer and breeder of sheep; be-
cause it thrives  extremely well in
moist and swampy places, where
few other  vegetables would grow.
  ARROW-HEAD, Co:iMON,the
Sagittaria  sagittifolia, L.  is one of
those  neglected  plants,  which,
though  growing  wild in  many
parts of England especially on the
banks of rivers  are not converted
to any useful purpose: it is reprer
scnted in  PI. 7. English Botany, p.
81.  The root of the arrow-head is 
116        ARR
ARR
composed of numerous strong fi-
bres, which strike into the mud ;
the  foot stalks of the leaves are
of a length proportionate to the
depth of the water  in which they
grow, they are thick, fungous, and
sometimes three feet high.  Its
sharp pointed  leaves resemble the
point of an  arrow, and float upon
the water. At the lower extremity
of the root, there is always, even
in its wild state, a bulb which grows
in the solid clay, beneath the mud-
dy stratum.
  This esculent root is industrious-
ly cultivated in China and America,
where  it attains to the  size of
several  inches in diameter ; while
in this country,  of which it is  a
native,  we  suffer it to  undergo
spontaneous dissolution.    As  it
constitutes a considerable part of
the Chinese  diet,  no reason can be
alledged why it should not be re-
sorted to, in times of scarcity, when
a poor  cottager,  in some  parts of
the country, might in one day, with
his family, collect a sufficient quan-
tity of these nourishing and palat-
able roots to serve them for a fort-
night, as excellent  substitutes for
bread.  With respect to the man-
ner of dressing and preparing such
vegetables, we shall give the ne-
cessary directions under the article
Bread.
   The  arrow-head requires a low,
cold, marshy situation, and a clay-
ey  soil, where scarcely any other
plant would thrive.   Here it grows
luxuriantly, and  produces an ob-
long, thick, bulbous root, which,
from its mealy nature, may be easi-
ly converted into starch or flour....
Even in its raw and  unprepared
state, it affords a proper and whole-
some  food for horses, goats and
hogs; though cows do not  relish it.
There are two methods of  propa-
gating this beneficial plant; either
by the wild-growing  fibres of the
root, or by the seed ; and we ear-
nestly   recommend  its  culture,
from a conviction of its great utili-
ty.  In the present alarming crisis,
we also venture to suggest the pro-
priety and expediency of inducing
the industrious poor to collect this
and similar plentiful roots,and after
washing, macerating thei«,and ex-
pressing their starch, to mix it with
other ingredients, in the making of
bread.  If persuasion and reason-
ing do not avail, small premiums
or rewards might be offered, to ac-
complish  so  desirable a  purpose.
  ARROW-ROOT, Indian, or the
Maranta,  a plant  of which there
are three  species, the arundinacea,
galanga, and comosa;  all of them
are herbaceous, perennial  exotics
of the Indies, and kept in our hot-
houses merely for curiosity.  The
first of these species is the true
starch plant, and is likewise used by
the Indians  to extract the poison
communicated by their arrows.
  Dr.  Wright,  of Jamaica, ap-
pears to be the first who informed
us  that a decoction  of  the  fresh
roots makes  an excellent ptisan in
acute diseases.   From an ingeni-
ous pamphlet published in 1796,by
Mr. T. Ryder, of Oxford-street,
we farther learn, that one of his
West-Indian patients, employed it
as an article of diet, and  since that
period it  has been very  generally
used in families.
   The arrow-root powder  unques-
tionably yields a larger proportion
of nutritive mucilage than  any Eu-
ropean vegetable, if we except the
Salep-root;  hence  a single  table-
spoonful of either,  makes a pint of
strong and nourishing jelly, which
affords a  very proper food in acute
diseases as  weli  as  in  all  those 
             ARR

 complaints where animal food must
 be abstained from.  It is  there-
 fore to be regretted, that we cannot
 easily obtain this powder in a pure
 state, without paying the extrava-
 gant price of from five to ten shil-
 lings  per  pound ;  for in   those
 shops where it is offered to sale at
 an inferior price of two or  three
 shillings the pound, we have  found
 by experience, that it is consider-
 ably adulterated.
   Mr. Ryder, before  mentioned,
 has justly .recommended the cul-
 ture  of this root to the West-Indian
 Planters, and the new African Co-
 lonists, as an object of commerce,
 and  the most eligible substitute for
 starch, made of wheat : 1. Be-
 cause it would save annually 66,000
 quarters of that  valuable grain, in
 Great Britain alone,  where the
 average quantum of starch made in
 the years 179S,  1794, and  1795,
 amounted  to 8 millions of pounds
 weight, allowing one hundred and
 twenty pounds per quarter.  2. As
 the wholesale price of  the arrow-
 root was, in  1796,  fifteen pence a
 pound, and as one pound of  its
 starch is equal to two pounds  and a
 half prepared from wheat, its in-
 trinsic value  would, by this  com-
 putation, not exce*d s/x-penceptr
 pound : whereas the average  price
 of starch in England for seven years
 (from 1789 to 1795) may be stated
 at nine-\tence the pound. 3. As the
 arrow-root contains more soluble,
 gelatinous  matter, occupying less
 space, being  less  enveloped  in
 earthy particles  and affording  a
 purer farina than any other plant,
 it  may be reasonably inferred, that
 the starch  obtained from it must
be of the finest quality ;  an opinion
 amply confirmed  by three clear-
 starchers, who were, on this occa-
sion, consulted by  the Society for
             ARS        117

 the Encouragement of Arts, Manu-
factures and Commerce.
   [The arrow-rootfurnishes an ex-
 cellent remedy for the bowel com-
 plaints, which so commonly pre-
 vail in the United States, during
 warm, weather, especially among
 children.  The plants would thrive
 in the southern states, and ought
 to be introduced into them, by some
 of the numerous Americans who
 visit  the West-Indies.]
   ARSENIC, an heavy, opaque,
 crystalline  substance,  which, on
 fracture, resembles sal ammoniac
 in a  concrete state.  Most of the
 metallic ores contain it, in greater
 or less proportion, especially  those
 of copper, tin, bismuth, and  the
 fossil called  cobalt,  from which
 last it is extracted in Saxony, by
 a kind of sublimation.   It6   true
 nature is so little known, that che-
 mists have  hesitated  whether it
 ought to be ranked  among  the
 salts, or semi-metals ; because it
 may,by various processes, be made
 to assume either a saline or metal-
 lic state.   Hence, it has by many
 been  considered as a mineralizing
 substance, which  only tends to
 combine metals, and to give them
 a  more perfect form.  Nay,  there
 are others, who have doubted  whe-
ther it be a simple body ; and we
well remember the assertion of an
ingenious lecturer  on  chemistry
and pharmacy  in Edinburgh, who
still flatters himself with the  hope
of being able, at some future  peri-
od, to demonstrate by experiment,
" that arsenic  is the true basis of
silver."
   This semi-metallic concrete is
very usefully employed in various
branches of the arts and manufac-
tures  ; it is frequently added as an
ingredient, to facilitate  the fusion
of glass, and  to produce a certain 
118        A R S
ARS
degree  of opacity.  Painters use
two arsenical preparations,namely,
the orpiment and realgar.  A very
beautiful green  pigment may  be
precipitated from blue vitriol, by a
watery solution  of  white  arsenic
and  vegetable  alkali: this, when
prepared  either with water or oil,
affords a permanent colour.  It is
highly  probable  that,  if  arsenic
were added to  the paint used  for
wood, it might form  an  ingredient
which would not  be liable to  be
preyed upon by worms.  But the
practice  of painting the  toys  of
children with arsenical pigments,
deserves severe censure ;  as they
are accustomed to put every thing
into  their mouth.
  In dyeing, it is likewise of great
service.   Combined with sulphur,
it has the property of  readily dis-
solving  indigo ; for which purpose
it is used in the printing of calico,
and  other cloth.   On exposure to
the  air, however, the  arsenic is
precipitated from this solution, and
may be farther employed in pencil
colours. Some dyers are  said to
understand the art  of imparting
beautiful shades of colours to furs,
by arsenical solutions.
  In rural and domestic economy,
this concrete is also frequently re-
sorted to with  great  advantage,
though not always  with due  pre-
caution.   Farmers  dissolve it in
lime-water, for steeping wheat, in
order to prevent the  smut;  and it is
likewise asserted, that the husband-
men of Flanders and Germany  use
it foi fertilizing the earth.by sprink-
ling the soil with a  solution of ar-
senic in dung-water.
   in medicine,  it  has long been
known  as the basis of the most
celebrated cancer-powders, especi-
ally those of Plunket, Dr. Hugh
Martin,  and  probably also, of
Guy's.   A weak solution of it in
water, is directed by Dr. Way, of
Wilmington, for effectually cleans-
ing foul  ulcers, and removing  im-
purities of the skin : it is prepared
by boiling one ounce of white arse-
nic in two quarts of water or three
pints, and applying it once or twice
a day. When it is used for extract-
ing or  discussing,  cancerous or
schirrous tumors, that are not ul-
cerated, the above-mentioned  Dr.
Martin, a late physician in Ame-
rica, previously ordered a blister of
Spanish flies to be applied to the
part, with  a view to open the pores
of the skin. But, as he prescribed
it empirically, and indiscriminately
in all  cancerous  cases, we were
not surprized to learn from  his old
professor,  Dr.  Benj. Rush, that
his pupil has often been unsucess-
ful in the application of his  arseni-
cated powder*.
   In  the cure  of agues,  a solution
of this  mineral has been strongly
recommended,  and  administered
with success, upon  the authority
of Drs. Fowler, Arnold, Wi-
th ering,Will an, Marsh,Pear-
son, and many other respectable
English and foreign  practitioners,
who do not hesitate to prescribe it
in doses, from two to twelve drops,
once, twice,or oftener in the course
of the day, according to the  age,
strength, and other circumstances
of the patient.
   A preparation similar to that di-
rected by  Dr. Fowler, and called
the white  tasteless ague-drcp, has
lately been given with singular effi-
cacy in the hooping-cough. We re-
  *At is presumed, that the liquid medicines, now secretly exhibited by a physician
in London, who positively 11.anU.ains r >...' he cures cancers " by absorption," likewise
consist of boluticn.s ir.u-.ieof this virulent semi-metal. See Cancers. 
ARS                          A11S        119
late this  fact upon the evidence of
Mr. Crop, an  eminent  surgeon,
of Barnet.
  Notwithstanding  these remark-
able and powerful effects of arsenic
overtne virulence of diseases,which
appear to depend either on a speci-
fic contagious miasma, such as is
supposed to produce the  ague and
hooping-cough, or  on a peculiar
disposition of the fluids and solids,
to undergo a certain degree of de-
composition in the living body, as
is evident in  cancers, and  other
 malignant ulcers....we are,  on the
combined  testimony of many me-
dical  practitioners, equally cele-
 brated for their extensive practice
 and erudition,  as they are conspi-
 cuous for their professional zeal
 and integrity,  irresistably induced
 to declare our opinion, at  least,
 against  the internal use  of this ac-
 tive and dangerous medicine.   Of
 the   numerous authorities which
 might  be adduced in support of
 this declaration, we shall here avail
 ourselves  only of  the  conclusive
 testimony of Dr. Blake, the late
 professor of chemistry in the uni-
 versity of Edinburgh, who  main-
 tains, that he has seen the internal
 exhibition of arsenic attended with
 fatal effects, such  a;;  hectics, S.c.
 nay, he  declares, that though  the
 external application of this sub-
 stance has, in  some cases, proved
 successful, it  has  often, even in
 this way, produced dreadful conse-
 quences ; so that, far from recom-
 mending itinternally,he reprobates
 ev en the external use of this preca-
 rious drug.  Hence we  hope to be
 forgiven by  those worthy medical
 practitioners, from whom no slight
 motives woUld induce us to differ :

                   * See the article S
                            t See
and unless it could be proved by a
plurality of cases, that patients, af-
ter the taking of arsenic to some
extent have  not  only  recovered
from  agues,  cancers,  hooping-
cough, &c.  but  that  they have
likewise attained to a considerable
age, without ever having been sub-
ject to paralytic,   spasmodic,  or
phthisical disorders, we  shall not
be disposed to retract our opinion
of its virulent and destructive ten-
dency.
   Although we have  deprecated
the  internal use of arsenic, both
 from  the  concurrent  evidence of
 many other practitioners, and our
 own  experience,  yet we shall at-
 tempt to prove, that there is actu-
 ally less danger to be apprehended
 from  those accidents,  when  this
 corrosive  poison  has  by mistake,
 been swallowed, either in the form
 of a powder, or solution.  And as
 it is frequently used for destroying
 rats, mice, and other troublesome
 animals ; for preparing sympathe-
 tic inks*, as well as for  chemical
 tests ; to discover the adulterations
 of winesf, which  have been sweet-
 ened by sugar of lead ;  we cannot
 be too minute in laying down  pro-
 per rules and directions for obvi-
 ating the dangerous effects of such
 casualties, as  but  too often occur
 among those who employ arsenical
 preparations,  in  a dry or  liquid
 state, either  for  gratifying their
 curiosity by different experiments,
 or for other more useful purposes.
   Arsenic is one  of the most  sud-
 den  and  violent  poisons  we  are
 acquainted with. Its fumes are so
 deleterious  to the lungs, that  the
 artist ought to be on his guard, to
 prevent their  inhalation by   the

 mpathetic Ink.
kVi^E. 
  120        A R S

  mouth ;  for if they be  mixed and
  swallowed with the saliva, effects
  will lake  place similar to those,
  which follow its introduction  into
  the stomach in a saline or  dissolv-
  ed state ; namely,  a sensation of
  a piercing, gnawing, and burning
  kind, accompanitd  with an acute
 pain in the stomach and intestines,
  which last are violently contort-
  ed; convulsive vomiting; insatiable
 thirst, from the parched and rough
  state of  the  tongue and throat ;
 hiccough, palpitation of the heart,
 and  a deadly  oppression of  the
 whole breast  succeed  next;  the
 matters ejected by  the  mouth, as
 well as the stools, exhibit a black,
 fetid  and putrid  appearance ; at
 length, with the  mortification of
 the  bowels, the pain subsides, and
 the fatal catastrophe terminates the
 sufferings of  the patient.  There
 are, however, cases on medical re-
 cord, in which, on  dissection, nei-
 ther the  stomach nor bowels, ac-
 cording to the testimonies of Drs.
 Metzger and Hahnemann, have
 beencorroded, nor even injured ; so
 that  this  poison  may, in   some
 instances,  exert its action immedi-
 ately on the  living principle.....
 Thus we  find, in  a case related
 by our late friend, Dr.  Unzkr, of
 Hamburg, that a lady,  who had
 only tasted a little arsenic, without
 swallowing a particle, was  twelve
 hours after the accident, thrown
 into the most convulsive spasms,
 and   attacked  with  inflammatory
 pustules,  not unlike the  measles,
 covering her face, neck, and  whole
 body, so that  she recovered with
 great ciiluculty, and  remained for
 several years in a miserable state
of langcur, and general debility.  *
  F<jr these obvious reasons, artists
exposed to the fumes or vapour of
this volatile mineral,  ought to  he
              A R S

 extremely cautious  to  preserve
 themselves from its  influence on
 their mouth and nostrils, as well
 as from touching it with their hands;
 for every external contact may be
 attended with serious consequences.
 Hence they should dress in  thick
 and firm clothes ; keep  at a proper
 distance from the exhaling fumes,
 and cover the orifices  of the face
 wittua mask, made for the purpose.
 In their system of diet, we advise
 them to make use of a great pro-
 portion of bland and mucilaginous
 nourishment; such as fresh butter,
 pork, sweet-oil,  milk, artichokes,
 and similar vegetables.
   With respect to the treatment of
 persons,  after the inhalation, or
 swallowing of  arsenic,  we  shall
 arrange the subject  under three
 distinct propositions.
   I. When a large portion of  arse-
 nic has been introduced into the sto-
 mach, or inhaled by the lungs:
   1. Immediately after  the  acci-
 den, brisk  emetics  ;  for instance,
 half a dram of white  vitriol, and,
 after it, plenty of sweet linseed, or
 almond-oil, either of which is pre-
 ferable to olive-oil; or, if these  be
 not  at hand, large draughts  of
 milk,  barley   gruel,  or warmed
 beer, with a third  part  of oil,  or
 butter, ought to be substituted,  as
 soon as possible.   To  facilitate the
 operation, a strong feather should
 be dipt in oil,  for stimulating  the
 tonsils.  If the throat be  swollen
 and  contracted, a surgeon ought
 to be instantly procured, for open-
 ing the gullet by means of a probe,
 or other proper instruments,
  2.  To  neutralize and  deprive
this corrosive poison of its activity,
according  to  Dr.  Hahnemann,
nothing is more efficacious than a
solution of white soap in  hot wa-
ter,  in  the  n-•<■ portion  of half a 
             ARS

 ^ound of the former to a quart of
 (he latter,  which must be boiled,
 ;ind  the soap  agitated until the
 whole is dissolved : when it may
 be sweetened  with  sugar.   This
 preparation ought tobe taken with-
 out delay,  and so frequently as to
 repeal half a tea-cupful of it every
 five minutes, that the patient may
 swallow several pounds  in  the
 course of two hours.  If hepaliscd
 water (prepared by  pouring acids
 en the liver of sulphur, and satu-
 rating, with the ascending vapours,
 water contained in another vessel)
 could be readily procured,  it would,
 with  the addition of one  half of
 thick cream,  be an  excellent sub-
 stitute  for  the solution of soap.
   3. To promote the evacuation
 of  the poison  by  stool,  clysters
 composed  of the preceding liquids,
 and a third part of castor-oil, ought
 to be speedily administered, and
 the whole abdomen fomented with
 soap-water.
  4.  With a view to prevent local
 or general inflammation, beside
 the fomentations,cataplasms, luke-
 warm baths and clysters, it will,
 perhaps, be necessary to bleed the
 patient  largely, but not  without
 consulting  medical men.
  II. When a person has been slow-
 ly prisoned, or has swallowed only a
 small portion of arsenic ; or, if the
proper remedies should have  been
 neglected for several hours.
  In  these cases,  the judicious
 practitioner only can decide upon
 the relative propriety and expedi-
 ency  of the preceding remedies ;
 but  if  a  considerable time  has
 elapsed since the accident  happen-
ed,  it will  be  necessary  to com-
mence the treatment with purga-
 tive remedies, such  as will at the
same  time lubricate the coats of the
stomach, and the whole intestinal
   VOL. I.
             ARS       121

canal, while they tend to assuage
the acrimony, and counteract the
corrosive  effect produced  on the
first passages.   Of this nature is,
in a pre-eminent degree,thecfcstor-
oil, combined with large draughts,
either of  the hepatised or soap-
waters.   A  strictly antiphlogistic
regimen ought now to be pursued,
together with the remedies proper
to obviate  inflammation, and after-
wards a  milk-diet,   linseed tea,
barley-water, gruel, and infusions
of different mucilaginous vegeta-
bles, milk, chocolate without spice,
aided  by  the enjoyment of fresh
and pure  air.
   III.  Indications  of cure, when
the patient labours under a gradual
and  long.continued  action  of the
poison ; or in the secondary stage.
of the two former casualties.
   The principal object now to be
attained, is the destruction of poi-
sonous matter in the second pas-
sages, or to prevent its influence
on the kidneys,  biliary ducts, the
organs of perspiration,  &c.  To
ascertain  whether  the virus  has
diffused itself through the system,
the person's state of mind and body
should be comparatively examin-
ed; whether the former be deject-
ed, or the latter  reduced to preter-
natural debility; or whether any of
the animal and natural functions be
impaired.  When there appears a
blue ring  round the eyes, and the
lips exhibit a similar colour, we
may conclude that the devastation
occasioned  in the whole frame i-s
considerable ; and in such instan-
ces,   Dr.  Boerh,\ave advises to
let  the patient drink no less than
twelve pints of lukewarm honev-
water, in 24 hours, for 3 days suc-
cessively ; and to administer fre-
quent clysters of the same liquid.
By this simple treatment, he ol>-
     R 
122        ARS
ARS
serves, all those painful  and dan-
gerous symptoms, which some-
times ailiict the  victims  of this
poison through the remainder of
their  lives, have  been effectually
obviated.   On the contrary, M.
Navier, a reputed French writer,
on the effects  of arsenic and  its
antidotes,  recommends  the  me-
thod we have  already pointed out,
in propositions I.  and  II.  after
which, he insinuates the propriety
of re-commencing a milk-diet, and
enjoins the patient to abstain from
the use of all acid substances, or
liquors.  In this  opinion,  he is
likewise supported by Dr. Hahne-
mann, who cautions the  convales-
cent to be very   attentive to his
evacuations by' stool ;  which, so
long as he is subject to griping
pain, and strictures in the abdomen,
constantly requires to be aided by
the mildest purgatives.   Besides
these, he may drink decoctions of
the Lichen ioiandicus,  of the root
called Polygala senega, or of quas-
sia-wood, which last is, of all other
corroborant and  astringent reme-
dies, the least  heating, and conse-
quently the most proper to be taken.
  In order to  prevent  all the bad
consequences  resulting from this
malignant poison, the patient may
with advantage resort to the warm
mineral, su.pbureous waters,which
he should not only drink plentifully,
but likewise bathe in them,  espe-
cially in the form of vapour.  If
such natural waters cannot be ea-
sily procured, they may  be artifi-
cially substituted  by medical men,
who are, in general, perfectly well
acquainted with  their component
parts, as  well as the manner of
preparing them.   By their proper
use, the unfortunate  invalid may
at length recover  from that treniu-
luting uXXcLioa of tbe limbs, re-
laxation,  paralysis,  convulsions^
and  other distressing complaints,
which the improvident swallowing
of arsenic usually  produces.
   From a multiplicity of instances
reEted by Wepfer, Hher, Zitt-
man, Euell,  and other writers,
we have reason to conclude,  that
in our daily victuals, as well as by
the use of glazed vessels, consider-
able  portions of lead and arsenic
are  taken  into the stomach,  and
mixed with solid food ; though un-
attended with  danger or inconve-
nience, except that  of vomitjng.
Sometimes,  however, when  the
digesting organs  are in a languid
state, the poison may  lodge in the
cellular, membranes  of  the  sto-
mach and bowels, for several days
or weeks,  before  it be evacuated.
In such, cases, the necessary con-
sequences will be a slow hectic fe-
ver,  for which the physician,  who
is generally consulted in the secon-
dary stage of the disease, can as-
sign no cause.
   Lastly, we shall briefly mention,
by what means and processes it
may, after death  be discovered,
whether a person have died from
the poison of arsenic, though this
knowledge properly belongs to the
department of medical police or
jurisprudence.
   1. The contents of the stomach
and  intestines should be taken out,
and  washed  in   water.   If  any
powder  be contained therein,  it
should  be allowed to  separate;
and  if this be arsenic, it will fall to
the bottom.
   2. Place the separated powder
on a red-hot iron ;  and,  if it eva-
porate  in  aL thick  white  vapour,
without melting,  there is reason
to conclude that it is arsenic....this
effect will take place with the for-
tieth part of a grain. 
ART
ART       123
  3. If this powder be mixed with
charcoal, and emit  an odour re-
sembling that of garlic, we may
also infer that it is arsenic.
  4. The most convincing test of
its nature,  is the following ^...In-
close the mixed powder with the
charcoal, between two small po-
lished plates of copper (or between
two perfectly smooth halfpenny-
pieces), the edges of which must
be cemented with a lute made of
two parts of fine sand, and one of
pipe-clay.  Fasten the plates with
a thin  wire, and expose the whole
to a red heat: thus the arsenical
powder  will be metallized ; and,
penetrating the copper, a blackish
skin will first appear upon it, which
being rubbed off, the parts touched
by the  arsenical vapour will acquire
a whitish or leaden colour.
   As this deleterious concrete fre-
quently  enters  metallic composi-
tions,  especially those of copper
and tin, it were much to be wish-
ed,  that such compound  metals
could for ever be banished, at least
from our kitchens....See Copper,
Lkad, Pewtkr, and Tin.
  ART, as defined by Lord Bacon
is a proper disposal  of natural ob-
jects, by  human thought and expe-
rience ; so as to answer the several
purposes  of mankind ; in  which
sense the word Art stands opposed
to Nature : it is also used  for a
system of rules, serving to facilitate
the performance of certain actions,
and is then opposed to Science, or
a system of theoretical principles.
   Arts are  generally divided into
useful  or mechanic, liberal or f elite.
The former consist  of those  in
which  manual labour has a great-
er share than intellectual exertion;
and by which we are provided with
the  necessaries  of  life;  whence
they are denominated  trades,  as
baking, brewing, carpentry, Sec....
The latter are such as depend on
the application of mental abilities,
and the active powers of a fertile
imagination.   Of this nature are,
poetry,  painting, music, and  the
like.
  The  progress of the  arts  and
sciences towards perfection, is also
greatly  promoted by emulation....
Mathematics, for instance, appear
to be on  the  decline in Europe ;
for, since  the  immortal Newton
has far  surpassed all the ancients,
there appears to be little hope for
the moderns,  either of excelling;,
or equalling,  his creative genius.
  In  countries thinly inhabited, it
is not uncommon to find one per-
son exercising several professions,
and  this  is  productive, in  some
degree, of good effects.  Various
operations being carried on by the
same individual,  his mind becomes
invigorated, because a combination
of talents  is  required to perform
the task ;  but,  when the mental
powers  are  restricted to a single
object,  all thought and invention
are excluded, and the operator is,
in a manner, converted into a dull
and inanimate machine.
  From the useful, naturally re-
sulted the cultivation of the liberal
arts.  Persons who enjoyed every
convenience from the former turn-
ed their attention towards the lat-
ter:  hence arose Sculpture, Sta-
tuary, Painting, Literary Compo-
sition, Sec.
  The  decline of the fine arts in
Rome, is  ascribed, by Petronii s
Arbiter  to a cause which, ulti-.
mately, proves the  destruction of
mankind,  wherever  it prev ils....
such  as opulence, with its  never-
failing concomitants,  avarice  and
luxury. Ithas therefore been jusMy
remarked, by i cute observers, that 
121        ART
ART
during the rise and progress of em-
pires, the military arts chiefly flou-
rish ; when arrived at their height,
the liberal arts ; and  when in a
declining state, the arte of luxury.
  The fine  arts are only relished
bv persons of taste, who can spare
large sums  for supporting them :
thus it  will be  found, that they
seldom, or never, nourish in coun-
tries where  they do not obtain the
liberal patronage of the sovereign,
or men in power.  On the other
hand, the useful arts are  always
encouraged in eery well regulated
State.   In short, the  unexampled
success of f.oth, in Great-Britain,
miy  be justly  attributed  to  the
sarrtion and  munificence which
men of tal-nts and genius (whe-
ther natives or foreigners), uni-
formly  experience from the Sove-
reign, as well as from the nobility,
almost without exception.  No na-
tion can boast of a greater number
of connoisseurs and patrons, in the
wealthy classes of society, than the
British.
   When the people are once rous-
ed  from  their indolence  and  le-
thargy,  by whatever  fortunate
event or change of circumstances,
the  progress  of the  arts is gene-
rally rapid.  Prosperity, contrast-
ed with former penury, creates in
the mind a  spring which is vigor-
ously exerted in new pursuits. The
Athenians, while under the tyranny
of Pisistratus, made but a mean
appearance;  but,  on  regaining
their indepedence,  were  convert-
ed into heroes.  This prosperity
produced its  usual  effects,  and
Athens became the chief theatre of
the arts and sciences,...The Corsi-
cans, when engaged  in a perilous
 war for the defence of their liber-
 ties, displayed a vigorous  national
 i-pirit: they founded  an universi-
ty, a  public library, and a public
bank....'!'he Royal Society of Lon-
don, and the Academy of Sciences
in Paris, were both ms.ituted after
civil wars, which had animated the
people, and excited their activity
and emulation.
  Democritus maintained, that
men are indebted for the  acquisi-
tion of their arts to brutes ; that
the spider taught them weaving}
the swallow, building; the  night-
ingale, music, and so forth.
   [ARTEMISIA DKACUNCU-
LUS,  Estragon, or Tarragon, Fr.
is frequently used in salads, espe-
cially by the French, to correct the
coldness  of  other  herbs.   The
leaves make  an  excellent pickle:
they  have a  fragrant smell, and
aromatic  taste.   The use of them
in Persia has ever been general,  at
meals, to create an appetite. The
famous  vinegar  of  Maille,   in
France, owes its superior flavour to
this plant, which has not yet been
found  in this country.  It is to  be
wished that some, of many Amer'N
cans who visit France, would bring
home this excellent plant, or,  at
least,  the seeds  of it with them.
There are several other species of
Artemisia.]
   Artemisia absinthium,  L.  See
Mugwort.
   ARTERY, or a pulsating blood-
vessel, is a cylindrical canal,  con-
veying the blood  immediately from
 the heart to  all  the parts of the
 body.  On examining the struc-
 ture  of the largest of these ves-
 sels, such  as the aorta, and the
 pulmonary artery,  it may be dis-
 tinctly seen,  that each is compos-
 ed of three coats ; namely,  1. The
 external coat, which is of a cellular
 texture,  loose on the outside, but
 growing progressively firmer  to-
 wards the inner  part; 2. A fibrous 
            ART

*pira1, or  rather  circular  mem-
brane, of a yellowish  colour, and
of which there  are several strata,
according to the size of the artery ;
3. The innermost coat, or  a thin,
extremely smooth and transparent
membrane, keeping the  blood  in
its  canal,  which otherwise, upon
the dilatation of an artery, would
easily separate the spiral  fibres
from each other.
   From the trunk of every artery
there arises branches ; from these
fcgain extend ramifications of blood-
Vessels, which become progressive-
ly  smaller, so that their distribu-
tion may be traced by  the micro-
scope, in more than twenty different
divisions, nay, to an almost infinite
number.  The arteries, however,
 do not, as has been  erroneously
 asserted   by  several  anatomical
 writers, become narrower, and as-
 sume a conic form in their continu-
 ed progress ; on the contrary, they
seem uniformly to remain cylindri-
cal, insomuch that, in their rami-
 fications, a smaller cylinder always
 arises  from  a  larger  one,  and
 where  the former proceeds from
 the later,  it generally presents a
 slight swelling  at  this vascular
joint, if this expression  be admis-
 sable.  The  aggregate   diameter
 of all the branches of one trunk is
 somewhat  larger than that of the
 trunk itself; an observation which
 also applies to the veins.
   On  account  of  their thicker
 membranes, the arteries possess a
 greater degree of elasticity  than
 the veins ; though the  latter are
 more capable of resisting the me-
 chanical force  of  the blood, and
 are less  liable to rupture.  It far-
 ther deserves to be remarked, that,
 with the  increase  of years, the
 coats of the arteries acquire firm-
 ness, while those of the veins be-
           A R T         125

come weaker. This, in some mea-
sure, accounts for the circumstance
that persons, between the age of
eighteen and thirty-five, are more
liable to phthisical and other com-
plaints, which  depend chiefly  on
an increased action of the arterial
system ; because, after that period,
the arteries already possess suffi-
cient vigour and firmness, to over-
come the additional impetus of the
circulation.   Hence, too, we may
comprehend why  sthenic or  in-
flammatory diseases seldom occur
at certain stages of life, when the
wholesystem possesses thatdegree
of re-action, which  is necessary to
maintain a due equilibrium between
the animal  and vital functions, as
well as to resist the occasional im-
pressions made on the  body,  by
sudden  vicissitudes of  heat  and
cold, moist and dry air, &c.
   All  the arteries derive their ori-
gin  from  the   ventricles  of  the
heart; namely, the pulmonary  ar-
tery, from the right, and the aorta
from the left;  of which two  the
rest are branches.  They terminate
in veins, exhaling vessels, or anas-
tomose with  one  another,  that is,
unite by inosculation. It is assert-
ed by physiologists, that the circu-
lation  of the blood, its heat, red
colour,  fluidity,  assimilation  of
food, 8cc. the conversion  of fixed
into volatile salts,  and  the per-
formance of the different secre-
tions,  such  as  bile, urine,  saliva,
Sec. all must be  attributed  to the
contractile  power  of the arteries
and the heart ....See Assimila-
tion,  Bilk, Blood, Chyle,  Sa-
liva; Urine, &c.
   It is farther  worthy of notice,
that an injury  received by a very
considerable vein, is not nearly ;o
dangerous as that of a small arte"-.',
especially in the  vicinity  of the 
126        A R T
ART
heart.....(See Bleeding,  or  He-
morrhage ;) and that single arteries
sometimes become  osified, or ac-
quire a cartilaginous and bony con-
sistence.  In the larger ones,  this
phenomenon rarely occurs : yet a
very remarkable instance of an os-
sification of the aorta  is recorded
by the celebrated Dr. ZnniER si a n,
the author of the classical treatises
" On  Solitude," and u On National
Pride," in his excellent work " On
Experience in Physic ;" which de-
serves to be  read and studied by
every medical and philosophical in-
quirer.  Such preternatural  pro-
duction of bone  is  attributed to
an  abundance of earthy  particles
which are, perhaps, generated by
a too liberal use of tart wines, veal,
potatoes, cheese, and all  food  that
is hard and  difficult  of digestion.
Fortunately,  however,  this  fatal
conversion  of membraneous sub-
stance takes place only  at an ad-
vanced  age ;  but then it  affords
little or no hope of prolonging the
patient's life....See Heart, Pulse,
Veins.
  Arthritis.  See Gout.
  ARTICHOKE, or the Cynara,
L. though an exotic, is a plant well
known.  There are  four  species,
but only two are reared for use,
viz. the scolymus, or  garden arti-
choke,  and  the cardunculus,  or
cardoon, both of which are propa-
gated by slips, or suckers, arising
in spring, from the roots of the old
plants.  The slips should be taken
from  good  plants in March, or the
beginning of April, and set in an
open quarter of the kitchen-garden,
in rows at the distance of five  feet
from each other.  By this process,
artichokes may be produced in the
autumn of the same year.  The
size of their fruit will gradually di-
minish, after the third or fourth
year,  though  the roots continue
sound  for several seasons.  The
cardoon, which  is a  hardy plant,
may be propagated by seeds sown
in March.  As   these  plants are"
very large, they  ought to be placed
at the distance of several feet from
each  other;  and thus crops of
spinach, endive, cabbage, or bro-
coli, may  be raised  between the
rows.   About the 28th September,
the cardoons generally  attain to a
considerable  size ; the  leaves of
each plant should then be tied, that
they may be  hoed, for the purpose
of blanching  ; which  will  require
six or  eight  weeks.  Thus the
plants will be fit for use in Novem-
ber or December, and continue the
whole winter.
  Artichokes flourish best in a rich
and moist soil; but if it be too
wet, the roots are apt to decay in
severe  frosts.   They  have  been
used with advantage in the making
of soda ;  and  the  leaves' of the
scolymus,  prepared with bismuth,
impart to wool a fine and perma-
nent gold colour.
  [Artichokes succeed very well in
this state, if left exposed in the
winter  months.   When covered
with straw  in  the autumn, they
rot.  The only precaution necessa-
ry to take, is to dig a ditch round
the plant,  to prevent  the  water
from injuring them.  For this very
useful information, the Editor is in-
debted to Mr. Legaux, qf Spring-
mill.   His artichokes were  eight
or  nine  inches  diameter.....The
seed was imported from Holland.]
  ARTICHOKE,  the  Jerusalem,
is a plant of the same genus as the
sun-flower.   It  produces bulbs at
its roots, has been long cultivated
in gardens, as an esculent vegeta-
ble, and, except that it  is watery
and of a softer consistence, in many 
            ART

respects resembles the potatoe, but
is  not in  such general  esteem.
This root, however, is much valued
for feeding  hogs  and  store-pigs.
Mr. Peters, the author of-' Win-
ter Riches," published in  the year
1772, asserts, that  from  one acre
of ground,  he  obtained  between
seventy and eighty   tons of  this
root.   He is of opinion, that seven
acres will yield three hundred and
ninety-six tons, which will  keep
one hundred swine for six months,
allowing each head fifty-six pounds
per day, at an advance of value
from ten to fifteen shillings, espe-
cially  if they be boiled with sweet
hog-wash.
   When these roots are  given  to
horses, they should be washed, cut,
and ground in an apple-mill; the
proportion  given at  each time  is
eight  pounds,  with  two ounces of
salt,  and  a bite  of hay, thrice
daily.
   Another  celebrated  cultivator
found  the produce of this root  to
be about four  hundred and eighty
bushels Winchester  measure, per
acre, without any dung.  Its chief
recommendations are, the certain-
ty of a crop ; its flourishing almost
upon any soil;  not requiring ma-
nure, and being proof against the
severest frosts.... The culture is the
same as that of potatoes.
   ARTICULATION,  in   lan-
guage, is  the  division of sounds
into distinct syllables ; and consists
in giving every letter its  due  pro-
portion of sound, so that the hearer
may perceive und determine their
number without difficulty ; while
he is enabled to ascertain the res-
pective letters iii every syllable.
   The late Mr. Thomas  Sheri-
dan,  however, has endeavoured.to
prove, in his -' Course of Lectures
*>n Elocution," published about the
           ART         127

year 1762, that the English  lan-
guage is by no means calculated to
answer  the  purpose  of reading
aloud  to  others.   This  strong-
headed grammarian maintains,that
as our written language has no vi-
sible marks of  articles, it is defec-
tive  in the most  important requi-
sites to a just delivery of speech.
  A just delivery, we are told, con-
sists in a  distinct articulation of
words pronounced in proper tones,
suitably varied  to the sense and
emotions of  the  mind ; with due
observation of accent; of emphasis,
in its several gradations ; of rests
or pauses of the voice, in  proper
places, and well measured degrees
of time ;  and the  whole accompa-
nied with  expressive  looks, and
significant gestures.  Of these es-
sential  characters, two only are at
all regarded in the art of writing;
namely,  articulate   sounds,  or
words, which are marked by letters;
and stops, or pauses of the voice,
which are denoted by little figures
or tittles.
  But with respect to the other ar-
ticles, of  tones, accent, emphasis,
and gestures, there are no  visible
marks to guide the reader ; these,
it must be allowed, are the sources
of all that is pleasurable or forcible
in delivery : and  contain in them
all the poweys  of impressing the
mind, captivating the fancy, reus-
ing the passions, and delighting the
ear : and it must also be admitted,
according to our  author, that the
articles most essential to a good
delivery,  have  been  entirely  ne-
glected in. the  graphic art.
  Of the numerous instances of
imperfect, or vitiated articulation,
according to Mr. Sheridan; there
is not one in a thousand which ari-
ses from any natural defect or im-
pediment. 
128        ART

  " To cure any imperfection  in
speech, arising originally from too
quick an utterance, the most effec-
tual  method will be (Mr. Sheri-
dan says),  to  set apart an hour
every morning, to be employed in
the practice of reading aloud, in a
very slow manner.  This should  be
done in the hearing of a friend, or
some person whose office it should
be to remind the reader, if at any
time he should perceive him mend-
ing his pace, and falling  into his
habit of quick  utterance. Let him
sound all his syllables full, and have
that point only in view, without re-
ference to the  sense of the words;
for, if he is attentive to that, he will
unwarily fall into his old habit:" on
which account, that he may not be
under any temptation of that sort,
Mr. Sheridan  would have  him,
for some time, read the words of a
vocabulary, in  the alphabetical or-
der.   In  this way, he will  soon
find out what letters and syllables
he is apt to sound too faintly, and
slur over.   Let him make a list of
those words, and be  sure to pro-
nounce them over distinctly, every
morning, before  he  proceeds  to
others. Let him accustom himself
also, when  alone,  to  speak  his
thoughts aloud, in the same slow
manner, and with the same view.
Otherwise, though  he  may get a
habit of reading more slowly,  he
will fall into his usual  manner in
discourse : and this habit of speak-
ing  aloudj  when  alone, will not
only bring  him to a more distinct
utterance, but  produce a facility of
expression, in which silent thinkers
are generally  defective.....See the
articles  Language,   Reading,
Speech.
 '  ARTIFICER is a person em-
ployed in manufacturing any kind
           AR'V

of goods or wares, such as those of
iron, brass, wool, &c
   By the English laws,  artificers
in wool, iron, steel, brass, or other
metal, leaving  the kingdom, and
departing to a foreign country, with-
out license, are liable to be impri-
soned for three months,' and fined
in a sum not exceeding one  hun^
died pounds.  Those who go abroad,
and do not return on receiving no-
tice  from  our Ambassadors, are
disabled from holding land by de-
scent or devise ; from receiving
any legacy, &c.  and are  deemed
aliens.  A penalty is also inflicted
on those who seduce artificers to
quit their native  soil.
   ARTIST is an appellation given
to a person skilled in some particu-
lar art, such as that of watch-mak-
ing, engraving,  Sec.
   Evelyn informs us, that a pri-
vilege is granted to artists at Vi-
cenza, similar to the benefit of cler-
gy in England ; by virtue of which
criminals adjudged to  death are
pardoned, if they can prove them-
selves the most excellent  andcou-^
summate workmen in any  art.
   Arlocarpus.  See Bread-tree.
   Arum.   See Wake Robin.
   Arundo.  See Reed.
   ARVENUSLY, or Pinus  Cent-
bra, L.  is a species of pine, which
is  principally  found  in  Siberia,
and on the Alpine mountains.  Its
branches resemble those of the
pitch-tree, which is commonly call-
ed spruce-fir.  The leaves are of a
striated  form,  about  three inches
in length, and the  fruit about the
size of a large hen's egs;, contain-
ing kernels covered with a brown
skin, which, when peeled, are  as
large as a common pea, white and
soft as  a blanched almond, and of
an agreeable taste. 
ASA                          ASA        129
   The arvenusly is applied to va-
rious purposes of useful and  do-
mestic economy. Its planks afford
excellent wainscoting, flooring, and
other materials for joiners ; are of
a fiDer grain, more beautifully  va-
riegated, and of a  more agreeable
smell, than deal.  The white wood'
has a very pleasant fragrance;  and
when made into shelves, is said to
possess the remarkable property of
keeping away moths and other in-
sects.  It also furnishes excellent
fuel for stoves, ovens  and kilns; but
is  dangerous when used in grates,
being liable to splinter, and throw
out sparks to a considerable  dis-
tance. From the resinous parts of
this tree, is distilled a fragrant oil,
resembling in taste and flavour that
of juniper, and possessing the same
properties.  An expressed  oil is
also obtained from the fruit, which,
on account of its balsamic nature,
has  been  recommended  in con-
sumptive cases; and the kernels are
employed, by the Swiss, as a sub-
 stitute for mushrooms, in ragouts,
 and sometimes form a part of their
 desserts.
   The  arvenusly is  of a  healthy
 and vigorous nature,  and will bear
 removing, when young, even in dry
 and warm  weather.   It  likewise
 grows in  great  abundance on the
 most mountainous and coldest parts
 of the Brianconnois, where  the na-
 tives call it alvicz.  It bears some
 resemblance to  the  Canada,  or
 Weymouth pine.
  This  tree is the  more valuable,
 as its timber is fit for the choicest
 furniture ;  and from its enormous
 height and size, when full  grown,
 it would make excellent masts—..
 As the culture  of this remarkable
 tree in no respect differs from the
 other species of the Pine, we refer
 to that article.
  We have here subjoined a branch
of the arvenusly, of a reduced size,
to distinguish it from other species
of the same genus.
  ASAFOETIDA, a  gum-resin,
so called on account of its offen-
sive smell.  It is obtained from the
Ferula asafoetida, L. an umbellife-
rous phu.t, growing wild in Persia;
the  root  c-f w inch, on cutting it,
exudes a milky juice : by evapora-
    VOL. I.
tion, it acquires the consistence of
wax, and a yellowish red colour..-
We have seen fine specimens of
this plant in the Botanical garden at
Edinburgh ; and there is no doubt
that it will bear the vicissitudes of
our climate, in the open air; rnd 
150        ASA
A S A
that it is strongly impregnated with
its peculiar juice.
  /although  this  nauseous  drug
possesses a bitter and acrid taste,
which is much  stronger, when
fresh, the Persians nevertheless use
it as a spice with their food; so that
our epicurean imitators do not de-
serve the credit of original choice.
   Beside its aperient and resolvent
properties, asafoetida is one of the
most valuable medicines in spas-
modic, flatulent, hysteric and hypo-
chondriacal complaints, especially
when they arise from obstructions
of the bowels.  But, as it is of a
heating nature, it increases the cir-
culation of the fluids, and ought
not, therefore, to be employed  ei-
ther in violent fevers, or in consti-
 tutions liable to hemorrhages. On
 the contrary, where  spasms and
 constipations have contributed to
 weaken the powers of nature, and
 the functions are  in a languid state,
 it generally affords effectual relief;
 as it promotes digestion ; enlivens
 the animal spirits; and, by increas-
 ing the peristaltic motion of the in-
 testines, tends to open them in per-
 sons of an  advanced age.  In the
 spasmodic, as well as in humoral
  asthma, unattended with fever, it
  is an excellent remedy; for,  in the
  former, it counteracts the strictures
  of the respiratory organs ; and, in
  the latter, greatly facilitates expec-
  toration.   The hooping-cough has
  been cured, and worms have fre-
  quently been expelled, by the con-
  joined administration of asafoetida,
  both by the mouth, and in the form
  of clyters.   When given with the
  last mentioned intention, it is very
  usefully combined with jalap ;  by
  the assistance of which, it possesses
  uncommon  powers over the tape-
  worm, especially in adults.   Thus,
  according  to C.  J. Mellin, an el-
derly lady was relieved of a formi-
dable tape-worm, together with a
considerable portion of coagulated
and  viscid matter,  resembling a
fishing.net,  after  making use  of
the following  pills :  Take asafoeti-
da, half an ounce, powder of jalap
two  drams ;   let them be  mixed
with any syrup, to a proper consist-
ence for making sixty pills: two of
these are to be taken  every morn-
ing and evening, at  first; but gra-
dually increased to four or five, ac-
cording to circumstances.
   ASARABACCA, in botany, the
Asarum Europaum, L.  A good
representation of it  is given in Dr.
 Woodville's Med. Bot. PI. 86....
 It produces large bell-shaped flow-
 ers of a dusky purple colour, and
 blossoms in the beginning of May.
   As a medicine, the  different pro-
 perties of this plant  render it an
 object of attention :   hence  Lin-
 n.&us proposed it as  a  substitute
 for ipecacuanha; and, according to
 Dr. Cull en, " the root, dried only
 so much as to be powdered, proves
 in a moderate dose a gentle eme-
 tic."  But as  the internal use of the
 asarabacca is precarious, the Lon-
 don  College  have  justly rejected
 the root, and  directed the leaves
 only to be employed as an errhine,
 or sneezing powder, with the addi-
 tion of one half of dried lavender-
 flowers.   Thus carefully prepared
 and snuffed in small doses  of a few
 grains, several successive evenings,
 Dr. Woodville says," it produces
 a pretty large watery  discharge,
 which sometimes continues several
 days  together; and by which, head-
 ach,  tooth-ach,  opthalmia or in-
 flammation of the eyes, as well as
 some paralytic and soporific com-
 plaints,  have been  effectually re-
 lieved." That such is the effect of
 this  powder, we have frequently 
A S C
A S C         131
observed from experience, though
there is  reason to doubt  whether
its action extends to palsy,  as  it
more particularly affects the salival
glands, which is obvious from the
copious spitting  it generally occa-
sions, after being  used for a few
evenings.
  In farriery, the powdered root of
this plant is given mixed with  bran,
to horses troubled with the farcy,
or leprosy, in doses  from one to
two ounces....as likewise for worms
in either horses  or sheep.
  Dyers may also usefully employ
the fresh leaves or roots of the asa-
rabacca, for producing first an ap-
ple-green, and by boiling them still
longer,  a light-brown colour, on
wool prepared with bismuth. These
experiments  are related by  Dam-
dourney,  whose  work  we  first
quoted, p.  19.
  [Several species grow in the U. S.
  ). A. Canadense, or, Canadian A.
  2. A.  Virginicum......or,  sweet
scented A. or colts-foot, wild gin-
ger.
  These plants delight in a moist
shady  situation, and  may be in-
creased by parting the roots in au-
tumn.  Too much wet will rot the
Canadian sort in  winter.  If the
second species be too much expos-
ed to the sun  in summer, it seldom
thrives well;  it should therefore be
planted in a  border where it may
have only the morning sun....The
juice of  the fresh  Laves, is  eme-
tic...The powder  of this plant I
have known  to answer very  good
effects in cases of giddiness, unat-
tended by too much  fullness.  It
was used as  a snulV.   It certainly
is an active plant, and deserves fur-
ther trials.]
  .luirum.   See Asaralacca.
  ASCARIDES,  in zoology, be-
long to the order of vermes, and are
divided into two species:  1. the
vermicularis,  distinguished  by  a
transverse mouth, and faint annular
rugs, or folds.   It is about a quar-
ter of an  inch  in length,  and is
found in boggy places: in the  roots
of decayed plants ;  and very fre-
quently in the rectum, or straight
gut of children and horses. 2. The
lumbricoides,  which  is  equal  in
length with the lumbricus terrestrin,
or common earth-worm, but wants
the protuberant ring  towards the
middle of the body,  which is its
only distinguishing mark. Its body
is cylindrical, subulated at each ex-
tremity ; but its tail is  somewhat
triangular. This is the worm which
is most commonly found in human
intestines, and its usual  seat is the
rectum.  The  symptoms are, an
uneasiness and intolerable itching
in the anus, which  generally take
place  in the evening, and some-
times  prevent sleep.  They are of-
ten attended with  so  considerable
a  degree  of heat, as to produce
both an external and internal swell-
ing  in that intestine;  which,  if
not quickly relieved, bring  on a
tenesmus, or a frequent  inclination
to go to stool,  accompanied with a
mucous dejection. There are also
frequent griping pains, in the low-
er part of the  abdomen, a  little
above  the os pubis ;  if these be
acute, they are succeeded  by  a
bloody mucous discharge, in which
these worms are often found  alive.
   Mucus, or slime, appears  to be
the proper nest of the  ascarides:
in this they live, are  nourished;
and preserved unhurt, though sur-
rounded w7ith  many  other  fluids,
the immediate  contact  of which,
would to  them  prove fatal.  Pur-
ges, by lessening this viscous mat-
ter never fail to relieve the patient;
for those worms, which arc no: 
132        A S C
ASH
expelled  by the increased vermi-
cular motion  of the intestines, for
want of a proper quantity, languish,
and at last die; as may be seen in
those which are taken out of their
mucus and exposed to the open
air. Such purges, therefore,  as act
briskly, and  can be conveniently
repeated, for instance, purging wa-
ters, and jalap, especially for chil-
dren, two grains of which may  be
mixed  with sugar, and taken dai-
ly, are the most effectuai.  When
the tenesmus,  or  mucous  stools,
are urgent and distressing, a clys-
ter of warm milk  and oil will  af-
ford immediate relief.   The most
useful  purge, is cinnabar and rhu-
barb, of  each half a dram,  which
when taken,  seldom fail to bring
away  a transparent mucous, con-
taining many of those worms alive.
Various  other  remedies have been
employed in the removal of this
troublesome  complaint, of  which
quicksilver, calomel, and powder of
tin, are  the principal.   The inha-
bitants of Jamaica are said  to use
the Gcoffraea-inermis,  or  cabbage
bark, with singular success.  Dr.
Duguid, a surgeon of that  island,
declares, that  it is the most safe,
and yet  most powerful, vermifuge
ever known, and that  it frequently
brings away  as many worms by
stools,  as would  fill  a  hat.   Fie
owns, however, that it sometimes
produces violent effects, but these
take place only, when  it is used in
the form of a strong decoction, in-
 stead  of small doses  of the pow-
 der.   Yet we cannot, on this  oc-
 casion,  omit  to warn  every affec-
 tionate  parent, against tampering
 with suchpowerful remedies as may
 prove destructive to their children;
 nor to trust to the impudent asser-
 tions of oaring advertisers  of vtr-
 viifi •g"ts.... See  Worms.
  [I have often used the Cabbage-
tree bark as a vermifuge, and with
success.  When made into a sy.up,
its effects are less violent, and chil-
dren take it more readily. To make
this, boil one ounce and a half of
the coarsely  powdered bark, in  a
quart of water, for half an hour ;
then add the sugar, or give two ta-
ble-spoonfulsevery morning, sweet-
ened.  In  powder, fifteen grains,
with  as much  jalap, is  a  good
purge.   But,  after all, repeated
experience has convinced me, that
no  remedy is so safe, so mild, or
so  certain, as calomel.   Procure
the  medicine from  an apothecary
of  character, give it  in the dose
suited to the age and constitution
of the child, and keep him warm
during the operation, avoiding cold
and sour drinks, for two or  three
days, and  no  danger  can ever at-
tend the use of the remedy.  Rhu-
barb, or jalap, may be mixed  with
the  calomel, to quicken its opera-
tion....A nausea, which sometimes
comes  on during the  operation,
may be  relieved by mint-water....
and an unnecessary purging  may
be  restrained by  two or  three
drops of laudanum.  Children, be-
tween  the ages of two  and four
years, in general, may  take  from
 one to three grains at  a dose, in
 syrup.]
   Ascites. See Dropsy.
   Asclepias. See Swallow-wort.
   ASH, or the Fraxinus, L. is a
 genus of which there are six spe-
 cies.  Of  these, the most  useful is
 the common  indigenous ash,  or
 Fraxinus excelsior. L. which is well
 known to  every  rural economist.
   A plantation of these trees, when
 properly managed, seldom fails to
 prove  of  great  advantage to the
 owner ; for the underwood, which
 is fit to be cut every eight or  tea 
            ASH

years, will produce a regular in-
come, more than adequate to de-
fray the rent of the ground, and
other charges ; besides which, the
trunk or stock preserved for tim-
ber, will  be worth  forty  or fifty
shillings and upwards, per tree. It
flourishes best in groves, but grows
well in the rich soil of open fields  :
it  also  bears  transplanting  and
lopping.   In the north of  Lanca-
shire, in  Fngland, they  lop the
tops of these  trees i'i autumn to
feed cattle,  when tbj grass is on
the decline.
   The ash-tree  delights in a rich,
light soil; it  attains  its  greatest
height and perfection when at an
age of from forty  to fifty years.
Although it also grows in wet and
loose grounds, yet,  when reared in
these, its wood  becomes less firm
and durable. It prospers remarka-
bly well on a white calcareous soil,
and is  also  frequently found in  a
thriving state   near  brooks  and
rivulets.
   Planting....The Society  for the
Encouragement of Arts, 8cc. at
London, considered the cultivation
of the ash of so  much importance,
that, in the year 1779, they gave
a  premium of twenty pounds, and
in 1780, their gold medal, to  Mr.
 Day,  of Friendsbury, near  Ro-
 chester, for an account of his suc-
 cessful method of rearing it. The
 whole is detailed in  the  first vo-
 lume of their  Transactions ;  and
 we shall only observe, that Mi'.Day
 is enabled to plant one thousand
 trees for two shillings: by his me-
 thod, fourteen acres,threequarters,
 and thirteen rod,  out  of sixteen
 acres, three quarters, and twenty-
 seven  rod, are planted at the dis-
 tance  of four feet,  by two.  To fill
 this extent of ground, there are
            ASH         133

required 80,682 plants : two acres
and fourteen rods are planted at a
distance  of two  feet, by  eight
inches,  which  takes  up  66,400
plants.   The reason  for planting
twice as thick  one  way  as  the
other,  is,  that  in such  manner
they are much easier to till.   He
has ascertained by experience that
there is an essential difference be-
tween  wild ash and  those which
are trained :  hence he advises  all
the crooked ones to be rejected and
particular attention to be paid in
getting  the ash-keys.  There  is
another  advantage attending his
plan, that potatoes may be planted
between the rows.
   The emulation excited by the
above  and similar premiums, pro-
duced such effects as might be ex-
pected to result from so extensive
and honourable a patronage.  In
the year 1790, the gold medal of
the Society was adjudged to Lewis
Majendie of Hedingham Castle,
Esq. and the silver medal to  H.
G. Fausset, of Heppington, near
Canterbury,  Esq. The first men-
tioned gentleman  planted on seven
acres  and twenty-one poles, of  a
principally loamy soil, the surpriz-
ing number of  nineteen thousand
trees, of four and five years old,
at intervals of four feet.  In a sub-
sequent paper, Mr.  M.  recom-
mends the soil to be completely
trenched, previous to planting....
Mr. Fausset   intermixed willow
with his ash, and planted them at
the distance of three feet and a half,
in the proportion  of three willows
to one ash :  so that,  on the decay
of the willows," the  ash plants  re-
main  seven feet  asunder.  The
following is a sketch of  his me-
thod :  the stars denote the ash*,
and the  dots the willow-plants- 
134        ASH
ASH
  The ash when young, requires
constant cultivation, for want of
which  it  will  be  stinted  in  its
growth, and often remain for twen-
ty years together without  making
any progress; it is brought forward
much sooner,  when sheltered  by
other plants.
  An improved method of plant-
ing  this tree,  for hurdles,  hoops,
laths, fencing, and what is termed
post and billet for collieries, is de-
scribed  by a correspondent in the
fifth volume of the Papers publish-
ed by the Bath Society.
 The leaves of the ash appear late
and  fall early : it is therefore un-
fit to be planted for protection or
ornament.  Its timber ranks next in
value to the oak ;  and it ought,
when sold, to be measured to a
much smaller  girth than either oak
or elm.
  The wood of ash possesses the
uncommon property of being  al-
most uniformly  good, whether of
young or  old  trees.  It is  hard,
tough, and much used in making
the  different implements of hus-
bandry, but particularly for hop-
poles.   Its ashes  afford very good
pot-ash ; and the bark is employed
in tanning calf-skins.   The  seeds
are acrid and bitter, and the leaves
have been  used  for the  adultera-
tion of tea.  Poor people formerly
derived considerable advantage by
collecting  them ; but we under-
stand this practice has  been prohi-
bited, as it tends to diminish the
revenue.  We may, however ven-
ture to say, that the leaves of the
ash  are as wholesome  as  those of
the tea-tree : the latter like most
other evergreens, is of a doubtful,
if not pernicious, quality, indepen-
dently of the circumstance, that
our teas  may also partake of the
fraudulent practice of the Chinese,
to  which most of their goods are
liable.
   In rural economy, it has been as-
serted, that the  leaves of the ash
impart a bad taste to milk; and  it
is therefore seldom suffered to grow
in   dairy  farms.   Those  leaves,
however,  are eaten  with avidity
by  horses,  sheep, and goats, for
which animals they are considered
as good fodder.
   The bark of the common ash  is
used in dyeing.  It  is placed for
some time in water,  with a  solu-
tion of vitriol, by which the water
acquires a black colour. The Mor-
lachians boil the bark for the space
of eight days, with the dross of
iron,  and,  when the  solution  has
grown cold, they use it for dyeing
black. With cold water,  the bark
makes a lixivium of a variegated
colour, which displays  azure  and
greenish shades ; but boiled water
is  not proper as it renders the dye
thick and  brown.   Warm  water
is  preferable, as  this produces a
blueish lixivium, which imparts a
fine blue colour  to yarn, particu-
larly if it has been previously dyed
yellow.  According to  Dam bour-
ney, the  fresh shavings of  ash,
give  to  wool, prepared with bis-
muth, the  true  and permanent
vigogne colour.
   [Several species of this highly
useful tree,  grow  in the United
States.
   1.  Fraxinus Americana Carolina,
or red ash; grows to  the height of
30   feet,  dividing  into  several
brandies, the small ones generally
opposite; leaves composed of three 
ASH
ASH         135
•r four pair of lobes, terminated by,
an odd one, of a light green colour,
egg shaped and pointed.  Their
under surface covered with white
downy hairs.
  2. Fraxinus alba, or white  ash ;
  3* Fraxinus nigra, or black ash ;
grows  in  moist places,  covered
with rough, light coloured bark,
and sending out but few branches.
  4. Fraxinus  Pennsylvania, or
Pennsylvania sharp-keyed ash.
  The ash is a large tree :  the 2d
and last species are much used by
wheelwrights and carriage makers,
for shafts,  rimmers, wheels, axles,
kc. not being  apt  to  split.   It is
excellent for tenons and mortises.
In England, the ash is felled from
November to  February :  if  it be
done either too early in Autumn or
too late in Spring, the timber will
be subjectto be infested with worms
and other insects.   Is there any
difference observed as to the durabi-
lity of the ash  when felled in dif-
ferent seasons, in the  U.  States ?
An answer is required.  The ash
is greatly  cultivated  in England,
being  easily  propagated.   Many
hundred acres have been  planted
by individuals, within  a few years
past.   The prickly  ash  is a tree
of a different genus. See Aralia
Spinosa.]
  ASHES, generally speaking, are
the remains of bodies reduced by
fire. These are vegetable,  animal,
and mineral ashes; but the  first
only  are strictly entitled  to  that
appellation. We understand,  that
the French haye recently contrived
a process  of converting the ashes,
or residuum of animal substances,
decomposed by burning them, into
glass, similar to that which is pro-
duced in  the  manufacture of this
article, when siliceous earth and
wood-ashes are the principal ingre-
dients. This curious conversion of
human bodies into  a  transparent
and most beautiful metal, is an in-
genious imitation  of the practice
frequently adopted among the an-
cients, with a view to preserve the
sacred remains of their revered an-
cestors, or of persons of great worth
and  merit.   But,  whether  such
expedients, if they ever should be-
come general, be compatible  with
the refined feelings of relations and
friends in other countries, we sub-
mit  to  the  determination  of our
sentimental  readers.   If we  may
be allowed to express  out- opinion
on   so  delicate  a  subject,  the
scheme may be  a very economi-
cal one, for saving the expenses of
an  ostentatious funeral;  and,  as
such we have mentioned it in this
work : but we doubt whether there
may be found many individuals in
this country, except  those   few
among the emigrees, who incline,
or deserve, to receive the honours
of combiu tion.
  Mineral bodies, when  reduced
by fire, are properly called Calxes,
of which we  shall treat under that
distinct head.
   There is a  great variety ofwood-
aAies prepared from different vege-
ables.  We have already described
the propei-tiesof Alkalies (p. 32,)
and  shall at present observe, that
vegetable ashes  contain a great
quantity of fixed salt, blended with
earthy particles;  and  that  from
these ashes are extracted the  fixed
alkaline   salts,  called  Pot-ash
Pearl-ash,  Barilla, S;c. of the
preparation,   and  properties  of
which we propose to  treat under
their respective heads. Confining,
therefore our account to  ashes, in
their unchanged  and  crude state, 
136        ASH
ASH
 we shall give the following descrip-
 tion of the different useful purposes
 to which they are subservient,  in
 domestic and rural economy.
   About half a  century ago, Dr.
 Francis Home, of  Edinburgh,
 who may be considered as the ear-
 liest benefactor of the Scottish cot-
 ton manufactories, justly observed
 in an ingenious  treatise, eutitied
 Experiments in Bleaching, that the
 proper application of alkaline leys,
 is one of the most important and
 critical articles in the  whole pro-
 cess of that art. This circumstance
 induced him to inquire,  after the
 mathematical method  of investi-
 gating truth, into the  nature and
 composition of the several sorts of
 ashes used for this purpose.  With
 due  deference to the talents of his
 genius, that has  apparently been
 misled on this early  occasion, we
 cannot but regret that Dr.  Home
 appears then to have  been  unac-
 quainted with  a strict  analytical
 and synthetical investigation of na-
 tural bodies ; a method which, we
 venture to say, might have enabled
 him to anticipate many of the sub-
 sequent discoveries,  made in che-
 mistry by the French, Swedish and
 British  philosophers of the anti-
 phlogistic school.  He is, however,
justly entitled to the praise and gra-
titude of his countrymen ; among
 whom he greatly contributed  to
 excite a  spirit of research into the
meful phenomena of natural bo-
dies  ; a  spirit which has already-
proved  highly beneficial to  the
community at large, and eminently
conducive to the  honour of that
celebrated University, in which he
is now the oldest professor.*
  * V/e believe he is near ;cinety years
of,~e.
   In the treatise now alluded  to,
 the  author originally proposed the
 use  of oil of'vitriol, instead  of the
 acids formerly  used for bleaching
 linen, such  as butter-milk, sour
 milk,  imXsions of bran,  or rye-
 meal, &c. kept for some days, till
 they acquire a proper degree of
 acidity.   He  proved  by  experi-
 ments, that the vitriolic acid is by
 no means injurious  to the cloth ;
 is less expensive, more expeditious,
 and  on all accounts equally, if not
 more, efficacious.
   Many and curious were the ex-
 periments which Dr Home then
 instituted, on the different ashes ;
 and  from the result of which he
 concluded, that pearl-ashes contain
 a pure alkaline salt, with a  small
 proportion of vitriolated tartar and
 absorbent earth. In  the composi-
 tion  of Russian and Swedish ashes
 he discovered a considerable quan-
 tity  of lime ;  a discovery  which
 amply  evinced  the  folly  of an
 Act  of the  British  Legislature,
 which prohibited the use of lime
 in bleaching.   For though  lime-
 water alone,  greatly contributes to
 whiten cloth, yet it is apt to render
 it  much weaker if not well washed
 out  before drying;  but  alkaline
 salts  added to  lime,  diminish its
fiower of weakening and corroding,
 in proportion  to the  quantity  of
 these salts added to the lime. This
 observation   suggested to  him a
 hint  of  supplying  the Muscovy
 ashes, at home, by  a preparation
 which experience proved to answer
 all the intended purposes of those
 ashes. After repeated trials of dif-
 ferent proportions,  the method of
 making this  profitable substitute,
 consists in adding one-fourthof pot-
 ash dissolved  in a  little water,  to'
 three quarts  of quenched  lime.
 Whether this  process has been 
            ASH

found generally successful, we have
not been able to ascertain.
  In  rural economy, ashes have,
since the days of Virgil, been con-
sidered as one of the best, and easi-
est, means of fertilizing land ; yet
many objections have been started
by modern writers,  against  their
use ;  probably  because  they were
indiscriminately employed for all
kinds of soil, whether moist or dry,
cold  or  warm, loose  or clayey.
Hence we need not be surprized that
agriculturists have differed in opi-
nion on this subject.  Without de-
taining the reader with speculations
concerning the manner in  which
ashes act on the soil, in promoting
its fertility,  we shall  briefly ob-
serve, on the authority of the best
writers,  supported by experience:
   1.  That vegetable ashes, in ge-
neral, are most effectual for manur-
ing moist, cold, boggy, marshy, or
uncultivated soils.
   ~.  That ashes are no less fit for
manure, after the salt is extracted
from them, than  before  ; and, if
there be any difference, it is in fa-
vour  of the washed ashes.
   An anonymous correspondent in
the  Gentl. Mag.  for Jumj,  1766,
appears  to have derived the first
 hint  respecting the advantages of
fuat-a^hes  in dressing land, and a
method of preparing coal-ashes for
the  same purpose, from  the Dic-
tionaire Kconomiquc, or the Family
 Dictionary, translanted  from the
 French by the late Prof. Bradley,
 of Cambridge, and  published in
 1725.  In this curious work, which
equally abounds with excellent and
 frivolous remarks, we find the fol-
 lowing passage : « Turf and peat-
 ashes must  needs be  very rich,
 much after the same  manner as
 burning of land." Perhaps it is in
 consequence of this suggestion, that
      V c.'L.  I,
            ASH        137

we find in the Magazine before al-
luded to, an account of too interest-
ing a nature to withhold it from
our reader^.
  Peat-ashes,  properly  burnt, af-
ford an  excellent manure for both
corn and grass-land; but the most
valuable are  those obtained from
the lowest stratum  of the peat,
where the fibres and roots of the
earth  are most decayed. This will
yield a large quantity of very strong
ashes, of a colour, when recently
burnt, resembling vermillion, and
of a very saline  and pungent taste.
Great care and  caution should be
used  in burning these  ashes, and
likewise in preserving them for fu-
ture use.  The method of burning
them is similar  to that of making
charcoal.   After the peat is col-
lected into a  large heap, and co-
vered,  so as  not to flame out,  it
must be suffered toconsume slowly,
till the  whole substance is reduced
to ashes.  Thus  burnt, they are
found excellent  in sweetening sour
meadow-land,  destroying  rushes,
and other bad kinds  of weeds, and
producing  in  their  place   great
quantities of excellent  grass.  In
some parts of Berkshire and Lan-
cashire, they are considered one of
the best dressings for spring crops.
   A  very great improvement may
likewise be made,and at amoderate
expense,  with  coA-a^hes, which,
when properly  preserved,  are a
most useful article for manure.  By
putting one bushel of lime, in its
hottest state, into every cart-load
of these ashes,  covering  it up in
the  middle of the heap for  about
twelve  hours, till the  lime be  en-
tirely fallen  ;  then  incorporating
them well together, and by turn-
ing the whole  over, two  or three
times,  the  cinders, or half-burnt
parts of the  coals,  which instead
      T 
138       ASH
ASP
of being useful, are noxious to the  lint-seed, hemp, millet,  and simi-
ground, will be reduced to  as fine  lar grain.  An acre of  wheat, or
a powder as the lime itself.  For  barley, requires however a  much
this  purpose,  however, the  coal-  greater proportion of  these ashes,
ashes should be carefully kept dry:  than one sown with rye,  or corn
and, thus prepared, they  are the  of an inferior quality.  They are
quickest breakers and improvers of farther employed  with  great  ad-
moorish and benty land.          vantage,  by  scattering them on
  Professor Bradley, in his die- meadows in theearly part of spring.
tionary before mentioned,  farther     [Leached ashes are much used,
observes, that soap-ashes are high- in some parts of the United States,
ly commended by Mr. Pratt, as as a manure.  Great quantities are
being, after the soap-boiler has ex-  annually taken fromthe city of Phi-
tracted them, eminently  fructify- ladelphia  to  Long island,  for the
ing; and that the ashes  of any  purpose. They cost here 40 cents
kind of vegetables are profitable  per one horse cart-load, and com-
for  enriching barren grounds, as  monly bring one  dollar 50 cents,
they promote the decomposition of  when delivered.  From a paper in
moss  and  rushes, in a very  great  the first volume of the New York
degree.   The best season for lay-  Agric. Soc.  Trans, by  Mons. E.
ing  them, either for corn, pasture,  L'Hommedieu,  it appears, that
or meadow, is said to be in the be-  ashes are found to succeed best on
ginning of winter,inorder that they  dry loamy lands, or  loam  mixed
may the more easily be dissolved  with sand.  It is  considered as the
by showers of rain.               cheapest manure  that can be pro-
   Having given this  view of the  cured.  Ten loads of this manure,
 subject, from the collective  expe-  on poor land, will produce ordina-
 rience of British writers, we shall  rily twenty-five  bushels of wheat,
 also communicate a few practical  which exceeds, by five dollars, the
 facts, derived from authentic Ger-  expense of the manure ; and the
 man authors.                     five dollars pays for the  expense of
   According to  their experience,  labour in raising the crop.  The
pot-ash is most usefully employed  land is then left in a state for yield-
 for  correcting a sandy and loamy  ing a  crop of hay of between two
 soil; the ashes obtained from the  and a  half  tons  per acre, which
 hardest woods, being the most be-  it will continue  to do  for a great
 neficial,  and among these,  the  number  of  years.   No  manure
 beech and  oak are generally  pre-  continues so long in the ground as
 ferred.  A small addition of quick-  ashes.]....See also Coals.
 lime to the pot-ash, tends conside-    ASPARAGUS, also called Spa-
 rably  to  increase its  fertilizing ragus, Sperage,  or Sparrow-grass,
 .property.                         is an esculent plant, which isrear-
   The refuse of soap-boiler's ashes, ed with great attention, and much
 js likewise used  in Germany,  with esteemed on account of its delicate
 the best  effect,  when sprinkled, flavour.  There  are ten  species,
 soon after sowing, either in  spring but one only is  cultivated  for the
 or  in autumn, as closely as possi- table, viz. the common asparagus,
 ble,  over  fields of  wheat,  rye, which  has  an  erect  herbaceous
 spelt, lentils, j)ease, beans, barley, stalk, and bristly leaves; the other 
ASP
ASr*        139
species are sometimes kept in the
gardens of the  curious, but more
for the sake of variety, than on ac-
count of their utility.
  This useful plant is best propa-
gated from the  seeds, and its suc-
cessful culture almost entirely de-
pends on the proper quality of such
seed.  Hence, some  of the m6st
promising buds should be marked
with  a  stick, and when  the  seed
begins to  ripen, and the stalks to
wither, they ought to  be cut; and,
the berries being  rubbed  off into a
tub or other vessel, water should
be poured upon them. After they
have been stirred, the seeds  will
subside, and the floating  husks
may be poured off with the water.
The seeds must then be spread to
dry,  and thinly sown, in the be-
ginning of February,  on a bed of
rich earth. They should be trod in-
to the ground, and the earth raked
over them.....During  summer, the
bed  should be kept clean  of weeds,
and  about October, when the stalks
appear withered,  a small  quantity
of rotten  dung should be spread
over the bed, about half an inch in
thickness.  In the following spring,
the plants will be in a proper state
for transplanting; when the ground
should  be  prepared  for  them, by
trenching it, and disposing a large
quantity of rotten dung in the
trenches,  so that it  may lie at
least six inches below the surface;
after which, the  whole plot must
be levelled, and all the loose stones
carefully picked  out.  The  most
eligible situation for such hot-beds,
is a  south-western aspect, shelter-
ed  from the north ;  and the soil
should  be neither too moist, nor
too  firm,  or hard.  If the season
be  forward,  and the  soil dry, the
asparagus  should be  transplanted
In the beginning of March :  but,
in a wet  soil,  it is preferable  to
wait till the beginning of April, at
which  time the  plants begin  to
shoot.   The roots should, at this
season, be  carefully raised with  a
narrow-pronged dung-fork, shaking
from them the  adhering earth, se-
parating them from eachother,and
laying  their  heads even,  for the
greater convenience in  planting
them ;  which should be pei formed
in the following manner: Lines
are drawn across the bed, at a dis-
tance of one foot from each other,
after which they must be' dug  in
the form of small trenches of six
inches in  depth, into  which the
roots must be laid, with their buds
upwards,  so that, when the earth
is raked over them, they may  be
two inches under the surface.   A
space of two feet and a half should
be  left between every four rows,
for the purpose of affording room
to cut the stalks.  In October, the
shoots  of the asparagus should  be
cutwithin twoinches of the ground;
but, with respect to this process,
the  following  circumstance   de-
serves  attention : as often as a stalk
is cut,  a new one springs up, and
every plant running to seed depo-
sits a new bud  or eye, as it is call-
ed  by  gardeners,  beside the new1
shoots, which sprout the following
spring.  Hence, the cutting ought
not to be too  long continued,  as
this practice  would prevent  the
new shoots from sprouting, and de-
prive those which are in bud, from
acquiring sufficient strength.
   [In Pennsylvania and N. Jersey,
the cutting must not be continued
longer than the first of June.
   Young asparagus, fit for table,
may be cut the  second spring after
planting; but,  as  this vegetable
is with many a desideratum,  the
following directioss, properly at- 
140       ASP
ASP
tended to, will enable them'to pro-
duce it at any time during the win-
ter : Take some good roots of one
year's growth, and plant them in a
rich, moist soil, about eight inches
asunder; the  second  and  third
years after planting, they  will be
fit for removal  to a hot-bed, which
should be made rather of heating
materials, especially tanner's waste
and  horse-dung, about  three  leet
thick, and covered with a stratum
of earth,  six  inches hii>h.  The
plants should then be laid  against
a ridge made  at one end, without
trimming or cutting the  fibres;
between  every  row, make a small
ridge of  fine earth, and  thus pro-
ceed  until  the  whole is planted ;
next, let the bed be covered to the
thickness of about two inches with
earth, and encompassed with  a
straw-band.   About  a week after,
the whole should be sheltered un-
der frames and  glasses, and three
inches of additional earth  laid on
the beds  ; the  proper season for
constructing  which, is  from No-
vember  to March.
  Dr. Darwin advises the loosen-
ing,  or  turning over the earth,
around and above the roots of this
plant  annually,  for the purpose of
admitting air into its* cells or cavi-
ties, to convert  a part of the ma-
nure, or carbonaceous  soil,  with
which they have been supplied, in-
to ammonia, or into carbonic  acid,
and  thus  to   afford them  both
warmth and nutriment.
  The roots of this plant have  a
slightly bitter, mucilaginous taste,
rather inclining to sweetness; the
fruit is nearly of a similar flavour;
but the young shoots are the most
agreeal le to the palate.
  In the 13th vol. of the " Reper-
tory of Arts," &c. a new method of
rendering asparagus more produc-
tive,  is  communicated  by Mr.
Richard Weston ; whoobserves,
that the male plants yield a great-
er number of shoots than  the  fe-
male ones ; though the former are
of  an inferior  size.  He conse-
quently advises males onw to be se-
lected for  the formation of beds ;
and,  to  prevent  mistakes,  they
should not be planted from the seed-
bed, till they have flowered.  After
having grown 12 months, Mr. W.
directs them  to be  removed into
beds,  at the distance of six inches
from each other, where they ought
to remain  another year, in which
they generally flower; a small stick
must then be driven intothe ground,
contiguous to each   of the male
plants, in order to separate them
from  the  females,  the  latter of
which are then to be pulled.
   Towards the end of July, especi-
ally if thewe&therbe wet, the stalks
of  the asparagus should be  cut
down, the beds be forked up, and
raked smooth.  In case the season
be dry, Mr. Weston irrigates the
beds with the draining of a dung-
hill; leaving them somewhat hollow
in the center forthe better retention
of the water or rain.   In the course
of  12  or 14 days, the asparagus
begins to appear ; and, if the wea-
ther  be  very dry,  the  watering
ought to be repeated  once or twice,
every week.   By such method, he
observes, a constant  supply of this
vegetable may be obtained, till the
month of  September, when hot-
beds  will become necessary ;  so
that by making  five  or  six of the
latter,  during the winter, a regu-
lar succession may  be procured,
throughout the year.
   [Mr. J. Cooper of New-Jersey,
who raises the  finest  asparagus
brought  to Philadeliphia market,
sows his  seeds in drills; the beds 
ASP
ASP        141
are so far distant from each other,
that the centre may be reached by
a workman standing in the alley
between  them.   He permits  the
plants to stand in the beds two years,
and then places  them in trenches
ten inches deep, and three feet
apart  : the plants are one foot from
each other.Thefirst yearthe trench
is only half filled with loose  rich
earth, the second year, it is filled
up and covered with  manure.  Mr.
Cooper's soil is  sandy. According
to the same gentleman, this vege-
table  will continue for ten  years ;
it will then gradually decline in
flavour, but the  plants will  remain
for twenty years, and overgrow all
the ground.]
   Asparagus is allowed to promote
the appetite ; and  affords  a  deli-
cious article of nourishment to the
invalid and valetudinarian, who is
not troubled with flatulency.
  As a substitute for asparagus, the
young buds of hops have been re-
commended, as they may be more
easily procured, and are both great-
ful  and wholesome.
  Aspen-Trek. See Poplar.
  Asperugo. SeeBugloss,Catch-
weed, and Madwort.
  Asperula. See  Wood roof.
  ASPHODEL,or King's Spear,
the Asphodelus,  L.  is  an  exotic
plant, of which there are five spe-
cies ;  namely, four growing  wild in
the southern parts of Europe, and
one only, the Narthecium ossifra-
giint, orEancashire Asphodel, a na-
tive of Britain.   It thrives in turfy
marshes, and flowers in July  and
August.   See  Witherikg's Ar-
rangement,339,andEngl.Bol.t.535.
  The best method of propagating
this ornament to a  garden, is, by
dividing  the roots in August, be-
fore they shoot their fresh  green
leaves ;  they may likewise be rais-
 ed from seeds sown in August; and
 at the same time in the succeeding
 year,  the plants  produced  from
 these  may  be  trasplanted  into
 beds,  where they  will blossom in
 the second year. They should not
 be planted in small borders, among
 tender  f owe is, as they require
 considerable nourishment.
   The Lancashire Asphodel is sup-
 posed to be  very noxious to sheep;
 for, when necessitated to feed on
 it, from  a poverty of pasture, they
 will indeed improve in flesh at first,
 yet they afterwards die with symp-
 toms of  a diseased liver.  Horned
 cattle, however, eat it without any
 bad effect.
   There are wonderful  tales re-
 lated of this plant by Pauli, Bar-
 THOLiNi, and others : who call it
 Gramen osrifragum, from its sup-
 posed property  of changing  the
 bones of such animals as swallow
 it, into cartilage ;  and  thus produ-
 cing that singular disease in cattle,
 which in the  human frame is, by
 nosologists, termed mollilies ossium,
 or softness of the bones.
   For the various purposes of eco-
 nomy,  however, we  recommend
 the culture  of two species of this
 plant ; namely,
   1. The Asphodelus luteus, L. or
 the common  Yellow  Asphodel,
 which  according  to  Lemery ;nd
 Vicat, produces an esculent root,
 abounding in farinaceous  particles
 easily extracted  in boiling water :
 thismealydecoction,pnssedthrough
 a sieve, mixed with barley or rye-
 flour,   and then  baked, affords a
 palatable  and  most  nourishing
 bread.  Its stalks also, though na-
 turally acid, may be deprived of
that property by  boiling, and con-
 verted  to a similar use.  Another
writer on economy,  Prof. Beck-
mann, of Gottingen, informs us 
142        ASS
ASS
 that though  this plant is a native
 of Sicily, it prospers, and abund-
 antly propagates, in the open air of
 Germany.  Its roots, by which it
 is produced, consist of long yellow
 knobs,  so disposed  that they all
 adhere to a larger one,  serving as
 the basis of the whole. They are
 pulpy, mucilaginous, and balsamic;
 and a species of bread may like-
 wise be prepared from their seeds.
 ....Sestini also remarks, in con-
 firmation of the preceding facts,
 that the shoe-makers of Italy make
 of this root an excellent paste, for
 cementing the inner soles; and that
 it is preferable  to the usual paste
 of those artisans,  who  consume
 considerable quantities of wheaten
 and other flour.
   2. The Asphodelus  ramosus, L.
or Branching Asphodel, wilh naked
 stalks  three feet high,  and ensi-
form, cuneated, smooth leaves.  It
 is a native of Germany, in many
 parts of which it grows in common
 meadows: its flowers are white,
 and of a stellated form. The pulpy
 root of  this species was eaten by
 the ancients,  wilh the addition of
oil and salt; while its stalks, roast-
 ed under hot wood-ashes, afforded
them, according to Bechstein, a
 most  delicious repast.
  Asplenium  trichomanoides.  See
 Maiden-Hair.
  Asplenium  scolopendrium.   See
 Hart's-Tongue.
   ASS, by naturalists,  is classed
 as a species of horse, or  Equus.
   The tame or  domestic Ass, is
 an animal remarkable for his meek-
 r ess, patience, and tranquillity. He
 submits  with  firmness to  chas-
 tisement, is temperate in his food,
 and contents himself  with the dis-
 agreeable herbage which other ani-
 mals  disdain to eat ;  but is more
delicate with regard to  his drink,
never using water, unless  it be
perfectly  pure.   This animal is'
esteemed for his attachment; and,
though generally  used with  seve-
rity, and harshness, nay, often with
cruelty, he  is fond of  his master,
has  a scent of him at a distance,
and  easily distinguishes him  from
other persons.  Of all animals, the'
ass, perhaps, is capable of support-
ing the heaviest burthen,in propor-
tion  to his size: and, on account of
his slow and regular pace, is parti-
cularly useful in  journeying over
uneven grounds, and mountainous
countries.
   The finest breed  of asses was
formerly met with in  Egypt, but,
at present, those reared in Spain
are preferable.  In  the latter coun-
try,  as well as m Italy, the inha-
bitants eat the  flesh of asses with
avidity.  Their milk is of so thin
a consistence, that it neither affords*
butter nor cheese, but is extremely
agreeable to the tender stomachs
of consumptive persons, and  very
wholesome  for young  children,
when drank while  warm from the
animal ; but it should be taken  at
least three  or  four times  a day,
half  a pint at each time, and  con-
tinued for several weeksor months,
if any real benefit be expected from
this simple  diet.
   The manner of preparing artifi-
cial asses' milk, not  inferior in its
properties to  the  natural, is  as
follows; Take  of eryngo-root,  or
sea-holly,  and  pearl barley,  each
half  an ounce, liquorice-root three
ounces, water two pounds,  or one
quart; boil  it down over a gentle
fire to one pint, then strain it, and
add an equal quantity of new cow's
milk.
   ASSEMBLY, in general, signi-
fies a meeting of several persons in
the same place, and for a common 
            AST

purpose.  Without entering into a
history of the assemblies that were
customary among the ancients, or
those held by the moderns, for de-
liberating upon political, ecclesias-
tical, or civil  affairs, we shall, in
this  place, only observe, that  all
public meetings,  when  conducted
with a spirit of order and decorum,
are highly conducive to polish the
manners of a people.   This good
effect is obvious  from  assemblies
instituted in provincial  towns, for
the purpose either of amusement
or instruction, by which the man-
ners of young persons, in particu-
lar, acquire a  certain  grace  and
dignity,  seldom  to be met with
among those who spend their lives
in small country  towns, or solitary
mansions.
   But, on  the other hand, it can-
not be denied, that the  frequent vi-
«iting of assemblies, theatres, &c.
where a great number of persons,
perhaps, afflicted with various chro-
nic diseases, breathe and vitiate a
common atmosphere, must be at-
tended with pernicious effects, even
to the most healthy....See Balls
 and Masquerades.
   ASSIMILATION,  in animal
 economy, is that hidden  natural
process by which living beings are
enabled to convert such  bodies as
have a certain affinity to them, or
at least after having undergone some
 preparation and  change  of their
 properties,  into  their  own sub-
 stance and nature.  Hence every
 culinary process  is conducted on
 chemical principles analogous to
 those on which the digestion of food
 appears to  depend in the human
 stomach....See Chyle, Digesti-
 on,  Nutrition,  Saliva.
   Assurance.  See Insurance.
   ASTHMA, is a spasmodic dis-
ease of the organs of  respiration,
            AST        14$

attended with  cough, difficulty of
breathing, wheezing,  &c.
  There are two distinct species of
this disorder,  each of which  re-
quires a different treatment:  1.
When it is attended  with an  ac-
cumulation and discharge of hu-
mours from the  lungs, in which
case it is called humid asthma ; and
2. When the patient is not troubled
with coughing, or at  least has no
expectoration, which is termed dry
asthma.  Yet these complaints sel-
dom affect persons in early life,
and then chiefly the male  sex.
  Asthma, in general, is  distin-
guished  by paroxysms, preceded
by a sense of tightness in the  chest,
and in general, occurs during the
night. The patient cannot lie in an
horizontal posture, without danger
of suffocation  ; and, when seized,
is immediately obliged to sit up-
right.   After  continuing for seve-
ral hours in this state, he becomes
easier ; his breathing is less diffi-
cult  and oppressed, the cough not
so frequent, and  an expectoration
of mucus  taking place,  the  pa-
roxysm abatesuntil the next night;
but the  symptoms continue in  a
greater or less degree during the
day,  according  to the particular
state of the atmosphere, and other
circumstances.   The  attack  is
sometimes  induced  by  external
heat, at others by cold ; but,  in
either case, their sudden accession
will   sufficiently  distinguish  the
asthma from  symptomatic  short-
ness of breath. There is a greater
probability of curing it in youth,
than at an advanced age.  But, in
the former case, it is often succeed-
ed by  a  confirmed  pulmonary
consumption  ; and,   after a long
continuation, generally terminates,
either in dropsy  of the breast, or
an aneurism of  the  heart or ar- 
144        AST
AST
terial system.  A tremulous respi-
ration,  paralysms  of  the arms,
and a  diminution of the  urinary
secretion, are unfavourable symp-
toms.
   This is one of the chronic dis-
eases, which may continue  for a
considerable number of years. Sir
John Floyer, when he published
his celebrated treatise on this sub-
ject, had suffered  under repeated
paroxysms for almost thirty years.
The_ usual  treatment is,  to bleed,
during a fit, unless extreme weak-
ness or old  age should forbid the
use of the lancet; to inject a purg-
ing clyster, containing a solution of
asafcedita;  and, if the violence of
the  symptoms  do  not  speedily
abate, to apply a blistering plaster
to the neck or  breast.  Previously
to a fit, emetics have been found
useful,especially when the stomach
was loaded with crudities.  In the
intervals, lac ammoniacum,  vinegar
of squills, asafcedita pills, and other
stimulating and deobstruent medi-
cines, are usefully employed. Sir
John declares, that  a strong infu-
sion of roasted coffee is the best
remedy  he  ever  experienced, to
abate the paroxysms.  The coffee
must be of the best Moco, newly
burnt, and made very strong, im-
mediately after grinding.  He or-
ders an ounce to one dish, which is
to be repeated after the short in-
terval of a quarter or half an hour,
and taken  without  milk or sugar.
XBy  the use of this remedy, he
lived many years  tolerably easy,
under his asthmaticcomplaint. Dr.
Percival also asserts, that he has
employed  it with great success.
   In a violent paroxysm of asthma,
from the effects of which  there is
imminent danger of suffocation,the
administration of an emeticis some-
times advisable, as vomiting tends
to produce immediate relief.  This
remedy,  however, can only be re-
sorted  to with safety,  under the
following circumstances :  1.  That
there be no symptoms of inflam-
mation discoverable ; 2.. That the
humid matter in  the pectoral or-
gans be loose, and ready for expec-
toration ; which may be ascertain-
ed by a free rattling of the throat:
3. When respiration itself is not
extremely impeded : and 4. When
the patient's strength   is not too
much exhausted.
   On these  conditions, an emetic
may prove the only means of saving
his life ;  though  it may also  acce-
lerate  the fatal catastrophe,  espe-
cially if the breast be clogged with
matter, and the patient possess not
vigour and breath sufficient to sup-
port the  operation of an emetic...
Hence a judicious practitioner will,
in such cases,  not  hesitate to di-
rect a bribk  dose, in  order  most
speedily  to produce the desired ef-
fect, and to  save the  constitution
from being unnecessarily exhaust-
ed.   But  this  illustration   also
evinces  the  importance of  every
step in the practice of physic  ; and
that- neither officious friends, nor
mercenary   pretenders,  are the
most proper persons, whose ser-
vices can be useful on  such  or  si-
milar occasions.   We, therefore,
think it  our duty to   corroborate
this proposition still farther, by ex-
hibiting  a concise view  of  those
causes, from which that formidable
disease may arise in different indi-
viduals.   The principal  of  these
are as follows :
   I. Collections  or congestions of
blood  in the  lungs;  from  which
there may not only arise the dry
asthma,  but likewise the Suffoca-
tive Catarrh, which is, strictly,
an acute disease, occasioned by  an 
AST
AST        14?
extravasation or effusion of blood
into the cellular  substance of the
lungs, and of which we propose to
treat in its proper place.
  2. Spasms  in  hypochondriacal
and hysteric persons; which often
lay  the foundation of a dry, con-
vulsive asthma.
  3. Worms  in the first passages.
  4. Stones in the gall  bladder;
aneurisms; polypi, or concretions
of grumous blood in the large ves-
sels.
  5. Asthma  may likewise be  a
symptom  of dropsy of the chest.
  6. Scrophulous, rheumatic, gouty,
psoric, and scorbutic acrimony.....
all may occasion the asthma, either
in  the lungs themselves, or by
consent of parts.
  7. Noxious vapours arising from
the decomposition of lead, or arse-
nic; which generally cause a con-
vulsive asthma.
  8. The introduction of dust into
the lungs, to  which millers, ma-
sons, hatters, Sec. are subject.
  9. Tubercles in the lungs, from
which arises the dry asthma.
  10. The abuse  of ardent spirits.
  11. A weak digestion, attended
with great flatulency.
  12. Every thing that oppresses
the vessels, such  as an expansion
of the uterus, obesity or preterna-
tural  fatness,  aneurisms,  fleshy
and other tumors in the chest, a
distended  abdomen by dropsy, ob-
stipations, &c.
  1.3. General debility,  by which
respiration is frequently rendered
difficult, without any other particu-
lar  cause.  This  affection may be
ascertained from the circumstance,
when  the  patient ascends a num-
ber of steps with greater facility
than he is able to descend, because
the  latter requires a greater degree
ef muscular effort than the former.
    VOL.  I.
   What a variety of causes do wc
here behold.....many others being
reserved, as  too abstruse for non-
professional readers; and who will
be bold enough to  pretend, that he
has  discovered a  specific for the
cure of asthma?
   Beside  the  remedies already
pointed out, as proper for the ge-
neral  treatment,  we  shall  here
briefly observe, that in the  perio-
dical  asthma, infusions  of  bitter
herbs, such  as wormwood,  lesser
centaury, the blessed  thistle, as
well as  gum ammoniac, vinegar
and honey, acids in any form, nay,
mixed with proportionate quanti-
ties of laudanum,  have been used
with the  best success.  The exer-
cise of riding on horseback is in-
dispensably  necessary.  Changes
of weather are very sensibly felt
by asthmatic persons, who,  in ge-
neral, cannot live with any comfort
in the atmosphere of large  cities,
though some are to be found, who
feel  themselves  better in  an air
replete with gross  effluvia;  and
breathe  with greater ease,  in  a
crowded  room, where there is  a
fire and candles.   A principal ad-
vantage,  however, -will be derived
in this obstinate disorder, from a
light and frugal diet-, consisting of
such animal  food only as may be
easily digested, and at the  same
time, avoiding all flatulent and heat-
ing substances, as  well as liquors;
for instance,  wine, milk, turnips,
cabbages,&c. not exposing the body
to the  influence of hot air, strong
smells, offensive vapours, and the
like.   As  a  most excellent diet
drink,  we  can, from experience,
recommend the use of toast and
water, in which a few grains of
nitre, or sal ammoniac, might be
dissolved ;  or with the addition of
a little pure vinegar.  And,  if anv
  U 
146        AST
AST
alterative medicine should become
necessary, after the proper evacua-
tions, by either bleeding and blis-
tering  between the  shoulders, or,
according  to circumstances, by
gentle  laxatives, and  nauseating
doses of ipecacuanha (See Appe-
tite), we have found  the follow-
ing  mixture frequently of great
advantage. Take oxymel of squills,
and  cinnamon water,  two  ounces
of each,  and pure spring water
four ounces; two table-spoonfuls,
each  dose, every three  or four
hours.
  Astragalus. See Milk Vetch.
  ASTRINGENTS are those me-
dicinal substances which act upon
the simple  elementary fibres,  by
contracting them, and  increasing
the force of cohesion,  so as to re-
lieve that degree of bodily debility,
which  depends  on their deficient
powers of contraction.   This want
of cohesion, being supposed to arise
either from an aqueous consistence,
or a deficiency of animal jelly, in
the interstices of the fibres, it ap-
pears  to  follow, that  substances
affording much nourishment, and
containing  matter for the supply
and condensation of that medium
between the solids and fluids, in the
greatest proportion, are  likewise
the most effectual astringents. In-
deed,  daily experience, speaks in
favour  of  this  apparently well
founded conjecture. But as man-
kind seem, from the earliest ages,
to have been dissatisfied with those
simple and congenial substances,
which beneficent Nature  granted
them, even in  the most inhospita-
ble regions; they have, by gradual
 steps, forsaken her path, and re-
sorted  to  artificial means, which
chance or credulity induced them
to procure from distant climates.
 Thus strangely has man,  in all
civilized countries, suffered himself
to be  misled by prejudice; and*
instead of investigating the true
nature and uses of things at home,
he went in quest of foreign auxi-
liaries,  and  frequently sacrificed
the very  life  he was anxious to
preserve.
  In order to ascertain, with pre-
cision, when  astringent remedies
may be employed with safety and
advantage, we  shall  reduce  the
subject to distinct propositions.
   I. The  cases  in which it  will
become necessary to have recourse
to astringents are:
   1. A general and local debility,,
or relaxation  of the fibres: the for-
mer is relieved by the internal and
external use of tonics ; but the lat-
ter chiefly by local applications,
such as cold fomentations.
   2. In a  preternatural,  and par-
ticularly a putrid disposition of the
fluids.
   3. In injuries of the vessels.
   On the contrary.
   II. The following circumstances
and conditions prohibit the use of
astringents :
   1. A  general  rigidity of  the
frame, and  tension  of the solid
parts.
   2. Unusual heat  of  the body,
unless it  proceed from a general
or partial debility,  or a dissolution
of the fluids.
   3.  Salutary  and   critical  dis-
charges,  which  take place by  a
 spontaneous effort of nature.
   4. The existence  of some mor-
bid matter in the body, the eva-
 cuation  of which  might thus be
 checked and  prevented....Hence  it
 is  attended  with  peculiar disad-
 vantage and danger, to apply such
 remedies externally,  as for in-
 stance,  cold baths in rheumatic,
 gouty, erysipelatous and other af- 
AST
AST        147
fections, in which there is  a na-
tural disposition for expelling the
morbific matter (or at least its re-
siduum) by the pores of the skin.
Thus the eating of astringent food
would  be  pernicious, if the first
passages be obstructed, or the per-
son liable to habitual  costiveness;
though this rule is not without its
exceptions,  especially in putrid,
bilious  fevers,  where  astringents
must frequently be combined with
purgatives,  to answer both inten-
tions, and to support the sinking
powers, without the  loss of that
time,  which complete evacuation
would necessarily require.
   In  order  to  enumerate  those
astringent remedies which, partly
by our own experience, and partly
by that of others, have been found
the most efficacious, either exter-
nally or internally,  we shall  here
alphabetically arrange them, and
treat of their individual properties
and effects, under their respective
heads, viz.  Alum; Bark; the An-
gustura,  Horse  Chesnut, Peruvian
and White Willow; Bile of Animals;
Buck-bean,  or Marsh Trefoil; Cen-
taury  the Lesser; Avens-root; Gen-
tian; Water-Hemlock; Iron; Milfoil;
Mineral Acids and  Waters; Oak;
Pichurim-beans; and simple Water.
  ASTROLOGY, a   conjectural
science,  the  professors of which
pretend to judge of the effects and
influence of the planets; and to
foretel future events, by the situa-
tion and different aspects of the
heavenly bodies.
   This superstition has prevailed
even in modern ages;  and, about
a  century  ago, was in great re-
pute.   Since that period, however,
the minds of men having become
more enlightened, that art, which,
owed its origin to the practices of
knaves,  on the  credulity  of the
ignorant, is now  universally ex-
ploded by the intelligent part of
society.....See Divination; Ne-
cromancy.
  ASTRONOMY is considered as
the most sublime of all the sciences,
and implies a  knowledge  of the
heavenly bodies, with  regard to
their respective magnitude,  moti-
ons, distances, &c; and of the na-
tural causes by which these  phe-
nomena  are produced.  It is not
improbable, that Adam and his
immediate progeny, the antediluvi-
ans, possessed a slight knowledge
of astronomy.  On the building of
the tower of Babel, Noah is sup-
posed to  have retired with his chil-
dren born after the flood, to the
north-eastern part of Asia, where
his descendants peopled the vast
empire of China ;  and  this, in the
opinion of Dr. Long, accounts for
the early cultivation of astronomy
by  the   Chinese.   Mr. Bailly,
who has taken great pains to inves-
tigate the progress of the Indians,
is of opinion,  that the first epoch
of  their   astronomy  commences
with the conjunction of the sun and
moon, which took place 3102 years
before the Christian  xra.   Even
the Americans, and especially the
Mexicans, were  not  altogether
destitute   of astronomical  know-
ledge.    But the  Chaldeans and
Egyptians were the first nations
that became, in this respect, con-
spicuous   in ancient  history ; and
it is doubtful, whether the Phoeni-
cians  acquired the rudiments of
this science from the former,  or
the latter; though we are indebted
to their  enterprizing  merchant;,
who first applied  it  to the useful
and important  purposes of navi*
gation. 
148       AST
ATA
  Among the Arabs, who adopted
the present arithmetical characters
from the Indians, Geber laid the
foundation for our modem trigo-
nometry; which Menelaus, the
Greek, about  the  year  90  after
Christ, had ineffectually attempted
to establish, in his three  excellent
books on spherics, even after that
doctrine had been rendered more
simple by the labours and improve-
ments of Ptolemy.
  The Emperor Frederic II. of
Germany, who was a great patron
of the sciences, in 1230. also reviv-
ed the study of astronomy in Eu-
rope.   Thence arose John Hali-
fax,  Clavius,  Roger  Bacon,
and at length  the justly celebrat-
ed  Nicolaus Copernicus,  the
greatest luminary that ev er appear-
ed on  the shores  of the Baltic, and
who is undoubtedly the  principal
reformer of astronomical science.
After   having  studied physic at
Rome, and returned to his native
country,  at  present called West
Prussia, he began in the year 1507,
to doubt the accuracy of all other
■systems, except that of  Pytha-
goras. Endowed with a compre-
hensive and penetrating  mind, a
correct judgment, and inexhausti-
ble powers of application, he could
not fail  to discover the truth of
the hypothesis advanced by  that
sagacious Greek,  " who  placed
the sun  in the centre, and sup-
posed all the planetary bodies, and
the earth isself,  to revolve around
him."
  Since that period, astronomy has
been  progressively cultivated by
different nations.  The  principal
characters, whose  names will be
transmitted to posterity, for their
useful labours in the immense field
of practical and theoretical astro-
omy,   are nearly the following :
Tycho-Brahe,  the  Portuguese
who spent a great part of his time
in useless efforts of opposing the
immutable system of Copernicus;
Clairult,   D'Alembeut,  La
Caille, and De.,Lalande, in
France; Galileo, Cassini, Fon-
TANA,  BOSCOVICH,   BlANCHINI,
and others, in Italy; Kepler, the
two Eulers, Meyer, K^stner,
Bode,  and  more  especially V.
Zach, the leader of German astro-
nomers, who now resides at the
new observatory, nearGotha; and
Napier, Newton, Flamstead,
Halley, Huygens, Hook, Brad-
ley, Ferguson, Gregory, Mas-
kelyne, and in a more eminent
degree than any of his compatriots
on the continent, tbe transcendent
Herschel.
  Of the latest and most popular
publications on this subject,we shall
state  only the following: A Com-
pendious System of Astronomy, by
Margaret Bryan, 4to. 11. 7s. 6d.
boards; Leigh and Sotheby,  1797.
...The Study of Astronomy, adapted
to the Capacities of  Youth,  by J.
Stedman; 12mo. pp. 154; 2s. 6d.
Dilly, \796....Practical Astronomy,
by  A. Ewing, 8vo. pp.  400; 5s.
boards; Longman, 1798....Lastly,
a work of a more scientific charac-
ter, is the  Rev. S. Vince's Com-
plete  System of Astronomy, vol. 1.
4to.ll. 4s.boards; Wingrave,1797.
The author excludes  familiar ex-
planations, moral reflections, and
historical details;  but has  care-
fully  examined whatever relates
to the subject,  and bestowed the
greatest attention on  the correct-
ness of the tables; a circumstance
of the first  importance to a book
of this nature.
  [ATAMASCO  LILY  amaryllis
{atamasco L.) The only species in-
digenous in the United States,  It 
ATM
t  ATM        149
is a large, beautiful, and very fra-
grant  white flower, which, on its
first appearance, is  streaked with
a fine  carnation colour on the out-
side,   but fades till it  is almost
white.  The  flower is not found
wild north of the Chesapeak, yet
is hardy enough to  bear the cold
of  our winters.
    Athamanta  Libanon,  L.   See
Mountain Spignel.
   Athletic Art.  See Gymnastic
Exercise.
    ATHLETIC, Habit, a  term
which implies a strong constitution
of  body.  Among the ancients, it
signified  a  robust and  corpulent
state,  such  as the athleta endea-
voured to acquire.
   The athletic habit is considered
as  the highest point of health ; yet
such a state is equally precarious,
and exposed to danger ;  for when
the body  is no longer capable of
improvement,  the  next change
must  be  for the reverse: hence
" its most healthy condition closely
borders on disease ;  and the seeds
of  distemper are planted in the
very fulness or luxuriance of our
fluids."
 ATMOSPHERE, a term derived
from the Greek words vapour and
sphere, whence it has been general-
ly applied, to signify that surround-
ing mass  of air which consists of
aqueous  and  other  vapours,  the
electric and magnetic fluids, &c.
but the altitude or extent of which
has never been accurately ascer-
tained.
  Under  the  article  Air, p. 21,
we  have  already mentioned the
general propertiesof this surround-
ing medium ; hence we shall here
observe, by  way of supplement,
that according to the discoveries of
modern chemists, though still op-
posed by Dr. Priestley, the  at-
 mosphere is not a simple, but a
 compound  body.   Pure  air,  or
 oxygen, is but a small part of  its
 composition, while that of azote,
 or mephitic  air,  constitutes about
 three-fourths.  The former is,  on
 account of its more salutary pro-
 perties, better adapted to  the re-
 spiration of men and animals, than
 common  atmospheric  air;  and
 though, by its powerful influence,
 it is eminently calculated to restore
 the life of creatures, when anima-
 tion is accidentally suspended,  so
 that the late Dr. Ingenhouz has
 justly termed it  vital air;  yet it is
 not proper for long-continued res-
 piration. Azote, or suffocative air,
 on the contrary, is unfit for sup-
 porting animal  life, as it is abso-
 lutely irrespirable.  Hence it must
 be obvious,  that a greater or less
 proportion  of this noxious ingre-
 dient  in  our atmosphere, arises
 from the innumerable processes of
 combustion,  putrefaction,  and re-
 spiration,  whether by  nature  or
 art, in all large  and populous ci-
 ties.   For this reason, country-air
 is so much preferable,  that certain
 invalids, especially phthisical, and
 asthmatic  persons,  are obliged  to
 retire from towns to a purer, or,
 at least,less" vitiated region. Hence
 also,  it will be  understood,  that
 sea-air  must be  infinitely more
 conducive to  support the most im-
 portant process of life ; as, by the
 constant agitation or commotion of
 the watery element, mephitic va-
 pours are in a manner neutralized;
 though the  azote  enters  into no
 combination  with that  fluid : upon
 a similar principle, it has been sug-
 gested  (p. 23)  to purify the  fo-,,1
 air of pits and wells,  before a:.v
person  attempts  to descend into
them, by simply pouring in a few
pailfuls of water, whether  boiling 
150       ATM
AUT
or cold. By the same method, also,
the noxious vapours of old wine-
casks, and other vessels or recep-
tacles of corrupted air,  may be
effectually deprived of their per-
nicious,  and  often fatal influence.
   The third constituent part of the
common atmosphere, viz. fixed air,
or carbonic acid gas, naturally exists
in so small a proportion, as to form
only a hundredth part of the whole,
and therefore deserves no particu-
lar account  in this place, as we
propose  to treat  of it under the
article of Brewing.
   [It is now  found that the atmos-
phere, in all places exposed to the
influence  of  the  winds,  contains
very  nearly the same proportions
of oxygen and nitrogen ; a circum-
stance of great importance ; for by
teaching us that the different de-
grees of salubrity of air, do not de-
pend upon differences in the quan-
tities  of  its principal  constituent
parts, it ought to induce us to insti-
tute researches concerning the dif-
ferent substances capable of being
dissolved or suspended in air, which
are noxious to the human  constitu-
tion ;  particularly  as an  accurate
knowledge of their nature and pro-
perties would probably enable us,
in a great measure to guard against
or destroy their baneful effects.
  From  observations made for  a
number  of years  at Springmill,
13  miles N. N. W. of Philadel-
phia, Mr. Legaux,  an able meteo-
rologist,  is enabled to state, that
the greatest  dryness of the air at
that place, was always observed at
those periods when the thermome-
ter was highest. That the  greatest
degree of moisture prevailed, 1.
When the east wind blew ; 2. in
calm  weather ; 3. before a storm ;
4. when the  wind blew from the
west.  The hygrometer used was
that of De Luc  The greatest de-
gree of heat in our climate takes
place  between the hours of two
and three in the afternoon, and the
least degree of heat at sunrise.]
  Atriplex. See Orach and Purs-
lane.
  Atropa Belladona, L. See Deadly
Nightshade.
  AUCTION, a public sale for
the disposal of household goods,
books,  plate, landed  estates, &c.
By this method of sale, the highest
bidder  is always the  purchaser.
The origin of  sales by auction is
very ancient;  for  among the Ro-
mans  it  was  performed by the
public crier sub hasta, i. e. under a
spear  erected  on that  occasion;
and the  goods purchased, were de-
livered by a magistrate.
  AUTUMN, is computed the
third season of the year ; and with
respect  to the animal  body,  is
doubtless  the  most unhealthy.....
Hence  Tertullian calls it u the
test of valetudinarians ;" but the
ancient Germans, though acquaint-
ed with the three other seasons,
appear to have been uninfluenced
by the severity of  autumn \, as they
had no particular term to express
it,  unless we admit  the  word
" harvest,"  in modern  German,
" Herbbt," as  equivalent to what
they at present call " Erndte," or
the gathering  in the fruits  of the
earth.
  The circumstances which render
this season the least conducive to
a healthy state of the body, are the
following: 1.  Because  the  vege-
table kingdom, with very few ex-
ceptions,  returns the  salubrious
leaves of trees and plants to their
primitive, maternal earth, where
they undergo spontaneous decom-
position.  This decay, or process
of putrefaction, produces a remark- 
AUT
A V A        151
able change in that surrounding
medium  which  supports  animal
life,  and  the relative  purity  of
which, determines the most im-
portant function of  the  system,
namely, that of respiration. 2. As,
by the greater pressure and humi-
dity of the atmosphere, the pores
of  the skin are so affected, that
they  become  unable to perform
their office of exhalation, with the
same facility as in winter and sum-
mer,  it  follows that perspirable
matter, or at least, its grosser par-
ticles, will, in autumn be liable to
remain on the  surface, in a state
inclining to putrefaction, and to be
re-absorbed, to the great  detri-
ment of the human or animal body.
Hence,  arise  bilious  and putrid
fevers, with a long train of  other
complaints, according  to the con-
stitution  and  particular  circum-
stances of the individual.
   Parental Nature, however,  has
amply provided the means of obvi-
ating such disastrous  effects. With
this intention, she has  given us a
great variety of sub-acid fruit, and
acescent vegetables, which, at that
season,attaintotheirperfection,and
are eminently qualified to counter-
act  the  putrid  disposition of  the
fluids.  To assist  her in this  be-
nevolent  intention,  we ought to
choose an appropriate  diet-; and,
at the same time, defend the sur-
face  of the  body  with a proper
dress, which  is warm, light, and
sufficiently porous, in order to  ad-
mit the evaporation of perspirable
volatile humours.
   Notwithstanding all  the objec-
tions made by tjieorists,  against the
use of Flannel, worn next  the
skin,  we  venture to pronounce it
the most beneficial covering ; pro-
vided the conditions and  excep-
tions we shall state under that arti-
cle, be duly  attended to.  But to
see the fashionable  females of the
metropolis, as well  as in the coun-
try, at all seasons of the year, dres-
sed in muslin,  cotton  and other
light  stuffs,  scarcely sufficient to
protect them against a sudden blast
of wind....such deviations from the
rules of prudence, and real econo-
my, may, indeed, deserve the lash
of the Roman satyrist, who speaks
of the bitter complaints of Proser-
pine, in chilly  autumn, but they
cannot be corrected by Reason, till
the shrine of that whimsical idol,
"  Fashion,"  be shaken,  and  its
ground-work demolished,  by  a
more dignified system of Educa-
tion....See that article.
   AVARICE, is that restless and
insatiable desire of accumulating
riches, which is the surest indica-
tion of a contracted, and, generally,
depraved mind.
   As the governing passions of the
brute creation are lust and hunger,
the predominant desires of the hu-
man species  appear to be, power
and money : it has accordingly
been asserted, that the origin from
which all the misfortunes and ca-
lamities  of mankind have arisen,
are ambition  and avarice.
   When a person doats upon mo-
ney, merely for the sake of pos-
sessing it, without any regard  to
the good  purposes of life,  which
it might serve ; or to the new en-
joyments that may  be procured by
it; without any regard to the be-
nefit  of his  neighbour,  or to any
advantage accruing from it to him-
self....such a being may justly be
called a miser of the first class.....
His greatest happiness, apparently,
consists  in  the contemplation  of
money; an idol whom he even con- 
152       A V A
AVE
 descends to worship, while he re-
 moves him in triumph from one
 part of his dwelling to another.
   The next  and second class  of
 misers, comprehends those singu-
 lar persons who are eager to amass
 large sums of money, enjoy but a
 ttmporary pleasure  in its posses-
 sion, and at the same  time have
 some particular object in view, the
 execution of which constitutes the
 acme of their wishes.   If this ob-
 ject happen to be centered in a
 trifling and  despicable pursuit, it
 must be ascribed to a narrow and
 sordid  education ;  by  which the
 foundation was  laid for an incon-
 sistent  and irrational turn of tem-
 per, for a servile attention to the
 lowest  mercenary  employments.
 Sometimes,however, to the honour
 of  mankind, such persons, while
 practising an almost criminal fru-
 gality,  speculate on the  means of
 benefiting their fellow-creatures....
 Of this description was Godinot,
 a  French  clergyman  at Rheims,
 who refused to relieve  apparent
 wretchedness ; and by the skilful
 management of his vineyard, had
 the  good fortune to acquire large
 sums of money.  His fellow-citi-
 zens detested him, and the popu-
 lace everywhere received him with
 contempt.   Nevertheless, he con-
 tinued his usual simplicity of life,
 and steadily adhered to  the most
 rigid system of economy.  Mean-
 while, this good man had long felt
 the wants of the industrious poor
 in that city, particularly in having
 no water but what they were obli-
 ged to purchase at a considerable
 price.   At length, he laid out his
 princely fortune in the building of
 an aqueduct, by which he rendered
 the poor more useful  and lasting
 service, than if he had  distributed
his whole income in charity, every
 day at his door: and thus he proved
 himself the true benefactor of so-
 ciety, whose name deserves to be
 transmitted to posterity.
   The  third,  and perhaps  most
 culpable classof avariciouspersons,
 are  those literary misers,  who in-
 cessantly apply themselves to study,
 and eagerly seize upon every useful
 fact or  discovery, without  ever in-
 tending to impart it to others.  If
 the  acquisition and propagation of
 knowledge were dependent on these
 persons,  who  in many other re-
 spects resemble the monks of the
 dark ages, a speedy return of bar-
 barism  would be the necessary con-
 sequence. A similar idea, perhaps,
 struck the didactic Pope, when he
 thus concisely expressed  himself
 in the following lines :
 " Be niggards of advice on no pretence;
 '• For the worst avarice is that of sense."

   Lastly, it deserves to be remark-
 ed that  avarice, in general, has a
 tendency to  stifle  every spark of
 sympathy and  generosity in the
 human  breast; to affect also the
 different functions of the body, in
 a manner not unlike that we have
 described under the head Anxie-
 ty ; and that even savage nations,
 for instance, the Canadians, bestow
 the greatest care on the susceptible
 minds of their children, to prevent
 the  growth of that vile and cor*
 rosive passion.
  Avena.  See Oats.
  AVENS, or Geum, L. a genus
 of plants, comprehending eleven
 species,  of which, however,  only
 two  are natives of Britain, viz.
   1. Common Avens ; the Geum
 urbanum, L.  (also called great-
 flowered Avens, or Herb Bennet);
 grows in woods,  and about shady
hedges ; produces yellow  flowers
from May to August,  and is repre- 
            AVE

sented by Withering, 477. The
stalks  of this  useful  plant  attain
a height of two feet. In spring, its
woody root possesses the aromatic
flavour of cloves.
  In  medicine,  the root of  the
common avens has lately been em-
ployed with singular efficacy  in the
cure of obstinate  agues.   A tinc-
ture made of it,  in  the proportion
of four ounces of the root, digested
with a quart of brandy, in a sand
heat, and given to the quantity of
half an ounce, or more, twd,  three,
or  four times, has seldom  failed
to  cure  intermittents,  where  the
Peruvian bark had  proved ineffec-
tual.  Others give it  with  equal
success  in decoction,  powder, or
electuary, in doses from one scruple
to a dram or more, several  times
a day....provided that the first pas-
sages be previously evacuated by
proper laxatives.  This root has al-
so afforded an excellent remedy in
several chronic disorders, as a ge-
neral strengthenerand astringent:
indeed, the  experiments made by
Buchhave shew, that its antisep-
tic  power is superior to that  of the
best foreign bark.
  As an object of rural and domes-
tic   economy, this  plant deserves
some attention.    Sheep  are  ex-
tremely fond of its herbage;  which
may likewise when young, be used
for culinary purposes, and especial-
ly  in  the form  of salad.  If the
common avens-root be collected,
split, and dried, a portion of it se-
cured  in a bag, and  hung in a cask
of beer, it is affirmed (in the Trans-
actions of the Swedish Academy),
that  this simple  expedient  will
prevent it from turning sour.......
On this subject, we  refer to  the
article Brewing.
  In the useful arts, this root has
i.kcwise been employed in  the
     VOL. I.
           AYA         153

process of tanning leather.  Dai-
Bouh xe y informs us, that the stalks
and leaves of the plant have been
used  with  advantage for dyeing
wool of a permanent olive-brown
colour, when  previously  steeped in
a solution of  bismuth.
  2. Water Avens, Geum rivale,
L. grows in meadows and  groves
of a humid soil ; its flowers appear
in July.  We find  it delineated in
Engl. Bot. t. 106, and by  Wither-
ing, 478....The  herb  and root of
this species, though of inferior effi-
cacy,  have also been employed in
medicine, as  well as by tanners.
  AVOIRDUPOIS is  ;'ie name
of the weight adopted for the larg-
er  or coarser commodities, such
as groceries, hop-, cheese, wool,
lead, 8cc.  It is distinguished from
 Troy-wright,  which was formerly
used in England for every purpose,
and is still retained for weighing
gold,  silver,  and jewel--, for com-
pounding medicines, for experi-
ments in natural philosophy, and
for comparing  different  weights
wilh each other.  The former con-
tains  sixteen, and  the latter  only
twelve ounces to the pound...Apo-
thecaries purchase their drugs, if
wholesale,  by the former, but re-
tail them out by the latter....See
Weights and Measures.
  Aversion. See Antipathy.
   Azalea procumbens,  L.     See
Trailing Rose-bay.
   [AYA PAN \, a plant original-
ly from the right bank of the  river
Amazon, in Brazil.  It is.a remedy
for bruises, and  also considered as
an  antidote against the poison of
serpents, and of arrows.   Citizen
Baudin relates wonderful effects of
this plant upon himself and others,
in relieving bruises. Dr. Carmaro,
of Brazil, confirmed  the accounts
 of the efficacy of the plant in cur-
      X 
154        AYA
AZO
ing the effects of poisonous bites.
Citizen Ventenat,  Avho lately
read an account of the plant to the
National Institute, thinks it belongs
to the  corymbiferx family, and the
genus  eupatorium of L.  It  may
be distinguished from other species
of this genus by the following cha-
racters....Eupatorium, lance-shap-
ed leaves, very entire ;  the lower
leaves  opposite ;  the upper  ones
alternate ; calyces very   simple ;
many flowered....There are seve-
ral  species  of eupatorium in the
United  States, and  it is  possible
that the aya  pana  may  also  be
found.  Count Rumford describes
a plant of similar virtues,  called in
Santa Fe, Yijuco de Guaco, which
see. See Tilloch Phil. Mag. vol.
12, 13.]
  Azote.  See Atmosphere.
B.
            B AC

   [BACCHARIS  HALIMIFO-
 LIA,  Cotton  Groundsel-tree,  Sea
 Purslane.  This is a sea-side shrub
 of  great  beauty  in  the  autumn,
 when mantled in silky down, white
 as  snow.   The bark  of  the last
 year's growth  of  twigs,  early in
 the spring, when  the sap begins
 to  flow,  expands  suddenly,  and
 opens longitudinally, from which
 springs a limpid juice of the con-
 sistence  of pure  honey,  and  as
 sweet and  pleasant to the taste.
 At this season the bees visit these
 shrubs, and sip the honey entire-
 ly, before the sun rises.
 '  BACHELOR, a word of doubt-
 ful origin; though, in the  political
 economy  of nations,  when a plu-
 rality of persons apparently glory
 in  that  appellation,  its  practice
 cannot fail to be attended  with ef-
 fects detrimental to the State, and
 fi-equently disgraceful to the  indi-
 vidual.  We allude to  those  un-
 married men, who pretend to live
in  a state of stoic celibacy, and
are, for the most  part,  generally,
            B AC

either avaricious misers, or unprin-
cipled spendthrifts. That there are
many exceptions  to this odious
character,  cannot  be denied; yet,
in a  maritime country,  where  a
great proportion of active men de-
vote themselves to a sea-faring life,
there ought to be public  disgrace
attached to those,  who  cannot as-
sign the most substantial reasons
for their choice of celibacy.
   Even the ancient Greeks were
so fully persuaded of the pernicious
influence  of professed  bachelors,
on  the population and  morals of
their countrymen, that, by the laws
of Lycurgus, they were branded
with  infamy, excluded  from  all
offices civil and military, as well
as from  national games and pub-
lic spectacles.  Farther, such per-
sons were compelled to appear at
certain festivals, where  they were
exposed  to  public  derision,  and
led round  the market-place :  in
this  degraded situation,  the  fair
sex conducted them to the altars,
and obliged them  to make amende 
B AC
B A C        155
honorable, by submitting to blows
and lashes,  at  discretion.   The
women, not  satisfied with this spe-
cimen of passive obedience, forced
them to sing certain songs teeming
with satire, and deprecating a state
of. life which Nature had never de-
signed.
  The Roman laws,  also, were
not more favourable to their tole-
ration ;  and the vigilant  censors
frequently imposed arbitrary fines
on old  bachelors.  According to
Dionysius,  the historian,  there
existed  in Rome an ancient edict
by which all persons  of full age
were  obliged to. marry.  But  the
most   remarkable   law  enacted
against  them, was that  made in
the reign of  the   Emperor Au-
gustus, by which  they were ren-
dered incapable of enjoying  the
benefit  either of legacies or inhe-
ritance  by will, unless from their
near  relations.  This  limitation,
Plutarch justly observes,induced
many bachelors to marry ;  not so
much with the view of having heirs
to their  own esates, as to qualify
themselves  to   inherit those  of
others.
  Thus  it  clearly  appears that,
from  the most early  ages,  the
most civilized nations expressed a
\ust abhorrence of  a life which is
more  calculated  to promote  the
narrow grovelling views of the in-
dividual, who prefers it  to the mast
sacred and  honourable  station  in
society, than to benefit that circle
of the community, of which he is
frequently a consuming and worth-
less member.
  BACON, the flesh of swine, salt-
id,  dried, and, generally, smoked
in a chimney.  As the history and
customs relative to this savoury
dish,  would furnish but little  in-
struction, we shall proceed to state
 the most approved methods of pre-
 paring it both in England and  on
 the continent.
   Somersetshire-Bacon, the most es-
teemed in England, may be made
any  time  during the  last three
months of the year.  When a hog
is killed for  bacon, the sides are
laid in large wooden troughs, and
sprinkled all over with bay salt :
thus they are left for twenty-four
hours, to drain away the blood and
the superfluous juices.   After this
first  preparation,  they  should  be
taken out, wiped very dry, and
the drainings thrown away.  Next,
some ftvsh  bay  salt,  well heated
in a large iron frying-pan, is to be
rubbed over the  meat, until  it has
absorbed a sufficient quantity, and
this friction repeated  four succes-
sive days, while  the meat is turned
only  every  other  day.  If large
hogs are killed, the flitches should
be kept in brine for three  weeks,
and,   during that period, turned
ten times,  then  taken  out, and
thoroughly dried in the usual man-
ner ;  for, unless they be thus ma-
naged, it is impossible to preserve
them  in a sweet  state, nor will
their flavour be equal to those pro-
perly  cured.
   As the preservation of the salt
used in  this process, when carried
on to a great extent, may be  an
object of economy, we shall state
the following method of recovering
the saline matter contained in these
drainings, or in  any  other  brine,
whether from  herrings, beef,  or
pork: it was communicated to us
by a friend, who had seen it practis-
ed en the continent, where culina-
ry salt  is  sold  at a considerable
price. He first added such a quan-
tity of boiling water to the brine,
or drainings, as  was  sufficient to
dissolve all the particles of the salt. 
156        BAC
BAD
This solution  he then  placed  in     Smoked Bacon, one of the most
vi  K-r an .iron or e;.rlhen  vessel,  relished, but  almost  indigestible,
o. era fire, which,by boiling,iorced  dishes of the Germans, is prepared
all the feculent ami  animal parti-  in a manner similar to that adopt-
ers to the top, so  that  thev were  ed in the curing of the  celebrated
carefully removed by a perforated  Westphalia hams.  For  the latter,
ladle. After the liquid had become however, animals that have been
clea.Mt-.-as set aside foi twenty-four well fed,  and allowed to roam at
hours, ia a cool place, that  the co- pleasure  in the extensive moor-
louring nn.'.ter might subside. But, lands  of that  province,  are  gene-
as the'combi-.iation it had  formed rally selected.  And  if credit be
witli the boiled liquor was very te- due to the report  lately spread in
nacioub. he contrived two different  London, by a Native  of Westpha-
way-s of separating it:  1. A solu-  lia, that  those  delicious hams, so
ticn  of alum  in  water, one pint  much esteemed in this country,are
to an ounce of that substance, was  the produce  of hogs,  which  fre-
g:\idually dropt into the cold liquor,  quen.ly die of obesity, and were
In the proportion of a table-spoon-  sold lor half price to the ill-reputed
ful of the  former to every gallon  German  skinners (scliinder,)  who
of the latter ;  and the whole allow-  export them  to Hamburgh or Hol-
ed to stand for several hours; or, 2.  land,  we cannot, in justice  to our
If time and circumstances would  friends, recommend them for their
permit, he filtered  the liquor by  salubrity.  The manner of obtain-
means  of long flannel slips,  cut  ing them is nearly as follows: af-
longitudinally by the web, but pre-  ter the hams have been  properly
viously soaked  in  another strong  salted, rubbed, and wiped with dry
 and' perfectly  clear solution of salt:  cloths, in order to absorb all the im-
 these slips were so  immersed into  purejuices, the cavities of the joints,
 the  coloured  fluid,  that the  pro-  as well as the bones themselves,are
 jecting external end reached ano-  carefully covered with a mixture
 ther vessel, which had been placed  consisting of two  parts of the best
 much lower than that containing  salt,  perfectly  dried, and one pail
 the brine, or drainings.   When  of black pepper, coarsely powder-
 these particulars were properly at- ed.   As soon  as  this operation is
 tended to, the absorbed liquor be- performed, the hams are*  on the
 came almost colourless, and pel- same day, suspended in a chimney,
 lucid.  Having  thus  procured  a where no other but wood  fire is
 clear liquid solution, nothing more burnt,  and  which  is  usually in-
 was required than to evaporate  it creased during the first three  days.
 to dryness, in order to re-produce The time of fumigation is regulat-
 the salt in its original granulated ed by the size of the meat, and ge-
 form.  We have faithfully report- nerally extends  from  three to six
 ed the process, which may be imi- months.
 tated without difficulty, and at little    BADGER,  an  animal resem-
 or no expense. In our opinion, the  bling in  its external  characters,
 second method of discharging the  both a dog  and a hog.  The un-
 colour is prefera! ie, as by this, no  equal length of its legs  has  intro-
 alum will be  required, which  only  duced the expression  badger-leg-
 r«ntaminates the salt.    „       gcd.  Its flesh has  a taste similar 
            BAD

to that of wild hogs, and is much
esteemed in Italy, France, and Ger-
many.  Indeed  these carnivorous
quadrupeds are themselves so very
fond of pork, that a  piece of such
meat, placed over their burrow, is
the surest inducement to their ap-
petite, and will  in a  few minutes
entice them above ground.
   Besides affording a nutritive, but
not easily digestible food, the  skin
of  the  badger  makes  excellent
knapsacks, and  covers  for  travel-
ling-trunks, saddles,  Sec. because
it is impervious to rain, and stands
in  need of no additional prepara-
tion for rendering  it water-proof;
a process  we shall describe under
the article Leather.  The hairs
 or bristles of this animal are  used
 for painters' brushes ; and its pene-
 trating fat answers  a variety of
 useful purposes : for it is not only
 employed as an ingredient in injec-
 tions for relieving  nephritic com-
plaints, or such as arise from ob-
struction in  the urinary passages,
but likewise externally, in rheuma-
 tic affections especially those called
 Siatica,  and for the  cure  of sore
 and chapped nipples in voting mo-
 thers. For paralytic diseases of the
 aged, it is asserted, that the hairy
 skin of this  creature, when worn
 next the surface of the body, has
 been of eminent service, by stimu-
 lating the inert, cutaneous and mus-
 cular vessels into action : and there
 can  be no  reasonable objection
 against giving this simple  remedy
 a fair trial for a few weeks, where
 medicines  generally  are  ineffec-
 tual.
    The  crafty  horse-dealers  also
 employ the badger's fat in a singu-
 lar manner, which  involves a de-
 gree of fraud and cruelty.   They
 pull out the hair in several places,
 H\d anoint the bare spots with this
           B A G         157

fat; when the hair grows again, it
is of a white or grey colour, so as
to give the horse a pyebald appear-
ance,  which probably inhances its
value.
  BAG, in  commerce, is a term
for a  sack, or pouch,  containing a
certain quantity or weight of some
particular  commodity.   Thus a
bag of almonds is about three hun-
dred  pound;  of  aniseed,  from
three  to four  hundred   pounds
weight, See. The best material for
making compact and durable bags
is hempen cloth  [or cotton]  pre-
viously steeped in a strong decoc-
tion of oak-bark, or tanner's waste.
   Bag, in farriery, signifies a me-
dicated external application, made
with  a  view to  recover a horse's
appetite.  For this  purpose, one
ounce of asafoetida, with an equal
quantity of  powdered  savin,  are
mixed together, put into a bag, and
tied  to  the  bit.   Meanwhile  the
horse should be kept  bridled for
two  hours,  several  times a-day,
and  as soon as the bag is remov-
ed, the  animal will  begin  to eat.
 We  have  stated this piece of ad-
vice  on the authority of the Ency.
clopadia  Britannica; though  we
are inclined to think that such su-
perficial  applications will seldom
avail.....See Farriery.
   BAGNIO, a term adopted from
the Italian, and signifying a bath:
in English, it denotes  a house for
bathing,  sweating, and cleansing
the body ; but sometimes also for
worse purposes.
   The substance  used for heating
bagnios are various ; such as bricks,
 stones,  See.  managed  in different
ways, and  in  several  vessels and
utensils, according to the choice or
 fancy of the proprietor.   The ef-
 fect  generally expected from  re-
 sorting to such places, is an immo- 
 158        B  A K

derate degree of perspiration, oc-
casioned by  artificial  heat: this
cannot fail to open the pores ; to
attenuate  and  dissolve the  hu-
mours ;  to dissipate all the super-
fluous particles ; and eventually to
heat  and dry the whole body.....
Hence this practice cannot be pro-
per for persons of a choleric, thin,
and spare habit,  nor for those sub-
ject to periodical discharges.
  In  rheumatic  and paralytic dis-
eases, great benefit has sometimes
been derived from a cautious use of
the bagnio.   For whatever com-
plaint it be resorted to, care must
he taken that neither the  bowels
nor  stomach be distended, which
might be the  case in  the former,
by obstructions or costiveness ; in
the latter, after a  plentiful  repait.
Besides, the heal of a bagnio should
always be  accommodated  to the
strength  and  peculiar condition of
the patient; for  if immoderate,  it
will be attended with  effects very
detrimental to  the whole  frame,
the least of  which  are pustules,
tumors,  and obstructions of  the
surface of the body.
  BAITING, a  practice derived
from  the barbarous ages, and one
of those amusements  which  de-
grade the human character.  Thus
we hear  of the baiting  of bulls, or
bears, by  mastiffs,  or bull-dogs
with short noses,  that they  may
take a firmer  hold of their  oppo-
nenlt"..
  The inhuman  practice of bull-
baiting ought not to be connived at
by  magistrates, especially  about
the metropolis.
  BAKER, a person  whose busi-
ness is that of baking  and  selling
bread.  The origin of this useful
profession is not ascertained,though
it is certain  that  the  first pubiic
            B AK

bakers  appeared in the East, and
passed from Greece to Italy, about
the year of Rome  583.   Prior to
that period, every house-wife baked
her own bread.
   We regret that  so  wealthy a
body of men as our modern bakers,
give us  frequent  cause of com-
plaint, either by the unwholesome
quality, or the deficient weight of
bread ;   an article  which  loudly
calls for  the wisdom and unremit-
ting  vigilance of the legislature.
No new office in any departmentof
police appears to be so necessary,
and likely to be productive of such
essential advantages to a city, as
that of " Inspector of Bread."
   BAKING  is  the art of con-
verting flour,  or other farinaceous
substances,  into bread.......As we
propose to treat more fully on this
subject, under the article Bread,
we shall here only explain what
relates to a proper method of pre-
paring it.
   In  domestic life, the baking of
bread is  frequently mismanaged;
which may be ascribed  to the fol-
lowing circumstances.  Some wo-
men do not use  a just  proportion
and temperature of water, so that
the bread turns out either pasty, or
too firm  and heavy ; others  do not
use a proper quantity  or quality of
leaven, or yeast, whence the bread
acquires either  an unpleasant bit-
terish taste, or  the dough cannot
rise,  and  consequently  becomes
tough and viscid ; again, others do
not understand the due degree of
heat required  in the oven, so that
it  will be either under or over-
baked.   All these  particulars de-
serve to  be attended to, otherwise
a bad and unwholesome bread will
be produced.  To  survey, there-
fore, the  whole process, which is 
             B  AK

 one of the  most  complicated in
 chemistry, we shall here commu-
 nicate a few general directions.
    1. The flour, whether made of
 wheat,  or  rye  (which  two  are
 doubtless the best and most whole-
 some species of grain), ought not
 to be used immedi; tely on coming
 from the mill; as in a fresh state it
 is too moist for making good and
 palatable  bread ; but it should be
 kept in a  dry place, for  several
 weeks, stirred every day  in sum-
1 mer,  and  at  least every' other
 day  in colder  seasons,  till it has
 acquired  such  a  consistence, as
 renders it loose and  yielding be-
 tween the fingers.
    2. As the dough will not rise,
 without giving it a proper leaven
 or yeast,  this ought to be a prin-
 cipal object in  families, as well as
 to bakers. If leaven be employed,
 it should  on the preceding even-
 ing,  be deprived of its hard crust,
 and dissolved with a little, scarcely
 milk-warm, water ; then carefully
 mixed with about  a third  part of
 the flour to be used for baking, and
 kneaded into a  soft dough, by add-
 ing more  tepid water.   A small
 quantity of flour is put on the  top ;
 and,  thus  prepared, it will be ne-
 cessary  to cover the trough with
 blankets, and suffer it to stand  in
 a  moderately warm place till the
 following morning, that it may rise
 and duly  ferment.   The remain-
 ing two-thirds  of the  flour must
 then be  added, with a proportion-
 ate quantity of luke-warm water,
 and the whole kneaded into such an
 elastic  dough  as will draw into
 strings without  breaking, and not
 adhere to  the fingers. In this state
 it  is  again covered, and allowed to
 stand (while preparations are mak-
 ing in the oven), and not disturbed
           BAK         159

till it begins gently to rise, when it
should be formed  into loaves.
   3. A proper degree of heat  is
an essential requisite to the baking
process.   When the inner arch of
tlie oven appears entirely white, it
is generally  considered  as  suffi-
ciently  heated.  But this being a
fallacious  criterion, we would re-
commend  the  following :  Place a
handful of flour before the aperture
of the oven,  and if it turn of a
brown colour, the heat  is  then
nearly of the degree required ; but
if it  become  black,  or  remain
white,  in the  former case the fire
must be considerably reduced ; and
in the latter more fuel must  be
added.   Lastly, all parts of the
oven should be uniformly  heated ;
and though  we cannot enter into
farther particulars, yet the  atten-
tive house-wife will easily,  from
her own observations, regulate the
degree of heat, with the same ef-
fect as it  might be done  by Mr.
Wedgewood's Pyrometer for the
baking of earthen-ware.
  Remark......Musty flour,  w hen
baked into  bread,  is not only ex-
tremely detrimental to health, but
it also imparts a bitter and nauseous
taste.  When such flour is not too
strongly tainted, it  may be  correct-
ed by first kneading it  wilh leaven
or sweet yeast, then making large
holes with a wooden cylinder in the
dough, filling up the cavities with
flour that is perfectly sweet, suffer-
ing it to remain in  this  preparatory
state till the  next morning, then
removing  the dry  flour carefully
w ith long  spoons or similar imple-
ments, and afterwards converting
the dough into bread, with the
addition of  such  flour as is not
musty.   By  this  simple  process,
the flour  first mixed  up will  be 
160        B A K
B AL
sweetened,  but  that  which  has
been ierft over night in the dough,
is said  to become  so cor. opted,
that it can  be given only to ani-
mals.
   It has frequently been attempt-
ed, and not  without  success, to
bake good, wholesome bread, with
little or no barm. In consequence
of a dispute  between the  brewers
and bakers of Dublin, concerning
the price of yeast, i.i the year 1770,
the latter carried  the point, by
making their bread without it.   As
this  process,  however, could not
be readily imitated in domestic life,
we shall here state a method of rais-
ing a bushel of four  with a tea-
spoonful of yeast;  first practised
by James Stone.  It is as follows :
Put a bushel  of flour into the knead-
ing-trough or trendle ; take  about
three quarters of a pint of warm
water,  and  thoroughly mix  with
it a spoonful of thick, sweet barm ;
then make a hole in the middle of
the flour, large enough to contain
two gallons of water ; pour in your
small quantity, and stir it with a
stick, so that it may, with  some of
the flour combining with it, acquire
the consistence of batter for  pud-
ding ; $en strew a little dry  flour
o er it,  and  let it stand for  about
one hour, when you will  find the
small portion so raised, that it will
break through the dry flour  scat-
tered over it.  After this, pour in
another quart of warm water, while
you are stirring in more flour, till
it becomes as thick as before ;  then
again shake dry flour over it, and
leave it for two hours longer....re-
peat the same method about  twice
more, always suffering it some-
what longer to be  at rest,  and the
bread will become as light as if a
pint of  barm had been user!.  Nor
does this method require  above a
quarter of an hour,more time than
the usual way of baking ; and the
author of it  asserts, that his bread
has never heen  heavy nor bitter.
   With respect to the difference
of seisons,  J. Stone directs that,
in summer, the water should be
used  blood-warm ;  in  winter, or
cold frosty weather,  as  hot  as the
hand  can  bear it without pain;
while in  the   former season the
dough  should  be covered up very
warm, and  strewed  over with dry
flour  every time  tepid water  is
added, to keep  in  the heat; after
using six or eight quarts of such
water  to every bushel of flour, in
the gradual  manner before describ-
ed, it will be found that the whole
body of flour which is mixed with
the warm water,  by means of a
single   tea-spoonful   of barm,  is
brought into considerable agitation,
so that it w axes or ferments with-
out difficulty....See also Yeast.
   Baking-Stove  (portable). See
Stove.
   BALANCE, one  of the  six
simple powers  in mechanics, prin-
cipally  used for determining the
equality or difference of weights in
such bodies as are  liable to this
computation.
   There are two kinds of weights
principally used at present; the an-
cient, or the  Roman  steel-yard,
and the modern, which consists of
a lever or beam suspended exactly
in the middle, having scales  or ba-
sons attached to each extremity.  If
the arms of  the balance  be of equal
length, and similar weights placed
in the scale, the balance will con-
sequently be in equilibrio.    But
if one  of the arms  be in length
to  the   other   as   ten to  nine,
the balance  may still be so con-
structed, that both the arms with
their  scales shall equiponderate. 
 
Fi</. 1.
Titf.2
J r/r//w/?J    / s/i// }■/>/>&/ /v//sf /// v  ;
Sha 
BAL
BAL        161
,£  ThE  vile  contrivance,  however,
    justly deserves to be branded with
    infamy ; because a weight of nine
    pounds suspended on  the  longer
    arm, will counterpoise another of
    ten pounds placed on the shorter
    one ; but the fraud may be instantly
    discovered, by shifting the weight
    from the one  scale to the other, in
    which case the balance will lose its
    equipoise.
      Description of Dearborn's  Im-
    proved Balance.
      [Fig. 1. Is a representation of that
    part of the common steelyard, in
    which  the  pivots are placed««*».a
    is the centre of motion, upon which
    the beam  turns ;  b is the point
 fV where  the article to be weighed is
,"*"" suspended; andc is the point where
  '** the poise is suspended, bolh being
    above the centre of motion, but  c
    somewhat higher than b.....While
    the beam  remains level, the hori-
    zontal distances of these  points of
    suspension, are a d and a e.   De-
    press the larger end of the beam,
    until the point b falls tof, and the
    point c will rise to g.  It is evident
    that the horizontal distance a d is
    increased to afi, on the falling side
    of the centre ; and that on the ris-
    ing side, the horizontal distance a
    t is in the same time, reduced to a
    h".   Thus the descending  power
    overcomes the ascending, and de-
    stroys the equilibrium at the mo-
    ment the beam is moved from a
    level position.  The centre of gra-
    vity is also placed above the  centre
    of motion, which must prevent the
    light beam from  vibrating  on its
    centre, if the larger end were made
    to balance the smaller, unless  the
    former centre we re placed below the
    latter.  Hence the reasons why the
1    common  steelyard,  and all  beams
    constructed  on  those  principles,
    must ever lie liable to error, and
         VOL. I.
applicable to fraudulent purposes.
   Fig. 2. Is a representation of thaj;
part of  Dearborn's  balance  in
which  the pivots are placed.....a is
the centre of motion, on which the
beam turns:  b is the point where
the article to be weighed is sus-
pended, and c is the point where the
poise is suspended, both being on a
line with the  centre of motion......
While the beam remains level, the
horizontal distances of these points
of suspension are a b and a c; de-
press the larger end of the beam,
until the point b falls to d, and the
point c will rise to e; it is evident,
that the horizontal distances are
both reduced, and that this reduc-
tion of distances on both sides the
centre of motion, is always equal
or proportional....Thus, by placing
the points of suspension on a line
with the centre of motion, by fixing
the centre of motion  above the
centre  of gravity, and by  making
the arms of the beam in  counter-
poise,  it preserves its  vibrations
when light or loaded; and hence
the reasons why no art in manage-
ment can  render it a  fraudulent
instrument.
   Fig. 3. Represents the balance
with its apparatus.   A  B  C D is a
wooden frame, with an  iron screw
at E, on which the  beam F G is
suspended.   The scale H I is  at-
tached to the beam by the clasp
K, which slides on the bar K I, to
be moved over the centre of the
weight in the  scale ; the skid L is
formed to receive the scale on one
end, while the  otp.er end  answars
as an inclined plape, over which
the cask M is rolledinto the scale.
When  the  scale is to be charged
it is fixed at a proper  height,  by
turning the screw E until the scale
will rest fairly on the  skid, when
the beam is elevated to an angle of
     Y 
162        BAL
BAL
30 or 40 degrees above a horizontal
line.  The little weight P (called
the balance weight) is a brass case,
into which a sufficient quantity of
shot is put,  to  produce an exact
equipoise  with  the  scale ;  if the
weight of the scale  varies by  any
cause, the shot is augmented or di-
minished  accordingly, for which
purpose the top of the brass case
has a small screw  to be taken out
for making the change. The scale,
When charged, rests  on the skid,
by which it is kept out of the mud,
and at a suitable distance from the
ground; the small  end of the beam
is  then brought down  by  hand,
which raises the scale and relieves
the skid, if the weight in the scale
be nearly under the clasp  ;  if not,
the beam is raised until the scale
rests again on the skid,  and the
clasp is loose, which is moved by
hand over the weight. The beam
being  again   brought down,  the
pohes  N O  are put  on,  and  the
skid is drawn out;  when the poises
are so placed as to produce a level
beam, the two numbers being add-
ed, at which  the poises hang,  will
give the weight of the article. The
handles Q R and S,  are for lifting
the apparatus by hand, and trans-
porting it small distances, without
the trouble of taking it apart.  T
is  a guard, which is useful when
the  scale is  to be  many  times
clr.rged  with a given weight of
small articles, in which case  the
beam may rest in the guard, with-
out taking off the poises, until all
the  draughts  are  weighed.  The
principles on which this balance is
predicated, require that the larger
poises or weights attending it, shall
be multiples of the smaller, there-
fore the following are  the sizes,
viz. 1 lb. 2 lb. 4 lb. 8 lb. 16 lb. and
32 lb. and  the two sides of a beam
may be graduated  for any two of
those weights, and may  be suffi-  >-
ciently  strong,  for bearing any
number required, for the largest
draughts.   Under or  near the be-
ginning of the graduated  edge of
every beam, on each side, is stamp-
ed the weight of  the  poise, for
which the  respective side, is mark-
ed, and in all possible variations
of the weights, any article will be
found to weigh alike, when weigh-
ed with the heavier weight alone,
or the lighter weight alone, or with
both together, or with any greater
number which  will  produce an
equipoise  ; hence arises an incon-
trovertible testimony  of the accu-
racy of the system,  and of the con-
struction of the balance.
  Balances of a small size are «n„de
for domestic  purposes,  and  for
shop-counters, "which are  found
exceedingly convenient, when a tin
scale  is attached to the lower hook,
and may  be  rendered more pecu-
liarly so, by the addition of another
scale, at sixteen times tire distance
from  the  centre,  for weighing
ounces.
  Fig. 4.  Is a representation of a
grapnel for  weighing  casks  and
boxes with the  balance, without
removing  them from the spot: a b
is  a  bar of wood with holes, de-
scribed by  the black spots: c is an
iron by which the  grapnel hangs"
to the balance; it is secured to the
bar by the bolts d e: f g are two
irons, kept at proper distance by
the bolts hi: kk k k are four points
about three inches in length, which
are entered under the ends of the
cask  or box,  and  lift  it  by  the
draught of the beam.  The two
points of each iron  are  kept about
one foot apart, by  the  little bolts
11: mm are  two hooks  fastened
by a few links to the  irons -,  these 
BAL
BAL         163
 hooks, being thrown over the bars
 Q R and 6, in Fig. 3, keep the two
 irons separate, a sufficient distance
 for setting  the  apparatus over the
 next cask,  without interference....
 The height of the whole  should
 be nearly the height of a scale for
 weighing hogsheads, like that re-
 presented in Fig. 3, that either the
 grapnel or  the scale  may be used
 with the same frame.  With this
 apparatus,  but  two assistants  are
 necessary for weighing any number
 of casks, as the frame, with its ap-
 pendages,  is moved from  one  to
 another, and set over them in ro-
 tation, by two persons, with much
 less labour than would be  neces-
 sary for removing  a heavy cask.
    In  the   17th  volume  of the-
 A.merican   edition  of the Encyclo-
 fiadia  Britannica, (which was pub-
 lished by Mr. Thomas Dobson,  in
 May,  1797,) an instrument  is  re-
 presented in Fig. 1, of Plate 481,
 which, by the cursory reader, may
 be supposed to contain the princi-
 ples of Mr. Dearborn's  balance.
 If the  two instruments had been
 exactly alike, Mr. Dearborn has
 indisputable testimony,  that  his
 balance was  in existence in the year
 178.5,  which was fourteen  years
 prior to the publication  of that
 volume ; but, it will be shewn, that
 in correcting the  errors of  the
 common steelyard, these instru-
 ments are  alike in one particular
 o:dy; which is, placing  the two
 points of suspension and the centre
 of motion in a  right line ; that in
 every other respect they differ; and
 that, in consequence of this differ-
 ence, Mr. Dearioun's balance is
 rendered one of the most extensive-
 ly useful instruments, for weighing
 which has been known; while that
 which is described in the Ancyclo-
pxdia, is so contracted in its power,
 as to fall far short of the common
 steelyard.  On examining Fig. 1,
 before  mentioned, and reading the
 description of it, we  find sufficient
 evidence, that an  idea was  never
 conceived, of using more than one
 counterpoise on the beam; if that
 were light, it could not weigh heavy
 articles;  if it  were heavy, it  could
 not weigh light article, consequent-
 ly the range of the instrument must
 be so contracted as to render it of
 little use ; and no  mode of extend-
 ing the range is intimated, except
 by adding another point of suspen-
 sion  on  the  short arm.  Hence
 the author's remark,  in  page 779,
 column first, near the bottom : " it
 is usual to make  as many divided
 scales  on the long arm, as  there
 are points of suspension on  the
 short arm."   Then two lines fur-
 ther  on : " but the range of this
 instrument is not altogether at the
 pleasure of the maker."
    In  the  construction  of  Mr.
 Dearborn's balance, the range is
 at the pleasure of the maker ; for,
 with  but one  point of suspension
 on the  short arm,  the range may
 be from one pound to any quantity
 which a beam of any  kind can sus-
 tain ;  the range  of one  already
 made, is from one pound to seven
 thousand and five hundred pounds.
 This  advantage arises from the ap-
 plication of weights which are mul-
 tiples; using a lighter  counterpoise
 for weighing lighter articles, and a
 heavier counterpoise, or both toge-
 ther,  or any number,  for weighing
 heavier articles, without any one of
 them  exceeding 32 lb. which is the
 heaviest counterpoise required with
the Patent Balance.
   The place of the centre of gra-
vity exhibits another essential dif-
ference.  In Figure 1, it  is placed
somewhere in the  long  arm, de- 
164       BAL
BAL
pending on the scale to bring the
beam to a horizontal position ; con-
sequently nothing can be weighed
but in the scale, unless  its weight
be added to the weight of the arti-
cle, or accounted for in some other
way.  In Mr. Dearborn's balance,
the centre  of gravity is  placed ex-
actly under the centre  of motion,
whereby small or loose articles may
be weighed  in a scale, which  is
balanced by a small weight hooked
in at the end of the long arm; and
on putting these off, the hook  is
ready for receiving articles which
may be too large for the scale; the
figures on the beam giving the ex-
act weight in either case,rendering
 this balance an instrument of great
 convenience in markets and in  fa-
 milies ; for. the same  beam with
 which  small  articles are weighed
 in a tin scale, will weigh a quarter
 of beef on  the hook.  It will be
 observed,  that the particulars here
 described,which give to Mr. Dear-
 born's balance such essential supe-
 riority, are entirely independent of
 the portable  and  convenient ma-
 chinery which he. has constructed
 to accompany'the instrument  for
 weighing heavy bodies, and which
 gives additional value to his system
  for weighing.
    Some of the characteristics  of a
  Patent Balance, which  is  now in
  use in the city of Philadelphia for
  weighing 3000 lbs. compared with
  those which it must have possess-
  ed, if it had been made according
  to the description given in the En-
  cyclopedia,  vol.   17,   Plate   481,
   Fig.  1.
     1st. The  heaviest counterpoise
   belonging to the balance is 32 lbs.
   If it had been made on the prin-
   ciples of Fig. 1, the  counterpoise
   must have weighed  112 lb3.
  2d. The counterpoise to be lift-
ed from notch to notch on the ba-
lance, for finding the exact weight
of the goods, is only  16  lbs.  If
the construction had been on the
principles of Fig. 1, the  counter-
poise to be  lifted  from notch to
notch, must have weighed 112 lbs,
   3d. The smallest quantity which
can  be weighed with the above-
mentioned balance, is one pound.
If it had been made on the princi-
ples of Fig.  1, the smallest quan-
tity  it could have weighed would
be seventy pounds.
   4th. The number of notches on
the Balance, corresponding to one
pound each, are something short
 of seven and a half to an inch.....
 If it  had been made on the princi-
 ples  of Figure 1, the number  of
 notches corresponding to one lb.
 each, must have been fifty-one  to
 an inch.]
   BALDNESS, a defect of hair
 chiefly on the fore part of the head.
   Among the pre-disppsing causes
 of baldness, excessive indulgence
 in sensual gratifications,  and parti-
 cularly in wine and spirits, is per-
 haps the principal; though old age
 usually causes  the loss of hair even
 in the most regular livers.  In an-
 cient Rome,  the term  calvus,  or
 bald-pate, was frequently used  by
  way of reproach  for this deficien-
  cy,  which  then was in  great dis-
  repute.
    In modern times, divers arts are
  practised to conceal a bald head,
  and  a variety  of preparations are
  offered  to the credulous,  in  the
  daily prints, with the solemn pre-
  mise that they are infallibly calcu-
  lated to make the hair grow agahi.
   As these advertisers are,  compa-
   ratively speaking, harmless chemi-
   cal compounders, -we do not wish 
            BAL

to treat them with severity, so long
as they confine their medicines to
external applications.
  In  our opinion, baldness is in-
curable, when it arises from gene-
ral  debility, or an asthenic state of
the  system;  but  where  it takes
place in consequence of acute dis-
eases or during a tedious recovery
from malignant  fevers, the growth
of  the hair has frequently been
accelerated by the following  lini-
ment : take of the expressed juice
of burdock-root, virgin-honey, and
proof-spirits,  of each one  ounce,
mix them  together,  and  anoint
the barren  part of the  head seve-
ral times a day...at the same time
taking care to  cover  it with soft
flannel, in  order to promote per-
 spiration.
   BALL, in a  general sense, is a
round  or spherical  body, whether
formed by nature or art. Thus the
 terraqueous globe which  we inha-
 bit, appears to have assumed that
 form, in consequence of the revo-
 lutions  round  its own axis, not
 unlike a mass of clay, when turned
 in a circular direction.
    But as the term " Ball" is used
 in a great variety  of significations,
 we can here  introduce only those
 few, where it, is applied to econo-
 mical  purposes:  hence  we  shall
 take no notice  of fire-balls, light-
 balls, smoke-balls, stink-balls, sky-
 balls, water-balls, land-balls, Sec.
    BALLS, in the polished circles
 of society, are  those nocturnal  as-
 semblies deyoted chiefly to the en-
 tertainment of dancing. Whether
 public or private, the  institution of
 balls appeals to have been origin-
 ally intended for the conjoint pur-
 poses  of promoting health, by the
 exercise there mingled with mirth
 and social conversation, as well  as
 for the refinement of manners,  or
            BAL        165

what is more properly termed g"oo(f-
breeding.....(See that articled)
  In  large and populous  cities,
however, these excellent purposes
are often  in a  great measure de-
feated;  partly  by a deviation from
the genuine  principle on  which
balls were  first  introduced,  under
the sanction of wise governments,
and  partly by  connecting  this
amusement with collateral objects,
such  as  suppers,  masquerades,
card-parties, &c.
   Consistently with  our plan, we
beg  leave to   observe only, that
morality and health would be better
consulted,  if  all public balls and
masquerades  were  limited  to  a
certain number of visitors...exclud-
ing every  female who ventures  to
appear without a proper friend  or
relation; and,  upon  the whole, by
adopting  those  excellent  regula-
tions which already  subsist in the
city  of Bath, where  decorum  or
good-breeding is the " order of the
night."
   Horse-balls, among farriers, are
given only for the purpose of con-
veying into the stomach of that
nice and  noble animal, the more
disagreeable drugs which it would
not swallow in  drenches.   Hence
these balls should not exceed the
 size of a pullet's egg, and be dipp-
 ed in sweet oil previous to their ad-
 ministration,  that they may pass
 down the  throat with  greater faci-
 lity.   But as some  horses  have a
 straight gullet, and are remarkably
 averse to this method of taking
 medicine, it  would be preferable
 to give them  drenches  or mix-
 tures with bran, or  other mashes.
 See Farriery.
   Portable-balls for removing spots
 from  clothes in general, may  be
 thus prepared: take fuller's-earth
 perfectly dried, so that it crumbles 
166       BAL
BAL
into a powder; moisten it with the
clear juice of lemons, and add  a
small quantity of pure pearl-ashes;
then  work and knead the whole
carefully together, till it acquires
the consistence of a thick elastic
paste;  form  it  into  convenient
small balls, and expose them to the
heat of the  sun, in  which  they
ought to be completely dried.  In
this state, they are fit for use in the
manner as follows: First, moisten
the spot on your clothes with wa-
ter, then rub it with the ball just
described, and suffer it  again  to
dry in the sun; after having washed
the spot with pure water, it will
entirely disappear.
  Ballota.  See Horehouxd.
  BaVs (fuel). See Coal-Balls.
  BALM {Common),  or  Melissa
officinalis, L. is much cultivated by
our gardeners, on account of its
pleasant aromatic smell,resembling
that of the lemon, and its fragrant,
though roughish taste. See Wood-
ville's Med. Bot. pi. 147.
  Formerly, the balm was held in
very high estimation  : Paracel-
sus supposed it to possess virtues,
by which human life could be pro-
longed beyond the usual period.
In  modern times,  however,  the
properties of this  agreeable plant
are belter understood: it yields, by
distillation, a  small proportion of
an essential oil, of a yellowish co-
lour, and a very grateful smell.  A
few drops of  this oil,  diluted in  a
glass of simple water; or strong in-
fusions of the young shoots, drank
as tea, and continued for several
weeks, or months, have proved of
service to nervous and hypochon-
driacal patients, of a lax  and debi-
litated habit........Either  of  these
liquid preparations, when slightly
acidulated  with lemon juice, ac-
quire a fine  reddish  colour,  and
may be taken  with advantage in
dry, parching fevers, as well as in
cases of distressing flatulency, at-
tended with eructations, where the
first passages have previously been
opened.
  BALM  {Purple and  White), or
Mclittis grandifiora,  L.  another
species of the balm; it is delineat-
ed in English Botany, t. 636, and
in Curt. Lond. fuse. 6. t. 30.
  We have mentioned both these
native plants,  not on account of
their diuretic properties, for which
they were once celebrated, but the
former, as  affording'fine aromatic
flowers, which  are eagerly visited
by bees; and the latter, as being a
fine ornament to a flower-garden.
  BALSAM, or  Native  Balsam,
an  oily-resiuous fluid, oozing  out
of certain plants, either spontane-
ously, or by incision.
  There are a variety of balsams,
denominated according to the sub-
stances from which they are  ob-
tained, such as the Canada, Co-
paiva, Gilead, Peru, Tolu, Sec.
of which we shall  give an account
under their respective heads.
  BALSAMICS,  a term used in
an indefinite manner, but literally
signifying  mitigating  substances,
and very often applied to medicines
of very different qualities, such as
emollients, detergents, restoratives,
Sec.   It appears to be a general
character of balsarnics, that they
are hot and pungent, like  the na-
tural  balsams  and gums; while
their internal use tends to increase
the vital heat  of  the system.......
Hence they are commonly admi-
nistered in  those complaints which
originate from a diseased action, or
a defective  state of the interior or-
gans ; and  as they can only be in-
troduced  to those parts  by  the
stomach and the circulation of the 
BAM
BAN
167
 fluids, it will be easily understood
 that these  slowly operating medi-
 cines cannot be productive of great
 effects, unless continued for a con-
 siderable time.
   BALSAMINE,  or Touch-me-
 not, the Imfiatiens noli-tangere, L.
 is  one of the  poisonous  native
 plants, growing in moist and shady
 places. Its stalks are about eighteen
 inches high, and its yellow flowers
 appear in August....See Wither-
 ing, 263.
   The  capsules of this plant, when
 touched by the hand, burst  and
 throw  out their  seed  with velo-
 city ;  whence it has received its
 name.
   Balsamine Seeds possess the de-
 leterious  property  of  producing
 violent purging,  when  swallowed
 inadvertently, especially  by chil-
 dren; and inevitable death, when
 taken to any extent.  Dr. Unzer
 asserts, that the bread baked in an
 oven which had been heated with
 the dry stalks of this plant, poison-
 ed, and'nearly destroyed a whole
 family.
   In dying, the leaves and flowers
 of the balsamine, according to M.
 Ckc 11 stein,  impart to  wool  a
 beautiful yellow colour.
   [This plant is also found in  the
 United  States.]
   BAMBOE HABIT, an inven-
 tion of the  Chinese, by the use of
 which a person  unskilled  in  the
 art of swimming, may easily keep
 himself above water. The Chinese
 merchants, when going on a voy-
 age,  always provide themselves
 with this simple apparatus, to save
 their lives, in cases of danger from
 shipwreck.  It is  constructed by
 placing four bamboos horizontally,
 two  before and two  behind  the
 body of each person, so that they
project about twenty-eight inches;
these are crossed on each side by
two others, and the whole proper-
ly secured, leaving an intermediate
space for the  body.   When thus
formed, the  person in danger slips
it over his head, and ties it securely
to the  waist:  by which simple
means he cannot possibly sink.
  Its figure  is here subjoined.
   BANDAGE, in surgery, a fillet,
 or roller, used in dressing and bind-
 ing up wounds, restraining danger-
 ous bleedings, and in joining frac-
 tured or dislocated bones.
   The modern and more  enlight-
 ened surgeons have, in some of the
 most  important operations, relin-
 quished the use of tight bandages,
 from a conviction of their tendency
 to do more harm than good. Tims
 it is cerlain, tnat the most expedi-
 tious  cures»of broken limbs, ha-va
 generally''been effected  without
 any bandages;  yet, as there is  a
 necessity of keeping  the  injured
 limb in a steady posture, we she.;'
 expatiate on this subject under the
 head  cf  Fractures.......See also
 Ligatures, and IVluniquet.
   BANDY-LEGS, a  vernacular
 expression applied to distorted or
 crooked Icps.   In some cases this
 is a natural defect in the,birth,
though it may more frequently be
ascribed to an improper treatment
of infants,  by  indolent  or  offciout 
168       BAN
BAN
nurses.   The  former  will some-
times suffer an  infant,  scarcely
twelve months old,  to  stand  for
hoars on its legs, while confined in
a chair,  or  an absurd  machinery
contrived for  walking:  the  latter
are too impatient to give early spe-
cimens  of a  child's vigour, and
daily try experiments with its ten-
der legs, before they are able  to
sustain the weight of the body.
  When an  infant  is born with
bandy-legs,  the timely and judici-
ous use of the bandage  may,  by
imperceptible  degrees, correct this
defect; but it requires more patience
and perseverance  than people in
general are able or disposed to be-
stow.   Hence we cannot suppress
a remark made by the ingenious
Levret, that this species of neg-
lect is attended with  more import-
ant consequences to the  female
than the male sex:  for,  as  defor-
mities of the lower extremities are
very frequently connected with si-
milar mal-conformations of those
bones which  form the waist,  we
may hence account for the repeated
abortions in  many  mothers who
pay the strictest attention to diet,
and every other circumstance, dur-
ing the  period of gestation.
  This unfortunate deformity, how-
 ever, cannot  be easily  remedied
 after the child has arrived at a cer-
 tain  age; and  we believe  all  at-
 tempts would be fruitless, and even
 hurtful  after the  sixth or seventh
 year: yet there are instances on
 record,  where Nature, unassisted
 by art,  has occasionally performed
 a cure.  Dr. Unzer relates  the
 case  of a  young man, who was
 born and reared with legs  so dis-
 torted, that he was obliged to walk
 on the  sides of his feet and heels ;
 but during his apprenticeship with
 a taylor, sitting continually with
crossed legs, he remarked that his
lower extremities began gradually
to recover  their natural direction,
and  that his ancles in  particular
spontaneously  returned  to their
proper position.  He at length es-
caped from his master, entered on
the list of warriors, and thus gave
the most convincing proof of the
soundness  of his limbs.
   BANE-BERRIES, the produc-
tion of the  Herb-Christopher,
or Actaa spicata, L. [a native plant
of the United States,] which is in
a  high degree poisonous.......See
Withering,  483.
   Although some foreign  writers
assert that  this plant  does  not
possess the  deleterious properties
which are attributed to it by Lin-
njeus, yet we have reason to be-
lieve that its great astringency must
be highly detrimental to cattle.
   BANK,  in commerce, signifies
a common repository, where per-
sons consent to keep their money:
it is also applied to certain societies
or communities,who take charge of
 the money of others, either for the
 purpose of accumulating it by in-
 terest, or preserving it in safety.
   There are two principal kinds of
 banks ; either  public, consisting of
 a society of monied men, who, be-
 ing duly incorporated according to
 law, agree to deposit a considerable
 fund, or joint stock, to be employ-
 ed for their use ; by lending money
 upon good security, buying and sel-
 ling bullion, discounting  bills of
 exchange, 8cc, or private, which
 are established by individuals, or
 co-partners, who deal in the same
 way as the former, upon their own
 stock and credit.
    The greatest bank of circulation
 in Europe, or perhaps in the world,
 is that of England.  The Company
 was incorporated by an act of par- 
BAN
BAN        169
liament, in the fifth and sixth years
of William and Mary.
   Private banking companies have
also, within these 30 years, -been
formed  in  almost every consider-
able town in  Great-Britain ; their
purchases and paymentsof all kinds
are made by notes, and thus the
country business is in a great de-
gree carried on by paper currency.
It is almost generally believed, that
the community at large has deriv-
ed  considerable benefit from this
artificial  method of  increasing the
circulating medium : a proposition,
the truth or fallacy  of which,  it
would not be easy to demonstrate.
   BANK-FENCE,  in  rural eco-
nomy,  signifies the  inclosure of
ground with an artificial bank.  In
places where flat stones cannot be
procured,  the  most  durable  and
advantageous method of fencing
in arable or pasture lands,  is with
turf or  green  sods,  about five or
si'  inches  thick ;  the foundation
f t'e feet  wide ; the  middle filled
up with earth;  the top about three
feet broad, and planted with pro-
per  shrubs  or dwarf-wood.  As
every agriculturist  is acquainted
with the manner* of  constructing
such fences, we shall only remark,
that they are,in many respects,pre-
ferable  to  the  common hedges ;
because  the  latter,  with   their
ditches cover an almost incredible
quantity of soil, while they neither
afford sufficient shelter  for cattle,
nor can the herbage growing con-
tiguous to them, be  compared to
that generally produced on  the
sloping sides of banks, where net-
tles and other aquatic  weeds would
not obstruct the vegetation of the
ii'.jre useful plants.  It is, how-
ever,  to be regetted, that manual
labour in this country is at present
|io very expensive,  that few farm-
     V0L. I.
ers, excepting those who hoard up
their grain, and wait for the maxi-
mum,  or highest price, are either
inclined or able, to defray the first
and unavoidable expense connect-
ed with the system ofbank-fenci.g.
  A subject of such extensive im-
portance,  we humhiy conceive, is
entitled to every attention from a
wise and  economical  legislature,
or at least deserves to be conducted
on similar principles, and with the
same  patriotic spirit,  as has late-
ly been displayed  in the different
schemes of inland navigation.
  BANKS  of  Rivers,  are those
natural boundaries within  which
every stream is confined, accord-
ing to  the magnitude  and velocity
of its current.   But as the course
of rivers is frequently rapid and ir-
regular, taking different directions,
and often turning at acute angles,
extensive  inundations,  especially
in high  spring tides,  necessarily
happen from  the overflowing of
their banks.  Hence it is of the
utmost importance to every inha-
bitant in the vicinity of rivers, to
possess some knowledge  of  the
proper  method of ^ forming em-
bankments, for  the prevention of
floods.
  Although we cannot, consistent-
ly with our limits,  attempt a full
mathematical  analysis,  yet  we
shall lay down a few general hints,
and maxims, by  which the reader
may be guided  in  the practical
view of this subject.             .,
   1.  The  principal  point to  be
ascertained, is the elevation, or the
heights  necessary  to  be given to
such banks. This must be regu-
lated by the additional quantity of
water, which according to former
experience, the river brings down
during its freshes ; and likewise by
the distance, at which the artificial
     Z 
 170        BAN

bank is to be constructed, from the
natural boundary of the stream....
On this important point, mistaken
economy frequently defeats its own
prii;osc.  If,  therefore, the em-
bankment is to be raised at some
dibiance from the natural banks of
the river,  both  a  comparatively
smaller height and base  will be re-
quired ; the saving will be in the
duplicate proportion of the former,
and the  works will be likewise the
more durable, nearly in the same
ratio; because,  by  enlarging  the
additional bed given to the swollen
river, its velocity  and power of
ruining  the  works are, likewise,
accordingly diminished.  Unless,
therefore, the freshes of the stream
be  loaded with fine  sand, which
might decompose the turf, the em-
bankment should always be under-
taken at a  considerable distance
from  the edge  of  a river.  By
placing  the  artificial  bank at half
the breadth of the stream, from its
natural banks, its channel will thus
be nearly doubled, and the detach-
ed space, in general, afford excel-
lent pasturage.
  2. T he next circumstance to be
attended to,  is, that the river will
rise higher, when embanked, than
it did at the time when  it was suf-
fered to overflow ; and hence  the
difficulty of ascertaining to what
height it may rise, from the great-
est  swell which has been observed
in its former  floods.  For this rea-
son, the utmost rise in some gorge,
where the river could not extend
farther, should be accurately mark-
ed, as far as can be remembered by
the oldest inhabitants.  Now  the
increased  section  in  this  place
should be measured;  and, as  the
water rises  in  a much  greater
proportion  than  the  section  the
latter must be increased neariv in
            BAN

the same proportion as the gorge
already mentioned.   Those  who
neglect this method  of regulating
the proper height of the embank-
ment,  by  the  greatest swell that
has in former floods been observed
in the  plain, are in danger of con-
structing their banks too low, and
consequently rendering  them to-
tally useless.
   3.  The  whole  embankment
should, as much  as possible, be
conducted, in an uniform line, and
by the concurrence of the proprie-
tors of both banks ; because the
general effect to be aimed at, con-
sists in rendering the course of the
stream straighter than it was be-
fore.   All bends should be made
less.abrupt,  by  keeping the em-
bankment farther from  the river
in all convex lines of the  natural
bank,  and approaching to it near-
er, where the latter is concave....
Thus, the  action of  the waters on
the embankment will be  consider-
ably diminished, and the duration
of the  work insured. On the same
principles,  we  ought to proceed
in  fencing  rivulets,  or  brooks,
which empty themselves  into a
larger river ; and whatever bends
are given at its  mouth to the two
lines of embankment, they should
always be made less  acute than
those of the natural brook ; at the
same time, an opportunity should
be taken, of reducing an angle of
this transverse brook, or, in other
words,  of conducting  it  with a
more gentle  flexion  into  the main
river.
   4.  Particular care should be
taken, to cover  the  outside of the
dyke with compact pieces  of turf,
or green sods, closely united.  For,
if it admits the water,there is great
danger of drenching the  interior
and more porous part of the wa$ 
BAN
BAR        171
 while the statical pressure of this
 fluid body tends to burst the bank
 on  the  land  side ;  and thus the
 labour of months or years may be
 suddenly destroyed.   Hence, too
 great attention cannot be bestowed
 on making and keeping it perfectly
 tight ; so  that the  whole be one
 continued fine turf, and every bare
 spot must without delay be care-
 fully covered with firm and fresh
 sods: nor should the rat and mice-
 holes  be neglected.
   Lastly, it deserves to be remark-
 ed,  that a dry  earthen bank, not
 firmly conjoined  by  grass-roots,
 will scarcely maintain itself against
 the pressure  of the  water  with a
 slope of forty-five degrees, while a
 canal conveying a moderate stream
 cannot  be supported,  even w ith
 such  a  declivity.  Those banks,
 however, the  base of which is as
 four to three of their height, will
 stand  without danger in a  moist
 soil: and this is not only the slope
 usually  given them,  but also ob-
 served in the spontaneous opera-
 tions of Nature, in the channels
 which she forms in conducting rills
 and  rivulets  through  the higher
 and steeper grounds.  This natural
 form possesses both  mechanical
 and mathematicalproperties,which
 justly claim the admiration of those
 who adopt her beneficent hints and
 maxims.
   [The  only  method of keeping
 banks  impervious to water,  is to
puddle them.   That is, when  about
 two feet  of the bank is built up on
 each  side,  let  the intermediate
 space, amounting to three fourths
 of the  whole width be  made  thus.
 Put  in the common dirt or earth
 in  the vicinity of it, to which add
water enough  to make it  a  fluid
paste.   Let this be  well raked
backward and forward by iron rakes
  with the teeth not much apart; con-
  stantly add to, and rake the whole
  of the middle part of the bank, till
  it is completed. On well and labo-
  rious raking of common earth, in
  a fluid state, depends the goodness
  of a bank.  The sides may be sod-
  ded.  When well raked, moles find
  it difficult to get through; but where
  moles are in a bank, they n.ust be
  exterminated; for the method of
  doing this...See the article Mole.]
   BANKS  of the  Sea, are those
  inequalities or elevations  of the
  ground or  bottom of the ocean,
  that may be compared to ridges or
  hills,  with which the land is moie
  or  less intersected.   Sea-banki
  sometimes  project above the sur-
  face of the water, or at least leave
  this element  so   shallow,  as  to
  prevent  a  vessel from remaining
  afloat.
   Sand-banks are very common in
 the  North and Baltic Seas,  so that
 navigators  are obliged constantly
 to use the plummet and compass,
 to discover their distance and exact
 situation.  As, however, these ele-
 vations  frequently endanger the
 lives of our brave mariners, we
 have inserted this article, not with
 a view of intimidating those naval
 heroes, but for the information of
 persons whose business  obliges
 them to cross the seas before men-
 tioned, that they may provide them-
 selves   with  an apparatus  by no
 means expensive, and described un-
 der the head of Bamuck-Habit.
   BARBFL,  in  ichthyology,  a
 genus  of fresh-water fishes, com-
 prising 31 species, which are prin-
 cipally distinguished by the num-
 ber of  rays  in  the vent-fin : their
 general characters are, a toothless
 mouth  ;  three rays  in the gills ; a
 smooth and white body ;  and the
bellyjfins  have  frequently jiine 
172        BAR
BAR
rays.   The  following ten are the
most remarkable species : 1. The
Carp ; 2. The Larbel (of which we
have here subjoined a more parti-
cular account) ;  3.  The Tench;
4. The Gudgeon ; 5. The Bream ;
6. The Roach; 7. The Dace ; 8.
The  Chub;  9. The I leak;  and
10. The Golden  FiAi.....for a de-
scription of which, we refer to the
order of the alphabet.
   The Barbel, or Earbus, is one of
the coarsest fresh-water fish.   Its
roe is not  wholesome,  and ought
therefore to be thrown away, as the
eating of it is frequently attended
with  nausea,  vomiting,  purging,
Sec.  The natural  history of this
fish has  escaped, the attention of
the ancients,  though it is suffici-
ently curious.
   Barbels  resemble pike in their
 general shape, the head excepted;
 for the upper jaw of the former is
more projecting, and they are also
 provided with four dependent fibres
 or rays  in  the gills, with which,
 while  dexterously  playing,  they
 allure their prey, consistir.g of in-
 sects and small fishes.   Their dor-
 sel fin is armed with a remarkably
 strong and sharp  spine, serving
 them as  means of defence or at-
 tack,  and with  which  they  fre-
 quently cut the nets,  or when in-
 cautiously handled, inflict severe
 wounds on their captors.
    In size, the barbel rarely exceeds
  the length of three feet, and weighs
  from twelve to eighteen,or twenty-
  five pounds.   Its  most frequent
  places of abode are  the sides of
  hollow banks in  calm  and deep
  waters.   In the months of May
  and June, it deposits its spawn on
  the stones lining the beds of deep
  rivers, and between which, as well
  as poles, roots of trees, Sic. barbels
  harbour during winter,  in a com-
pact and social state.   Not unlike
swine, they dig and excavate the
soft banks with their noses,are fond
of animal carcasses (particularly of
human flesh,  according to C. P.
Funke,  a  reputed German  natu-
ralist), and  become  exceedingly
fat by living on the refuse of flaXK
steeped in stagnant waters. Hence
we may also account for their un-
palatable,  and,  perhaps, unwhole-
some flesh.  They are so tame, that
they may  be easily caught by the
hand ; though we do not suggest
 so dangerous a method of taking
 them....lor the particulars relative
 to the method of angling for barbel,
 we  refer to  the article  Carp.
   BARBLES, or BARBS, in far-
 riery, are those small excrescences
 frequently  appearing  under  the
 tongue  of horses, as well as black
 cattle :  they  are known by  two
 paps, which may be discovered by
 drawing  the  tongue aside.  Few
 animals arrive  aj; a considerable
 age, without  being  sometimes
 troubled with this complaint, which
 seldom proves hurtful, unless the
 part affected become inflamed by
 neglect, and  the acrimonious hu-
 mours  there collected should cor-
 rode the tongue,  and produce such
 a degree of pain, as  to prevent the
 animal from taking its proper food.
    The method of curing this dis-
 temper,  simply consists in cutting
 the  excrescence  close off with a
  sharp pair  of scissars, or a knife,
  washing the  wound several times
  a day with  brandy, or port-wine,
  and vinegar, taking care, however,
  that no hard food but fresh grass,
  green herbs, and mashes, be given
  for several days, till  the raw pait
  be  healed.
     In those cases where black cut-
  tle are subject to a species of barbs,
  which grow quickly,  and hang in 
BAR
BAR       173
the form of fleshy pimples under
the tonge,  they  ought first  to be
dipt off", as before stated, then pro-
perly chafed with garlic and com-
mon salt beaten  together, and the
mouth afterwards gently washed
and rubbed with soft linen, dipt in
lukewarm wine,or brandy and water.
   But if cows or bullocks happen
to lose their appetite, without any
external  marks  of  barbies,  M.
CHOMEL,in his  Family Dictionary
reccommendsthe juicp of garlic, or
onions, mixed up with sallad-oil,
to be introduced into the nostrils,
every morning : this simple me-
thod, it is asserted, will restore the
natural craving  for food.
   BARILLA',  or BARILHA, is,
properly, the Spanish name of a
plant cultivated  for its ashes, from
which the purest mineral alkali is
obtained; but likewise signifies that
particular sort of vegetable  alkali
which is principally imported from
 Spain.
   There are four plants cultivated
by the  Spaniards for this  useful
purpose, namely, the Barilla, Ga-
zul, Goza, and Salicor. But,  as this
 account appears to  be  defective,
 we shall first present the  reader
 with a  list  of  those  vegetables
 from which  good barilla  has been
 extracted in Britain ; and next give
 a description of the most expedi-
 tious and profitable method of pre-
 paring this  valuable material, for
 the various processes of washing,
 bleaching, Sec.
    Among the British plants, from
 which barilla or mineral alkali may
 be obtained, we shall at present
 enumerate the  following, and then
 describe them in their alphabetical
 places :
    I. Two species  of the  Sasda,
 L. or Salt-wort.
  2. Two species of the  Salicor-
nia, L. or Glass-wort, and Sam-
phire.
  3.  The  Zostcra  marina, L. or
Glass-wreck.
  4. Two species of the Triglochin,
L. or  Arrow-grass.
  5. The Che no; odium album, and
maritimum, L. or White and Sea
Goose-Foot.
  6.  The Atriplex  portulacoides,
andlittoralis, L. or Se a-Pur slan e,
and Grass-Orach.
  7. The Plant ago maritima, L. or
Sea-Plantai\'.
   8. The Tamarix  gallica, L. or
French Tamarisk.
   9.  The  Eryngium  maritimum, (
L. or Sea Holly.
   10. The Sedum  Telephium, L.
or Orpine  Stonecrop, or Live-
 long.
   11. The Dipsacus fullonvm,  L.
or Manured  Teasel ;  and,
   12. All the species of the Cyna-
ra and  Carduun, L.  or the Arti-
choke and  Thistle, when cul-
tivated either on  the  sea-shore,
or  in any soil irrigated with sea-
 water.
   Barilla,  as an article of trade,
ought to possess the following pro-
perties : it  should be  firm, hard,
 and  h<:avy,  though porous; dry,
 and sounding on percussion ; of a
 blueish  colour, and  impart,  on
 breaking it,  a flavour slightly re-
 sembling that of the  violet.  By
 these criteria, it may be easily dis-
 tinguished from pot-ash, though it
 would be difficult to procure a ba-
 rilla  consisting purely of mineral
 alk-ili; as the very best sort of the
 former ^ener.diy contains a small
 proportion of common salt.  Ac-
 cording to the experiments made
 by Mr. Ki,i\van, and published  in
 the first volume of the Traiuaciont 
174
BAR
BAR
 of the Royal Irish Academy, in 1789,
 the barilla exported  from Spain,
 contains  carbonic  acid,  carbon,
 lime, clay, and silicious earth ; but
 such as is very pure, also contains
 both common  and Glauber's salt,
 and water.  From the small quan-
 tity of  carbonic  acid  discoverable
 in  Spanish  barilla,  he concludes
 that  its mineral  alkali is  for  the
 most part combined with  it  in  a
 pure or caustic state ;  and that its
 blueish colour must be ascribed to
 the matter of c.trbon :  in a similar
 way, he attributes the green or blue
 colour of pot-ash to its  combination
 with magnesia.
   This i;v)o\t  .nt article of com-
 merce, is, in proportion to i.:> de-
 gree of purity and s'.rt-ngth,  class-
 ed   according  to  the  followm^
 places, fro n which it is import-d :
 1.  The  trarilla  made  at Alexan-
 dria; 2. That from Alicant ;  .3.
 Cartkagena ;  and  i.  Bourde, or
 Smyrna.
  Various methods and schemes
 have, in this country, excited the
 ingenuity ox speculative  men, in
 the production of this valuable sub-
 stance,  for which large  sums'are
 annually paid at foreign  markets.
 Those of our readers, who apply
 their attention to  experiments of
 this useful  nature, will perhaps,
 be gratified by the following spe-
 cification  of Mr.  James King's
 patent for his new-invented British
 barilla, granted in 1780.   As his
 exclusive privilege is now expired,
 we  shall communicate the process
 nearly in the patentee's own words.
 He first takes a quantity of ashes
 obtained from burning the loppings
 or  branches of   ash-wood,  oak,
 beech, elm, alder, and any other
 kind of green wood  and  bramble,
 in the  proportion of one-fourth  ;
and a similar quantity of ashes ob-
 tained by burning the green vege-
 tables, known by the name of fern,
 breeon, bean  and  pea-straw,  and
 whin ashes ; also common field and
 highway thistles; the stalks of rape
 and mustard seed ; and the bent,
 or rushes, that  grow by the sea-
 shore. One half of the ingredients
 being thus procured, they are then
 passed through a fine sieve, placed
 on  a boarded floor, and carefully
 mi.'itd wi  '■ -.\ similar quantity (mak-
 ing the ether hall) of soap-boilers'
 waste ashes,  which must  be inti-
 ma'f'h-  '•' ;ir\d  together with a
 shovci.   .    '■■  -dds one huric  red
 weight  of  o -, ., i'.me  to  twelve
 times that .,...., .-y  of the other
 material -  a;.d likewise  intermixes
 thi.-m f .^roughly.   After this pre-
 paration,  ihe  vl.ole is put into
 1i :;<..' sq^i.ie iron pans,  and a suf-
 ficient  quantity  of sea-water  is
 poured  on it  to dissolve the lime,
 ashes, &c. while the mass is stirred
 with an iron  -ake, to effect a more
 minute intermixture.  A coal  fire
 is now lighted under the pans, and
 kept  briskly  burning  forty-eight
 hours, without intermission ; at  the
 same time, the pans are continually
 supplied with sea-water, in order to
 impregnate  these materials with
 a greater  degree of the saline qua-
 lity/till they acquire a proper con-
 sistence for calcination in a melt-
 ing furnace, known by the name of
 calcar.  This  apparatus  is con-
 structed in the usual manner,  ex-
 cept that there is a wall  above the
 grate-room, to  separate  the fire
 from the  materials laid upon  the
bottom.   An  intense  degree   of
 heat is used in thiscalcar,by means
of which the saline mass boiled in
thepan iscompletely dissolved, and
afterwards kept in a state of fusion
for one hour, during which time,
the volatile  part is expelled, and 
            BAR

a fixed alkaline salt remains : thus,
being cooled in iron pans, produces
our British barilla, resembling that
imported from Spain.  Mr. King
also declares,  in  the preamble to
his patent, that this  new  chemical
compound is calculated to serve as
a   substitute  for manufacturing
crown and broad window-glass,and
also bottles, as well as for making
soap  and  alum  to much greater
advantage, than  any other material
hitherto used in the production of
those commodities.
   BARING of Trees, in horticul-
ture, is the removing Of  the earth
from the  roots of those  which are
planted in a dry soil.  This opera-
tion should be carefully performed
 in autumn, without injuring the
 roots, around  the  trunk, so that
 the winter-rains and  snow-waters
 may  penetrate deeper  in the
 ground,  which, towards  spring,
 should be covered  up again with
 manure ;  because, at that season,
 the  frequent  night-frosts  might
 otherwise prove destructive to the
 tree.
   BARK,  in  the   dissection of
 plants, is the exterior coat of trees,
 corresponding  to the skin of ani-
 mals. As these are  furnished With
 a cellular membrane  covering all
 the fleshy parts, and usually replete
 with white granulated  fat, which
 can be liquified only  by heat; so
 are plants surrounded with a bark
 abounding with oily juices,  by
 means of which, Nature has ren-
 dered them inaccessible to  cold ;
 because the spiiuke of the ice are
 prevented from fixing and freezing
 the fluids, which circula'e through
 the vc:isJ:i. Hence it ii. thitever-
 gu-ens continue their verdure at all
 seasons of the  year, because their
 bark contains an unusual  proportion
            BAR        175

of oil,  more than is dissipated by
the heat of the sun.
  Dr.  Darwin considers the bark
of trees to  be  similar to that of
their roots, of which he conceives
it to constitute a  part; inasmuch
as it consists of an intertexture of
the vessels that descend  from the
plume of each individual  bud to
its  radicle, and form its  Caudex.
The root-bark, however,  is provid-
ed  with lymphatics,  for the  ab-
sorption of  water and  nutritious
juices  from the earth, and is cover-
ed  with a moister cuticle  ; while
that of the stem has similar vessels
for absorbing  humidity  from  the
air, and is furnished with  a drier
cuticle.
   Beside the  purposes  to which
the bark of trees may be applied,
and which have already  been enu-
merated, there is  a considerable
quantity of  mucilaginous or nutri-
tious matter contained in the inner
rind, or bark of the  holly,  elm,
and also in  that of the hawthorn,
gooseberry, furze,  or other trees
armed with prickles, for preventing
the depredations of animals.  This
mucilage, he conceives,  may be
used in times of scarcity,  as food,
either for man or for  cattle, or at
least for the purpose of  fermenta-
tion.  He remarks, that the inner
bark of elm-trees,  when stripped
off in the  spring,  and  boiled  in
water, may doubtless be converted
into a palatable small-beer, with the
addition of yeast.
   The quantity of bark  on a tree
may be increased by pinching oft'
the flower-buds, as  soon as  they
 appear;  but,   if the  former  be
wouncleci,  by any  accident, the
 ed^es of the  dead rind oug'.l to be
 carefully cut  off, without  injuring
 the living bark ;  and  a mixture of 
17G       BAR
BAR
white lead,  and boiled  oil  (See
Canker,) be applied, to preserve
the wounded parts from air, moist-
ure, and insects.   The following
method of cure, which  is stated to
have been   successfully practised
where thebark.of a tree had recent-
ly  been torn off, we give  on the
authority of Dr. Darwin.  It con-
sists simply in  again fastening the
same piece of bark,  or in tying
down another   piece from a tree,
belonging to the same species ; the
edges of the wound and bark being
carefully a justed ; in consequence
of which, the whole  will combine
in the same manner as the vessels
of a scyon unite with those of the
bark belonging to  the engrafted
stock.
   The bark of plants  is liable to
peculiar diseases, as  well as to be
preyed  upon   by  insects, which
frequently   prove  destructive  to
the tree.  One of its most com-
mon enemies  is  the bark worm,
which  infests  and perforates  its
substance ; and unless the parts af-
fected be cautiously removed by the
knife, and  the  superficial wounds
plastered over  with  a  mixture of
wax and turpentine, (or Forsyth's
Composition) the stem will in pro-
cess of  time  become cankered,
stunted in  its  growth, and  ulti-
mately  fall a sacrifice to the dis-
ease.
   M. Buffon has ascertained, by
repeated experiments, that  trees
snipped of their  bark the whole
length  of the  stems, do  not live
longer than three or four years....
It dese: ves, however, to  be  re-
marked, that when  thus deprived
of the  whole bark, and suffered to
die gradually, they afford a more
compact  heavy,  and  more dura-
ble timber,  than if they  had been
felled in their healthy  state.  The
reason of this  improvement is ob-
vious, as those oily and  astringent
fluids, which are secreted  for the
uniform nourishment of the bark,
are absorbed, and deposited on the
fibres of the wood, which,  during
the progressive dissolution of vege-
table life, acquire what  nature had
provided for the supply  of the ex-
ternal integuments.   Yet there is
one'disadvantage arising from the
privation of the bark, perhaps tan-
tamount to  the additional value of
the timber, namely, that the far-
ther increase,  or growth  of the
tree, is for three or  four years ef-
fectually checked.
   The barking of trees ought, in
our climate, to be  performed in
spring from about  the middle of
April to that of May ;  because at
that time the circulating sap facili-
tates this operation, which in dry
seasons, is not only attended with
additional labour, but the bark al-
so will be  of inferior value.
   With respect to  the extent of
stripping the oak-bark from trees,
a  wide difference of opinion ap-
pears to prevail.   Some owners of
large tracts of wood, and great ad-
mirers of timber, cautiously pro-
hibit the removal of the hark near-
er than six inches to the ground ;
about which spot they suppose the
tree to be felled : while others en-
join it to be done as near the ground
as possible, provided that  in this
operation there be  no part of the
root laid bare.  Mr. S.  Hayes.
the author of an excellent  " Prac-
tical  Treatise  on planting," price
7s. published  in  1796,  inclines  to
the latter opinion ; and adds, that
the advocates for the former me-
thod would, on more accurate in-
vestigation, save themselves much
unnecessary trouble, to little pur-
pose, if hot to their material injury. 
             BAR

   The inner  and  more  delicate
 part of the bark, especially that of
 the ash and  lime trees, was  used
 by  the ancients, for writing and
 communicating their sublime ideas
 to posterity, prior to the invention
 of paper.
   In economy, as well as in many
 of the practical arts, the utility of
 different  barks is very great  and
 extensive ;   for instance,  that  of
 the  oak  for  tanning leather,  and
 manuring the soil;  the Peruvian,
 cinnamon, quassia, willow-bark, &c.
 in medicine  and  for culinary uses;
 that of the alder  and walnut trees
 in dyeing ;  and others again for
 a variety of  purposes, such as the
 bark of the  cork tree, &c. &c...
 Without detailing  the  particular
 and curious  processes adopted by
 foreign nations,  for rendering the
 barks of various trees essentially
 useful, we shall  briefly state, that
 the  Japanese make  their beautiful
 paper of the bark obtained from a
 species of the mulberry tree, called
 morus ; the  natives of Otaheite
 manufacture their cloth of the same
 tree, as well  as the bread-fruit
 and  the cocoa trees ; the Russians
 and  Poles  produce their shoes
 rrorn  by  the   peasantry,  twist
 ropes and form a variety  of other
 useful articles, of the inner bark of
 the  lime tree ; the Germans have,
 for the last twenty years, convert-
 ed the bark of the common black
 and  white mulberry  trees into ex-
 cellent paper.....An  analytical ac-
 count of the last mentioned article,
 interspersed  with many new and
 curious facts, we propose to  give
 in the sequel.
   A patent was lately granted to
 Mr.  Whitcv, for  his improved
 mill, calculated to grind bark  for
the use of tanners. It is performed
by a number of cutting ^wheels,
     VOL.  I.
              BAR        177

 that are fixed upon axles, and chop
 the bark  to  pieces;  which  then
 fall through an eye,  and pass be-
 tween two  large  cast-iron  plates,
 with grooves or  furrows that are
 cut either hollow, or are bevelled
 square.  The lower plate is made
 to  move in a  circular direction,
 with a view to facilitate the  en-
 trance of the bark into the eye....
 These plates are set in motion by
 the mechanism commonly employ-
 ed in mills.
   This  machinery, when  moved
 by a horse, grinds 3  cwt. of bark,
 in  one hour ; but as  the plates
 which constitute the chief inven-
 tion in this mill,  may be made of
 any circumference, accordingto the
 power by which they are impelled
 the quantity  ground in a certain
 time, will vary, in proportion to
 their size....The advantages stated
 to be derived from Mr. Whitby's
 contrivance are,  a saving  of the
 bark, and greater expedition in the
 process  of tanning :  for the rind
 thus reduced, without  being  pul-
 verized,  spends  more rapidly and
 completely  in  the pits, than that
 prepared in mills  of the common
 construction.
  BARLEY, or Hordeum, L. one
 of  the  most useful  culmiferous
 plants, producing  mealy  and sac-
 charine grains, which are princi-
 pally used for malting and brewing
 beer. As the different species and
 varieties of barley  are but imper-
 fectly described in English botani-
 cal books,  we shall here attemot
 to give a more satisfactory account,
 and also  state, in a summary man-
 ner, the native places and qualities
 of the various sorts.
   1. The  Hordeum distichum (s.
oestivuin,)!^. or Summer Barley.
 It bears  flat e.u.s, divided into two
rows, containing large grains, and
     A a 
178        BAR
BAR
grows wild in Tartary, on the banks
of the Saamara ; in the vicinity of
Babylon;  and  in Sicily.  This
species  requires a loose  rich soil,
and must be sown in dry weather,
in [March ;] there are two varie-
ties :
   a. The Hordeum distichum nu-
dum, or the Large Naked Barley,
bearing smooth, heavy grains, that
afford excellent flour, which, when
mixed with that of rye,  makes a
very  palatable nourishing bread,
and may therefore be used for pud-
dings and pastry. The beer brew-
ed of it is of superior  richness and
flavour ;  it likewise yields, on dis-
tillation,  a  greater proportion of
spirituous liquor than rye : hence
it deserves to  be preferably culti-
vated.
   b. The Hordeum frutescens, or
Bushy Barley, one grain  of which
often  produces  ten stalks,  with
broad dark green leaves: it is sown
late, and generally about  Midsum-
mer ; soon  ripens ; is more proli-
fic, but produces  smaller grains
than the  former variety, and easily
degenerates. The  Germans sow it
very thinly, and in a moist, heavy
soil.
 2. The Hordeum vulgare (S. po-
lyslichon,) L. or the Common Bar-
ley of four  rows.  It is productive
of longer, though thinner ears and
grains, than the first species : and
as it thrives well on inferior soils,
it is frequently cultivated in  pre-
ference to the  former. In various
parts of Germany, and especially
in Thuringia, the common barley
is  very generally sown in autumn,
and is not affected by the severest
winters.
   A variety of this species is the
Hordeum coeleste, or the  Walla.
chian Barley, also called Egyp-
tian Corn. It produces ears and
fruit in eveiy respect similar to the
former, except that it easily sheds
its grains: from  which  excellent
bread is made in Germany, as like-
wise cakes, groats, &c. Its sowing
time is the month of March when
it  is  deposited in a well-manured
middle kind of soil.
   3. The Hordeum hexastichon, L.
or Six-rowed Barley.  This sort
is  uncommonly fruitful, so that it
is said to produce one-third more in
quantity than any other species(ex-
cept the next following ;) though,
in ordinary seasons, the grains  of
two of the rows, do not attain to
maturity.  It  is sown in a well-
prepared  and tolerably rich soil,
either in April or about  [28  Sep-
tember ;] in the former case, it
may be mowed  so early  as Mid-
summer-day.  This species, how-
ever, is not so proper for malting
and brewing beer, as for being re-
duced either to groats and flour, or
converted into ardent spirits.
   4. The Hordeum Zeocriton, L.
or Bearded  Barley,  or Rice
Barley, with short and coarse
stalks,  as  likewise  short  though
broad ears, divided into two rows.
When  cultivated  on a good soil,
and thinly sown, it is the most pro-
ductive of all the species  of barley,
and possesses the additional advan-
tage, that it does not droop its ears
nor lodge, even in rainy seasons....
Each row contains from twelve to
fifteen small grains : these yield an
excellent white flour, which, for
most culinary  purposes, may  be
substituted for that of  wheat.  In
England, the best home-brewed ale
is  produced from this grain ;  for
the culture of which, we shall give
a few directions in the sequel.
   [Only two  kinds of  barley are
known  in Pensylvania,  viz.  sum-
mer and winter barley.  The first 
BAR
BAR        179
generally weighs about 6lb. in the
bushel lighter than the other, and
is  a precarious  grain, being very
subject to be injured by the vicissi-
tudes of the weather.  To  prepare
the ground  for  a  crop, plough it
in  the autumn,  and let it lie in
ridges all winter,  in the spring
cross plough, and sow the grain,
then harrow twice the  second  time
crossing the first. The grain ought
to  be put in as early  as possible;
and as we can harrow at least two
weeks before  we can plough, an
experienced farmer recommends
to sow the seed without any plough-
ing in the spring, after the ground
has been twice well harrowed. An
accidental comparative experiment
taught him, the greater increase
of produce in a field which had been
only well harrowed in the spring,
beyond that which had been both
ploughed and harrowed.   It is to
be understood, however, that both
fields  had been  ploughed in the
preceding autumn.
  The first variety of the first spe-
cies, noticed by Dr. W. is also cul-
tivated in Penns. and much esteem-
ed.  It may be sown either as a
summer  or winter grain.  When
roasted and  ground, it is used by
many persons as a substitute  for
coffee.
  Cattle  thrive very well on bar-
ley straw, especially if timothy has
been sown in the autumn on the
same ground.
  Calcareous  soils,  which  have
been  long in cultivation,  and fre-
quently manured, will  yield abund-
ant crops of barley.  Oats reared
under the same circumstances, are
weak and puny.
  Barley from La  Plata  and Al-
giers has lately  been introduced
into the United States : the first is
the larger of the two.  The grain
is double the size of the common
barley.
  An acre and a half of ground,
near  Philadelphia,  produced last
year nearly one hundred bushels of
barley.
  In the autumn of 1802, a friend
sowed an acre with two bushels of
barley which came from England;
the lot had been in grass, and pre-
viously  to being sown, a crop  of
potatoes was taken off.  The pro-
duce was 74 bushels.
  Buck-wheat in blossom, plough-
ed in, proves an excellent prepara-
tive for  winter barley.]
   Cultivation....Barley, in general,
requires a dry, light, mellow, and
rich soil: hence extraordinary care
is requisite where it is to be sown
in  clay.  Immediately after  the
foregoing crop is removed, the land
ought to be  ploughed,  which lays
it open to be mellowed by the frost
and air. In order to promote this
effect, ribbing, or a  peculiar me-
thod of ploughing, has been intro-
duced to expose  the greatest ex-
tent of surface. For the improve-
ment  of dry clayey land, Professor
Bradley recommends  a manure
of rich  dung,  ashes,  chalk,  or
lime;  and for some particular soils,
malt-dust or soot are very useful;
but, according to Sir Hugh Plat,
soap-boilers'  ashes  are  the  most
fertilizing substance for the growth
of  barley,   even   upon  barren
grounds.
  The comparative advantages of
drilling and  broad-casting are stat-
ed by  Mr. Peter Smith of Horn-
church,  Essex, in England, as fol-
lows : in the last week of Februa-
ry, 1793, he drilled three acres of
turnip-land with barley, at twelve
inches intervals, with two bushels
of seed per acre ; it was scarified
and harrowed across, the latter end 
130        BAR
BAR
of March, and horse-hoed the se-
cond week in April;  at the same
time  he sowed the  grass-seeds,
which produced fine plants, far su-
perior to  the  broad-cast.   The
produce of the  drilled barley was
eighteen  quarters three bushels,
from  three  acres, [a  quarter con-
tains  eight bushels.]
   On the same day he sowed three
acres of broad-cast in  the same
field and state  of cultivation, with
three bushels of seed per acre, and
also sowed  the grass-seeds at the
same time.  The  produce of these
three acres amounted only to fifteen
quarters and three bushels.
   [In the 3d volume  of the  Bath
Society   Transactions, Sir  J. An-
struther relates, that the differ-
ence of produce between the crop
of barky drilled,  and that  sown
broad  cast, was about 20  bushels
per acre, besides near two  bushels
of seed  saved.  The drills were 18
inches wide ; the  grain  dropt by
hand.]
   As it is of great consequence in
tl-.e production  of this grain, that
it may ripen equally and uniformly,
to prevent  that inequality which
would render it less  valuable, we
shall communicate the  following
method of remedying this defect.
It  is  certain,  that barley which
comes up speedily in'a dusky soil,
will gain great  advantages  over
seed-weeds : to forward, therefore
its vegetation,  some farmers take
out  about  one-third  from every
sack of seed-barley or bear, to al-
low  for the swelling of the grain,
which they steep thoroughly in
clean water, for  at least  twenty-
four or thirty-six hours, according
to the more or less dry constitution
of the season.  For our part,  we
would prefer steeping the grain ;
because in this manner all the light
and  unripe  grains  swimming on
the top, may be easily skimmed off,
and thus perhaps the smut at the
same time  prevented.  Although
quick-lime has often been  recom-
mended to be mixed with the wet
barley, before it is  sown,  yet we
agree with those who are of opi-
nion, that it poisons the seeds, ab-
sorbs part  of its useful moisture,
and injures the hands of the sower.
As clean water imparts no tenacity,
the seed will scatter properly ; but
being swelled in the proportion of
three to four, or two to  three,  it
is necessary to use a fourth or third
part more in bulk  ; to harrow  it
in, as quickly as possible, after  it
is sown; and, if convenient, to give
it the benefit of a fresh furrow....
By this method, it appears above
ground,  at the  farthest, in a fort-
night, if these particulars be duly
attended to.
   A correspondent of the  Bath So-
ciety, [Mr. J. Chapelle, vol. 3.]
states, that in the remarkably dry
spring of 1783, he soaked his seed-
barley in  the black water taken
from a reservoir which constantly
received the draining ef  stables.
As the light corn  floated on the
surface,  he skimmed it off, and
suffered it  to rest  twenty-four
hours.   On taking  it from the
water, he  mixed  the  seed-grain
with a sufficient quantity  of wood-
ashes, to make il spread  more re-
gularly,  and sowed with it  three
fields.   The produce  was  sixty
bushels per acre, of good clean bar-
ley, without any  small  or  green
corn, or  weeds  at harvest.  He
also sowed several other fields with
the  same  seed, dry, and without
any preparation, but the crops were
poor, producing only twenty bush-
els per acre, and much mixed with
green corn and weeds. 
BAR
BAR        181
  There is a species of this grain
which was introduced into Britain
about thirty years  since, by Mr.
Halliday, and is hence called by
his name, or sometimes, Siberian
Barley ; it is possessed of qualities
that entitle it to particular conside-
ration  as  an object  of  importance
in agriculture.  From a quart of
it sown in May, 1768, he procured
nearly a  bushel, which he.sowed
in April  1769, in drills  drawn by
a plough ; and from this he reap-
ed thirty six bushels of clean corn.
Since that period, Mr. Halliday
has made many experiments to as-
certain the merits  of this prolific
grain as bread-corn, and as  proper
for malting.....He  accordingly in-
forms us, in  the second volume of
the Georgical Essays, price 2s. 6d.
published  in 1771, that its flour
makes excellent bread, peculiarly
retentive of moisture  ; and the ale
brewed from its malt has a fine co-
lour, flavour, and body.  (See the
variety of our second species, from
which it will appear that this grain
is the same which Dr. Lochster,
in his  Latin  Dissertation, On the
Medicinal Plants of Norway, feel-
ingly characterizes, by calling it the
Heavenly  Barley,   because  it is
equally grateful and- efficacious.)
  As a proof of the extraordinary
fecundity of barley, and how mueh
the fertility of the soil contributes
to the increase of  vegetable pro-
ductions,  we  shall  mention  an
instance  which occurred in  the
summer  of 1797, at Reichenbach,
in Upper Saxony.   Two grains of
our third species being planted close
to each other, in a common garden
soil, grew briskly, and spread with
no less than one hundred and thir-
teen stalks, which almost uniform-
ly produced long ears: these con-
tained  the surprising  number of
two  thousand  five  hundred  and
thirty-four  grains, of which  two
thousand two hundred and five were
perfectly ripe  and sound, but the
remaining three hundred and twen-
ty-nine  were of inferior size  and
weight.  According  to  this com-
putation, one bushel of barley, in a
rich and mellow soil,  might occupy
in planting, at least twenty acres.
   We presume that  the following
additional observations on the  cul-
ture of this valuable grain, made by
a  Norfolk  farmer, will not be un-
acceptable to the practical reader.
The best soil  in general, is that
which is  dry and healthy, rather
light than stiff, and yet of sufficient
tenacity to retain the moisture.....
On such land,  the grain acquires
the best colour and body,  is the
most nimble in the hand, and has
the thinnest rind ; qualities  which
eminently  recommend  it  to the
malster.  But, if the land be poor,
it should be kept dry and warm ;
in which  case  it  will  often bear
better corn than richer  land in a
cold and wet situation.
   The best seed is of a pale colour
and brightish cast, without any deep
redness or black tinge at the  tail....
A slight  shrivelling of  the  rind
proves  it to have  a thin skin, and
that it  has sweated in the  mow ;
both being favourable circumstan-
ces....As this grain will grow coar-
ser every succeedingyear,it should
never  be sown for two  successive
seasons on the same soil.
   Sprinkling a little soot over the
water in which seed-barley is to be
steeped, has been of great service,
by securing it  from the depreda-
tions of insects.  In very dry sea-
sons,  barley that has been wetted
for malting, and begins to sprout,
will come  up sooner, and produce
as good a  crop  as any  other.   If 
182        BAR
BAR
 sown after  a fallow, three times
 ploughing is necessary.  On lands
 well manured, clover may be sown
 with barley ;  the former of which
 after harvest, affords good fodder
 during the following winter, as well
 as  from the next spring to July ;
 when the land should be fallowed
 till the succeeding spring, and again
 sown with barley and clover : this
 method does not exhaust, but pro-
 motes the fertility  of the ground,
 while it produces large crops.  The
 lightest lands are fit for receiving
 the seed in March; those of a moist
 nature, in April; because all  soils
 liable to be infested by weeds,  bear
 the best crops when sown late,  with
 a view to stifle their growth by the
 ascendency  of the barley.
   Although the broad-cast,  at two
 sowings, is  the  common  method,
 and the usual allowance from three
 to four bushels per acre, yet much
 grain is thus unnecessarily wasted.
 Half the  quantity,  and even  less,
 if sown equally, would not only af-
 ford a better crop, but the corn also
 would be less liable  to lodge ; for
 weak stalks, standing close togeth-
 er, are less capable of resisting the
 force of winds, or supporting them-
 selves under heavy showers.
   Unless the land be very light and
 rich, the  method of setting  and
 drilling will not  answer. Although
 one root will produce eighty stalks,
 all having good and long ears filled
 with superior grain, yet it is to be
 apprehended,  that this  process of
planting is too expensive in a coun-
try where manual  labour is  per-
formed  by free-born [citizens].....
Hence it  would be preferable to
sow thin on  poor lands, in order to
allow sufficient room for the nou-
rishment  of  each  plant ; as it is
proved  by  experience, that  this
simple method  is the most bene-
ficial.
  It has  farther been  suggested,
when the barley is sown and har-
rowed in, that, after the first show-
er of rain, the land should be roll-
ed, to break the clods ; which, by
closing the  earth  about the roots,
will be of great advantage to it in
dry weather. After the barley has
been above  ground three weeks or
a month, it  should again be rolled
with a heavy roller, to prevent the
sun and air from penetrating the
ground, to the  injury of the roots.
This  rolling,  before  the  barley
branches out, is said to be attended
with another  advantage, namely,
that it will cause the plant to spread
into a greater number of stalks, so
that if  they be  thin, the ground
will thus  be filled, and the stalks,
strengthened. Whether this expe-
dient be proper for all soils, indis-
criminately, we are  inclined to
doubt, though we do not hesitate
to approve of it for very light lands,
which are neither loamy nor other-
wise too stiff.
  Lastly, if the  blade grow too
luxuriantly,  as is the case  in warm
and wet springs, mowing is said to
be preferable to feeding it down by
sheep; because the scythe removes
only the rank tops, but those ani-
mals, being fond of the sweet end
of the stalk next the root, will often
bite so close as to injure its future
vegetation.
  With respect to the time when
barley is fit  to be mowed, farmers
frequently fall into the error of cut-
ting it before it is perfectly ripe ;
thinking it  will attam  its perfect
maturity, if  they allow it to lie in
the swarth.   This, however, is  a
very  common  error,  as  it will
shrivel in the field, and afterwards 
BAR
BAR        183
make but an indifferent malt;  it
also threshes with more difficulty,
and is apt to be  bruised under the
flail. The only certain test of judg-
ing when it is fit to mow, must be
from the drooping and falling of the
ears,  so as  to double against the
straw. In that state, and not before,
it may  be cut with all expedition,
and  carried in without danger of
heating in the mow.  To obviate
such accidents, and secure it from
being mow-burnt, it is advisable to
prepare a  large  sheaf, or  two
sheaves, of straw, closely tied to-
gether, which should be placed in
the centre, when the stack is com-
menced ; and as the layers of corn
rise, other sheaves must be put on
the first; so that when the whole
stack is completed, and the sheaves
are removed, a funnel, or vent-hole,
may be continued from the bottom
to the top.  After withdrawing the
sheaves, the stack should be cover-
ed with a bottle of straw, before it
is thatched.
   Barley lying  in  the  mow un-
threshed, will keep for one or two
years, if the above stated method
be adopted.  But when this grain
is converted into malt, it can with
difficulty be preserved longer than
one year, without being infested by
weevils. One of the best remedies
to destroy  these  vermin,  is dry
worm-wood laid in the malt.....For
farther  information on this head,
see Malt.
   Numerous have  been  the  at-
tempts  to cure  the smut in barley
and other kinds of grain ; a disease
which by some  is attributed to the
 generation  of  certain minute  in-
sects that breed in light and cor-
rupted  corn, sown in a moist and
 unfavourable  season; but  by  o-
thers, and  with more probability,
 to the influence  of the atmosphere,
wafting perhaps insects from such
regions as are infested with them.
See article Smut.
  The best  sort of barley is that
which is thick in the grain, smooth,
weighty, inclining to a whileish co-
lour, and neither too old nor new.
Mr. John Kerrich, an  eminent
malster  at  Harleston,   England,
asserts, that out of a comb of dis-
coloured  barley, more  than two
bushels will not, in most instances,
work on a malting floor;  nor cati
such grain, in his opinion, be reli-
ed upon for  seed, as it  does not
vegetate better in the ground than
on the floor.   He therefore advises
farmers to sow bright barley, or at
least such  as is kiln dried,  which
he knows from experience will ve-
getate ;  or to dry it in the spring
by exposure  to the sun ; an expe-
dient that may probably produce
an  effect similar to that of kiln-
drying.  We are much inclined to
doubt the latter part of this infor-
mation, though we allow Mrv. Ker-
rich the credit of having stated an
useful  fact, as far as it  relates to
the process of malting ; but so long
as the corculum,or heart of the seed,
is not  injured, we are of opinion
that it will always  germinate, in-
dependently of any external disco-
loration.
  Uses....Besides the almost incre-
dible quantities of barley used in
brewing  ale  and beer of different
kinds,  the  consumption of this
grain in broths is very considerable,
especially in  Scotland and Germa-
ny ; in both countries barley-broth
is as common a dish as soup in
France.   Hence  pearl-barley  is
prepared in  peculiar-mills,  where
it is freed of the husk, and reduced
to the  size of small shot, by  grind-
ing away all the exterior parts to
the  very  heart of the  grain.  The 
184         BAR

Scots and Germans, however, are
more saving in their domestic eco-
nomy,  especially the lower classes
of people, who  frequently  per-
form that process by hand-mills,
or more commonly, in stamping-
mortars, where the barley is freed-
from its husks, and rendered fit for
culinary purposes.  The latter are
of a very simple construction, and
may be very easily made, by exca-
vating  a  heavy and  firm  block of
wood sufficiently deep, from eigh-
teen to twenty-four inches,and then
adapting to it a wooden pestle, at
the lower end of which a few large
iron nails with smooth heads are
generally  fixed, for more effectu-
ally stricking the barley and sepa-
rating  its husks.  Such an imple-
ment is also useful  for blanching
wheat, oats, and many other arti-
cles  for culinary  purposes :  we,
therefore, seriously recommend its
introduction  into every, family,
which  is desirous of reducing the
consumption of  bread-corn,  and
lessening the dangers of adultera-
tion, which (whether well or ill-
founded),  resound  from  every
quarter of the metropolis.
   Properties......Barley  has,  from
the earliest ages, been considered
as wholesome  and nutritive food
for man and cattle.  In diseases
of the kidneys and the breast, as
well as in that state  of the body
where it is said to abound in acri-
monious humours, decoctions made
of this grain,  sufficiently strong,
and  acidulated with vinegar and
sugar, are eminently useful....(See
also, Wort.)
   As a cooling and diluent bever-
age, barley-w: ter is  of  essential
service to  fob rile patients, and in
all inflammatory cases, where pre-
ternatural heat i-.rid thirst prevail ;
but to promote its  salutary effect,
            BAR

the grosser parts,  which remain
after decoction, ought not  to be
swallowed.
  Barm.   See Yeast.
  BARN, in husbandry, a covered
building or place, with vent-holes
in the sides, for laying up any kind
of grain, hay, or straw.
  This  kind of store-house  being
so well known to  all rural econo-
mists, no farther description  will
be necessary : but as several plans
have been  proposed  for its  im-
provement, we shall give an ac-
count of those which  appear the
most worthy of notice.
  In the sixteenth volume of Mr.
Arthur Young's " Annals of Ag-
riculture,"  we  find the following
description of  a  barn, &c. com-,
municated to the editor by the Rev.
Roger Kedington, of Rougham,
near Bury St. Edmunds, England :
" Let the underpinning be of brick
or  stone,  two feet  high  above
ground, and let the sides be board-
ed :  the  roof of  the barn will be
best covered with reed or  straw,
and those of the stables with slate,
or glazed tile :  because they must
be more flat, and the  water  which
runs from the roof  of  the barn
would injure most other coverings.
At each end of the barn, and over
the  back-door, small doors,  four
feet  square, should be fixed, at the
height of  twelve  feet from the
ground ; the two former for putting
corn in  at the ends, and the latter
for filling the middle of the barn,
after the bays are  full. All the bays
should have a floor of clay or marl,
and  the  threshing-floor  be made
with hard bricks,  which will be suf-
ficient for all sorts of grain, except
wheat and rye ; and for threshing
them, it will be  good economy to
have planks of  oak  or  red deal,
well fitted together and numbered, 
            BAR

to be laid down occasionally, and
confined by a frame  at their ends.
A barn built on such a plan would
hold a great deal of corn, and be
filled  most conveniently:  and if
stacks of corn were  built at  each
end, they might be taken in with-
out any carting.  If more  buildings
are requisite, two may be added on
the back-side, like the stables in
front: otherwise, if doors  are made
under the eaves on the backside, as
directed at the ends, and  stacks be
placed opposite  to them (just far
enough  to  avoid the eaves drop-
ping), by placing  a waggon be-
tween them and the barn by way
of a  stage,  those  stacks may be
taken in without  carting; which
method prevents a great waste of
corn, and  much  trouble.   The
spars of the roofs of the stables rest
upon the upper sills of the sides of
the barn, and  the  outside  wall of
the stable is eight feet high  ; the
barn  supplying the  highest  side,
and  one  end of each stable ; and
the stables in return  are buttresses
to the bam,  and  strengthen it
greatly."
   This  building is of the  follow-
ing dimensions: The length of the
barn  inside is 68 feet; its width
22;  the  height  of  the  sides IT
feet; of the front doors 15  feet;
of the back  doors  8 feet and 6
inches ;  the stables at each  side, in
length 26 feet 6  inches, in width
 14 feet; the  door  4  feet;  the
threshing-floor  has  in  front  an
entrance of 11 feet  ; behind, of 9
feet  6 inches ;  and  the width of
the porch is 14 feet.  The whole
expense of erecting this  fabric, in
the year 1791,  was  stated to be
nearly three hundred pounds.
   Mr. Arthur Young has,'in the
same volume, inserted a plan for a
barn, and  other buildings neces-
     vol. i.
            BAR         185

sary for cattle. The dimensions of
this structure were given in conse-
quence of a request made by the
late General Washington to the
author, that he would send him a
sketch of a good barn, and the ne-
cessary out-buildings, proportioned
to a  farm of five hundred acres.
The threshing-floor is large enough
for three men  to  work on, who
in the  course of  a  winter, can
thresh the corn produced on such
a farm.
   This plan appears to  us, by  far
the most advantageous of any that
has fallen under our observation  ;
we have therefore been  induced to
describe  it, for the  information of
our readers.
   The inner width of the barn is
27 feet square, on each side of the
threshing-floor.   The  porch  11
feet 4 inches, by  12 feet 3 inches.
Threshing-floor 39 feet by 20, on
its upper end, and  121  feet at the
small door of the porch, which is
61- feet in width.   The  great door
at which the carts enter with corn,
14 feet 9  inches.   The sheds  for
cattle  on  the four  longitudinal
sides  of the bays, are  27 feet by
12.   Mangers, 2  feet broad, out
of which the cattle eat  their food.
The passages for carrying the straw
from the threshing-floor to feed the
cattle, are  between two and  three
feet   wide.   Each  passage  has  a
door; there are four principal  posts
to each shed,  beside  the smaller
ones, and gutters  for  conveying
the urine  to  four cisterns,  from
which it is every day thrown upon
dunghills, placed at a convenient
distance.   From the mangers to
the gutters  there is a pavement of
bricks upon a  slope, laid in such  a
manner  as to terminate 6 inches
perpendicular above the  gutters ;
which pavement is  6  feet broad
     Bb 
186        BAR

from that edge  to the  manger.
The gutters  are  from 18 to 20
inches broad. There are four sheds
for various uses, one at each corner
of the  threshing-floor.  At  each
end of  the  barn  there are  two
yards with a shed, to be applied
to any  purpose wanted ; one for
sheep, surrounded with low racks,
and the other divided  for a horse
or  two,  loose,  if necessary  : the
other half is for yearling calves,
which thrive better in a farm-yard,
than when stalled.  These yards
are inclosed  by  walling, or pales.
The main body of the barn rises
 14,  16,  or  20 feet  to the eaves.
There are   various sheds placed
against the walling, as this is the
cheapest way of sheltering  cattle
that has yet been discovered......
Should the  number of cattle in-
tended to be kept, be greater than
here admitted, a circular shed may
be erected fronting the small door
of the porch, and  the hay-stacks
be conveniently disposed near those
 sheds appropriated forcows, horses,
 or fat cattle.   Corn-stalks  must
 be built on the opposite side of the
 barn.
   In the year  1797, a model of a
barn, upon  a  new  construction,
 was presented to the Bath Society
 by Mr. Dobson, carpenter, of Nor-
wich, who  received   a  premium
 for his contrivance.   The differ-
ence between the common barn,
and that just mentioned, is as fol-
 lows :    The area of the former,
 1475 square feet;   24,429  cubic
 feet for  corn only ; 702 cubic feet
 of timber ; the latter, according to
 the model,  1472  square feet, the
 area ;  30,900 cubic feet  for corn
only ; and 445  cubic  feet  of tim-
ber.   By this  calculation  it ap-
pears,  that a barn built according
to Mr.  Dob son's plan, gains on
            BAR

one in common use,  of  the  same
area, 6474 cubic feet of space, and
requires 257 cubic feet less of tim-
ber :  and as there is nothing in its
construction which would increase
the price of workmanship, the cost
of one on this plan, and another
of  the common   kind,  would be
as 445  to 702 and  the  mathe-
matical  strength of the  former is
obvious.
   A  representation of the  model
above alluded  to, is  given  in the
sixth volume of the Repertory  of
Arts and Manufactures.
   BARN-FLOORS......The  best
kind  are to be found, according to
 Mr. Marshal, in the  district of
 Cotswold, Gloucestershire: they
 are from 12 to  14, by  18 to 20 feet;
 some of oak, others of stone ; but a
 species  of earthen floor, which is
 made here of the calcareous earth
 of the sub-soil, a kind of ordinary
 gravel,  and the chippings  of free-
 stone, is considered to be superior
 to  floors of  stone, or any  other
 material, except sound oak-plank.
 The great excellence of these floors
 is owing partly to the materials of
 which they are  made, and  partly
 to  the method of forming them,
 which is, perhaps, peculiar to that
 district; it is described °~ follows:
   " Earthen barn-flcors, are made,
 in other places, of wet materials ;
 a kind  of mortar,  which, as  it
 dries, is liable to crack, and  re-
 quires some   months  after  it is
 made, to  dry  it  hard enough  for
 use : on the   contrary,  the mate-
 rials  in  the practice under  consi-
 deration, are worked dry ; they of
 course do not crack, and are ready
 for use  as soon  as finished.  The
 materials, mixed together, are sift-
 ed twice  over:   the  first  time,
through a wide sieve to catch the
stones and large  gravel, which are 
BAR
BAH        187
thrown to the bottom of the floor ;
the next,  through a finer sieve, to
separate  the  more  earthy parts
from  the finer  gravel,  which is
spTead upon  the stones, and upon
this, the more earthy parts, mak-
ing the whole about a foot thick,
and trimming down the different
layers  closely and  firmly upon
each  other.   The  surface  being
levelled,  it is beaten with  a flat
wooden beetle, made like the gar-
deners'  turf-beater, until the sur-
face become  as  hard as a stone,
and rings at every stroke, like me-
tal.  If properly made, they are
said to  last  a  great number of
years, being equally proof  against
the flail and the broom.
   " These  materials, it is  true,
cannot be had in many districts ;
but the principle of making barn-
floors  with  dry materials  being
known,other substances than these
which are here  in  use, may be
found to answer .the same purpose."
   The barn-floors generally used
in most parts of the kingdom, con-
sume a quantity of  large and va-
luable  oak-timber, often such as
might be converted into two and a
half inch  ship-timber ;  they last
only from fifteen to twenty years,
and require frequent repairs. Hol-
low beech-floors,  which were in-
troduced a few years since, on ac-
count of the  very  high price of
oak-timber, are found not to wear
more  than seven or eight  years.
We think it necessary, therefore,
to give a description of a moveable
barn-floor, invented by Mr. John
Upton, of Petworth, Sussex, for
which h'e received a reward of 30
guineas,  from the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, &c. in the
year 1796.
  " This  floor effectually prevents
a waste of corn, in threshing: it
gives an addition  of at  least one
 foot in the height at the doors, by
 which means a higher load of corn
 can be admitted ; and also, as the
 horses do not draw the waggon up
 an ascent,  and  upon a slippery
 floor; but  upon  a  hard bottom,
 and level with the farm-yard, two
 horses can  perform  the  work,
 where  four are  now  generally
 used.   It affords a warm and con-
 venient  shelter for hogs, when  it
 is down ; and, when turned up,  it
 may be used as a stable, ox-stall,
 hovel, or cart-house; two men can
 place or displace it in five minutes;
 and, from its allowing, at all times,
 an easy access to dogs  and cats,
 under it, it affords no harbour for
 vermin.
   " The following are statements
 of the materials used,  and the ex-
 pense of the barn-floors, respec-
 tively :
   11 Barn-floors   now  in common
 use....The original floor laid on the
 ground, with three sills, and two-
 inch oak-plank,  which in general
 lasts from fifteen to twenty  years,
 cost 19/. 10*.....The hollow-floors
 on brick quoins,  with two and a
 half inch oak-plank, costs 31/. \0s.
   " John  Upton's Barn-floor.....
 The new-constructed hollow-floor
 is composed of oak-plank, 5 feet
 8  inches in  length, and 1 inch and
 a  half thick ;  whereas, 3-fourths,
 of the plank used in the original
 floors, are  14 feet in length....the
 whole  expense 23/. 10s.
   " The plank  for the last-men-
 tioned  floor may consist of  deal,
 beech,  or elm ;  as they will be
 perfectly free from decay by damps,
 which will considerably lessen the
 expense of the  new-constructed
 floor:  these  are the  estimates
 when the materials are  supplied by
 a carpenter.  When they are fur-
 nished  from the estate,  a  very-
considerable advantage arises td 
188        BAR
BAR
 the landlord, as the new-construGt-
 ed  floor is  composed of  small
 scantlings, which may be obtained
 from short-timber, much inferior
 in value to those used for the other
 floors.
   " When there are more than
 one barn in a farm-yard, this floor
 may be farther useful, as it may
 be removed from one barn to ano-
 ther, and  save the expense of at
 least one out of three.
   " It is supposed, that  a floor
 constructed  in  this manner will
 last for one hundred years, or in-
 deed, as long as the barn ; because
 it is perfectly free from damps, on
 account of the distance at which it
 lies above the ground, with a free
 current of air  passing under  it
 when down,  and when it is turn-
 ed up  (which it probably will be
 at  least half the year), it will be
 as free from decay as the posts or
 beams  of the barn."  [See Farm-
 yard.]
   BAROMETER, an  instrument
 of modern invention, for measur-
 ing and ascertaining the weight of
 the  atmosphere,  as  well  as the
 height of mountains, and likewise,
 foretelling, with  tolerable accura-
 cy, the probable change of the wea-
 ther.   That  such  an instrument
 must be of  extensive utility to
 every person engaged  in the ac-
 tive pursuits of life, whether those
 of gardening or agriculture, or in
 the various departments of the do-
 mestic and useful arts, will be uni-
 versally admitted.  Hence we pro-
 pose to bestow a considerable share
 of attention  on  this  interesting
 subject.
   History and analysis.....When
 Galileo, in the  beginning of the
 seventeenth  century,   discovered
 that water could not ascend  in  a
 pump,  unless the sucker reached
within 33 feet of its surface in the
well, he justly concluded that the
ascent of water  in pumps, was
effected by the pressure of the at-
mosphere, and not  by the  power
of suction; that a column of water
33 feet high was a counterpoise to
one of air of an equal diameter and
base, the height of which extended
to the top of the atmosphere; and
that consequently  the water could
not be attracted any farther by the
sucker.  This important discovery
induced  his  great pupil Torri-
celli, to  substitute  a column of
mercury for that of water; because
the  former fluid  being about  14
times  heavier than the latter, h©
wanted,  according to that propor-
tion,  only  about  291  inches  of
quicksilver to determine the accu-
racy  of  his  experiment.  He ac-
cordingly found  that, after having
filled  a  glass tube with mercury,
and inverted  it in a bason  of the
same semi-metal,  it descended in
the tube till  it became stationary
at about 291 inches above the sur-
face of that contained in the lower
vessel.
   Many years,  however, elapsed
after this experiment,  before any
notice was  taken  of the circum-
stance, that this pressure  of the
air considerably  varied at different
times, though the tube was uni-
formly kept in the same situation.
Indeed, these variations in the mer-
curial  column, were too obvious to
remain long unnoticed; and philo-
sophers began, minutely, to mark
their degrees. As soon, therefore,
as this point was properly attended
to, they observed that the changes
in the rise and fall of the mercury
were in general very speedily suc-
ceeded by variations  in the wea-
ther.  Hence, the instrument ob-
tained the name of  weather-glass,
for which purpose  it has, since that
period, been generally employed. 
BAR
BAR       189
  It is surprising that the ancients
were unacquainted with the laws
by which the ambient air presses
on our bodies as well as on all in-
animate  matter;  and that Otto
Guericke,  a German, to whom
the world is  indebted for the disco-
very of the air-pump, was the first
who excited the attention of philo-
sophers to this  important subject.
Although Torricelli had previ-
ously ascertained  by his experi-
ment made  in the year  1646, that
the mercury in a tube of four feet
in length did not remain stationary
at 29^ inches, but varied according
to the greater or less degree of den-
sity of the atmosphere ; yet it does
not appear that he applied this great
discovery to the purpose of predict-
ingthe/M/MrfjOrimpendingchanges
of the weather.  Even prior to that
date, namely, in 1643, experiments
were instituted, both at Florence
and Rome,  with the Torricellian
tube; and, in 1648, Perirr,  a
Frenchman, made use of two simi-
lar instruments ;  one of which he
left in a valley, while with the other
he  ascended one  of the  highest
mountains of Auvergne : and thus
he  observed that the atmosphere
on  the top of the hill did not press
upon  the mercury  with  a force
equal to  that observed in  a lower
situation, where he found the quick-
silver much lower  than  in  the
former region : and hence he ju-
diciously concluded, that  the air
must be lighter, or more rarefied,
in  proportion  to  the altitude  of
places. But that these remarkable
changes  were in any degree  con-
nected with the present, or future,
constitution  of the weather,  was
doubtlessdiscovered by Guericke,
though Mr. Boyle,  whose talents
and genius deserve the highest ad-
miration, improved and applied it
to philsophical  purposes.    This
assertion is amply supported by a
passage in a printed work still ex-
tant, and  entitled " Casp. Schotti
Technica curiosa," (ii. 22. p. 52) ;
by which it appears, from a letter
addressed, to the  author,  by Gue-
ricke,  that the  latter had   con-
structed a tube filled with mercury,
on the top of which fluid he placed
a  small wooden  figure, that  rose
and fell with the quicksilver, point-
ting out with its  finger, or index,
the variations in the gravity of the
air, and at the same time the con-
comitant changes of the weather.
   The  compound barometer, the
tube  of which is filled  not  only
with  mercury,  but likewise  with
another coloured  fluid, was invent-
ed by Cartesius and Huygens,
much about the  same time ; but
the latter considerably improved it,
by using a double tube, and mix-
ing the water with one-sixth part
of aqua-fortis,  to prevent its  con-
gelation in winter.
   The  conical  or  pendent  baro-
meter was contrived by M. Amon-
tons ; the well-known diagonal ba-
rometer, by  Sir  Samuel More-
land ;  the  wheel barometer, by
Dr. Robert Hooke, who likewise
improved  Huygens' double  baro-
meter above   mentioned........the
rectangular  horizontal barometer
was invented by  Bernouilli,  or
rather Cassini ; and the credit of
another invention, by which  four
tubes (containing mercury, and a
lighter  fluid alternately)  are  con-
nected together, is likewise due to
Amontons.
   The marine barometer was also
invented in the beginning of the
18th century, by  Dr. R. Hookk,
and afterwards rendered more per-
fect by M. Passement, who, by
the simple, but effectual expedient, 
190        BAR
BAR
 of twisting the middle part of the
 common, or Torricellian tube, into
 » spiral  of two revolutions, pre-
 vented the oscillations of the mer-
 cury on ship-board. By this ingeni-
 ous contrivance, the shocks which
 the mercury sustains from the mo-
 tions of a ship, are effectually bro-
 ken : as, from the turns of the in-
 strument,  the impulses are trans-
 mitted in contrary  directions.
   But of all the instruments  con-
 trived for the purpose of ascertain-
 ing the specific gravity of the at-
 mosphere, that of Magellan, in
 the year of 1765, deserves a distin-
 guished place ; as it points out not
 only the changes occurring in the
 atmosphere, but likewise, and  in
 a very sensible manner,  the dif-
 ferent degrees of temperature  of
 the air.
   Among the travelling barome-
 ters, that of M. de  Luc, improved
 by J. F. Luz, is  the most Refill
 and*compendious......A  wind  ba-
 rometer has also been contrived by
 Mr. Wilkes, of  which we  pro-
 pose to give an account under the
 article, Wind.
   A great variety of other useful
 instruments have  been invented
 since  the  days of  Torricelli,
 upon similar principles,  and with
 mechanical additions more or less
 complicated;  but  it must be ac-
 knowledged, that the simple baro-
 meter of his invention is the most
 exact,  though  not  the most sensi-
 ble balance for weighing  the  at-
 mosphere,  and has therefore been
 most genet ally adopted.
  Rationale...M. de Luc, not satis-
fied with the different  hypotheses
brought forward by Wallis,Hal-
 i.ey, Leibnitz, Mairan,  &c. to
explain the variations of the baro-
meter,  has satisfactorily  refuted
the conjectures of all his predeces-
 sors, and endeavoured to establish
 his own, which is founded on a sup-
 position, that a column of air, load-
 ed with vapours, is lighter than a
 column of pure air of equal bulk.
 He consequently asserts,  1. That
 the density of air is the immediate
 and only cause that supports the
 mercury ; and 2.  That the more
 elastic the air  is, the less does it
 press  and weigh upon its base;
 but  though there  is considerable
 ingenuity in this explanation, it is
 by no means conclusive.
   Soon after the publication of this
 theory, M. Beguelin,  in 1773,
 endeavoured to prove, that the va-
 riation of the  whole mass of the
 atmosphere, as well as  that of the
 spring or elasticity in a part of this
 mass, are the two general causes of
 the  variations  cf the barometer;
 and  that the  primitive causes of
 this remarkable  effect are,  heat,
 cold,  dryness,  and  moisture,  with
 their different  combinations.
   We cannot enter into the parti-
 culars relative  to the operation of
 these  various  causes,  but  shall
 briefly observe,  that heat dilates
 the  air;  cold  contracts  it,   and
 draws together those parts which
 it  is the  property of heat to sepa*
 rate: hence, the natural effect of
 the former is expansion;  the con-
 sequences of the latter, condensa-
 tion,  compression  of its  spring,
 and an increase of pressure, on an-
 count of which, the mercury rises
 in  the barometer.
   Respecting the effects of dryness
 and moisture, it deserves to be re-
 marked,  that, if the latter dimi-
nishes the pressure of the air, by
 relaxing  its spring, it on the other
 hand loads it with watery particles,
which very considerably augment
its mass, so that it may be difficult
to  determine how far the moisture 
BAR
BAR        191
of the air exerts its influence on the
rise and fall of the barometer. The
same observation may be applied
to dryness,  which dispels the wa-
tery  particles that increased the
weight of the air; so that there ap-
pears to be a perpetual conflict be-
tween the effect of spring and mass,
between elasticity and weight; and
experience  alone  can inform  us
whether, in this contest of the ele-
ments,  the  effect of elasticity  is
much  superior to that of weight.
Such is the plausible explanation of
Beguelin, and we have only  to
regret, that the result of his inqui-
ries, still leaves the subject involv-
ed  in much doubt and difficulty,
because even this theory does  not
account for the sudden changes of
the  atmosphere.
   Nevertheless, experience has fur-
nished us with a sufficient number
of facts, from which we may, with
tolerable  precision, ascertain  the
present, and predict the future state
of the surrounding  element, by the
practical use of the barometer......
Thus,  1. The rising of the quick-
silver generally presages fair wea-
ther, as its falling does the contra-
ry,  or rain, snow, high winds, and
storms ; 2.  In  very hot  weather,
the  sudden falling  of the mercury
portends thunder; 3.  In winter,
the  rising  indicates frost;  and in
 frosty weather, if the mercury falls
three or four divisions, there will
 certainly follow a thaw ;  but if it
 rise in a continued frost, it will al-
 ways be accompanied with snow ;
 4, When foul weather quickly suc-
 ceeds after the falling of the mer-
 cury, it will not  be of  long dura-
 tion ; nor are we to expect a con-
 tinuance of fair  weather, when  it
 soon succeeds the rise of the quick-
 silver ;  5. If, in foul weather, the
 mercury happens to ascend consi-
derably, and continues  in  an ad-
vancing state for two or three days
successively, then we may expect
also a continuance of fair weather;
6. If,  in clear weather, the  mer-
cury falls remarkably  for  two or
three days  together,  before the
rain sets in, it  is then highly pro-
bable that it will be succeeded by
much  rain, and  perhaps  high
winds; 7. The  unsettled motion of
the mercury indicates changeable
weather ; [To these remarks, Mr.
Capper adds, that when the  baro-
meter suddenly falls two or three-
tenths, without any material  alter-
ation in the thermometer,  and the
hygrometer is  not much turned
towards  moist, a violent  gale of
wind may be expected. When the
hygrometer inclines far  towards
moist, with only a trifling  descent
in the barometer, it denotes a pass-
ing shower  and little  wind ; and
when the barometer falls consider-
ably,  and  the  hygrometer  turns
much towards  moist, the thermo-
meter remaining stationary, and
rather inclined to rise  than fall,
both violent wind and rain are  likely
to  follow,  in the course of  a few
hours.]  8. Respecting the words
engraved on the register-plate, they
cannot be  strictly relied  upon  to
correspond  exactly with the state of
the weather; though it will in ge-
neral  agree with them  as to the
mercury rising and falling. These
words  deserve to be  particularly
noticed when the mercury removes
from " Changeable" upwards ; as
those of the lower part should be
adverted to, when the quicksilver
falls  from  " Changeable" down-
 wards.  In other cases, they  are of
no use ; for as its rising in  any part
forebodes a tendency to fair, and its
 falling to foul  weather, it  follows,
 that though it descend in  the tube 
BAR                         BAR
from Settled to Fair, it may never-
theless be attended  with  a little
rain ; and when it rises  from the
words " Much Rain" to " Rain," it
shews only an inclination to become
fair, though the wet  weather may
still continue in a less considerable
degree than it was when the mer-
cury began to rise. But if the mer-
cury, after having fallen to " Much
Rain," should ascend to " Change-
able ;" it predicts fair weather, tho'
of a shorter continuance than if the
quicksilver had risen still higher ;
and so, on the contrary, if the mer-
cury stood at " Fair," and descends
to " Changeable," it presages  foul
weather, though not  of such dura-
tion, as if it had fallen lower.
  These observations are founded
on experience, and we are indebted
for them chiefly to Mr. Patrick,
who has investigated  this subject
with considerable precision. It ap-
pears from the result of these facts,
that the height of the mercury is
not the principal criterion for ascer-
taining the probable changes of the
weather,  but  rather  the  relative
motion of that  fluid in  the tube.
Hence, to enable us to judge right-
ly of the impending variations, we
ought to possess a correct know-
ledge, whether the mercury is ac-
tually rising or falling.   For this
purpose, the following rules, stated
by Mr. Rowing, may be of advan-
tage : 2. If the surface of the mer-
cury be convex, standing higher in
the middle of the  tube than at the
sides,  it  generally  indicates the
rising of this fluid metal; 2. If its
surface be concave,  it is then sink-
ing; 3. If it appear  level, it is sta-
tionary ;  4. Ir, after skaking the
tube of a small glass, the mercury
rises about half a tenth of an  inch
higher than it stood before, it is a
proof  that the air  has  become
heavier; but if it sink as much,
it  follows that the atmosphere  is
lighter.  Hence, in making obser-
vations on the weather, such a glass
should always be previously shak-
en ; because  the metal which ad-
heres to the sides of the tube, pre-
vents its free motion, till disengag-
ed by a slight agitation of the instru-
ment.  These phenomena are pecu-
liar to places situated at a distance
from  the equator, and, therefore,
deserve  to be attended to in our
climate: on the  contrary, at St.
Helena; they would be of little or
no service; for, according to the ac-
curateobservationsof Dr. Halle v,
made  in that island, the mercury
remained stationary in all weathers.
This judicious  naturalist has fur-
nished us with the followingcurious
account of these  phenomena, and
their  causes ; of which we shall
give a concise abstract: 1. In calm
weather, when there is a prospect
of rain, the mercury-is commonly
low ; 2. In serene and settled wea-
ther it is generally high; 3. On the
approach of tempestuous winds,
though  unaccompanied with rain,
the  mercury sinks lower  than  on
any other occasion ; 4. The great-
est height of tne mercury is observ-
able during the prevalence of east-
erly or north-easterly winds; 5. In
calm, frosty weather, the quicksil-
ver generally stands high;  6. After
very great tempests, when the mer-
cury has been very low, it general-
ly again quickly ascends; 7. The
 barometer in the northern regions
 exhibits greater variations than in
 those lying more towards the south;
 8. Within  and near  the tropics,
 there  is little or no alteration in  the
 mercury,as before observed. Hence
 Dr. Halley is of opinion, that  the
 principal cause of the  rise and  the
 fall of the quicksilver must be at- 
            BAR

tributed partly to the variable winds
in the  temperate zone, the great
inconstancy of which, in Britain, is
well-known ; and partly to the un-
certain exhalation andprecipitatiort'1
of the  vapours floating  in  the at-
mosphere,  which  is- at one  time
more saturated than at another, and
consequently heavier; though the
precipitation  of aqueous  vapours
chiefly depends  on the previous
degree of evaporation.
   Our plan does not permit us to
accompany these propositions wilh
the  explanations  given  by  Dr.
Halley; and  as  the  theoretical
part has been  strongly contested
by other philosophers, though not
refuted, till the late Dr. Black, of
Edinburgh, endeavoured to prove
the  fallacy of all preceding  theo-
ries, we shall conclude this  sub-
ject with a summary outline of his
doctrine.
   According to  Dr. Black, 1.Va-
pour is formed by an intimate
union between  fire and water, by
which  the fire, or  heatg is so to-
tally enveloped,  and its action so
entirely suspended  by watery par-
ticles, that it loses its properties of
giving light and heat,  and conse-
quently is in a latent state;   2. If
the atmosphere is  affected  by any
unusual degree of heat, it becomes
incapable of supporting a  column
of mercury so long as before; for
which  reason that in the barome-
ter sinks...From these preliminary
axioms it  follows,  that  as  vapour
is formed by the union of fire and
water,  or the solution of the latter
in the former, it is impossible that
the vapour can be  condensed, un-
til thisunion or solution be effected.
The beginning of the condensation
of the vapour,  then, or the first
symptoms  of approaching rain,
must be the separation of the fire,
     VOL. I.
            BAR        193

which lies hidden or  involved in
the vapour.  This may at first be
slow and partial, or it may be sud-
den  and violent:  in the former
case, the rain may come on slowly,
and after considerable intervals; in
the latter,  it will  be  quick,  and
in a large quantity.  With regard
to the effect of this separation be-
tween the fire and water, we shall
only observe, that as it is gradual
and  slow, the barometer may in-
dicate rain  for a considerable time
before it appears:  or if the sensi-
ble heat communicated  from the
vapour to the atmosphere, should be
absorbed by the colder parts, or be
carried off by any unknown means,
or prevented  from  affecting  the
specific gravity of the air, the ba-
rometer will undergo no change;
and yet the vapour, being deprived
of the heal necessary to sustain it,
must descend  in rain;  and thus it
happens, that the indications of the
barometer do not always hold true,
respecting the changes of the wea-
ther. Hence, a!so,>t appears, that
though the specific gravity of the
air is diminished, unless that dimi-
nution proceed from a discharge of
the*4atent  heat  contained in  the
vapours, no rain will follow;  and
thus the sinking of the barometer
may  prognosticate wind  as  well
as rain,  or sometimes no change
whatever.
  Such is the ingenious theory of
Dr. Black, who certainly has pro-
duced the most  philosophic  ex-
planation yet offered on this appa-
rently intricate subject; and though
his reasoning may not enable us to
solve  all the difficulties  occuring
in meteorological  investigations,
we do not hesitate to say, that it
has placed the nature and causes
of these phenomena in the clearest
point of view, as far  as it is possi-
     Cc 
194       BAR
BAR
ble to account for them, in the pre-
sent state of physical science. We
shall, therefore, conclude with ob-
serving,  that though the wind is
certainly  not the  sole cause  of
raising and  depressing the mer-
cury, yet, in  our climate, it has a
remarkable influence on  the state
of  the   barometer.   For, if  the
mercury  falls,  when  the  wind
blows from  those quarters which
generally are productive of much
rain, such as the south and south-
wee' winds are in the  environs of
London, there is no doubt but wet
weather will speedily follow;  en
the  contrary, if the  quicksilver
rises, while the wind  blows from
dry  quarters, such as the northerly
and easterly regions are to Britain,
then it is highly probable that the
weather will become fair.  But if
the mercury rises during a south-
erly wind, or falls while it blows
from the north; in both cases the
prognostics  are extremely doubt-
ful, as  it frequently happens, that
the weLther does  not  correspond
to the temporary rising or falling
of the quicksilver.
   [The mercury in the Barometer
is not only influenced in its height
by the increased ordiminished den-
sity of the air, but also by the heat
of the atmosphere.  The amount
of dilatation that takes place in the
column from the freezing point to
boiling water, is only five lines.....
This was proved by Mr. Peter Le-
gaux, in July, 1781, by experiments
made before the Commissioners of
the Academy of Sciences at Paris.
   At the same  time that the in-
crease of the height of the mercury
is taking place, the specific gravity
of the metal is also diminished. It
has been found  by experiments,
that the vol. of mercury condensed
by the  cold of ice, is to  a vol* of
mercuiy rarified by  the  heat of
boiling  water as 66 to 67,  that is
to say,that the augmentation of the
volume of the mercury, or what is
fhe same thing,  the diminution of
its specific gravity is a 66th, count-
ing from the freezing point to that
of boiling water.  So that a baro-
meter in passing from the cold of
ice to the heat of boiling water,
would rise to a quantity equal to the
66th part of its height without any
change having taken place  in the
pressure of the atmosphere.  Five
lines are then the amount of the ut-
most possible dilatation of the co-
lumn of mercury  by heat,   live
multiplied by 16 gives 80; and as
the scale of Reaumur's thermo-
meter from the point at which water
freezes, to that of boiling water is
divided into 80 degrees, it is obvi-
ous that there is a perfect connec-
tionbetween these two instruments,
so that  one may be  used to correct
the other. It will then be necessary
to deduct one  sixteenth of a line
from the height of the barometer,
for every degree that the thermo-
meter  rises above  the  freezing
point, and to add ^ to its height
when the thermometer marks de-
grees below the Cypher.
   Before taking an observation of
the barometer, it is necessary to
make the mercury move up and
down once or  twice, to put it in
equilibrium with the air, and to de-
stroy all adhesion it may have with
the sides of the glass.  The sur-
face of the reservoir must then be
brought to the line of the level, by
means of the screw adapted for the
purpose to the bottom of the instru-
ment;  because the column of mer-
cury cannot rise  or fall without
impressing a contrary effect upon
 the surface of  the   mercury con-
 tained  in the reservoir. 
            BAR

 These remarks are of infinite con-
sequence to all who wish to make
accuratebaromttrical observations:
and for want of knowing their con-
sequence, the grealer part of those
which  have been published in A-
merica are nearly useless.
  For a very interesting paper on
the barometer, the reader is refer-
red to a volume of essays by Mr.
JohnDalton of Manchester,\7 93.]
  A very curious  new phenome-
non deserves to be mentioned, con-
cerning the state  of this  instru-
ment, on particular occasions. M.
Schmidt,  Professor of Mathema-
tics atPforte,  in Germany, lately
observed that hisbarometer became
luminous in  the day-time, while
the horizon was covered with thun-
der-clouds ; and that on the ap-
proach of a tempest, there appeared
on the surface of  the mercury,  a
small and distinct luminous globe,
which could be perceived in day-
light, at the  distance of  several
yards. We relate this singular fact;
and, not  being  in  possession of
farther particulars, we  can  only
conjecture, that such  a phenome-
non may perhaps be ascribed to the
greater rarefaction and electricity
of the air, in the serene climate of
Germany, previous to the explosion
of thunder; and likewise tp a more
phosphorescent nature of the mer-
cury; a property which it doubtless
acquires  when submitted to the
repeated process of distillation, and
other means of purifying  that pe-
culiar metallic  fluid........See also
Sl'IDF.R.
  BARREL, in commerce, is  a
vessel of an oblong size,  made of
wood, the form of which is general-
ly known, as well  as its use for
holding various suits of merchan-
dize; it is  also used as a measure
for liquids.
             B A R        195

   The English barrel, wine mea-
 sure, contains the eighth part of a
 tun, the fourth part of a pipe, and
 one half  of a hogshead,  or 31 \
 gallons.  A barrel of beer shoula
 contain 36, and one of ale 32 gal-
 lons.  The bur: el of beer, vinegar,
 or liquor preparing for vinegar,
 ought to contain 34  gallons, ac-
 cording to the standard  of the ale
 quart.
   Barrel is  also used to denote a
 certain weight of merchandizes,
 and which  differs  according  to
 various commodilies.  A barrel of
 Essex butter weighs  106  pounds
 and of Suffolk butter 256  pounds.
 The barrel  of herrings ought to
 contain 32 gallons, wine measure;
 which amount to about 28  gallons,
 old standard, and consists of about
 1000 herrings.  The barrel of sal-
 mon ought to contain 42  gallons,
 and a barrel of eels the same quan-
 tity: the barrel of soap must weigh
 256 pounds.....[The Pennsylvania
 barrel of flour contains 196lbs.]
   BARRENNESS, a term syno-
 nimous to sterility, in opposition to
fecundity.  That the creation might
 not degenerate, Nature has wisely
 oidained  barrenness  to  all mon-
 strous productions; and  hence the
 sterility of mules, Sec.
   Women frequently become bar-
 ren after a miscarriage, or  difficult
 labour.
   Dr. Haselquist, in his Travels
 to the Levant, advises married per-
 sons to drink,  every night, a tea-
 cupful of clove-water for the cure
 of this complaint.....We have in-
 serted  this whimsical recipe, not
 because any reliance can be placed
 on so trifling a remedy, but in or-
 der to attest the inefficacy of medi-
cines on such occasions, and to as-
sure those who forsake  the path
of Nature, and expect relief from 
196       B A  S
B AS
Art, that they will certainly be
disappointed, unless they adopt  a
more temperate aud regular mode
of life.
  BASALTES, in natural history,
a hard stone of a black, grey, or
sometimes greenish colour;  and
on account of its constituent parts,
and resemblance to lava, generally
classed  among the  volcanic pro-
ductions. •  Its specific gravity is to
that of water, as  three  to one.
The component parts of basaltes
are in  the following proportion:
siliceous earth, 50, argillaceous 15,
calcareous 8, magnesia 2, and  iron
25.  It is  remarkable, that  this
fossil is disposed either in solid or
jointed columns ; the former con-
sisting of five or six pillars,  either
of  an  uniform size,  or conical,
and generally  standing close to
each other perpendicularly, of dif-
ferent, and sometimes equal length,
as if they had been  arranged by
a  skilful  artist.    The  Hebridic
island  of Staffa is entirely com-.
posed of lofty and capacious basal-
tic columns, the most curious ar-
rangement of which, perhaps, on
the whole globe, is the celebrated
Fingal's cave.  In Germany,  also,
there are  several  basaltic  moun-
tains;  for instance, those on the
Rhine, and near Freyberg, in  Sax-
ony, where basaltes  is frequently
found of an oval or spherical figure.
Spain,  Russia, Poland, and  Sile-
sia, also  produce  various  basaltic
rocks.  Great quantities  of  this
fossil are deposited in the  neigh-
bourhood  of Mount Etna, in Si-
cily ;  of  Hecla, in  Iceland, Sec.
But the largest mass yet discover-
ed, are, what is called the Giant's
Causeway, in Ireland.
   As  naturalists   differ  in  their
opinion concerning the origin  of
this curious substance, whether it
be the production of volcanos aris-
ing from subterraneous fires, or
derive its origin from crystalliza-
tion by water, we shall state only
the result of M. Bergmann's in-
quiry into this subject, as his ex-
planation appears to be conclusive.
He asserts,  that   both  fire  and
water contribute to form basaltes,
and  it cannot  be  doubted  that
there  has'been some connection
between the basaltic pillars  and
subterraneous  fire  as they  are
found mixed with lava, and other
substances,  produced by that ele-
ment.
   Uses.....Basaltes  is  an excellent
material for building houses, and
paving streets: it is also employed
by lapidaries and statuaries for va-
rious  productions of art;  as  well
as by artists working in gold and
silver,  for touch or test-stones.....
Gold-beaters and book-binders, on
the continent, make their anvils of
this firm and massy stone; which
is also used as an ingredient in the
manufacture of glass, especially for
producing the common  window-
glass, and green bottles.
   BASILICON OINTMENT, in
pharmacy,  a preparation  consist-
ing of eight parts of hog's lard;
five of white resin;  and two of
yellow wax: or, according to the
London .College,  of nearly equal
parts of yellow resin, bees wax,
and olive oil.  The former ingre-
dients, prescribed by theEdinburgh
College, are cheaper and  equally
efficacious,
   This ointment is generally em-
 ployed in the  dressing of  wounds
 and ulcers, fordigesling and cleans-
 ing them, as well as for promoting
 their cicatrization.  Modern  sur-
 geons, however, are not willing to
 attribute any considerable effect to
 external applications ; for they are
 well convinced, that Ihe healing of
 wounds depends more on the spon- 
B AS
BAT        197
taneous efforts of Nature,  espe-
cially in a sound and healthy con-
stitution, than upon any artificial
aid by liniments,  unguents,  or
plasters ; and that little benefit can
be derived from them, unless the
diseased part be properly dressed
and cleansed ;  while  the internal
state of the body  should also  be
duly attended to.  Yet, there are
instances on  record  in  which the
basilicon,  combined  either with a
small proportion of the red  preci-
pitate  of  mercury,  or,  which  is
still better, the  juice of the bur-
dock-root,  has  proved  efficacious
in healing scrophulous ulcers,  es-
pecially those situated near the  ar-
ticulations of bones.
   BASKET, a well-known utensil,
made of twigs interwoven  toge-
ther.  Considered as a measure in
commerce,  it  denotes  an uncer-
tain quantity, as a basket of med-
lars is two bushels ; of asafoetida
from 20 to 50 pounds weight, kc.
The ancient  Britons were celebra-
ted  for their ingenuity in manu-
facturing baskets  of very elegant
workmanship, which they export-
ed in large quantities.
   Basket-salt is made  from the
water of the salt  springs in Che-
shire,  and other places.  It differs
from the common  brine-salt, in the
fineness of the grain, as well as on
account of its whiteness and purity.
In preparing the former kind,some
persons use resin and other ingre-
 dients, for separating the crystals,
 and reducing  them  to  a smaller
 grain ; others effect  this by  keep-
 ing up a brisk fire under the pans,
 and constantly  stirring  the  salt ;
imt the most approved method of
 manufacturingbasket-saltis. to take
 out  for this purpose,  the   third
 draught of  every pan  which  is
 workin g for the common brine-salt;
and to do this before the granules
or crystals  are perfectly formed....
Thus the  salt will become  very
fine ;  and it  is then hard pressed
into small wicker-baskets, dried at
the stove and kept for sale.
  As there prevails,  in many fa-
milies,  a  prejudice against this
species of salt, from an idea that
some pernicious articles are  used
in the chymical process of prepar-
ing it, we advise those who are
under the influence of such appre-
hension, to reduce common salt to
powder, in a marble or iron  mor-
tar : but it requires to  be previ-
ously cleansed or purified, by dis-
solving,  and again evaporating it
to dryness ; in which state it may
easily be pounded.
    BASE-ROCKET, Rocket
Yellow-weed,  or  Wild  Mig-
nonette, Reseda  lulea, L.  is an
indigenous plant, growing in  mea-
dows, pastures,  and  corn-fields,
chiefly in a calcareous soil; though
it is  sometimes found on walls;
where its pale-yellow  flowers ap-
pear from  July to August.....This
neglected vegetable may be eaten
in the same manner as Kale ; and
it was formerly  reputed to possess
anodyne properties.
   BAT, or  Vespertilio, an animal
which seems to fill up the chasm
between quadrupeds  and birds;
with the latter,  however, it has  in
common only the power of flying,
as Nature  has provided it with a
smooth  gauze-like web, serving
the purpose  of wings.
   There are twenty-eight species
of this animal.   The common bat
is nearly the size of a  mouse, and
flies about, in quest of moths and
other insects, in fine summer even-
ings, with a rapid and irregular
motion,  resembling that of a but-
terfly.  When it alights on the 
198       BAT
BAT
ground,  it is unable to fly again,
till it has crawled to some height.
It remains torpid during the win-
ter in some subterraneous retreat,
revives in the beginning of spring,
and  the  female  brings forth from
two to five young at a time, which
it suckles  like other mammillary
animals.
   As the bats of our climate are
frequently troublesome, by infest-
ing  ehimnies,  and  annoying the
neighbourhood of  dwellings, we
shall  communicate  a method of
destroying them,  nearly in  the
words of  the  Encyclopadia Bri-
tannica.  Take the flower-cups of
burdock, whiten them with chalk,
and throw  them up into the way
of their flight : thus attracted by
the  whiteness  of  the substance,
the bats injure their membraneous
wings by the hooks of the bur, and
fall to the  ground.
   In  our opinion,  these animals
are more useful  than injurious; as
they devour a multitude of insects;
though  they likewise prey upon
b.^on, and other animal food sus-
pended  in  ehimnies.  But having
very  formidable natural enemies
in the owls, which chase them into
hollow trees and obscure holes of
walls, there will be little occasion
for persecuting them with the bur-
dork.
   BATH, in the general accepta-
tion  of the term, signifies a conve-
nient receptacle of water adapted
to the various purposes of washing
or cleansing, and bracing the body,
either by plunging, or continuing
in it for a  certain time.
   Baths may be divided into cold,
cool,  wa'-m,  and hot:  and these
again into  natural and artificial.
   In order to treat this interesting
subject  systematically,  we  shall
consider it according  to  the  divi-
sion above-mentioned.
  Cold Batlis are those of a tempe-
rature varying from the 33d to the
56th degree of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer.  The general properties
of the cold bath consist in its power
of contracting the  animal fibres,
while it dissipates the caloric (or
matter of heat) that exists between
their interstices, and thus effects a
greater approximation of the par-
ticles,  which were  before dilated
and relaxed by heat.   That such is
the natural influence  of cold, can-
not  be  doubted; and hence this
species of bath, by  its  powerful
action on the whole system? is one
of the  most  important  medicinal
remedies presented by  the hand,
and, as it were, supplied by the
very bosom of Nature.
  Even in the most remote times,
cold bathing was resorted to,  with
obvious advantage, by nervous and
debilitated persons; but in the dark
or middle ages, this genuine source
of health was totally neglected, till
the good sense of Europeans again
adopted it as a general restorative,
when the prevailing diseases of re-
laxation and atony  rendered the
use of such a remedy inestimable.
  The superior advantages of cold
bathing over all internal corrobo-
rants, consists chiefly in its imme-
diate salutary action on the solids,
without the intervention  of the or-
gans of digestion and  nutrition;
without having to perform a pas-
sage through numerous  channels,
before  it  can exert  its  efficacy....
For this obvious reason,  it is pecu-
liarly adapted to those constitutions
which,  though robust, and  appa-
rently  healthy,  are  liable to ner-
vous,  hysteric,   hypochondriacal,
and paralytic  affections, as well 
            BAT

as to frequent attacks of flatulency,
and consequent indigestion.
   Without expatiating, either on
the history, or the sensible eff'ects
of the Cold Bath, we shall proceed :
   I. To a general enumeration of
those cases, in which it cannot be
resorted to with advantage  and
safety.
   II. To lay down the necessary
rules and directions  for the use of
this heroic remedy.
   Wilh respect to the former,  we
must be concise,  and shall chiefly
point out by negative propositions,
those particular states of the body,
in which cold bathing must not be
attempted: namely,  1. In a  full
habit  of body, or  what is called
general pltthvra, on account of the
frequent febrile disposition attend-
ing such individuals ; 2. In hemor-
rhages or fluxes of  blood, open
wounds or ulcers, and every kind of
inflammation, whether external or
internal; 3. In obstructions of  the
intestines, or habitual costiveness;
4. In affections of the breast and
lungs, such as diffcult respiration,
short and dry coughs, &c. 5. When
the whole mass  of the fluids  ap-
pears to be vitiated, or tainted with
a peculiar acrimony, which cannot
be easily defined,  but is obvious
from a sallow colour of the face,
slow healing of the flesh when cut
or bruised, and  from  a scorbutic
tendency of the whole body ; 6. In
gouty and rheumatic  paroxisms  ;
though Sir John Floyer asserts,
that  u Podagries sometimes have
kept  their fits off wilh it ;" 7. In
cutaneous eruptions, which tend to
promote a criiic.d discharge of hu-
mours by the  pores  (yet the cele-
brated  physician just mentioned,
informs us, that great cures have
been  effected in the leprosy,  by
bathing  in  w hat he calls,  " Cold
            BAT        199

Sulphur Water.") 3. During preg-
nancy ; and 9. In a distorted or de-
formed state of the body, except in
particular cases to be ascertained
by  professional men.....Sir John
farther recommends, but too indis-
criminately, the dipping of rickettv
children one year old, every morn-
ing in cold water ;  and he is of opi
nion that, in adults, it prevents the
infection of fevers, by making the
body less sensible of the changes of
air; that, in old women,  it stops
violent hemorrhages from the  ute-
rus ; that it  has contributed to cure
canine madness, poisonous bites of
animals, and  obstinate agues, by
going  in previously to  the return
of the fit, and after all the evacua-
tions of the  body have been proper-
ly attended to ; and, lastly, that the
Sea-water Bath  has been of emi-
nent  service in dropsies, and de-
fective hearing: in which last case,
he knew a deaf person  who could
hear perfectly well, on the day he
bathed  in the sea.
  Experience,  however,  has  but
too often evinced,  that this excel-
lent remedy, whether by fresh or
salt-water, cannot  be implicitly re-
lied upon in  those complaints;  nor
will it be  productive of any good
effects,  unless our conduct,  in ge-
neral, be accommodated to the fol-
lowing rules:
   1. It is a vulgar error, that  it is
safer to enter the  water when tl e
body is cool, and thatpersonsheated
by exercise, and beginning to  per-
spire, should wait till they.are  per-
fectly cooled.   Thus, by plunging
into it,  in this  state,  an  alarming
and dangerous dullness frequently
seizes  them, and  the  injury  sus-
tained is generally ascribed to their
going into it too warm ;  while it
doubtless «irises from the contrary
practice....Dr. J.Ci'RRiK,of Liver- 
200        BAT
BAT
 pool, in his valuable  " Treatise on
 the  Effects of Water  in  Fevers."
 (edit.  2d,  8vo.  1799,  price  7s.),
 says, with equal truth and preci-
 sion, that " in the earliest stages of
 exercise, before profuse perspira-
 tion has dissipated the heat, and
 fatigue debilitated thelivingpower,
 nothing is more  safe, according to
 my experience, than the cold bath.
 This is so trqe, that  I have, for
 some years, constantly  directed in-
 firm persons to use such  a degree
 of exercise, before immersion,  as
 may produce some increased action
 of the  vascular system, with some
 increase of heat, and thus secure a
 force of re-action under the shock,
 which otherwise might not always
 take place.  But, though it be per-
 fectly safe to go  into  the cold bath
 in the  earlier stages of exercise,
 nothing is more dangerous  than
 this practice, after exercise has pro-
 duced   profuse  perspiration,  and
 terminated in langour and fatigue ;
 because in such circumstances the
 heat is not only sinking rapidly,but
 the system parts more  easily  with
 the  portion  that remains."   In
 short, it is a rule liable to no excep-
 tion, that moderate exercise ought
 always  to precede cold bathing,  to
 promote the re-action  of  all  the
 vessels  and muscles,  on entering
 the  water; for neither previous
 rest, nor exercise to a  violent de-
 gree, are proper on this occasion.
  2. The duration  of  every  cold
 bathing applied to the whole body,
 ought to^be short, and must be de-
 termined by the bodily constitution,
 and the sensations of the individual;
 for healthy persons may continue
 in it  much longer than valetudina-
 rians ;  and both will be influenced
by the temperature of the air, so
that  in  summer they  can  enjoy  it
 for an  hour, when,  in  spring  or
 autumn, one or two minutes may
 be sufficient.....Under similar cir-
 cumstances,  cold  water acts on
 aged  and lean persons with more
 violence than  on  the young and
 corpulent: hence the former, even
 in the hottest days of summer, can
 seldom with  safety remain in the
 bath longer than a quarter  of an
 hour ;  while  the latter are general-
 ly able to sustain its impression for
 double that time.
  3. The  head should first come
 in contact with the water, either by
 immersion, pouring water upon it,
 or covering it for  a minute  with a
 wet  cloth, and then  diving head
 foremost into the  water.
  4. As the immersion will be less
 felt when  it  is effected suddenly;
 and as it  is of consequence that
 the first impression should be uni-
 form over the  body, we must not
 enter the bath slowly or timorous-
 ly, but with a degree of boldness.
 A contrary method would be dan-
 gerous ;  as  it  might  propel the
 blood from the lower to the upper
 parts of the  body, and thus occa-
 sion a  fit of  apoplexy.   For these
 reasons, the shower bath is attend-
 ed  with considerable  advantages,
 because  it transmits  the  water
 quickly over the whole body; and,
 consequently,  is more consistent
 with the rules before-mentioned.
  5. The  morning is the  most
 proper  time   for  using the cold
 bath, unless  it be in a river ; in
 which case, the afternoon, or from
 one to two hours beforesun-set,will
be more eligible; as the water has
then acquired additional warmth
from the rays of the  sun, and the
immersion will not interfere with
digestion :  on the  whole, one hour
after a  light  breakfast....or twit 
BAT
BAT        201
hours before, or four hours after
dinner, are the best periods of the
day, for this  purpose.
   6. While  the bather is  in the
water, he should not remain inac-
tive, but apply brisk general fric-
tion, and move his  arms and legs,
to promote the  circulation of the
fluids from the heart to the extre-
mities.   It  would,  therefore, be
extremely imprudent to continue
in the water till a second chiiiness
attacks the body ; a circumstance
which would not only  defeat the
whole purpose intended, but might
at the same time be productive of
the most injurious  effects.
   Immediately  after  the  person
leaves the bath,  it will be neces-
sary for him, with the assistance of
another person  for  dispatch, to
wipe and dry his body with a coarse
and clean cloth.  He  should not
afterwards sit inactive, or enter a
carriage,  unless  warmly clothed
and  wearing  flannel  next  the
skin : if season and circumstances
permit, it will be more proper, and
highly  beneficial, to take gentle
exercise till the equilibrium of the
circulation be  restored, and  the
vessels, as well as the  muscles,
have acquired a due degree of re-
action.
   The best place for cold bathing
is in the invigorating water of the
sea, or a clear river;  and  where
neither of these can  be convenient-
ly resorted to, we recommend the
Showlr  Bath ;   an  apparatus
Which may be procured from the
tin-man.  Its effects are doubtless
more powerful than those of the
common bath :  and though the
latter covers the surface of the body
more uniformly, yet this circum-
stance by no  means detracts from
the excellence of the former; be-
cause those  intermediate  parts,
    VOL. i.
 which the water has not touched,
 receive an electric and svmuathetic
 impression, in a degree similar to
 those brought into actual contact.
 As every drop of water  from the
 shower bath operates as  a  partial
 cold  bath, its  vivifying  shock to
 robust individuals, is more exten-
 sive,  and beneficial, than from any
 other method of baching.
   Hence this bath is possessed of
 the   following  important advan-
 tages ; 1. The  sudden contact of
 the water may  be repeated,  pro-
 longed, and modified, at pleasure ;
 2. The  head  and breast are toler-
 ably secure, as it descends towards
 the  lower extremities  :  thus, the
 circulation is not impeded, breath-
 ing is less affected, and a determi-
 nation of blood to  the head and
 breast is effectually  obviated :  3.
 As the water  descends  in  single
 drops; it  is more  stimulating and
 pleasant, than the usual immersion;
 and can  be  more readily procured
 and  adapted  to circumstances ;
 lastly, 4. The degree  of pressure
 from  the weight of water, is here
 likewise  in a  great measure  pre-
 vented ;  nor is the circulation of
 the fluids interrupted so as to ren-
 der the use  of this bath in any de-
 gree dangerous ; a circumstance of
 the highest importance ;  because
 by the ordinary immersion, persons
 are often exposed to injuries which
 they least apprehended.
   [Cold bathing produces the best
 eff'ects when  used  early in  the
morning ; ar.d when, after wiping
the body dry, moderate exercise is
afterwards taken. The evening is
certainly not the best time to aisu
the cold  'oath in the city ; sevWal
cases  having occurred within the
 Editor's  observation,  of violent
fevers in persons who tried this ex-
periment in  the  month cf Au >u>t
    Du                    ° 
202       BAT

and September.  Bathing  in  salt
water every looming is said to pre-
serve strangers from the dangerous
seasoning  fevers of the West In-
dies ; but in this case temperance
must also be joined, and is probably
more certain in its effects than any
other remedy.   The cold bath  is
highly useful to preserve children
from the bowei complaints which
prevail in the summer throughout
the United States.]

                *
   As the  erection of public baths
has, from  the remotest ages, been
considered an object worthy of na-
tional  attention, and private solici-
tude, wef7iave  selected a modern
specimen  of such a  structure as,
in our opinion, will be admired, and
perhaps adopted in this country,
where public spirit, and a  cordial
 support of every useful invention,
 are equally conspicuous.   We al-
 lude to the Floating Baths at
 Hamburgh,   an   establishment
 which owes its origin to the en-
 lightened  members of the  "  Socie-
 ii; for the Encouragement of Arts
 and Useful Trade;," founded in that
 city, in the year 1765.
    These  baths were projected by
 Dr. Moldenhaweu, physician at
 Hamburgh, and erected by public
 subscription, on a small lake of
 fresh water, called the Alster. M.
 Arenh,  an eminent architect of
 the same city, delineated  the plan
 of the  building,  which we are
 informed, is an  improvement on
 similar baths  established in the
 principal towns of the French Re-
 public.
    Although we have not had an
 opportunity of  comparing the in-
  ternal  construction  of the  Ham-
  burgh baths, with those floatingon
 the river Thames,  near West-
            B AT

minster-bridge ,  yet we have rear
son to believe that they are essen-
tially different from  any other ex-
isting in this country.  Induced by
this consideration, and convinced
of the  intrinsic advantages which
the former possess, independent of
theirbeautiful external appearance,
we have caused accurate represen-
tations to be copied from the  ori-
ginal plates transmitted to us from
Hamburgh, with  this difference
only, that ours are upon a reduced
scale.
       EXPLANATION

Of the Plates  representing  the
  Floating Baths erected in the City
  of Hamburgh.

            PLATE I.

  A....Elevation of the longitudi-
nal Front  of the Floating  Bath,
w ith its ornamental entrance ;  of
the surrounding  gallery,  and the
tents expanded  over the  bathing
machines, and covered with sail-
cloth, which have been four times
varnished.   The wooden roof is
also covered with strong sail-cloth,
which had been repeatedly coated
with tar.   The whole vessel is 80
feet in length, and 40 in breadth.
   /'.....Elevation of the transverse
sides of the Floating Bath, with its
glass doors and windows, through
the former of which, the corridor,
and through the latter, the cabins
on each  side receive their light
    C......Section of the  building :
 namely, a,  b, of the Bathing  Ma-
 chines ; and c, c, of the  chambers
 for undressing and dressing.   On
 each longitudinal side of the ves-
 sel, there are (as appears on in-
 specting  Plate  II.)  six of these 
C/efzi/t'vii <>///"'   /<>V(ft/r/a/'n<i/  t/Apn/.A,

( /•s?f//tryr ('/  //'<'  /trf/i'**'>'<■>' '/"i*" 
 
BAT
BAT       203
chambers, which  may  be  easily
opened from within ;  and on each
t ransverse side are twolateral cabins,
partly furnished, and partly design-
ed for store-rooms, to hold various
implements.
  The corridor, extending from one
ride-door to the  other, within the
centre of the building (See 1J1. II.
B.f.), is seven feet and a-half r. ide,
and on  each side are the bathing
machines and chambers.
  These chambers for undressing
and dressing,  which arc provided
with sky-lights,  and marked c, are
seven  feet and  a half  in  length,
 and four feet wide. They are anti-
 chambers to the bathing machines
 a, b, and each of the  former con-
 tains the most necessary articles of
 furniture,  such as a  table, chair,
 looking-glass, cork-couch (for sup-
 porting the feet till they are dried,
 after coming from the bath), pegs,
 for suspending clothes, a boot-jack,
 Sec.
   The  bathing  machines a, b, be-
low ihe surface  of the water,  con-
sists of four sides, made of laths tv. o
 inches thick,through which it flows,
 and they are provided with a solid
 wooden floor, secured by iron sta-
 ples. These machines are six feet
 broad and  seven long, so that tin-
 whole   body  may  move in them
 without constraint.
   Their construction renders them
 moveable,  so that they may be
 raised or lowered at pleasure, and
 with little trouble, as appears from
 the machine b ;  while the impuri-
 ties settled  at the bottom may be
 easily  removed.  At  the side of
 the steps (See PI. II. h.), which
 extend to the bottom of the bathing
 machine, the latter is  provided
 with a  ballustcr (PI. II. *'.),  adja-
 cent to which is  placed a table and
 < hair.  The bathing machines are
adapted to different depths of wa-
ter, so that every  individual may
regulate them at 2-1, 3,  31, or 4
feet  in depth,  and these propor-
tions are marked within the cham-
ber.  Above each machine are sus-
pended two strings, one of which
is connected wilh  a  bell  fixed in
the corridor, for calling the waiter:
by means of the other, the bathing
person may exclude the current of
air circulating between the bottom
of the  floating vessel and  the sur-
face  of the water, as there is a
wooden board  which slides down
for that purpose.

           PLATE II.

  ^....Represents the construction
of the  floating vessel, which serves
for the foundation of the building.
It consists of strong  double fir-
beams, connected  with each other
by iron bolts and staples.
   //....Represents the ground-plan
of one half of the floating vessel :
a, the  entrance :  b, a room on the
oppposite side  for the waiter, who
is appointed to receive and deliver
the admission tickets,  ixc. ; c, the
lateral cabins ; d, the undressing
and  dressing   chambers ;  e, the
bathing machines ; J, the corridor;
g, the  surrounding gallery; A,the
stair-casts Lading into ihe water ;
/, the ballusteis at thebalhingina-
chines: all these parts have already
been described in  the explanation
given of the first  plate.

  Coil Paths may be called those
which  are of a   temperature be-
tween  the 56th and  76th degrees
of Fahrenheit's scale. They are of
great service  in  all cases  where
cold  bathing has   before  been re-
commended,  and require nearly
similar precautions. As their influ- 
204       BAT

ence, however, on  first entering
them, is less violent, though their
subsequent effect may be attended
with  equal advantages,  it follows,
that even persons of  a  more deli-
cate  organization may  resort to
them with greater safety.
   With respect  to rules for cool
bathing,  we  refer the reader to
those already stated in the preced-
ing analysis; and shallonly remark,
that notwithstanding its eff'ects are
less perceptible while the body con-
tinues in the water, it is necessary
that the bather, on coming out of
it, should be wiped  dry with the
greatest expedition, to prevent ca-
tarrhal affections.
   Warm  Baths,  are such cs have
a temperature above the 76th, and
not  exceeding the  96th or 98th
degree of the thermometer before-
mentioned.   There  are  various
springs in Britain, especially those
of Bath, Clifton, Buxton, and Mat-
lock, to which Nature has given
this temperature, the most  bene-
ficial  to  the  human body.  But
whether the tepid bath of this de-
scription be natural or artificial, it is
equally conducive tothe restoration
of energy, though its effects have,
till lately, been little understood....
Physicians,as well as patients,have
hitherto been too generally accus-
tomed  to consider a warm bath as
weakening the  body,  and useful
only for the removal of certain dis-
eases, especially those of the skin.
Experience, however,  has  amply
proved that there can be no safer
and more efficacious remedy in  a
variety of  chronic  or  inveterate
complaints, than the warm  bath,
if properly used, and continued for
a sufficient length of time.  Dr.
Marcarp, resident  physician of
Pyrmont, has, in our opinion, sa-
tisfactorily demonstrated, that the
            BAT

warm bath, in many cases of debi-
lity, from spasms, pain,  anxiety,
and  other causes,  as  well  as to
hectic and emaciated  persons, is,
generally, of eminent service, and
almost the only means of restoring
their health, and prolonging their     V
lives.  Instead of heating the hu-
man body, as has erroneously been
asserted, the warm bath has a cool-
ing effect, inasmuch as it obviously
abates the quickness of the pulse,
and reduces the pulsations in a re-
markable degree, according to the
length,of time the patient continues
in the water.   After the body has
been over-heated by  fatigue from
travelling, violent exercise, or from
whatever cause, and likewise after
great exertion or  perturbation of
mind, a tepid bath is  excellently
calculated to invigorate the whole
system, while it allays those tem-
pestuous and   irregular motions,
which otherwise prey upon, and at
length  reduce,  the constitution to
a sick-bed.   Its softening and as-
suasive power greatly tends to pro-
mote the growth of the body ; on
which account it ispeculiarly adapt-
ed to the state of such youth as
manifest a premature disposition to
arrive at a settled period of growth:
and it has uniformly been observed
to produce  this singular  effect, in
all climates.
   The warm bath is of very great
utility to such  individuals as are
troubled with a parched and rough
skin ; it has also been found to af-
ford relief in many paralytic, bili-
ous, hypochondriacal, hysteric, and
even insane cases, as well as to
forward the cure of scorbutic and
leprous  eruptions when strict at-
tention had been paid to both diet
and regimen.   In palsy, likewise,
modern observers assert, that warm
bathing is one of the most effectual 
 A>0*-?'t$43 **A                  '"                 *°                 3<










r   //<>////'/?//  f  AAA///J  ///*'  S/ft ///////',// 
 
BAT
BAT        205
remedies ;  though  the  late  Dr.
■vIkad expressly maintained, that
it is prejudicial to all paralytics....
Dr.  Charleton,  of Bath,  was
the first that refuted this assertion ;
because he had seen, in the hos-
pital  of  that  city, numerous  and
manifest proofs of its efficacy in
paralytic  cases.   This  judicious
physician remarks, in his " Inquiry
into the Efficacy of Harm Bathing
in  Palsies," printed in  1770,  that
he was induced to turn his atten-
tion to this subject, by  the preva-
lence and increase of nervous dis-
eases, but particularly on account
of the palsy,  which formerly used
 to be the  attendant of the aged,
 but has now become the too fre-
 quent and miserable companion of
 youth.  Of 996  paralytics, most
 of whom  had resisted the powers
 of medicine,-613 were benefited by
 the proper application of the warm
 bath....It is perhaps necessary  to
 remind the reader, that  this desir-
able effect may  be derived from
the waters of Bath (of  which we
 shall treat in a subsequent article),
 as well as from every other bath,
 whether  furnished  by Nature or'
 Art, provided its  temperature does
 not exceed 98°.   We have  pur-
 posely inserted Dr. Charleton's
 account under the head of " Warm
 Bath," though the  waters  in the
 city  of  Bath  must,  consistently
 with our division, be classed under
the following head.
   4. Hot  Baths  are  those which
 have  a temperature above 98 or
 100  degrees  of Farenhkit, and
 are occasionally  increased  to 110
 or 120° and upwards, according to
 the particular nature of the case,
 and the constitution of the  patient.
 As no prudent  person, we trust,
 will have  recourse to a hot bath,
 without  medical  advice, we shall
but briefly enumerate a few parti-
culars relative to its use, as well as
its effects
   1. Hot bathing, whether natural
or artificial, is supposed to be the
most general solvent of  all the
humours of the body ; 2. It conse-
quently is the most probable mean
of removing obstructions of every
kind ; 3. Previous evacuations are
necessary, to cleanse the first pas-
sages, and prepare the habit ; for
which purpose,repeated emetics are
often safe and useful ; 4. Attenu-
ating and aperitive medicines are
proper to render the humours more
fluid, and promote the discharge
of noxious particles, and whatever
caused  the  obstructions ;  5. Too
great a degree of heat, or too long
a  continuance  in the bath ; too
heating a bed after it; profuse per-
spiration ; exposure to cold air on
bathing days ; eating of  high sea-
soned  dishes, or drinking of spi-
rituous liquors, during a course  of
bathing, are always  improper,  of-
ten dangerous and sometimes  fat u ;
6. The head should in  no case be
dipt, till the bather is'rising out  of
the wat-r ;  7. A course of bathing-
should  be  long,  be  regulated by
intervals, according to tiie various
effects percejved  by the bather;  t:.
The temperate seasons of the vear
are most proper, safe, and benefi-
cial, both for drinking and bathing.
On the whole, there can benn'o
stated rules laid down,  as   every
thing depends upon the peculiar
circumstances of each patient; and
hence Dr.  Oliver asserts,  in his
" Practical Essays on the  use and
abuse of Warm (hot) Bathing, &c."
that by the prudent use of the hot
bath, most chronical disorders, and
gouty  cases in particular, not in an
inflamed  state, may  be  relieved,
and sometimes cured ; while per- 
206         BAT

sons in high health maybe greatly
injured by  wantonly  sporting with
so powerful  an  alterative of the
animal machine, either from  sick-
ness  to health, or from  health to
sickness.
  [Tepid Ba'hing is  highly useful
in summer.... As a free perspiration
is thereby promoted, and the body
more cooled than if the water used
had  been  cold.   Every person,
should use  a tepid bath three times
a week at least, in  the  summer,
as the practice  is not only  very
clearly, but highly healthful, and
contributes to remove that general
disposX'u n  to fever that has unhap-
pily prevailed during the  Autumn,
for  some years past.  It may be
used either in the morning,at noon,
or  when   going  to   bed....Every
family ought to be  supplied with
the proper conveniences  for warm
and cold bathing.  An expensive
apparatus is by no means neces-
sary,  especially for the cold  bath ;
but it is to be  regretted that the
danger of  carrying a large  quan-
tity of heated  water  to an upper
story  is so  great, as  to prevent
many persons from using the  tepid
bath,  who have  every disposition
to enjoy it. If some contrivance
could be effected to  heat water in
the  tub,  few  families would be
without them, as  the water might
be let in  from the  hydrants, and
after being used,  could be let out
again by a pipe leading down the
side of the house, or communicat-
ing with the rain  spout.]
  Having  now   given a concise
view  of the four principal kinds of
baths, with regard to the  tempera-
ture of the water,  we shall like-
wise notice another  curious mode
of bathing, as  practised by the
hardy Russians....We allude to the
SAeating or Vapour Bath, which is
            BAT

used by persons of every rank and
age, in almost every disorder ; be-
fore and  after  a journey,  hard
work, £cc.   These are frequented
at least once a  week, or  as often
as possible,  whether in a state of
health or sickness :  the extraordi-
nary degree  of  heat produced by
the evaporation of  water  thrown
upon  red-hot  stones, in  a close
room,  raises the thermometer to
146, or 168 degrees ; the latter of
which  numbers  is  a degree  of
heat considerably above that which
melts wax,  and  only  12°  below
that for boiling spirit of wine.   In
such  a  bath,  the  Russians lie
naked  on  a  bench, and continue
there,  notwithstanding  a profuse
perspiration, sometimes  for two
hours, occasionally  pouring  hot
water over their bodies : thus some,
with a view to  promote  perspira-
tion, and completely to  open the
pores, are first  rubbed,  and then
gently flagellated with leafy branch-
es of birch ;  while  others wash
their  bodies with  warm or cold
water ; and  all of them at length
plunge over head in a large.tub
of water.   Many,  however, rush
out almost dissolved  in sweat; and
either throw themselves immedi-
ately from the bath-room into the
adjoining river,  or, in winter, roll
themselves in snovvduringthe most
piercing cold, without suffering any
inconvenience,  and probably with
advantage , for we understand that
rheumatisms are  scarcely known
in Russia: and there is great reason
to attribute this  exemption to the
use of the vapour-bath.  Indeed,
they differ from all  the  balnea of
antiquity, as well as from those of
the modern  Orientals, in the  cir-
cumstance of not being dry sweat-
ing-baths ;  whence, their  peculiar
excellence in many cases where hot 
B A T
B A T        207
water-baths would be inefficacious,
or even hurtful. By exciting an un-
usual degree of perspiration, they
promote  cleanliness,  while they
render the skin soft and smooth ;
hence, again, they cannot be com-
pared to the voluptuous baths of the
Greeks and Romans;  because all
theconsequencesof effeminacy and
luxury are here completely obviat-
ed,  from the prejudices imbibed
during a Soft and effeminate educa-
tion, this  sudden transition from
heat to intense cold,  appears to us
unnatural and dangerous; but it cer-
tainly hardens the body of the Rus-
 sian, and enables him to brave all
 the vicissitudes of the weather, and
 all the severities of his climate.
   To conclude this interesting sub-
 ject, wc shall  avail ourselves  of a
 few additional  observations,  ex-
 tracted from a late work of acknow-
 ledged merit, entitled, " A  View of
 the  Ru.s.'n'iiu F.ni/iire, &c." (in three
 vols. 8vo. London,  1799, price, 1/.
7s.boards), by the Rev. W.  Tooke,
who resided many years  in  that
country ; and to whose sentiments
we cordially subscribe.
   " It is not to be doubted  that
the  Russians  owe their longevity,
 their robust stale of health, their
 little disposition to  certain mortal
 diseases,and their happy and cheer-
ful temper, mostly to these baths  :
 though climate, aliment and habits
 of living, likewise contribute their
 share.....The great lord chancellor
 Bacon, and other  sagacious ob-
 servers of nature and of mankind,
 have lamented, and certainly  not
 without cause, that this bathing has
 fallen into disuse among the  mo-
 dern nations of Europe, and justly
 wish the practice back again lit all
 our towns and villages.  In fact,
 when we consider that the old phy-
 sicians so  early introduced  into
their  practice this remedy of Na-
ture's own invention, and employed
it with such great success; when
we  recollect that  Rome, for five
hundred years together,  had  no
physicians, but only baths, and that
to this day a multitude  of nations
cure almost all their maladies me-
rely by baths ; we cannot avoid  re-
garding the dismission of them a-.
the  epocha of a  grand revolution
which has  been wrought in th=
physical state  of the human race,
in our quarter of the world.
  " The natural perspiration, the
most  important of all excretions,
must  naturally  go  on  better in a
body  constantly  kept soft by  bath-
ing. A great number of impurities
which privily lay in us, the train
to tedious  and  dangerous distem-
pers,  are timely  removed, ere they
poison the blood and the juices....
All exanthematic diseases are abat-
ed by bathing, consequently then
the small-pox ; and if this dreadful
disorder be actually less fatal in
Russia than in other countries, this
phenomenon need not  be attribut-
ed to any other cause than the  va-
pour-baths."
  BATHING,  in  general, signi-
fies, the act of immersingthe body,
or  part of it, into water, or any
other fluid; and is  a practice coe-
val  with mankind.
   The ancient  Greeks,  Romans,
and Germans, as well  as  the Per-
sians,  Turks,  and  especially the
modern Egyptians, enjoy the com-
forts   and   luxuries procured  by
bathing, in a degree of which  we
can scarcely form an adequate con-
ception. Those who wish to Mouse
themselves with reading o;:e of the
most  animated, nay,  almost cr-
chanting accounts relative to ths
subject, we must refer to M. Sa-
varv's "Letters on  Eg'pi," Fro..i 
208        BAT
B A T
these it appears, that bathing is em-
ployed bv  those  voluptuaries, not
only for procuring the most de-
lightful sensations, and removing
that irksomeness and apathy which
is the  general concomitant of an
idle or sensual life, but likewise
with a view  to  prevent  or cure
rheumatisms, catarrhs, or such cu-
taneous diseases  as  their climate
produces, by an atmosphere loaded
with humid and  impure exhalati-
ons, and highly unfavourable to in-
sensible perspiration.  The Egyp-^
tian baths are said to be heated by"
the steam of water artificially com-
bined with odoriferous fumes, which
penetrate  into all  the pores, so
that they are, in  some degree, si-
milar to those of the Russians, be-
fore described.   And  though M.
Tournefort is of opinion that
vapour-baths have a tendency to
injure the organs of respiration, yet
if credit be due to Savary, there
are no people on earth who  are
le=.~. troubled with asthmatic corn-
plain's than the Egyptians; and few
nations so passionately fond of such
bathing. In short, we cannot sup-
press the remarks formerly made
on this important branch of dietetic
regimen, that, "  though the anci-
ents could  less dispense with  the
ust; of the  hath, on account of the
frequency  of  their athletic exer-
cises, as well as from the want of
linen, which  wras then much less
in use  than at present, yet in our
times, it would be of great service,
if the use of baths were more gene-
ral  and frequent, and  this benefi-
cial practice not confined to parti-
cular places or seasons, as a mere
matter of fashion.  C auricle red as
a species of universal domestic re-
medy,  as  one which form;  the
basis of cleanliness, bathing, in its
dLlei-wiit forms, may be pronounced
one of the most extensive and be-
neficial restorers of health and vi-
gour."
  BATHS (DryJ were formerly
made of ashes, salt, sand, shreds of
leather, and similar substances.....
Celsus informs  us, that the an-
cients had a variety  of sweating
baths by a dry heat, and especially
by certain steams naturally emitted
from the earth, and received  under
a proper arch  or  hot-house ; or
sometimes by means of hot sand,
stove-rooms, or artificial bagnios.
Of the last  mentioned establish-
ment we have already given a short
account, under the head of Bagnio ;
and  we  shall  here  caution  the
reader against their improper use,
on the authority of Dr. Arbuth-
not,  who says, in  his  excellent
work " On  the effects of Air on
Human Bodies," (8vo. 3*. 6d.) that
he has seen  two instances of ma-
lignant fevers produced by the hot
air of a bagnio.
  Although many cases are record-
ed by medical  and  other authors,
from  which it  appears  that dry-
baths  have  often been found bene-
ficial in removing  obstinate pains
in the limbs, and even curing that
odioin disorder which salivation
cannot always remove, yet we have
reason to doubt their efficacy, when
unassisted by interna! medicines.
In such cases as rheumatism, gout,
palsy, ike. where profuse perspira-
tion is necessary, as it were,  to ex-
pel the malignant morbid humours,
there is no occasion for resorting
to the precarious use of dry-baths  ;
we  would,  th j re fore,  preferably
recommend the Prussian Vapour
Bath, which was lately used  in the
army of that kingdom, with almost
general succe  =.   It simply con-
sists of a close wooden hex, the
lov.yr  par', of which  resembles a 
            BAT

common  night  chair, in which is
placed a large vessel with boiling
water: the upper compa, iment has
only one aperture on the  top open-
ing with two horizontal ooors, hav-
ing in the centre an  excision large
enough to admit a  person s neck
with ease. In  such a box the pa-
tient is placed for one, two, or three
hours, according  to the nature  of
his case, and the degree of perspi-
ration deemed necessary....There
can  be  no reasonable  objection
against  this simple contrivance,
which,  with a few improvements,
deserves to be adopted in the Brit-
ish  army, and especially  in the
navy, where  want  of  room, and
other circumstances, might render
it, on many occasions,  extremely
 useful.
   BATH, (Earth,) is a modern
contrivance, which was introduced
into this country by a late notorious
emperic: it consists of a  cavily dug
in the ground, into which patients
descend as  far as the chin,  while
the  interstices  are expeditiously
filled up with fresh  mould, so that
the soil may come in contact with
every part of the body.
   Earth-Faths are often  employed
by the Spaniards, in cases of hectic
fever,and pulmonary consumption:
a Ew years since, they became
fashionable  in  London   as well  as
at  Bath; but  having often been
misapplied by fanciful and ignorant
persons, they were soon relinquish-
ed, and have now fallen  into disre-
pute. Such baths,  however, have
occasionally  proved [See  Dam-
pier] very efficacious in the sea-
scurvy  ; and,  if judiciously  man-
aged, under medical superintend-
ancc,  they may  be of essential
service in casesof incipient phthiris.
  BATHS (Medicated), are  those
•saturated with various mineral, ve-
     ▼01. 1.
            BAT        209

getable, or sometimes animal sub-
stai c-js.   Thus we  have sulphur
and steel baths, aromatic and milk
baths....there can be  no doubt, that
such i:>';;redients,ifduly mixed and
a proper tempc raiure  be  given to
the water, may,  in  certain com-
plaint,  be  productive of effects
highly bei.cficii.l. We well remem-
ber tlie pompoms reports published
several years ago, by two notorious
empirics,  and  ittested by  many of
our first  nobility,  who permitted
their names to  be banXied about
publicly, in  consequence  of won-
derful cries said to have heen per-
formedby the most whimsical com-
binations  of things  and circum-
stances.   Although   we  are  not
inclined  to  question  the  truth of
these specious  cures, yet, it is re-
markable, that  such extraordinary
facts, if they were facts, should, in
the course of a few  years, so far
from being improved upon, and ren-
dered of practical service to suffer-
ing humanity,   have been totally
consigned to oblivion. Like  fiery
meteors, those mysterious masters
of the healing art, their medicines
and patients, all have disappeared.
Such seems to be the universal fate
of human pursuits, when involved
in mystery; and as thepractitioners
thus engaged,carried on their secret
trade in an empirical manner with-
out being able  sufficiently to  dis-
tinguish   between  the  nature of
different cases,  and the constitu-
tions of the  unwary victims of dis-
ease, they had recourse (a$ quacks
are always obliged to have*) to an
indiscriminate   administration  of
their  medicated baths ; a precari-
ous practice which could not fail
to diminish  the number  of cures,
and to reduce their ill-acquired re-
putation.  Notwithstanding this un-
favourable result,  it would be un-
     E  E 
210        BAT
BAT
reasonable to impute the want of
farther success to the inefficacy of
medicinal substances, or the baths
themselves ; on the contrary, we
venture to pronounce, that both will
operate, when properly used, in an
uniform manner, so long as the na-
ture of man, and diseases, are con-
formable to general laws. Hence
our success will always less depend
upon  the  specific virtues of sub-
stances, or drugs, than upon the
manner in which they are used for
particular purposes.
   Water  impregnated with the
 scales  of  rust of iron, which  a-
bound with the saline and sulphu-
 reous particles of that metal, is  of
 great service for strengthening the
 part to which it is applied ; re-invi-
 gorating debilitated limbs: stopping
 various kinds of bleeding ; restor-
 ing the menstrual and  hemorrhoi-
 dal discharges  when  obstructed ;
 and,  in short,  as a substitute for
 the natural iron-bath.
    There are various other medica-
 ted baths, such as those saturated
 with alum and quick-lime, sal am-
 moniac, &c by boiling them toge-
 ther or separately in pure rain wa-
 ter ;  they have long been reputed
 as eminently serviceable in paraly-
 tic, and all diseases  arising from
 nervous and muscular debility....
 Lastly, it is worthy  of remark, that
 all mineral wafers presented to us
 by the  beneficient hand of Nature,
 may be artificially  prepared, with
 tolerable accuracy, and sometimes
 of superior efficacy, when we are
 sufficiently  acquainted  wilh the
 component parts of such springs.
    BATH-WATERS are celebra-
 ted  on  account of their having a
 higher temperature than any other
 in  Britain,  and  being  the only
 springs which are sensibly hot to
 the touch.  All other thermal waters
of this island are below the  animal
temperature, and deserve that ap-
pellation only, from  being invari-
ably warmer than common springs
are in general.
   By the erection of elegant baths,
these waters are particularly adapt-
ed to the benefit of invalids, who
find here  a  variety  of establish-
ments,   contributing  equally   to
health,  convenience, and  amuse-
ment.
  There  are three principal springs
in the city of Bath, namely,  those
called the  King's Bath, the Cross
Bath, and the Hot-Bath , all with-
in a short distance of each other,
and emptying themselves into the
river Avon, after  having  passed
through the several baths.  Their
 supply is so copious, that all  the
 large reservoirs used for bathing,
 are filled every evening with fresh
 water, from their respective foun-
 tains. In their  sensib1^  and medi-
 cinal  properties,  the.e is but  a
 slight difference: according to Dr.
 Falconer,  tl •  former  are,   1.
 That the water, when newly drawn
 appears clear  and colourless, re-
 mains  perfectly inactive, without
 bubbles, or any sign of briskness
 or  effervescence ; 2. After being
 exposed to the open air for some
 hours, it becomes rather turbid, by
 the separation of a  pale yellow,
 ochery  precipitate, which gradual-
 ly subsides ; 3. No  odour is  per-
 ceptible from a glass  of the fresh
 water,  but  a slight pungency  to
 the taste from a large mass of it,
 when  fresh  drawn : which how-
 ever, is neither fetid nor sulphure-
 ous; 4. When hot from the pump,
 it affects the mouth with a strong
 chalybeate impression, without be-
 ing of a saline or pungent taste ;
 and 5. On  growing cold, the cha-
 lybeate taste is entirely lost,  leav- 
BAY
BAY        211
ing only a very slight sensation on
the tongue, by which it can scarce-
ly be distinguished from common
hard spring water.
   Dr. Saunders estimates a gal-
lon of the King's Bath water to con-
tain about eight cubic inches of
carbonic acid, and a similar quan-
tity of air, nearly  azotic ;  farther,
about 80 grains of solid ingredients
one-half of which probably consist
of sulphat and muriat of soda; \5j
grains  of siliceous earth,  and the
remainder is selenite, carbonate of
lime, and so small a  portion of
oxyd of iron, as to be  scarcely
calculable.
   BAY-SALT, a kind of brown-
ish impure salt,  manufactured in
France, Italy, and other countries,
by evaporating sea-water in clay-
 pits ; which is effected at a small
expense, and with little trouble.
  This salt is more or less adapted
to all domestic  uses, and  forms a
profitable article of commerce, as
it is exported in large  quantities.
According to the clay employed in
making the pits, it acquires differ-
ent shades of colour; and, in fa-
vourable seasons, the French ma-
nufacture not only what is wanted
for  home consumption, but like-
wise considerable quantities  for
exportation.   The greatest  diffi-
culty which  attends  the  making
of bay-salt in England, arises from
a deficiency of  heat in summer ;
because the  rays  of the  sun are
not powerful enough to evaporate
a large  mass of sea-water in a cer-
tain time. However, the practica-
bility of imitating the  French, in
the  preparation  of this article, has
becncfoarlyprovedby Dr. Brown-
rigg. Such of our readers as are
deshoi'-,  of  information   on this
subject, we refer to his pamphlet;
from which, copious extracts, to-
gether  with  remarks, have been
inserted in the first volume of the
" Museum Rusticum et  Commerci-
ale," p. 272 ;  a work published in
the year  1764, and  well known to
rural economists.
  BAY-TREE, or Laurus, L. is
an elegant tree, of which there are
[many] species.
  The 1.  Laurus  nobilis, E. or
Evergreen Bay, is a native of Ealy,
with an upright trunk,  branching
out on every side.
  The dark-green  leaves of  this
tree afford, by distillation, a  very
useful  oil, which is employed, both
in  medicine,  and  as a  culinary
spice.  The  fragrant,  but  bitter
berries, also yield an essential oil,
and in  a much greater proportion:
it has sometimes been  used with
advantage in nervous and paralytic
affections. With  the foliage of this
beautiful tree,  which, among the
ancients, was consecrated to Apol-
lo, they  crowned their  poets  and
heroes.
  2. The Laurus destivalis, or De-
ciduous Bay, [spice  berry, or spice-
wood.] a native of [the U. States.]
It rises with an upright stem, co-
vered  with a  purplish  bark,  and
has oblong, oval, and  deciduous
leaves.
  3.  The Laurus  Benzpe, L. or
Benjamin-Tree, which  grows  fif-
teen or twenty feet high : and
  4. The  Sassafras ; both species
are also natives of America.
  Professor Kalm, in  his travels
through America, informs us, that
the bark of the species  called  Sas-
safras  is  used by  the  women of
Pennsylvania, fordyeingworsted of
a permanent and beautiful orange-
colour, which is net affected by the
rays of the sun.  They make use;
of urine instead  (f alum, in  pre-
paring this dye, which is  boiled in
brass vessels:  the wood is employ- 
212        BAY
BAY
ed for posts of inclosures, because
it is found  to last a long time in
the ground; but, when exposed to
the tur and rain, there is scarcely
any timber more subject to he de-
stroyed  by  worms. The same wri-
ter informs us, that the Sassafras
root is frequently peeled, and put
into beer, while browing; and also
into brandy.  A  decoction of the
root in water, drank  every morn-
ing, has, according to him,  been
used with success in the  dropsy.
   4. The Laurus Cinnamomum, L.
or  Cinnamon-Tree, is a native of
Ceylon.
   With  respect to  the culture, or
propagation of this  valuable  tree,
in it" n.itive places,  we possess no
particular accoui.t.
   According to the account given
by  Dr.  Wright, its propaga ion
is very easy, and its  culture, re-
quires but little care. Dr. Dancer
asserts,  that the tree  puts out nu-
merous side branches, with a dense
foliage,  from the very bottom of
the trunk: this  furnishes an oppor-
tunity of obtaining a  sufficiency of
layers, and  facilitating the growth
of the tree, which does not perfect
its seeds in any quantity under six
or seven years, when it  becomes
abundantly  loaded.   It seems to
delight  in a loose, moist soil, and
to require  a southern aspect: the
trees thus  planted,  flourish better
than others which  grow in loam,
and are not so much exposed to the
sun.  When healthy, it is reared
from layers of  a  pretty  quick
growth, attaining, in  eight years,
the  height  of  fifteen or twenty
feet.                           3
  The cinnamon-tree, with  other
valuable plants,  was U.ken  in  a
French  ship by Admiral Rodney,
in the last  war, and  presented to
the Assembly  of Jamaica.  From
this parcnttree, several hundredsof
young plants are already procured,
and transplanted in different parts
of the island ;  in  all of which  it
thrives luxuriantly.
  The best cinnamon  bark taken
from the trees growing in Jamaica,
is that from the branch  of about
an inch in diameter : as the larger
ones do not yield so good a spice.
It is the  inner rind that constitutes
the cinnamon, from which the two
external coats must  be separated.
  Cinnamon, though more reten-
tive of its  properties than  any of
the other  species, yet requires to
be excluded from the air and mois-
ture.   The  leaves  of this  tree,
whether fresh or dried, are strong-
ly  aromatic, and afford a good sub-
stitute for the bark, both in cookery
and medicine.  In distillation, they
yield  a fragrant spirituous water,
and an essential oil: when reduced
to powder they form  a good per-
fume.
   5.  The  Laurus Cassia, L. or
Base  Cinnamon, has  lanceolated
leaves, triple nerved.  The bark of
this species is  imported from dif-
ferent parts of the East Indies and
from  China.  It resembles cinna-
mon more in its aromatic flavour
than in external appearance: as it
is thicker  and  coarser: it farther
differs from it, in being weaker,
abounding more with a viscid mu-
cilaginous matter, and being  less
astringent ;  as  likewise  by  its
breaking short and smooth ; while
the cinnamon  breaks  fibrous and
splintery,
  6  The Laurus Camphora, L. or
Camphor-Tree, grows wild in the
western  woods  of  Japan, and  in
the adjacent isle;.  The root of this
tee smells stronger of camphor
than any other part,  and yields it
in  greater abundance.  This is an- 
BE A
BEA        213
other of the captured plants pre-
sented to the  inhabitants of Ja-
maica ;  and if cultivated with care,
will  also be a  beneficial  acquisi-
tion.
  The Abbe Grosier informs us,
that  in  China this tree grows to
above 150 feet high, and more than
40 yards in circumference.  The
camphor ic obtained by lopping the
branches, which the Chinese chop
very  small, steep  in spring water
for three clays,  and afterwards pu-
rify  the sap by boiling.
   [Bureaus, writing desks,  and
wardrobes, are  sometimes brought
from China, made of the camphor
tree, which have a strong smell of
that drug, and  infallibly keep away
bugs, moths, &c]
   7. The Laurus Persca, L. or the
Alligator pear tree, is another spe-
cies of the bay, which is generally
cultivated in the West-Indies.  It
rises to a considerable height, with
a straight trunk ;  the -bark is of a
greyish colour;  the leaves of a beau-
tiful preen.  Its fruit is pear-shap-
ed,  and from  one to two  pounds
weight.   It  affords an agreeable
article of diet to  the negroes, and
with  a  little salt  and a plantain,
furnishes a  nourishing repast.....
When the pear is ripe, its pulp is
harder than butter; and from  its
similarity in taste to that  animal
oil, it is called  vegetable marrow.
  There are several other species
of the bay-tree, which we shall not
enumerate,  as they are of inferior
value, and consequently less inter-
esting.
  BEAe-X or  Vicia *Faha,  L. a
f.enus of which there are four spe-
cies  commonly reared in the gar-
dens of this count i y :  1. The small
Lisbon,  or Ma.:ugan;  2. The Spa-
nish ; 3. The  Sandwich;  and 4.
The Winchoi- bean-;.   The Masa-
gan beans are esteemed either for
the table or cattle ; they are [the
earliest of all,] as palatable as the
Windsor, and should be cultivated
in a loamy  soil, in rows nearly  a
yard distant from each other, and
about four  inches in depth : the
first crop ought to be set about the
latter end of [March, or beginning
of April;]  the second  [in May],
but not so thick as the former.
   If the rows should  appear too
thin,  some  may be transplanted
from those which are thicker, but
all ought to stand four inches dis-
tant from  each other, and  after-
wards to be  moulded  and  hoed
during the  summer.
   In the beginning of May, the
first sown beans will blossom from
the bottom to the top, even if they
rise to the height of three feet;
they grow strong,  and  send three
or four stalks from  one root, but
should never be lopped, as this
would prevent the pods from arriv-
ing at their full growth.
   [An experienced horticulturist,
says, they are better for being lop-
ped, as the beans thereby set more
quickly and certainly.]
   When ripe, they should be pull-
ed, and set upright to dry, and may
afterwards be  split; in which state
they are  excellent food for horses
and  swine.    The  bean-straw   is
also beneficial, as  the  produce of
ten acres, when cut  to chaff with
a three-knife machine, will supply
sufficient nourishment for ten cows
and two calves, for 20  weeks.  A
man is able to cut as much in  12
hours, as 12 head of cattle can eat
in a week.   Cows, when kept on
this food alone, will eat about  25lb.
a day.
   [The Mas.  should be imported
from Lisbon, as the seed is disposed
to degenerate  in this country, un- 
214       B E A
B E A
less care be taken to sow the largest
and first ripe.]
  Spanish Beans should be planted
in October and November, shelter-
ed by walls  or  hedges, where, if
they survive the severity  of  the
season, they will  come  to perfec-
tion early  in summer.  They may
also be raised very close in beds,
if covered with mats in winter, and
transplanted in  spring.
  The Lisbon Bean is preferred to
the Spanish ; but as it is apt to  de-
generate, by ripening early,though
not  in  any peifection, fresh seed
ought to  be imported every  two
years.  The Spanish and Windsor
beans,  which are  those generally
used at table, should not be plant-
ed till after Christmas, but especi-
ally the Windsor, which are more
liable to injury from cold than any
other kino.  These beans require
an open ground, and should be set
at the distance of three  feet and a
half between the rows, and five or
six  inches from each other.
  The Sar.dw.ch Aeans are hardier
than the  Windsor, and may   be
planted so early as to be  fit for  use
between these and the early crops.
This species, however,  has lately
been much  neglected.   Windsor
beans should first be set about the
middle of  [April], and a new plan-
tation made every three weeks, till
the  middle of  May,  to  ensure a
succession of crops.
  [Mr.DEANE,N.E.Farmer,says,
when they are about a yard high,
the tops should be. broken off in the
same manner as tobacco.   When
the first crop is gathered, the stalks
should be cut  off close to  the
ground, excepting those on which
seed is left to grow more perfectly
ripe.  The suckers will  raise from
the  roots,  and  give another green
cop late in the autumn. In gene-
ra!,  however, these  beans  ripen
about midsummer, in  Pennsylva-
nia ; and, if then cut down, would
be destroyed  by the«heat of the
sun. A second crop, however, may
be obtained in a fine season by sow-
ing those first ripe.   They  will
most  commonly  escape  the  fly.
Windsor  beans flourish on a  stiff
clay, and  should be drilled on ac-
count of the ease with  which they
may be hoed.   See article Drill.]
   Another kind much  planted at
present, on  account of its  great
produce, is  the Tok.r : it comes
to perfection about the same  time
as the Sandwich.  The black  and
white  blossomed beans  are  also
much  esteemed , but unless their
seeds be preserved with care, they
are apt to degenerate.
   The Horse Bean is the only kind
propagated by  the plough.  It de-
lights  in  a stiff and moist  clay';
three bushels are sufficient to  sow
an acre, which ought to  be per-
formed in [March or beginning of
April;] and the general produce of
an acre  is about twenty bushels.
But it is worthy of remark, that by
the new improvements in  husban-
dry,  less than one bushel of  seed
is sufficient to plant an acre of land,
and the  produce  has  sometimes
been found  to  exceed  that of the
old method, by 10 bushels per acre.
The beans should lie  some time
upon the ground after they are cut.
To keep the soil clean from weeds,
when  intended  for a crop of beans
the next year, dung should be laid
on the land as soon  as  the wheat
stubble, or haulm, is carried  off;
this  method having  been  found
more  effectual in preventing the
growth of weeds, than by  plough-
ing in the haulm, and laying the
dung upon fallow lands.
   As soon as  the beans have ac-
quired si;; leaves, sheep should be
turned in, to feed among them : 
            BE A

they will eat all the young weeds,
even the melilot, but will not hurt
the beans, provided they are not
suffered to lie  down.
   A writer in the Gentleman's Ma-
gazine for 1764, recommends the
planting of horse beans by the fol-
lowing method....Take a plank  of
oak, of such a size as a man can
easily  manage by a handle fixed
upright in the middle of it, and of
such thickness as not to give way
in working; in the under part of
this planklet there be fixed wooden
pegs of such length,  and at such
distance from each other, as may
form proper holes or beds  in the
ground for the beans.
   When the land has been proper-
 ly prepared,  the  workman  must
 thrust the pegs of this instrument
 into the ground, and  proceed side-
 ways, managing it so, that there
 may be the same distance between
the last row of holes made  by the
first impression, and  the first row
made by the next,  as there is be-
tween  the rows of  any one im-
pression.  The youngest children
may be taught to follow the instru-
ment, and drop a bean  into every
hole that it makes.
   As the topmost blossoms seldom
 come to perfection, they should be
 taken away when those toward the
 bottom of the stalks first appeal;
 which  may be  done  by garden-
 shears wilh long handles: the fur-
 rows being left wide  enough for a
 careful pel son to  walk in  them,
 without damaging  the crop ; and
 the  cuttings,  by  covering  the
 ground, will shade it, keep it moist,
 and  gradually be converted into
 manure,  which,  as strong  lands
 are apt to chap, and such only be-
 ing fit for beans, will be of great
 utility.
            B  E  A       215

  Beans intended for seed, should
be plucked up by the roots, before
tney  are quite ripe,  instead  of
cutting the stalks : thus they will
receive nourishment enough after
bring removed, to ripen fully, and
no  seed will be lost, which, other-
wise happens to a great quantity,
in their cutting and  removal.
 ' Beans have long been used  by
our most celebrated  agriculturists,
as  a preparatory crop for wheat-
lands.    The  beneficial effects  of
this method are so well known,
that it is unnecessary to expatiate
upon the subject.  We must, how-
ever, observe,that in the year 1795,
the Society for the Encouragement
of  the Arts, adjudged a  premium
of  twenty  guineas to Lewis Ma-
j.kndie-,  Esq.  an  ingenious  im-
prover of rural economy  (whose
successful exertions in  planting
ash, we have noticed in page 123),
for his judicious culture of beans
and wheat.  He sowed fifteen acres
in  February, 1794, with the Vicia
faba equina, or small horse bean.
The quantity of seed was 6 pecks
to  the acre ; and the total expense
29/. 14s-. 3d. or 1/.  19*. 7l</.  per
acre.   The produce was fifty-nine
quarters and one  bushel,  which
were sold for 120/. 1 Is. and 6d.  A
detailed account of this interesting
experiment, may be seen  in the
fourteenth volume of the. Society '*
 Transactions.
    In the year 1796, Mr. Joseph
Webster, of Bankside, near Don-
■ caster, received a similar premium
from the Society, for having drilled
sixteen  acres of land with  beans,
and sown it with wheat in the same
 year.  He employed Cooke's Drill
 Machine,  and  the beans were of
the fame species as those sown by
Mr Majendie. 
216        B  E  A
BE A
  Another premium was also given
to  Mr.  Robert  Dudgeon,  of
Tynningham, who, in the spring
of 1797, drilled  three  fields, con-
taining  nearly twenty-three acres
and a half  with bears, and sowed
them with wheat in the same year.
This process is described, at con-
siderable length, with several inte-
restingremarks, in the seventeenth
volume  of  the  above-mentioned
work.
  The  Duke of Grafton, about
eleven years since, made an expe-
riment,  to  ascertain whether the
soil of the common fields of North-
amptonshire,  and  the  adjacent
counties, would alternately bear a
crop of wheat and beans, for a se-
ries  of years ;  after  giving it  a
light dressing of  dung,  namely,
from twelve  to  fifteen loads per
acre, every third year, without ren-
dering the land poorer than it was
when first cultivated for this pur-
pose.  After having manured the
field in  the manner specified, the
Duke, in the first year, sowed one
half of it with wheat, and the other
half with beans.   The success of
this  plan was so  great, that in  a
letter to Arthur  Young,  Esq.
dated August, 17f (J, he observes,
he  has  continued  this  alternate
course of crops ever since, without
having in a sinrie  instance admit-
ted  a fallow.
  Having- stated these useful and
inter-sting  facts, we shall  submit
the pi acticalapplication to the judg-
ment of the reader.  But  the last-
mentioned experiment by nomeans
proves, that a summer fallow may
not, on  some  particular lands, be
of great advantage to ensure a suc-
cession  of crops.
  [The field beans make an excel-
lent fallow crop, and are now much
used in Lancaster  county,  Penn-
sylvania, for that purpose. " They
ought to be sown in rows, about 10
inches apart, the intervals between
the rows 20 inches, they must be
horse-hoed or skimmed frequently,
whereby the ground is kept stirred
and clean, so as to  be a well pre-
pared fallow for receiving another
crop."....Mr. Bordley.
   The field white beans grow best
on  a  dry and warm soil, but mo-
derately rich.  The way to harvest
them,  is, to pull them up  by  the
roots, a short time  before the first
frost is expected, and let them lie
on the field.  The  green ones will
soon' ripen, and escape injury:from
the frost. They must be gathered
and secured, befo.e they begin to
scatter from the pods. The haulm,
or vines of beans must be careful-
ly preserved and given to sheep;
no other creature will eat them.
   These beans are, unfortunately,
very apt to be destroyed  by an in-
sect of the puceron tribe.  Where
this is the case, the early English
garden  pea, may be substituted....
Mr. B. says, that Mr. Parkinson,
(p. 33,) has induced him to believe
they  would answer a better pur-
pose as  a fallow crop,  than  the
beans.
   The Caseknife Beu:i, Dolichos en-
siformis,ia so called, because the pod
is shaped like that instrument, and
about the same size.  The green pods
half grown are excellent food when
cut small. This bean,like all others
of the running kind, is produced in
great plenty, by using the manure
of hogs, with  a little mixture of
ashes. They are a tenderplant, and
should not be put in the ground till
after the first of May. The poles
for them to climb upon, may be
set at the  time when the  seed is 
BE A
BE A        217
put in, or afterwards, as may  be
most convenient.  They are very
productive.
  Canada beans have no running
vines.  They ripen early, and are
fruitful.  They are oblong shaped,
and of various colours.  The pods
are not so tender as to be good  for
eating, unless when very  young.
These and all other  of the  bush
kind, grow best  in the drill way.]
   With  respect to the  properties
of beans, in general, they ar6 nu-
tritive, but tend to produce  flatu-
lency.  Hence they ought to be
boiled in their fresh state,when they
 are less  flatulent, and more easily
 digested. The horse bean has been
 used  as a  substitute  for coffee,
 which it much resembles in taste,
 though  it does not contain more
 than half the quantity of oil.
   French Beans, when eaten  be-
 fore  they attain to maturity,  are
 equally  palatable  and wholesome;
 and,   if  ground and mixed wilh
 wheaten flour,  they would, like
 other beans or peas, make a good
 and nourishing bread......yet,  the
 daily  use of it  is apt to produce
 costiveness,  and otherwise to dis-
 order the alimentary canal.
   Bean  Flour, as Dr. Darwin ob-
 serves, is probably more nutritive
 than that of oats; which appears by
 its effect in fattening  hogs: and
 from the relative prices of these
 articles, he is of opinion, that peas
 and  beans in  general supply  a
 cheaper provender for  horses and
 other animals. But, as  the fiour of
 beans and peas is more oily than
 that of oats, it must be more diffi-
 cult of digestion.  Hence, when a
 horse has been fed with pulse, he
 will be less  active for an  hour or
 two afterwards, than if  he  had eat-
 en oats.  It will, therefore, be ad-
 visable  to mix pollard,  or straw
      vol. i.
finely cut, with  pease and beans,
before they are given to cattle.
  Bean-Fly......Great injuries are
frequently done to beans, especial-
ly after a long drought, by a fly cal-
ed the dolphin; (perhaps the same
insect termed the Black-bean puce-
ron).  It is first observed on the top
of the plant, andthence eats its way
downwards, leaving the stem nak-
ed.   These  insects  are so small
and light as to be often carried by
the wind from one plant to another,
and thus injure  the whole  crop....
They seldom appear till after the
beans are in blossom; and  if care-
fully  examined,  it will be  often
found that they are confined to a
small space. On their first appear-
ance, it has been" observed, that
one row of beans has been greatly
tainted by them, while another at
the distance of  six or  eight  feet,
continued Uninjured.   At first, the
top  leaves  and  blossoms are at-
tacked by these insects, in conse-
quence of which they appear  shri-
velled, and full of blackish specks.
Whenever  this is  perceived, the
tops should be loppedand removed.
If care be taken to leave none that
are  tainted, the malady  will be
effectually remedied.
   A  crop has often been preserved
by lopping off the head of the plant,
before the insect (had descended;
for it has seldom been known  to
rise after falling with the bean-top
to the ground.  If the plot is small,
and  lies near the farm-yard, the
most effectual  remedy is  to  turn
the  poultry  into it:  for they de-
vour, in a very short time, an in-
calculable number of insects.
   BEAN, the Kidney, or  Phaseo-
lus, L. is a  plant of one  species,
with several varieties.  Those  prin-
cipally cultivated for the table, are,
 l.The common, white, or Dutch
      F F 
218        BE A
BE A
kidney bean; 2.The smaller kidney,
commonly  called  the  Battersea
bean; and 3.The upright sort, cal-
led the  Tree kidney bean.
   The first of these varieties grows
very high, and requires long stakes
and poles for its support; its beans
are of a considerable size.
   The  second kind, or Battersea
bean, is more generally cultivated:
it  never grows very high, and, on
account  of  its moderate growth',
the air can easily pass between the
rows.   It bears abundantly, and is
the most savoury kind, except the
Tree kidney bean.  This is also a
plentiful bearer, never rambles far,
and grows up in the  form of a
shrub;  its beans are broader than
those of the Battersea kind.
   They  are all  propagated from
seeds, which should  be sown  in
dry weather, about the  [10th  of
April],  to produce an early crop;
but  they require a dry soil and
warm situation.  The best method
of sowing is, to draw parallel lines
over the bed, at two feet and a half
distance, into which the  seeds are
dropped about two inches asunder,
and the mould drawn over them to
the depth of an inch, with the head
of a rake.   About a week after
sowing, the plants will come up,
when the mould  should  be raised
round their stalks  as they rise:
they will require no farther care,
except  weeding,  and  when the
beans appear, they should  be ga-
thered twice a week; for, if suffer-
ed to hang too long, they weaken
the plant, and become of little va-
lue.  The  first  crop of kidney-
beans will continue a month;  and,
to supply the table afterwards, there
should be fresh sowings  in April,
May, and June,  the last  of which
will be  in season, till destroyed by
the frost.  Early crops may  also
be raised in hot beds, in the same
manner as early cucumbers.
 [The Lima bean is highly esteem-
ed as a  table vegetable. They are
very much disposed to rot, if they
do not vegetate, soon after being
put in the ground; for this reason,
the soil must be dry and warm,
and the seed put in later than the
other kinds.   The Carolina bean
appears to be only  a variety, or
small kind of the Lima bean, owing
probably to negligence in collect-
ing the  larger sort for seed.
  There are also some others, the
culture  of which is  universally
known in the United States; such
as string beans, and snap-shorts,
which when  boiled,  form  a  very
wholesome, and palatable vegeta-
ble food. They are commonly cut
in small pieces, but are belterwhen
boiled whole.  See Dolichos.]
   BEAR, or Ursus, in natural
history, a  genus  of  curious  qua-
drupeds, consisting  of eight spe-
cies, the most remarkable of which
are:
   1. The arctos, or black bear, an
animal  of a phlegmatic tempera-
ment, inhabiting the  forests of the
North, and also capable of living
in a warmer climate, especially the
brown bear, which is of the same
species, though much larger.  The
white, or silver bear, is the small-
est,  and  more  rarely met  with
than any other.  They differ from
all other animals, by their strong
ropy  hair, a  thick  head,  with a
blunt snout, short tail, and wad-
ling  gait, though they can run oc-
casionally with great speed.  Fond
of solitude, bears herd only during
the rutting season:  after a  ges-
tation of six months, the  females
produce one, two, or three young
ones, scarcely eight inches  in
length,  which they  suckle  six 
BE A
B E A        21$
 months.  They grow till twenty,
 and live to the age of thirty years.
 The principal nourishment  of the
 brown bear is a ,imal food, particu-
 larly mackart ,  ants,  and  honey.
 The bla'ck bear, on the contrary,
 subsists entirely on vegetables, and
 is peculiarly  fond of honey, so that
,it is frequently taken  by the Poles
 and Russians, who expose a bowl
 of that substance mixed with bran-
 dy,  by which he  becomes  so in-
 toxicated, as to fall an easy prey-
 to the captor.  Numbers of these
 animals are  annually killed in the
 [United States], both for their sa-
 voury flesh, which resembles pork,
 and  their excellent  skin,  which
 forms a very considerable  article
 of commerce...The flesh of bears'
 paws  are considered  as a luxury,
 even on the  Imperial table.
   2. The maritimus, or polar bear,
 whose skin is sometimes thirteen
 feet long:   it is  confined  to the
 coldest regions of the globe,  and
 has  been found by navigators, be-
 yond the 8Co of north latitude......
 Fish,  seals,  and  the  carcases of
 whales, are the  principal food of
 this animal,  which also greedily
 devours human bodies, and  is par-
 ticularly fond of human blood......
 Polar  bears  are bold  enough to
 attack armed men,  and even to
 board  small vessels....Their flesh
 is white, and similar to mutton in
 flavour;  their  fat is   melted for
 train oil, and that of the paws is
 used  in medicine, for  anointing
rheumatic and paralytic limbs, hav-
 ing formerly been  esteemed  as a
 sovereign  remedy  for  these  dis-
eases ; but the liver is extremely
unwholesome and unfit for food....
This ferocious creature, however,
is easily pacified, when in pursuit
of prey; fora glove,orhandkerchief,
 h rown in  its  way,  affords it suffi-
 cient diversion, and gives time for
 the escape of the person pursued.
   3. The luscus,  or wolverene  of
 Hudson's Bay and Canada,  a na-
 tive of the most rigorous climates,
 and found in the northern parts  of
 Europe and Asia, where it is called
 the  glutton;  because it feeds  so
 voraciously as to  be in  danger  of
 bursting, till it has eased itself by
 squeezing out the contents of its
 bowel* between  two trees.   Its
 skin is valuable, as the whole body
 is covered with very long and thick
 hair, which varies  in colour, ac-
 cording  to the season.            .
   4. The lotor, or racoon, inhabits
 the  warm and temperate climates
 of America, the mountains of Ja-
 maica,  and  is  also found in the
 South Sea islands,  Sec. In  spor-
 tiveness, it resembles the monkey,
 and its skin serves as an excellent
 substitute for beaver, in the manu-
 facture of hats.
   5. The moles, or  common bad-
 ger, a clumsy, fetid animal,  to be
 met with in mo-.t parts of Europe,
 and  Asia, as far as China, where
 its flesh is much esteemed, though
 it is rather a scarce quadruped in
 all countries.   It  is generally ve-
 ry fat, and subsists on roots,  fruit,
 grass, insects, and frogs.  Having
 already given  a short account of
 this  animal,  under the head of
 Badger, we  shall only add that
 when overtaken, it  defends itself
 in a  vigorous manner, and its bite
 is dangerous.  It burrows under
 ground, and makes several apart-
 ments, to which there is only one
 entrance, where it  may  be easilv
 taken during night, in the manner
formerly  described,
  BEARSFooT,or Setterwort. See
 Stinking  Hellebore.
  BEAUTY,  in its  literal signifi-
cation, is a term applied to objects 
220        B E A
B E A
of  sight, but  often  figuratively,
though  improperly,  used to ex-
press the effect produced by the
perception of  other senses, such
as beautiful music, Sec.
   Plato gives but an obscure de-
finition of beauty, when  he says,
that there are four characteristics
of the truly beautiful; namely, uni-
versaliri', supremacy, sameness, and
immutability: his supreme beauty,
therefore, ought to  possess truth,
power, and goodness.
   Hogarth, who was both an ar-
tist and a philosopher, lays  down
the following principles which con-
stitute elegance and beauty -.fitness,
variety, uniformity (as correspond-
ing to a certain end, or purpose),
simplicity, intricacy, and  quantity:
.....the explanation  would be too
tedious.
   Prof. Kant says, " Beauty is the
regular conformation of an object
of Nature  or Art, in which the
mind, intuitively,  perceives this
conformation,without reflecting up-
on its ultimate design or purpose."
The beautiful as well as the sublime
produces a pleasing effect, but in a
very different manner: thus, a view
of mountains,  with their summits
covered  with  snow, or enveloped
in clouds, a description of a violent
storm, or Milton's picture of the
infernal  regions, affords a satisfac-
tion mingled with  terror; on the
other  hand, a  prospect of flowery
meadows, valleys intersected with
serpentine rivulets, and enlivened
by flocks; the description of Ely-
sium by Viu c i l, or of the enchant-
ing Cestusby Homer, afford both
satisfaction and pleasure.  But, in
order to  feel the impression in its
 full extent, we must first be sus-
 ceptible of the sublime, before we
 can enjoy the beautiful...Lofty oaks
 and the solitary shades of the grove
are sublime; flowers, young hedges,
and trees in a flourishing state, are
beautiful;  the starry heavens and
the obscurity of night, are sublime;
the brightness or serenity of day,
is beautiful.
   Personal beauty may be reduced
to four heads :  colour, form, ex-
pression, and grace. Colours please
by opposition, and it is in the face,
that they are more diversified and
exposed.   The reason  why  they
please, arises less from their natural
liveliness, and their being properly
blended, than  from the idea they
present to  the mind, of the perfect
health of the object.   The beauty
of form includes the symmetry of
the whole body, even to the turn of
the eye-brow,  or  graceful flow of
the hair. Hence, an union and har-
mony of all parts of the body, is the
general cause of beauty, and while
the  peculiar beauty of the female
form is delicacy and softness, that
of the male is apparent strength, or
agility.
   Expression is the  effect  of the
passions on the muscles of the hu-
man countenance, and the different
gestures.  The finest union of pas-
sions, is a just mixture of modesty
and  sensibility.  Indeed, all the
benign affections, such as  love,
hope, joy  and  pity, add to beauty,
while the predominance of hatred,
fear, or envy in the mind, deform
the  visage.
   Grace is the noblest part of beau-
ty.  The mouth is the chief seat of
grace, as the expressive beauty of
the  passions is principally  in the
eyes.  There is no srrace without
motion, nor  can  impropriety  be
united with  grace.  Lord  Bacon
 says: " In beauty, that of  favour
 is more than  that of colour; and
 that of gracious and decent motion
more than that of favour." 
            BE A

   With regard to the final cause of
 beauty, our taste for regularity, or-
 der, and simplicity, contributes to
 our happiness;  and,  as beauty is
 frequently connected  with utility,
 it is highly conducive to improve-
 ments in agriculture, architecture,
 and manufactures.
   It also  concurs in an eminent
 degree with mental qualifications,
 in promoting social  intercourse,
 and forming connections among
 individuals in society.
   Moral  Beauty  may be defined
 to consist in that uniform conduct,
 which, independently of personal
 interest or advantages, is influenc-
 ed by no other consideration than
 that of conscious rectitude.  Hence
 it cannot be applied to a man who
 acts virtuously,  because he is re-
 warded, and finds no inducement
 to vice....nor to persons who are
 deterred  from the commission of
 crimes, by  the  apprehension of
 punishment,  whether temporal or
 eternal.
   BEAVER, or  Castor, a quad-
 ruped,  of  which there  are  three
 species.
   1. The fiber, or common beaver,
 which inhabits the northern  parts
 of Europe, Asia, and America, in
 the banks of  rivers or lakes,  at a
 distance from the dwellings of men,
 and is there a gregarious animal.
 In populous  countries,  however,
 such as Germany,  Prussia,  and
 Poland, it  is  a  solitary creature :
 and the skin, on account of its con-
 stant residence under ground, is
 less valuable than that of the social
 beaver.  The latter is principally
 found  in  North-America,  where
 many hundreds settle together on
 the bank of a river, and construct
 regular habitations, with admirable
 ingenuity, such  as far excel  the
primitive huts and hovels erected
             B E A       221

 by mankind.  They chiefly subsist
 on lobsters and other fish, and at-
 tain to an age of fifteen or twenty
 years.   The beaver's tail is from
 6 to 9  inches long, and one inch
 thick ; its flesh has the flavour of
 fish,  and  is  esteemed as delicate
 food.   Near the rectum  of both
 sexes,  there are two  little bags,
 about the size of a hen's egg, con-
 taining a brownish oily  matter,
 called  castor, which is a peculiar
 deposition of fat interwoven with
 the cellular membrane.  This sub-
 stance has a disagreeable, narcotic
 smell,  and a bitterish,  acrid, nau-
 seous  taste.   By drying it in the
 smoke of a chimney, it may be pre-
 served for 7  or 8 yeai ■>.   It  has
 long been celebrated ns a nervine
 and anti-hysteric medicine, though
 its efficacy has often been doubted.
 Vet, we are convinced  from expe-
 rience, that the genuine castor af-
 fords  an  excellent remedy,  and
 may be employed with advantage
 in  languid habits, and such con-
 stitutions, in  general,  as  evince
 neither a rigid fibre, nor a  disposi-
 tion to plethora.  Even  Hippo-
 crates prescribed it  in hysteric
 cases; and Galen informs us, that
 Archigenes had written a treatise
 on the subject.  This  gelatinous
 and oily concrete is taken in doses
 from  5 to 20 grains,  with  sugar;
 or its virtues may be extracted by
 water,  as  well as spirit of wine,
 which  latter  forms a stronger pre-
 paration,  but  more  heating than
 solid castor itself.
   In  commerce,  a distinction is
 made between fresh, dry, and  fat
 beaver-skins  : the first of these are
 obtained from animals caught in
 winter; the second sort from those
 killed during summer, the  hair of
 which  only is used in the manu-
facture of hats ; and the third,  or 
222        B E A
BED
fat sort, are such as have been car-
ried for some  time on the naked
belies  of the  American Indians,
who, as it were, tan the skin with
perspirable matter. These furs are
most valuable, while the  hair of
the  others  is  manufactured into
gloves,  stc< kings,  &x.  but  that
which is short and silky,  is used
for lir.ts.  Each beaver, when full
grown,  is as large as a middle sized
dog, and  yields  about 24 ounces
of'fine  hair.  The skin serves for
cowering saddles, trunks, and other
articles.
   All those advantages,  however,
are not  equivalent to the damage
done by the beaver to the forests
and  sluices:  and  as they yearly
become more scarce in America,
while the price of their skin  and
hair advances,  it is doubtful whe-
ther they ought to be spared, or
exterminated.
   2. The moschatus, or water-rat,
of Clusius, is found  in Lapland
and  Russia, on the banks of the
Volga and Yaik:  it is devoured by
pikes and  other fish,  to which it
imparts so strongaflavourof musk,
as to render them unfit for the ta-
ble.  Its scent much resemblesthat
of the  former  species, especially
about the  tail,  from  which  the
cunning Russians express a juice
very similar to the genuine musk.
Hence,  most of the castor sold in
the London shops, consists of this
inferior sort, or at least is much
adulterated  with it,  so that the
druggists themselves are frequent-
ly deceived.
   3. The zibethicus, or  musk-rat
of North-America, the fur of which
is much esteemed for  its softness
and beauty.  It is remarkable that,
during  summer, this animal has a
most exquisite smell of musk,
which  it entirely loses in winter.
Probably this agreeable perfume is
derived from the Calamus aromati-
cus, or sweet water flag, which is
the favourite food of the musk-rat.
See Artificial Musk.
  BED, a convenience for ease, or
sleep.  It  was the general prac-
tice in the first ages,  for mankind
to sleep upon the skins of beasts.
  The most elastic straw is that
of barley,  which may  be  easily
shaken and spread, when inclosed
in ticking.  Various unsuccessful
attempts have  been made to sub-
stitute the  dry leaves  of trees,
moss, and other soft materials,  in-
stead of barley  straw,  which, how-
ever, is more eligible; orthe leaves
of Turkey corn, or maize, are still
better.
   [The long moss of the live oak
of Georgia answers very well, and
is generally used for common mat-
tresses.]
  A mattress filled with horse-hair
is preferable to a feather-bed, which
heats   and relaxes  the  body, and
disposes it to pulmonary and hectic
complaints. The bolster should be
stuffed with horse-hair,  and cover-
ed with a small pillow filled with
feathers.  The bedding might con-
sist either of sheets, with blankets
and a counterpane,  or a  single
cover, thinly quilted  with cotton-
wool :  the latter  might be easily
washed,  and will last for several
years.  In  very  cold seasons,  a
counterpane  quilted  with  a  few
pounds of-soft  feathers,  might be
substituted for the former ; but it
should not be used  in summer.
  Bed, in  masonry,  a  course of
stones or  bricks:  the joint of the
bed, is the mortar or cement placed
between each range.
  Bed, in gardening, a division of
the mould raised above the level of
the adjacent ground, for the cult\ 
            BED

tation of  plants  or roots.....See
Hotbed.
   BED-ROOM, an apartment or
chamber,devotedto the enjoyment
of nightly  repose, after the .usual
labour and  fatigue of  the day.
Those happy few who, from their
•respective  situations in  life,  are
enabled  to choose a spacious and
lofty room for breathing  in, at
least, one-third of their existence,
may consider themselves peculiar-
ly fortunate.  It must, however, be
confessed,  that  little  attention is
generally  paid to this important
object, even by such  persons as
might, in this respect, equally con-
sult their health and convenience.
   Small closets and concealed beds
 are extremely injurious, especially
 toyoungpeopleandinvalids.  When
 persons  are from necessity obliged
 to sleep in them, it will be advis-
able every morning, immediately
after rising, to displace all the bed-
clothes ; and, if the  sky be serene,
to  open  the door and windows, in
order to  purify the stagnant air of
so confined  a  resting place : but
we think it, on the whole, a danger-
ous practice to sleep with open
windows,  whether at night, or in
the day-time; though a very small
aperture, without admitting a cur-
rent  of  air to  pass through  the
room, may occasionally be useful.
Nor should the  bedstead be placed
near a wall;  or soiled linen be suf-
fered to  remain in an apartment
where the purity of the air is  of the
first importance.  A bed, or couch,
ought to stand free on  all its sides,
and, if possible, in the middle of
the chamber : which is farther of
consequence to  timid individuals,
who tremble during the prevalence
of a  tempest,  or thunder-storm.
We know from experience, that a
flash of lightning,  should it unfor-
             B  E D        223

 tunately strike a building, or enter
 through any of the windows, uni-
 formly takes its direction along the
 walls, without injuring the furni-
 ture in the centre of a room.
   BEDSTEAD, a frame for sup-
 porting a bed.  Among the various
 materials used for bedsteads, iron
 is not only the most durable, but
 also the most beneficial, with re-
 spect to health.  Oak is excellent
 for this purpose, being almost im-
 pervious to worms, if felled in the
 proper season, and allowed to be-
 come dry ; but cedar, were  it not
 for its strong odour, would be still
 more efficacious in preventing the
 inroads of bugs, or other vermin.
 Hence, the beams and posts of a
 bedstead, made of any hard wood,
 might be inlaid with cedar.
   On this occasion, we cannot, in
 justice to Mr. Lambert, of Ber-
 wick-street, Soho, London,  omit
 to give a concise description of his
 newly-invented  Bedstead for the
 Sick and Wounded, which is ably
 calculated to alleviate the painful
 situation of the aged, the infirm,
 or diseased. This ingenious con-
 trivance,  therefore, affords a  com-
 fortable accommodation to persons
 confined by fractures, gout, palsy,
 &c. it is particularly adapted to ly-
 ing-in women.   The bed  may be
 made, and the linen changed, with-
 out,  in the slightest maimer, dis-
 turbing the patient, which renders
 it highly serviceable in camps and
 hospitals.
  We have given a plate.of this
 useful invention, of which the fol-
lowing is an explanation: A, the
 bedstead ;  B, the feather-bed ; C,
the straining-frame ; D, the  frac-
ture-frame ; S,S,S,S, four rings in
the fracture-frame ; E,  the sleep-
ing-desk ; R, A, two rings in the
skep'mg-desk;   I^F^F,   pullies 
224        BED

put in motion by the machinery ;
G,G,G,G, receiving hooks of the
fracture-frame; 3 33 3, four rings
in the straining-frame ; H,H,H,H,
receiving-hooks to  ditto ;  I, the
plate  of the machinery ; K, the
great wheel ; L, a pinion with  a
wynch turning the  great wheel ;
O, a pall or  stop;  M,  a  pinion
with a fly, to prevent a too sudden
descent ; N, the rollers.
   The subjoined directions should
be attended to in making and using
the bed.  Lay the straining frame
C, covered  with  ticking, on  the
feather-bed B, then the under-blan-
ket and sheet: above these, place
the fracture-frame D, (on which
the patient is supported) ; then the
bolster, pillows, and upper-clothes,
in the usual manner.  When  the
feather-bed  is to be made, wind up
the two frames, C, and D, by the
wynch, till  the patient is support-
ed above the bed, which may then
be made, or, if necessary, another
placed  in  its stead, and the  two
frames let down upon it.
   In changing the linen, the  two
frames C,  and D, must be wound
up till they reach  the four  hooks
G,G,G,G : secure the hooks in the
four rings  S,S,S,S,  and wrap the
sheet you intend to remove, round
the upper clothes, to exclude cold;
let down the under-frame  C;  re-
place the blanket, and put on the
clean sheet: draw away the other
and again wind up the frame to the
fracture-frame,  and  unhook it at
the four corners.  Thus resting on
the under frame, the patient safely
descends to the comforts of a  new
 made bed and clean linen.
   As in the early stages of con-
sumptive or asthnictic disorders, it
is material  to avoid  the  heat  of a
 feather-bed, particularly if the pa-
 tient be liable to night-sweats, and
            BED

if he be able to rise and have the
linen changed, the  fracture-frame
may not be necessary: in this case,
the lower frame  may be wound a
little above the feather-bed ;  at the
top of the frame C, there is a sleep-
ing desk, E, by which the head and
shoulders may be  raised at plea-
sure, by fixing the two hooks at the
end of the  frame to the two rings,
R,R, and freeing those at the feet:
after  which,  by  the  use  of  the
wynch, it may be lowered or rais-
ed  at pleasure.
   The whole apparatus may be
attached to any  four-post bedstead
by  a common carpenter.
   It is needless  to  expatiate upon
the utility of such a bedstead,. to
families at a distance from a  me-
tropolis :  and as we have no  per-
sonal acquaintance with the inge-
nious  artisan, we  cannot be  sus-
pected of  partiality : indeed,  the
first account of his invention, to-
gether with a plate, was communi-
cated to us by means of a-foreign
journal, lately imported.
   Lastly, it deserves to be noticed,
that the prevailing custom of  pro-
viding the bedsteads of children
with curtains,  is  liable to strong
and serious objections:  1. Because
they prevent a free access of air for
the renewal of that mass which has
been rendered unfit for.  respiration;
2.  They endanger the  lives of in-
fants  by candle-light, from which
fatal accidents have frequently hap-
pened ; and 3. They are pernicious
 receptacles for the finest particles
 of dust, which,  as we have already
 observed  (see Bed),   are  inhaled
 by the person confined within  such
 curtains, on theieast motion of the
 bedstead:  and  thence,  perhaps,
 many young and  blooming inno-
 cents may date the first period of
 their consumptive  attack.   We do 
H>
ElKlftSTKAD  for  the   §JICX & " WOTTISXDFJD,




       )  /    (     /     //*/'/    A
         /ft t't'fl/c,   f't/e  /(____/ft ttl/AU'  . .


               ( 
 
              BED

  not, however, mean to insinuate,
  that curtains ought to be universal-
  ly abandoned, as there may occur
  a variety of  instances, in  which
  the laws of propriety and decorum,
  might render them useful and ne-
  cessary.
    BED-TIME, or that period of
  the evening or night, when we re-
  tire to enjoy the necessary repose.
    Although it would be difficult, in
  the present irregular state of socie-
  ty, to lay down rules for the proper
  time of resortingto thatplace which
  suspends and makes  us forget our
  daily troubles and cares ; yet, w hen
  we consider the subject, with re-
  gard to its influence, as well on the
  health as the  moral character of
  man, it  is deserving of the most
  serious discussion.  Much, indeed,
  depends on the arrangement of the
  day, and the different pursuits of
  the individual.  Those persons who
  spend the greater part of their time
 in useful labour, and have sufficient
 muscular exercise,  would better
 consult their health, by retiring to
 repose  at least two or three hours
 before midnight; which,  according
 to the oldest and most  accurate  ob-
 servers, are nearly as refreshing as
 double that portion in the morning.
 Those, however, who  lead  an idle
 and. luxurious  life, are too much
 the slaves of fashion, habit, and
 caprice, to adopt any useful changes,
 which might abridge their amuse-
 ments or  imaginary comforts.
   On the other hand, the studious,
 and especially speculative persons,
 cannot comply with what are ge-
 nerally  called  « regular hours ;"
 because their pursuits are better
adapted to the solemn  stillness  of
night, while they indulge in  reflec-
tions which require a connected se-
ries of thought, and reasoning, un-
    VOL. I.
              BEE         225

  . interrupted by  the noise of day.
   Yet, even literati and artists; ought
   to pay due attention to this import-
   ant  circumstance,  that the atmo-
   sphere of the night is always more
   vitiated, and consequently less fit
   for respiration, than that of a serene
   day  ; and as we respire a greater
   portion of air while awake, than in
   a sleeping state, it follows that the
   system must be more injured in the
   former than in the latter case.
    Nor would it be proper to retire
   to rest immediately after a  full
   meal,orinan agitated stateof mind.
   Hence, two hours after a light sup-
   per ought to elapse, in order to pre-
   pare ourselves for an invigorating
   repose, and  banish   all gloomy or
  depressing  ideas  and   thoughts
  which require mentalexertion. For
  the same reason, we should remove
  from our sight every object which
  may  irritate  the nerves, and never
  adopt that pernicious practice  of
  reading, till we fall asleep ; an im-
  prudence of which many youngand
  thoughtless persons are guilty.  In-
  stead  of such a  dangerous expe-   v
 client, it would be more salutary to
 walk up and  down the room for a
 few, minutes, or  take any other
 gentle exercise.
   Lastly, we  are  of  opinion, that
 such  individuals  as  breakfast  at
 nine, dine at two, and drink tea at
 six : or, instead of this, eat a light
 supper between seven and eight
 o'clock, might, with the  greatest
 benefit to their health, retire  to
 bed at ten, and rise at five or six
 o'clock in the  morning, or earlier,
 according to the degree ofexercise
 they have  taken on the preceding
day....See farther...SLEEp; Sleep-
 ing, and Waking.
   BEE,  or Apis, in  natural his-
tory, a genus  of insects, of which
    G G 
226
BEE
BEE
the mellfica,  or  domestic honey-^
bee, is particularly worthy of at-
tention.
   1. Economy, Instincts, occ.
   A hive of bees may be consider-
ed as a populous  city, containing
from fifteen  to eighteen thousand
inhabitants.  T:us city is  in itself
[a republic, where well ordered in-
dustry and perfect equality  reigrs.]
The combs are composed  of pure
wax, serving as  a  magazine ior
their stores, avid a pLce to nourish
their young,   between the cemhs
there is a  space sufficient for t.vo
bees to march abreast; and there
are alsotransversedefiles, by which
the bees can  more easily pass from
one comb to  another.
   Drones are larger than the work-
ing-bees ; and when on the wing,
make a greater noise. (.They sick-
en,  die, and  are dragged from the
hive, by  the working-bees about
the latter end of July.]
   Several kinds  of working-bees
were distinguish,-d by the  in  e . s.
Columella coincides  with Vir-
 gil, in preferring those which are
 small, oblong, smooth, bright or
 shining, and of a gentle disposi-
 tion ; the superior  utility of this
 species has been established by*ex-
 perience.  Workiug-hees compose
 the most numerous body of the
 state.  They have the care of the
 hive ; collect the  wax and honey ;
 fabricate the wax  into combs; feed
 the young ;  keep the hive  clean ;
 expel all  strangers ; and employ
 them elves  in promoting general
 prosperity.,   The working-bee  has
 two stomach-, ; one to contain the
 honey, and  another for the crude
 wax.#
    II. Of the management of bees,
 and the most approved methods of
 preserving them,on re; .loving their
 Ucney and wax.
  According to Columella, ai«
Apiary sh.ould face the south, in  a
situation neither  too  hot nor too
cold.   It should stand in a valley,
that the bees  may with greater
ease descend, on their return to the
hive ; and near the mansion-house,
and situated  at a  distance  from
noise and offensive smells ; and in
the vicinity of a brook or river.
Where the bees cannot ha^ve the
benefit  of  running  water,  they
ought to be supplied with it in  a
trough  provided with small stones,
on  which they must  stand while
they drink.  They cannot produce
either combs, honey,  or food for
their maggots, without water ; but
the neighbourhood of rivers or ca-
nals with high banks, ought to be
avoided, lest the bees should be pre-
cipitated into the  water by high
winds,  and consequently  perish.
The garden  in which the apiary
stands,  should be  supplied with
melliferous  plants  and  branchy
shrubs, that the swarms which set-
tle on them may be the more easily
hived.
   Particular  attention  should be
paid to the circumstance, that the
bees be hived in  a neighbourhood
productive of such plants as supply
them with food  ;  such  as thyme,
the oak, the pine, fruit-trees, furze,
broom, mustard,  clover, heath, Sec.
 Pliny recommends  broom, as a
 plant particularly grateful and pro-
 fitable  to bees.
    BEE-HIVES  made  of straw,
 have been generally preferred,  as
 they are not liable to be over-heat-
 td by the rays  of  the  sun, keep
 out the cold better than wood, and
 are cheaper than those of any other
 mater';: 1.
    M.  Ciiabouille, in  France,
 has lately suggested improvements
 u^on bee-hives,  which  appear to 
            BEE

us deserving of notice. His princi-
pal object is to procure the greatest
degree of cleanliness for these de-
licate and  industrious insects, by
covering the bottom  of the hive
with plaster of  Paris, and  con-
structing the cylindrical inclosure
of rye-straw, and cross ligaments,
or bands, made of the inner rind
of the lime-tree. When the basket-
work  is  completed,  he  coats  it
over with a cement made of two-
thirds of cow-dung, and one-third
of ashes.   In the  interior part  of
the hive, he places  two thin pieces
of oak,  crossing  each  other  at
right angles, which, greatly facili-
tate the deposition of the honey-
combs.   The cover of the  hive
consists of a firm board, seventeen
inches  in diameter,  and  the en-
trance  is  so  constructed, that  it
may be closed by a small door,  to
exclude injurious animals during
winter.   The lower  part of this
door  has  small  semi-lunar inci-
sions each of which  admits two
bees  abreast:  above these,  are
made two rows of holes, just large
enough for one bee to pass.  The
floor  should  be  so constructed,
that  it may encompass and secure
the foundation of the hive, to pre-
vent any  disturbance from  that
quarter. Such a smooth and white
floor of  gypsum, greatly  contri-
butes to cleanliness, and the bees
become so  much  attached to it,
that  they will not easily relinquish
their habitation.  The straw-wall
ought to be one-inch, and the ce-
ment before  described, half an
inch in thickness ; the latter is the
best coating yet contrived, for  ex-
cluding  noxious   insects  which
would perforate the straw, and for
sheltering the bees from rain and
wind, while it  exhales an odour
very grateful to them.  M. Cha-
             B E E         227

 bouille  has  also  observed, that
 bees kept in  a  hive of this de-
 scription, are sufficieutly protected
 against the  effect of  cold  during
 winter;   and  that they   swarm
 much earlier than those reared in
 any other.
   However  ingenious this contri-
 vance may appear, we regret that
 jhe inventor has  not slated  the
 particular dimensions of the bee-
 hive, nor attended to  many other
 circumstances  relative to the cul-
 ture of the  insect itself.   Hence
 we are induced to communicate a
 later, more accurate and circum-
 stantial  description of a bee-hive,
 invented  in  Italy  by  Professor
 Gaetano  Harasti, which  has
 proved of practical utility.  This
 account   is  translated from  the
 Transactions of the Patriotic  So-
 ciety of Milan,  and as it contains
 much useful information  on  the
 subject we  have  endeavoured  to
 render it  of  practical  service,  by-
 accompanying  it  with the  appro-
 priate cuts of the  different figures
 described.
   It is well known that bees, when
 properly  cultivated, produce con-
 siderable  profit, and in  order to ob-
 tain the  greatest  possible  advan-
 tage, it is necessary to supply them
 with  every  convenience for the
 support of themselves and  their
 young.  We should also contrive
 means to  take the wax and honey
 with the  smallest possible loss. In
 short, when the apiary  is  placed in
 a good situation, (either south or
 south-west),  that is, in a country
 abounding with flowers, at a dis-
 tance from brew-houses, smelting
 works, &c. the  next and most im-
 portant point, is the choice of well
constructed hives.
  InLombardy, the common hive,
composed of straw, or twigs, is ge- 
228        BEE
BEE
nerallyused, though ill-contrived;
as it is  difficult  to  take away the
wax and honey without destroying
the bees.
   Reflecting  on  these circum-
stances, M. Harasti, during his
cultivation of bees,  conceived that
it would be  possible to form  a
hive which should  have  all  the
advantages of the best kind, while
the  simplicity and  cheapness  of
its construction, -might  bring  it
into use among husbandmen.
  A good bee-hive ought to possess
the  following properties : First, it
should be  capable of  enlargement
or contraction,  according  to  the
number of the swarm.  Secondly,
it  should admit of being opened
without disturbing the bees, either
for the purpose of cleaning it; of
freeing it from insects; of increas-
ing or dividing the swarm; or for
the admission of  a stock of provi-
sions for the winter.   Thirdly,  it
should be so constructed, that the
produce  may  be  removed without
injury to the bees.  Fourthly,  it
should be internally clean, smooth,
and free from flaws.   All these
properties unite  in the hive here
described.
   It is formed of four open square
boxes, A, B, C, D, as represented
by the following cut:
"<*»"- k*. Afiff :"**-*r-~,a*n]liHluHii' llfi
  ' XlXfii,,,^
    X)X
  mm
  These boxes are fastened to each
other by several wooden buttons,
b, b, See. which turn upon a nail or
screw. The whole is coveted with
a moveable roof, which projects
over the  boxes slanting from the
centre a, that the rain-water may
run off.  It is necessary to place a
stone on  the top  of the. roof, to
keep it on  firm.
  Instead  of buttons, the boxes
may be combined by a rabbet fast-
ened with  wooden  pegs ;  but in
cither case,  the conjoined parts
should be closed with cement.  If
the swarm is not very numerous)
three, or even two, boxes will be
sufficient.  Each of them  should
be about  three  iv.dies, or three
inches and a half  in height, and
about six inches in the clear with-
in.  They should be made of wood,
at least three quartees of an-inch
thick, that the bees, wax, Sec. may
be less affected by changes in the
temperature of the  atmosphere.
   Within the boxes, at the upper
part,  there should be  fixed two
�62337 
            BEE

bars, in the form of a cross, with
the extremities extending  to the
angles of the box, as is represented
in the following figure :
   To these  bars the bees attach
 their combs.  At the lower part of
 each box, in front,  there must be
 an aperture or door, as at c, c, c, d,
 as high as is necessary for the bees
 to pass conveniently,.and about an
 inch and  a  half wide ;  of these
 apertures, only the lowest (marked
 d,) is to be left open  for the passage
 of the  bees ; the others are to be
 closed by means of apiece of wood,
 properly fitted to them.
   It must be evident, that this bee-
 hive has all the advantages before
 mentioned.  To  lessen or enlarge
 it, only requires a  diminution or
 increase of a number of the boxes;
 and a communication with the  in-
 ternal part can easily be effected by
 the removal of the cover.
   The cheapness and facility of the
 construction of this hive is evident,
 as nothing is requisite but to join
 four boards with  nails,  or in any
 other manner,  so simple  that it
 may be clone by a day-labourer.
   When the hives are made, they
 should  be placed in  a  good situa-
 tion : the best is [south-west;] but
 they must not be  too much expos-
 ed to the heat of  noon, which may
be   mitigated  by   placing the
branches  of  trees  to shade the
hive:;, as violent heat is injurious,
 not only to the bees, but to the wax
 and honey.  The country around
            BEE        229

the apiaiy should be of a sandy soil,
abounding with  plants and shrub-;.
As bees love cleanliness and quiet,
the circumjacent space should be
kept clean, and free from offensive
smells andj noise : srnoke is parti-
cularly disagreeable to them.  The
boards or  table on which the hives
are placed,  should  be dry, clean,
and sound ; and  the hives ought to
be  sufficiently raised to prevent
their  exposure  to dampness  and
insects ; they  should  also be kept
at a distance from a wall, to avoid
the reflected heat of the sun.   In
the table on which the hives are to
stand, there should be an aperture,
under each,  about  two  inches
square, as it is represented at e, in
the following cut:
   This aperture should be covered
 with  a piece of tin, drilled full of
 small  holes, so as  to afford a free
 passage to the air, and at the same
 time prevent the ingress of insects.
 That this may not occasion any in-
 convenience to the bees in cold and
 damp  weather, there  must be a
 sliding piece of wood,/ under the
 tin, by which the hole may be com-
 pletely covered.
  When it is intended to introduce
 a swarm of bees into a new hive, it
 must  be thoroughly cleaned, and
 the inside rubbed with virgin wax.
 It is advantageous to place a piece
of clean honey-comb,  about nine
inches long, in  the  hive, and care 
230        BEE
BEE
should also be taken to chuse that
w hich is made of very white wax.
This piece being  supported by
a stick passed through  it,  offers
to the bees  a kind of nest, and
excites them  to continue  their
work.
   The new hive  being thus pre-
pared, the manner of  introducing
the bees into it, from an  old hive,
is as follows : the latter must be
placed upon one  of  the  boxes of
the new one; but as it  will seldom
happen that they are of  the same
size, and exactly fit each other,  a
board, at  least as  wide as  the
largest of the two hives, and which
has  a  hole  equal in   size to  the
smallest, must be placed between
them, and completely joined with
cement, or by any other  means in
such a manner as to be quite close,
and  to leave the  bees  no passage
except into the  new  hive.    As
these insects generally  work down-
wards, they will soon get into the
new hive ;  and when it is occupi-
ed by about one-half of the swarm,
some holes must be made in the
top of the old hive, and kept cover-
ed, till the proper time for making
use of them.
   Every thing being disposed  as
above directed, we must take the
opportunity of a fine morning (but
not a very  hot one), about eight or
nine o'clock, at which time most
of the bees are generally out of the
hive, gathering their harvest.  The
comb  is to be cut through, by
means of a piece  of iron wire, and
the old hive, with the board on
which it stands, is to be separated
from the new one.  »An  assistant
must immediately place the  cover
(already well fitted) upon the top
of the new hive.  The old hive is
then to be taken away, to the dis-
tance of thirty or forty  paces, and
to be there placed upon two chairs,
or other supports, in such a man-
ner as to be quite firm;  but leav-
ing a free space, both above  and
below, for the following purpose.
   Upon this old hive (the holes at
the top of it being first opened) is
to be placed one of the boxes of the
new hive, having the cover loose-
ly fastened  on it, so that it  can
easily be removed ; this box must
be fixed upon the old hive, in such
a manner (by closing the intervals
between them with   linen  cloths,
&c) that the bees, upon going out
by the holes in the top of the old
hive, can only go  into  the  new
one.  In order to drive them  into
it, some live coals must be placed
under the old  hive, upon which  a
few  linen rags may  be thrown, to
produce a great volume of smoke.
As the  smoke rises, the bees be-
ing incommoded by  it, will ascend
to the top of the old hive,  and at
length will  go through the holes
into the new one.  When all  the
bees, or nearly all, are gone in to it
(which may be known by looking
in at the little door, or by their
noise), it is  to  be removed  gently
from the old hive, and placed under
the box already alluded to, the top
or cover being previously taken
off.  The next morning, if it should
appear  that  the  two boxes,  of
which  the new hive  is  now com-
posed, do not afford sufficient space
for the bees, a third box may be
added, under the others;  and after
that a fourth, it necessary, as their
work goes on, changing them from
time to time, so long as the season
permits the bees to gather wax and
honey.
   In  performing  the operations
here described, it will be  neces-
sary to defend the hands and face
from the stings of the bees.   The 
            BEE

best way of doing this, is to cover
the whole of the head, neck,  8cc
(over a hat) with coarse cloth, or
canvass, which  may be brought as
low as the waistcoat, and fastened
to it :  through  this cloth we may
see  the operations of  the bees,
without fearing their stings. The
hands  may be protected by means
of gloves,  of which the best  are
those made of wool.
   When we mean to bring a new
swarm into a hive, that prepared
as above, and formed of two, three,
or  four  boxes, according to  the
size of the swarm, must be brought
near the  place where the swarm
is.  The upper box, with the cover
fastened  on  (but  so  that  it may
easily be removed), must be taken
from the others.   The cross bars,
before described, should be smear-
ed with honey,  diluted with a little
water; the small door  must  be
shut;  and the box must be turned
upside down,  and brought under
the  swarm, which is  then to  be
introduced, in the same way, and
with similar  precaution as into a
common  hive.   When  the whole
swarm is in  the  box,  it is to  be
carried to the other boxes (previ-
ously placed in  their destined situ-
ation), and, turning  it very care-
fully, is to be put upon them. The
buttons are then to be turned, the
interstices closed with the cement
already described, and all the little
doors  closed, except  the  lowest,
through which the  bees  are   to
pass.   Nothing is more disagree-
ble to  a fresh swarm than a hot
sun,  for which  reason, that the
bees may not wish to leave their
new  habitation, it will be right  to
shade the  hive for some days.
  But  it is more advantageous  to
form artificial swarms, than to col-
lect those which abandon their na-
            B E E        231

tive hives, and the hive here de-
scribed is very convenient for that
purpose.   The following method,
M. Ha rati conceives to be more
simple, and more secure than any
other hitherto proposed.
   Take  a well stocked hive,  of
four boxes; in some of these, par-
ticularly in the two lowermost, if
they are  well filled, there  is cer-
tainly a young brood ;  for in these
lower  boxes  the  young bees are
accustomed to change from the
chrysalis to the perfect state, about
the  end of April, or beginning of
May, if the hive be very full ; but
if otherwise, this change does not
take place till towards the  end of
May, or even the middle of June.
At that time, a fine serene day,
but  not excessively hot, must be
chosen, and  about eight or nine
o'clock, the hive must be divided
into two, in the following manner:
Between the two upper boxes and
the two lower ones, force in a few
slips of wood, so as to separate the
boxes sufficiently for the comb to
be cut through with a piece of iron
or brass wire.   To prevent the
bees from coming out through this
opening, and thereby annoying the
person employed in the operation,
the  smoke  of  tobacco  may be
blown  (by introducing the  small
end  of a pipe) into the opening ;
this will  cause  the  bees to resort
to the  inner part of the hive, and
will keep them quiet.   Or, instead
of the  pipe, a small pair of bel-
lows
may be used, to the nozel of which 
232        BEE
BEE
is  fitted a hollow cylinder of tin,
or other metal, furnished
with a little door i, and terminat-
ing at one end  in a tube h, (into
which the nozzle of the bellows is
fitted) and at the other end, in a
smaller tube, k, through which the
smoke is to pass.  Int& the body of
the box, through the door i, is to
be put a lighted rag, the smoke of
which may be blown, by means of
the bellows,  into the hive.   But,
if the hands and face are well co-
vered, these precautions are unne-
cessary.   An  empty box must be
in  readiness,  in the place where
the hive is to  stand: a cover must
also  be procured; and, as soon as
the hive  is divided in two parts,
the  two  upper boxes must be
taken from the lower ones, and the
cover must be immediately  put
upon the latter, closing all the in-
terstices with  the usual cement....
The upper boxes are to be placed
upon the empty one just mention-
ed, so that a hive  will there be
formed of three boxes.  The lower
boxes, on  which the fresh cover
was  put, must be left at  rest till
the  evening,  at which  time a
third may be placed under them;
and when it appears that a proper
quantity of work has been done in
the lower box (of either hive,) a
fourth  box may be  added, under
the others.
  In the above manner, artificial
swarms may be formed;  and, by
this method, we not only avoid the
inconveniences which  attend  the
procuring o£ swarms in the com-
mon way,  but  we obtain  the  ad-
vantage of having the hives always
well stocked.   This ought to be
the first object of every one who
cultivates bees; for it is allowed to
be of more advantage to keep the
hives well stocked, than to increase
their number ;  and, in fact, it has
been  observed, that if a  hive of
4000 bees gives six pounds of ho-
ney, one of 8000  will give twenty-
four pounds.
   Upon this principle, it is proper
to unite two or more hives, when
they happen to be thinly stocked.
This may easily be done, by taking
a few handfuls of balm, and scat-
tering it in those hives which  are
intended  to  be united.   By this
means, the bees will  all  acquire
the same  smell;  and it has been
observed,  that by  the sense  of
smelling,  bees distinguish those
which  belong to the same hive....
After the above preparations,  the
hives are to be joined, by  placing
them one upon the other, in  the
evening, when they  are  at  rest,
taking away those boxes which con-
tain few or no bees.  Care  must be
taken  to shut all the little doors,
except the lowest.
   It may  even  be proper some-
times to shut the lower door also,
when, for instance,  any  tumult
within the hive, causes the bees to
endeavour to quit it.  In such case,
that the bees may not be deprived
of air, a  piece  of tin, perforated
with numerous holes, maybe used
to close the opening, instead of
the usual  door, and may be taken
away when the bees become quiet.
   The following  is the method of
taking the wax  and honey, with
little or no injury to the bees ; but
it  should be previously remarked,
that the honey  is chiefly at the top 
BEE
BEE        233
 of the hive, the young brood in the
 middle, and the greatest stock of
 wax  is at the  bottom.  For this
 reason,  when  three  of  the  four
 boxes  are filled with comb,  £cc.
 the upper one A,is to be first taken
 off, in the manner here described.
 The buttons, b, b, Sec. which serve
 to unite the boxes, are to be turned,
 or  the  wooden  pegs (if such are
 used) taken out; the cement em-
 ployed  for closing the  intervals is
 to be scraped off; and then a piece
 of iron wire is to be drawn through
 the comb so as to divide it. WThen
 the box A, is separated, its cover is
 to be taken off and put upon the
 box B,  now become the  highest.
 After taking out the  contents  of
 the box A, it is to be cleaned, and
 again  placed upon  the stand or
 table, under the box D, taking care
 to  open its little door, and  to shut
 that of the box D. To prevent any
 bees remaining  in the  upper box,
 when taken away, a little  smoke
 may be  introduced  by means of
 the bellows already describe!.
  The more empty space the bees
 find in the hive, the more eagerly
 they go to work.  The brood  of
 the box B, which remained at top,
 do  not long delay to swarm, or at
 least they pass  from the state of
 chrysalis  into that of the perfect
 and laborious  animal; therefore,
 when it is perceived that the lower
 part of the hive is occupied, the
box B, may  be  taken off,  in the
 manner  already described,  and
 after being emptied, may be placed
 under A.
  In the same way  the third box
 C, in which there is generally a
good stock of wax, may afterwards
be taken oft'; but this is a matter of
greater  consequence ; because in
general the eggs are deposited in it.
    VOL. I.
 We must also take care not to de-
 prive the bees entirely of the stock
 of wax and honey which they have
 collected for the winter.
   A hive made in the manner here
 pointed out, appears to me to be
 such as would  be most useful to
 husbandmen in general, who wish
 to cultivate bees ; but a hive may
 be made upon  the  same princi-
 ples, which will shew the work of
 the  bees, through  its whole pro-
 gress, and thereby enable any one
 to study the natural historyof these
 wonderful insects.
   A hive of this kind is composed
 of three or  four boxes,  with  a
 cover,  like the hive already de-
 scribed ; it may also be of the same
 form and size.  But in every box,
 on that side which is  opposite the
 little door, there  must be fixed  a
 pane of glass, with a sliding shut-
 ter over it, so that by drawing back
 these sliders, the inside of the hive
 will  be  exposed  to view.  To see
 the bees at wrork, however it is ne-
 cessary that the comb should be
 disposed  in a  regular  manner,
 and perpendicular to the  pane of
 glass.   This may be obtained, by
 placing in the boxes, instead of the
 two cross slicks already described,
in  p. 229, five parallel sticks or
bars, as represented in the follow-
 ing figure :
The bees will attach their combs
these bars, and the intermediate
  Hh 
234       BEE                         BEE
space will  afford sufficient light
for  seeing them work.  If more
light is desired, it may be obtained
by opening the little doors opposite
the  glass ; which  doors may  be
made considerably  higher than is
above directed, and  may have a
slider over them, by  which their
aperture may be  diminished  at
pleasure.
  The  sliders which  cover  the
panes of glass, ought  never to be
opened, except for the purpose of
observing the bees; because a
strong light  lessens their disposi-
tion to work.  If it should be per-
ceived that   the coldness of the
glass is prejudicial to  the bees in
winter,  it may then  be covered
with a cotton cloth ; or  it may be
entirely taken away, and a piece
of paste-board  put  in its place ;
for at that time, the operations of
the bees are suspended.
   Instead of  making a little door
to each box, to be left open when
the box is lowermost, for the pas-
sage of the bees, perhaps it might
be better (because more simple) to
cut a groove in the board or table
on which the hive is placed.   This
groove should be about two inches
wide,  and about three fourths of
an  inch high at the outer edge,
and should be gradually diminished
both in width  and height, towards
the part where it meets the hive,
as is represented at b, in the fol-
lowing figure:
WMMM
ifc^Xrl^-%
  '1 "Mil.-""!
  X;": (•-.•" y
,A.;mi
   Two  advantages are derived
from this construction.   First, the
little door in the box, and the con-
trivance for opening and shutting
it, will be unnecessary.   Secondly,
it is sometimes proper to diminish
or enlarge the opening for the pas-
sage of the bees, according to cir-
cumstances,  without  shutting it
entirely, and  this may  be done
with the greatest ease, by moving'
the hive nearer to, or farther from,
the edge of the table ; or this pas-
sage may be entirely  closed,  by
moving the  front of  the. hive be-
yond the groove ; but in that case
some small holes  must be made in
the hive to let in air, which may
be stopped up when  that  formed
by the groove is open.
  A farther advantage attending
this construction  is,  that  as  the 
BEE
BEE        235
groove will  have a slanting direc-
tion, the bees will thereby be en-
abled,  with very little trouble, to
remove from the hive any  dead
bees,  excrement,  8cc which may
be obnoxious to their nature.
   Another very curious and use-
ful bee-hive, is that originally con-
trived by Mr. Thorley, of Lon-
don ; which, from near sixty years
experience, has proved of superior
utility to any  other.....it is con-
structed as follows :  the lower part
is an octangular box, made of deal
boards, about an inch in thickness,
the cover of which  is  externally
seventeen inches in  diameter, but
internally only 151,  and its height
ten inches.  In the middje of this
cover is a hole,  which  may  be
opened or shut  at   pleasure,  by
means of a slider.   In one of the
pannels is a pane of  glass covered
with  a  wooden  door.   The bee-
hole  at the bottom  of the box is
about 31  inches  broad,  and half
an inch high.   Two slips of deal,
about half an inch  square, cross
each other in the centre of the box,
and are fastened to the pannels by
means of small screws,   To these
slips  the bees fasten  their combs.
In this  octangular box  the  bees,
after swarming in the usual man-
ner,   are  hived  and suffered  to
continue there, till  they  have built
their  combs, and filled them with
honey ; which may be known by
opening the door, and viewing their
works through the glass pane, or
by the weight of the  hive. When
they hue filled their habitation, a
common bee-hive of  straw, made
either flat at the  top,  or in the
common form, must  be  placed on
the octangular box, and  the slider
 drawn out; thus a communication
 will be opened  between  the box
 and the straw-hives, so that these
 industrious  insects  will  fill this
 hive also with the product of their
 labours.  When the straw-hive is
 sufficiently  filled, the slider may
 be pushed  in, and   after  placing
 another in its room, again speedily
 removed.
   Mr. THORLEYhasadded another
 part to his bee-hive, which consists
 of a glass  receiver, 18 inches in
 height, 8 inches in diameter at the
 bottom, and in the greatest part 13.
 This receiver has a hole at the top,
 about an inch in diameter, through
 which a square piece of deal is ex-
 tended to nearly  the bottom of the
 vessel, having two cross bars to
 which the bees fasten their combs.
 Into the other end of this  square
 piece is screwed  a piece of brass,
 which serves for a handle to the re-
 ceiver, or glass-hive.  When the
 bees have filled  their  straw-hive
 (which must  have a hole in the
 centre, covered with a piece of tin)
 Mr. T. places the glass  receiver
 upon  the top of the straw-hive,
 and  draws out the piece of tin.....
 The bees now, finding their habita-
 tion  enlarged, pursue their labours
 with such alacrity, that they like-
 wise fill this glass hive with their
 stores.
  The Egyptian bee-hives are made
 of coal-dust  and clay, which being
 well blended together, the mixture
 is formed into a hollow cylinder,
 about a span in diameter, and from
 six to twelve feethigh : this is dried
 in the sun, and becomes so hard that
 it may be handled at pleasure.
   Another,  of a very simple and
 ingenious construction, hasbeen in-
vented by M. De Gelieu. It may
be made either of straw or wood :
but, as its internal dimensions must 
£3G        BEE
BEE
be the same throughout its whole
length, it is necessary that its form
should be eithercylindrical or pris-
matic.  Its principal advantage is,
thatitsbasesare moveable,and may
be fixed by pins at any distance from
each  other;  by which means its
size may be increased or diminish-
ed according to circumstances. It
must lie  on  its side, and, in  the
foremost base, there must be a pas-
sage  left for  the bees. Hence, by
drawing out the posterior base, the
honey may be taken from the back
part of the hive, without hurting the
bees ; and  when this is  done,  the
base should be pushed in close to
the remaining comb, that an inter-
mediate space may remain.   By
turning the hive, and making the
entrance in that part,which had be-
fore been  the  posterior base, the
bees will build new cells, in theroom
of those taken away ; consequently
the honey will be whiter, and more
p.ire.
  Whoever intends to erect an api-
ary, should purchase hives towards
the close of the year, when they are
cheapest; and such only as are full
of combs, and stocked with a suf-
ficient number of bees.   In order
to ascertain the age of the hives, it
should be remarked, that the combs
of the last year are white, while
those of the former year acquire a
darkish yellow. Where the combs
are black,  the  hive should be re-
jected as too old, and liable to the
inroads of  vermin.
   Bees never swarm till the hive is
too much  crowded  by the young
brood.  They  sometimes begin to
swarm in May, or earlier, accord-
ing to the  warmth of the season.
As soon as a swarm  is settled, the
bees should be immediately hived,
to prevent their taking wing again.
If they settle on a low branch of a
tree, it may be cut off and laid on
a cloth, the hive being ready for
their reception ;  but if it be diffi-
cult  to reach them, it will be ad-
visable to let them  remain where
they have settled till the evening,
when there will be  less danger of
their escaping.
  When the swarm is hived, they
should be immediately removed to
the apiary,  but the  hive should be
kept near the place at which the
bees settled, till  the evening, lest
some straglers might be lost.
  The usual  method of uniting
swarms, is  by spreading a cloth at
night upon the ground close to the
hive in which the two swarms are
to be placed.  Lay a stick across
the cloth, on which  place the  hive
with the  new swarm : on  giving a
smart stroke on the top of the hive,
all the bees will drop in  a cluster
upon the cloth.  Then take another
hive from the  stool, and place it
over the  bees, when they will as-
cend into it, and mix with those al-
ready there. Another method is, to
invert the hive in which the united
swarms are to live, and strike the
bees of the other hives  into it, in
the manner before described.
  A large  swarm   weighs  ek.ht
pounds, and oihers  gradually less,
to one pound. Hence a p/ood swarm
should weigh  five or six pounds.
Such as are less than four pounds
weight, should be strengthened by
a small additional swarm. The size
of the hive ought to be proportion-
ate to the number of the bees, and
it should be rather too small than
too large, as these insects require
to be kept warmer than a large
hive will admit.
  Greatimprovementsmav be marie
in providing plenty of pasture  for 
BEE
BEE       257
t.ec s , and as a rich corn country
is unfavourable to their industry,
the  practise  of other  nations, in
shifting the abode of their bees, is
deserving of imitation.
   M. Maili.et, in his description
of Egypt, informs us, that the na-
tives of that  fertile country annu-
ally  send their  bees into distant
regions to procure sustenance for
them, when  they cannot find  any
at home.   About the end of Octo-
ber,  theinhabitantsof LowerEgypt
embark their bees on the Nile, and
convey them to C pper Egypt,when
the  inundation is withdrawn, the
lands are sown, and the flowers are
beginning to bud.  These  insects
arc  thus  conducted  through  the
whole extent of Egypt, and,  after
having  gathered  all  the rich  pro-
duce of the banks of the Nile, are
re-conducted home about the be-
ginning of February.
   In France, floating bee-hives are
very common.  One barge  con-
tains from 60 to 100 hives, which
are well defended from the incle-
mency of the weather.  Thusvthe
owners float them gently down the
stream,  while  they  gather their
honey  from  the flowers along its
banks;  a  single bee-house yields
the  proprietor a considerable in-
come.
   Their method of transporting
bees by land, is also worthy of our
attention.  The hives are fastened
to each  other by laths, placed on
thin  pack-cloth, which is drawn up
on each side, and then tied by a
piece of pack-thread several times
round their tops. In this state they
are laid in a cart, which generally
contains from thirty to fifty hives,
and conveyed to places where  the
bees  can collect honey and wax.
   During the winter, bees are in
so lethargic  a state,  that a little
food  is sufficient for their susten-
ance ;  but as every sunny day re-
vives,  and prompts them to exer-
cise, food is necessary on these oc-
casions. Some hives of bees which
are supposed to  have died of cold,
have in reality perished by famine,
especially when  a rainy summer
prevented them  from collecting a
sufficient store of provision. Hence
the hives should be carefully exa-
amined in autumn, and ought then
to weigh at least eighteen pounds
each.
   With respect to the feeding of
bees, the common practise is, to
leave them  as much honey in au-
tumn, as will make the hive weigh
20 pounds.   The honey should be
diluted with water, and put into an
empty comb,  split reeds, or upon
clean wool,which the bees will suck
perfectly dry.  By the dilution w ith
water,  however, the honey is apt
to become candied, in which state
it is prejudicial to the bees.  A
better method is, to replenish the
weak hives in September,with such
a portion of combsfilfod with honey
taken from other hives, as may be
deemed a sufficient supply.  This
is done by  turning up the weak
hive, cutting out the empty combs,
and placing  full ones in their stead,
secured by  piec-es of  wood, that
they may not fail down when the
hive is replaced.   If this method
be considered  too troublesome,  a
plate of honey, unmixed with wa-
ter, mi'y be  placed under the hive,
and straws  laid  across  th* pla'e,
covered with paper perforated v. ith
several small holes, through which
the bees will suck the honey with-
out difficulty.
  The degree of cold which bees
can endure,  has-not been ascertain-
ed.  In the cold parts of Russia,
they are often found in hollow trees. 
238        BEE
BEE
Their hives are frequently made of
bi>rk,  which does not afford them
much  protection.    Hence,  Mr.
White observes, that bees which
stand  on the north side of a build-
ing, will not consume more than
one-half of the honey necessary to
supply others which  stand in  the
sun.    In  winter,  however, they
should be  examined; and  if,  in-
stead  of being clustered between
the combs, they are found in num-
bers at the bottom of the hive, they
should be carried to a warmer place,
where they will soon recover.   In
winters extremely severe,  lay on
the bottom of an old ca^k the depth
of half a foot of very dry earth,
p^wek-red, and pressed down hard.
On this, place the stool with the
hive ;  and, to preserve  a commu-
nication with the air, cut a  hole in
the cask,  opposite to the entrance
of the hive,  in which fix a piece
of reed, or hollow alder, and then
cover the  whole with dry earth.
   In Britain, it is usual, in taking
the honey, to deprive the bees of
their lives.  The common method
is, to suffocate them with the smoke
of brimstone  ; but Mr. Man ley
has adopted a more humane  and
judicious plan : he says, " I never
destroy the old stock of bees ;  but
after lifting them, to examine what
honey there is, if I think the hive
is full, I put  another under it with
a flat  top, having a square  hole in
the centre.  When the bees are in
the under hive,  1 place a shutter,
which is of wood, in the hole at
the top ;  and that prevents them
from going into the upper hive. I
then  invert it in  a  bucket,  and
strike  it with a rod till I think they
are all out,   after  which they ;^o
into the under hive."
   ?.'.-. Wi ldman gives the folicw-
ing instructions for taking  the ho-
ney  and  wax:  remove the  hive
into a darkened room, that it may
aopsar to the bees as if it was late
in the evening ; then gently invert
the hive,Nand place it between the
frames  of  a chair,  or  any other
steady support, and  cover it with
an empty hive raised a little towards
the window, to give  the bees suf-
ficient light to guide their  ascent.
Hold  the empty hive, steady sup-
ported,  on the edge  cf the full
hive, between the left side and arm,
and continue striking with the right
hand  round the full hive, from the
bottom  upwards, and the bees be-
ing frightened  by the noise, will
ascend  into the o-.hcr.  Repeat the
strokes, rather quick than strong,
round the hive, till all the bees are
gone  out  of it, which  will be in
about five minutes.  As soon as a
number of the bees  have got into
the empty hive, it should be raised
a Iiufo  from the full one, that they
may  not return, but continue to
ascend.  When  they are all out of
the full hive, that in which they
are, must be placed on the stand, to
receive the absent bees as they re-
turn from  the fields.
   The  combs should be cut from
the sides and top as clean as possi-
ble, to save the future labour of the
bee.;.   During this operation, the
hive should be placed, reclining to
the side from which  the combs are
taken, and afterwards put for some
time  upright, that the remaining
honey may tun cut.
   liaving  finished  the  taking of
the wax and honey, the next bu-
siness is to return the bees to their
old hive,  for which purpose we
must refer the reader  to the di-
rections already given, when we
stated the usual method of uniting
swarms.
  By inverting the hive  which con-
tains the bees,  and  placing  their
own over it, they will immediately 
BEE
BEE       239
ascend, especially if the lower hive
be  struck on  the sides to alarm
them.
  With regard to  the increase of
bees,  Mr. Hubbard, of Bury St.
Edmunds,  England,  advises  the
owner to wait  with patience, until
he  has acquired twenty stocks, and
in the month of April to separate
ten  of  the  strongest  hives  for
swarming ;  the  other ten must be
raised on large  empty hives, the
tops of which  should be previously
taken off, and the joinings of the
two hives secured with a little clay,
which plan  prevents the bees from
swarming.  He also recommends
the prime swarms from the other
 stocks, to be  put into three-peck
 hives at least:  for,  when they ap-
 pear very early, they will probably
 swarm again in  a few weeks, which
 should always be prevented, and
 all the aftcr-swarms  be united, two
 or three into one ; for the great ad-
 vantage  arises from  a large quan-
 tity of bees being kept together ;
and by that mode, ten stocks will
generally yield  fifteen good ones.
   [The following*observations were
published by  George Morgan,
Esq. formerly of Princeton, New-
 Jersey.
   " Several writers on the manage-
 ment of bees, have  given very in-
 genious  directions for taking their
 new made honey, without destroy-
 ing those useful  creatures.   My
 humanity, hurt at the idea of set-
 ting fire to the fatal match, induced
 me to imitate their methods; par-
 ticularly those of  Mr. Wildman,
 and the  Rev.  Mr. White, whose
 directions 1 observed very  atten-
 tively, with some success ; but my
 expectations  were not gratified, as
 I found young broods in every hive
 1 took, and consequently the honey
 obtained was  impure.....However,
after a variety of experiments, I
discovered an agreeable, safe,' and
easy way to take the honey, with-
out the least injury or disturbance
of the bees.
  As  I  have experienced  great
pleasure, and  some benefit from
my discovery, I take this opportu-
nity to lay it before the Agricultu-
ral Society.
   My boxes are made, after  the
manner of Mr. White's, of  any
well-seasoned  wood,   ten  inches
square in the clear ; in pairs, with
communications at the sides, for
the bees to pass freely from  one
box to another: a pane of glass (7
by 9) with  a sliding shutter, may
be put into the back part of each
box, through which you may see
the bees at work.  Any person who
can handle  a saw and  hammer,
may make  the boxes  at a  small
expense..
   The communication between the
boxes are at top and bottom ; those
at top should be 3 inches long,  and
x- an inch wide, to serve as streets
or alleys betwixt the hives.
   The communications at bottom
should be five or six inches long,
and three-fourths of an inch deep,
so as to afford a free passage from
one hive to the other.
   The mouth of the hive may be
from three  to ten inches long, and
half  an inch  deep.  In the busy
season, this wide  entrance facili-
tates the bees going out and com-
ing in, and may  be contracted at
pleasure in autumn.
   Early the  next morning after
hiving a swarm of bees in  one of
these boxes,  I add another to it,
the door of which I close until the
bees begin to work in it;  when
I open it to  facilitate ther industry.
   Each box, of the above dimen-
sions; will contain thirty pounds of 
240       BEE
BEE
 honey....An early swarm, in a fa-
 vourable  situation and season, will
 fill two boxes, and cast out several
 swarms;  each of which  will fill
 two boxes with honey.
    As winter approaches, all the
 bees collect themselves  into one
 box, and  will leave the other, with
 its contents, to the use of the owner,
 whose profit, in good seasons, will
 be 90lb. of honey, and  several ad-
 ditional swarms,  for every  stock
 kept over the preceding winter....
 15 or 20lb. of honey are sufficient
 to keep a stock over our longest
 winters, but I leave them 30lb.
   Thus I acquire the purest honey,
 without the use of the match, or
 any trouble in dividing or disturb-
 ing the  bees ;  for on  turning up
 the hives (which have no glasses)
 I  discover,  immediately, that in
 which the bees are collected, and
 I  carry off the other,  without  a
 single bee in  it.
   The losses and disappointments
 I  have met with in a great variety
 of experiments, induce me to re-
 commend this management to eve-
 ry lover, of bees, as 1 have found
 it easy, pleasant,  and profitable."
   It ought to be observed, that all
 honey is not wholesome.  Bees in-
 discriminately sip the flowers of all
 plants abounding with sweets; and
 as some of these plants are of a poi-
 sonous nature, it follows  that the
 honey must partake of their inju-
 rious qualities.  Dr. Barton has
 written a very excellent paper on
 this subject.  Amer.  Phil. Trans.
 vol. 5th.  The plants affording this
 poisonous honey are, kalmia angus-
 tif.lia, or dwarf laurel ;  kalmia lati-
folia, or great laurel ;  kal. hirsuta,
 a pretty little shrub of the southern
 states;  andromeda  mariana,  or
 broad-leaved moorwort....As these
 are very plentiful in many of the
 American forests, their blossoms
 afford much  honey for the wild
 bees.
   Dr. B. thinks  that  it will  be
 found that other plants yield un-
 wholesome honey; such  are, 1.
 Rhododendron maximum, or Penn-
 sylvania mountain laurel;  azalia
 nudifiora, or wild honeys  uckle;
 and datura stramonium, or James-
 town weed.  The four first men-
 tioned plants ought to be extirpat-
 ed in the  neighbourhood of bee-
 hives ;  and  the honey procured
 from the  three enumerated in the
 second place as suspicious, should
 be carefully examined todetermine
 the fact with regard to them.]
   The manner of treating bees in
 Portugal, is as follows : A spot of
 ground is chosen for the hives, ex-
 posed towards the south or south-
 east, well sheltered from the north-
 ern blasts, and surrounded with
 shrubs and flowers; of the  latter,
 rosemary  is preferred.  The richer
 the neighbouring  grounds are, the
 better;  for bees are said to range
 for food to the distance of a league
 from their home.  Lanes are cut
 through  the  shrubby thickets, of
 five or six feet wide.   The fences
 between the  lanes are  about the
 same dimensions, and  formed at
 intervals into small recesses, like
 bowers  or niches, to  receive the
 hives.
   The Portuguese hives, in gene-
 ral, are of a cylindrical form, and
 about twenty-seven inches high by
 fourteen  in diameter.   They are
 constructed of the rind of the cork-
tree,  and covered with an inverted
 pan of earthen ware, the edge of
which projects over the hive like
a cornice.  The whole is fastened
with pegs made of hard and dura-
ble wood,  and the joints cemented
with peat.  In the front of the cy- 
             BEE

 linder, at the height of about eight
 inches, there is a  small aperture,
 where the bees enter. The  inside
 is divided into  three  equal com-
 partments, which are separated by
 cross  sticks, on  which the bees
 form their combs, or cells.
   When they  swarm  which  is
 usually in May or June, the hives
 are  placed to receive them, where
 they settle.  If, on attempting to
 collect them,  they fly away, a
 sheet is  placed at night  on  the
 ground, contiguous to the swarm ;
 and when they alight, the hive is
 put over them, with the entrance
 closed ; then  the whole is covered
 with the sheet, in which  they are
 carried home.  The honey-combs
 are taken out  in June, during the
 heat of the day, but not if a high
 wind prevail, or at the commence-
 ment of a new  or  full moon.  A
 person holds a chaffing dish, with
 a coal fire, covered  with   moist
 peat, to increase the smoke; which
 being introduced among the bees,
 from the top of the cylinder, they
 either escape,  or remain intoxicat-
 ed at the bottom ; then the  hive is
 taken to pieces, by  drawing out the
 pins. The  combs, except two cells
 around the hive, are cut out, with-
* out destroying the  bees, and the
 incision is covered  with pulverized
 clay. It is  not advisable to remove
 them, until they be full of honey.
   In  this country, at  former pe-
 riods, many artificial methods have
 been invented and practiced, with
 a view  of  stimulating the indus-
 trious bee to still greater exertions;
 and thus to increase the production
 of honey.  Although   we  are  no
 advocates for such  schemes, nor do
 we  give  credit" to  the  marvellous
 reports circulated to confirm their
 success, yet we consider the recipe
 given by the  late Prof. Br ad let,
      V6L. I.
            BEE         241

in his Family Dictionary, sufficient-
ly curious, if not practically use-
ful, to communicate it to our read-
ers : Take a handful of sweet yeast,
one  dram  of  camphor,  half  a
dram of musk dissolved  in  rose-
water,  a sufficient quantity of yel-
low  bees-wax, and oil  of roses
(which,  last,  however, being  an
expensive  article, may be  safely
omitted); pound  the  first  two  in-
gredients well  together, and put
them into the melting wax ;  then
add the  oil of  roses,  and  make it
up into a mass, which should  be
cool, before the musk  is incorpo-
rated with it. Of this composition,
place a piece of the  size of a hazel-
nut at the side of  a hive,  and it
will be found,  that it not only  in-
creases the number of the  bees,
but also enables  them to improve
the  honey, in  the  proportion of
three to one. Yet the learned editor
does not  inform  us, whether this
improvement is productive of a  su-
perior  quality,  or larger quantity
of honey, or perhaps of both.
   With  respect to  the Diseases of
Bees, we shall mention a few hints,
extracted from  the above-mention-
ed work.
   Bees are sometimes afflicted with
a diarrhoea, in consequence of feed-
ing greedily on the  blossoms of the
milk-thistle,  and  elm.  The best
cure is, pounded pomegranate seed
and  honey, moistened  with rich,
sweet wine ; or raisins mixed with
similar  wine or mead,  in  which
rosemary has been boiled.... When
they are infested  with vermin, the
hive must be  cleansed, and per-
fumed with a branch  of pomegra-
nate, or the wild  fig-tree,  which
will inevitably destroy them.
   Butterflies are  said to conceal
themselves in the hives, and annoy
the bees i these intruders mav easi-
     I  i 
242        BEE
BEE
ly be  exterminated, by placing
lighted candles in deep tin pots be-
tween the hives ;  as the flame will
attract them, and conduce to their
destruction.
  In order  to  extirpate hornets
preying upon the honey, it is only
necessary to expose shallow vessels
near the hive, with a little water  ;
to which  these  predatory insects
will eagerly repair, to quench their
thirst, and thus easily drown them-
selves.
  To prevent bees of one  society
from attacking or destroying those
of another,  Dr. Darwin  recom-
mends aboard, about an inch thick,
to be laid  on the bee-bench, and
the hive to be set on this  board,
with its mouth exactly on the edge;
the mouth of the  hive should also
be  contracted to about an inch in
length, and  a semi-circular  hollow
made  in  the board, immediately
under  the mouth of the hive.   By
this  simple method, the assailing
bees will be constrained to act with
great disadvantage.
  If, however, this should not suc-
ceed, Dr.  Darwin  advises a  re-
moval of the bee-hive to a  distant
part of the garden, and to a more
easterly  aspect ;   as he  has from
experience  observed the good ef-
fects of such a change. This acute
philosopher farther observes, in his
admirable    " Phytologia,"   when
treating of the glands  and secre-
tions of vegetables, that' the  de-
predations of insects committed on
that nutritious fluid, honey, is pro-
bably  injurious to the products of
vegetation; and that some plants
are more exposed and accessible to
bees than others, which are either
better defended, or secrete a great-
 er portion of honey  than is neces-
 sary for their own  economy.  Of
 the latter description are, the catch-
fly, sun-dew, hellebore  and  aco-
nite :  of the  former, the  Doctor
mentions the Polygonum melampy-
rum, or Buck-wheat, and the Ca-
calia suaveolens, or Alpine Colts-
foot ;  in both  of which  there also
appears  to be  a  superabundant
quantity of honey secreted.  The
flowers of  the two last-mentioned
plants  are  perpetually loaded with
bees and  butterflies;   insomuch,
that at Kempton-land, in Germany,
Mr.  Worlibge  says,   in  his
" Mysteries of Husbandry," chap.
ix. 3, he saw  forty great bee-hives
filled with honey, to the amount of
seventy pounds each,in one fortnight,
by their being placed near a large
field of buck-wheat in flower : and
Dr. Darwin  adds, that he  well re-
members having seen an astonish-
ing number of bees on a  field of
buck-wheat in Shropshire, as well
as on a plant  of the Alpine Colts-
foot in  his garden ; from which the
scent of honey could be perceived
at several  feet  distance from the
flower.
   To conclude this interesting sub-
ject, we cannot omit the judicious
remarks of a veteran writer, Dr.
J. Anderson, whose numerous and
useful  works, in  every branch of
rural and  domestic economy, are
of inestimable value to  the British
farmer.   In  one of his practical
papers " On the Management of the
Dairy," communicated  to the Bath
and West of England Society, he ob-
serves  in  a note, that bees, in this
variable climate, are a  very preca-
rious stock, though extremely pro-
fitable where they thrive.  During
 the frequent  mild days of winter,
 and the warm mornings of spring,
 which  are suddenly succeeded by
 a nipping  frost, or sleety rain,these
 creatures  are roused  from their
 torpid  state ; and, being unable to 
BEE
BEE        243
 obtain food abroad,they are obliged
 to consume and exhaust their stores,
 and to perish from want. And as the
 warmth of  the  weather in spring
 invites them to search in vain for
'flowers  affording  them  nourish-
 ment, they  are often chilled by
 cold, before  they are able to re-
 turn to the hive. To  prevent such
 fatal accidents, Dr. Anderson  is
 of opinion, that no method would
 be so effectual as that of  placing
 the  hives in an  ice-house, at the
 approach of  winter.    Here  they
 may be  kept till the spring has so
 far advanced, that no  danger  is to
 be apprehended from  bad weather.
 During the whole winter, they will
 remain in a state of torpor, and
 require no  food.  As soon as the
 mild  weather incites them to ap-
 pear,  they  will commence  their
 labours with vigour.   The intense
 degree of cold which  the bees sus-
 tain, without  the least injury, in
 Poland  and Russia,  where  even
 quick-silver is  sometimes frozen,
 removes every  doubt, or anxiety,
 concerning the safety  of bees in an
 ice-house.
  BEES-WAX, a solid concrete,
 obtained from the honey-combs, af-
 ter the sweet and liquid parts are
 extracted, by heating  and pressing
 them between iron plates.   The
 best sort should  be hard, compact,
 of a clear  yellow colour, and an
 agreeable odour, similar to that of
 honey. Pure bees-wax, when new
 is tough, yet  easily  broken  ; by-
 long  keeping, it becomes  harder
 and  more  brittle,  loses  its   fine
 colour, and partly also its frag-
 rance.
  The purposes to which bees-wax
 is  applied,   are  various : great
 quantities of it are annually bleach-
 ed, and converted into  candles.  On
 account of its softening and healing
 nature, it is much used in cerates,
 plasters and ointments.
   Artificial wax may be extracted
 from many  vegetable substances ;
 especially from the flowers of the
 lime-tree, by a chemical process ;
 hut we doubt  whether  the ex-
 pense attending this  experiment
 would,  in  this country,  be equi-
 valent to the advantages.  It is,
 however, certain, that wax is con-
 tained in a  much greater number
 of vegetables  than has   hitherto
 been supposed ;  and it may easily
 be  extracted from the leaves of
 most plants and trees,  as is mani-
 fest  from  their  shining  cover or
 varnish, which generally  consists
 of waxy  matter.  This  concrete
 also forms  an ingredient of seve-
 ral resins ;  and may  be separated
 from gummy,  mucilaginous,  and
 saccharine matters, by  simple wa-
 ter : from saponaceous  substances,
 by water or spirits of wine ;  and
 from resinous bodies, by means of
 vitriolic aether.
   Bee-Bread is a species of crude
 wax, collected by the working-bee
 from the farina of flower-cups, con-
 veyed to the hive in the hollow of
 its hind-legs, and deposited in the
 cells with the egg, to serve as food
 for the young maggot.....This sub-
 stance often  varies in  colour,  ac-
 cording  to  the  different  flowers
 from  which  it is separated ; and
 though generally white at  first, it
 is  afterwards changed, by  the im-
 purities arising fi-bm the steam, &c.
 of the bees.   In  some hives,  this
 crude wax is said to amount to one
 hundred weight in a season, if the
total consumption of the voracious
young maggots be calculated in
proportion to the incessant labour
of their  supporters ;  though  the
real wax in the whole hive may per-
haps not exceed two  pounds weight. 
244        BEE

  Bee-Glue, formerly called Vir-
gin-wax (Propolis), is another bal-
samic production of the bee, which
deserves to be noticed : it is a kind
of natural  mastich, of  a  reddish
colour,  and very agreeable smell.
Small pieces  of it are frequently
found in the  holes and crevices of
the  hives,  where  it is  employed
by those little artists,  as a cement
for excluding cold, rain, and noxi-
ous  insects.
  In the immense forests of Poland
and Russia, where bees select their
own habitations in the hollow trunks
of trees, the bee-glue is deposited
in much larger  pieces, and of a su-
perior flavour, to what is obtained
in countries  where  these  insects
are  reared by the aid of art.  The
inhabitants of the  former, gene-
rally used  it as  a vulnerary appli-
cation,  to  promote  the  healing of
fresh wounds.  Dr. James, in his
" Medicinal  Dictionary,"   praises
the  bee-glue as being gently heat-
ing, abstergent, and attracting:  it
softens indurated parts, alleviates
pains,  and induces  cicatrices  on
ulcers.
   Stings  of Bees  are more  vi-
rulent  than  even those of wasps,
and sometimes  attended with very
violent effects.    As  the  sting  is
barbed, it  is  always left  in the
wound.  When,  therefore, a per-
 son is  stung by a  bee, the sting
 should be  instantly extracted ; for,
 by  its peculiar  form, it will pene-
trate progressively deeper into the
 wound, and communicate  more  of
 its poison, according to the time it
 is suffered to remain. It should be
 carefully pulled out with  a steady
 hand;  for  if any part of it  breaks
 in, remedies will in a great measure
 be ineffectual.  When the sting is
 completely extracted, the wounded
 part should be  sucked ; and little,
            B EE

if any, inflammation  will ensue.
If  a few  drops of spirits of harts-
horn be immediately rubbed on the
part affected, the cure will be more
speedily  accomplished.   This spi-
rit, however, acts only as a stimu-
lating anti-spasmodic, enabling the
vessels  to overcome  the spasm
formed  on the extremities.  An
application of Goulard-water, or a
cold saturnine poultice, would pro-
duce a similar effect.
  Another simple remedy, equally
efficacious and expeditious, is a so-
lution of indigo in water ; speedily
applied to the injured part.
   Honey and olive oil may also be
occasionally substituted with advan-
tage ;  but their application should
be  repeated till the pain ceases.
   For treating the stings of these
insects,  common  salt is  a  more
certain  and almost instantaneous
cure;  if the  sting be internal the
salt must be swallowed :  in the
contrary case the  skin  should  be
previously moistened, in order that
it may more easily absorb the sa-
line matter.
   [" The  following method  of
bleaching bees-wax, was laid before
the managers of the Pennsylvania
Society  for the encouragement of
manufactures and the useful  arts.
   " It is impossible to change the
colour of a  wax cake into the ut-
most degree of whiteness, without
increasing the surface of it, so as
to  submit the inside, as well as the
outside,  of the wax, to  the  action
of the air.
   " This is  effected by  dividing
the wax into an infinite  number of
 thin ribbons, which  is  performed
 with ease, by the  following me-
 thod.
   " The yellow wax, melted in a
copper,  is  received, and kept in
fusion in a wooden tub, raised five 
            BEE

or six feet from the ground, and
wrapped up in a number of thick
blankets of wool.  The liquor, or
melted wax, is runoutof it through
a pipe, fixed so high, that the sedi-
ments or dregs may be left at the
bottom,  and is received in  a fine
bored cullender, or strainer, which
lets all run through but the dross
or scum. From the cullender the
wax  runs  into  a  long  narrow
trough,  about five or six feet in
length,  bored at the bottom with
about fifty small holes, ranged in
one line, and separated by equal
 spaces.   The wax distributed in
 its  fall by  the holes  into  fifty
 threads, falls  upon a cylinder of
 some hard wood,  which is about
 five  feet in diameter, and as long
 as the trough, and is fixed paral-
 lel, and directly under it.  About
 one  half of the thickness of this
 cylinder is sunk in  the water of a
 long tub, like a bathing-tub, whose
 width is equal to the length of the
 cylinder, and on which it is to be
 turned  by  a  winch.  It is plain,
 that  each thread of melted  wax
 must coagulate  and grow flat, as
 it  comes upon the cylinder  thus
 dipped  in cold water.   As the cy-
 linder is kept turning, a thin rib-
 bon  must necessarily be formed of
 all the streams of wax successive-
 ly flattened and cooled, which will
  go off the cylinder by the action
 of the water, as it comes into it;
 thus the  surface of the water  is
 presently covered  with these fifty-
  yellow  ribbons, which are formed
  upon, and incessantly spun off the
  cylinder, as it goes round.  They
  are taken away with a sort of wood-
  en  fork with  three prongs: and
  carried to the field to be  spread
  upon long wooden  frames, raised
  two   feet  from  the ground and
  tovered with oil cloth, where  the
            BEE        245

whole, scattered very thin, receives
freely the  impression of the air
and dew.
  " This  first  operation brings  it
to the half yellow cplour.   From
the bleach yard it is  carried back
to the second  copper, whence  it
passes into the  second tub,  and
from thence to a cylinder, and cor-
responding tub  as  before,  after
which it  goes to the yard to be
bleached anew : this second opera-
tion being perfectly like the fore-
going.  Lastly, they melt it in the
third copper,  from whence it pas-
ses int« a  tub, and thence into the
wax  pot,  from  which they  next
pour it with  a copper ladle  into
 round moulds not very deep, where
 it coagulates  into  small  cakes:
 these last  grow hard  in the water
 of a tub into which they are thrown
 for that purpose, and then  assume
 the highest degree of whiteness by
 a final bleaching.
   " In a small work one set of ves-
 sels will answer very well.
   " It appears, that a more consi-
 derable quantity of  yellow or un-
bleached bees-wax was exported in
 1790, than in  1801.   It has been
constantly decreasing,although our
 population has so much increased,
 and  our cultivation of buckwheat
and clover (on both of which the
bees feed) is greatly  extended......
 This decrease of the exportation
 of bees-wax,  considered relatively
 to our numbers, proves the in-
 crease of the domestic use of wax.
 All those  uses, the rubbing of fur-
 niture excepted, are of the nature
 of manufactures.  The raising of
 bees in the broken and mountain-
 ous  parts  of Greece has always
 been found very profitable, and
 merits the attention  of our coun-
 try.  It is hoped, however,  that
 after the industrious bees have pro- 
 246       BEE

 duced abundance of yellow wax for
 us, we shall not  be such drones as
 to neglect  the easy  and beautiful
 manufacture of  it into white wax.
 Bleaching  this article may be well
 added to the list of household ma-
 nufacturing operations."]
   BEECH-TREE, or the Fagus,
 L.  a plant  of w hich there are four
 species, viz. 1.  The sylvatica, or
 beech-tree,  which rises sixty  or
 seventy feet high ; 2. The castanea,
 or chesnut-tree ;  3. The fiumlea, or
 dwarf chesnut-tree, [or chinquapin];
 and  4.  The  Americana, Ameri-
 can chesnut-tree, \_ferruginea, Ad-
 ton],  At present, we  shall confine
 our account, consistently with the
 alphabetical order, to the first-men-
 tioned species.
   This tree is easily raised  from
 the mast,  or seeds.  If intended
 for woods,  it  requires  the  same
 management as the oak; in nur-
 series, it should be treated like the
 ash ;  by sowing the  mast in au-
 tumn, or even as late as January,
 to preseve  it from vermin.  Han-
 eury  recommends, that a  suffi-
 cient  quantity of mast be gathered
 about  the  middle  of September,
 when it begins to fall ; it should be
 spread upon a mat in an airy place
 to dry,  after which it may either
be sown immediately, or preserved
 in bags till the spring : the latter
 method, however, is preferable. It
 must be sown about an inch deep,
 in beds properly  prepared. Several
 of the young  plants  will appear
 early  in spring, but others will not
 come up till the spring  following.
 After having remained  two years
 in this state they ought to be trans-
 planted to the nursery.
  In the year 1791, John Holli-
 day, Esq. of Dillorn, Staffordshire,
planted 113,500  trees of difiereut
kinds ; among these, the principal
             BEE

were ninety-four thousand beech.
His  method of planting was, to
make a round hole, about the dia-
meter of two spades ;  to preserve
the best turf, and place it on the
south-west side,  which, by expe-
rience,  has been  found to  answer
two useful purposes, namely, that
of protecting the young plants from
the storms of winter, and shedding
the best soil in  the bed of the hole,
both winter  and  summer.   It is
but  justice to  observe, that  this
gentleman received  the honorary
reward  of the gold medal from the
Society for the Encouragement of
the Arts.
   The beech is the most beautiful
tree England produces.  In state-
liness and grandeur of outline, it
vies with  the oak.   Its foliage is
peculiarly  delicate and pleasing to
the eye, and therefore preferable
to the lime,  for ornamental plan-
tations,  particularly in parks, where
the mast in  fruitful  years will be
serviceable to the deer: its branch-
es are  numerous and  spreading,
and its stem grows to a great size.
The bark is extremely smooth and
silvery,  which, together with the
elegance of  its  foliage, gives a
pleasing neatness and  delicacy to
its general appearance.  Beeches
thrive best on calcareous hills, and
abound  on  the bed of chalk which
runs  from  Dorsetshire, through
Wiltshire,  Hampshire, Surry, Sus-
sex, and Kent; though" they may
also  be  met with in  almost every
county in  England.
  An anonymous writer on  agri-
culture,  says,  that  "  great  care
should  be  taken  to  remove the
beech from woods, that oaks may
thrive; without  thisprecaution oak-
forest have become of less value by
several  hundred pounds, from the
intrusion of the beech." 
            BEE

   In Hereford  and  Monmouth-
shire, the beech is  converted into
charcoal ; and in several counties,
its leaves are used for beds, instead
of feathers.  They  certainly have
this advantage over feathers, that
they may often  be changed at  a
trifling expense.
   The wood of this tree is almost
as necessary to cabinet-makers and
turners, as oak is to the ship-builder;
it is, however, very liable to  be at-
tacked by a worm which soon de-
stroys it; this worm is supposed to
feed on the sap that remains in the
wood, consequently, the best me-
thod of preserving  it, is to extract
the food on which  the worm sub-
sists....For this purpose, scantlings
of beech, when large, should  be
laid to soak in a pond for several
weeks, according to the size  of the
timber, and the season of the year.
In the heat  of summer this  effect
is more speedily produced. As the
planks or boards are in danger of
warping, they should be exposed
to dry, but sheltered from the sun
and rain ; laths ought to be placed
between  the boards,  to prevent
their contact, and the whole press-
ed by  a considerable  weight.   If
they are large  pieces  for beams,
joints,  &c. they need  only be left
to dry gradually  under sheds.
   By the first of these methods,
the timber,  when  applied to use,
will be found as good  and durable
as elm.  It  is, however, advisable
when beech is used,  to prepare
that  part of the   timber which
touches  the  brick-work, with  a
thick coat of pitch, to  guard  it
against-the effects of moisture. It
should be felled in the heat of sum-
mer, when full of sap, which may
then be more readily  extracted
from the wood than in  winter.
            BEE        247

   Beams and thick  planks should
 remain about 20 weeks in water ;
 joists and rafters about* 12 weeks;
 and the thinner boards, about two
 months; but afterwards they should
 all be gradually dried.
   When this wood is intended for
 small  work,  such  as chairs,  or
 turnery, it is recommended to erect
 a large copper, sufficient to hold
 two hogsheads, in which the  wood
 may be boiled for  two  or  three
 hours.  This mode of preparing it
 extracts all the sap, makes it wc rk
 more  smoothly,  and  renders  it
 more beautiful and durable.
   BEECH-NUT, or, as it is more
 generally called, Beech-mast, is the
 seed or fruit of the beech -tree, and
 is  recommended  for feeding and
 fattening hogs. These animals may
 be  secured from the gargul,  by
 moistening  some pease or beans
 with water, sprinkling them with
 powdered antimony, and repeating
 this medicine every other day,  for
 a fortnight.  The same precaution
 should be used when hogs are fed
 upon acorns.   In Hertfordshire,
 where beech-trees grow spontane-
 ously,  swine  are  kept upon the
 mast only,  and turned out about
 the  middle  of October,  or some-
 times sooner.  On this food they
 thrive very fast, and generally  af-
 ford fine meat.   When a hog  is
 intended to  be killed for pickling,
 it should be previously taken home
 for a month, or five weeks, and fed
 with pollard, barley meal, or pease.
 It has,  however, been remarked,
that the flesh of swine,  fed upon
beech-mast,  is of too soft a nature,
and easily boils away.
  When thet;e mus  are eaten by
the  human species, they occasion
giddiness and head-ach ; but  after
being well dried and ground,  they 
248        BEE
BEE
have keen found to  make whole-
some bread : they have also occa-
sionally been roasted, and used as
a substitute for coffee.
  BEECH-MAST  OIL, is ex-
pressed from the mast after it has
been  shelled and pounded.   It is
used in many parts of France and
Silesia instead of butter ; accord-
ing to  some  accounts it is little
inferior to oil of olives.  After the
oily  part  has been extracted, the
remainder of the mast, when dri-
ed, is said to be  sweeter and more
palatable than before, and may be
easily  converted into flour, of a
similar taste and colour to that of
wheat.
  In order to obtain  pure oil, the
following  circumstances must be
attended to:  1. The fruit must be
carefully  selected, and all musty,
rotten, or tainted nuts, particularly
those of the former year, should be
rejected.
  2. The  shell of the nut should
be taken  off,  which  is necessary
not only for increasing the quan-
tity, but also for improving the
quality of oil, because the  husk
communicates a particular flavour.
  3.  The film  which surrounds
the kernel, should then be remov-
ed, an operation which is essential
to the perfection of the oil and the
flour ; for the  film, though small
in quantity,  has an astringent, dis-
agreeable taste, which is plainly
perceptible both in the oil and the
flour, where its removal has been
neglected. It may be separated by
puttin g the kernels into hot water, as
is practised in blanching almonds.
  4. After the nuts are gathered,
they  should be preserved  for two
or three months in a dry place, so
thinly spread out as not to allow
them to heat, and often turned to
keep them  sweet;  then  bruised
like apples in a cyder-mill. In this
state, the mass should be put into
bags  of strong thin canvass, and
pressed cold.  The oil must be ex-
tracted by three degrees of  pres-
sure :  the  first moderate, which
gives the purest and finest oil; the
second  harder, which yields it of
an inferior quality; and the third as
forcibly as the materials will  bear,
from which an oil of an indifferent
quality  is  obtained.   After  each
separate pressure, the bag should
be turned, and the mast, after being
well shaken, may be preserved for
use.
   It  has  been  asserted, that the
mast,, though three times pressed,
is more nutritive than in its natural
state.  It may, therefore, not only
be given as a wholesome food to
poultry, swine, and oxen, but also
be manufactured into hair-powder.
[See an interesting extract from a
paper in the Memoirs of the Royal
Academy of Sciences  in  Paris, on
beech-mast-oil, in Dr. Anberson's
recreations, vol. 2d.]
   BEEF, the flesh of black cattle,
prepared for food.  This process is
managed  in various ways, accord-
ingly as the meat is intended for
keeping a  longer or  shorter  time.
The usual method of salting beef,
being generally known, we  shall
refer to the article "  Bacon," and
briefly observe, that much depends
 1. On the purity  and quantity of
the salt used for this purpose; 2.
On the size of the pieces, and the
nature of the vessels in which they
are kept;  and 3.  On the ingredi-
ents which may be employed with
a view to assist the operation of the
salt.
   It is  an established fact, that
salt proves antiseptic  only  when
used in a considerable  quantity;
and that a weak brine strongljf tends 
BEE
BEE       249
 to hasten the  putrefaction  of  ani-
 mal substances:  hence the neces-
 sity of making a liberal use of this
 article.  On  the  other hand, as
 common  sea-salt contains  a very
 considerable proportion of  magne-
 sia,  one of the  most absorbent
 earths for promoting putrefaction,
 it is attended with great inconve-
 nience to those who are obliged
 to make use of large quantities of
 such  salt; because  it is difficult
 to  separate that ingredient from
 this concrete.
  Hence rock-salt, though appa-
 rently more impure, is doubtless
 more advantageous,*and proper for
 the curing of beef;  because  its
 crystallization has  been  accom-
 plished  by  Nature, probably after
 the more  earthy base, or mag-
 nesia, had,  in a  great  measure,
 spontaneously subsided. We offer
 this as a mere conjecture;  as it
 is of little importance  to the eco-
 nomist, how this  combination of
 salt and putrefactive earth has ori-
 ginally taken place, if we can sug-
 gest  a method of purifying  the
 former, so as to render il fit for the
 purpose intended: See Salt.  At
 present,  however,  we  shall treat
 first of the manner which,  by  ex-
 perience, has been found the most
 effectual  for salting,  preserving,
 and imparting  a fine  flavour  to
 beef, mutton, and pork.  For this
 useful information we are indebted
 to M. Schedel, who has inserted
 the following recipe in  the  kk Eco-
 nomical Journal,"  for September,
 1795,  printed  at  Leipzig:  Take
four pounds of common salt, one
 pound and a half of refined sugar,
two ounces of  salt-petre, and two
 gallons of pure spring water. Boil
the  whole over a gentle fire, and
carefully  scum off the  impurities.
 After this brine has become cold,
    VOL. I.
 pour it over the meat, so that every
 part of it may be  completely co-
 vered.   In  this preparation,  the
 meat  not only keeps for  many
 months,  but  the pickle  also  has
 the  effect of softening the hardest
 and  toughest  beef, and rendering
 it as mellow as the flesh of chicken.
 But, in warm weather, it will be
 necessary to express theblood from
 the  meat,  and to rub  it well with
 fine  salt,  before it is immersed in
 the  liquor......Young pork should
 not  be left longer  than three or
 four days in  this brine, during
 which time it will  be  sufficiently
 softened ; hut hams intended to be
 dried, may lie in it  a fortnight,  be-
 fore they  are suspended.  At that
 period, they  ought to  be rubbed
 with pollard,  and covered with
 paper bags,  in order  to  prevent
 thtm  from  becoming fly-blown.
 It farther deserves to be remarked
 that, though this liquor  is more
 expensive at first than the common
 brine, yet as  it may again be used
 after boiling  it,  and adding more
 water with a proportionate  quan-
 tity  of  the other ingredients,  its
 relative utility is   obvious.  We
 understand that the late Fmpress
 of Russia employed this composi-
 tion  with  uniform success, in  her
 household economy.
  A very curious experiment w,as
 tried, in the year 1756, before the
 commissioners of the Victualling-
 Office,  relative to  the salting of
 beef. Both jugular veins of a bul-
 lock  were opened,  and the animal
 bled  almost to death:  the carcase
 was  then cut open,  the intestines
 were taken out, and while warm,
 a tube was introduced  into one of
 the large  arteries,  which  was  in-
jected  with a strong  brine: this
circulated through  all  the blood-
vessels, so that the flesh of the bul-
      K K 
250        B E E

lock was (apparently) salted alike
throughout  the  whole body,  for,
on cutting a piece of the leg  and
lip, the brine  issued from  these
parts.  Some of this beef was then
stowed,  and sent to sea with  a
view  to ascertain- how long  it
would keep  in that state: but the
result of the experiment has  not
been published.   Indeed, it is not
difficult to foresee the event: as
the arteries were no longer pos-
sessed of the power  of absorption
inherent in  the  living  body,  the
muscular fibre, not being saturated
with the saline  liquid, would  ne-
cessarily putrify.
   [The superiority of the receipt
commonly known by the name  of
Adml. Pocock's, is so well known
to those, who have had an oppor-
tunity of comparing it with others,
that it ought to be  generally adopt-
ed.  It is thus made....Water  four
gallons, Muscovado  sugar or  mo-
lasses  a pound and a half, of  salt,
(the bay or  large sort) six pounds.
Boil all together  in  an  iron  pot,
or. kettle,  and skim  it repeatedly,
as long as any scum rises; then
take off the pot to  stand till the
liquor is cold.  The meat  being
placed in the vessel meant to hold
it, pour the cold pickle on  the
meat,  till it is  covered; and,  in
that,state, keep it for family  use.
If the meat is to be preserved a
considerable time, the pickle must
be  boiled   once  in  two months;
skimming off'  all that  rises,  and
throwing in,  during the boiling,
two ounces of sugar, and  about
half a pound  of common  salt.....
Mr. Bordley,  says, the  above
pickle " is incomparable, also, for
curing hams,  tongues, and  hung-
beef.  When tongues and  hung-
beef are taken out of the  pickle,
clean and dry the  pieces;  then
put them in paper bags,  and hang
            BEE

them up, in a dry warm place.  In
very hot weather,  it is  necessary,
before the meat is put to the pickle,
to rub it well over with salt,  and
let  it lie for  one, two, or three
hours, till the bloody juices run off.
If the meat in this case be  in the
least tainted, before it is put to the
pickle, it will be entirely spoiled in
a day's  time in hot weather.
   Mr. Bordley recommends, to
keep beeves intended to be  killed,
two days from food  and drink;
and, in a dark and  close place....
He thinks,  the animal  bleeds  bet-
ter, handles lighter and cleaner ;
and, that the meat looks better by
observing  these directions.  The
barrels  are  to he ready, sweet and
well trimmed, and  the salt  pre-
viously  washed  or refined,  and
ground small  before the beeves
are to be  slaughtered.  Delay in
salting  is  injurious.   The  pieces
are, thcrefo/e, to be packed  into
the tight barrels, piece by piece,
as  they  are  salted;   instead of
bulking them  on a frame or dress-
er  to drain, as is  the practice......
Coarse salt, washed but not ground,
having  also been previously ready,
is to be dissolved in fair cold wa-
ter, until no more can be dissolved
on stirring.  Let it settle a day, or
two, skim off the top, pour off all
but the dregs.  When perfectly
cool and clean, it is  ready to be
poured on  the  repacked beef......
After the meat has remained in
the barrels six or eight days, head-
ed up tight, it is to be taken out,
resalted,  and  closely repacked in
the same  barrels;  the drainings
are to  be  preserved  and boiled:
the barrels are then to be  headed
up. In a few days,  bore a hole in
one of  the  heads, or the bulge of
each barrel,  and fill  the  barrels
with the prepared and boiled juices
of the  meat,  saved from the first 
BEE
BEE        251
salting and barrelling.  Every time
of filling, the barrels being rolled
leaves  room for  more liquor......
When there  is no more  of the
prepared  liquor,  the  barrels are
next to be  repeatedly filled with
the  plain  strong  brine  made  as
above, from the washed coarse salt,
till they can  take  no  more, after
standing a short time.  Here, as
in preserving fish  in  barrels, the
operations  are distinctly to salt and
to cure, (See Art.  Hekring.) and
the boiled  juices  from the  salted
meat, must serve to beef what the
pickle of fish cured, is to herrings.
On  boiling the blood and  juices
with  the pickle, the firmer parts
settle in a mass on standing, and
the liquor  pours off clean.
   The barrels ought not to be ex-
posed either to the sun, or to damp.
A cool dry place is best.
   Attention to the kind of salt used
in salting  meats,  is of more con-
sequence than is generally imagin-
ed.  The Hollanders who furnish
the world with  the finest  flavoured
herrings, (caught  on  the coast of
Scotland,)  and derive an immense
revenue from the trade, prevent by
law  the use of all "kinds  of salt in
the herring business,  except that
from Portugal or Spain.  It would
be well  to  attend  to this circum-
stance in this country.]  •  -
   As to the properties of beef, in
general, we shall only  say, that it
affords  a good, strong, and invi-
gorating nutriment,  because no
animal  food is equal to  the flesh
of a healthy, middle-aged bullock,
Plethoric persons, however, as well
as youth,  in whom there is natu-
rally a disposition to generate heat,
should eat  beef in great modera-
tion.  Hence, it is most service-
able to the  robust and active adult,
employed in manual  labour, who
digests both fat and lean with equal
facility.  Yet, when  salted,  even
the most tender beef is deprived
of a great portion of animal jelly,
so that we may  without hesitation
pronounce, that one pound of fresh
beef is equal to one pound and a
half in a salted or pickled state.
  BEEF-TEA, a preparation com-
monly made  for  persons whose
energy of the stomach is reduced,
either after recovery from diseases,
or in consequence of complaints
arising from indigestion.  It has
been a common practice, to  treat
valetudinarians,  or patients,  with
viper-broth, instead of beef-tea; the
former, however, does not appear
to possess  any  superior  efficacy,
though it certainly is more nause-
ous than the latter.
   Beef-tea is usually made by cut-
ting one pound of the lean part of
a  buttock of beef into very thin
slices,  or  shreds, and boiling it
with nearly  a quart of water: when
it  grows  hot, the rising scum must
be taken off,  while  it continues
boiling for about twenty minutes.
After it  grows cold, this liquor is
strained  and decanted ; in which
state it resembles a light infusion of
fine green tea: has a very gr.ittful
flavour, and is more strengthening
than other broths.  This recipe is
similar to that  given  by  the late
Dr. Barry, in his classical ^Trea-
tise on the three different Digestions
and Discharges  of the  Human Bo-
dy," &c. 8vo. 6s. \75'J.   But,  on
considering  the effect of heat  on
the volatile and spirituous r.arts of
ihe animal  fibre, when immersed
in a fluid medium, we venture to
suggest a more economical method
of preparing beef-tea.   i» stead of
boiling the meat we would advise
to reduce it to  a pulp (provided
it  be perfectly clean and  fivsh) 
252        BEE

with a wooden pestle, in an iron or
marble mortar, and then to express
all its juice.  After straining this
liquor, a little spice may be added,
and an equal, or larger proportion
of boiling water.  Thus, the whole
essence  of the meat will be  pre-
served,  part of which would be
volatilized by cooking.  Nor does
it admit of a doubt, that  such a
liquor possesses greater bracing
powers, than if prepared after the
usual manner; and that  half a
pound of beef in this way, is near-
ly equal  to one pound used  accord-
ing to the former method.
   It is, however, a common error,
that beef-tea, or any other broth,
is more easily digested than solid
food: on the contrary, all liquid
nutriment of this  nature, unless
mixed with bread,  rice, barley,  or
other vegetable aliment,  requires
much stronger  efforts of  the sto-
mach to effect digestion.   Hence,
we are induced  to deprecate the
custom of inundating,  as  it were,
patients, after their recovery from
chronic diseases,with soups, broths,
and spoon-meat of every  descrip-
tion.
   BEER is a fermented, spirituous
liquor,  prepared from any farina-
ceous grain, but  generally from
bailey, and strictly speaking, is a
vinous  production, serving as  a
substitute for wine.
   As we propose to give a short
analysis of  the art of Brewing,
under that head we shall here only
observe, that all kinds of beer are
produced by extracting a propor-
tionate  quantity of malt,  whether
made of wheat, barley or oats, in
boiling water; then suffering it to
remain  at   rest,  in a degree of
warmth requisite to induce a vinous
fermentation, and  afterwards ma-
naging  it in the manner as will
            BEE

be described under the article just
mentioned....See also Fermenta-
tion and Malt.
    Although  malt  alone  might
doubtless produce a  liquor  pos-
sessing the spirituous properties of
beer, yet such a preparation would
speedily  turn sour and insipid, un-
less impregnated with hops, or an-
other aromatic and bitter principle,
derived from vegetable substances
which not only render it less liable
to undergo the putrefactive  stage
of fermentation, but also impart to
it an agreeable bitterness.  Of this
nature is the hop in a very eminent
degree,  the price of which, how-
ever, has of late years been so ex-
orbitant,  that speculative brewers
have substituted a variety of other
vegetable ingredients, and  espe-
cially the wood, bark, and root of
quassia (which see).  Independent-
ly of the inferior price of this drug,
when compared to the indigenous
hop, there can be no reasonable ob-
jection to its use;  as it is one  of the
few astringent substances possess-
ing a considerable share of the bit-
ter principle, without partaking of
the narcotic,  heating,  and intoxi-
cating properties of other plants.
   It would be difficult to lay down
an accurate criterion of the best and
most wholesome beer; as its rela-
tive  strength and flavour, or the
immediate effect it produces on the
 palate,  are generally considered
the most essential requisites.  But
 a well-brewed andwholesome beer,
 whether ale or porter, ought to be
 of a bright colour,  and perfectly
 transparent, that is, neither too
 high  nor pale; it should have  a
 pleasant and mellow taste, sharp
 and agreeably bitter, without being
 acrid or tart; it should leave no
 particular sensation on the tongue;
 and, if  drank in  any considerable 
BEE
BEE       253
quantity, it must neither produce
speedy intoxication, with its con-
comitant efl'ects of sleep, nausea,
vomiting, head-ach, languor, want
of appetite,  See. nor should it  be
retained  too  long in  the urinary
passages, or be too quickly dis-
charged.
   Dr.  James  Stonehouse,  of
Northampton, inserted the follow-
ing  recipe  for  making  Beer  of
Treacle, in  the  Gentl. Magaz.  for
January, 1758 :  " To eight  quarts
of boiling water, put one pound of
treacle, a quarter of an  ounce of
ginger, and two bay-leaves.  Le£
the whole boil for a quarter of an
hour, then cool and work it with
yeast, the  same as other beer:"
or, " Take one bushel of mall, with
as much water  and hops as if two
bushels of malt  were allowed ;  put
seven pounds of the coarsest brown
sugar into the wort, while boiling.
This makes a very pleasant liquor;
is as strong, and will keep as long
without becoming sour or flat, as if
two bushels of malt had been em-
ployed."....Dr. Stonehouse adds,
that the latter is the preparation
used in the ShrewsDury Infirmary,
and  he  does not hesitate to attest
its wholesome and nutritive pro-
perties.
   [Extemporaneous small beer.  To
two  quarts of common porter, add
of molasses half a pint, of ginger
two  drams, of  water just  warm,
four quarts ; let the whole ferment
in a warm place, then rack  off.
   Another. Lemon Peel, one ounce,
Creme of Tartar four ounces, hops
one ounce,  molasses  one  quart,
ginger  one dram  (sixty  grains),
bruised cloves four in number, boil-
ing  water  four gallons ;  ferment
with yeast.
   Beer, (Spruce). To a four ounce
gallypot of  essence of spruce, add
three quarts of molasses, two gal-
lons of warm rain water, and half
a pint  of good yeast.  Stir them
well together until the liquor bears
a froth, then put it into  the- cask
and fill it with nine gallons of water
shaking  it well.  Set it  aside for
two or three days to ferment with
the bung close, and  place the cask
in a cool cellar, and  in twenty-four
hours it  will be fit for use.   If in-
tended for bottling let the cask stand
undisturbed three days before it be
drawn off.  For the second brew-
ing, the sediment remaining in the
cask may be used instead of yeast.
If well-water be used it should be
warmed a little.
   It ought to  be mentioned  that
very great deceptions are practis-
ed, with respect to  the essence of
spruce brought here for  sale from
Nova Scotia.]
   In the sixth  volume of the Mu-
seum Rusticum  et  Commercial,  a
work  of considerable merit, we
meet with a similar  account of
making  a kind of  Table  Beer,
which from  its cheapness,  and
agreeableness,is greatly preferable
to that obtained from malt;  and
which has this farther advantage,
that it may be made  ready for
drinking in three or four days......
" Take fifteen gallons of water, and
boil one half of it,  or as much as
can conveniently be managed; put
the  part of the water thus boiied,
while  it is yet of its full heat, to
the cold part, contained  in a  bar-
rel or cask; and then add one gal-
lon of molasses, commonly called
treacle,  stirring them well  toge-
ther ;  add a little yeast, if the ves-
sel be new; but, if it has been used
for  the  same purpose,  the  yeast
is unnecessary.  Keep the bung-
hole open till the fermentation ap-
pear to  be abated,  and  then close 
254        BEE
BEE
it up.  The beer will, in a day or
two afterwards, be fit to drink.
  '• It is usual to put tops of the
spruce fir into the water which is
boiled  for making this beer;  and
it is then called spruce beer.   But,
though this is done at sta, when
such tops can be obtained, on ac-
count of the  scurvy ; yet it is not
necessary, and may very  well  be
omitted,  where they are not to be
easily procured.  Scurvy-grass, or
other herbs or drugs, used in mak-
ing purl, gill-ale, or any other fla-
voured malt liquor, may be added
at discretion.  But a little of the
outer  rind of an orange-peel, in-
fused in  the  beer itself, and taken
out as soon as it has imparted a
sufficient degree of bitterness, will
both be  found grateful, and assist
in keeping the beer from turning
sour.  A very little gentian-root,
boiled  in the water, either with a
little orange-peel, or without, gives
also a  very cheap, wholesome, and
pleasant  bitter to this beer."
   The philanthropic editor of the
" Reports of the Society for better-
ing  the  Condition,  and increasing
ihe Comforts of the Poor," T.  Ber-
nard, Esq.  very justly  observes,
(in a note, vol. i. p. 19 4.) " that
it would  be a very desirable thing,
that the poor  should be  able to
supply  themselves with  beer of
their own brewing, without being
obliged always to recur to the ale-
house.  I  am aware of the disad-
vantage  of brewing in small quan-
tities ; but that might be compen-
sated for by  great advantages, and
by the  superior flavour of  beer
brewed and drank at home.....The
following recipe is according to the
proportions used in the  House of
Industry, at Shrewsbury : To half
a bushel of malt, add four pounds
of treacle, and three quarters of a
pound  of hops;  this will  make
twenty-five gallons of beer;  the
cost of which (supposing the va-
lue of the grain to be only equal
to the  expense of fuel,) would be
two-pence a gallon, where the ma-
terials  were  purchased to the  best
advantage ;  and,  when  bought  at
the retail shpp, about three-pence.
I have tried the receipt, and found
the beer very good:  it  was fit for
use  in a fortnight; but it  is not
calculated for keeping, particularly
in warm weather."
   Wre have been induced to com-
municate these different methods
of preparing a pure and wholesome
beverage, in  order to  contribute
our mite, however small, towards
alleviating the burthens of domes-
tic life, at the present »critical pe-
riod.  And though we should not
succeed  in persuading many  per-
sons, in the middle  ranks  of so-
ciety, to  adopt our suggestions, we
still may flatter ourselves with the
chearing hope, that they will hu-
manely  exert their  influence on
such families as  may be benefited
by  brewing their  own liquors  at
home :  instead  of carrying, per-
haps, one-half of their weekly earn-
ings to  the next  ale-house, and
debarring their  helpless children
from that necessary assistance, for
want  of which,  they   are often
doomed to become additional bur-
thens on the parish.
   Having pointed out the peculiar
qualities of good beer, as well as
the most easy  and  advantageous
methods of using a  substitute  for
 malt,  we shall next consider the
 most  effectual  way of clarifying
 this grateful beverage; and of pre-
 venting it  from turning sour, or
 restoring it to its former briskness,
 when it has, by  mismanagement,
 acquired a tart or insipid taste. 
BEE
BEE        255
   Various shemes have been pro-
posed, and many  also  adopted in
breweries, for fining or clarifying
different beers.  But, as the  supe-
rior brilliancy and transparency of
that liquor, depend in a great mea-
sure on the quality of the malt and
water....which properly belongs to
the article " Brewing"....we shall
here speak of that process only so
far as it relates to the management
of beer after it is  fermented.
   In Britain, malt liquors are ge-
nerally  fined with  ground-ivy,  the
Glrcoma hcderaca,  L. which  plant
however, will not  produce the de-
sired effect,  if the beer has been
brewed  of bad malt, or otherwise
mismanaged during the different
processes of boiling and fermenting
the wort.  In such cases, and espe-
cially if it has been too long boiled,
the  liquor  may  indeed  become
clear, by throwing into it an addi-
tional quantity of ground-ivy ; but
it will retain an opacity, or turbid
appearance,  because  this  useful
plant, being  at first lighter than
the liquid, and swimming on  the
top, gradually becomes heavier;
and though it combines with the
impurities of the liquor,  and  at
length sinks  to the bottom of the
vessel, yel it is incapable  of cor-
recting and decomposing those mu-
cilaginous  and empyreumatic par-
ticles, which  partly  arise from in-
ferior malt, and  are  partly extri-
cated by the action  of too great
and  long-continued  heat.  Hence
we shall propose the following sim-
ple remedy, which was  communi-
cated to us by a continental friend :
After the beer is properly ferment-
ed, and  a  few days  old, take one
gallon out of every barrel, and add
two ounces of hartshorn-shavings
(or filings, which are  still better) to
•very gallon.  Place the liquor over
 a moderate  fire, till it boils, and
 rises to the top ; let the decoction
 stand  for an  hour or two; and,
 when  milk-warm,  pour the clear
 part of it  into the barrels, accord-
 ing to the proportion before speci-
 fied.  In  this stateXthe casks must
 be left undisturbed for twenty-four
 hours, and then  the beer  should
 eilher be bottled, or drawn^>fl'into
 other vessels. This easy and cheap
 process, not only has the effect of
 completely clarifying the beer, but
 likewise preventing it  from turn-
 ing sour, especially if it be laid up
 in bottles properly corked, and se-
 cured with a cement consisting of
 nearly equal parts of melted bees-
 wax, resin, and turpentine.
    [Beer, should never be  forced
 more than a week before it is tap-
 ped, else  it  becomes stale.   Dis-
 solve  |  an  oz. of isinglass  (fish
 glue)  in  as  much small beer  as
 will make it of the consistence of
 thin size, put 1-t pints of this in a
 barrel and stir it about.
   To  give new beer the  hard  fla-
 vour of old beer, add a small quan-
 tity of oil of vitriol.
   To  ropy beer, add  a little salt
 and roll  the  cask well.]
  There is considerable damage to
 be apprehended from the effects of
 a thunder-storm, by which  ale or
 beer is apt to  become tur'.ud and'
 flat,not only  at the time when un-
 dergoing the critical process of fer-
 mentation in the tub, but likewise
 after it has been  barrelled.
   In the former  case  we are not
 acquainted with a  better method
 than that  of. placing (on the ap-
 proach of a  tempest) several ves-
 sels .filled  with  lime-water,  cr
 where this cannot be immediately
procured,  only simple water con-
tiguous to the fermenting vat; and,
if it be convenient, botn  fluids in 
 256        BEE

 their several vessels should be on a
 level, or the beer might be some-
 what lower than the water ; which
 attracts and absorbs the then pre-
 vailing acidity of the atmosphere.
   In the latter case, the injurious
 influence of thunder may be effec-
 tually prevented, by laying a solid
 piece of iron on each  cask : this
 easy expedient we find recorded in
 the  Gentleman's Magazine, for Ja-
 nuary 1753 ; and the anonymous
 writer adds, that the fact is  ac-
 counted for in one of the volumes
 of the " Athenian  Oracles."
   In summer, especially  in what
 is called the bean-season, when  all
 malt liquors are liable to  become
 flat, the following remedy  is often
 successfully employed as a preven-
 tive : Take a new laid egg, perfo-
 rate it with small holes, put it in a
 clean linen bag, together with some
 laurel-berries,  and a little  barley ;
 then suspend it in the vessel con-
 taining the beer......instead of the
 berries and barley, a few leaves of
 the walnut-tree may be substituted.
 Others put salt made of the  ashes
 of barley-straw, into the vessel, and
 stir it till  it be incorporated ; or, if
 the beer is not very  sour, a  small
 quantity of such ashes, or calcined
 chalk, oyster-3hells, egg-shells, &c.
 maybe suspended in a similar man-
 ner, in order to absorb the acidity
 of the liquor, and recover  its for-
 mer sweetness.
   Sour Beer,  however, cannot be
 easily restored in the  mannerabove
 stated, without undergoing  a new
 process of fermentation, or impreg-
 nating  it,  for  that purpose, with
 fixed  air. But  as the latter is  an
 expensive and troublesome method,
 we shall communicate another  of
more easy  application.  Glauber
recommended  his   sal   mirabile
(common Glauber's salt,) and salt-
              BEE

 petre, to be put into a linen bag,
 and suspended from the  top of the
 cask, so as to reach  the  surface  of
 the liquor:  thus the beer will not
 only be preserved  and strengthen-
 ed, but  it may also, when flat,  or
 sour, be restored to its former brisk-
 ness.  The experiment  may  be
 easily made ; but we cannot vouch
 for its  result.
   Another, and  a  better remedy,
 for recovering tart, or insipid  beer,
 is the following : add to every pint
 of such beer, from twenty to thirty
 drops of what is commonly called
 oil of tartar (salt of tartar, or pure
 pot-ash, reduced to a liquid state,
 by exposing it to the influence of
 the air in a cellar,  or other clamp
 situations ;) then mix it in the ves-
 sel, and the acidity will be quickly
 neutralized....Those who live at a
 distance  from  apothecaries' shops
 or wish to prepare  this liquid tar-
 tar, for occasional use  on journeys
 especially in summer, may easily
 make it, by dissolving two  ounces
 of fine pearl-ashes in eight ounces,
 or half a pint, of pure water, fre-
 quently  shaking the bottle,  then
 suffering it to  stand for twenty-
 four hours, and afterwards filtering
 the solution through a fine cloth.
Tn this state it may be preserved
 for  one year ; but beer thus re-
 stored ought to be drank soon after
 it has recovered its briskness, or at
 least on the same  day :  and this
 small addition of vegetable alkali is,
 in warm seasons rather conducive,
 than  detrimental to health.
   When beer has acquired a pecu-
 liar taste  of the cask, either from*
 an unclean  state of the vessel, or,
 by long keeping, from the astrin-
 gency of the oak, it is advisable to
 suspend in  it a  handful of wheat
 tied up in a bag ; which generally
 removes the disagreeable taste. 
BEE
BEE        257
    With  respect to the  physical
 properties of malt-liquors, we shall
 observe, that they are possessed of
 various degrees of salubrity,  ac-
 cording to the  proportion and na-
 ture of their ingredients, namely,
 water, malt, and hops,  of which
 they are composed;  and likewise,
 according to the manner in which
 they have been brewed.  If,  for
 instance, a large proportion of wa-
 ter has been used, the beer will  be
 more proper for quenching thirst,
 than if it  were strongly  impreg-
 nated with  the mealy and spiritu-
 ous particles of the malt.  Hence,
 strong and sweet beer is the most
 nourishing and beneficial to thin
 and emaciated persons;  stale and
 bitter ale, the most  intoxicating;
 and weak, half fermented porter,
 the most flatulent,  and least ser-
 viceable  to  nervous, debilitated,
 hysteric, or asthmatic constitutions.
 I-it, as there  is no peculiar test,
 by which  we  can ascertain with
 critical accuracy, when the vinous
 fermentation is completed, and the
 acetous has commenced, every kind
 of beer must be barrelled, or bot-
 tled, before  it is perfectly  fer-
 mented, so that the completion  of
 this natural process is effected  in
 the stomach and bowels.   Strange
 as this proposition may appear  to
 some persons,  it is  so true  that
 the infinite diversity of flavour and
 briskness obtained from the same
 mixture, when drawn off into dif-
 ferent vessels,  or bottles, cannot
 fail to strike the most superficial
 observer.
   Beer always  contains a portion
 of fixed air, which  being disen-
 gaged within the human body, is
apt  to  occasion  flatulency  and
looseness.  To the mariner, how-
ever,  and  those who  are subject
     VOL. I.
  to  scorbutic complaints, it  is,  in
  general,  a wholesome  beverage,
  though we cannot refrain from ani-
  madverting upon the prevailing,
  erroneous notion, that ale or por-
  ter promote digestion : this  is re-
  futed by the uniform evidence of
  experience, whence  it clearly ap-
  pears that, of all liquids whatever,
 pure  water is the most  beneficial
  solvent of f.nimal and vegetable sub-
  stances.   Such individuals, there-
  fore,  as  make  use of nourishing,
  and  principally animal  food, re-
  quire no  beer for its  digestion;  as
  the habitual drinking of malt  li-
  quors will  expose them to all the
  inconveniencies of plethora,  or  a
  full and gross habit.  Others,  how-
  ever, who live  chiefly on vegeta-
  ble  diet, and whose stomach  is
  weak or  impaired, may be greatly
  invigorated  by  a moderate use of
 strong and bitter malt-!X;uors....a
 purpose which  the common  table
 beer cannot answer.   Persons of
 dry and  rigid  fibres, and whose
 bile  is  duly secreted, ought to
 drink such beer as is sufficiently
 strong and nourishing, without be-
 ing of an intoxicating nature : for
 this purpose, we would  give the
 preference  to  Bell's  Beer,  over
 Burton, and other ales....A thin,
 weak, and well-fermented beer, is
 diluent and  wholesome ;  whence
 it agrees  well with the plethoric,
 and persons disposed tocorpulency.
 On the contrary, thick and nou-
 rishing malt-liquors are most ser-
 viceable   to  the debilitated,  and
 especially  to wet-nurses; conse-
 quently sweet beers are chiefly nu-
 tritive, and more proper for daily
 use,' on  account  of  their  being
 least exposed to  dangerous adulte-
 rations ;   while  the  bitter  kinds
possess medicinal properties,  and
    L L 
253        BEE

should be drank in a weak state of
digestion, by individuals subject to
acidity in the stomach.
   Lastly,  every  kind of beer  is
improper for the hysteric, the hy-
pochondriac, and all those who are
already of a full habit, or manifest
a thick,  atra-bilious blood;  but  it
is of peculiar service to the labo-
rious, the lean, emaciated, and all
such constitutions as are not liable
to flatulency, or any organic dis-
eases of the breast.
   BFESTINGS, or Breastings, in
domestic economy, a term used
for the  first milk  drawn  from a
cow after calving.
   This liquor is of a thick consist-
ence, and yellowish colour; whence
some persons have imagined, that
it is impregnated with sulphur. As
Nature has peculiarly designed the
beestings for the purpose of cleans-
ing the  young animal from those
viscid impurities which, in  the hu-
man  subject,  are denominated the
meconium; it appears rational, that
the calf  should partake of this be-
nefit. Nor is this strong and viscid
liquor calculated to afford a  whole-
some food; though farmers, in ge-
neral, give it to the  indigent cot-
tager.   And, as  it  is frequently
eaten by children, who are scarcely
able  to digest it, we are of opinion,
that  it might be better  employed
in feeding young calves, or by con-
verting  it into cheese.
   BEET, or Beta, L. a plant  of
which there are four species, viz.
   1. The  maricima,  or sea-beet,
which grows spontaneously by the
sea side; and in salt marshes  in
many parts of England.
   2. The  hortenis, or common
white beet, is cultivated in gardens
for its leaves, which are frequently
used in  soups.   The  root  of this
            BEE

species  seldom  attains a  greater
size than  that of a man's thumb;
the varieties are  the  white  beet,
the green beet,  and the Swiss, or
chard beet: these  vary from one
to the other, but have never been
known  to  change  to  the  first or
third  sort.
   3. The vulgaris, or red beet, the
roots  of which are large, and of a
deep  red  colour.   It is worthy  of
remark, that the larger these roots
grow, they are  more tender; and
the deeper their colour, the more
they are esteemed.  The varieties
of this species are the common red
beet,  the turnip-rooted  beet, and
tHe green-leaved red beet.
   4.  The  cicla, which grows wild
on the banks of the Tagus, in Por-
tugal-; it is originally a small, white
root,  but there is  a variety  of  it,
called by the Germans Runkelrube,
or the Beta albissima of Botanists,
the culture of which cannot be too
strongly recommended. The stalk
of the latter grows to the height of
seven or  eight feet; and the root
weighs from eighttotwelve pounds.
This variety of the root of scarcity
is the  true Mangel-wurzel, which
some years since excited much at-
tention in Britain; though there is
reason  to suppose that other species
of the  beet  have been  frequently
mistaken  for the Beta  albissima;
the root of which is white, juicy,
and streaked with red fibres: it is
sown like cabbage, and to prevent
injury  to the fibres of the root, the
youngplantsmustnotbe pulled, but
dug up with a spade; they should
then be transplanted on the  same
day (either in rainy weather or after
 sun-set), on a  rich well-ploughed
 and manured  soil, in  rows, from
 sixteen to eighteen inches asunder.
 [Sow very thin, and cover the seed 
BEE
BEE       259
an inch only; it will continue in
the ground a month.    In  trans-
planting,  the roots are not  to be
shortened, but the leaves cut at the
top;  then set  the plant with  a
dibber,  so that the upper part of
the root shall appear half an inch
out  of  the ground.   The  roots,
however,  will not arrive at perfec-
tion,  unless the  plants  be  twice
hoed, at least, and stripped  of the
supeiffuous leaves every fortnight,
or three weeks.
  From the first and third species
before-mentioned, some German
chemists  have  extracted  sugar;
but the difficulty and expense at-
tending the process are so consi-
derable,  that  this  vegetable  will
never be  worthy of the particular
attention  of the gardener for this
purpose ;  though it will always de-
serve to be cultivated as food for
man and  cattle.
  [Dr.  Achard has published at
Berlin the result of a second trial,
made on a large scale,  to extract
6tigar from that vegetable,  under
the direction of a commission ap-
pointed  for that purpose by his
Prussian  majesty.  By these re-
sults, it appears that 1500 quintals
of beet-root gave 5952  pounds of
raw su;>;ar, 450 quintals of refuse,
and  100 ounces of syrup.  Thirty
quintals of beet-root, cultivated ac-
cording to the process of Achard,
gave each six pounds three ounces
of raw sugar.  The refuse may be
employed  as  coffee,  or to  distil
spirit, and is more profitable for
feedingcattlethanbeetsthemselves.
The raw sugar may be refined for
every purpose whatever.  Accord-
ing to a  calculation made by  the
commission charged to  examine
this discovery, it will produce to
Prussia an annual saving, or rather
 an advantage, of two millions and a
 half of rix-dollars.  Brandy and ar-
 rack are made at Berlin of the beet-
 root.  Both are highly praised.
   Mr. Bartley, Secretary to the
 Bath Agr. Soc.  England, informs
 the Editor,  that the white beet,
 or mangel-wurzel,  is  very easily
 cultivated  in  a  deep mellow  soil.
 He made some  trials of this root,
 from which it resulted that 161b. of
 the root will produce about lib. of
 concrete sugar,  and that the maxi-
 mum  crop of an acre of ground
 might produce,  at least, two  tons
 weight of sugar, or forty tons of the
 root, in  drills three feet  asunder,
 with  plants eighteen  inches  dis-
 tance  in the  rows.  He  obtained
 roots weighing  upwards of 16lb.
 each.  It would  be worth an expe-
 riment to ascertain, in the United
 States, the value of an  acre of this
 root as a winter  food for cattle, and
 to compare it with  other food, as
 turnips,  brewer's  grains,  shorts,
 linseed-jelly,  hay, and cut  straw,
 &c. &c]
   The common white, as well as
 the red beet, should be sown sepa-
 iv.'e!y in the  [middle  or end] of
 March,upon an open spot of ground.
 It requires a rich soil (such as is fit
 for wheat), and  a  low  situation,
 which may be watered occasional-
 ly.  The ground should  be tho-
 roughly cleared  of weeds, and ma-
 nured  at least a year before it is
 sow n.  As the manuring is a mat-
ter of great importance,  it should
be  repeated   before  the soil is
 ploughed, which ought to be per-
 formed three times.   Immediate-
 ly after the third ploughing,  the
 ground should be carefully harrow-
ed. A rake, with teeth from nine
 to twelve inches distant, should bo
drawn across it, so as to mark lines, 
260
BEE
BEE
which must be crossed  by others
transversely.*  If the seed be fresh
and sound, one  is  sufficient, but
if doubtful, two may be  dibbled
about  the  depth  of  an inch,  at
each  of the points where  these
lines cross.
   [The beds of beets must be f of
a yard wide, and the plants six  or
eight inches a-part.   When they
come up about  a finger's length,
and if the ground be moist, divide
and  transplant  them  into  other
beds.]
  An important discovery has late-
ly been  announced  by Professor
Scherer,  of  Vienna, and which
promises to be of great service in
domestic economy, especially when
barley is scarce.  He found from
experiments, that beet-roots afford
an excellent substitute for malt, if
they be deprived  of  the greater
part of their juice by pressure, then
dried,  and  treated  in  the same
manner  as  grain  intended to  be
used for that purpose.   The beer
thus brewed was found to be per-
fectly  wholesome  and palatable ;
being little inferior to that prepared
from malt.  Bcrides, the juice ob-
tained from those  excellent roots,
may be advantageously converted
into sugar.
   When the plants have acquired
six or eight leaves each,thc ground
should be thoroughly weeded; care
being taken not to  deprive them of
the surrounding soil. If more than
one plc.nl appear on the same spot,
the  supei fiuous ones must be re-
moved;  and wherever a seed  has
been unproductive, another should
be sown.  When  the ground  is
quite  cleared  from  weeds,  the
plants grow rapidly, and all farther
care is  unnecessary.
   The  harvest generally  com-
mences about the end of [August].
The root should be dug up with
great care,  and  the leaves and
stalks cut off, to prevent  it from
growing; but  in  performing this
operation, though it is  necessary
to cut them  close, great care must
be  taken  that  the  root itself be
not injured.
   In the year 1755, M.  Lulin Dn
Chatealvieuz, being  of opinion
that a great part of the expence of
dung and labour might be saved,
if pot-herbs  could be cultivated  in
the same manner as wheat accord-
ing to the new husbandry; he sow-
ed a bed forty  feet long and six
wide, with beet, and two others with
carrots.  Where the plants grew
too thick, they were thinned, so as
to leave  a distance of fourteen or
fifteen  inches  between  the  beets,
and seven  or eight between  the
carrots :  neither of them were wa-
tered.   On  digging up the beet-
roots,  in October,  they were all
nearly  five or six inches in  diame-
ter. He ascribes their luxuriant
growth to the  method of  culture
without manure.
   According to Mr. RocquE, the
white beet is a most excellent fod-
der for cows; the best way of feed-
ing them,  is to mow  the plant,
and give it to  them fresh  during
the summer.
   The red beet is possessed of mild
aperient qualities, and  affords but
a weak  nutriment to  the  human
body.   Hence  it should be eaten
for supper,  by persons of a costive
habit:  but, though  it be easily
digested, its use is sometimes at-
tended with flatulency ; for which
reason,  it  wculd be  more whole-
some  and nourishing,  to  eat the
beet with other more mealy roots,
such as potatoes; or with those of
an aromatic nature, for instance,
parsley,  celery,  S;e. 
            BEE

  BEETLE,  or  Scaraba;>s, L.  a
well-known insect, of which there
are eighty-seven  species,  of one
common formation,  having cases
to their wings, which are the more
necessary, as they mostly live be-
neath the surface  of the earth. Be-
sides their diversity  of shape and
colour, the difference in the size
of the various species is also con-
siderable, some not being larger
than the head of a pin, while others,
as the elephant beetle, are as big
as a closed hand.
  The May-bug, or cock-chaffer,
is the species most deserving of our
notice, on account of the formida-
ble ravages it commits on the ter-
ritory of the husbandman. In some
seasons, it has been found to swarm
in such numbers,as to devour every
vegetable production ; our princi-
pal  object,  therefore,  will  be to
point out the  best means for its
destruction.   It is necessary to ob-
serve, that the insect is first gene-
rated in  the earth, from the eggs
deposited by  the fly, in its perfect
state.  About three  months after-
wards, the  insects  contained  in
those eggs break the   shell, and
crawl forth in the form of a small
grub or maggot, which feeds upon
the roots of vegetables;  and con-
tinues in this concealed  and des-
tructive state for more than three
years, gradually  growing  to the
size of a walnut.   It is the thick
white maggot wilh a red head, so
frequently found on turning up the
earth.  At  the end of the  fourth
year,  these  extraordinary insects
emerge from their subterraneous
abode ; when,  in  the mild  even-
ings of May, an attentive observer
may perceive them rising from the
earth  in numbers  before him.
  The willow  seems to be their
favourite food; on this  tree thev
            BEE         261

hang in  clusters, and seldom quit
it till they have completely devour-
ed its foliage.  Rooks are particu-
larly fond of them, when in their
state of grubs ; and hence the pre-
judice of farmers  against  these
birds is  ill-founded.   In Ireland,
the damage  done by the beetle was
at one time so great, in a particular
district, that the inhabitants  came
to tie resolution of setting  fire to
a wood of some extent, in order to
prevent their propagation.
   As these  insects cannot support
the  heat of  the mid-day sun, and
therefore conceal  themselves till
evening  under the leaves  of  trees,
the  most effectual way of destroy-
ing  them is to beat them off v. ith
long poles,  and then to collect and
burn them  : or, according to Dr.
T. Molyneux, they  are very be-
neficial  for  fattening poultry.......
Smoke  is extremely  offensive  to
them, consequently, the  burning
of heath, fern, or other weeds,
will  prevent  their incursions in
gardens, or expel  them  if they
have entered.  The leaves of the
young turnip are  supposed  to be
devoured by this  fly, which Dr.
Darwin  conceives may  be des-
troyed by rolling.
  That  very  troublesome insect,
the common black battle,  may be
extirpated by placing  a hedge-hog
in the kitchen during the  summer
nights.
  A German writer recommends
to place a bundle of pea-straw near
their holes,  as they  are fond of
creeping into it, and after a  short
time, it should be suddenly  taken
away, and burnt.
  Another simple method, which
is so well known, that it  scarcely
deserves to  be  mentioned, is, to
place a vessel with any liquid, with
pieces of board in an oblique di- 
262        BEL

recticu, to facilitate their ascent to
the edtre of the vessel, over which
thev w 1  fall into the li-jiiid.
   Felladon? a.  See Deadly Night-
shade.
   BELLES LETTRES, or polite
literature,  a  very comprehensive
expression, though not easily  de-
fined.  Our industrious predeces-
sors, the editors of the " Ercyelo-
f.xdia Biitam.'::a." justly complain
that they cannot find either a clear
definition,or a succinct explanation,
of the words Telle.s Lettres, nor any
summary of those sciences which
are comprehended  under this  ge-
neral and collective dcnominaticn.
With  diffidence we venture to as-
sert, that- to us, it does not appear
a vague  term ; and though neither
the voluminous French nor English
Dictionaries contain an analysis' of
this expression,  cur difficulties, in
this respect, are  by no means in-
surmountable.
   When we consider the influence
or effect of polite literature on the
moral and intellectm 1 character of
man, it  may be defined to be that
extensive ramification of the sub-
jective sciences, which are  peculi-
arly calculated to im prove * he heart,
and enlarge the mind, in contradis-
tinction to those objective, or physi-
cal sciences, which principally tend
to increase the knowledge of the
senses, while they explain the na-
ture  of  external objects, and are
therefore denominated Natural and
Experimental Philosophy, including
Natural History in all its branches.
 Of the Ltter, we shall treat in their
 proper  places;  and  confine  our
 analysis, at present,  to the  Belles
 Lettrc -. These useful and  elegant
 acquirements distinguish the ac-
 complished scholar from the illite-
 rate  mechanic,  who studies  and
 ap^.ies  the effects of motion, Aviv.,
            BEL

variety, and action, while the former
endeavours  to  account  for  their
causes.  It would be inconsistent
with our plan, to accompany every
department of polite literature with
a separate definition, which would
extend this article beyond its pro-
per limits.  Iknce we shall content
ourselves, with exhibiting merely
an outline of the branches of this
extensive tree of learning.
   1. The Arts of Speech, compre-
hending Oratory and Poetry; which
hist is again divided into epic, dra-
matic, lyric, S;c.
   2. Ornamental Gardening.
   3. Elegant Architecture.
   4. Music, vocal and instrumental.
   5. The Gymnastic Arts, such as
Dancing;, Fencing, Riding, &c.
   6.  The Art of Drawing, which
includes Painting, Engraving, Carv-
ing on Wood, Basso Relievo, and
Mosaic Work.
   7. The Art of Printing, the most
simple, but the  most extensively
useful.
   We  cannot,  on this  occasion,
differ in opinion from the Monthly
Reviewer, who,  in the 79th volume
of that work, when analysing the
Transactions of the Royal Sociely
of Edinburgh, makes the following
judicious remarks : The French,
beside many other similar institu-
tions, have long had their Academy
of Sciences, and also that of Belles
Lettres.
   BELL-FLOWER, or, Campa-
nula, L. a genus of plants compre-
hending 80 species. The following
are the principal :
   1. The rotundfolia, or Round-
leaved Bell-flower,  produces blue
 or white flowers, in  August and
 September. See Withering, 241;
 and Curtis, Lond.fasc. 4. t. 2 I.....
 Cattle and Sheep browse  upon
 these  flowers  with  avidity;  and 
BEL                          BEL
they are likewise useful in dyeing.
The milky juice of the white flow-
ers is said  to impart  a beautiful
green  colour, by the addition of
alum.  The juice of the blue flow-
ers alone has been used for paint-
ing and writing; and Damziour-
ney asserts, that with these flow-
ers he  dyed wool and cloth of a
fine vig'gne colour, having previ-
ously immersed them in a proper-
ly diluted solution of bismuth.
   2. The rapunculus, or Rampion
Bell-flower, with straight  stalks,
two feet high,  undulated leaves,
lance-shaped, and nearly oval; its
small blue or white flowers, which
appear on the  upper part of the
 stem, blow in July and August....
 See Withering, 242; and Engl.
 Bot. t. 283...Formerly the rampion
was cultivated in gardens, for its
roots, which were used in salads ;
and though  much neglected, it is
often met with  in a wild state, on
fallows, and beside causeways.
   3. The  latifJia, or Giant Bell-
flower, with  oval,   lance-shaped
leaves, a very simple  cylindrical
stem, solitary flowers (in August),
and pendant seed:  it  grows in
thickets and under hedges.   See
 With. 243, and  Engl. tot. t.  302.
The roots  of this species are  like-
 wise an useful  addition to salads.
   4. The rapunculoides, or Creep-
ing Bell-flower, with  heart  and
 lance-shaped  leaves,  a  branchy
 stalk, pendant flowers, and reflect-
 ed flower-cups.
   The roots of this  species are
 likewise esculent,  and cattle are
 fond of its leaves.
   5. The ghm'-rata, or Clustered-
 Bell-dower,  with angular  stems,
 and sessile flowers terminating in a
 head.  It grows on high calcareous
 lands, and  blossoms hi July  and
 August.   See With. 244,  and
Engl. Bot. t. 90.  Although bees
eagerly frequent the flowers of this
species, yet it should be carefully
extirpated from meadows and fields
as  being a  pernicious  food for
cattle.
  Bellis.  See Daisy.
   BELLOWS,  an apparatus so
contrived, as alternately to inspire
and expel the air.  i his machine
is too well known to require a par-
ticular description.   It is  used in
chambers, kitchens,  forges,  and
founderies, as likewise for  organs,
and other pneumatic  instruments,
to  introduce into them a proper
volume of air.
   Anacharsis,  the  Scythian,  is
recorded as the inventor of bellows.
Their action bears an affinity to that
of  the lungs ; for what is called
blowing in the former, is an illus-
tration of respiring in the latter.
Animal life may,  on some occa-
sions, be supported by blowing into
the lungs wilh a pair of bellows ;
especially in accidents of drown-
ing or  suffocation.
   Hessian Bellows, a contrivance
for supplying a mine with fresh air,
for the respiration of the  miners.
This machine  has been improved
by  M. Papin, who has changed its
c\ lindrical into a spiral form.
   BELLY-ACH, or Colic, is a dis-
ease which may arise from various
causes, and is generally accompa-
nied with costiveness, though some-
times also with  diarrhoea, especi-
ally in children.  Adults frequently
become liable  to attacks  of this
malady, in consequence of excess
in eating, or after partaking of in-
congruous  mixtures,   or  dishes,
which may occasion a distention of
the bowels.
  The symptoms of this complaint,
in infants, are, sudden cries, con-
traction of the thighs towards  the 
264        BEN
BEN
 belly, striking with the feet, distor-
 tions of the face, not unlike those
 in laughing, hastily seizing and re-
 linquishing the maternal breasts,
 acid eruptions, &c......If the child
 be costive, it will be necessary to
 lelieve the bowels with very small
 doses of manna and rhubarb, given
 in chamomile-tea, every half hour,
 [or a small portion of castor-oil]
 till they produce the desired effect:
 sometimes a small quantity of the
 powder of gum arabic is an useful
 addition.   When  green  feces are
 discharged, a few drachms of mag-
 nesia with one or two of rhubarb,
 according to the age of the infant,
 may be given with advantage ; but
 the greatest benefit will, on such
 occasions, be derived from a proper
 application of clysters, composed
 either of a decoction of chamomile,
 with a spoonful or two of sweet oil,
 and a few grains of salt; or milk,
 oil and sugar, or merely  a solution
 of white  soap and water ;  which
 last is the cheapest, and most effi-
 cacious.  Cataplasms,  or the com-
 mon poultice, made of bread, milk,
 and oil, may likewise be applied to
 the lower part of the belly, and re-
 peated as often as they grow cold;
 adding  every time the necessary
 portion of new milk, to give them
 a proper consistence...See Colic
   Belts acroamatic.  See Quacke-
 ry.
   Benefit of Clergy...See  Clergy.
   BENE-SEED, the production of
 an  American plant.
   [This plant (pronounced Binne")
 is  the Sesamum, L. and  was pro-
 bably introduced into the Southern
 States, by the negroes from Africa.
 It  abounds in many parts of Africa,
and Somni and Brown, both late
 travellers   into Egypt, say,  it is
much cultivated there, for the pur-
 pose of feeding horses, and for cu-
 linary purposes.  The negroes in
 Georgia, boil a handful of the seeds
 with their allowance of Indian corn.
 Probably, no plant yields so large a
 proportion of oil.]
   According to a letter of Mr. J.
 Morel, inserted  in the first vol-
 ume of the u Transactions of the
 American  Philosophical  Society;"
 this seed yields an oil of an  equal
 and  even  preferable quality,  to
 Florence oil : one hundred weight
 of seed will produce ninety pounds
 of  oil;  its  cultivation,  therefore,
 deserves to  be  strongly  recom-
 mended.
   BENT GRASS, or Agrostis, a
 genus of grasses comprehending
 41  species.
   l.The Spicavcnti, or Silky Bent-
 grass : it grows to the height  of
 three  or four feet,  on dry sandy
 fields.   See  With.  126.....When
 young, it affords a tolerable fodder
 for cattle ; hut should hot be given
 to them  in its mature .stale, as its
 sharp  leaves are apt to injure their
 gums.   With a decoction of the
 brown flowers and  stalks  of this
 species,  linen may  be dyed of a
 pleasing yellow colour, merely by-
 repeated dippings,  without  any
 farther  addition,  except  a  little
 alum,  which  gives it a greenish
 shade. The stalks are used by the
 Russians and Tartars, for manu-
 facturing beautiful basket-work.
   2.  The stolonifera, Creeping
 Bent-grass, or Blue Squitch-grass,
 grows in moist fields and meadows;
 see With. 13 I.
  It deserves to be cultivated, as it
 produces a wholesome and nourish-
 ing fodder  for cattle ; and, at the
 same time, suppresses the  growth
of mosses,  and other weeds, by its
quick and luxuriant vegetation.
  BENZOINE, a concrete resin-
ous  juice,  obtained according to 
BEN
BEN        265
 Mr. Dryander, from the Styrax
 benzoe,  L.  a  tree  which  grows
 chiefly in the island of Sumatra....
 It is imported from the E. Indies,
 in large masses composed of white
 and light brown pieces, or yellow-
 ish drops, which easily break be-
 tween the fingers.  This resin is
 extremely fragrant,especially when
 heated ; and, in a cold state, it has
 a sweetish taste.
   When  exposed,  in  proper ves-
 sels, to the action of fire, benzoine
 yields a considerable proportion of
 a white saline concrete, called:
   Flowers of Benzoine or Benzoic
 acid: this chemical production is
 obtained in a cheap and easy way,
 invented  by Mr. Scheele ;  his
 process is as follows :  Take one
 dram of  the salt of benzoine, and
 dissolve  it  gradually  in 3 ounces
 of boiling water  ; then strain the
 liquor,  while  hot,  into  a  glass
 vessel which has previously been
 heated; let it stand till the crystals
 are formed, and  afterwards care-
 fully  decant  the solution, and se-
 parate all the  salt, by  repeated
 gentle evaporations and crystalli-
 zations.   As, on  account  of their
 extreme lightness, flowers of ben-
 zoine cannot be easily  reduced  to
 powder, it is  advisable  to preserve
them in the form  of a fine  precipi-
 tate.  When properly made, they
 have an agreeable -taste and  a fra-
 grant smell.  Spirit  of wine dis-
 solves them completely, as well  as
 water by the assistance of heat....
 In order  to keep  them suspended
 in  the latter medium, sugar must
 be added, and, in that state, they
may be easily formed into a bal-
 samic syrup.  In diseases of the
breast, from twenty to thirty grains
were formerly administered, and
held in great estimati'.i as a pec-
     VOL. I.
 toral and sudorific medicine ; but
 they are  at  present  seldom em-
 ployed, except as an ingredient in
 the well-known paragoric  elixir,
 and, likewise, in the camphorated
 tincture of opium.
   As a perfume and cosmetic, the
 solution of flowers of benzoine still
 maintain  their  reputation at the
 toilette  ; though, we believe, that
 their efficacy is not superior to the
 crystals of lemon juice, or even the
 salt obtained from  the" ashes of
 bean-straw, and  that  their agree-
 able odour is the only superiority
 which they possess.
   Animal  Benzoine,  or the Salt of
 similar properties to that obtained
 from the  Styrax benzoe, L.  has
 lately  been  discovered  by  the
 French chemists, in  the  urine of
 differentanimals, especially horses,
 from which  it may be precipitated
 in a white powder,  by adding only
 a small portion of  muriatic acid,
 or spirit of salt.  But this benzoic
 acid has been found in still greater
 quantities  in the urine of cows and
 horses,  in which hay and  straw
 had been  soaked,   ilence,  near
 cow-houses  and  stables,  where
 great numbers of cattle  are fed, it
 may be easily manufactured in the
 large way, by combining this va-
 luable  acid with lime, and  after-
 wards precipitating  it by the ma-
 rine acid,  which will effectually
 remove the offensive smell.
  Probably the urine of  all herba-
 ceous animals contains the benzoic
 acid in  abundance ;  as it appears
 to be  chiefly  derived  from the
 sweet-scented spring grass, or An-
 thoxanthum odoratum, L.  This fra-
 grant substance  has likewise been
 discovered in the urine of  infants,
 by  M.  Scheele :  he,  however,
observes, that he could precipitate
     Mm 
~>66        BER

it in considerable quantities,  only
during that stage of" infancy, when
there existed no  phosphoric  acid,
or similar salt in  the urine ; or, in
oilier words, while the phosphoric
ingredients wrere employed by Na-
ture iii the formation of bones.....
This remarkable phenomenon also
proves, that the benzoic acid is
actually  generated  in the animal
economy ; because the first nour-
ishment of infants,  the mother's
milk, does  not appear to contain
it.   Hence, the French chemists
have endeavoured to  explain the
cause  of the  rapid  formation of
bones  during  early  infancy; be-
cause the phosphoric  acid of the
urine of infants, and the phosphat
of lime contained in milk, both be-
ing deposited in a solid form, con-
tributed to the consolidation of the
animal frame : and these two sub-
stances have, by chemical analysis,
been found to  serve as the basis of
bones.
   BERBERRIES,  or Barberries,
the Berberis, L. a shrub better
known by the name of Piperidge
 bush.   There  are three species of
 this plant, but one only is indige-
 nous,  namely,  the  vulgaris,   or
 Common Berberry,  which grows
 spontaneously in hedges,  and is
 frequently  cultivated  in  gardens
 for its fruit, which  makes a good
 pickle,  and is used for garnishing
 dishes.   It rises to the height of
 8  or  10 feet, with many stalks,
 which have externally awhite bark,
 but yellow on the inside: the stalks
 and branches are  thorny;  the
 leaves are oval, and obtuse, with
 slightly serrated edges ; the blos-
 soms grow  at  the  wings of the
 leaves, in small bunches, like those
 of the currant-bush : these are suc-
 ceeded  by  oval fruit, which are at
 feist green, but when ripe turn to
            B ER

a tine red colour.  The flowers ap-
pear in  May and June ; and the
fruit ripens  in  September.....See
With. 350,  and Engl.  Bot. 42.
  There are  three varieties of this
shrub, viz.  the berberry, which
bears a fruit  without stones; the
berberry with white fruit; and the
eastern berberry,  or that which
produces a black  and sweet  fruit.
  The first sort is  generally propa-
gated by  suckers, but the method
of planting by layers is  preferable.
The best time for laying down the
branches, is  in  autumn ; and the
young shoots of the same year are
most proper for this purpose. When
this shrub is  cultivated  for its fruit,
it should be planted singly, and not
 in  hedges,  as  was formerly the
 practice ; the  suckers should be
 cut up every autumn, and the luxu-
 riant shoots pruned; by this means
 the fruit will be more abundant,
 and of a better quality than that
 which grows wild.  The third spe-
 cies should be planted in pots, and
 sheltered as soon  as  the  young
 shoots are taken  off, till the  plajits
 have acquired strength, when they
 may be removed to a warmer situ-
 ation.
    Berberries, on  account of their
 astringent properties,  have occa-
 sionally been prescribed in  bilious
 diarrhoeas.   The Egyptians used
 them in fluxes and malignant fe-
 vers, for abating heat, invigorating
 the body, and preventing putrefac-
 tion.   For this purpose, the fruit,
 according to Dr. Lewis, should be
 macerated  for twenty-four hours,
 in twelve times its weight of water,
 with the addition of a  little  fennel-
 seed ; the  liquor,  when strained,
 should be sweetened  with sugar,
 or syrup of  lemons, and given libe-
  rally as a drink. The flowers,when
 near, are offensive to the smell, but 
BER
BER        267
at a  distance their odour is ex-
tremely fragrant.   An infusion of
the bark in white wine, is purga-
tive.  In  distillation, the berries,
when previously bruised, have been
mixed with the grain to  increase
the quantity of spirituous liquors.
The roots, boiled in ley, impart a
yellow colour to wool; and in Po-
land,  leather is tanned of a beauti-
ful yellow with the bark of the root.
The inner bark, also, with the ad-
dition of alum, has been employ-
ed for dyeing linen of a similar
colour.
   The effect of this shrub upon
wheat lands is truly singular ; and
though well known to botanists, is
notfamiliartoevery farmer. When
growing in the hedges near corn-
fields, it changes the ears to a dark
brown colour, and prevents  them
from filling ; nay,  its influence in
this  respect has often  extended
across a field tothedistanceof three
or four hundred yards : it should,
therefore, be carefully eradicated
from lands appropriated to tillage.
It is eaten by  cows, sheep, and
goats, but rejected by swine.
   BERE» or Barley-big, or Square
Barley, is a very strong luxuriant
plant, both in grain_and straw :  it
resembles barley in growth,  and
cone-wheat in size.  It is generally
cultivated in Ireland, for  malt, in
the best and richest soil, usually
after potatoes : the  time of sowing
is between Michaelmas [28 Sept.]
and Christmas, at the rate of one
barrel,  which   is  two   hundred
weight,  to an Irish acre;  and  its
produce is  said to be, generally,
from twenty to thirty-five barrels
an acre.  Two bushels and a half
of seed to an English acre, will be
in the same proportion.  For the
information of those readers who
are not acquainted  with the differ-
 ence in the measurement of land,
 we  shall observe, that five Irish
 are  equal  to  eight English acres
 and fifteen perches, or 70,560 feet
 to an  Irish, and 43,560 feet to  an
 English acre.
   The culture of bere is recom-
 mended in this country.... 1. Be-
 cause it will succeed extremely vveil
 in any soil fit to produce a crop of
 barley, and. even on cold stiff lands,
 where barley will not thrive: 2. As
 it ripens from one to three weeks
 sooner than any other grain: 3. It
' may, if generally cultivated, be  in-
 troduced into our malt-distilleries,
 not only  instead of  barley, but,
 what is of much  greater import-
 ance, as a substitute for wheat, of
 which so much is used in these ma-
 nufactures :  and, lastly, it may,
 with great advantage,  be given to
 swine, instead  of barley-meal.....
 Moreover, it  has been asserted,
 that an acre of land will yield more
 of this grain  than of barley.
   Bere labours  under the disad-
 vantage of not  being easily clear-
 ed of its auns, or beard.  This has
 been  imputed  to  carelessness in
 cleansing, or preserving it from
 moisture  in  the  stacks ; but the
 difficulty  is more probably owing
 to the grain being cut down before
 it is thoroughly  ripe.....If sown
 earlier than usual, it is still more
 productive.
   A correspondent, in a letter to
 the editors of the " Museum Rust*-
 cum," kc.  mentions a curious cir-
 cumstance respecting the cultiva-
 tion of this grain: "Amongst some
 wheat," says  he, " that was sown.
 last year, a small quantity of bere
 happened to be mixed; allof which
 bere is now in the ear, and in the
 most  flourishing  condition I ever
 beheld: even the long-continued
 easterly wind has not in the  least 
268        BER

affected it; and we may expect it
to be ripe very soon.  I could earn-
estly desire some of your  readers
to try the experiment, and shall
endeavour to have it done  myself.
There are many of your  readers
who would be glad that this grain
had a  better character  as to its
cleanliness ; and I am  persuaded it
would come into great esteem eve-
ry where."
  BERGAMOT, a variety of the
citron, produced  by  grafting  the
latter on the stock of  a bergamot-
pcar-tree.  The fruit has an exqui-
site smell and flavour; and its es-
sence  is  highly  esteemed as  a
perfume, by  cutting  the rind into
small  pieces, and expressing the
oil into a glass vessel. A  fragrant
water  is distilled from the  peel, as
follows : Take the rind  of three
bergamot-pears, one gallon of pure
spirit, and four pints of water; draw
off a gallon in a balneum maris, or
water-bath,  and add a sufficient
quantity of  refined  white sugar;
or, take of the essence of berga-
mot, three drams and a half, spi-
rit of wine three pints, and of vola-
tile sal ammoniac one dram ; dis-
 til off* three pints in a similar man-
ner.
  BERNE-MACHINE, an engine
 for  rooting up trees, invented by
 p. So?imer, a native of Berne,  in
 Switzerland.
   This machine consists  of three
 principal  parts:  the beam, the
 ram, and the lever.   The beam is
 composed of  two planks of  oak,
 three inches thick, and separated
 by two transverse pieces  of the
 same wood, of an equal thickness.
 These plaflks are perforated with
 holes to receive  iron  pins, upon
 which the lever  acts between the
 two sides ofthe beam, and is shift-
 ed higher as the tree is raised out
            BER

of its place.  The sides are secured
at the top and bottom by strongiron
hoops. The pins should be an inch
and a quarter, and the holes through
which they pass, an inch and a half
in diameter.  When the machine
is in action, the bottom of the beam
is secured by stakes driven into the
earth.  The ram, which is made of
oak, elm,  or  some other  strong
wood, is capped with three strong
iron spikes, which take fast hold
of the tree.  This ram  is 6 to 8
inches square  ; and an incision is
made  longitudinally  through  its
middle, from the lower end to the
first ferule, in  order to allow room
for the  chain to play round the
pully, which should be four inches
thick, and nine in diameter.  The
ram is raised by meansof the chain,
which should be about 10 feet long,
with links four inches and three
quarters  in length, and one inch
thick.  One end of this chain is fas-
tened to the top of the beam, while
the  other, after  having  passed
through the lower part of the ram,
 and over the pully,  terminates in a
ring or link, the two ears of which
 serve to keep it in a true position
 between the two planks of the beam.
 The hook, which should be made
 of very tough iron, is inserted in
 this ring ; and the handle ought to
 be two inches thick where it joins
 to the hook, and  gradually lessen
 in thickness up to the arch, which
 should be about half an  inch in di-
.ameter. On each side ofthe upper
 pin is a semi-circular notch, which
 rests alternately on the pins, when
 the machine is worked.  The hole
 and arch serve to  fix a  long lever
 of wood,  by  means of two iron
 pins, and thus it is raised or low-
 ered at pleasure, in order to render
 the working of the machine easy,
 in whatever part ofthe beam it may 
BER
B E Z         269
 be placed ;  for, without  this  con-
 trivance, the extremity of the lever
 would, when the handle is near the
 top of the  beam,  be higher than
 men  standing upon  the  ground
 could reach.                  N
   This machine is worked in the
 following manner:  it is  placed
 against a tree, and the end of the
 beam supported by  stakes.  The
 iron handle  is  placed in the open-
 ing between the two planks of the
 beam,  and the wooden lever fixed
 to it,  by means of the iron pins.
 The hook takes hold of the chain,
 and one of  the iron pins is thrust
 into the outer  row of  holes, by
 which means the exterior notch will
 rest orf the  pin, which  will be the
 centre of motion;  and the end of
 the lever being pressed  downwards,
 the other notch will be  raised, at
 the same time the chain,  and con-
 sequently the   ram.  Afterwards,
 the other iron pin is to  be put into
 the  hole in the inner row, above
 that which was before the  centre of
 motion,  and  the end of the lever
 elevated  or  pushed upwards,  the
 latter pin on which the notch rests
 then  becoming the centre of mo-
 tion.   By this  alternate motion of
 the lever, and shifting the pins, the
 chain is drawn upwards over the
 pulley, and consequently the whole
 force of the engine exerted against
 the tree.  There is a small wheel
joined to the end of the ram op-
 posite the pulley, in  order to lessen
 the friction of that part of the ma-
 chine.
  From  this account, the reader
will perceive  that the  machine is a
single pulley, compounded with a
lever ofthe first and second order.
As the push  of the engine is given
in an oblique direction,  it will ex-
ert a greater or less force against
the horizontal roots  of the  tree, in
  proportion to the angle formed by
  the machine with the plane of the
  horizon ; and the angle of 45° is
  the maximum, or that when the
  machine  will  exert  -its  greatest
  force against the horizontal roots
  of the trees.
   Bethlehem.   See Star of Beth-
  lehem.
   BETONY  (Wood) or  Betonica
  officinalis, L. a low perennial plant,
  growing wild in woods  and thick-
  ets; its flowers,  which  appear in
  July and August, are of a purplish
  colour, and  stand in spikes on the
  tops of the stalks.....See  With.
  530; and Curt. Lond.fasc. 3. t. 33.
   Tanners have employed this plant
  as a substitute for oak-bark ; and,
  according to  Dambourney,  the
  leaves and branches of the betony,
  when in blossom, may be used for
  dyeing wool of a permanent dark
  brown   colour,  when  previously
 dressed in a weak solution of  bis-
 muth.
   The leaves  and flowers have a
 bitterish  taste, accompanied with
 a weak aromatic flavour.  They are
 mild corroborants, and,  when in-
 fused, or gently boiled, the decoc-
 tion may be drank as tea : a strong
 tincture made in  rectified spirit,
 has  proved beneficial in laxity and
 debility, when  taken in  small, re-
 peated doses.
   It is remarkable, that the roots
 of this plant  greatly differ in qua-
 lity from  the other parts : the for-
 mer are bitter, nauseous, and, like
 the  roots  of hellebore, occasion
 violent diarrhoea, when taken in a
 small dose.  It is farther affirmed,
 that  betony affects those who ga-
 ther  any quantity of its "leaves and
 flowers, with a disorder resembling
 the effects of intoxication.
  BEZOAR, in natural history and
medicine, is a calculous concretion, 
270         B I E
BIG
found in the stomach of animals
of the goat kind.   It is a morbid
substance, possessing neither taste
nor smell, and  it cannot be  consi-
dered in any other light than as a
weak absorbent.  In a more com-
prehensive sense, bezoar  includes
all concrete substances formed in
the intestines of animals :  hence
pearls, and  the  concretions  called
crab's eyes, belong to  the class of
bezoars.
  Fossil  Bezoar, is a kind  of stone
formed  like the animal bezoar of
several coats round some extrane-
ous body.  It is found in Sicily, in
sand and clay-pits.
  Bidcns.   See Martgold.
  BIENNIAL PLANTSare those
of only two years duration. Several
vegetables are of this tribe : being
raised from seed, they generally at-
tain perfection  the  first year; and
in the following spring,  or sum-
mer, they  produce their flowers
and seeds, and soon afterwards de-
cay.
   Biennials  consist of esculents
and flower-plants.   The former in-
clude the cabbage, savoy,  carrot,
parsnip, beet, onion, leek, Sec. and
the  latter,  the  Canterbury bell,
French  honey-suckle,  wall-flower,
stock July-flower,  Sweet-William,
China-pink, common-pink,  carna-
tion,  scabious,  holly-hock,   tree-
mallow, vervain-mallow, tree-prim-
rose,  honesty,  or moonwort, &c.
all  of which, if sown  in March,
April, or May, rise the same year,
and in the following, shoot up into
stalks, flower, and produce perfect
seeds in autumn.  Though most
of the biennials dwindle in the third
year, a  few of them,  particularly
liolly-hocks,  wall-flowers,  carna-
tions, and  pinks, produce flowers
which,   however,   are  generally
small, and of faint colours.  Hence
it is necessary to raise an annual
supply  from  seed ;  though the
three last mentioned plants may be
propagated by slips  and layers.
  [BIGNONIA CAT ALP A.  A
native   deciduous  tree  of  the
United  States,   covered with  a
smooth  brown bark ; the flowers
are produced in large branching
pinacles, towards the  ends  of the
branches ; they are of dark  white,
with a few purple spots, and faint
stripes of yellow on  their  inside.
The flowsi s are succeeded by long
taper pods, containing seeds. The
branches dye wool a kind of cinna-
mon colour.  Thunderg mentions
that the Japenese lay the leaves on
parts of the  body affected with
pains ; and that a decoction of the
pods is esteemed serviceable in the
asthma.  Poultry are very fond of
the  seeds, and   thrive  on  them.
The timber  of  the  catalpa tree,
makes very durable fence posts.
  Bignonia crucigera, or cross vine,
is so called from the  pith dividing
the stem  longitudinally into four
equal portions, so  that when cut
through transversely, it exhibits the
appearance of a cross.   A  decoc-
tion of this plant is much used in
Carolina in  cases  of  yaws, and
other obstinate ulcers,  by way of
diet drink, combined with sassafras
root, China-brier root,  and  poly-
pody.
  Bignonia sempervirens, or Caro-
lina yellow jesamine, is a beautiful
vine, rising  with  slender  stalks,
which twist themselves round the
neighbouring plants, and mount to
a considerable height. The flowers
are trumpet-shaped, and have a very
sweet scent.   It grows luxuriantly
and naturally  in  most  parts of S.
Carolina, and is a  native of some
parts of Virginia. When in  flower,
it perfumes the  air to a considera- 
            BIL

We distance. The flowers are yel-
low, and smell like  the wall-flow-
er.]
  BILBERRY, or the  Vaccinium,
L. is a plant of which, according to
BbCHsrEiN, there  are  twenty-six
species, while  others  enumerate
only fifteen.
   1. The  Myrtillus,  or Bilberry,
which  grows  in  abundance, in
woods and heaths.  See Whiter-
ing, 370, and Eng. Bot. 456.   The
berries, when ripe,  are of a dark
blue  colour,  and,  on  account of
their astringent quality, are occa-
 sionally  given in diarrhoeas, with
 good effect.   In Scotland, they are
 eaten by the Highlandeis, in milk;
 and likewise used in tarts and jel-
 lies : they produce a violet-colour-
 ed dye, which requires to be fixed
 with  alum.   The  juice,  mixed
 with a fourth part of lime, verdi-
 grise, and sal ammoniac,  affords
 a purple pigment used by  artists.
 The  young tender  leaves of this
 plant, properly dried,  are  an ex-
 cellent substitute for tea.
   2. The uliginosum, or Great Bil-
 berry, is found on marshy heaths.
 See Withering, 370, and  Eng.
 Bot. 581.....The fruit of this spe-
 cies is not so much  esteemed as
 that of the preceding, because,  if
 eaten in  any  quantity, it is apt to
 occasion  head-ach.
   3.  The  Vitis  Idaa,  or  Red
 Whortle  Berry, which grows on
 heaths,andinwoods. See Wither-
 ing, 371, and  Eng. Bot. 59J.  Its
 fiuit is acid,  and cooling. In Swe-
 den,  it  is  eaten in the form of a
 jelly. The young leaves of this spe-
 cies might also be advantageously
 used  instead  of  tea ; from  which
 they can scarcely be distinguished.
   4. The Oxycoccus, or Cranberry,
 is common in bogs covered with
            BIL         271

mosses.  See  With.  372,  and
Engl. Bot.  319.
  Great quantities of these berries
are used in confectionary, as deli-
cious ingredients in tarts ; to which
they impart a  rich flavour.   It de-
serves to be added, that, this fruit
may be kept  in  a fresh state for
many years, merely by immersing
it in a bottle filled with spring wa-
ter, and closely  stopped.   Silver,
boiled in  a decoction of  the ber-
ries, acquires  a  whiter and more
beautiful lustre.
   All the  species  of the bilberry
are antiseptic ;   and  their   juices,
mixed with  sugar,  and properly
 fermented, may  be converted into
 grateful and wholesome domestic
 wines.
    BILE, is a yellow, or greenish,
 saponaceous liquor, secreted in the
 liver,  and  collected  in the gall-
 bladder, into which it regurgitates,
 as it were, into a blind gut, and is
 thence discharged into the  lower
 end of the duodenum, or beginning
 of the jejunum.   (See Abdomen).
 Its principal use  appears to be that
 of sheathing  or  blunting the acids
 contained  in  our  daily food, and
 thus  enabling  the  milky liquor,
 called  chyle,  after  being   mixed
 with  bile  in  the  duodenum,  to
 enter the   lacteal  veins, or  milk
 vessels, which convey  a nutritious
 supply to the whole body.  (See
 Lacteals).  Hence an increased
 quantity  of  aliment  requires  a
 greater proportion of bile,  to pro-
 mote its digestion ; and, according-
 ly, as the stomach is more or less
 distended  with  food, it presses on
 the gall-bladder to obtain a  propor-
 tionate quantity of bile, which  is
 then mixed with the chyle, as be-
 fore described.....See Chyle, and
 Liver. 
 272         BIL

   Bile is a very important fluid in
 the animal  economy,  insomuch,
 that from an excessive secretion of
 it, the inhabitants of warm  climates
 I.ecome 1'u.ble to many tedious and
 often  tXte.l  diseases.  A  supera-
 bundance of bile in the first pas-
 sage's, either flows again  into the
 stomach, and is productive of ge-
 neral   languor,  nausea,   a foul
 tongue,  loss of appetite,  and indi-
 gestion ; or, when it is determined
 to the intestines, it is generally at-
 tended with a painful diarrhoea.  In
 the  temperate climates, however, a
 vitiated and superfluous bile is more
 frequently  diffused  through  the
 whole body.    In  this  case, the
 skin assumes a yellow colour, the
 urine becomes sensibly impregnat-
 ed with  bilious matter,  the pulse
 is preternaturally quick, and the pa-
 tient complains of  heat, thirst,
 head-ach, and  other symptoms of
 fever.   His body becomes gradu-
 ally  emaciated, and  his  visage
 strongly indicates the disorder  of
 the  constitution.....Various are the
 causes of this  extensive derange-
 ment of the different bodily func-
 tions ; but we  may safely  assert,
 that most persons, particularly  in
 hot  climates,  contract  bilious di-
 arrhoeas, colics, fevers, and chronic
 diseases  of the  liver, by intemper-
 ance in eating  animal  food, drink-
 ing spirituous liquors, and by brav-
 ing the sudden  transitions of tem-
 perature, from  the intense heat of
 day  to the  piercing  chillness of
 night, and thus  checking insensible
 perspiration....one of the most ne-
 cessary  excretions of the human
 body. For the cure of such maladies
 as may arise from numerous and
 diversified causes, no general plan
 can  be safoly  prescribed.   But  it
deserves  to  be  remarked, that the
 greatest  benefit may  be  derived
              BIL

 from adopting a proper diet and re-
 gimen, both with a view to prevent
 and relieve bilious diseases. Hence
 we would advise persons liable  to
 eructations, flatulency, and costive-
 ness, which arises from a vitiated
 bile, to abstain from all acrid, wa-
 tery, and oily  food, especially but-
 ter, and fat  meat; to abandon hot
 liquors, such as tea, coffee, punch,
 Sec to regulate the depressing pas-
 sions of grief,  anger, and anxiety ;
 to exchange a hasty and irascible
 for  a  more placid  and composed
 temper ; and on the whole to pur-
 sue a  calm, steady, and temperate
 course of life.
   Vitiated  Bile, is a common dis-
 ease in  infants,  who  are  suckled
 by intemperate or passionate nurses,
 or, in  consequence of  their be-
 ing fed with improper nu^'ment,
 such as  viscid pap  made of flour,
 instead  of  biscuit  or well baked
 bread: animal  food, before they are
 twelve months old; gingerbread and
 pastry.  This complaint manifests
 itself by green stools, and  an acrid
 quality of the bile, which even ex-
 coriates  the flesh ;  the  child ex-
 presses its  pain  by incessant cry-
 ing, and drawing up  of the  legs.
 Nature,  therefore  frequently re-
 moves the evil by copious evacua-
 tions, which are spontaneously ex-
 cited by the acrimonious state ofthe
 humours.   Hence the impropriety
 of  administering chalk  clysters,
 combined with laudanum, or other
 cordials,  and  thus in  a manner
 locking up  the poison within the
 intestines;  while  the  infant be-
 comes most effectually intoxicated.
 Thence  arise convulsions,  enlarg-
 ment of the mesentery, a principal,
 though remote, cause of consump-
 tion ;  the scald  head ;  and scro-
phula in all its forms.....Instead of
 following those  dangerons prac- 
            BIN

tices, which are calculated only to
aggravate the complaint, two cir-
cumstances  ought to  be attended
to, namely.  1. To remove the sti-
mulating matter, by repeated small
doses of tamarinds, combined with
a solution of manna;  and  2. To
counteract the preternatural weak-
ness and irritability of the intesti-
nal canal, by the addition of gum
arable, powder of salep-root, or a
little jelly made of Iceland moss. In
cases, however, where considera-
ble acidity prevails, it will be ad-
visable  to  give a few grains  of
magnesia,  in  intermediate doses:
but, if the spasmodic  strictures of
the  abdomen continue, a medical
practitioner should be consulted,
whether it be proper to have  re-
course to a few drops of laudanum,
or paragoric elixir, remedies which
ought never to be intrusted to dab-
blers in medicine.
   BINDWEED, or  Convolvulus,
L. a  genus  of plants,  comprising
forty-three species,
   1.  The arvensis, or Small Bind-
weed, a  common plant  in  fields
and  hedges, but particularly  trou-
blesome  in  gardens of a gravelly
soil;  its white and red flowers ap-
pear in June and July.  See With.
239, and Engl. Bot.'312.....As the
roots of this plant, particularly  in
wet  seasons, strike deep into the
ground,  and injure the growth of
corn, they ought to be  carefully
extricated, and transplanted on the
sandy banks of rivers and lakes,
where they greatly tend to  bind
the soil.  Bees  are uncommonly
partial to the flowers  of the con-
volvulus ; and it is eagerly eaten  by
black cattle, and sheep.
   2.  The sepium, or  Great  Bind-
weed, likewise a  pernicious  plant
in gardens ; it thrives  under  moist
hedges;  its stalk grows to the
     vol. I.
            BIO         273

height of several feet, and bears
white or purplish blossoms in July
and August. See With. 240, and
Engl. Pot.  313.  The root of this
species is very acrid and purgative
to the human constitution; but does
not affect swine, though eaten in
large  quantities.   Its flowers are
frequented  by bees.
   3. The soldanclla, or Sea Bind-
weed, grows  on the sandy shores
of the sea, but cannot  be  long
preserved in  gardens; its  purple
flowers blow in  July.  See With.
240, and Engl.  Bot.  314......This
species is also possessed of cathar-
tic properties,   so  that  half  an
ounce of the  juice of the root, or
one  dram of  the powder,  is a
strong dose.   The leaves of the
Sea   Bindweed  have  often  been
externally  applied  for the reduc-
tion  of dropsical swellings ofthe
legs ; and, it is  asserted, with good
effect.
   Among the exotic species of this
plant, we shall  only  mention the
Convolvulus Jalappa, or Jalap, a
native of Spanish America, which
affords the  drastic medicine of that
name : the Batatas^ [or sweet po-
tatoes.  See Potatoes,] a delici-
ous root, but too delicate to thrive
in the open air of England ;% the
8cnj>urius,  or   Bushy Bindweed,
which grows wild in  the island of
Barrancas,  and affords, it is  said,
the fragrant oil and wood of Rho-
dium ; and, lastly, the Scammonia,
or Syrian Bindweed, from  the in-
spissated juice of which is prepar-
ed the efficacious purgative sub-
stance known by the name Scaji-
mony.
  Bindweed, Black; See  Climb-
ing Buckwheat.
  BIOGRAPHY, an  account of
the lives and characters of remark-
able  persons.   It is the most en-
     N N 
274         BIO
BIR
tertainin3* and instructive branch of
history, and admits of the descrip-
tion and passion of romance, with
this essential difference, that the
characters and incidents ought not
only to be agreeable to Nature, but
strictly true.  Hence no books are
so proper for the amusement and
instruction of youth,  who, by read-
ing them, are incited to the imita-
tion of great and virtuous actions ;
while th^y are deterred from vice,
by  an animated  delineation  of its
baneful effects.
  As the subjects of biography are
the lives of either public or private
persons, many useful observations
may  be made  from  authentic ac-
counts  of those  who have  been
eminently  beneficial  to society.
Nay, even the lives  of immoral
characters may serve as a warning
to  deter  others, and  especially
youth, from listening to the tempta-
tions of folly and vice.
   Philanthropists, who  have  ex-
posed their lives, or employed their
faculties in the service of their fel-
low-creatures,  deserve that their
memory should  be perpetuated,
both  as a tribute of public gratitude,
 and  as  virtuous examples  in  the
 annals   of history.   The  love of
 farr^ is natural to the human mind;
 and.  when properly directed, is at
 once, productive of happiness to the
 indiviu iris, and general benefit to
 mankind.
    In the lives of great men, their
 public characters are principally to
 be regarded ; but, as the world  is
 inquisitive, the investigation of their
 private conduct may also occasion-
 ally  be useful, to illustrate  the in-
 fluence of example.   On the other
 hand,  too minute an enquiry  into
 the  fo'bles and infirmities  of emi-
 nent mm, is  an illiberal and cen-
 surable curiosity.   Among the an-
 cient  biographers,  Plutarch  is
generally allowed to excel. On the
relative merits ofthe moderns, we
shall not venture to pronounce ; as
this would be an invidious and un-
pleasing task.
  BIRCH-TREE (Common), or
Betula alba, L. is one of the indi-
genous trees which  has  already
been  mentioned under the  head
of " Alder-tree,"  though the
latter is only a species of the  same
genus,  and  ought more properly
to have been denominated Betula
alnus,  L.
   The white  or  common  birch-
tree, is not  of a large growth, but
when  cultivated in  a favourable
soil, and a good situation, it rises
to a  considerable height.   There
is a degree of elegance in its ge-
neral appearance in summer, and
the  bark in winter  is frequently
variegated with red and white.  It
is easily  cultivated  by the  usual
method ; but,  when raised from
 seed,  the  young  shoots  of the
birch  should  remain two years in
 the  seminary, and then be  trans-
 planted in rows.  They may also
 be propagated by layers :  for this
 purpose,  a sufficient number  of
 plants should be placed at a distance
 of three  yards from each  other,
 in a soil which has been twice turn-
 ed by the spade.  If, in the follow-
 ing year, they should produce no
 shoots, they may be lopped to with-
 in half a foot ofthe ground, to form
 the stools, in consequence of which
 they will germinate  with vigour in
 the following summer. In autumn,
 the young  shoots should  be plash-
 ed  near the stools, and the  tender
 twigs layered near the ends. Thus
 managed,  they will have taken
 root, and become fine plants,  the
 following autumn.
    Leonardi  remarks, in  the  2d
 volume of his " Natural History,"
 p. 629, Germ. edit, that the flower 
BIR
B I R        275
catkins of this tree, when boiled in
water, affords a good substitute for
Soap.
  Beside the  utility of the sap or
juice of the birch-tree, in affording
a delicious wine,it appears from the
experiments  of  HeriMestaedt,
that sugar  may be obtained by in-
spissating the juice of the variety
called Black Birch.   Such sugar,
however, is not only of an inferi-
or  quality, but  less in  quantity,
than that prepared from the Sugar-
maple.
   The wood of the birch is of very
extensive use, as we have before
stated under  the article Alder.
Prof. Pallas informs us, that the
Tartars cover -their huts with its
bark,  and the navigators of the
Volga constructof it portable boats,
cradles, Sec.  it is also used in fu-
migations, to purify a vitiated at-
mosphere.  The  Laplanders cut
the outer bark  into thongs, of
which  they   manufacture ropes,
baskets, and  other  utensils; and
it even forms some part of  their
wearing apparel: it is also used in
dyeing; and, as a  substitute for
oak-bark, in tanning.  The Swed-
ish house-wives employ this  bark,
after burning it to a certain degree,
as  a  cement for broken china, or
earthen-ware.  When boiled with
alum, it affords  a dye  of a  dark-
red colour. Dambourney asserts,
that the bark is better for tanning,
when dried,  than in a fresh state.
For this purpose,  it is cut into small
pieces, and boiled for half an hour
in  pure water;  and the  prepared
hides are steeped in it, while  luke-
warm.   The ley  is again boiled on
the two following days,  and the
steeping  of  the  leather  as  often
repeated ;  after  which  it is sus-
pended to dry in the air.   Leather
thus prepared, is said to be water-
proof.
  The leaves of the  birch tie a
yellowish  colour to wool, which
has been previously prepared with
alum.   Those  collected in  the
spring,  however, are  not so  uro-
per for  dyeing,  as  the  autumnal
leaves, because  the  former pro-
duce a greenish tinge; but the lat-
ter afford a beautiful yellow colour.
They have  also been used m the
dropsy, itch, 8cc. either applied*ex-
ternally, or in decoctions taken by
the mouth.
   The fungus which grows on the
trunk of the  birch-tree, is a  very
good styptic ; and when boiled in
water,  beaten,  and dried  in  an
oven, it makes  excellent touch-
wood.
   Birch-twigs are used for fishing
rods  and  brooms;  as wtll  as  by
bird-catchers, who  smear  them
with bird-lime.
   Birch-Wine   was formerly  in
cosiderable  repute,  as a remedy
for nephritic disorders, but is  dis-
used in  modern practice.  As ic is
a rich cordial, and, according to
Dr.  Needham, an excellent re-
medy for consumption,  and the
scurvy,  we shall acquaint our rea-
ders with  the method of preparing
it; though we have no experience
of its medicinal powers.
   The juice or sap of the birch-
tree,  should be  extracted  about
the beginning of March.,  when the
buds  begin  to swell,  and before
they have opened their leaves. An
incision, or  hole must be made in
the trunk, almost as deep as the
pith,  under some  branch   of  a
well-spreading tree, on  its south-
western side, and  about one  foot
above the ground:  a  hollow tube
should  then be fitted to the aper- 
276
BIR
BIR
ture through which  the  sap will
flow similar to distillation. Oh ap-
plying a little mould to the orifice,
the wound will heal, and the bark
afterwards closes.  Some persons
arc of opinion, that the sap  drawn
from the trunk of the tree, is not
so pure  as that obtained  from its
higher branches.  To prevent this
juice from fermenting, till a suffi-
cient quantity  is  procured, the
bottles  in which  it is collected,
ought to be immediately stopped.
   One  of  the  best methods of
making  birch-wine is  as  follows;
to every gallon of the sap, add a
pint of honey, or a pound of sugar,
stir  the  whole  together,  and boil
it for an hour  with a few  cloves,
and a little  lemon  peel; at the
same time carefully scum  the ri-
sing impurities.  When cool, a few
spoonfuls of new ale should be ad-
ded, to induce a proper degree  of
fermentation ; and, after the yeast
has settled, the  wine should be
bottled  up, and kept  for use.   If
this liquor be prepared with pro-
per attention, it becomes so strong
that the common stone bottles, in-
to which it is decanted, frequently
burst.
   Birch-Tree (Dwarf), or, Be-
tula nana, L. which grows on moist
heaths,  and rarely  exceeds three
feet  in  height.   It has  roundish
leaves, tender branches, a smooth
bark, and its flower  catkins  are
uncommonly small: this diminu-
tive tree, however, is  more com-
mon in the marshy parts of Russia,
Sweden, and on the mountains of
Lapland and Norway,  than  in
Britain.  From its fibrous roots,
the Norwegians  and Laplanders
manufacture very  beautiful car-
pets ; and  its leaves  are  said  to
produce  a more delicate  yellow
colour, than those of the common
birch.
  BIRD is a  biped animal, pro-
viderVvrith a bill, and covered with
feathers, liaving  two wings,  by
which  it is enabled  to fly, except
in a few instances.   The  science
which  treats of birds, in general
is called Ornithology: to which ar-
ticle we refer  the reader, for far-
ther particulars respecting the fea-
thered tribe.  But the uses, &c. of
the various species,  will be stated
under  their different heads.
   Bird-Call  is a stick split at one
end, and containing a leaf of some
plant,  by which the notes of dif-
ferent birds are imitated, and they
are thus attracted to the net, snare,
or lime-twig.  Thus, a laurel-leaf
fitted  to the  bird-call,  enables a
skilful whistler to produce accents
resembling those of lapwings, a
leek, those of nightingales, Sec.
   Bird-Catching  is  the art of
taking birds, whether for the table,
for the pleasure of  their song, or
with a view to destroy them, on
 account of their  depredations......
 This  art is practised  by several
persons in the  vicinity  of large
towns, for a livelihood ; and is now
 reduced to a degree of systematic
 perfection.   It  is,  however, at-
 tended with considerable expense.
 We shall, therefore, as concisely
 as possible, describe the ingenious
 contrivances of bird-catchers, chief-
 ly for the information and amuse-
 ment  of our country readers.
   The nets are a most curious in-
 vention, about twelve yards  and  a
 half in length, and  two and a  half
 wide :  the birds are caught by the
 nets flapping over each other.
   Wild  birds fiy,  as  the  bird-
 catchers term it,  chiefly  during
 September, October, and Novem- 
BIR
BIR         277
ber ;  and also in  March, though
not in such abundance.  The pip-
pet, a small species of lark, ap-
pears in England, about Michael-
mas, and is succeeded by the wood-
lark, linnet, gold-finch, chaff-finch,
&c none of which can be caught
in great  numbers at   any  other
time.  The birds, are  generally,
on  the wing from day-break till
noon  ;  and as  they  always fly a-
gainst the wind, there is great con-
tention among the bird-catchers, to
obtain the best  situation ;  for ex-
ample if the wind be westerly, the
person who arranges his nets far-
thest to the east, uniformly has
 the greatest success.
   The  bird-catcher  is generally
 provided with  five or  six linnets,
 two gold-finches, two green-finches,
 one wood-lark,  a  red-pole, yellow-
 hammer, and, perhaps, abull-finch:
 these are placed at short distances
from the nets,  in small cages: he
has, besides, what are  called fiur-
birds, which are fastened to a  mo-
veable perch, placed within thenet,
where they can be raised at plea-
sure,  and  gently lowered when
the wild bird approaches.
   As there is known to be a supe-
riority between different birds of
the same species, with respect to
their song,  bird-catchers  always
contrive, that their call-birds may
moult before the usual time. This
is effected by putting them into a
close  box for a month under two
or  three folds  of blankets,  and
 leaving their dung in the cage, to
increase the heat. In consequence
of premature moulting, the cap-
tive bird not only begins to sing at
a time  when the wild ones  are
out of song, but his  notes likewise
are louder and more  shrill than
theirs.
  Having arranged his nets,  the
bird-catcher disposes the call-birds
at proper intervals ; as their sight
and hearing is infinitely superior to
his  own.   As  soon  as the wild
birds  are perceived, notice is given
by one  of  the  call-birds  to the
rest ;  they invite the wild ones by
what  is called  short jerks :  this
invitation  is  so strong, that  the
latter are  stopped in their course,
and, it frequently happens, that, if
half a flock only are caught, the
remainder will  immediately after-
wards alight in the nets.
  Nightingales  are not  birds of
flight: like  the wren,  and other
singing birds, they only move from
hedge to  hedge ;  and are caught
by a trap-net,somewhatlarger than
a cabbage-net,  and the bottom of
which is  surrounded by  an  iron
ring :  the  trap is baited  with a
meal-worm.
  The common  way of taking larks
is by  nets, called trammels,  which
are thirty-six  yards long, and six
yards broad ; they have six ribs of
packthread,  which are fastened to
poles  at  the  ends about sixteen
feet in length. A net thus prepared,
is in the night drawn by five  or six
men over the ground, which  it is
made to touch at short intervals.
When the birds fly up against the
net, it is let down, and all  under
it are taken ; such  as  woodcocks,
snipes,partridges, quails- Sec. Larks
in the day time are caught in clap-
nets, fourteen or fifteen yards long,
and two and a half wide. They are
enticed  by a decoy-lark, and like-
wise by small fragments of looking
glass fixed in a piece of  wood,  and
placed in  the middle of the net, so
as to  receive a quick and circular
motion by means of a string. This
net, however is employed only till 
273         BIR

the second week in November, as
larks do not sport in the air, except
in fine weather.   But in gloomy
days thelarker changes his engine,
and makes use of a trammel-net,
about twenty-seven feet long, and
five broad ; which is fixed on two
poles  eighteen feet long ;  and car-
ried by men who, when passing
over the fields, and perceiving  a
lark hit the net, drop it, and thus
secure the bird.
  We shall pass over the singular
and hazardous methods  of bird-
catching practised by  the inhabi-
tants  of the Orkney Islands, and in
other parts of the world. But the
following manner of taking birds
alive, by means of a fusee or musket
is so ingenious, that we shall com-
municate it to our readers.  It was
invented  by M.  de Vaillant,
during his travels in Africa : if his
plan be practicable, it will certainly
facilitate the researches of the Or-
nithologist. Put. a smaller or larger
quantity of gun-powder  into the
musket, accordingascircumstances
may  require.   Immediately above
it, place the end of a candle of suf-
ficient thickness, ramming it well
down; and then fill the barrel with
water up to the mouth.  When at
a proper distance fire the musket
thus loaded at a  bird, which will
only be stunned, by watering and
moistening its feathers, and  may
be easily laid hold of, before it has
time, by fluttering, to  injure its
plumage.
   [The only  remark  now to be
made upon birds, is with respect
to their very great utility in de-
stroying the numerous tribes of in-
sects, which prove so  injurious to
the fruit and fruit trees  in the U.
States.  For this benefit, they are
entitled to our protection,  instead
of meriting the wanton destruction
             BIR

to which they are continually ex-
posed by the idle and inconsiderate.
Many  of those birds which seem
to court our protection, by  build-
ing their  little nests,  about our
houses,  are especially entitled  to
our gratitude. The motacilla sialis,
or blue bird, kc. Ccrlhiafamiliaris,
or house wren,  deserve  particu-
larly  to be noticed.  These birds
live almost  entirely on  insects,
many hundreds of which are daily-
devoured by them'.
   All the species of Motacilla, are
also great devourers of insects ;  in
that genus  are  included   among
others ;;/. mitrata hooded tittmouse,
m. canadensis, black throat warbler,
or blue fly catcher ; m. regulus,  or
golden crowned wren. The nume-
rous familes of Fringilla, in which
are included, the  finch, sparrow,
and titt, or chirping birds, and the
tribe  of  Parus or tittmouse, are
not less  useful. But probably the
most valuable  of  all birds  is the
Caprimulgus   Virginianus,   night
hawk, or whip-poor-will; this bird
lives almost entirely on insects, and
particularly deserves our protection
for it chiefly flies about in the even-
ing, at which time only, many de-
structive insects make their appear-
ance, and which would escape the
birds ofthe day,
   The common blue jay  of our
country  is also very useful, in de-
stroying  the  cockchaffer,  scara-
boeus melolontha, of which, that bird
is very fond.]
   BIRD-LIME is a viscid matter
used  for catching birds.....There
are different  ways  of  preparing
this substance but it is generally
made of holly  bark,  which   is
boiled  ten or twelve hours ; and
 when its green rind is separated, it
 is covered up in a moist place, to
 stand for a fortnight.  It is  after- 
BIR
BIR         279
tfards reduced to a tough paste, and
washed in a running stream, till
no impurities appear.  Next, it is
suffered to ferment for four or five
days during which  it must be fre-
quently skimmed.   Afterwards it
is mixed over the fire, with a third
part of nut-oil, or thin grease, and
thus rendered fit for use.
  Dr. Darwin  observes, that this
resinous  material  possesses un-
common  adhesiveness to feathers,
and other  dry, porous  bodies;
whence it has obtained  the  name
of  bird-lime.  It much resembles
the caoutchouc, or elastic resin, im-
 ported from South America ; and
 is  also similar to a fossil elastic bi-
 tumen found near  Matlock,   in
 Derbyshire ; both in its elasticity
 and  inflammability.  He  farther
 suggests, that holly may be  worth
 cultivating, bolh for its wood, and
 the  quantity it contains  of this
 elastic matter.   On this occasion
 the Doctor mentions a remarkable
 fact,  deserving  the attention  of
 rural  economists.  About   thirty
 years ago, a person who purchased
 a wood in Yorkshire, sold the bird-
 lime prepared from the bark ofthe
 numerous holly-trees, to  a Dutch
 merchant,  for  nearly  the  whole
 sum given  for the wood. If,  there-
 fore,  this substance could  be har-
 dened, it might probably be sub-
 stituted for the  caoutchouc, or In-
 dia-rubber.
    The German method of prepar-
 ing bird-lime is, by putting about
 two pounds of linseed  oil  into  a
 pot, to simmer  upon  the  fire  for
 some time, after which it is taken
 off, and lighted with a match.  In
 this state of inflammation, it con-
 tinues about two hours,  when half
 the quantity will be consumed....
 By dipping from  time to time,  a
 stick  into the oil,  and  trying the
matter between the fingers, its pro-
per glutinous  consistence may be
easily  ascertained ; on  which the
pot is covered, and the  flame  ex-
tinguished.
   Water  bird-lime  may  be  pre-
pared as follows : Take  a pound of
strong and  good ordinary bird-
lime, wash it thoroughly in spring-
water, till it become perfectly soft,
next  beat it well, that the water
may be entirely  separated ;  then
dry  it, put it into an  earthen pip-
kin, and add to it as much capon's
or goose-grease  as will render  it
fluid.  In this state of the prepa-
ration, add too spoonfuls of strong
vinegar, one spoonful of oil,  and
a small quantity of Venice turpen-
tine. Let the  whole boil for a few
minutes over  a moderate fire,  stir-
ring it during that process. Then
take it off;  but previous to its use,
warm it,  and  cover the  twigs with
it in  every  direction. This is the
best bird-lime for snipes or such
birds as frequent marshy places.
  The proper method of using bird-
lime is, to cut down  the principal
branch of  a   tree,  the  twigs  of
which  are  straight, long,  and
smooth.  The  willow   and birch
are the best for this purpose. After
the superfluous shoots  have been
lopped, and the twigs cleaned,  they
must be  uniformly  covered  with
the bird-lime, to within  four inches
ofthe bottom; but the  main stem
should not  be  touched by  this
matter.  Great care is required  in
laying it on properly ;  for, if two
thick, it will alarm the  birds, and
prevent their  approach ; and, if too
small a quantity be applied, it will
not hold them  when  they settle
upon  it.  The branch  thus  pre-
pared must be erected in a hedge
or among some growing bushes....
If employed in summer,  it should 
280        BIR
BIR
be placed in a quickset hedge, in
groves,  bushes,  or  white-thorn
trees, near  corn-fields,  Sec.  but
in winter the best spots, are near
stacks of corn, sheds, or barns.....
The sportsman ought to stand as
near the limed bush as possible,
and imitate the notes of birds with
a call.  When a bird is attracted
to the bush, and entangled by the
lime, the sportsman should  suffer
it  to remain ; as by the fluttering
it makes to disengage itself,  others
will be attracted  to the bush, and
thus several may be taken together.
The hours proper for this sport, are
from sun-rise till ten o'clock ;  and
from one, to  sun-set.  Another
mothod of attracting birds is, by a
stale ; a bat  makes a  very good
stale, but  it must be  fixed so as
to be perceptible at a distance. An
owl  is still more eligible for  this
purpose,  being   followed  by the
small birds, whenever  it appears.
If a live owl, or bat,  cannot be
obtained, the skin  of one  stuffed
will  iikewise  answer; nay, even
the  image  of an owl carved in
wood and painted of the natural
colour,  will  produce the desired
effect.
   When the German composition
is used, care should be taken to
seize the bird, when entangled, to
prevent it from attempting  to free
itself by its beak  ; otherwise it will
be destroyed by the deleterious ef-
fects of the oil.
   Singing-birds  [in  England] are
principally the  nightingale,  black-
bird,  thrush, starling, linnet, lark,
red-breast, canary-bird; bull-finch
and  gold#finch.   Their first note
is termed chirfi, which is repeated
at short intervals :  the second is
denominated call, being a repetition
of the same  note,  and the third
sound is termed recording, which a
young bird will do for nearly a
twelve-month, and when perfect in
his lesson, he is said  to  sing his
song round.  Their  notes  are not
more natural to birds, than lan-
guage is to man; and they all sing
in the same  key.
   Preservation of Birds. Vari-
ous methods have been attempted
by naturalists, to preserve animal
substances from putrefaction; but,
from the want of a proper antisep-
tic, many  curious  animals,  and
particularly  birds  from   foreign
parts, are imported  in  a very im-
perfect state. The  following pro-
cess appears to  be  the most easy
and effectual:
   After opening the  bird, by a
longitudinal incision from the breast
to the vent,  dissecting the fleshy
parts from the bones,  and remov-
ing the entrails, eyes,  brains, and
tongue, the  cavities, and  inside of
the skin are to  be sprinkled with
the following powders :  Take of
corrosive sublimate Alb. pulverized
nitre ^lb. burnt allum Alb. flowers
of sulphur -tlb. camphor Alb. black
pepper, and coarsely   ground to-
bacco, one pound each ; mix  the
ingredients well together, and keep
them in a glass  vessel closely stop-
ped.   First  insert  the eyes,  and
stuff the head with cotton or tow -r
then  pass a  wire down the throat,
through one of the nostrils, and
fix it into  the breast-bone : wires
are  likewise to   be   introduced
through the  feet, up the  legs and
thighs, and fastened into the same
bone; the body  is afterwards stuff-
ed with cotton to its natural size,
and the skin sewed over  it.  In
whatever position the bird is placed
to dry, the same will afterwards be
retained.
   Small birds may be preserved in
brandy, rum, arrack, or first run.- 
             BIR

nings; but  by these means, the
colour of the plumage is liable to
be extracted by the spirit.  Large
sea-fowl  have thick strong skins,
and  such may be  skinned ;  the
tail,  claws,  head  and feet, are to
be  carefully preserved, and  the
plumage stained  as little as  pos-
sible with blood.  The inside of
the skin  may be stuffed as recom-
mended above.
   Mr. Bancroft, in his Natural
History of Guiana, says, that se-
veral persons in the colony  are ad-
vantageously employed in preserv-
ing a variety of beautiful birds for
the  cabinets of  European natu-
ralists.   Their method is, to put
the  bird in a  proper vessel,  and
cover  it with  strong wine, or the
first running of the distillation of
rum,  in  which  it  remains  for
twenty-four or forty-eight hours,
till the liquor has penetrated every
part of its body.   The body is then
taken out, and its feathers, which
are not in the least injured by this
immersion, being placed smooth,
it is  put  into a machine made for
the purpose, and the wings,  tail,
Sec.  arranged agreeable to nature.
In this position,  it is placed in an
oven moderately  heated, where it
is slowly  dried, and will ever after
retain its natural attitude, without
danger of putrefae'.ion.
  The following simple composi-
tion  may be employed with suc-
cess, for  the same purpose:  Com-
mon  salt one  pound, powdered
alum, four ounces, ground pepper,
two  ounces.   The  bird intended
for preservation, should be opened
from the lower part of the breast-
bone to  the tail, wilh a pu'r  of
sharp-pointed  scissors,  and  the
whole of the intestines taken out.
The cavity is then to be filled with
the mixture, and the lacerated part
     VOL. I.
             B I R         281

 should be properly stitched.  The
 thorax,  from the beak .  the sto-
 mach, must be filled with the same
 composition, reduced to a fine pow-
 der.   The head is to be  opened
 near the root of the tongue, with
 the point of the scissars, and the
 structure of the brain destroyed,
 by moving them in a circular di-
 rection,  and as soon  as they are
 withdrawn, the cavity is likewise
 to be filled with the mixture. Af-
 ter having been suspended by the
 legs, for a few days, the bird may
 be fixed in a frame, in its  natural
 attitude.
   Bird-grass..........See Roughish
 Meadow-crass.
   BIRD-CHERRY, or the Pru-
 nus Fadus, L. is a species of cher-
 ry-tree.
   It  attains a height of fifteen or
 twenty  feet,  is of a shrub-like
 growth, with  a branchy top; its
 leaves  are large, oblong,  rough,
 and serrated ;  the fruit large and
 red.  See With. 455.
   From the fruit ofthe bird  cher-
 ry an agreeable wine may be pro-
 duced:  and it  is affirmed in the
 Transactions of the Swedish Aca-
 demy, for 1774, that  its kernels,
 when deprived  of  their external
 rind, afford so good a substitute for
 almond milk, that the most expe-
 rienced persons cannot ascertain
 the difference.   Its wood is much
 used on the continent, by cabinet-
 makers and upholsterers.....its in-
 ner bark fcfford.s a green l'.\i\ium
 for dyerr-. ,  [See Cherry.]
   Bird's Eye.  See Primrose.
   BIRD'S FOOT (Common), or
 Omithopus perpusilkis, L. is an in-
digenous plant; the yellow flowers
of which blow in July cr August;
and the legumen, or pulse, is curv-
ed  in the form of a  bow.  See
Cu^t. Land, fuse, 6.
     O o 
>282        B I S
BIS
  This pi-ant affords a good fodder
for  sheep, when grass is scarce,
in the  latter end of autumn.
  BIRTHWORT, (Slender,)  or
A'istolochia clematitis. L. has heart-
shaped leaves, an  upright stem,
and its root  is long and slender....
See Engl. Bot. 398.
  On being chewed, the Birthwort
instantly imparts an aromatic bit-
terness, not  ungrateful to the pa-
late.   It possesses  medicinal vir-
tues, and is  prescribed as an  atte-
nyant of viscid phlegm,  and pro-
moter  of the fluid secretions.  The
dose in substance is from  a scruple
to two drams.  There  are  four
other species of this plant imported
for medicinal purposes,particularly
the Aristolochia longa,  a  native of
France, Spain, and Italy.  It  is
applied externally  in cutaneous
diseases, as  likewise for cleansing
and  healing wounds  and  ulcers.
[See Snake-root.]
  BISCUIT, a kind of bread ma-
nufactured by confectioners, of fine
flour, eggs,  sugar, and   rose  or
orange water; or of flour, eggs,
and sugar, with aniseeds and  ci-
tron-peel.
  Sea  Biscuit, a sort of hard, dry,
bread,  formed into flat cakes: when
intended for long voyages, it is four
times baked, six months before it
is shipped; after which it will con-
tinue good during a whole year...
In order to preserve such  bread
from insects, Mr. Hales recom-
mends the fumigation of  the casks
with sulphur, after they.have been
filled.   Biscuits may likewise  be
preserved by packing them in casks
well caulked and lined with tin.
  As  the manufacture of sea-bis-
cuits is of considerable importance
to a  maritime country,  we  shall
communicate the method of bak-
ing practised in France.
  In the preparation of biscuit, a
proportion of ten pounds of leaven
(rather more stale than that com-
monly used  for bread), is diluted
in warm water,  with one hundred
pounds of flour, which is kneaded;
but the  water should be added by
small portions, to prevent the'ne-
cessity of adding more flour: when
the dough can no longer be worked
by the hand, it is pressed with the
feet till it is  perfectly smooth, glu-
tinous, and compact.  The knead-
ing being finished, the dough is
worked up in parts: at first  it is
formed into rolls, which again pass
through  the hands of the  baker;
this is called rubbing.  When the
weight of each piece is determin-
ed, it is made round, flattened with
a rolling pin, and then  placed on a
table  or board exposed to the fresh
air, in order to prevent too quick
fermentation.  Care is taken that
the oven be less heated for the bak-
ing of biscuit than bread;  and as
soon as  the last cake is  formed,
that which has been first made, is
pierced  with several  holes,  with
the point of an iron, which at once
flattens it, and  gives vent to eva-
poration : it is then placed in the
oven.  The biscuits are  kept there
about two hours, and when drawn
out,  they are  packed with great
caution in boxes,  lest they should
break.   Each box commonly con-
tains either  a half, or a whole quin-
tal; and, when  filled, is placed in
a close,  warm room,  with which
the heat of the oven has a commu-
nication. The  biscuit  here  parts
with  its superabundant moisture,
and undergoes what  is called a
sweating.
   A good biscuit breaks clean and
crisp, has  a  shining  appearance
within,  and the outside is  glossy.
When soaked,  it swells consider- 
BIS
BIS         £33
ably in the water,  without crum-
bling,  or sinking to the bottom of
the vessel.
   As the composition of biscuit is
connected with the  general princi-
ples of making bread, we shall only
observe, that the defects which pre-
vail in many bake-houses are simi-
lar to  those where biscuit is pre-
pared ; such as an imperfect grind-
ing, which leaves the  bran in the
flour, or the flour in the bran, and
injures the manufacture.   Ovens
too high, and not closely stopped,
consume much  fuel, and produce
an indifferent baking.
   One of the  first rules in the pre-
paration of biscuit should be, never
to make it of any but choice wheat,
very  clean, and dry, because it
ever continues to carry with it this
original principle of preservation;
while  [wheat],  which is naturally
moist, be  it ever so well  ground,
and worked,  has  a tendency  to
become  worse.   For this reason,
rye and maize are unfit to be ma-
nufactured into  biscuit.
   It must  be confessed with  re-
gret,  that  sea-biscuit of  the best
preparation, often carries  in it a
principle of destruction.   Some-
times it is  in the bran, which occa-
sions  insects,  and  hollow spaces
in the interior part  of  the biscuit,
giving it a disposition to  mould;
and sometimes  it  is  a  want  of
cleanliness which prevails in  the
bread-room of the   vessel. [See
Ship-bread.]
   M. Cardon,  a biscuit-baker of
Hesse,  in  conjunction with four
others of the business, has recent-
ly made  some  experiments, the
result  of which  is:  that  1001b. of
flour give  1261b. of doughy which,
divided into cakes of eight or nine
ounces, when well  baked,  afford
90lb of biscuit.  Instead of mak-
 ing use of old leaven,  and of ten
 or twelve pounds weight  to each
 quintal of flour, he  recommends
 to use the leaven while fresh,  in
 a quantity of fifiy pounds, and to
 make the dough less firm,  that
 it may be kneaded with more ease.
 He has shewn biscuit, made after
 this manner, to several masters of
 ships, who have found it excellent
 and that it stands the test of float-
 ing on  the surface of water, with-
 out falling to pieces.
   BISMUTH, or Tin-glass, one
 ofthe semi-metals, of a reddish or
 light yellow colour,  and a larnel-
 lated texture: it is moderately hard
 and brittle, so that it breaks under
 the hammer,  and may  even  be
 reduced to powder.
    [It is  very  fusible, and  soluble
 in the vitriolic, muriatic, and nuric
 acids, particularly in the last, and
 when dissolved in it, is precipita-
 ble by  a  mere  dilution with' pure
 water; the precipitate is white; and
 is  commonly called  Magistery of
 Bismuth ; it  forms the fiake-white,
 and too often employed as a paint
 for the complexion under various
 names,  but is a bad substitute for
 temperance,  exercise, and early
 hours; as it frequently turns black
 by the  animal transpiration, and
 certainly  so,  by an  exposure  to
 sulphurated hydrogen gas, which
 is met with in those mineral waters
 called " sulphur springs,"  and  in
 privies.....Flake white, when mix-
 ed  with suet  or fat, is more inno-
 cently used to blacken  the hair,
 Bismuth,  dissolved in  the acid-;,
 forms pellucid sympathetic inks,
 which become  black  by exposure
 to  the  vapour of  alkaline  sul-
 phurcts.]
   Most metallic substances, by an
union with bismuth, become more
fusible;  hence  it  is  used in  the 
284         BIS

making of solder, printer's types,
pewter, &x.
   Bismuth  reduced  to powder,
mixed with the white of eggs, and
applied to wood, gives it the ap-
pearance of being silvered...when
it is gradually dried, and rubbed
with a polisher.
  This semi-metal  is commonly
deposited in  cobalt-ores;  which
when  of a high red  colour, are
called  bismuth bloom, or flowers of
bismuth. To this mixture may be
ascribed the property  which bis-
muth-ore has  or making sympa-
thetic  ink, similar to that formed
by  a  solution of  the  regulus  of
cobalt.....See Ink.
    In  dyeing,  a solution of Tin-
glass in aqua fortis has lately been
recommended by Damnourney,
for fixing certain colours on  wool,
in preference  to alum, or  other
neutral salis....See Dyeing.
  In medicine,  the calx and flow-
ers of bismuth were formerly used,
in cases where antimonial prepa-
rations are  now  employed with
greater safety, and  equal  effect;
so that the former are, at present,
chiefly converted into pigments and
cosmetics.....Nevertheless, we are
possessed of the most convincing
proofs, that the magistery of bismuth
is one of the most  powerful anti-
spasmodics,  especially  in cramps
of the  stomach. When cautiously
administered, in closes from half a
grain to one grain, in simple water,
repeated every  half hour, or oft-
ener, according to circumstances,
it affords speedy relief in the most
excruciating pain ;  and is,  in this
respect, of superior efficacy  to the
celebrated flowers  of  zinc.  But
we think it  our duty  to  repeat,
that both medicines  require the
greatest precaution.
            B IS

 [The very great utility of bismuth
in the arts of dyeing, and particu-
larly in the manufactory of types,
which is yearly increasing in the
United States, will cause a consi-
derable consumption of this mine-
ral.  A great quantity is imported
every year by Messrs. Binny and
Ronalds on, of Philadelphia.
  It is said that a specimen of bis-
muth was brought to Philadelphia,
from the Juniata, in 1799, by a man
w ho died ofthe fever of that year.] -
  BISTORT (Great),  or Snake-
weed ; the Polygonum bistorta, L.
a species of knot-grass,  most  plen-
tiful on meadows and pastures: it
has a thick oblique root, about the
size of a finger, blackish  brown
without, and  reddish   within ; a
simple round, slender stem, near-
ly two feet high'; oval leaves, and
the stalk terminates in thick short
spikes, of whitish, red flowers.w hich
appear in July, and are  productive
of seeds in August...See Withkr-
ixg, 3i!>2, and E;,gl. Bot. 509.
  As this [indigenous] plant is sub-
servient to many useful purposes,
we have been  more particular in
its  description, than the limits of
our  work  will permit  on future
occasions.
  Cattle and sheep are exceedingly
partial to the herbage of the Great
Bistort; but horses will not  eat it.
The  young  leaves  are excellent
for culinary use; and a small quan-
tity of the root, reduced to powder,
and added to the dough in baking,
communicate an  agreeable  taste
to  the bread,  and improves its
salubrity.
   The Great Bistort has likewise
been usefully employed in the arts
of dyeing and tanning.  According
to Gleditsch and Bautsch, two
creditable  authors, the herb with 
             BI S

its blossom has, by tanners on the
continent of Europe, been found to
be a proper substitute for oak-bark;
and Dambourney assures us, that
from the root of this plant he ob-
tained  a decoction of a mordore
riiadc, in which he died  wool of a
real  beaver  colour, after having
previously immersed it in a ley, sa-
turated with a solution of Bismuth.
   All the parts of this plant have a
rough,  austere taste :  the root, in
particular, is one ofthe strongest
vegetable astringents produced in
England ; and, therefore, justly re-
commended  in intermittent fevers,
immoderate    hemorrhages,  and
other fluxes, both internally and
externally, where the  constitution
ofthe palient requires such a medi-
 cine.   According to a late popular
writer, it,has often, and  especially
in agues, been  given  in  larger
doses than those commonly admi-
nistered : he has prescribed it both
alone, and together, with gentian,
to  the amount of three  dranib in
one day. It is allowed to be a very
powerful styptic, and consequently
possessed of  antiseptic properties;
but we  doubt, whether it is suffici-
ently efficacious to supersede the
use of the Peruvian bark, or even
that of the white  willow.
   BISTORT, (Small), Welch, or
Alpine ;Jthe Polygonum viviparum,
L. it has a smaller root  than the
preceding species;  a simple slen-
der slem, six  inches high, spear-
shaped leaves, and  the stalks and
branches terminate by  stalks of
whitish red flowers, which appear
in June or July, and bear seeds in
Vugust....See With.  383 ;  and
Eng. Bot. 669.
  Although  we have no  distinct
account  of  the economical  and
physical uses of this plant, yet it
may be rationally inferred, that it
             BIT        285

 is not inferior to the preceding spe-
 cies.  Indeed, Gmei in informs us,
 that its  root is so far from being
 astringent, in the  island of Kamt-
 schatka, that the inhabitants eat it
 in  a raw state  ; and Steller,  a
 late traveller, found  it sufficiently
 sweet and nutritive, to support him
 without any other  aliment, for se-
 veral  days.  The Samoiedes also
 eat it  as  a sweet and wholesome
 food.   Several  other nations dry
 and reduce  this root to flour, of
 which they  bake good bread.   If
 credit be due to Oloff, who has
 visited Iceland, the inhabitants of
 that  inhospitable  climate  make
 bread, even  of the  small  knots
 which grow on  the upper part of
 the stalk.
    BITE, of a mad dog, an unfor-
 tunate accident which but two fre-
 quently happens in hot summers ;
 [or very cold winters,] and is sup-
 posed to be  occasioned chiefly by
 suffering  that  faithful animal  to
 feed upon putrid meat, without sup-
 plying it with sufficient water ;t>ut
 more  probably  originates  from a
 specific contagion,  like the small-
 pox, Sic.  The  disease thence ari-
 sing in the human species, is called
 Canine Madness, or, according to
 medical writers, Hydrophobia ; a
 term which literally  signifies {idread
 of water."
  This virulent disorder does not,
 in  general,  manifest itself till a
 considerable  time  after  the bite,
 for, though  in  some instances  it
 has commenced in  seven or eight
 days after the accident, the patient
 often continued  in health for twen-
 ty, thirty, or forty days, nay, some-
 times  for several months.  If the
wound be not prevented,  it will, in
most instances,  be healed  long
before  the symptoms of the disease
appear; though it frequently resists 
286        B I T
BI T
all healing applications, and forms
an ulcer discharging a quantity of
matter.  The approach of the dis-
ease is known  by the cicatrix of
the wound becoming hard and ele-
vated,  and by  a peculiar tingling
sensation  in the  part  affected;
pains  shoot from it towards the
throat: in  some cases it] is sur-
rounded with livid or red streaks,
and seems  to be  in  a state of
inflammation ; more  frequently,
however, no remarkable  external
change can be perceived.  But the
patient soon becomes melancholy,
prefers solitude,  and  is  troubled
with nausea. Sometimes the cha-
racteristic symptom of the disease,
the dread of water,  suddenly  at-
tacks  the  patient,  and every  at-
tempt  to  swallow liquids, is  ac-
companied  with  the most painful
sensations.   This  appears  to be
a circumstance peculiar to the hu-
man  race ;  for mad  animals  do
not evince any dread of water......
There is  not the least doubt, that
the disease  is occasioned by the
saliva  of the mad creature.  Un-
less,  therefore, part  of  the true
skin be injured, the poison will not
be  communicated ; but in the con-
trary case, the smallest quantity is
sufficient to produce the fatal effect.
lience, if  the cuticle  has  been
wounded,  it is absolutely neces-
sary to remove  the  surrounding
muscular substance by the  knife,
and to lose no time in submitting
to this operation; as it is the only
certain and effectual preventive....
It is, however, of consequence pre-
viously to  be  convinced, whether
the animal has been actually mad.
   In order to ascertain whether a
dog is really infected with that dis-
temper, the following particulars
deserve attention.  Several days
previously  to the invasion of the
disorder, the animal becomes sullen
and shews equal indifference to his
master, his food, and drink.  His
ears and tail droop; instead of bark-
ing, he growls and  snaps at every
surrounding object,  runs about ir-
regularly, is no longer able to dis-
tinguish his master from strangers,
and lolls out  his tongue, which is
parched, and  of a  livid hue.   At
length, he drops  down  suddenly,
starts  up  again,   bites  whatever
seems to obstruct his passage, and
in this condition he seldom survives
twenty-four,  or, at  the  farthest,
forty-eight hours.
   If the disease has actually been
communicatedby a bite, the patient
feels a burning heat in the throat
and injured part, according to the
degree of violence  with  which the
malady is  accompanied.   But the
proximate cause of the  affection
appears to be confined to the ner-
vous system,  so that patients, la-
bouring under the influence of hy-
drophobia, have overcome the small
pox,  and quartan  agues,  without
any aggravation of  symptoms.....,
Hence opiates, and other narcotics,
as is the case  in many nervous dis-
eases, produce no effect.  As it is
generally allowed,that canine mad-
ness, if the dread of water has once
taken place, can seldom be cured,
the most essential part ofthe treat-
ment will be the speedy application
of  preventives.  For this reason,
we have already stated the imme-
diate necessity of cutting away the
parts  contiguous to the  wound,
especially where that operation can
be  performed, without injuring any
large  blood  vessel.  Beside this
precaution, the wound  should be
frequently washed,by pouring cold
water upon it from [the  spout of
 a tea-kettle],  and to prevent the ca-
 nine virus from remaining  about 
BIT
BIT        287
the wounded part, it should be kept
open, and  a discharge  of matter
promoted for several weeks ; by
stimulating ointments, mixed with
cantharides,or similar applications.
  M. Sabatier  mentions an in-
stance in which,  by repeated at-
tacks of a mad dog, the patient had
received twenty-five wounds, and
about fifty  scratches : these were
all radically healed, by the  appli-
cation of the cautery, and of fire,
which  completely  destroyed  the
poison.
   [This conclusion  is  highly ab-
surd, because many persons have
done nothing for their wounds, and
yet  remained well.
   Indeed it maybe safely said, that
the  actual cautery, burning  the
wound with  gun-powder, washing
it with vinegar and water, or lunar
caustic dissolved in water, have all
been tried, and repeatedly failed to
prevent the  disease. As general
remedies, Dr.  Mead's celebrated
favourites ash-liverwort and black
pepper; the Ormskirk remedy, the
Tonquin composition of musk and
cinnabar, mercury, anagalis (pim-
pernel or  chickweed which see,)
and many  others have  again  and
again been given, without the least
success.
   The distance of  time that elap-
ses between a bite and the appear-
ance ofthe disease, is very various.
In a case  lately recorded by the
editor, three years and four months
 elapsed.  See Med. Rep. vol. 5....
 From three  to six weeks however,
 is the common interval. As there
 are a number of vtdgar errors pre-
 valent respecting  this disease  it
 may be satisfactory to state  the
 truth upon several  points.
   1st. Neither the part ofthe body
 bitten,nor the stage of the animal's
 disease at the time of tlm bite, nor
the supposed difference of the ori-
ginal  virulence of the poison, nor
the quantity of it inserted into  a
wound,  have any influence on the
rapidity, certainty, or  violence  of
the attack.  After much investiga-
tion ofthe history of nearly all the
cases of this disease, recorded with-
in the last three  centuries ; from
many private communications, and
from  the circumstances attending
an instructive case,which theEditor
had an  opportunity of observing
last year ; he is fully able to make
the above positions. Whether the
bite be received in the head or foot,
during the first hour  of  the ani-
mal's indisposition, or just before
death ; and whether the wound be
large or small, no difference is ob-
served in the appearance ofthe dis-
ease.
   2dly.  No danger is to be appre-
hended from the saliva of a human
person, or of a dog, falling upon the
skin; nor from the breath  of either
being received  into the lungs......
The saliva of a dog must be appli-
ed to a broken surface to infect. The
mere insertion ofthe tooth of a dis-
eased dog, covered with saliva into
the flesh, is sufficient to produce the
disease ;  and the late Dr. Hutch-
inson informed  me of a case in
which it came  on in consequence
of a dog merely licking a sore on the
leg.  Another  case is  recorded in
the Medical Repos.  of the disease
being produced  by a little dog
licking a sore in the ear.  In both
cases the dogs discovered no symp-
toms of madness at the time. It is
of  infinite consequence that  all
these facts should be known.
   3dly. The practice of worming
dogs to prevent their being attack-
ed  by madness  is  highly absurd,
because quite useless.
   The  nature of the present work 
288         BIT
BIT
 will not allow of a more extensive
 detail.   The reader is therefore
 referred to two pamphlets on the
 subject by the editor,  and to the
 Medical Repos. vol. i. and v.
   As no specific  remedy  has yet
 been discovered for the  cure of
 this dreadful  disorder,  we   shall
 suggest a probable plan of  treat-
 ment.
   Prevention....It is a singular and
 fortunate circumstance, (as the dis-
 ease when produced, has always
 proved fatal;) that nearly nineteen
 out of-twenty who  are bitten, es-
 cape.  But this exemption ought
 not to induce a security which may
 prevent every precaution being tak-
 en to avert it. Ifthewoundbe small,
 and in a part capable of extirpation
 no time should be lost in cutting it
 out, as directed by Dr. Willich ;
 if the lower joint  of a finger or toe
 be bitten, take it off without delay.
 If excision cannot be  performed,
 enlarge the wound, pour water on
 it from a tea-kettle  for an hour,
 and keep it open by the stimulating
 ointment mentioned above, for se-
 veral months ; the application of a
 caustic to  the  wound will not an-
swer, and  no internal remedy  can
 be of the  least use.  In case the
disease should appear, give  three
 grains of canlharides in a pill, or
fifteen drops ofthe tincture, every
 hour, diluted with alittle broth, un-
til a violent stranguary,and  soreness
 in the bowels are produced.  Keep
 up these symptoms until those of
 the disease have vanished. Broth
 and mucilaginous drinks,  such as
 flaxseed tea,  may then be taken,
 and clysters of the same combined
 with laudanum, may be given to
 heal the irritated bowels: the warm
bath may  be also  used, and bark,
 w'me and generous  diet to recruit
the  strength.  The  reasons for
the  above treatment arc too long
to be inserted  here,  but may be
found in the two pamphlets men-
tioned before, on  this subject.  It
is however proper to observe, that
not  one of the various  modes of
treatment  hitherto  pursued,  has
ever succeeded.  And as the field
of experiment is  fairly open, it is
perfectly warrantable rather to fol-
low  the light of analogy and con-
jecture in pursuit of a new remedy,
than to persist  in  the use of such
as are  proved to be  incompetent
and  fruitless.  The symptoms ex-
cited by cantharides, are alarming,
but  not dangerous unless the re-
medy be pushed too far. The body
should  also be anointed with warm
oil in a warm room.
   There are few  diseases,  for the
cure  of which quacks have more
successfully imposed upon the cre-
dulity of mankind.  The reputed
success of their nostrums, may be
referred to the following causes.
   1. Every dog that bites is not'
mad.
   2. the part of the  body  bitten,
being covered by clothes, boots, or
shoes by which the saliva is.wiped
from the  tooth, before it reaches
the flesh, and of course the poison
is not  communicated.   In such
cases the  exemption is  attributed
to the remedy-administered.
   3. As  mentioned before,  it is
known that a great many persons
bitten by the same dog are never
infected with the disease.  This is
an  important  consideration, and
ought to be attended to in forming
an  opinion  of a  remedy.   Dogs
ought not to be killed after giving
a bite, but penned up, in order to
discover whether  they are  actual-
ly mad  or not.   It is also of great 
BIT
B I T        289
importance, to keep  the  mind of
the person who may be bitten per-
fectly easy.
  The theory ofthe disease, result-
ing from the action of the canine
poison on the  system, is probably
more involved  in  obscurity,  than
that of any other, to which  the hu-
man body is  liable.  How death
takes place, has not yet been de-
termined.  It cannot be from an
exhaustion of the powers of life by
the spasms, because, as Dr.  Phy-
sick justly observes, " we see oc-
casionally more muscles  in  other
parts  of  the  body affected with
spasms, without any risk being in-
curred."  Dr. Physick thinks it is
occasioned by suffocation, arising
from the spasmodic action of the
muscles,  of the upper part of the
windpipe called glottis; and hence
very judiciously proposes to admit
air to  the lungs, by the operation
of  tracheotomy :  and where the
disease has advanced rapidly, and
no  expectations are  entertained
of  a  cure, I would certainly try
this plan, which is not attended
with any  danger if properly per-
formed.
  Should  the  pain in  swallowing,
continue so excessive, as  to pre-
vent the possibility of swallowing,
the method suggested by Dr. Coxe
of  supplying nourishment, might
be  adopted.   This is,  to  pass  a
flexible tube into the stomach, and
thus  convey liquid food into the
system.   This tube may  remain
until the disease shall abate.  The
same  plan has been  pursued in
France, in cases where violent in-
juries  to the face and mouth, have
produced  a total inability to take
nourishment.]
   BITTER, is a term applied to
substances of a peculiar taste, and
generally  opposed to  sweet; the
     VOL.  I.
principal  of which are,  the  Gen-
tian and Bistort-roots, Hops, Les-
ser Centaury, Carduus, &c.
   Most bitters  impart their vir-
tues, both  to watery and spirituous
fluids.   By  distillation, their taste
is  in a great measure destroyed;
but, on evaporating the watery so-
lution to a thick consistence, the
bitter principle remains unaltered,
and is  frequently improved.   See
Extracts.
   Dr.  Darwin  ingeniously  ob-
serves, that the bitter, narcotic, and
acrid juices  of plants, are secreted
by their glands, for defending ve-
getables against the depredations
of insects, and larger animals.  An
acrid juice  exists  in the husks of
walnuts, and in the pellicle, or skin,
of the kernel; but not in the lobes,
or nutritious part.   Bitters appear
to  have been excluded  from the
seed, lest they might have been in-
jurious to the tender organs of di-
gestion of the embryon plant.  In
some seeds,  however,  he  adds,
there is a bitter  quality, which re-
fuses to mix with the oleaginous
part; as  the oil  expressed  from
bitter almonds  is as  tasteless as
that from  the sweet kind.
   Vegetable bitters  possess  the
combined properties of astringents
and aromatics.  Hence  they are
frequently employed  in  weakness
of the stomach and intestines ; in
cold habits, where  the bile and hu-
mours require to be attenuated or
diluted ; and for promoting natur-
al  evacuations, particularly those ,
by the pores and the urinary canal.
They are  also of service in many
cases of indigestion, loss of appe-
tite, flatulency,  &c  when  these
complaints proceed from muscular
weakness, or a  phlegmatic  and
inert state of the  fluids.  But, in
constitutions where the  fibres arc
     P v 
290        BIT

tense and rigid, or an immoderate
heat and inflammation prevail, the
continued use of bitters, especially
in the  gout,  would  sensibly in-
crease the disorder, and frequently
determine it to the kidneys. Thus
the secretion  of  urine  might be
greatly  checked,  to the injury of
the patient, and  at length either
dropsy  or consumption would be
the natural consequence.
  It  is  not easy to  conceive, in
what  manner bitters taken by the
stomach operate  on the  human
system; though they are generally
considered as powerful tonics.  So
much is certain,  that they do not
act as stimulants; because neither
the frequency of the pulse, nor the
force ofthe circulation, is increased
by their use,  Nor can it be main-
tained, that their  operation is simi-
lar to that of astringents ; so that
bitters are to be considered purely
as tonics, which strengthen, or im-
part new  energy to the muscular
fibres of the stomach;  an effect
which is by sympathy  communi-
cated to other parts of the body.
  Bitter substances are often used,
as vermifuges, though seldom effi-
cacious  ;  and  externally, as anti-
septics.   In  domestic economy,
they  are, at present, chiefly  em-
ployed  for the destruction of in-
sects, Sec. but it deserves  to be re-
marked, that there is scarcely a bit-
ter root growing in this  country,
which might  not be converted to
very  useful purposes...See Bread.
   Bitter-Sweet.  See  Woody
Nightshade.
   BITUMENS, are inflammable
mineral bodies,  not  sulphureous,
or only casually impregnated with
sulphur.  They  are of various de-
grees of consistence, and appear
in the mineral kingdom, to corres-
pond with the oils and resins in the
vegetable. By their peculiar smell,
            BI T

they are easily distinguished from
either purely animal or vegetable
productions.   When  the  native
rock-oils are mixed with concen-
trated mineral acids, they become
thick,and at length consistent: in
which  state they are  called bitu-
mens.
  There is a thin fluid bitumen
called naphtha, which  is found on
the surface of waters, or oozing
from clefts of rocks in the eastern
countries, particularly Persia.  It
has a strong smell, very different
from that of vegetable or animal
oils, is highly inflammable, not so-
luble in spirit of wine, and almost
as limpid as water, with which it
is more averse to unite than  any
other oil.   Next  to naphtha, in
consistence, is petroleum, or rock-
oil : the  former is collected  for
making varnishes,  and the latter
is used for lamps and torches.  Ge-
nuine naphtha is sometimes recom-
mended in diseases  of the nerves,
but it is seldom Obtained in a pure
state.
  The  solid bitumens are, amber,
jet, asphaltum,  or bitumen of Ju-
dea, and fossil or pit-coal.  By dis-
tillation, they all yield an odorous
water, more or less coloured and
saline ; an acid frequently in a
concrete state, an oil similar to the
native rock-oils, but which soon in-
creases in  weight,  and becomes
thicker; and lastly, a quantity of
volatile alkali.  The residuum  is a
charry matter, differing in appear-
ance, according to  the nature of
the analyzed bitumen.
   Barbadoes tar is a bitumen  of a
consistence between  a fluid  and
solid; and turf or peat is, by some
writers, supposed to belong to  this
class.
   It is conjectured  by naturalists,
that all bitumens are of animal or
vegetable origin: and that the cir- 
BL A
B L A        291
ifumstances by  which they differ
from the resinous and other oily
matters of vegetables and  animals,
are the natural effects of time : or
of an alteration produced  on them
by mineral acids; or of both causes
combined.  This  opinion is  the
more probable, as bitumens, on a
chemicle  analysis, afford oil  and
volatile  alkali, neither of  which is
found in any other minerals.
  BLACK, the darkest of colours,
supposed to be owing to the  ab-
sence of light, as most of the rays
which fall  on  black substances
are  not reflected,  but absorbed by
them.
   There are many shades or va-
rieties of this colour.  The native
black substances, are black chalk,
pitcoal,  black  sands, black vege-
table juices, and  cuttle-fish  ink.
Those which are  the product of
fire, comprehend charcoal blacks,
soot  blacks, and  black  metallic
calces.
  Blacks obtained by mixture, are
those from iron, silver, and from a
combination of lead with  sulphur.
The infusions of certain vegetable
astringents, mixed  with green  vi-
triol (which is a solution of iron in
the sulphuric acid), produce a deep
black colour, of most  extensive
use for dyeing and staining.   The
astringent substances chiefly em-
ployed for this  purpose,  are  the
excrescences of the oak-tree, call-
i d galls :  all parts of this tree, as
the leaves, acorns', and more par-
ticularly  the bark and wood.   A
great variety of other  vegetable
substances,  such  as  the- small
branches, and flowers of  the  su-
mach-tree, alder bark, bistort root,
and, in  general, those which  are
astringent or corrugating to  the
taste, possess similar properties.
 The power by which these vegeta-
 bles strike black  with  vitriol, and
 their astringency, are proportional
 to one another, and seem  to  de-
 pend on one and the same  princi-
 ple.  Of the other properties  of
 this astringent and colouring mat-
 ter, little more is known, than that
 it is dissolved  and extracted both
 by  water and  spirit  of wine, and
 that it does not exhale on the eva*
 poration of the menstruum....See
 the article Dyeing.
   The only native vegetable black,
 is the juice of the cashew .nut-tree,
 or, Anacardium occidentale,  which
 probably is the tree that yields the
 black varnish of China and Japan.
 ....See Varnish.
   Lastly,  there  are also several
 colours artificially prepared for the
 use of painters, such as lamp-blackj
 ivory-black,  German-black, Sec....*
 See Colour-making.
   BLACK-BIRD, or Turdus me-
 rula, a  species  of  the thrush.
 When young, its  plumage is  of a
 rusty black; but at the  age  of one
 year, being  the period of its full
 growth,  its feathers acquire a deep
 glossy black, the bill a bright yel-
 low, and the edges of the eye-lids
 a similar colour.
  The  black-bird  loves  solitude,
 and chiefly frequents thickets, and
 the remotest parts of plantations
 and  woods.   In  severe  winters,
 however, it is sometimes compell-
 ed to approach barns and  farm-
 yards, in search of food.  It  builds
 earlier than any  other  bird,  and
forms its nest in hedges and thick-.
ets, of withered grass and  moss,
plastered with  clay,  and covered
with hay or straw.   Its eggs  are
commonly  four or five in number,
of a blueish-green  colour, marked
with irregular dark spots.  About 
292        B L A
BL A
the latter end of March, it has a
young brood, which may be taken
at ten or twelve day^  old.  The
only way to distinguish the young
cock from the hen, is by its colour;
as that ofthe former is of a deeper
black.   When  young,  they  are
commonly fed with bread and milk,
or curds;  but  the  most proper
nourishment is a  sheep's heart
chopped small, mixed with bread
and  moistened with water:  they
should be fed every two hours, and
kept very clean.
   This bird, especially the male,
has a very pleasing note, but too
loud for  a confined  situation ;  and
it may be taught to whistle tunes to
a pipe.  It sings  during the spring,
and the early part of summer; is
silent in  the moulting season, and
resumes its music in the latter part
of autumn.
   [BLACK-BIRD,  (CROWT).
Gracula Barita.
  BLACK-BIRD (RED-WING-
ED).... Oriolus Phaniceus.
  These birds make their appear-
ance in March, and are generally
called black-birds,  because in the
spring season, before the time of
incubation, and  in  autumn, after
they have reared their young, they
flock together, and  confederate in
their  depredations,  on  the  corn
(maize) ai d grain fields.
  BLACK CATTLE, among gra-
ziers, denotes all the larger kinds
of domestic animals which contri-
bute to our support or convenience;
such  as oxen, cows, horses,  Sec.
As these will be respectively treat-
ed of in their proper order, we shall,
therefore, at present, state only the
essential properties  of a  perfect
breed of black cdttle, designed for
the purposes of the  dairy, as  laid
down by Mr. Marshall :
   1. The head small and clean, to
lessen the quantity of offal. 2. The
neck thin and clean, to lighten the
fore-end, as well as to lessen the
collar,  and make it fit close  and
easy to the animal in work. 3. The
carcass large, the chest deep,  and
the  bosom  broad,  with the  ribs
standing out full from the spine j
to give strength of frame and con-
stitution,  and  to  allow  sufficient
room for the intestines within the
ribs. 4. The shoulders  should be
light of bone, and rounded off at the
lower point, that the collar may be
easy, but broad, to give strength ;
and well covered with flesh, for the
greater ease of draught, as well as
to furnish a desired point in fatten-
ing cattle.   5.  The  back ought to
be wide and level throughout; the
quarters long ; the thighs thin,  and
standing narrow at the round bone;
the udder large when full, but thin
and loose when empty, to hold the
greater quantity of milk; with
large dug-veins to fill it, and long
elastic teats for drawing it off with
greater ease.   6. The legs (below
the knee and hock) straight, and of
a middle length; their bones, in ge-
neral, light and clean from fleshi-
ness, but with the joints and sinews
of a moderate size, for the purposes
of strength and activity.  7. The
flesh ought to be mellow in  the
state of fleshiness, and firm in the
state of fatness.  8. The hide mel-
low, and  of a  middle  thickness,
though,  in our author's opinion,
this is  a point not yet well deter-
mined.
   Black  Cattle, as well as horses,
have been observed to thrive better
in salt-marshes, than in fresh-water
meadows, or upland  pastures ;  and
it has  been  conjectured, that  the
herbs produced by  the lands near
the sea, are more healthy for her-
baceous animals,than such as grow 
BLA
B L A       293
 on higher lands.   But it is said,
 that the saline particles with which
 the earth,  as well as its produce
 near the sea,  is strongly impreg-
 nated,  occasions  this beneficial
 change in the condition of cattle :
 as these salts purge away the foul
 humours  which  the  beasts have
 contracted, either by idleness, or by
 being  over-heated in labour.  As
 cattle are naturally fond of salt, and
 if left at their liberty, will take no
 more of it  than what  is conducive
 to their health, it is recommended
 to lay common sea-salt in the fields,
 for  them to lick as often as they
 please.  See Salt.
   BLACK CANKER, is the name
 given by husbandmen to a  cater-
 pillar which commits great devas-
 tation  among turnips.   The best
 method of destroying these insects
 is, to turn a body of ducks into the
 fields  infested by them.   In the
 year 1784, Mr. Cork purchased
 four hundred ducks, and set them
 at liberty on thirty-three acres of
 turnips,  which  they  completely
 cleared of  the caterpillar in five
 days.   In  a  relative  proportion,
 twenty or thirty mightbe employed
 upon a small farm, with considera-
 ble effect.
   Black Clock.  See Beetle.
   BLACK FLY, an insect that at-
 tacks the seedling  leaves of tur-
 nips, cabbages,  and  many other
 vegetables.   In  summer, it may
 frequently  be seen in swarms  on
 the wing near the ground, search-
 ing for, and  settling on the fresh
 bites;  and  thus, in some seasons,
 destroying thousands of acres. Its
 ravages may be prevented by the
following means :
  Mixone ounce of flour of sulphur
 with three  pounds of turnip-seed
daily, for three days successively,
in a glazed earthen not, and keep
 it closely covered, stirring it well
 at each addition, that the seed may
 be impregnated with the sulphur :
 then sow it as usual, on an acre of
 ground, and the fly will not attack
 it till the third or fourth seedling-
 leaf is formed, by which time the
 plant will have acquired a bitterish
 property, and consequently  be out
 of  danger.   Others advise to  fix
 alder boughs in a harrow, and draw
 them over  the  land immediately
 after the seed  is  sown.   Again,
 others bruise the boughs, and fumi-
 gate them with burnt tobacco, and
 a small quantity of asafoetida....See
 Turnip.
   BLACK LAND, in agriculture,
 a term  used to denote a peculiar
 kind of clayey soil, which in rainy
 weather appears  of a dusky  or
 blackish colour, though, when dry,
 it more resembles a pale grey, than
 a true black.   On  ploughing  this
 soil, especially in wet seasons, it is
 apt to adhere to the plough-shares;
 and assumes a darker and muddier
 appearance, the more it is worked.
 It  generally abounds  with small
 white   stones,   and always con-
 tains a  considerable proportion of
 sand.   A soil of this description
 may be  improved, by manuring it
 with  such substances  as  tend to
 pulverize the ground, and deprive
 it of its tenacity.  See Land and
 Manure.
  Black Lead.   See Lead.
  BLACK  LEATHER  is that
 which, having passed through the
 hands of the currier, after  being
 scored and rubbed three times on
 the grain side with copperas-water,
 acquires a black colour, instead of
the russet, as left by the tanners.
 See Leather.
  BLACK-LEGS,  a name  given
by the Leicestershire breeders to a
disease incident to calves and sheep. 
 £D-i       BLA

 It is a kind of gelatinous humour,
 which settles between the skin and
 flesh of the neck, and not unfre-
 qucntly in their legs.  To remove
 this troublesome  complaint, we
 Conceive  that  the sal ammoniac
 dissolved  in the smallest  possible
 quantity of water, and applied to
 the  parts  affected,  by means of
 proper compresses, or even simple
 friction,  conjoined  with  suitable
 exercise, would be the most effec-
 tual remedy.
   BLACK TIN, in mineralogy, a
 term given to tin  ore when it  is
 ready to be melted into metal, af-
 ter  having been  well  stamped,
 washed and dressed. It is taken up
 from the  washing-troughs in the
 form of a fine black powder, and
 from this  circumstance is called
 black tin; two pounds of which be-
 ing melted, will produce one pound
 of white tin.  The principal mines
 from which this useful  metal  is
 obtained in Britain,  are those in
 Cornwall.   See Tin.
   BLACK WXA.DD, in mineralo-
 gy is a kind of ore of manganese,
 remarkable for its property of tak-
 ing fire, when mixed with a certain
 proportion of linseed-oil.    It  is
 found  in Derbyshire, and is a use-
 ful ingredient in paints; for on be-
 ing ground with a  large  quantity
 of oily matter, it loses the property
 above-mentioned.
   BLACKBERRY,  the  fruit of
 the  common  bramble, or Rubus
fruticosus,!^.  See  Bramble.
   These  berries, when eaten im-
 moderately,  and  too frequently,
 are  apt to produce the most vio-
 lent  effects,  as fever,  delirium,
 &c.
   [Blackberry.   Rubus Ameri-
 canns.  We have two distinct spe-
 cies, the fruit of which, ip general
 is called blackberries.  The first
            BLA

which we designate by the above ti-
tle, is  a robust plant, which  fre-
quently, in a rich moist loose soil,
will  send forth shoots  10 or  12
feet in  length, and an inch in dia-
meter, somewhat ribbed or angled,
armed  with strong hooked spines ;
the next season after these shoots
spring out ofthe earth, they flower,
and bear fruit in corymbs or clus-
ters, which  terminate  like  tha
branches, proceeding from the ax-
ills of  the leaves; the fruit is ob-
long, above an inch in length, 1 of
an inch in diameter, of a beautiful
shining black  colour,  and of  an
agreeable taste, sweetish mixed
with a sub-acid astringency.
   The second species we shall no-
tice,  Rubus  procumbens,  [Rubus
hispidis of Marshall,]  is com-
monly  known  by  the  name  of
Dewberry.   This brier does not
grow either so high or  so robust
as the  preceding species; itsstem9
are weaker, diverge from the root,
and bear down towards the earth;
their extremities often trail on the
ground,  and taking  root  in  the
earth,  form  new plants,' and in a
little time spread over uncultivated
fields.   This specie3 prefers high
hilly land; the fruit is large,near-
ly round, and black when ripe, suf-
fused  with  a glaucous nibula, or
mist,  like the Damacene  plum,
grapes, Sec.  They possess a sweet
and lively sub-acid taste, and for
eating is generally preferred to the
former species.
   A jelly made  of blackberries,
or dewberries, when on the turn
from red to black, is much used in
the  United States for the gravel.
A friend of the Editor, subject to
this disease, spoke highly in praise
of the remedy.]
   Rubus  occidentalis.  See  Ras-
berry. 
            BLA

  BLACKING, in general, signi-
fies a  factitious black; as lamp-
black, shoe-black, 8cc.  The com-
mon oil-blacking, consists of ivory-
black mixed with linseed-oil.  The
shining blacking is  made in vari-
ous ways, and affords employment
to several persons in the metropo-
lis, who prepare it for the supply
of the shops.   The preparation
which has  experienced the most
extensive sale,  is probably that of
Mr. Bay ley.   His patent being
expired, we shall communicate the
particulars of the process.  Take
one part of the gummy juice that
issues in the months of June, July
 and August, from the shrub called
 the goat's thorn; four parts of river
 water ; two parts of neat's foot, or
 some other soft,  lubricating  oil;
 two parts of superfine ivory-black;
. two parts of deep blue, prepared
 from  iron  and copper: and four
 parts of brown sugar-candy.  Let
the water be evaporated, and, when
the composition  is of  a proper
consistence, let it be formed into
 cakes, of such  size that each cake
 may make a pint of liquid black-
ing-
   [The goat's  thorn mentioned, is
 the Astragalus  tragacantha,  Lin.
 the plant producing the common
 gum tragacantha of the shops.  It
 is a native of the South of France,
 and of Switzerland. Mr. Miller
 enumerates four  species  of the
 plant.  In  the United  States we
 have  two  herbaceous  species of
 this genus: viz. A. Canadensis, or
 woolly milk-yvetch, and A. Caroli-
 tiianus, or Car. milky v.....As yet,
 they have been applied to no medi-
 cinal purpose, but cattle eat them.
 The A. tragacantha would certain-
 ly flourish in  the  United States,
 and ought to be sent over by our
            BLA       295

consul at Marseilles, or brought
home by some American.]
  Frankfort-blacking is made by a
process much  more simple.   A
quantity  of the lees of wine  is
burnt in a well closed vessel, and
the residuum  reduced  to powder,
which when  mixed with  water,
is fit  for immediate  use ; or, if
made into cakes, may be preserved
for any length of time.
   Ivory-black,  as  imported from
Holland, is prepared in the follow-
ing manner: Small pieces of ivory
are smeared with a little  linseed-
oil, and put into a black-lead cru-
cible ; this is covered with  a simi-
lar vessel inverted, but of a smaller
size, and  the crevices are secured
with a lute made  of potter's clay
and rye-flour, so as to prevent the
access of external air.   Thus pre-
pared, the  whole  is exposed to a
red heat, not too intense, for about
half an hour, after which it is taktfa
out and suffered to cool gradually.
When cold, the charred ivory, or
bones, where  the former is scarce,
ought to be  reduced to powder,
and triturated, with the addition of
water, on a painter's stone, till it
assumes  the  form of a  smooth
paste.  In this state, it is moulded
into  small cones, and  allowed to
dry.   Similar black may  also be
obtained by burning the stones of
peaches, after having  previously
dried them and removed the ker-
nels.  This useful fact we  state on
the authority of Hochheimer, a
German  writer  on general eco-
nomy.
   BLADDER, in anatomy, a thin
membranous, expanded receptacle
of some  juice or humour secreted
in  the animal body.   This term
principally applies to the vessels'in
which the urine and Lifo  are  re- 
296       BLA
BLA
 spectively collected; and hence the
 two chief reservoirs of this nature
 are  the urinary bladder,  and that
 containing the bile.  In this  place
 we shall treat only of the former,
 which is situated within the cavity
 ofthe pelvis : its form is oval, and
 being a continuation of the  abdo-
 men, it  is  almost uniformly sur-
 rounded with bones, though below,
 and at each side, encompassed by
 muscles.   It  is remarkable,  that
 this vessel is  considerably larger
 in  the female than  in  the  male
 sex.
   Nature has wisely contrived that
 the human bladder should possess
 a high degreeof expansion,for con-
 taining the watery parts secreted
 from the  chyle,  as  they would
 otherwise  mix with the  blood of
 animals, and render that fluid too
 thin  for  the  performance of its
 functions.  Though a large pro-
 portion of such aqueous humours,
 from three to four  pounds every
 day,  are insensibly  evacuated by
 the skin, yet a still greater quanti-
ty must be secreted by the kidneys,
 and thence conducted to the  blad-
der, lest they  should  accumulate
between the interstices of the cel-
lular  membrane, which covers all
the muscles, and occasion dropsical
swellings.  On the other hand, the
diseases incident to the bladder are
various, but principally arise  from
debility, spasms, and calculous con-
cretions ; for an account of which,
we refer to the articles  Gravel,
Stone, and Urine.  At present,
we shall confine ourselves to the
inflammatory  state of that vessel,
which requires immediate relief.
This  dangerous  malady  is  occa-
sioned by stimulating  medicines  ;
gravel and stones lodged in the
©rifice of the bladder; violent  exer-
cise after a long retention of urine,
and  especially in  hot  weather;
lying in  soft, effeminating  fea-
ther-beds,  Sec.   The   symptoms
are manifest  from an acute burn-
ing pain,  and tension of the part,
frequent inclination to go to stool,
and  a  constant  desire  to make
water, while  the  patient is  in  a
state  of fever.   As under  such
circumstances, no time should be
lost in applying for proper advice,
it would be needless to enlarge on
the treatment of  the disease ; but
we shall observe that, beside bleed-
ing  and purgatives both  by the
mouth  and  injections,  it will be
necessary to drink plentifully of
emollient decoctions, or other be-
verages of a  cooling and diuretic
nature.   Previous to the arrival of
a medical man, leeches  may be ap-
plied to the part affected, the lower
belly should be diligently fomented
with warm water, and  the patient
be placed in a tepid bath,  not ex-
ceeding 88°.  If, however, the pain
suddenly  abates,  and is succeeded
by  cold  sweats, hiccough,  fetid
urine, or a total suppression of it,
there is  reason  to  apprehend  a
mortification, and fatal issue of the
disease.
   [The want of fullness and tension
in  the pulse in this  disease, must
not be attended to.  We must be
guided  by the continuance of the
symptoms.   Bleeding  should  be
repeated every three or four hours,
and half a pint taken  away. at a
time. No disease requires or bears
more copious bleeding.  Clysters
of cool  water ought also to be in-
jected.]
   BLADDER-NUT-TREE,  or
the Staphylea, L.  is a plant contain-
ing two species, the pinnaoi, indi-
genous  in Britain, and the trifolia, 
            BLA

•r three-leaved bladder-nut, a na-
tive of Virginia.  For the first, to
which we shall confine our account,
see Withering, 317.  The flow-
ers are white, and grow  on  long
pendulous foot-stalks ;  the plant
blows in June.
   This shrub affords an oil which
might be employed for lamps, but
the trouble of expressing  it is too
great. The wood is hard, and used
on the Continent for various do-
mestic purposes ;  and  the flowers
are much frequented by bees.
   BLAIN,  in farriery, a distem-
per  incident to horses and cattle,
consisting of a tumor which grows
on the  root  of the tongue, and
swells to such a size as frequently
to stop respiration. It is caused by
excessive irritation and heat of the
stomach, and discovers itself by the
animal's gaping, and hanging out
its tongue.  The method of cure is
as follows:  Lay the beast on the
ground, open the tumor, and wash
it with vinegar and a little salt.
   BLANCHING, the  art or man-
ner of rendering any thing white.
See Bleaching.
   The blanching of woollen stuffs
is performed with rsoap, chalk, sul-
phur, Sec.  Silk  is blanched with
soap and  sulphur; and wax is ren-
dered white by exposing it to the
action of the sun and dew. See Wax.
   BLANKET, an article  of com-
merce so well known in domestic
economy, that any definition of it
would be superfluous.
   The best kind of blankets is ma-
nufactured at Whitney, in Oxford-
shire : their excellency is attribut-
ed by some persons to the abster-
sive  nitrous  water of the  river
Windrush,  with which they are
scoured : while others imagine it
is  to be ascribed to  a  peculiar
looseness-in the spinning.  Blank-
     VOL. I.
            BLE       297

ets are made of felt-wool, or that
from sheepskins, which is divided
into several sorts.  Of the head-
wool  and  bay-wool,  they  make
blankets of ten, eleven and twelve
quarters  broad ;  of the ordinary
sort, those of 7 and 8 quarters; and
ofthe best tail-wool, are made blan-
kets of six  quarters  broad com-
monly called cuts, and used for sea-
men's hammocks....See Hykes.
   BLAST, in agriculture and gar-
dening, is a term synonimous with
blight, which see.
   That species of blasts called ure-
dincs, or fire-blasts, is supposed by
Mr. Hales, to originate from the
solar  rays, reflected from, or con-
densed in the clouds, or collected
by the steams in hop-gardens,  &c.
They wither, scorch, and blacken
the leaves, blossoms, and fruits of
trees, shrubs, grass, corn, 8cc. and
this devastation is at times extend-
ed over whole tracts of ground.
   Balatta.  See Cockroach.
   BLEACHING, is the  art of
whitening linen cloth, thread, cot-
ton, See.   In  the present advanced
state of the linen and cotton manu-
factures of Great-Britain and Ire-
land,  the art of bleaching is one of
the most interesting and import-
ant.  Its object is to reduce fax,
cotton, or the threads or cloths ma-
nufactured from them, to a state
of perfect whiteness.  To attain
this end,  oils,  metallic  oxides,
earthy impregnations, resihs,  and
other animal, vegetable, or mine-
ral particles, containing any co-
lour'.ng matter, must be discharg-
ed from the  texture  of the sub-
stances manufactured.
   The process of bleaching is di-
vided into five parts, viz. 1. Steep-
ing and  milling ; 2. Bucking and
boiling ; 3. Alternate watering and
drving;  4. Souring;  and,  5. Rub- 
298        BLE
BLE
bing with soap and warm water,
starching and  blueing.   By  the
first of these methods, the cloth is
in a great degree freed from its su-
perficial  foulness,  and is rendered
more pliant and soft.   The second
process is the  most  important  of
the whole.  Its object is to loosen
and carry off, by means of alkaline
leys,  that particular  substance  in
cloth,  which  is the  cause of its
brown colour.  The  operation  of
alternate watering and drying is  as
follows :  After the cloth has been
bucked,  it is  carried out to the
field, and frequently watered, dur-
ing the first six hours.  For, if in
the course of that time it be allow-
ed to dry, while strongly impreg-
nated with salts, the latter, by ap-
proaching closer together, and be-
ing  assisted by a degree of heat
which increases  in proportion  to
the dryness of the  cloth,  act with
greater force,  and destroy its  tex-
ture.   After this  time, dry spots
are suffered to appear before it re-
ceives any water.
   By  the  continual  evaporation
which takes place  on  the surface
of the cloth, it is evident that this
operation is intended to carry off
some impurities that  remain after
the former process of bucking....
This  is  clearly proved from the
fact, that the  upper side of the
cloth,  where  the   evaporation  is
strongest, attains to a greater de-
gree of whiteness than the reverse
side ; and the whole likewise turns
much lighter on being exposed  to
the influence of the sun,  air,  and
winds.
   Souring.....Every  person,  who
possesses the  smallest knowledge
of chemistry, is aware that alkaline
salts may, by various methods, be
converted into absorbent earths....
One of these is, frequent solution
in water, and again evaporating it.
A transmutation, therefore,of these
salts must be continually going for-
wards in the cloth,  during the al-
ternate  waterings and dryings of
the former process.   The souring
process is sooner completed in Cold
than in warm  weather ;  and it is
now experimentally  ascertained,
that vitriol  is  preferable to milk
sours in bleaching.
  The next is, hand rubbing with
soap and warm  water,   rubbing-
boards, starching,  and  blueing...„
After the  cloth  has been sufficient-
ly soured, it is  washed in the mill,
to deprive it of the acrid  particles
which adhere to its surface.  From
the mill,  it is taken to be washed
by the hand, with soap  and warm
water, to  free it from the oily par-
ticles which could  not  be  disen-
gaged  by the  milling.   Soft soap
is preferred to  hard,  for this pur-
pose, as the latter contains a con-
siderable quantity of sea-salt, which
is prejudicial to the cloth.
  The management of coarse cloth
in this operation  is very different
from that of fine : for the former,
instead  of being worked by the
hands (a  method which would be
too expensive),  is laid upon a table,
rubbed over with soap,  and then
placed between what are  called
rubbing-boards, which have ridges
and  grooves from one side to the
other,  in  the form of teeth.
  The starching and blueing, which
is the last operation, differs so little
from the process employed by laun-
dry-women, that it  scarcely  re-
quires  description.  But it  often
happens, that the cloth, when ex-
posed to dry in the open air, after
being starched, is wetted by rain,
which frustrates the effects intend-
ed by the operation: to remedy this
inconvenience, many bleachers em-
ploy a  dry-house, where the linen
may be dryed in  all weathers. 
BLE
BLE        299
    As bleaching is a process still
 susceptible of improvement,scarce-
 ly a year elapses, which does not
 produce  some  new discovery in
 this useful branch of manufactures.
 We shall, therefore, content our-
 selves with communicating a few
 of such hints as may prove advan-
 tageous to the practical bleacher ;
 and with which, we presume, there
 are many persons still unacquainted
   The new method, of bleaching
 with the dephlogisticated or oxyge-
 nated  muriatic  acid, or spirit  of
 salt combined with manganese, is
 founded upon the remarkable pro-
 perty  which that acid possesses of
 destroying vegetable colours; and
 though various attempts have been
 made to introduce it into this coun-
 try,the difficulties or disadvantages
 attending it have prevented its ge-
 neral adoption.  This acid was first
 applied to the purpose of bleaching
 by M. Berthollet ; and the  par-
 ticulars of the process are describ-
 ed at length in a treatise on bleach-
 ing published a few years since, at
 Edinburgh.
   It is to be regretted, that no ex-
 act comparative statement of the
 difference of expense between the
 old and new methods of bleaching,
 has yet been laid before the public;
 but it  is  probable that  the acid
 drawn from one pound of salt, will
 whiten four of linen cloth, with-
 out any addition.  The expense in
 this case may appear trifling,  but
 when we compute the vitriolic acid
 which  is employed,  and that  the
 residuum is almost useless, it will
 soon be found to be very consider-
 able ;  and upon the whole, the  ad-
 vantage may be only in the saving
of time : but  M. Berthollet as-
serts, that by this method the tex-
ture ofthe cloth is less injured than
by that hitherto practised.
    The oxy-muriatic acid is also
  very generally used for  bleaching
  paper.   According to M. Chap-
  tal, blotting-paper, when put into
  it,  is bleached without  suffering
  any injury :  and old books, and
  prints, when soiled in such a man-
  ner as to be scarcely distinguisha-
  ble,  have been completely restored
  to their original state. The simple
  immersion of a print in this acid, is
  sufficient to produce that desirable
  effect; but  with books  some far-
  ther precaution is necessary: they
  should be unsewed, and the adher-
  ing leaves carefully separated, that
  the whole may be equally impreg-
  nated.
   Mr. Higgins,  chemist to the
  Irish Linen Board, has discovered
  that the oxy-muriate of lime is, in
  bleaching, not only cheaper, but in
  other respects preferable to that of
 pot-ash.  The chemical attraction
 ofthe former is somewhat stronger
 than that of the latter;  and, on
 account of this quality, it does less
 injury to  the  cloth.   Alternate
 boilings  in  solutions of  pot-ash,
 steepings in oxy-muriate of lime,
 exposure  to the action  of light,
 and evaporating wateron the green,
 are found to complete within six
 weeks, at little more than half the
 expense, what otherwise cannot be
 performed in less than double the
 time.
  Notwithstanding  this great  im-
 provement,   Mr.  Higgins   was
 anxious to  diminish  still  farther
 the expense attending the process
 of bleaching.  Convinced  that the
 mixtures of sulphur with soda,  are
 detergents,or cleansers ofthe most
powerful kind,  he  was naturally,
led to conjecture, that lime, which,
in other respects, possesses  pro-
perties nearly similar to  those of
the fixed alkali,might also resemble 
300        BLE

them in the  detergent  effect  of
their combination with sulphur....
He  made  trial:  a sulphuret of
lime, composed of four pounds of
sulphur added to twenty  pounds of
lime, and  diluted in sixteen gal-
lons  of water, formed  a solution
which answered cold, just as well
for the"bleaching of linen, as the
boiling solution of ppt-ash.  In con-
 sequence of  this  experiment, he
recommends, that  linen, after  be-
 ing perfectly  cleansed  from  the
weaver's  dressing,  be  immersed
 alternately in solutions of sulphuret
 of lime,  and of oxy-muriate  of
 lime, namely, six times  in each.
 By this method, linen may be com-
 pletely bleached, and with a con-
 siderable  saving of expense.   In
 Ireland, it is  at present almost ge-
 nerally adopted.
    [The following  process is com-
 municated by T. Cooper, of Nor-
 thumberland, an excellent chemist,
 who says,  it was the result of the
 successful experience  of 3 years
 in England,  where it is still a se-
 cret.
   " Bleaching Linen...An bleaching
 linen, the objects are as follow : To
 get rid of the sowen or paste used
 by the weaver : to destroy the co-
 louring  matter of the cloth ;  to
 give additional whiteness when this
 is destroyed; and to give apparent
  fineness to the cloth.
    Into a tub sunk in the ground,
  put any number of pieces from 50
  to 100 immersed in  water.  Let
  them stay therein for two or three
  days, until there is an  appearance
  of fermentation.  Take them out
  and dash them well in  the dash-
  wheel, and lay them down on the
  grass  till  dry.   Into a cuir or
  round tub, about four feet six in-
  ches deep, capable of holding 220
  pieces of common Irish linen, put
            BLE

in that quantity. The upper piece*
should be covered by pieces twisted
and placed very close, so that the
steam may be somewhat confined ;
near  the bottom of this cuir is a
hole, stopped occasionally with a
plug through which the liquor is
let out into an iron pan just below.
Under this pan is a fire, with its
proper  flue.   Put  into  this iron
pan 70lb. of  good  pot-ash.   It is
absurd  to use kelp or barilla : it
 is  more impure,   much weaker
 when pure,  and in all  respects
 dearer and less efficacious, than the
 vegetable alkali.  Fill the pan with
 water, and  make  a fire under il.
 The pan should hold just enough
 to let the liquor   cover the cloth
 when the cuir is full and the plug
 in.
   By the side of the pan stands a
 man with a tin vessel, holding a-
 bout a gallon, fixed at the end of a
  wooden handle ;  with  which he
  continually lades out the liqour in
  the  pan to the cloth, distributing it
  evenly, beginning with it cold, and
  continuing as it boils  from morn-
  ing to night, occasionally filling up
  the pan to prevent  the alkaline so-
  lution being too strong.  This ope-
  ration, which should continue nine
  hours, is called bouking. The cloth
  is thus left all night, taken out in
  the morning, well  dashed and laid
  down on the grass for about  a week,
  being turned every day or two.  It
  must  undergo this operation  of
  bouking a second  time, with from
  50  to  601b. of pot-ash, and being
  well dashed, is laid down as before.
  It is now  soured  in  vitriolic acid
  and water, in tubs sunk  in the
  ground: the mixture should be the
  strength of strong vinegar  or a lit-
  tle more. In this souring they should
  continue two days and nights at
  least:  then  dashed  well; layed 
            BLE

down for a week and turned as be-
fore.   The pieces should then be
bouked with 30lb. of pearl ash, and
ten  pounds  of soap  to a cuir;
dashed, laid down for three or four
days :  then  soured, dashed, laid
down for three or four days,  turn-
ed, iAc. as before.
   Bouk  again  with  25lb. of  good
pearl-ash to a cuir.   Dash,  lay
down for two  or three  days, and
then sour if you please in the oxy-
genated  muriatic acid, made* in the
manner directed in the article Mu-
 riatic Acid.   If you do not  use
 the oxygenated acid, sour again in
 common vitriolic acid  for six or
 eight hours, and wash it  extremely
 well.   Indeed, perfect dashing  con-
 tinued to a certainty of all the  acid
 being washed  out, is indispensible :
 otherwise the pieces  would  rot on
 the ground when dry.
    Less  than a month  is not suffici-
 ent to get a piece of linen cloth per-
 fectly white, though half that time
 will do for callicoes in England....
 But in America the superior heat
 of the sun will  save  at least  one
 fourth of the time in laying down
 the pieces. After this process, the
 cloth  in Ireland is  put  under the
 operation of the rubbing boards,
 which certainly injure the texture,
 as appears by the knap in the teeth,
 although the more soap is used the
 less injury is done.  But it is a part
 of the manufacture  which may be
 omitted where the cloth is required
 to gain  credit by the strength of
 its texture.
    After the  rubbing boards the
 cloth is  gradually  wound  round
 cylinders of wood  and  beetled.....
 The beetles are stampers lifted up
 by a cog-wheel, and let  fall on the
 cloth, as it is slowly taken up round
 a turning cylinder.  This is also a
 part of  the operation by which the
           BLE         301

thread is  flattened, and  the  cloth
made to look finer at the expense
of the texture.
   It is then run through a very thin
solution of fine starch, and blued
with  smalt.   Then  run through
two cylinders to give it evenness
and gloss, and made up for market.
   Bleaching of Cotton......The pro-
cess is  exactly the  same  as for
linen, only requiring less time and
labour, viz.....
   1. Steep the grey cloth for two
or three days, then wash.
   2.  Bouk with 701b. of pot ash
to 230  pieces  of  callicoe of 28^
yards each, or muslinets, velver-
ets, lAc. in proportion, that is to a
 cuir, {keer)  full, which will hold
 230 callicoes in the grey.   A cuir
 that will hold 230 callicoes will not
 hold quite so many of Irish linen
 of equal  length.
   3. Lay  the  goods down  on the
 grass three  days,  turning  them
each day.
   4. Bouk with 50lb. of good pearl
ash, and about  5lb. of soap.   Dash,
 lay down for three days as before.
   5. Sour in vitriolic acid and wa-
 ter, the strength of strong vinegar
 for two days.
   6. Dash well, lay down for three
 days as before.
   7. Bouk with 30lb.  of pearl ash,
 dash and lay down for three days.
   8. Bleach with oxygenated mu-
 riatic acid.  Dash  well, lay down
 for a day, dash again and make up
 the callicoes.
    The oxygenated muriatic acid,
 was  discovered by Scheele ;  its
 application  to bleaching was first
 suggested  by  Berthollet and
 Chaptall in  France, and used at
 Glasgow, by  Mr. Watt, and in
 Manchester in the year 1791 in a
 large way, first by Baker and Co.
 whose  process has never yet been 
302        BLE
BLE
 made public, and is that now about
 to be detailed.
   The method of making this acid
 for bleaching,yet used in Manches-
 ter and elsewhere, is by adding to
 3 parts, by weight, of manganese,
 8 parts of common salt and 6 parts
 of oil of vitriol, and 12 of water....
 These are  distilled together, and
 the products received in barrels of
 water, arranged  in  the  manner of
 Wolfe's apparatus by tubes  com-
 municating  from the retort to the
 first barrel,  and from the first to a
 second.  Sometimes the water is
 only  impregnated with the  acid,
 sometimes it^l^made  to saturate
 lime  or  pearl ash.  This process
 cannot be used with economy ; the
 trouble and expense of retorts, and
 the attendance on the fire renders
 it complicated so as ultimately to
 bring it  into disuse.   It has not
 yet,  and  never  will  answer for
 goods  in  general.   Where parti-
 cular patterns are suddenly want-
 ed for the market it may pay.
  The writer of this article attend-
 ed for three years continually to
 the bleaching of cotton goods of
various kinds, to  the amount of 800
 pieces of callico per week, on the
 average of the year, by the  follow-
 ing process.  The  goods  under-
 went three bouckings, as described
before in this  article,  and two
 acid  baths.   The third was the
 oxygenated  muriatic acid made as
follows. In a building of one room
 on a  bank  and  another over it,
were placed on substantial  frames
 or tressels, five wooden cylindrical
 machines four  feet diameter by
 five feet long, the staves two and an
 half inches  thick  and well dove-
 tailed.  Into each of these, twice
 jrtlay, through a funnel inserted in
a two  inch  augur  hole  and let
 through  the  floor of  the upper
room was poured 75lb.  of salt and
25lb. of red lead.  To this was ad-
ded 40lb. of oil of vitriol, weighing
29* oz. to the wine pint.
   The  machine  was  then filled
with  water, the augur hole stopt
with a plug and rag, and then turn-
ed round  20 or 30  times, and  in
15 minutes the acid was made....
The vitriolic acid  acts on the  salt,
and the marine acid thus produced
on the  red lead, which in a few
minutes is deprived of its oxygen,
and converted into vitriol of lead.
The handle of each machine was
fixed on the centre of one of the
ends  with  two cross-bars  [X].....
The acid when made was let off on
the pieces placed in wooden  ves-
sels in a  room adjoining and be-
low.   It  frequently occasioned a
spitting of blood among the work-
men who took out the pieces, but
was  never attended with  any  fur-
ther deleterious effects, laudanum
relieved the short phthisicky cough.
One of these vessels full was allow-
ed to 60 muslin ets.   No lead re-
mained in the liquor, for vitriol of
lead is insoluble.
   This process may be  imitated
in a small way, by pouring into a
strong vial, with a  glass stopper,
about an ounce of spirits of salt on
a tea-spoonful of red lead ; stop the
vial, heat  is  generated,  the lead
turns white and a very strong oxy-
genated acid  is produced in a mi-
nute's time. But this acid  will con-
tain  a little lead,  while the acid
made with vitriol and salt does not.
This acid  has lately been recom-
mended by Guyton  Morveau, as
an effectual destroyer of putrid ex-
halation."
   Muslinets and Muslins require a
detail of processes after they are
white, too long and complicated to
be described in this compendium. 
BLE
BLE        303
   A new method of bleaching cot-  cess should be completely disclos-
 ton thread  and hosiery  has been  ed, in  order that the artist may
 adopted in Swabia. The  operation  choose such  means  as  may best
 is performed in two days, and does  suit his-pursuit.   This considera-
 not require extensive premises. An  tion has induced  the  publication of
 alkalizate caustic ley is  prepared,  the  following account of  Chap-
 by taking two measures  of quick-  tall's  simple  and economical
 lime, and covering them with ten  mode  of bleaching cotton thread.
 measures of good ashes ; the heap    At the height  of about 4£ deci- ^
 is then to be sprinkled with water,  metres (17.716 inches)  above the
 and when the lime is slacked, and  grate of a common furnace, a cop-
 the mass cooled, it is fit for  making  per boiler is  placed, of  a round
 the leys by the addition of cold soft  form, 5 decimetres, (19.685) inch-
 water. The skains of cotton being  es in depth, and  l£ metres (52.49
 untwisted  and tied in parcels, are  inches) in diameter.  The project-
 to be immersed  in  the  ley,  in  ing rim of the boiler, which is about
 which they are to be left  six hours,  2 decimetres  (7.874  inches), rests
 and  to  be  occasionally turned ;  upon the brick work of the furnace.
 they  are then to be washed in a ri-  The remainder of the kiln is made
 ver, and  afterwards boiled  twelve  of free stone, and forms an oval
 hours in a bath ofthe same kind  of  boiler or digester, about 2 metres;
 ley, in which for every sixty-six  (78.74 inches) in height, and its
 pounds of cotton thread, six pounds  width, when measured at the cen-
 of soap have been dissolved ; they  tre, is  1£ metre, (52.49 inches).....
 are then  to Joe boiled  the same  The upper part of this vessel has a
 length of time in a solution  of soap  round  orifice, about half a  metre,
 and water only, according to the  (19.68 inches) in diameter, which
 former  proportion;  after  which,  is closed,  when  necessary, by a
 they are again to be washed in  large moveable stone, or by a cop-
 the river, and hung up in  the air,  per lid adapted for the purpose. On
 or laid on the grass, to dry as quick-  the flank  of the copper  vessel
 ly as possible. The process for the  which  forms the  bottom of this di-
 hosiery is similar. The boiler must  gester, a grating is laid, which con-
 be made of copper, and always well  sists of bars of wood placed near
 cleaned after it has been  used.      enough to prevent the cotton that
   The   successful   experiments  is put  on  them  from   falling
 made by Berthollet in bleaching  through, and  sufficiently strong to
 vegetable  goods, by means of the  supportthe weight of 800kilogram-
 oxy-muriatic  acid,  seem to have  mes (or  178  lbs. 14 oz.)    When
 brought this art nearly to  a state  this structure is completed, thecot-
 of perfection.   But this method is  ton thread, having been prev iously
 not in every instance, equally eco-  divided into parcels or hanks, is
nomical.    It  requires to be per-  slightly impregnated  with a solu-
formed by  very skilful operators, tion of soda,  rendered caustic by
in order  that  the  goods  may not lime.   This operation  is performed
be affected by a ley too corrosive, in a trough of wood or stone, and
or applied at  an improper time  ;  as soon as the cotton is sufficiently
independent of which considcra- impregnated  with the alkaline li-
Uon, it is desirable  that every pro- quor, it is convtved to the digest- 
304        BLE
BLE
er, and piled  upon  the wooden-
grate.  In this situation, the exud-
ing liquor runs through  the  bars
into the  copper boiler, where it
forms a stratum of fluid, and allows
the whole mass to be heated, with-
out danger of burning either  the
cotton or the metal.  The alkaline
ley is composed of the best  pot-
ash, one tenth part ofthe weight of
the cotton in quantity.
   After the cotton is properly dis-
posed in the boiler, the cover is put
on, and very little issue left  for the
disengaged  vapours,  in order that
they may acquire a greater degree
of heat, and act more powerfully on
the cotton.   When the digester is
charged, the fire is  lighted in the
furnace, and the ley submitted to a
gentle  ebullition  from 20  to 36
hours.  It is then suffered to cool,
the cover  taken off, the cotton care-
fully  washed  and exposed on  the
bleaching ground for 2 or 3 days,
by spreading  it  on frames during
the day, and on the grass at night.
Thus the cotton  acquires a beauti-
ful degree of  whiteness ;  and if
some portions  should accidentally
remain  unbleached,  which may
happen from  its not having been
equally and completely impregnat-
ed with  the  ley,  those portions
must  be  replaced and subjected to
a second  operation, or left  in  the
bleach-field  for some days longer.]
   We shall conclude this article by
abstracting the patent lately granted
to Mr. Turn hull, for an improve-
ment  in  the  common process of
bleaching cotton, or linen pieces :
Take  any kind of earth which is
easily mixable with water, such as
clay, marl, or fuller's earth, or if
that cannot  be had, any kind of
soft mud or  the  like, which is
put into a boiler to evaporate the
moisture,  dried, again mixed with
water,  and  passed  through fine
sieves.   This powder is then mix-
ed with quick-lime, which is  slack-
ed  in  the earthy mass, and  forms
the materials for the several bouk-
ings which the cloth  is to undergo.
The pieces are to be worked in the
bouking tubs for a number of times,
alternating this operation with rins-
ing and souring, as is usual in the
long established method, and after-
wards exposing them to the air, on
the bleaching ground.   The only
difference in the process here em-
ployed, is the admixture of earthy
mud, or clay, to the lime, so that
the corrosive power of the  latter is
diminished, and may consequently
be used more freely.   In  the last
bouking, pot-ash is  also  added  to
the  earthy mixture.   Hence the
patentee's  method  unites that  of
fulling with soap, or washing with
alkaline ley ; and it is very pro-
bable, that by such a combination,
not only time,  but  also expense
may be saved, as alkali is the most
valuable article  used  in the pro-
cess.
  In  January,  1798, a  patent was
granted  to Mr. C Tennant, for
his  method  of  using  calcareous
earths, especially those known un-
der the names of barytes and stron-
tites as substitutes for alkalies,  in
neutralizing  the muriatic acid gas
employed in  bleaching, &c. and the
patentee directs  such  calcareous
earths to be calcined, pulverized,
and sifted; after which a certain
portion of quick-lime, according  to
the  degree  of strength required,
must  be thrown  into  the  vessel
usually  employed in the prepara-
tion ofthe bleaching liquor, for the
purpose of retaining the oxygenat-
ed muriatic  gas.  When  the in-
gredients  generally   employed,
namely, manganese and spirit  of 
BLE
BLE       305
salt, have been introduced into the
retort, and the gas begins to rise,
the liquor contained in the receiver
ought to be constantly agitated, so
that the  fine  particles of the lime
may be  diffused  throughout  the
whole  of such fluid;  for the suc-
cess of the process depends chiefly
on this circumstance.   As soon as
the manganese, or other material,
ceases  to  yield  the  oxygenated
muriatic acid gas, the whole should
be suffered to remain  at rest, for
two or three hours;  after which
the clear liquor must be decanted
for use ; Mr. T.  farther observes,
that if these  calcareous earths be
mechanically  suspended in water,
or  other aqueous fluid,  they will
unite with such  gas, and form a
compound that may  be advanta-
geously employed in  bleaching.
   The  liquor, thus  prepared, is
not only a considerable saving in
the article of ashes, but also the
time usually  required for bleach-
ing is remarkably shortened.
   The  latest work published on
this subject is, we believe, a trea-
tise written  by  M. Pajot  Des
Charmes, of which a translation
was lately published in London, by
Messrs. Robinsons, in one vol. 8vo.
   [Since the  work by Pajot Des
Charmes ; Citizen Chaptal  of
France,  has greatly improved the
practice of bleaching ;  an'account
of  the whole  process, as actually
conducted by Cit. Bawens  near
Paris, is detailed in a  publication
by R. O'Reilley, Paris, year 9.
(1801).  A translation of this work
may be found in Tilloch's P/iito.
Magazine, vol. 10, with some ob-
servations on  part of the process.
In  the  11th vol. of the same use-
ful work, are remarks on  Chap-
tal's machine for uniting oxygen
     VOL. I.
with water, and on bleaching the
pulp of paper. On this last process
see a paper by Citizen Loysel, in
Nicholson's Phil. Jour. 8vo. 1 vol.
  The Editor has thought it his
duty, to give a comprehensive view
of the present slate of the  know-
ledge  on bleaching,  leaving the
application of the principles  and
practice to the discretion of those
who may wish to follow the busi-
ness.  He will gladly receive any
observations   upon  the   various
modes recommended, from prac-
tical men.]
   BLEAK, or Cyprinus Alburns,
L.  a well known  scaly fish.   See
Pearl.
   BLEEDING, a term used to ex-
press either a spontaneous, or arti-
ficial,  discharge  of blood:  in the
former case, it is by medical writers
called hemorrhage;  in  the latter,
venesection,  or   blood-letting,  of
which last we propose to  treat in
its  place.  At present, therefore,
we shall consider only those eva-
cuations  which Nature directs to
take place in the system, and fre-
quently for the benefit of the indi-
vidual.
   1. Bleeding at the nose generally
arises in full sanguine habits, more
commonly in young men than wo-
men,especially during adolescence.
Exposure to the heat of the sun,
a hot room, contusions of the head,
or acrid substances introduced into
the nostrils, are the general causes
of this complaint.    On its first
attack, all cumbersome clothes and
ligatures,  especially  those about
the wrists  and   neck,  ought  to
be instantly loosened ; the  patient
should be removed to a cooler tem-
perature,  and placed in  an erect
posture ;  his hands and legs im-
mersed in tepid water, about milk-
    Rr 
306        BLE
BLI
warm ;  and dossils of lint dipped
in vinegar, or a strong solution of
white vitriol, put up the nostrils.
[In general, bleeding at  the nose
may be  stopped by screwing up
the nostril, a piece of dry linen rag,
rolled very tight.  Sometimes it
answers to dip the plug in a solu-
tion of sugar of lead in vinegar.]
If the bleeding does not abate, or
threatens to become more profuse,
cold water, or solutions of nitre and
sugar of lead, should be repeatedly
applied to the forehead and temples
as well as the region of the kidneys
and genitals....One of the most ef-
fectual methods of stopping violent
bleeding,consists in the unremitted
administration of lukewarm, emol-
lient clysters, in such small propor-
tions as  may be  retained and ab-
sorbed by the  bowels, while cold
fomentations are applied to the ab-
domen.   Meanwhile, the  patient
should drink  lemonade, or water
acidulated with a few drops of vi-
triolic acid,  and  sweetened with
sugar ;  or if these cannot be had,
a mixture of equal parts of vinegar
and water may be substituted.
   2.  Spitting  of blood may  be
owing  to  an abundance of that
fluid, an organic debility of the
lungs, or an imperfect structure of
the  chest.   It may also proceed
from exertions in blowing wind-in-
struments, loud speaking, singing,
1 mining, wrestling,  and excess in
drinking,  especially  after violent
exercise. This alarming complaint
 is attended with a dry cough, and
difficulty of breathing :  and if the
 evacuated blood  be  thin, frothy,
 and florid, it indicates a rupture of
 some pulmonary artery ; but if it
 be thick, and of a darkish colour,
 while the coughing up is accom-
 panied with pain, the disease is then
 occasioned by a fall,  or other  ex-
ternal injury.  In either case, the
diet should be cooling and diluent:
hence sweet whey,  a decoction of
marsh-mallows,  or  barley, vege-
tables abounding in  mucilage, the
mildest  laxatives,  consisting  of
manna,  tamarinds,  phosphorated
soda, vitriolated  tartar, &c. ought
to be instantly resorted to.  At the
same time, emollient clysters,bath-
ing the'legs  in  tepid water, and a
suspension of all mental and bodily
exertion, are  absolutely necessary.
Bleeding,  cupping,  styptic  tinc-
tures, fox-glove, and opium, must
be submitted to the discretion  of
the medical practitioner:  and we
shall here only  observe, that a ta-
ble-spoonful of fine salt, taken dry,
has  frequently afforded instant re-
lief.
   3. Vomiting of Blood.  See Vo-
miting.
   4. Discharge of Blood by  the
urethra.  See Urine.
   5. Bloody Flux.   See  Dysen-
tery.
   6. Bleeding  Hemorrhoids.  See
Piles.
   BLEND-WATER, also called
more-hough, a  distemper  incident
to black cattle, which proceeds
either from  the state of the  ani-
mal's  blood, from the  yellows,  or
from the change of ground, which
if too  hard, is apt to produce this
evil.  To cure it...Take one ounce
of bole  armenian,  as much char-
coal as will  fill a  small  tea-cup,
and three ounces of the rind of the
oak :  let the whole be reduced to
a powder, and given to the animal
in a quart of new milk.
   BLIGHT, in husbandry,  is a
 disease  incident to  plants, and af-
fecting them in various degrees;
 sometimes destroying  only  the
leaves and blossoms, and frequently
 causing the whole  plant to perish. 
BL  I
BLI         307
  Blights are generally supposed
to be produced  by easterly winds,
which  convey  multitudes  of  the
eggs of insects from some distant
quarter;  and these being lodged
on the surface  of the leaves  and
flowers of fruit trees, cause them
to shrivel and decay.
  It is the  general opinion, that
one principal reason why the  en-
virons  of London are particularly
subject to  blights, is the  great
number  of  pruned trees  and  cut
hedges near that metropolis; for as
all vegetables become more or  less
sickly when the course of their sap
 is impeded, the trees in this state
 are more liable to blight, than such
 as are vigorous and uninjured by
 the pruning-knife.  It is worthy of
 remark,  that  to the  westward of
 London the effects of this distem-
 per insensibly decrease, insomuch,
 that at forty miles distance it rarely
 occurs,  and at  an hundred miles
 and upwards,  it is  entirely  un-
 known.  This circumstance seems
 to favour the idea of its being  con-
 veyed  by easterly winds.  But the
 true cause appears to be, the conti-
 nuance of these  winds for several
 days,  without  the intervention of
 showers  or dews, by which  the
 expansion of the tender blossom is
 checked, so that the young leaves
 necessarily  wither.
   To  cure this  distemper, some
 persons  burn  a quantity  of  wet
 litter on the windward side of the
 plants, as it is supposed that the
 smoke will suffocate the insects :
 others fumigate the trees,by strew-
 ing sulphur upon lighted  charcoal,
 or by  sprinkling them with to-
 bacco-dust, or with watei  in which
 tobacco-stalks  have been infused
 for twelve hours. Ground pepper,
 scattered over  the blossoms, has
 sometimes proved beneficial.
  Mr. Gullet,  of  Tavistock, is
of opinion that great benefit may
be  derived  from whipping  the
branches  of  fruit-trees,  with a
bunch of elder-twigs, the leaves
of  which  should be previously
bruised.  The  smell of the elder
being extremely  disagreeable, no
insects  will  settle  on  the parts
touched by it;  and some blighted
shoots have even been restored, by
first whipping them, and then tying
up a bunch of elder  leaves among
them.
  A  composition of oil and  sul-
phur, mixed  to the consistence of
paint, will also prove  highly^idvan-
tageous, in expelling young insects
from the trees  infested by them.
   But the most effectual remedy is,
to wash the plants gently and fre-
quently with  pure water, and if the
young shoots be much infected, to
rub them  gently with a woollen
cloth, in order to clear away the
glutinous matter.  This operation
should be performed in the morn-
ing, that the  moisture may be ex-
haled before  night.
   It deserves to be mentioned, that
the  blights  most destructive to
fruit-trees, are those produced by
the hoar frosts in spring mornings,
which are often succeeded by warm
sun-shine.
   We shall  now give an account
of the different remedies that have
been proposed by Mr. Forsyth,
both for its  prevention and cure,
according  to the various  causes
from which it may originate.
   Where  the blight arises from
long-continued easterly winds, the
diseased tree ought to be washed
with a mixture of urine and soap-
 suds : this operation must be per-
formed  as early as  possible ; for
 the malady may thus be in a great
 measure  prevented; but,  if  the 
308        B L I
BLI
young and tender shoots be great-
ly infected, it will be advisable to
cleanse them with a woollen cloth,
dipped  in the  following liquor:
Take 1  lb. of tobacco, 2 lbs. of sul-
phur, 1  peck of unslackedlime, and
about 1  lb. of elder buds:  let ten
gallons  of boiling water be poured
on these  ingredients  into a hogs-
head, which must now be closely
covered, and the whole be suffered
to become cool.  The vessel is then
to be filled up with cold water; and,
after standing two or three  days,
during which time the liquor must
be skimmed, the mixture will be
fit for use.
   Another  cause of blight in the
spring,   is  the  sharp hoar  frost,
which often takes place during the
night, and  is  succeeded by hot
days; so that the blossoms and fruit
inevitably perish.  The only pre-
ventive  of such accidents, hitherto
known,  is the covering of walls
with old fish-nets, doubled  three
times ;  and, if a few branches of
dry  fern be placed between the
boughs, they will greatly contribute
to break the force of high winds, as
well as of the frost.  Such shelter
ought to be employed only during
the night, and  be removed in the
day  time.   Thus, the fruit will be
effectually preserved ; and, as the
apparent trouble  attending  this
practice might deter many persons
from adopting it, Mr.  F. is of opi-
nion, that the object may be easily
and  expeditiously attained, by con-
triving to draw up and let down the
nets by  means of pullies.
   Frequently, however, the affec-
tion   termed blight,  is  merely a
weakness in the  trees, which de-
pends on the difference of  their
constitutions, and proceeds  from
want of proper nourishment;  some
bad quality in the soil; or from a
distemper  in the stock, buds, or
scyons ;  all of  which causes pro-
duce  a malady in trees,  that  is
with difficulty cured.
   Should the cause arise from the
soil, Mr. F. directs it to be dug out,
and supplied with fresh mould; or,
it will be advisable to remove the
trees, and to plant  others, which
are better adapted  to the ground;
because  it  is indispensibly neces-
sary to suit different kinds of fruit-
trees, as nearly as possible, to the
nature of the  • land.  But, where
the weakness of trees is induced by
some inbred disease, they ought to
be dug up; the earth be changed:
and other plants be substituted.
   Lastly, there is another species
of blight that is very destructive to
orchards  and  plantations,  in the
months  of April  and  May : it is
known under the name of Blast.
This malady is conjectured to ori-
ginate  from   certain  transparent
floating vapours, which assume such
forms as to converge the rays  of
the sun, in a manner similar to a
burning-glass,  and  to scorch those
plants on which they happen to de-
scend, in a greater or less degree,
according to their  convergency....
The blast occurs most frequently in
close plantations, where the exha-
lation  of vapours from  the earth,
and the perspiration of the trees
are confined, for wantof a sufficient
circulation  of  the  air to disperse
them.  Mr. Forsyth,  therefore,
recommends a clear, healthy spot,
to be selected  for kitchen-gardens,
orchards,  Sec.; the trees being
planted at  such a distance as  to
give free admission to the air;  so
that all  noxious vapours  may be
dissipated, before they are formed
into volumes capable of occasion-
ing blasts.
   Dr. Anderson attributes blights 
BLI
B L I        309
  to an insect, and not to E. winds.
  He thinks this opinion is proved by
  the well-known fact, that when the
  blight once affects  a tree to a con-
  siderable degree, it is  ten to one,
  but it will be affected with the same
  disease for many successive years:
  because, the insects lay their eggs
  in the bark of the tree, and thus
  insure  their successors.   Dr. A.
  directs the trees tobe brushed early
  in the spring,  in the direction of
  the buds ;  or, when the insects are
  numerous, to cut out the twigs :
  this operation, though it may dimi-
  nish  the fruit for a year, will put
  the tree in the finest order the next
  year.   The twigs cut off must be
  burnt.  If no attention  has been
  paid to the trees until the leaves
  appear, they must be pulled off,
  and the twigs brushed: the tree
  will put forth new leaves.
    In a paper by the late Mr. Cur-
  tis, in  the 6th vol. of the Lin. So-
  ciety's   Transactions, London,  the
  sentiments of Dr. Anderson re-
  specting the cause  of blights, are
 confirmed.   Mr. C. ascribes this
 disease to afi/iides.  They greatly
 multiply in consequence of a mild
 winter,  but  are  usually kept  in
 check by coccinella ichneumon aphi-
 dum, and musca aphidora, their de-
 clared enemies. In the years 1793
 and 1798, they greatly injured the
 hops in England. They resist im-
 mersion in  water for hours toge-
 ther, but quickly perish in  the
 smoke of tobacco. They part with
 an excrementitious saccharine mat-
 tcr, which  forms honey dew, and
 gives the sooty appearance com-
 monly called blight.
  Fruit  trees, particularly apple
and pear trees, are very subject to
the blight or blast,  the  cause of
which is little understood.  By ac-
cident,  Mr. Cooper  of  New-Jer-
   sey, discovered some years since,
   that a tree upon  which a number
   of iron hoops and other articles of
   iron had been hung,,remained free,
   while all the rest suffered severely.
   Since that year, he has constantly
   encircled two or three branches of
   every tree with an iron hoop, and
   with uniform success. As a proof,
   he pointed out one tree  with a wi-
   thered limb near  the top, and  ob-
   served that he had neglected to de-
   fend it last year. Philosophers may
   speculate as to the theory of the
  operation of the iron, and c^useof
  the blast, but practical men will be
  contented with a knowledge kof the
  important fact, which comes from
  a man of judgment, and of an  ob-
  serving disposition, who has again
  and again satisfied himself that no
  deception  or  accidental circum-
  stance occurred, by reference to
  which, the preservation of his hoop-
  ed trees could be accounted for.]
    Blighted Corn.  See Smut.
    BLINDNESS,  implies either a
 partial or total privation of sight,
 proceeding from some defect ofthe
 organs of vision, or an  impaired
 state of their functions.   Hence it
 may be either total, ^partial, tran-
 sient, periodical, or nocturnal. The
 causes of blindness are likewise va-
 rious, such  as weakness,  or decay
 of the optic  nerves,  preternatural
 conformation of the organs, exter-
 nal violence, malignant effluvia,
 poisonous liquids droptintothe eye,
 too frequent exposure  to intense
 heat, long confinement in dark pla-
 ces See.
   As we  propose to  treat of the
 principal diseases ofthe eye, under
 the heads of Cataract, Gutta-
 serena, and Sight, we shall here
only observe, that those unfortunate
persons who are born blind, or lose
their sight in infancy, seldom re- 
310        B L 1
BLI
cover that important faculty, and
ought therefore to be educated for
such pursuits as are adequate to
their  individual capacities.  It is,
indeed,  equally cruel, and incon-
sistent with good policy, to  suffer
these pitiable beings frequently to
spend a vagrant life, and remain in
the darkest  ignorance.   On  the
contrary,  it has  been - uniformly
observed,  that the privation of one
sense renders the others compara-
tively more acute and useful. Hence
blind  persons generally hear bet-
ter, and possess a more accurate
sense of touch, than those who en-
joy all their sensitive faculties ; and
we have also many instances ofthe
poetical and philosophical talents
displayed  by the  former.
   With a  view   to contribute our
share towards alleviating the severe
lot of such unfortunate individuals,
we shall here  communicate  an  in-
vention of Mr.  Thomas  Gren-
ville, organist, of Ross,  in Here-
fordshire ; avIio, in the year 1770,
received a premium of fifteen gui-
neas ; and, in 1785, for some ad-
ditional improvements, the silver
medal,  from  the Society for  the
Encouragement of Arts,  isfc.  It is
remarkable, that the ingenious in-
ventor is himself deprived of sight;
and that by the use of this machine,
any blind person may  be taught
the elements of arithmetic, name-
ly, addition, subtraction,  multipli-
cation, division, reduction, and the
rule of three, whether  in money,
weights,  or  measures of  every
kind, as perfectly as it may be per-
formed on paper.  His apparatus
being of a  simple construction, and
so contrived that it may be  of ser-
vice in leaching the art of reckon-
ing, to young children,in a very easy
and entertaining manner ; we shall
first give  an  account  of this ma-
chine, as represented in the sub-
joined cut, and then conclude with
a description of its mechanism.
  It consists of a box nineteen in-
ches square in the clear space with-
in, and near two inches deep, divid-
ed into cells, containing the figures,
lines, Sec. hereafter described, ne-
cessary for performing the rules of
arithmetic.   The  lid  or cover of
the box, which serves as a leaf, or
slate, is  pierced full  of holes in
parallel rows , the first row has
eighteen large,and seventeen small
holes, alternately placed ;  the se-
cond row, eighteen  small  holes,
placed under the above large ones;
the third as the  first, and so on
alternately,  thirty-five rows,  the
whole cover being full, and contain-
ing three hundred and twenty-four
large holes, and six  hundred and
twelve small ones, which make an
exact square.  The figures are re-
presented by pegs *with  cubical
heads,  and distinguished by pins
placed on one side in the following
manner.  One, is expressed by a
pin's point on the right hand ; two,
by the  same  in the middle ; and
three, by  having it  on the  left-
hand ; four, five, and six, by pins'
heads in the above three different
situations ;  seven, eight, and nine,
by crooked  pins, or staples, in the
same manner: the cypher is un-
derstood by  a plain  peg,  without
any mark. On the top of each peg
is printed the figure which it repre-
sents, to render the work intelligi-
ble to any person that may see it,
without being acquainted with the
marks.  These pegs are made to
fit the large holes. Pieces of brass
wire, bent to a right  angle,  about
 half an inch from each  end, and
 made to fit the small holes, serve
 for the purpose of lines to separate
 the different parts of the work. 
BLI
BLI
311
   A, The box with its several di-  will enable them to overcome the
visions,  containing the  different  greatest difficulties, and amply re-
pegs, bars, Sec.  with  which the  pay the trouble and expense be-
rules in arithmetic are to be per-  stowed  on their mechanical or li-
formed......B,  The cover,  which  terary acquirements. Tostrength-
when turned back, and standing on  en  their  faculties,   and  preserve
its feet  as represented, shews the  their health, blind children should
holes wherein  the pegs and bars  never be  suffered to remain idle,
are occasionally placed to exhibit  so that during the hours of recre-
the value of the figures....C, The  ation, they ought to take suitable
pegs marked in such manner as to  exercise, such as riding on horse-
enable the blind  person to distin-  back, walking out in fair weather,
guishby the touch, what each peg  the use of dumb bells, the  bath
is intended  to represent, when  chair, &c...In regard to diet, their
placed in the hole in the cover B.  meals should be temperate, light,
   A complete sp^citnenof this ma-  and  of easy digestion.  Vegeta-
chine may be seen in the  Reposi-  bles the most farinaceous, and least
tory  of the Society, Adelphi-fiiuild-  acescent, should be  preferred  to
ings, London.                      animal food.  Neither fermented
   With  respect to the education  liquors,  nor ardent  spirits, should
of the blind, we have  already re-  be given them, except in cases of
marked,thatitdeservespublicsym-  general  debility.  Tea is likewise
pathy, and the  interposition ofthe  pernicious ; and their regular drink
legislature; as their natural indus-  ought to consist of equal parts  of
try,  and persevering  application,  milk and water: a little chocolate, 
312        BLI
BLI
    and coffee,  may occasionally  be
    granted;  but  infusions of  balm,
    sage,  or  ground-ivy,  are  more
    wholesome.  Tobacco  and snuff
    must be absolutely prohibited; and
    on the whole, blind persons should
    neither be too much restricted to
    the observance of a rigid system of
    diet, nor allowed to eat and drink
    whatever is-suggested by their own
    fancy: in the former case, they are
t   ap^ to  become  pitiable slaves to
    custom; and, in the latter, it is a
    shameful  dereliction of duty  in
    those whom Providence has ena-
    bled to see, and direct their affairs.
      Blindness,  in  farriery,  is  a
    disease incident to the  eyes of
    horses, but  more  particulary  to
    those of an  iron grey,  or  dapple-
    grey colour ; and is  supposed to
    proceed from riding themtoo hard,
    or backing them at too early an age.
    This disorder  may be discovered
    by the walk or step, which, in a
    blind animal, is always uncertain
    and unequal, when led ; but if he
    be mounted by an expert horseman,
    an apprehension of the spur may
    induce him to move with more free-
    dom, so  that  the blindness can
    scarcely be perceived.  A horse
    may also be known to have lost his
    sight,  if  observed  constantly  to
    prick up his ears, and  move them
    backwards and forwards, on hear-
    ing any person enter the stable.
      The ordinary cause of blindness
    in horses,  is  attributed  by Dr.
    Lower, to a spongy excrescence
    grow ing in one, and sometimes in
    two or three places of the coloured
    part of the iris or w'lich  being
    ultimately overgrown,  covers the
    pupil when  the horse is brought
    into the light, but again dilates on
    returning him to a dark stable.....
    See. Eyes of Horses.
  Blind-worm (fragilis),or slow-
worm ;  a species  of the Angids,
or snake.  It is about a foot in
length,  and  of  the  thickness of
the little finger.  Its name is de-
rived from the slowness of its mo-
tion, and the snrallnessof its eyes.
It is chiefly found in gardens and
pastures.
  The Rev.  Mr.  Foster, in his
" Observations  on  noxious  Ani-
mals," asserts, from his own expe-
rience, that the  bite of this crea-
ture is perfectly harmless ; and he
mentions two cases in which it was
not  attended  with any ill conse-
quences. _These observations are
farther corroborated by a passage
in the twenty-ninth volume ofthe
Monthly Review, respecting a dog
having been bitten by a slow-worm
without any ill effects. <
  BLISTER, in medicine, signi-
fies either a thin bladder, contain-
ing a watery humour raised on the
skin, or the application of vesica-
tories to different parts ofthe body.
With this intention, Spanish flies
are  most  commonly  employed;
though we are possessed of a great
variety of indigenous plants, which
might be effectually substituted....
Hence we  recommend, from ex-
perience, the following : 1.  Mus-
tard-seed mixed with vinegar suf-
ficient  to  convert  it into a  thick
paste, to  be  spread upon linen ;
2. The fresh root of the horse-
radish, grated, or in fine shavings ;
3. The bruised "fc^ves  of the dif-
ferent species of the Ranunculus, or
crow-foot;  4. The leaves of the
Polygon' m hydropiper, or water-
pepper, growing wild on the banks
of rivulets; and 5. The most pow-
erful of all indigenous vegetables,
the  Daphne  Mezereum, or spurge
olive, every part of which is  ex- 
             BLI

tremely acrid, but the rind is pre-
ferably used for blisters. Whether
fresh, or dried, this rind should be
previously steeped for a few hours
in strong vinegar, and then a piece
about  one  inch  broad, and two
or three  inches  long, tied  over-
night to the part: after it has suf-
ficiently drawn, the blistered  place
is covered with  an ivy leaf; and
a similar vesicatory is applied con-
tiguous  to  the  former.  In  this
manner,  it  is continued, accord-
ing  to particular circumstances,
especially in chronic  diseases till
the desired effect is  attained......
Where no time  is to be lost, we
advise the use of mustard-seed, as
before described, with the addition
of a little salt, which greatly in-
creases its efficacy.  These cata-
plasms are often more proper than
the blisters  prepared with Spanish
flies;  because the former operate
more speedily, and act with less vi-
olence on the fluids than the latter.
Hence they are of eminent service
to promote  critical eruptions; to
prevent the small-pox from break-
ing out on the face, when applied
at the commencement of the dis-
ease,  either to the calves of the
legs,  or the soles of the feet; to
mitigate  the pain arising from in-
ternal inflammations,  to drive ca-
tarrhal  and rheumatic  humours
from the more essential organs of
life to the proximate external parts,
and to rouse the indolent powers of
Nature.   In the most acute pains
of the head, and the tooth-ach pro-
ceeding  from a rheumatic cause,
as well as in inflammatory affec-
tions  of the eyes, such plaisters
may be usefully applied to the neck
or Ihe arm; in inflammations of the
chest,  to the breast and between
the shoulders;  in apoplectic  fits,
to the  temples, Sec.
    VOL. I.
             BLI          313

   In paralytic diseases, it is of the
 utmost consequence to place the
 blister in that direction which cor-
 responds with the situation of the
 nerves  in the  part affected ;  and,
 in rheumatic disorders, such places
 should  be  preferred, as  contain
 nerves connected with the painful
 part, immediately under the skin.
 Thus, in  the most acute lumbago,
 or sciatica, it would be of little use
 to blister the  hip or  thigh, where
 the nerves are situated deep in the  *
 muscles: but by applying a vesi-
 catory to the sole ofthe foot on the
 same side, we may promise almost
 certain relief.
  [In the second stage of inflamma-
 tory diseases: in low  fevers where
 a tendency to delirium takes place,
 and prostration of strength prevails,
 they are  highly useful when  ap-
 plied to various parts  ofthe body.]
   We shall farther observe,  that
 in acute  and  dangerous diseases,
 where it is often necessary to  re-
 peat the application of blisters,  [to
 the same part], the new one should
 never be delayed till the former is
 completely healed.   But, wilh  re-
 spect to the  time they  are to be
 left on  the  skin, much depends
 on the degree of irritability in the
 patient,  as well as  the  relative
 strength  of the plaster.   Some
 constitutions,  of  an irritable fibre,
 experience its effects in less than
 half an hour, while  in  others it
 may  remain  four,  six,  or eight
 hours, w ithout raising the skin.  In
opening a blister it is not necessary
 to cut away the epidermis, or scarf
 skin, and to cause unnecessary pain
 and irritation; as a single longitu-
 dinal incision  is sufficient to  give
vent to the collected humour.
  Blisters sometimes operate  on
the urinary  canal, and produce a
 painful strangury, or difficulty of
     S s 
SU        BLO

making urine :  this effect may be
remedied by the internal  use of
camphor, assisted by diluent emul-
sions;  such as decoctions of bar-
ley, linseed, solutions  of gum ara-
ble, k.c. [or by pouring warm water
from a bottle, upon the  lower part
of the belly, as the person lies in
bed,]  and  to  prevent such acci-
dents,  the  blister  itself  may  be
mixed with camphor.   Il, on the
other hand, they will not draw, the
skin ought to be previously rubbed
with strong vinegar:  or, if their
action be too violent, a little of the
extract of henbane may be  added
to the composition.
   Caution.  We think it our duty
to warn the reader against the use
of blisters,  in which  the Spanish
fiy is the principal ingredient.  In
plethoric persons, or those of a full
habit,  they increase the circulation
ofthe blood;  and ought to be ap-
plied only after the necessary eva-
cuations have been strictly attended
to:  in sallow,  weakly, cachectic
persons, blisters are notunfrequent-
ly productive of incurable mortifi-
 cation.  These fatal effects, how-
 ever,  seldom or never take place
 from the application of  mustard-
,seed,  or hoise-radish.
   ELITE, the small red, or Ama-
 ranthus blitum, L. is an indigenous
 species of the  amaranth which is
 frequently  found  growing on rub-
 bish,  &c.  It  flowers  in July and
 August: on the Continent its seed
 is used as a substitute for millet,
 and  the  leaves are dressed and
 eaten like spinach.
   Blite, the upright.  See round-
 leaved Goosefoot.
   BLOOD, the most copious fluid
 in the animal body, and essentially
 necessary to the preservation of life:
 it is generally of a red, but in  most
 insects, and in all worms,  of  a
 white colour.
            BLO

 The human body is by Dr.KtlLt,
supposed  to contain  at least one
half of its weight in blood ; includ-
ing in this computation all that ex-
ists in the lymphatic ducts, nerves,
or any other vessel. This computa-
tion, however, is exaggerated; and
we believe that the greatest quanti-
ty in a full-grown adult, seldom ex-
ceeds thirty pounds  weight.  lis
most remarkable property is that
of incessantly  circulating  in  the
cavities of the heart,  arteries, and
veins, while the animal is alive.
Although  Hippocrates  appears '
to have possessed a faint ideapf this
admirable process, when he says,
"  that all the blood vessels spring
from one; and  that  this one has
neither  beginning nor end;  for
where there is a circle, there can
be no beginning;" yet as he was not
acquainted with the  office of the
valves,  he could neither compre-
hend, nor demonstrate, the circu-
lation  of the blood.  This most
important of all discoveries in phy-
siology, was reserved for the im-
mortal Harvey, who first ascer-
tained the true nature and uses of
the valves, and about the year 1616,
 taught,  in  his  Lectiyes at Cam-
 bridge,  that justly  admired  doc-
 trine,  the substance of which  he
 published in  16e'y.   He proved
 that, in  most animals,  the blood
 circulates in  arteries  and veins,
 and through  the  medium of  one,
 two, or  more  hearts; (see Ani-
 mal Kingdom;) that in arteries
 it moves from the  trunk  to  the
 branches; and that, meeting there
 with the branches of veins, it  re-
 turns in a languid state totheheart;
 that the heart  communicates  a
 new impulse, and propels it to the
 trunk of the arteries; and that  by
 these, the thickness of their coats,
 exerting  muscular  force, again
 drive it into the veins...Valves are 
BLO
BLO        315
situated in every part  of this cir-
culating course, in order to pre-
vent the return of the blood.
  The colour of this fluid in the
arteries is of a florid hue; but some-
what darker in the veins, except in
those of the lungs, in which it is of
a lighter cast.  When exposed to
the open air, the blood gradually
separates  into two parts, namely,
the scrum, or a yellowish, some-
times greenish fluid, and the  cras-
samentum, or cake, which resem-
bles a red mass swimming distinct-
ly on the top. The latter contracts
greatly in  its  dimensions,   and
increases  in solidity;  properties
which depend on the state of the
individual at  the time when the
blood is drawn.   Hence, in vigor-
ous persons, when attacked with
an  inflammatory disease, the solid
part is so tough that it resembles
a piece of flesh, and has therefore
been called the buffy coat; whereas,
in other diseases, it is very soft and
tenders  breaking in pieces on the
slightest touch.  By chemical ana-
lysis, it discovers the same princi-
ples with other animal substances;
yielding   in  distillation a volatile
spirit, a great quantity of phlegm,
and fetid oil; lastly, there remains
a charred  matter,  which, when
burnt in  the  open air,  leaves  a
white  earth similar  to calcined
hartshorn.   According  to  some
chemists, however, it contains both
an  acid  and an  alkali.  But the
most remarkable circumstance in
the blood, is its texture, which con-
sists of millions of red globular
particles,  or more properly, as Mr,
Hewson  calls them, flat vesicles,
each  of which  has  a little  solid
sphere in its centre.  He observes,
that they  are flat in all animals, of
very  different sizes in  different
creatures, and impart to the blood
its red colour.   In man, they are
small, perfectly flat, and  appear
to have a dark spot in the middle.
To see them distinctly, he diluted
the blood with fresh serum. Their
shape he supposed to be of great
importance, but it can  be altered
with a mixture of different fluids.
By a determinate quantity of neu-
tral salt contained in the  serum,
this  fluid is  adapted to preserve
those vesicles in their fiat shape ;
for, if mixed with water, they be-
come round, and dissolve perfectly,
but on adding a little of any neu-
tral salt to the water, they remain
in it without dissolving, or any al-
teration of their form.
   The uses ofthe blood in the ani-
mal economy are so various  and
important, that  some  have  not
scrupled to maintain that it is pos-
sessed of a vital  principle, from
which the life of the whole body is
derived.  This opinion was former-
ly entertained by Harvey, and has
lately been revived and supported
with many ingenious, though in- ,
conclusive  arguments,  by  John
Hunter. Yet, so much is certain,
that the blood stimulates the cavi-
ties  of the heart and  vessels to
contract, that its circulation con-
tributes to generate  the heat of
the body,  and propagate it to the
remotest  parts; in  short,  that it
nourishes every part, and supplies
all the secretions, which, without
exception, are separated from the
blood.  Hence it forms the bones,
ligaments,  tendons,   membranes,
muscles, nerves, vessels, and the
whole organized body.
  The blood is of different degrees
of viscidity in different animals,
and even in the  same creature, at
different times.   It   always  pos-
sesses a considerable  degree  of
tenacity; which, however, is rc^ 
 316       BLO

 markably greater in strong than in
 weak animals: thus, the blood of
 bulls  wras used by  the ancients as
 a poison, on account of its extreme
 viscidity, which renders it totally in-
 digestible by the human stomach.
   The  principal use of blood is
 confined to the arts, for making
 Prussian blue;  sometimes for cla-
 rifying  certain liquors ;  and very
 large quantities  are used in   the
 manufacture  of loaf sugar.   In
 horticulture,  it  is   recommended
 as an  excellent manure,  when
 poured  in the spring on the roots
 of fruit-trees, having previously re-
 moved the  soil round the trunk:
 thus  employed,  it promotes  the
 growth ofthe tree, and enriches its
 fruit.   A mixture   of blood with
 quick-lime,  forms an exceedingly
 strong cement, and has  therefore
 been used  in preparing  chemical
 lutes,  as well  as in making  the
 floors of common farm-houses, and
 other humble habitations. For the
 latter purpose, a mixture of clay,
 ox-blood, and a moderate portion
 of sharp sand, beaten well together
 and  uniformly spread, produce a
 neat, firm floor, and of a  beautiful
 colour.
 Whether blood really affords nou-
 riAvnent has been doubted by some,
 and  affirmed by  others.   In our
 opinion, it contains  little or no  ali-
 mentary matter; and though it
 may be digested by very  powerful
 stomachs, it might be more advan-
 tageously employed in manuring
 the soil. In hot climates in parti-
 cular, it is highly alkalescent, and
 was therefore wisely prohibited to
the Israelites.   When blood was
used as a common  article of food
in this country, the scurvy not only
 prevailed more generally than at
 present, but it was  a more violent
 and  obstinate disease,
            BLO

   Travellers  inform us, that in
 some countries the savage natives
 are accustomed to intoxicate them-
 selves by drinking the warm blood
 of animals.  This barbarous prac-
 tice, with its consequent effect, ap-
 parently confirms John  Hunter's
 opinion, that this fluid  is the im-
 mediate reservoir   of  the  vital
 principle;  and the inebriating qua-
 lity of the blood certainly deserves
 the farther researches of the che-
 mical philosopher.    Several  ex-
 pressions in  Scripture  also tend
 to countenance  the  conjecture of
 this acute  enquirer....See Trans-
 fusion.
   BLOOD-HOUND,  Sanguina-
 rius, a  species of dog remarkable
 for possessing the sense of smell-
 ing in the  highest degree.  This
 animal is distinguished by his long,
 smooth, and pendent ears, broad
 chest, muscular form, a deep tan
colour,  and is generally marked
with a black spot above  each eye.
We believe the breeding of this
species  has of  late  years  been
neglected.
  These animals were  formerly
much employed in the discovering
of game that had  escaped, or been
stolen out of the forest.  From the
acuteness of their smell, they are
said to have also been able to trace
the footsteps of man with the great-
est certainty; hence,   they were
trained  for discovering delinquents
who  endeavoured to escape  the
hands of justice.
   [Dogs of this species were taken
to Jamaica  by Lord  Balcarras, to
hunt down the maroons,  in  the
 interior of  the island.]
   BLOOD-SHOT  EYES,  an in-
 flammation  of   the  membranes
 which invest the eyes. As we pro-
 pose to treatof the diseases incident
 to that organ, in general, under its 
            BLO

alphabetical head, we shall at pre-
sent only state the first, and  most
necessary rules for preventing the
progress  of inflammatory   com-
plaints ; namely,  rest, and exclu-
sion of ljght, without heating the
eye by a close cover; cold fomen-
tations repeatedly applied,  when
they become  warm;  abstinence
from animal food, and all heating
or stimulating liquors ; mild aperi-
ents ; and, if these do not produce
the desired effect, leeches may be
applied,  near the eyes; though
drawing  blood,   by  cupping and
scarifying near the temples, has ge-
nerally been found more effectual.
   BLOOD-SPAVIN, in farriery,
is  a swelling  and dilatation that
runs along the inside ofthe horse's
leg, forming a small, soft tumor in
the  hollow  part,  and is not unfre-
quently  accompanied with weak-
ness and lameness of the part af-
fected.
   The cure of this disorder should
at first be attempted with restrin-
gents and bandages,  which will be
found very efficacious in strength-
ening the joints.   [Taplin recom-
mends the following: Strong white
wine vinegar,  4 oz. camphor, spi-
rits 3 oz.; extract of lead 1 oz.; or
sugar  of lead ^  oz.   Shake well
together  at every time of using....
Rub in about two large spoonfuls
twice daily,  and keep on a pledget
of tow, wet  with the same.]  But,
if these should fail in reducing the
vein to its  natural size, the  skin
must be  opened,  and the vein tied
with waxed thread passed under it
with a crooked needle, both above
and below  the swelling,  and the
turgid part suffered to digest away
with the ligatures : for this pur-
pose, the wound should be  daily
dressed with a mixture of turpen-
tine, honey, and  spirit of wine.
            BLO       317

   BLOOD-STONE, or Hema-
tites, is a hard mineral substance
of a red or purple colour.  It is
found in masses of different forms,
and contains a considerable portion
of iron, insomuch, that 40 pounds
of that metal have been extracted
from a quintal of the stone.  The
iron  is of a very inferior quality ,and
therefore  seldom  used ;  but the
blood-stone itself, on account of its
hardness, serves to burnish or po-
lish metals.
   Dragon's Blood.  See Dragon.
   BLOOD-LETTING, in surge-
ry, is  performed with  a  view ei-
ther to diminish the quantity of the
circulating fluid, or  to  relieve a
particular part, in case of inflam-
mation,  and,  consequently, it is
either general or local.
   General  blood-letting,  is that
which is performed upon a vein or
an artery: hence we have the terms
phlebotomy and arteriotomy.
   Local, or topical blood-letting, is
performed by scarification and cup-
ping-glasses,  by leeches, or  by
punctures made with a lancet, ac-
cording to the nature of the disor-
der.  This latter, or topical blood-
letting, is never dangerous, but in
many  cases has been found effec-
tual in relieving the patient.  With
respect to venesection, however, as
different opinions  are entertained
of its utility bydifferent physicians,
it may not be  improper to offer a
few remarks.
  There was a period,duringwhich
blood-letting  was in very general
use,  and obtained great credit, as
one of the most effectual means of
prolonging life : while a plethoric
habit was supposed to be a principal
causeof early dissolution. Through
the veins thus regularly opened, at
certain seasons, the superfluous or
vitiated blood  was emitted,  while 
513        BLO
BLO
that of a  more salubrious quality
was supposed to be left behind.  It
is now well known, however, that
the  corrupted  part  of the blood
cannot tie separated from the mass,
so as to preserve the- remaining
particles sound and uncorrupted.
If the quality of the blood ever lie-
come vitiated and diseased i,if it be
too  thick and viscous, or too acrid
and serous, the whole mass neces-
sarily participates in the infection :
neither is  it in the power of art to
contrive any method, by which the
corrupted part  may  be separated
from tint which is in a sound sate.
It would be equally unreasonable
to expect, that a spoiled cask of
wine could be cured of its tartness,
by  attempting  to draw the acid
and  impure portion from the top,
in order  to  leave  the sweet and
wholesome part behind.
  Considered as a remedy, phlebo-
tomy must certainly be allowed to
possess its uses ; it is sometimes a
necessary expedient, to produce an
immediate diminution of the ful-
ness ofthe blood, particularly when
the time is too short, and the dan-
ger too pressing,  to admit of any
oi her methodfor effecting that pur-
pose.  As there can be no doubt,
that blood-letting is an invaluable
remedy in some disorders, it is the
more peculiarly incumbent on the
practitioner,  to  distinguish  with
care those cases in which imminent
danger may be averted, and health
restored by the use of it.  There
are  two cases, and  perhaps only
two, in which venesection is likely
to be attended with real advantage;
1. When  it is required  to prevent
the  fluids  from gaining access to
the  parts  more  essential to life ;
and 2. Where means roust be spee-
dily used to counteract a threatened
inflammation in the intestines. But
 even  in those two cases, the intel-
 ligent physician  is  at no loss for
 other remedies, which may be fre-
 quently administered with greater
 safety and equal  success.
   The blood contains in itself, and
 affords to the vessels, nerves, mus-
 cles,  membranes,  tendons, liga-
 ments, bones, in short, to the whole
 organized body, all the substance
 and properties which enter into the
 formation of each, and constitute
 them what.they arc.  Each of these
 parts is evolved from the blood,and
 adapted  to its proper place, in so
 wonderful a manner, that the hu-
 man  mind is totally at  a loss to
 comprehend  how this operation is
 performed :  neither have the re-
 searches of the most acute and at-
 tentive observer  been able to ac-
 count  for it.  And  as  the  blood
 serves to supply the  waste, and to
 make up  the losses, which those
parts  occasionally  sustain, it may
be considered as the original source
of our whole organization.  Now
it requires little reflection to  per-
ceive,  that by wasting  this vital
fluid,  the sources  of animal sup-
port and regeneration are in a great
measure obstructed and diminish-
ed.  Although it  be  true, that ths
blood lost by periodical bleedings
is  soon reproduced by the activity
of the vital powers, yet  this resto-
ration  is not effected without con-
siderable efforts, and at the expense
of the whole machine.   As  this
exertion, therefore, is a great pres-
sure upon the vital powers, it must
of course be attended with a propor-
tionate  degree of their consump-
tion.  And experience has shewn,
in numberless instances, that per-
sons accustomed to frequent blood-
 letting are not only rendered more.
 delicate in their  constitution,  and
 more subject to, diseases, bui  alse 
BLO
BLO        319
that they die in general at an ear-
lier age than others.
  The absurd notion, that bleeding
is useful and necessary to the pro-
longation of  human life, is still
pretty generally  received among
the common people of all countries.
Yet neither the good nor the bad
days, superstitiously marked in the
almanacks for the amusement of
the vulgar, can palliate or justify
the mischief with which this dan-
gerous error is pregnant: for bleed-
ing can only be of service in  some
urgent cases, and when performed
at  the proper time : but  to the
healthy it is always injurious.
   [A very common accident in per-
 forming the operation of bleeding,
 is  the wound of a tendon....Where
 this  has  happened,  pain and ten-
 sion are perceived  near the part
 where the orifice was made; in-
 flammation comes on, and extends
 the whole length  of the  limb.  To
 cure this complrintthe limb must
 be kept perfectly quiet, and  in the
 most relaxed position possible. Ap-
 ply double linen  cloths dippped in
 lead water,  made  by  dissolving
 half an ounce of sugar of lead in
 a  quart  of rain,  snow, or river
 w ater :  give  gentle laxatives, and
 observe a low diet.]
   Blood-letting, in farriery, an ope-
 ration often undertaken  when it is
 as useless and pernicious as in the
 human species. Such horses, how-
 ever, as stand much in stable, and
 are  full fed, occasionally require
 bleeding,  especially when their
 eves are heavy  and inflamed,  or
 when they feel unusually hot, and
 champ their hay.
    Young  horses should be bled
 when they are shedding theirteeth,
 as it allays those feverish heats to
 which they are subject  at that pe-
 riod : but the cases that more par-
ticularly require bleeding, are colds,
falls, injuries of the eyes, strains,
and all inflammatory  disorders.
  There noble creatures should al-
ways be bled by measure ; two or
three quarts are generally  a  suffi-
cient  quantity : and  when vene-
section is repeated, strict attention.
should \e paid both to the  disease
and constitution of the animal.
  BLOOD-VESSELS, in anato-
my, are long membranous canals,
which  convey  the blood through
every part of the body.  They are
divided into two classes, arteries,
and veins.  For an account of the
construction, situation, and uses of
the former....Xee  Artery.
   The veins originate from the ex-
tremities ofthe arteries, and return
the blood  from them into the au-
 ricles  of the heart,  which is the
 common termination  of  all  the
veins.  Like the arteries, the veins
 are also composed of three mem-
branes,but more delicate than those
of the former,  and nearly transpa-
rent ; they are divided into trunks,
branches, ramuii, &c.  In general,
the veins are situated by the sides
 ofthe arteries, but more superficial-
 ly ; and as they proceed  towards
 the heart, they gradually  become
 larger.  As the veins do not pul-
 sate, the blood,  which they receive
 from the  arteries, is  urged for-
 ward, partly by the contractibilily
 of their coals, partly by the pres-
 sure of the blood from the arteries,
 and partly by respiration.   They
 are moreover furnished with valves,
 which  prevent the  return of the
 blood....See Blood.
    BLOOD WORT, the Small-
 grained Dock,  on the Rumax san-
 guineus, L.  is a plant seldom cul-
 tivated, as it so quickly propagatta
 that   it  becomes, a troublesome
 weed....See  Wituerinc, C.s3. 
 S20        BLO

   The fresh leaves and stalks of
 this vegetable afford  a  juice of a
 dusky  blood-red  colour;  which,
 after standing for a short time,
 changes to a dark blue or violet
 tint: and  if prepared with alum,
 it might probably be used  in dye-
 ing.  This juice  when  laid over
 other colours in  painting imparts
 to them an additional lustre,  and
 may be used, if  properly  mixed,
 either as a red or blue colour.
   Bloody Flux. See Dysentery.
   BLOSSOM, in general, signi-
 fies  the flowers  of  plants.   See
 Flower.  It is also applied to the
 flowering  of trees in the  spring,
 called their bloom.  The use ofthe
 blossom to the vegetable is, partly
 to  protect,  and  partly  to draw
 nourishment  for the embryo fruit
 or seed.
   Blossom is also a term used to
 a  horse, whose general colour is
 white, but  interspersed wilh sorrel
 and bay hairs.  Such horses are so
 insensible,  and hard,  both  in  the
 mouth  and flank, that they  are
 scarcely of  any  value ; and  are
 likewise very liable to turn blind.
   BLOW-PIPE,  in chemistry
 and mineralogy, an instrument by
 which the breath  may be directed
 in a stream  upon the flame of a
 lamp, or candle, in order to vitrify
 a small quantity  of mineral sub-
 stance.  The process  of assaying
 in the  dry way,   may readily be
 performed  in  the  same manner.
  Most of the experiments  which
 can be made  by means of a large
 apparatus,  may also be accom-
 plished by the blow-pipe, in a much
 shorter  space of time, while even
the smallest particle of the matter
 is  sufficient.  " The  first inquiry
to be made," says  M. Berg:iann,
 " is, what  a  substance contains,
not how.  much."  Experiments with
             BLO

 the blow-pipe have this advantage
 over those conducted in crucibles,
 that we can distinctly see all the
 phenomena from beginning to end;
 by which means we obtain an illus-
 tration of the series of operations
 and their causes.
   [Mr. Robert Hare of Philadel-
 phia,  lately  invented a machine,
 which he calls a hydrostatic blow-
 pipe, for the  purpose of burning
 inflammable  air, (hydrogen  gas),
 with oxygen,  (pure air)  propelled
 by the pressure of  a column of
 water.
   A long, powerful,  and steady
 flame is produced which fuses pla-
 tina, lime, magnesia and plumba-
 go.  The machine is so contrived,
 as to contain the two airs without
 mixing, and  these may  be either
 atmospherical air and inflammable
 air, or oxygenous air and inflam-
 mable air, as the operator pleases;
 or he may fill  it with atmospheric
 air alone, to  act upon the inflam-
 mable air, which forms the flame
 of a lamp.  For these reasons  it
 will be immediately apparent how
 preferable it is to the bellows  with
 a pedal, or to a crucible.]
  BLOWING, an agitation ofthe
 air by means of a pair of bellows,
 the mouth, Sec.  Butchers have a
 very pernicious custom of blowing
 meat, to deceive the buyer.  The
 sudden change of veal and lamb in
 particular may, in some degree, be
 attributed to this cause.   It is also
 a common practice to blow poul-
try,  and  all sorts  of fish,  except
those of the shell kind.  The  me-
thod of blowing fish, especially cod
and whiting, is, by placing the end
of a quill,  or a tobacco-pipe, at the
vent, and making a hole with a pin
under the fin  which is next the
gill; consequently the fish appears
large and  full,  but when  dressed 
            B LU

will be  flabby, and little else but
skin  and bones.  By placing the
thumb  on  each side of the vent,
and pressing it hard, the air may
be perceived  to escape, and this
imposition  be detected.
  As the venders of provisions,
who are guilty of such disgusting
practices, may at the same time he
infected with the most  loathsome
diseases, the articles thus polluted
should  be  rejected as being  unfit
for consumption. Indeed, the per-
nicious tendency of  blowing meat
is obvious, and ought, therefore,
to  be discouraged  by every  class
of purchasers, while  it claims the
serious and vigorous interference
of the  public magistrate.
   Blowing, in botany,  is the  gra-
 dual  and  perfect  expansion  of
 flowers.
   Blowing of Glass,  is  performed
by dipping the end of an iron blow-
pipe into melted glass, and blowing
into it.  See  Glass.
   BLU BBER, the fat of the whale
and other aquatic animals.   It lies
immediately  under  the skin.  In
the porpoise it is firm, fibrous, and
about an inch thick; in the whale,
it is commonly six inches in thick-
ness.   Formerly the blubber was
boiled  down  into  train-oil  on the
vshores of  Greenland,  and other
 places,  where  the   whales  were
 caught, but  it is  now  brought
 home in casks, and undergoes that
 process in Britain.   The quantity
 of blubber yielded by  a whale is
 forty, fifty, nay, sometimes, eighty
 hundred weight.
   BLUE,  is one of the seven co-
 lours of Nature, into which the rays
 of light divide themselves  when
 refracted through  a prism.   The
 principal blues used in painting,
 are, Prussian blue, bice, Saunders'
 blue, azure or sin alt, verdiler, Sec.
      VOL. I .
            BLU        321

for the preparation of which, see
Colour-making.  In dyeing, the
principal ingredients which afford
a blue colour, are indigo and woad.
.....See also Dyeing.
  The Dutch blue, commonly call-
ed Turnsol, may be prepared by
the following  process: The kind
of lichen called Arabic, or, in de-
fault of it, the large oak moss, be-
ing dried and cleansed, ought  to
be reduced to powder,  and by the
assistance of a press, forced through
a sieve, the holes of which should
be small.   This powder should  be
then  mixed  in a  trough  with  an
alkali called vetas, or the  ashes of
wine lees, in the proportion of one-
third ashes, and  two-thirds lees.
This composition being moistened
with human urine, a fermentation
is excited,  and  a due degree  of
moisture preserved by the addition
of the same liquor.  When it as-
sumes a red  colour,  it should  be
removed into another vessel, again
moistened  with urine,  and stirred,
to renew the fermentation.  In a
few days the blue colour will begin
to appear, and it must then be care-
fully  mixed with a third part of
pure powder of potash; after which
it should be removed into wooden
pails, three feet high, and six inch-
es broad.  As soon as the third
fermentation  begins, it  ought to
be mixed with pulverized chalk or
marble.   The last gives no addi-
tion but in weight.
   A  fine blue colour,  equal to ul-
tramarine, may be made by col-
lecting the blue corn-bottle flower,
or Centaurea cyanus,vt\\ich abounds
 in almost  every corn-field:  it has
 two blue tints; the one pale in the
 larger outward leaves, the other
 deeper, which lies in the middle of
 the  flower;  by  rubbing the  last,
 while fresh, so  as to express  the
      T t 
322        BLU

juice, it will  yield a beautiful and
unfading colour.
  On the same day that the flower
is gathered, the middle should be
separated  from the  extremities,
and when a quantity of the juice
is obtained,  a  small  addition of
alum will produce a  permanent,
clear blue, which, in the opinion
of many persons, is not inferibr to
ultramarine.
  A fine colour has lately been dis-
covered by Mr. Thomas Willis
which promises to be useful in the
art of painting.  It is prepared by
mixing a solution of alum and mar-
tial vitriol with the mother water,
which remains after extracting the
crystals of phosphorated soda from
a combination of the phosphoric
acid with pure mineral alkali.
   Our limits not permitting us to
relate his various experiments, the
curious  reader  will  consult  Mr.
Willis's '■''Account of, and obser-
vations  on,  different  blue  colours
produced from the mother water of
soda phasphorala" isfc.  which is
inserted in'Vol. 4, ofthe "Memoirs
of the Literary and Philosophical
 Society of Manchester."
   Flue John, among miners,  is a
kind of  mineral which has lately
been fabricated into vases and other
 ornamental  articles.  It is of  the
 same quality as the  cubical spar.
 At the foot of the high  mountain
 called Mam-Tor,  at  Castleton, in
 Derbyshire, it is still found in large
 pieces, which  are sold for about
 nine pounds per ion.
   [BLUEBIRD, Motacilla Sialis.
 The head, neck,  back, wings  and
 tail, are  of a sky-blue  colour;
 breast of a red or brick colour; the
 bill  short,  the  upper  mandible,
 bending downwards a little at the
  point.  The blue-bird is of a friend-
'  ly social nature.  The attachment
            BLU

of the male towards the female, is
remarkable and pleasing.  He sel-
dom permits her to  be out of his
sight, and  eagerly  darts upon  a
favourite morsel,  and carries it ta
her. They pair in March, and the
female lays two or three eggs in a
season.   The male  takes care of
the  former  broods  as  soon  as
fledged,  whilst the female sits on
the eggs of the succeeding ones.
  The notes of the  blue-bird arc
invariably the tidings of fine wea-
ther, for although he is not strict-
ly a bird of passage, yet in severely
cold weather, he  disappears for a
short time,  returning  to the  sea-
coast, where the  air is milder, or
a few days  journey south,  but is
sure to return with  a  southerly
wind or milder air, when he ap-
proaches his accustomed place of
residence.   Their food consists of
all  kinds of insects, beetles,  and
grasshoppers;  they  seldom feed
on  fruit  or  vegetable  substances.
This innocent bird is highly worthy
of our protection. William Bar-
tram.]
  BLUE-BOTTLE (Corn), or the
Centaureacyanus,h. is  a plant com-
mon in corn-fields. See Wither-
ing, 472;   and  Engl. Bot. 277.
This vegetable is considered as a
weed; but besides the property of
affording a valuable  paint, as men-
tioned in the article preceding the
last, it is also much  frequented by
bees.   A decoction  of the flowers
with galls and copperas, affords  a
good writing-ink; and it may also
be  employed with success in the
 dyeing of linen or cotton.
   [BLUE-GRASS......See Gras-
 ses.]
   BLUEING,  is the art of com-
 municating  a blue  colour to dif-
 ferent kinds of substances. Laun-
 dresses blue their linen with smalt; 
BOA
BOA       323
dyers, their stuffs and wools with
woad or indigo.  .
  Blueing of metals is performed
by heating them in the fire till they
assume a blue-  colour; it is parti-
cularly practised by  gilders, who
blue their metals before they apply
the gold and silver leaf.
  Blueing of iron, is a method of
beautifying that metal for mourn-
ing buckles, swords, 8cc. The pro-
ct*s is as follows: Take a piece of
grind-stone or whet-stone, and rub
hard on the work, to take from it
the black scurf; then heat it in the
fire, and as it grows hot, the colour
changes by degrees, appearing first
of a light, then  of .a darker gold
colour, and lastly of a blue. Some-
times they also grind indigo  and
salad-oil together;  and  rub  the
mixture on the work, while it is
heating, with a woolen rag, leav-
ing  it to cool gradually.
  BOARD, a piece of timber saw-
ed thin, for building, and other pur-
poses.
  A cheap and durable composi-
tion for preserving weather-board-
ing, may be made in the following
manner....Take three parts of air-
slacked lime,  two of wood-ashes,
and  one of fine sand, or  sea-coal
ashes.  Sift these through a fine
sieve, and let them be well mixed:
then add  as much linseed  oil as
will bring the whole into a con-
sistence  fit for  working with a
painter's brush.  At first, give the
weather-boarding a thin coat of this
mixture;  and when that is dry, it
can  be conveniently worked. This
composition is cheaper and more
durable than paint: it is also  im-
penetrable to water, and not liable
to be injured by the action of the
weather, or the heat of the sun.
  BOAT, a  small open  vessel
worked by oars or sails.  The for-
mation and names of boats are dif-
ferent, according to the  purposes
for which they are intended: hence
they are slight  or strong,  with  a
keel, or flat-bottom,  open, half, or
whole  decked,  and plain, or or-
namented.
   M. Bernieres invented'a boat
which is not liable te be overset or
sunk. Some trials were made with
this vessel, at Paris, in  the  year
1777, in the  presence of a vast
concourse  of  spectators.  Eight
men went into the boat, and rocked
it till it  filled  with  water,  and af-
terwards rowed  it along  the  river
in that  state,  without danger of
sinking.  M. Bernieres then or-
dered a  mast to be erected in the.
same boat,  when filled with water,
and hauled down by a rope fastened
to the top ofthe mast, till it touched
the surface of the river, so that the
vessel heeled in a position to which
neither   winds  nor  waves could
bring her;  yet as soon as the rope
was let go, the boat recovered her
equipoise in less than a second.....
This experiment proved that the
boat could  neither  be sunk  nor
overturned, and  that it afforded the
greatest  possible security  against
accidents.  Hence this  invention
is of the first importance  to the
inhabitants of maritime states.
   In the year 1785, a patent was
granted to  Mr. Lukin, for his im-
provement  in  the construction of
boats and  small vessels, so that
they will neither overset  nor  sink.
This useful invention is described
in lhe.specification of the  patent,
as follows:  To  the  outsides  of
boats and vessels, of the common
or any other form, are projecting
gunwales, sloping from the top of
the common gunwale, in  a  faint
curve, towards the water,  so as not
to interrupt the  oars  in rowing: 
324       BOA
BOA
and, from the extreme projection
(which may be greater or less, ac-
cording to the size and use the boat
or vessel is intended for,) returning
to the side in a  slight curve, at a
proper distance  above  the water-
line.  These projecting gunwales
may be made solid, of any light
materials, that will repel the water
or hollow and water-tight,  or  of
cork, and covered with thin wood,
canvas, leather, tin, or any other
light metal,  mixture, or composi-
tion.  These projections are very
small at the stem and stern, and
increase gradually to the  dimen-
sions required; they will effectual-
ly prevent the boat or vessel from
being overset by sudden squalls, or
violent gales of wind, either  in
sailing or rowing, or by imprudent
or unskilful management.  In the
inside at the stem and stern, and at
the sides  (where the  projecting
gunwales are not necessary), and
under the seats and thwarts,  are
inclosures,  or bulk-heads,  made
water-tight, or filled with cork, or
other light materials that will repel
the water: the spaces between the
timbers may in like manner be fill-
ed up. By this means, the boat or
vessel will be so much lighter than
the body of water it must displaco
in sinking, that it will with safety
carry more than  its common bur-
then, though the remaining space
should by any accident be filled with
water.  Under the bottom, along
the centre  of the keel, is affixed a
false one of cast iron, or other me-
tal;  this will strengthen and  pro-
tect the bottom  from injury in
many cases; and, by being placed
so much below the surface of the
water, will  act as ballast with more
power than a much greater weight
in the common  situation, and is
much more safe, by being fixed in
the proper place, and not liable to
shift by any sudden motion of the
boat or vessel.
   [BOAT, (LIFE,) The object of
this most useful invention, is to save
the  lives of persons  wrecked on
coasts. The life boat was first built
by  Mr. Henry  Greathead, of
South  Shields, England.  A plan
and description of this boat were
taken  from Mr.  G's  original, by
Fig. 2.
Colonel William Tatham, and
patriotically sent by that gentleman,
to Mr. Jefferson,  President of
the  United  States.    From  that
draught, the annexed  plate was
taken,  and the Editor  has  great
pleasure in making  it public...... 
            BOA

having no doubt,  that if the boat
be kept in readiness for use on our
coasts, many lives may be annual-
ly saved.
          DESCRIPTION.

 Fig. 1.  Represents the side view
of the boat, the length of the keel,
with the  convex remarked by the
work keel;  the rising line of the
floor represented as corresponding
with the  rise of the  floor in  the
body section.
  Fig.  2. The situation of the
frames for buildmg, to agree with
the  corresponding letters in the
body and side sections.
   Fig. 3. The breadth  ofthe top
plane, with  the  situation of the
thwarts ;  the  half breadth of the
letters c c c c c,the length and depth
of the cork on the outside.
         construction.

  The boat  to  be built  from a
given length. The breadth is one-
third of the length, with both ends
alike. The keel of the boat is a
plank, bearing   a  proportional
breadth in the mid-ships, narrow-
ing towards the end to the  thick-
ness of the bottom of  tl e  stems,
and forming a convex downwards.
The stems are the segment of a
circle, with a considerable  rake.
The  bottom  section to the  floor
heads, is a curve with the sweep of
the keel; the floor head curving.
A bilge  plank is worked on each
side, next the floor head, with a
double rabbit groove, ofa thickness
nearly similar to the keel, on  the
outside of  which  are  fixed two
bilge trees corresponding nearly on
a level with the keel.   The  ends
           BOA        325

ofthe bottom section from the part
of the cable bow, more eliptical to
the  top, projecting  considerably,
each  end the same.   The  sides
from the floor heads to the top of
the gunwale, flaunch on each side
in proportion to nearly half the
breadth....The breadth of the boat
is continued well towards the ends,
leaving a sufficient lengthof straight
side at  the top. The shear is re-
gular along the  straight side, and
more elevated  towards the ends.
The gunwale is fixed on  the out-
side ; the  outside  is cased  with
cork the whole length of the regu-
lar shear, from  the under part of
the gunwale to twenty-three inches
down the depth of the side.  The
cork has several thicknesses, so as
to project at top a little without the
gunwale, and is secured with plates
of copper.   The quantity of cork
employed  in the construction is
about 700  cwt.  The thwarts are
five in number, all stauntioned, and
row double-banked, with ten oars.
The oars are short,  fixed  by iron
thole pins, and  slung with graum-
mets, to enable the rowers to pull
either way.  The boat is steered
by an oar  at either end,  and the
steering oar is one-third longer than
the rowing oar. The platform, in
the bottom is placed horizontally.
The length of the mid-ships, and
the sides from  the  bottom to the
under part ofthe thwarts, is cased
with cork. At the  ends, the plat-
forms are more elevated, for the
convenience of the steersman, and
to give him a greater command of
power with the oars.
      practical remarks.

   The curving  keel and bottom
permit the boat to be turned with 
326        BOA
BOA
 facility : she is kept more easily in
 equilibrium than any other shape;
 is more easily steered, and safer
 among the breakers; the greatrake
 of the stems, and fine entrance be-
 low, forming part ofthe cable bow.
 This construction is superior to all
 others in  a high sea and broken
 water ; and with the projection to
 the top of the gunwale, is the means
 when the boat is conducted to head
 the sea. of dividing the waveswhich
 generally break into a common boat.
 The breadth being  continued well
 to the ends, supports the boat when
 rowing against the waves; and both
 ends being similar,  she is  always
 in a position to be rowed either way
 without turning.  The addition of
 the staunchions under the thwarts,
 admit the boatman  to act  with  a
 firmer force, and in  the instance of
 the boats striking the ground, the
 weight of the men, by the commu-
 nication of the staunchions, will,
 in some degree, resist the shock.
 The advantage of a short oar, in
 a high sea, is obvious.  It is more
 manageable, and permits the rower
 to keep his seat; but the long oar
 in the midst  of  agitated  waves,
 would be unwieldy, and the  stroke
 frequently  uncertain.   The cork
 on the outside is a most excellent
 defence, and displaces a large co-
 lumn of water:  and it has been
 proved by experience, to float the
 boat with the principal part of her
 bottom stove and loose. The great
 projection of the cork also, on the
 outside, prevents her being over-
 turned.  The best method of con-
ducting the boat, is  to head the
sea; which from her construction,
 aided by the force of the oars, will
 launch, her over the water with ra-
 pidity, without taking in any wa-
 ter.
  " The person who steers the boat
 should be well  acquainted with the
 course of the tides, in order to take
 every  possible advantage;   and
 great care should be taken in ap-
 proaching the wreck: that the boat
 be not damaged, as there is  fre-
 quently a strong reflux of the sea
 near the wreck : when the wind
 blows to the land, the boat will re-
 turn to  the shore before the wind
 and sea,  without any other effort
 than steering.   Signed,
           Henry Greathead.'

   Mr. Greathead stated, " That
 he conceived the principle of his
 invention from the following idea,
 which had frequently occurred to
 him,  viz.  Take  a spheroid, and
 divide it into quarters, each  quar-
 ter is eliptical, and nearly resem-
 bles the  half of a wooden  bowl,
 having a curvature with projecting
 ends; this thrown into the sea, or
broken water, cannot be upset, or
lie with  the bottom upwards."
   The testimony laid before  the
committee of the House of Com-
mons, by persons  of credit  who
had either used the  boat, or had
witnessed its use by others, leaves
no room to doubt of its being fully
adequate to the purposes for which
it was intended.  Capt. Gilfred
Lowson  Reed, an elder brother of
the Trinity-house, observed to the
committee, " That when the  sea
does not tumble in  upon the beach
very much, the boat may be easily
launched by laying the ways as far
as possible in the water, and  the
carriage  hauled from under her :
when there is a great sea on  the
beach, the boat must be launched
from'the carriage before shecomes
to the surf, on planks laid across,
as other boats  are launched,  the 
       y.      A  ,<        •■*■.
£  ..  «.  .''J.. -' <•■■ 
ri^:,f^Ap
                        ln^   B oat.
f   ) fffiit   liiiKilffc  h/ «>/10mtid —/fi/x/fti   trfr r //it mtfti'<i/t''. 
«
            BOA

people standing on the ends to pre-
vent the sea moving them ; then,
with the assistance of  the  anchor
and cable  (which has been laid out
at sea for that purpose) the boat's
crew would draw  her over  the
highest sea.
   "  Upon the boat returning to the
shore, two double blocks  are pro-
vided, and having  a  short strop
fixed in the hole, in the end ofthe
boat next the sea, the boat is easily-
drawn upon the carriage.
   Mr.  Thomas    Hinderwell
stated, " That the peculiar nature
of the curvature of the keel of the
boat, is the foundation and basis of
its excellence.   It regulates,  in a
 great measure, the shear with the
 elevation towards the end.  This
 construction spreads and repels the
 water in  every direction,  and ena-
 bles her to ascend and  descend
 with great  facility over the break-
 ers.   The ends being reduced re-
 gularly from  the  centre, to less
than one-third  proportion  to the
 mid-ships,  both  ends are lighter
 than the  body  section.  By means
 of the curved keel, and the centre
 of gravity being placed in the cen-
 tre  of the boat, she preserves  an
 equilibrium in the midst of the
 breakers.   The  internal shallow-
 ness of the boat in  the body  sec-
 tion, occasioned by the convexity
 of the keel, and the shear of the
 top, leaves  so small a space for the
 water to occupy,  that  the boat,
 though filled with water, is in  no
 danger of  sinking 'or upsetting.
 The buoyancy  of  the boat, when
 filled with water, is also assisted by
 the cork being placed above  the
 water line."]
   BOATS, (ICE) a modern inven-
 tion  of  Thomas  Ritzler,  of
 Hamburgh, whose namoaleserves
 to be transmitted to poijprity ;  as
            BOA       327

his ingenious and useful  contriv-
ance has already saved many valua-
ble lives from a vvatery grave. We
have given an accurate representa-
tion of such a boat, with our First
Number,  and shall here  furnish
our reader with the description.
   Fig. I, Is a perspective view of
the boat, the body of which  con-
sists of wicker-work covered  with
leather, to render  it impermeable
by water ; and so remarkably light,
that it may  be easily managed by
one person, both on the ice and in
the water.  Its length when mea-
sured on the outside, is 7-1 feet in
the keel, and twelve above from
end to end : its breadth, 3 feet at
the bottom  and  4  at  the upper
part.
   Fig. 2, Represents the  plan of
the boat,  the bottom of which is
shod with two small pieces of iron,
marked x,  x: by means of two
hooks, one of which is  delineated
on the plate,  the  boat  may  with
the greatest facility be slided over
the ice. In the lower part, or body
of the vessel, there is a large open-
ing, 3 feet long, and 15 inches wide,
pointed out by o,o,o, fig. 2 : and o,
fig. 3 ; the  four sides of which are
secured by  a frame-work, marked^
r, fig. 1, and 3, to prevent the wa-
ter  from  entering  the   vessel.
Through this opening, also, the
boatman is enabled to stepbpon the
ice in those places where it is too
uneven to admit the sliding ofthe
boat, and to carry it, by means of
the handles, as represented in fig.-
 1, where  the person standing is
marked only with dotted  lines, to
shew that he has quitted his for-
mer station in the boat. Another ad-
vantage derived from this aperture,
in the, middle of the boat, is  the
counterpoise which a column of
water in its centre produces,  and 
328        BOA
BOD
thus prevents it from being over-
set, while the man  who  carried it
over  the ice, immediately  raises
himself above the level ofthe  wa-
ter, and  sits  down  in  the  vessel.
But, in order to approach  nearer
to the  person whose life is endang-
ered, there  is also employed  a
ladder with a long jointed handle,
which  is pushed forward and held
by another assistant standingon the
firm ice.   On this  ladder (which
will be delineated among the  im-
plements  of  restoration   from
Drowning)  the  boatman places
himself,  and  advances  as near as
possible to the  body immersed in
the  water.   Having  successfully
extracted it, no time should be lost
in laying it in a proper posture in
the boat; for which purpose there
is a kind of a chair with  an elevated
back, on  the stern of  the boat,
marked n, in fig. 1, and  3 ; which
last exhibits  the longitudinal sec-
tion of the vessel.
  Mr.  Gunther, one ofthe most
active  members of the Hamburgh
Society for the  Encouragements of
the Arts and useful Trades, informs
us in the third  volume  of their
Transactions, published  in  1795,
that he has often been present when
unfortunate persons have been res-
cued from untimely death,by means
of the  ice-boat, and {hat the swift-
ness  and'dexterity with which this
machine  may be managed by  ex-
pert assistants, is almost incredi-
ble.  Hence  the vessel  is not in-
trusted to any but skilful hands, and
during summer it is deposited  in
an airy place, and the leather pre-
served  from  becoming either  too
dry or  mouldy. The whole of this
useful  apparatus costs only   150
marks  currency, or   about  101.
sterling ; a sum  so insignificant,
that, while the  city of  Hamburgh
 has  built five such  ice-boats, the
 great city  of London ought  to h6
 in possession of at least one hun-
 dred.
   A patent has lately been granted
 to Mr. Edward Stfers, of the
 Inner Temple, for a machine to be
 applied to boats  and  other vessels,
 for  the  purpose of  moving  them
 with ease and swiftness.  This in-
 vention  consists of two  or  more
 paddles,  moving by  means of ma-
 chinery,  in contrary and  alternate
 directions.  The  paddles are so
 constructed, that when the machi-
 nery is set in motion,  the  broad
 surface of one or more of them will
 press against the water, while the
 broad  surface  of  the  other, or
 others, will give  way to it, and by
 this  means the vessel will be mo-
 ved.
   BODY,  in  physics, implies an
 extended, solid, divisible substance,
 which  in itself  has no power of
 motion,  but acts by external im-
 pulse ; it also possesses  the pro-
 perties of attraction and repulsion.
 Whatever relates to  this branch of
 knowledge, under its various modi-
 fications  and appearances, through
 the whole creation, is the subject
 of physics, or natural philosophy :
 if it  concern the economy ,ot" the
 human body, in  particular, and the
 treatment of its various disorders,
 it belongs to the province of me-
 dicine, or the department of the
 physcian.  In this  sense, there-
 fore, the  term body is used in op-
 position to soul, and forms the sub-
ject  of anatomical research.
  Whatever tends to impart a pro-
 per tone  and vigour to the body,        >'
 that  is, every impression which  is
most likely to soothe and  harmon-
ize the passions, at the same time
 contributes to regulate the powers
of therJtnherstanding,  and   give- 
            BOD

them their due force and energy.
Hence, temperate gratifications, as
they are highly conducive to these
ends, promote  the harmony of vir-
tue ; for  by  contributing  to the
health and sprightfinessof the body,
they invigorate the powers of the
mind, and check the  violence of
the passions.
  The  human body is a machine
so artificially and admirably orga-
nized for withstanding  the various
impressions of external agency, or
the sudden vicissitudes of heat and
cold, dryness and moisture, as well
as for performing its various func-
tions, that it  bears evident marks
of a wise and omnipotent Creator.
It is composed of fluids and solids :
the principal  of the  former are,
the blood, chyle, saliva, bile, and
the gastric liquor;  of which the
three  last  mentioned materially
promote the digestion of food ; the
chief of the solids are the  bones
and cartilages,  which  give  firm-
ness and attitude to the body.
   It would lead  us too  far  from
the  plan of this work, to enter
into particulars respectingthe com-
plicated and  wonderful structure
of the   human  frame: we  shall
therefore,  only  observe, that  it
ceases to grow in height when the
bones arrive at a certain degree of
firmness  and rigidity, which will
not admit of farther extension by
the motion of the blood.  This pe-
riod appears to take place between
the  age of eighteen and twenty-
four ; but in females, often one or
two years earlier than in  males.
Lastly,  it is remarkable, that the
height or length ofthe human body
varies at different parts of the day  :
thus, in the morning,  after a long
and refreshing sleep, an adult will
be  found one inch taller than he
was in  the preceding evening,
     VOL. i.
             B O I         329

  BOG, a quagmire covered with
grass, but not firm enough to sup-
port a heavy body.
  Various theories have been start-
ed to account for  the formation of
bogs; but the most probable is, that
they have originated from the roots
of trees, and other decayed vegeta-
bles.  Under some bogs of consi-
derable  depth, are to be seen the
furrows of  land once ploughed.....
The black  bog is a solid, weighty
substance,  which cuts like butter,
and is similar to rotten wood : but
the red bog is of a lighter texture,
though  under it there is commonly
a solid black stratum, which makes
good fuel.   Sound trees are found
in both  sorts of bogs, particularly
in  those of  Ireland,  which differ
from the  English, as the  former
sometimes present  a  perfect  sce-
nery of hill and dale, while the lat-
ter are  mostly of a level surface....
Of the most common spontaneous
growth   are,  heath,  bog-myrtle,
rushes  and  sedgy grass.  Bogs
are of various depths,  some being
found to be  fifty feet  deep,  and
others still deeper. A good method
of draining boggy lands is, by deep
trenches partly filled  with stones,
and covered with thorns and straw.
A quantity  of hard,  dry earths,
such as gravels,  sands,  chalks,
stones,  &c. is of great use in the
improvement of bogs, as these sub-
stances  serve to  bind, fatten, and
warm the soil, while they prevent
springs from oozing up and over-
flowing the surface.   By this  me-
thod, boggy  or  marshy  grounds
may be improved so as to produce
good grass. [See  Swamp-Drain.]
   BOHEA, a species  of tea.....See
Tea.
   BOILERS.   Many  ingenious
vessels  and  utensils have, at dif.
ferent periods, been invented, with
     U  u 
330         B  O I
BOI
a view to facilitate the  process of
boiling, and save the consumption
of  fuel.   In the latter  respect,
Count Rumford  stands   at  the
head of those experimental inquir-
ers, who  have  directed their  la-
bours to the benefit of society ; yet
we must confess that thereris still
great room for improvement.  One
of the latest inventions  in this de-
partment  of domestic economy is
that of Mr. Tho. Rowntree, en-
gine-maker, of Great Surry-street,
Blackfriars-road [London], who in
1793, obtained a patent for "anew
method of applying fire for the pur-
pose  of heating boilers  and other
vessels, where heat  is  required."
But as the patentee  had not given
a clear  specification, from which
an ordinary tradesman could have
constructed a furnace on his prin-
ciples, without any farther expla-
nation,  his  patent  was declared
void,  after a trial before Lord El-
don and a special jury, on the  3d
of November last, and has conse-
quently become public property....
These proceedings, however, have
been  attended with a good effect,
as the obscure account published
by Mr. Rowntree, has been more
clearly  defined  by  the evidence
given in  Court, especially by that
of Mr.  Hi'.-'dmarsh.   We shall,
therefore, present our readers with
the specification communicated  by
the patentee, and  accompany it
with the necessary illustrations.....
The following is a literal abstract
of  the  inventor's  description.....
" For heating of coppers, boilers,
furnaces,  ovens,  and  stoves, my
fire-place  is much  smaller  than
heretofore  made use  of for  the
same  sized copper, boiler, furnace,
oven,  or stove.   Instead of placing
my fire-place, according to the com-
mon  practice, immediately under
the boiler,  or other vessel, I place
it at the front, side or end, as I see
most convenient, in such a man-
ner as,to oblige  the flame to rise
in  the front, side or end, and pass
all  round  the  vessel, &c while at
the same  time it strikes the bot-
tom ofthe vessel, Sec. without suf-
fering the  flame to pass off in a flue,
or flues, as it usually does  in the
common way, and by  that means
sending the heat into the flues, in-
stead of  its being used where  it
ought to be, namely, on the vessels,
8cc. this,  my method  effectually
prevents ; for, by means of a small
perpendicular, ,or  other  opening,
into a box or trap, which I call a
reservoir,  and which I place hori-
zontally, or diagonally, as the situ-
ation may require,  and is made of
iron, brick, stone, or any other ma-
terial capable of bearing heat, where
a valve is  placed riding on centres
or otherwise, and standing in a dia-
gonal or other direction, as is found
most convenient, the flame is re-
turned or  impeded in its progress
to  the chimney, and made  to de-
scend below the  bottom of the ves-
sel,  and pass  out at the bottom,
top, or side of said box, trap, or re-
servoir, into the common chimney.
This reservoir is placed between
the vessel, Sec and the chimney....
To the opening, which admits the
flame into  the reservoir, are affixed,
when necessary, sliders, registers,
or  stops, which  serve  to  increase
or diminish the heat.  The valve in
the reservoir is for the same pur-
pose in another degree, which more
immediately appertains to increas-
ing or diminishing  the  draught,
which it does by  moving the said
valve into different positions, as
the speed  of the operation may re-
quire."
  It would be  needless to state the
particulars of the evidence relative
to  the effect produced by the new 
BOI
BOI        331
invented furnaces, in heating boil-
ers, &c as  well as the great sav-
ing of fuel, which was proved to be
more than one-third, and in  some
cases nearly one-/ialf, of what is
usually consumed in furnaces con-
structed on the old plan.  Hence
we shall communicate  only  the
substance  of Mr. Hindmaush's
evidence, which greatly tends to
illustrate the principles of the in-
vention. This, he conceives, prin-
cipally consists in the three follow-
ing circumstances  :
   1. In the peculiar mode of con-
structing the  furnace, or setting
the boiler, and of placing the fire,
not immediately under, but a little
in front,  or  at  one side  of it,
whereby the flame and hot air  can
get access to every part ofthe ves-
sel, and not only strike with force
against its bottom, but also with
equal  effect reverberate  against,
and violently embrace its sides, and
whole   external surface;  unlike
every former contrivance, the most
perfect of which could only  cause
the flame and hot air to act par-
tially upon the bottom and sides of
the vessel.
   2. In the elevated situation,  and
smallhess of the aperture leading
from the  furnace  towards  the
chimney ; whereby the flame  and
hot air  are impeded in their pro-
gress to the atmosphere, and com-
pelled to tarry in the cavity  of the
furnace, and  occupy  every part
thereof much longer  than  they
otherwise would do.  This  effect
in stopping,  checking, and  as it
were arresting the flame and hot
air, in their attempt to escape into
the atmosphere, Mr. Hindmarsh
considered  as not only new,  but
singularly  beneficial ; for, by  this
means,  the flume  and hot air  are
detained in the very  place  where
their presence is most wanted, and
constrained to give forth their en-
ergies with an impetus against the
bottom and  sides of the vessel  to
be heated :  whereas, in none  of
the furnaces  heretofore erected,
was any effectual stop interposed
between the fire and the chimney,
to cause the  flame  and  hot air  to
dwell  under and round the sides  of
the vessel ;  but  they passed ra-
pidly off into the atmosphere, either
by a direct communication through
the chimney, or indirectly, but al-
most  as speedily, by flues ; or else
by a  drain (as it is  called), the
aperture of Which is  equal in di-
mensions  to  that of the chimney
itself.
   3. In an open space between the
furnace and  chimney, called by
the patentee  a box, trap, or reser-
voir, and intended as  a  receptacle
of the flame, hot air, and smoke,
after  they  have  quitted the fur-
nace, and passed through the small
aperture as above described. This
space, or  reservoir, for  the flame,
hot air, and  smoke, being closed
at the top and external  sides, and
open  only at the bottom outwards,
for the  purpose of permitting the
smoke, Sec.  to pass off into the
chimney, still further checks and
detains the flame and bot air in the
furnace ; and being itself constantly
full of warm air, smoke, &c. causes
the heat to be reverberated against
the sides and bottom of the vessel
or boiler, and effectually prevents
the admission of the cold  atmos-
pheric air from the chimney, which,
on the old plans of construction, is
found by experience to rob the fur-
nace  and vessel of more than half
the supply of heat which any given
quantity of fuel is capable of yield-
ing.  The valves, sliders, and dam-
pers, arc not  esssential parts ofthe 
332        BOI
BON
invention,butmerely as regulators,
which, in many cases, may be alto-
gether omitted, without detriment
to the operation of the fire.
   Although Count Rumford has
successively extended his research-
es to discover the most economical
plan  in the management of fire,
and the generation of heat for culi-
nary and other purposes, it does not
appear from his writings, that  he
had a  distinct  conception of the
new  method  suggested  by Mr.
Rowntree, till after the enroll-
ment of his specification in May
 1798. Nay, says Mr. Hindmarsh,
the Count  evidently takes it  for
granted (see vol. II. p. 73, of  his
Essays), and even reasons on the
fact, which he there supposes to be
unavoidable, and beyond remedy,
that  the  fire cannot be  made to
impinge against the  sides of a ves-
sel with the same force and effect
 as against the bottom : which is a
plain  proof, that at the time of
writing that essay,  he was totally
 unacquainted  with   Mr. Rown-
 tree's method of  applying and
 managing the  fire ;  in which  the
 very effect which the Count con-
 siders as a desideratum in science,
 and  which appears  to  have been
 one grand object of his philosophi-
 cal pursuits, is now in a great mea-
 sure completed. [See Kitchen.]
    BOILING, in the culinary  art,
 is a method of dressing animal
 food, vegetables, Sec. by decoction
 in hot water, for the purpose of re-
 moving their natural crudities, and
 rendering  them more easy of di-
 gestion.    By  too  much boiling,
 however, flesh is deprived of a con-
 siderable  part  of  its  nourishing
 juice, as the  gelatinous substance
 of the meat is extracted, and incor-
 porated with the water, while the
 spirituous  and balsamic particles
are dissipated by evaporation. The
culinary process of stewing is more
profitable, especially if conducted
in close vessels, as it is better cal-
culated to  preserve and concen-
trate the most  substantial and nu-
tritious parts of animal food.
   BOLES, are viscid earths more
friable than clay : they are soft and
unctuous,  and  gradually  melt in
the mouth, communicating a slight
sensation of astringency. There is
a great  variety  of  these  earths,
which have been  recommended as
astringent,  sudorific,  and  alexi-
pharmic, but  without  sufficient
grounds.  They  are still prescrib-
ed in fluxes, and complaints of the
first passages.
   BOMBAST, in composition, is
an endeavour, by strained, and tur-
 gid description to give a low or
 familiar subject that importance of
 which it is  not   susceptible ; in-
 stead, therefore, of being sublime,
 it always proves  ridiculous.   The
 style of a writer, who has no real
 genius or  talent  for description, is
 extremely  prone  to deviate into
bombast, and  vitiate the taste  of
 others. Hence, books written in a
 redundant or affected style, ought
 never to be entrusted to the hands
 of youth,  who are  more  apt to
 listen to and imitate the language
 which is addressed to the imagina-
 tion and the senses, than the seri-
 ous  and  dignified  admonitions
 which are  supported by reason and
 experience.
   BONES,  are   solid  substances
 composed of animal earth and glu-
 ten.   They  support and form the
 stature of the body, defend  its vis-
 cera, and give adhesion to the mus-
 cles.  Their number in the  human
 frame is  generally  240,  but in
  some  individuals, who have two
  additional bones in each thumb and 
BON
BON       333
great toe, they amount to 248....
The regular division of them is as
follows :  63 bones of the head, in-
cluding the 32 teeth:  53 of  the
trunk : 64 of the  upper, and 60 of
the lower extremities.
   One of the most remarkable dis-
eases of animal bones, is tneir oc-
casional softness  and reduction in
the  living body ; of  which there
are  several well  authenticated in-
stances.   The late Mr. Gooch, a
respectable surgeon of London, re-
lates the case of  a woman natural-
ly five feet  six  inches high,  who
 was gradually  reduced  down  to
 three feet four inches.   In rickety
 children, the bones  are  obviously
 softer than they ought to be  in a
 sound state, owing perhaps to their
 erosion, occasioned by the discharge
 of an acrimonious humour.  In a si-
 milar manner, the scurvy has often
 been remarked to affect these  solid
 parts of the human frame. Hence
 in  the former instances, attention
 to a proper diet, gentle friction with
 coarse cloths, exercise,  fresh air,
 and cold bathing, will  frequently
 change  the  constitution of  such
 children, insomuch, that at the age
 of  twenty, there will  not  remain
 the least symptom of their former
 debility.
    It is generally believed, that the
 bones,  in a  healthy state, are  in-
  sensible to pain, because the larg-
  er ones are unconnected with any
  nerve : hence the operation of the
  trepan  has been performed  upon
  sound persons who  were not under
  the influence  of opium,  without
  giving them any additional pain dur-
  ing the  perforation of  the  skull.
  See Fractures and Teeth.
     Decomposition of Bones.   After
  being separated from the animal,
  they maybe hardened and softened,
  both by acids and alkalies, accord-
ing to the quantity of saline matter
employed, and the manner in which
it is applied. Although Boerhaave
asserts, that  alkaline  salts render
them harder  aud firmer, and that
acids make them softer and more
flexible, yet these effects take place
only in certain circumstances. Thus
Newman found, that  bones  be-
came harder and more compact by
steeping them in oil of vitriol; but
when  this acid was  in sufficient
proportion, it destroyed their co-
hesion, and dissolved them.  Dr.
 Lewis, on the other hand, observ-
 ed, that diluted vitriolic acid,though
 it rendered them remarkably soft,
 made them at the same time brit-
 tle ; but that either in aqua-fortis,
 or spirit of salt diluted, as well as
 in the acetous acid,  they became
 flexible and soft like leather. The
 mosteffectual and cheapest method
 of reducing  the hardest bones to a
 soft pap or jelly, is that effected by
 the action of simple water, heated
 in what is called Papin's Digester ;
 a machine  consisting of a strong
 and close iron vessel, in which the
 steam of boiling liquors is confined,
 and thus a more intense degree of
 heat  is produced  than any  fluid
 could otherwise acquire.  This ef-
 fect, however,may be accomplished
 in a much shorter time, when, in-
 stead of pure water,  alkaline solu-
 tions are employed; yet the latter
 could not properly be used in any
 culinary process.
    If bones be exposed to a mode-
  rate fire, either in open vessels, or
  in  contact with the  burning fuel,
  they become opaque, white, and
  friable: by increasing the fire, they
  are still more  reduced, and easily
  crumble into powder.  But, if they
  be  at first submitted to an intense
  heat, such as is required to melt
  copper or iron, they become firm, 
334       BON
BON
 semi-transparent, and sonorous,not
 unlike  hard  mineral  stones......
 This curious experiment deserves
 the farther researches of the che-
 mist.
   [If  bones   reduced to powder
 between a pair of toothed iron cy-
 linders, are boiled in eight or ten
 times  their weight  of  water, for
 the space of  three or four hours,
 or till about half the water is wast-
 ed, the liquor will be found,on cool-
 ing of a gelatinous consistence.  A
 vessel with a tight cover should be
 used  that the water  may acquire
 as much  heat as possible, and it
 should  not be of copper, as this
 metal is easily dissolved by animal
 mucilage.
  Bones from different parts, af-
 ford different  proportions of jelly.
 According to the experiments of
 Professor Prouest of Madrid, five
 pounds of the middle part  of the
 bone  of a leg of beef,  will afford
 nine pints of jelly: the same quan-
 tity ofthe bone of the joint, fifteen
 pints; ofthe ribs and spine,eleven
 quarts; ofthe rump andedgebone,
 thirteen  quarts.  Five  pounds  of
 mutton bones, of  every  sort toge-
 ther, give nineteen pints of jelly....
 Pig bones yield a little more.  To
 Mr. P's taste, the jelly from pig
 bones was the most agreeable  of
 all: that from mutton had the fla-
vour of the meat.   Of  the jellies
from beef bones, that from the ribs
was  most  pleasing, both to the
 sight and palate, that from the leg
 and joint least. In warm weather
the liquor must  be  boiled  down
 somewhat more, if it be intended to
assume the same gelatinous con-
 sistence when cold ;  as the same
quantity of bone that would afford
a quart of jelly in winter, will not
vield  above a pint  and a half in
 summer, but  then it contains pro-
portionably more nourishment.  If
this jelly be boiled till it acquires a
consistence a little  thicker than a
syrup, then poured  out into plates,
and, when cold, cut into pieces, and
dried on a net, it will keep a long
time, and be particularly useful at
sea.  One  ounce of this dry  porta-
ble jelly, being  soaked in water for
a  quarter of an hour, to soften it
and then boiled, will make from a
pint and a quarter to a quart  of
jelly, equally good as  that which is
fresh extracted.
   Mr. P. prepares a very pleasant
restorative for the sick, by  adding
an ounce and a half of sugar, and
a  little salt, to fourteen or fifteen
ounces ofthe jelly,and then making
it  into an  emulsion,  with twelve
sweet, and four bitter, almonds, and
a little orange peel.]
   A  method of producing  phos-
phorus in  large quantities from
bones, has  been invented by  M.
Scheele, who employed for this
purpose the vitriolic acid:  it has,
therefore, been doubted, whether
the phosphoric  acid  is naturally
contained in the bones, and united
with calcareous earth, or whether
it is generated by a combination of
the vitriolic  acid  with  a certain
quantity of lime.   As, however,
the phosphoric  acid has, likewise,
though in a smaller quantity, been
discovered  in the gastric juice of
animals, there  is reason to  con-
clude that it forms one of the ele-
mentary constituents of bones......
See Benzoine.
   Colouring of bones.....This pro-
cess may be performed either by
immersing bones in the common
dyeing liquors made of animal and
vegetable substances, or staining
them without heat,by different me-
tallic  solutions.   To succeed in the
former method, the bones  should 
BON
BON       335
previously be boiled in a solution of
alum, and afterwards steeped in  a
decoction  made of any colouring
substance.   Thus, for instance, to
stain them of a red colour, half  a
pound of Brazil-wood may be boil-
ed for an hour in a gallon of water,
in which the bones are suffered to
lie till they acquire a proper colour:
ifthey assume toodeepa hue of pur-
ple) it will be necessary to plunge
them into a solution of alum, which
has the effect of bringing them to
a crimson  or scarlet shade.
   By metallic solutions, bones may
be easily spotted or variegated.....
Thus  a solution of silver in aqua-
fortis,  imparts,  according  to its
strength, a brown or black colour;
 a solution of gold in aqua-regia, or
 in spirit of salt, a fine purple ;  a
 solution of copper in  the  acetous
 acid, a pleasant green ;  and solu-
tions of the same metal in the vo-
latile spirit of ammonia, at  first  a
deep and beautiful blue ; but which,
on exposing it to  the air, changes
into  a green,  or blueish  green.
On touching the bone with the two
solutions   first  mentioned,  it ac-
quires the desired tint in afew hours,
when placed in the open air ; but
in those liquors made with copper,
it should-  be steeped for at least
twenty-four  hours, sufficiently  to
 imbibe the colour.  In such cases
 as require immersion for some time,
 the bone may be variegated, by co-
 vering those parts which are in-
 tended to  remain white, with wax,
or other matter not soluble in the
.staining liquor.
   Economical uses of Bones....Be-
 side the various toys, and other ar-
 ticles of domestic economy, made
ol bones, they  are extensively usu-
 ful in many of the chemical arts ;
 for instance, to absorb the sulphur
(ef ferruginous  ores for rendering
cast-iron malleable ;  to form tests
and cupels, or vessels for refining
gold and silver with lead; to make
glasses  and porcelain of a  milky
colour ; to rectify volatile salts, and
empyreumatic  oils;  to  produce
glue, Sec.  But the most important
and beneficial uses, to which bones
may be rendered subservient, are
those in rural economy.
   In Evelyn's  Philosophical Dis-
course ofthe Earth, we meet with
a note by Dr. A. Hunter, the edi-
tor of a new edition of this trea-
tise, published in 1778, from which
we shall extract the following ac-
count :  Bones are an excellent ma-
nure, though not generally known;
they should, however, not be cal-
cined, as their  virtue will be dis-
sipated by the fire. A. St.Leger,
Esq. had once laid down to grass a
large piece of very indifferent lime-
stone land, with a crop of corn  ;
and from this uniformly well-dres-
sed piece he selected three rods of
equal quality with the rest, and ma-
nured them with bones broken ve-
ry small, at the rate of sixty bushels
per acre.  Upon the land thus ma-
naged,  the  crop was infinitely su-
perior to the rest.  The next year's
grass was also more luxuriant, and
has continued to preserve the same
superiority  for at least eight years,
insomuch, that in spring it is green
three weeks before the  rest of the
field.   He  also  dressed two acres
with bones, in two different fields
prepared for turnips, at sixty bush-
els to the acre, and found the crops
incomparably more productive than
the others managed in the common
way.   Upon grass-lands,  he ob-
served,  that this  kind  of manure
exerts its influence more powerful-
ly  in  the second year than in the
first.   For whatever soil it be in-
tended, the bones should be well 
336       BON

broken, before they can be equally
spread upon the land.  No pieces
should exceed the size  of small
marbles.  To perform this neces-
sary  operation,  he  recommends
the bones to be sufficiently bruised,
by  putting them under a circular
stone, which,  being moved round
upon  its edge, by means of a horse,
in the manner tanners grind their
bark,  will very expeditiously effect
the purpose.   Some  people break
them  with small hammers  upon a
piece  of iron, but that method is
inferior to grinding.  Although
bones  of all kinds may  be used
with advantage, yet those of fat cat-
tle  are doubtless the best; but un-
eround bones should never be em-
ployed, as  they are of little or no
service to the soil. A. St. Leger
has also found it very beneficial to
mix ashes with the bones :  a cart-
load ofthe former being put to thir-
ty or forty bushels ofthe latter, and
heated for twenty-fourhours(which
may be known by the smoking  of
the heap),  the whole  should  be
turned.  After lying ten  days lon-
ger, this excellent manure will be
fit for use.  Lastly,  Dr.  Hunter
remarks, that the best method  of
grinding bones,  is that  between
two cast metal cylinders.   And as
mills  are very rarely erected pur-
posely for this operation, the appa-
ratus  may  be added to any com-
mon water-mill, at a very trifling
expense.
  BONE-SPAVIN, is a  bony ex-
crescence, or hard swelling,  on the
inside of a horse's leg.  A spavin,
which begins on the  lower part of
the hock, is  not so dangerous as
that which grows higher, between
the two round processes ofthe leg-
bone ; and that which appears near
the edge, is less injurious than if
it were situated more towards the
           BON

middle and inwards, where it would,
in a greater  degree, impede  the
bending of the knee.
  A swelling occasioned by a kick
or blow, is not at first the true spa-
vin, nor so dangerous as when it
proceeds from a natural cause; and
that which grows on the  leg  of a
colt, is not so inveterate as that of
a horse come to maturity.  In old
horses, the spavin generally is in-
curable.
  The usual  method  of  treating
this disease is, by blisters, and the
actual cautery.  When a  fullness
on the fore part of the  hock is oc-
caisoned by hard  riding,  or  any
other violence, cooling and repel-
ling applications are proper, as in
the case of bruises or strains.
  Among the various prescriptions
for the blistering ointment, the fol-
lowing by Mr. Gibson, is prefer-
able : Nerve  and marsh-mallow
ointment,  of  each two ounces;
quicksilver, one ounce, thoroughly
mingled with cne ounce of Venice
turpentine ;  Spanish flies,  powder-
ed, a dram and a half;  sublimate,
one  dram ; oil of origanum,  two
drams.
  When the hair is cut as close as
possible, the ointment is to be ap-
plied pretty thick to  the  injured
part, in the morning, and the horse
should b^ kept tied without  any
filter till nigi.t  He should then be
untied, that he may lie  down,  and
a pitch plaster fastened to the part,
with a proper bandage.
  After the blister has done run-
ning, and the scabs begin to peel
off", another may be applied, which
will have  a still better effect;  and
in young  horses,  will  generally
complete the cure. But if  the  spa-
vin has been of long standing, a re-
petition of the blister  five or six
times,  will perhaps be requisite. 
            BOO

Each application must be made at
intervals of a  fortnight or three
weeks, lest the blemish of a scar,
or baldness, remain on the  part.
  Spavins  on  old  or  full-aged
horses, as they grow more inward,
and run among the sinuosities of
the joint, are  for  the most part,
incurable.
  In such cases, the strongest cau-
stic blisters must be applied, or the
part immediately  fired ; but  the
best and safest way to preserve the
use of the limb is, by long-repeat-
ed applications of the above-men-
tioned blistering ointment, for some
months, if necessary.  The horse,
in  the  intervals, should be exer-
cised moderately; and by degrees
the  hardness will be dissolved, and
disappear.
   If the spavin is deep, and runs
so far into the joint that no appli-
cation can reach it, all medicines
will be unavailing. When  the dis-
ease does not penetrate the joint,
and the blistering method is found
ineffectual,  the swelling may be
safely cauterized with a thin iron,
forced pretty deeply  into the  sub-
stance : and it should afterwards
be  dressed according to the fore-
going directions.
   BOOK, a general name for most
literary compositions ; but  should,
with propriety, be applied  to such
productions only as extend to the
size of a volume.
   The writings of Moses are al-
lowed  to be the  most ancient of
any  extant;  but as  several are
cited by this author, some  must
undoubtedly have been written pre-
vious to his time.  Next to these,
the  oldest with which we  are ac-
quainted, are  Homer's Poems;
though the Greek authors mention
no less than seventy other writers
prior to Homer.
     vol. I.
            BOO        337

  The materials  used by the an-
cients  instead of paper, were of
various kinds; as  plates of lead
and  copper, the  bark  of  trees,
bricks, stone, wood, Sec.  Instead
of wooden tables, the leaves of the
palm-tree were afterwards used,
and the inner part of the bark of
the  lime, the ash, the maple, and
the  elm : as these could be  rolled
up,  they  received the name of vo-
lumen, or a volume, which appel-
lation  was afterwards transferred
to similar rolls of paper or parch-
ment.
  The material next introduced for
the purpose of transmitting the re-
cords  of the learned to posterity,
was wax ; and afterwards leather,
or  the skins of goats and sheep,
which at length were manufactured
into parchment: these were  suc-
ceeded by  lead,  linen, silk, horn,
and,  lastly, paper.   Books  were
first made square,  in the form of
blocks and tables ; but that of rolls
was afterwards found most conve-
nient : they were composed of se-
veral sheets fastened together, and
rolled  upon a stick;  the  whole
making  a kind of column,  which
was managed  by  the  stick as a
handle, it being considered a crime
to lay  hold ofthe roll itself.  The
volume,  when extended, was com-
monly fifty  yards in length, and a
yard  and a half  wide.   The  pre-
sent form  of books, consisting of
separate leaves, was not unknown
to the ancients, though little used
by  them.
  With  the form of books is  also
connected their internal economy,
as  the order and arrangement of
lines and pages, margins, &c. these
have undergone  many  variations.
At  first, the letters were only di-
vided  into  lines ; afterwards  into
separate words, which by degrees
     X x 
338        BOO

were  distinguished  by  accents,
and distributed by points and stops
into, periods, paragraphs, chapters,
and other divisions.   The  Orien-
tals began their lines from  the
right, and carried them to the left;
while  the Greeks wrote in  both
directions  alternately  beginning
in the one, and returning  ih the
other.   The method  of  writing
practised by the Chinese  is still
more curious, as they extend their
lines from the top to  the bottom of
the page.
  Complaints were made as early
as the time  of Solomon, respect-
ing the multiplicity of books ;  and
they are now too numerous, not
only to be procured and read, but
even to be known by their  names
or titles.   The editors  of the En-
cyclopedia Britannica remark, that
" England has more  to fear on this
score  than other countries, since,
besides  their  own produce,  they
have for some  years past drained
their neighbours."  It is but justice
to observe, however,  that this idea
is unfounded, as it is a well-known
fact, that the number of volumes
annually  published on the  conti-
nent, and particularly in Germany,
is more than four times the amount
of those  issued  from  the  British
press  in the  three  united king-
doms : besides  which, many  hun-
dred volumes are annually export-
ed, thus rendering the number in
the country nearly what it would be
without the  importation of  foreign
books.  This truth will be  evident
to those who reflect on  the relative
difference between the price  and
quality of the paper employed on
the Continent, and  that used in
England, not  to mention the ex-
tremely  high price of  labour, and
many other circumstances, which
we apprehend, will ultimately tend
            BOO

to impede the progress of British
Literature.  But with respect to a
superfluity of books, they are doubt-
less of use ; for knowledge is ever
advantageous, and cannot be  too
widely diffused.
   We shall conclude this article,
by stating a method  of preserving
books  from  the  depredations of
worms and insects.    There is a
very small insect that deposits its
eggs in books during  the month of
August, especially on those leaves
nearest the cover.   These  gradu-
ally produce a sort of mites, similar
to what are generated in cheese ;
and which afterwards change their
state,  and become  beetles:  and
when  the time  of their transfor-
mation approaches,  they eat their
way through, till they  gain  the
extremity of the book.  The best
preventive  against  their attacks
is mineral salts, to which all insects
have  an aversion.   The salt call-
ed in  the old system of chemis-
try, arcanum duplicatum, alum and
vitriol, are proper for this purpose;
a  small quantity of  which  should
be mixed with the paste used by
book-binders.  To prevent the de-
predations of the book-worm, M.
Prediger  advises   book-binders
to make their paste of starch in-
stead of flour.  He likewise  di-
rects a little pulverized alum to be
strewed between the book and  its
cover, and also upon the shelves
of the library.
   Books  are liable  to be stained
with  grease, tallow,  oil, or other
fat substances;  by  which  their
beauty and value are  greatly im-
paired : hence we shall add the fol-
lowing recipe for  restoring them
to their former colour, on the au-
thority of M. Deschamps.  He di-
rects  (" Bibliotheque Economique,"
vol. i.) the soiled paper first to be 
BOO
BOO       339
warmed, and as much ofthe grease
as is possible, to be taken out, by
means of blotting-paper.  A small
brush is then to be dipped in the
essential oil of well rectified spirit
of turpentine, previously heated till
it nearly boil, and to be drawn over
both sides of the paper, which ought
to be  kept warm.  This operation
is to be repeated, till all the grease
be extracted; when another brush,
immersed in  highly-rectified spirit
of wine, must be passed over the
same  paper ;  by which expedients
the spots will completely disappear;
the paper will resume its original
whiteness; and, though  the pro-
cess be employed on a part contain-
ing written or printed characters,
they  will experience no alteration.
   [The common form of book-ca-
ses with fixed shelves, is attended
with  many inconveniences ; to re-
medy which,  the plan here repre-
sented is found very useful.  The
figure represents one half a book-
case.    Two  strips of wood,  in
which are  cut teeth like  those of
a saw, about half an inch deep, are
screwed on each side of the front,
and two other corresponding pieces
on the back  corners of the book-
case.   Two cross bars, about | of
an inch broad, for each shelf, are
then  to be fitted into the teeth to
support the shelves. By this con-
trivance, the  shelves may be re-
moved so as to fit a row of books
of any size.     Book-cases made
upon this plan, are now becoming
common  in  Philadelphia.   Mr.
Carstairs,  South 8th St. who fur-
nished the drawing from which the
cut was taken, first made them in
this city, from a pattern in the pos-
session of  Mr. Jefferson.]
   BOOK-KEEPING, is the art of
recording  mercantile transactions
in a systematic manner.
  A merchant's books should con-
tain every particular which relates
to his affairs; and exhibit the state
of his business, the connection of
the different parts, with the amount
and success ofthe whole.  Accord-
ingly, they should be so full and
regular, as to afford information in
every point for which they may be
consulted.
   Book-keeping comprehends the
following  heads : the  debts owing
to a merchant, and those due  by
him to  others;  the goods which
belonged to him, with the quantity
and value  sold, and those which re-
main  in his possession; also the
amount of his stock when the books
were opened,together with his pro-
fits and losses, and the extent of
his property at present. 
340       BOO
BOO
   The  Italian method  of book-
 keeping by double-entry, is founded
 on the  most universal principles,
 and is therefore the best in exten-
 sive and  complicated mercantile
 transactions. Indeed  the account-
 ant who thoroughly understands it,
 can with facility either adopt or in-
 vent any other  form better suited
 to any particular business.
   According to the Italian method,
 three principal  books, namely, the
 waste-book, journal,  and  ledger,
 are used.  The waste-book, or day-
 book, begins w ith an  inventory of
 the owner's goods, a  list of debts
 due to him,  and of the debts  he
 owes to others; and it is continued
 with a clear statement of the mo-
 ney received or paid, and the goods
 bought  or sold  by him, &c.  The
 accountant's  first care should be,
 to have nothing defoctive ; and his
 second, to insert nothing superflu-
 ous in the waste-book.
   The journal  is a concise record
 of transactions compiled from the
 waste-book, in  the same order as
 they stand there, but  expressed in
 a technical style.  The whole art
 of writing the journal depends upon
 the proper choice of the Drs. and
 Crs. Every thing received, or per-
 son accountable to us, is Dr.; and
 every thing delivered, or person to
 whom we  are  accountable, is Cr.
 On these two comprehensive rules,
 and their various modifications, de-
 pends  the  regularity  of accounts.
 As for the more particular rules,
 they will readily be suggested  by
 the judgment of the accountant.
   From the journal,  the different
 transactions are posted in the ledg-
 er. Each account is distinguished
 by a  proper title, and articles  of
 the same  kind  received and deli-
 vered, are entered on opposite sides
 of the same folio.   For  instance,
money received is entered on the
one side,  and money paid on  the
other; or goods bought on the  one
side, and  goods sold on the other.
The left hand page is  called  the
Dr. side ; the right hand page the
Cr. side of the account; and the
difference between the sums of the
Dr. and Cr. sides, is denominated
the balance.
   Accounts in the  ledger,  are of
three kinds, personal, real, and fic-
titious. Personal accounts are those
opened for every person or compa-
ny with whom the  merchant  has
any  dealings  or  credit;  real ac-
counts are those of property, such
as ready money, goods, ships, hou-
ses, Sec. and fictitious accounts are
stock, together with profit and  loss,
and its subsidiary accounts.
   The stock account contains, on
the Dr.  side, the amounts of the
debts due by  the  merchant when
the books were  opened ;  and on
the  Cr.  the  amount of money,
goods, Sec. belonging to him;  con-
sequently  the balance  shews the
amount of his nett  stock.   Profit
and loss account contains every ar-
ticle of gain on the Cr. and of loss
on the Dr. side; therefore the ba-
lance is the nett gain or loss, which
is posted on the proper side of the
stock account above-mentioned.
   Several subsidiary accounts  are
opened, to shorten and  methodize
that of profit and loss,, such as in-
terest account, proper expenses, Sec.
These are used, or others invented,
according  to the nature and pur-
poses of the business.
   Accounts may be  opened in the
ledger, in the same  order as they
occur in the journal; or those of a
similar kind may be placed toge-
ther ; the personal accounts in one
part of the book,  and the real ac-
counts in  anotl,er.
  Besides the three principal, there
are subsidiary books used by mer- 
BOO
BOO       341
chants of extensive connections and
business.  These are, the cash-
book, book of charges of merchan-
dize, book of house-expenses, in-
voice-book,  sales-book,  bill-book,
receipt-book, letter-book, and  poc-
ket-book.  Some merchants  also
keep  a  memorandum-book;  but
the man of business cannot be re-
stricted  to these, as he will either
use them, or invent  others more
conformable to  the nature of his
business.
  In the year 1796,  a patent was
granted to Mr. Edward Thomas
Jones, of Bristol, for his method
or plan  of detecting errors in ac-
counts of all kinds, by which  they
may be adjusted in a regular and
concise  manner. This work is en-
titled, The English System of Book-
Keeping,  which  requires a  day-
book, or journal, an alphabet, and
a ledger,  ruled in the following
manner:  namely,  the day-book
has three columns on each page,
for receiving the  amount of the
transactions  ; one column of which
to receive the amount of the debits
and credits,  one column to receive
the debits only, and another to re-
ceive the credits only; or it  may
be ruled with only two columns on
each page,one to receive the amount
of the debits, and the other the
amount ofthe credits.  There must
also be  on each page of  the  day-
book, four other columns ruled,two
on the left side, next the amount of
the debits, and two on the right
side next the amount ofthe credits,
for receiving the letter or mark of
posting, and the page ofthe ledger
to which each amount is to be post-
ed. The alphabet need not be ruled
at all, but must contain the name
of every account in the ledger, the
letter that is  annexed to it  as a
mark of posting, and the page of
the ledger.   The ledger must be
ruled with three,four, five, or seven
columns on each  page, as may be
most agreeable, for  receiving the
amounts of the different transac-
tions entered in the day-book.
   But in order to  prevent any mis-
takes  that may happen  from the
hurry of business in a counting-
house, Mr.Jon e s has given only one
column for receiving the amount
of every transaction, w hether debits
or credits, at the instant of making
the entry: and, for the convenience
of separating the debits  from the
credits, previous to posting, which
is necessary to prevent confusion
and perplexity, he has  two other
columns on the same page; that
on the left side,  into which the
amount  of every debit must be
carefully entered, and that on the
right for the amount  ofthe credits;
which columns must be cast up
once a month.  The  column of de-
bits and credits of itself forms one
amount; the column for the debits
produces a second amount; and the
column of credits a third amount;
which second and third amounts,
added together,must  exactly agree
with the first amount, or  the work
is not done right.   By this means,
the man of business may obtain
monthly such a statement  of his
affairs, as will shew how much he
owes for that month,and how much
is owing to him ;  and the debits
being added together for any given
time, with the value  of the  stock
of goods on hand, will,  when the
amount of the credits is subtracted
therefrom, shew the  profits of the
trade.
  The patentee's  manner of exa-
mining the books kept by this me-
thod,  also professedly differs from
that hitherto practised, as well in
expedition as in the certain accu- 
342       BOO
BOO
racy which attends the process ; it
being only necessary to cast up the
columns through the ledger debits
and credits, according to the exam-
ples given, and the amount of those
columns, if right, must agree with
the columns in the day-book for the
same corresponding space of time.
These castings should take place
once a month, and if the amounts
do not  agree,  the posting  must
then, but not else, be called over ;
and when the time, whether it be
one,  two, three, or  four months,
that  is allotted to each column of
the ledger, is expired, the amount
of each column  should  be  put at
the bottom of the first page, and
carried  forward  to the bottom of
the next, and so on  to the  end of
the accounts ; taking care that the
amount in  the day-book, of each
month's transactions, be brought
into one gross amount for the same
time.
  Having already enlarged upon
this subject, we shall only observe,
that this new system of book-keep-
ing,  however ingeniously contriv-
ed, has not met with that general
approbation to whiclvit is apparent-
ly entitled.  To enforce his claim
to public patronage, Mr.  Jones
concludes the specification  of  his
patent by asserting, that upon his
plan every page "will be proved in
the  progress of  calculation, and
" the ballances  of ten thousand
ledgers could not unobservedly be
taken off wrong."  We give  him
full credit for his assertion; though
it has, perhaps, by invidious rivals,
been objected that his method is
more complicated than the old Ita-
lian system of book-keeping; which
has,  by experience, been found
fully  adequate  to the purpose of
mercantile accuracy.
  BOORCOLE, is a species ofthe
Brassica, L. and generally cultivat-
ed in the open fields like turnips,
cabbages, or the turnip-rooted cab-
bage.
  It is one of those hardy  plants,
the leaves  of which may  be cut
without detriment  to  its growth,
and will produce a new crop in the
course of a month or six weeks.
   According  to  an  experiment
made by Mr.  Baker  in the year
1763,  an  Irish  acre  of  fallow
ground, which was planted  with
boorcole, at the distance of two feet,
and  hoed  in the  Tullian method,
produced plants  which weighed
about five pounds ten ounces each,
on an average,  and  the whole pro-
duce of an Irish  acre was  40,096
pounds.
  It should be observed, that the
land must be well manured, and in
a high state of tillage,  for the cul-
tivation of this plant, which, if kept
constantly  hoed,  will  grow  very
luxuriantly, and,  in  the  hottest
weather, be infinitely more brittle
in the leaves than any  other culti-
vated in gardens; which is a cer-
tain  indication of being a healthy
plant.  It is worthy of the atten-
tion ofthe farmer or grazier, on ac-
count of the rapidity of its growth,
and the property of withstanding
the effect of severe  frosts, while it
affords an  excellent vegetable for
the  table,  and  may be used with
advantage for feeding sheep.
  Mr. Baker farther  observes,
that sheep should not  be suffered
to depasture so long upon a crop
of boorcole, as to injure the  stalks ;
because  its future  growth  will be
checked,  by depriving it  of the
sprouting leaves.
   BOOT,  a cover or defence for
the leg and foot,  made of leather, 
BOO
B O R       343
and generally worn by horsemen.
The boot is by no means a modern
invention, as it was  worn in the
Roman army by the infantry as
well as the cavalry.  It was origin-
ally  made  of leather, But  after-
wards  of brass or iron,  that it
might  be proof against the sword.
  There are various kinds of boots,
as  hunting-boots,  fishing-boots,
jack-boots,  &c.   The fishermen of
New-England preserve their boots
water-proof by the following com-
position : One pint of boiled  lin-
seed oil, half a pound of  mutton-
suet, six ounces of pure bees-wax,
and four ounces of rosin. These in-
gredients are melted together over
a slow fire, and the boots or shoes,
when  new  and quite clean,  are
warmed, and rubbed with the com-
position  till  the  leather  is com-
pletely saturated.
   There is an  improved composi-
tion for preserving leather, the good
effects of which are sufficiently as-
certained.  One pint of drying oil,
two  ounces of  yellow  wax,  two
ounces of spirit of turpentine,  and
half an ounce of Burgundy  pitch,
should be carefully melted together
over a slow fire.  With this mix-
ture new shoes and boots are rubbed
either  in the sun, or at some  dis-
tance from a fire, with a sponge or
brush :  the  operation  is be  re-
peated as often as they become dry,
until they be fully  saturated.   In
this manner, the leather becomes
impervious to  wet; the shoes or
boots made of it last much longer
than those made of common  lea-
ther ;  acquire such softnesss  and
pliability that  they never shrivel
nor grow hard or inflexible ;  and,
in that state, are the most effectual
preservatives against cold and chil-
blains.   It is, however, necessary
to remark,  that shoes or boots.
thus prepared,  ought not to be
worn  till  they have become per-
fectly dry and elastic ; as, in the
contrary case, the leather will be
too soft, and wear out much sooner
than even the common kind.
   [The following  composition  is
recommended in  " An Essay on
Shooting," Dublin  edition, 1789.
   Tallow, half a pound.
   Hog's-lard,  4  oz.
   Turpentine,     "j
   New bees wax,  12 oz. each.
   Olive" oil,       J
   To be melted by a gentle heat
and rubbed on the leather  (when
free from dampness) the night be-
fore the shoes or boots are wanted.]
   BORAGE, the Common, or Bo-
rago officinalis,  L. It  is rough,
and  clothed  with small  prickly
hairs ; has alternate  leaves, and
bears  blue spreading flowers in
June and July.  See With.  230,
and Engl. Bot. 36.
   The flowers of  the borage are
much frequented by bees, and the
plant itself may  be used as a culi-
nary vegetable, or as an ingredient
in lettuce-salad,  to which  it im-
parts  an agreeable flavour.   The
whole  of this plant abounds  with
nitrous particles,  which may be
easily  obtained  by elixation ; for
after evaporating the lixivium to a
proper consistence, and allowing it
to stand in a cool place, crystals
will  be formed, which deflagrate
upon the fire, and possess all the
properties of salt-petre.
   BORAX,  in  chemistry, a salt
produced in the mountains of Thi-
bet, in Asia, both naturally and ar-
tificially by evaporation.
   The borax  imported from China
is purer than that of Thibet, and
is found in a natural state in small
masses of irregular crystals,  of a
faint white colour. Beside the vi- 
344       BOT

trescible earth, which is an essen-
tial principle of borax, it contains
copper  and the marine acid, but
no traces of the vitriolic.  It has
also been clearly proved by expe-
riments, that borax consists of fos-
ril alkali, in some  degree neutral-
ized by a  peculiar  salt.   When
dissolved and crystalized, it forms
small transparent masses; and the
refiners have a method of shooting
it into large crystals, which, how-
ever, in  many respects, differ from,
and  are inferior  to, the genuine
salt.
  Borax is useful in metallurgy,
for  soldering ;  in the  fusion  of
vitrifiable earths,  wilh  which  it
forms glass ; as well as in several
other chemical processes;  and
dyers frequently employ it for giv-
ing a gloss to silks.
  Its medical properties have not
been sufficiently investigated.  Mr.
Bisset  recommends a weak solu-
tion of this  salt in water, for heal-
ing aphthous crusts, or the thrush
in the mouth and  fauces of chil-
dren. A small quantity of it, pow-
dered and mixed with sugar, is of-
ten applied for  the same purpose.
We are not  acquainted with a
more balsamic  application to sore
nipples, or chapped lips and hands
in frosty weather, than a few grains
of borax dissolved  in warm water,
with the addition of  a little pure
honey.
  BOTANY, that part  of natural
history which  relates to plants  or
vegetables.
  This  pleasing  science had the
misfortune  of being,  from its in-
fancy,   considered merely as  a
branch of medicine ; and while the
naturalist was employed in disco-
vering the  virtueis of plants, the
knowledge  of  their  organization
was in a great measure neglected.
            BOT

  In consequence of this erroneous
idea of botany, the study of it was
for a long time confined to medi-
cinal plahts ;  which were searched
for with  a view to discover reme-
dies.
   On the revival of letters, instead
of investigating plants in the gar-
den of Nature, they were  studied
only in the writings of Pliny and
Dioscoribes :  thus   translators,
commentators, and practitioners,
seldom agreeing,avarietyof names
were given to the same plant, and
the same name to several plants.
At length, more careful researches
and many  excellent  observations
were made;  but the  latter being
enveloped in  a chaos of nomencla-
ture, physicians and herbalists  no
longer understood each other.
   Botanists of real genius indeed
occasionally  published instructive
books, among which the principal
are the writings of Cordus, Ges-
ner, Clusius, and Coesalpinus;
but each of these authors regulat-
ing his nomenclature by his own
method,  created new genera,  or
divided the old ones, according to
his own fancy.  Hence, the genera
and species were so intermingled
and confounded, that almost every
plant  received as many names as
there were authors employed in its
description.
   The advancement of the study
of botany was,  however,  greatly
promoted by  the writings of the
indefatigable  Bauhins, two bro-
thers,  each  of whom undertook
an universal history of plants, in-
cluding a synonymy,  or exact list
of the  names of each  plant in the
works of all  the writers that pre-
ceded them.
   Meanwhile, voyages of discove-
ry enriched botany with new trea-
sures,  and while  the old names 
BOT
BOT       345
over-loaded the memory, new ones
were invented for the newly disco-
vered plants.  In order to extricate
themselves from this immense la-r
byrinth, botanists were  obliged to
adopt  some  methodical arrange-
ment.  Ray, Herman,  Rivinius,
proposed their respective  plans ;
but Tournefort, who  published
his system in 1697, surpassed them
all.  To him  we  are indebted for
the first complete regular arrange-
ment of the vegetable  kingdom  ;
his plants of generic characters are
excellent,  but his  work  is defi-
cient, as it contains  no  characters
or descriptions of the different spe-
cies.
   At  length, Linnjeus  formed
thf "ast project of new moulding
the whole  science of botany. Hav-
ing prepared  the rules by which it
ought to be conducted,  he deter-
mined the genera of plants, and
afterwards the  species ;  and by
keeping all  the  old names that
agreed with these new  rules, and
new modelling all the rest, he esta-
blished a clear nomenclaturefform-
ed upon principles more consonant
with  Nature.  He  also invented
specific names, which he joined to
the generical ones, in order to dis-
tinguish the species.
  The whole  Linnxan   system is
founded on the idea, that there is
in vegetables as well  as in animals,
a real distinction ofthe sexes; that
each plant  may be analysed by its
several organs  of  fructification  ;
and, consequently,  that it  is ne-
cessary to  acquire  an accurate
knowledge of the number,  shape,
situation  and  proportion of these
parts.  Hence, only the student will
be enabled to understand the ele-
ments of the  science.   And as all
vegetables are capable of producing
blossoms   and fruit, or seed, the'
     VOL. I.
following parts, which compose a
flower, must be minutely examin-
ined in every plant,namely : l.The
calyx, or  flower cup,  or empale-
ment; 2. The  corolla, or blossom,
or  flower-leaf ; 3.  The stamina,
or  chives;  4.  The  pistillwn,  or
pointal ;  5.  The pericarpium,  or
seed-vessel;  6. The  scmina,  or
seeds.   To  these may  be added
the nectary, or honey-cup; and
the receptacle,  or base.
   It required the resolution, know-
ledge and ingenuity of Linnaeus,
to effect ihis reform with success.
His system  at  first  met with re-
sistance, and meets  with it still
from  his rivals in fame ; but  on
account of  its  practical utility  it
has been almost universally adopt-
ed throughout Europe.
   To pursue the  study-of plants
with advantage, that ofthe nome.i-
clature must not be  neglected.....
Names,  it is true, are arbitrary ;
but if  the most engaging part of
Natural History merits the atten-
tion of the  curious,  it will be ne-
cessary to begin with learning the
language of the writers, in order to
know with precission to what ob-
jects the names employed by them
actually  belong.
   The  vegetables on  the face of
the globe m.iy  be considered  as
analogous to its inhabitants ; under
which  view  of the  subject vege-
tables may be said to resemble the
inhabitants in general ;  classes the
nations ; orders, the tribes ; genera,
the fa-'ii.'i-.'s; species, the individu-
als ; and varieties, the same indivi-
duals  in  different circumstances.
   Beside the satisfaction which the
study ofthe works of Nature, and
especially that of botany, affords to
an inquisitive mind, it counteracts
the  passion for  more  frivolous
amusements, and always peei-s-tss
    V Y 
346       BOT

objects  worthy of contemplation.
Hence the late Dr. Withering
very  justly  remarks,  that, inde-
pendently of its immediate use, the
studv of botany is as healthful  as
it is innocent ; that it beguiles the
tediousness ofthe road; furnishes
amusement at every footstep ofthe
solitary walk ; and, above all, that
it leads to pleasing reflections on
the bounty,  the  wisdom, and the
power ofthe Great Creator '.
  Among the  latest elementary
works of this branch of science are
the following . Dr. Withering's
" Arrangements of British Plant's,"
in four volumes 8vo. (1/.  1 \s. 6d.)
....Prof. Martyn's  translation  of
Rousseau's '' Letters on the Ele-
ments of  Botany,  addressed  to a
Lady ;" (7s.)  Priscilla Wake-
field's " Introduction to  Botany;"
(3s. 6c?.  with  plain, and  7s.  with
coloured plates);  Dr. Hull's In-
troduction to the  Study of Botany.
[To these may  be  added, Mar-
tyn's  Language  of Botany, and
lastly, the El ments of Botany, by
Dr. Barton, just published.]
  BOTTLE, a small vessel made
of glass, leather, or  stone.  Glass
bottles are better for cyder  than
those of any other substance.
  Di'.Percival censures the com-
mon practice  of  cleansing  wine-
bottles with shot ; for  if through
inattention,anyof it should remain,
when the bottles are  again filled
with wine, the  metal will  be dis-
sol\ ed, and the liquor impregnated
with its deleterious qualities.  For
this reason,  he recommends pot-
ash in preference to shot, as a few
ounces of the former dissolved in
water, will cleanse a great number
of bottles : and where the impuri-
tiesadhere to the sides, a few pieces
of  blotting paper put into the ves-
sel, and  shaken  with the water,
           BOT

will remove them in an expeditious
manner.
  BOTTLING, the filling of bot-
tles with liquor, and corking them
in order to preserve it.  Particular
caution should be used in  bottling
cyder : the best way to secure the
bottles from  bursting, is  to have
the liquor thoroughly fine before it
be bottled.  If one bottle break, it
will be nceessary to  give vent to
the remainder,  and cork them up
again.  Weak cyder is more  apt
to burst the bottles than that  of a
stronger quality : they  should be
placed so that  the corks  may be
kept wet, and  stowed in  a  cellar
not exposed to the changes and in-
fluence of the air.  For this pur-
pose, the ground is preferable  to a
frame  ; and  a  layer  of saw-dust
or sand better than the  bare soil:
but the most proper situation is a
stream of running water.
  Bottled beer  may  be much im-
proved by putting a small quantity
of crystals of tartar, spirituous li-
quor, or  sugar boiled with the es-
sence of cloves, into each bottle.
  In order to ripen bottled liquors,
they are sometimes exposed to mo-
derate warmth, or the rays of the
sun, which  in  a few  days  will
bring them to maturity.
  BOTTS,' in  zoology, a species
of  short  worms  produced   and
nourished in  the intestines of a
horse.
  As the flies, from  whose  eggs
the botts are produced,  do notfre-
quent the neighbourhood of large
towns, horses are not liable to this
disease, if they be kept in the sta-
ble during summer and autumn.
  In summer the females of these
flies enter the  anus of the  horse,
where they deposittheireggs,which
are soon hatched by the heat, and
the worms penetrate  into the in- 
BOT
B O T       347
testines,  sometimes as far as  the
stomach.
  Botts are very large maggots,
composed of  circular rings with
prickly feet, by which they adhere
to the part where they breed, and
derive their nourishment.   When
they reach the stomach, they fasten
themselves in  its muscular coat,
and  suck the  blood  like leeches,
each worm  ulcerating  the part
where it fixes, till it resembles a
honey-comb.  These worms  are
not unfrequently the cause of con-
vulsions.
  Botts that are generated in  the
stomach of the horse are extremely
dangerous, and seldom discovera-
ble till they have acquired some
strength, when they throw him into
great agonies.
  The symptoms ofthe other kinds
which are more troublesome than
dangerous, are the following: The
horse  becomes lean, and looks
jaded ; his hair stands out roughly;
he often strikes his hind feet against
his belly ;  he is sometimes griped
but generally lies down quietly on
his belly for a  short time, and then
gets up and eats his food.  But the
surest sign is, when he voids  the
botts \n his dung.
  For the cure of botts in the sto-
mach, calomel should first be given
in large quai tities, and repeated at
intervals.  ./EiYiops  mineral may
be given afterwards.
  The botts, that many horses  are
troubled with,  in the beginning of
summer, are  always seen on the
Straight gut, and are often thrown
out with the dung and a yellowish
matter.  They are not dangerous
in that  part, though they  render
the  horse  restless.   The  season
when they affect the animal is
commonly  in  the months  of May
jind  June,  after which they  are
rarely seen, as they do  not con-
tinue with the horse above a fort-
night or three weeks.  Botts in the
straight gut may be cured by giv-
ing the horse a spoonful of savin,
cut small, once or twice a day, in
oats or bran moistened, to which
may be added three or four cloves
of garlic.  The following aloetic
purge should also be given at in-
tervals : Fine socotrine aloes, ten
drams ; fresh jff ap, one dram ; ari-
stolochia, or birth wort and myrrh
powdered, of each  two  drams ;
oil of savin and amber, of each one
dram ; syrup of buckthorn, enough
to form the whole into a ball.
   [Ml'.ANDREW BlLLlNGS,of PoU-
keepsie,  New-York, has  proved
that botts  are produced from the
eggs  deposited by  a fly upon the
hairs of horses.  The fly is about
the size of the honey-bee,  and
the head and  neck not much un-
like it.  It flies with its head and
body erect  and perpendicular to
the horizon, while  its tail forms a
sharp angle with their bodies, be-
ing bent towards the horse, so that
they touch the  hair of his legs, or
belly  (which are the  parts they
most affect), only with the extre-
mity of the tail, and in this way
will fly about him for an hour, dis-
charging a great number of eggs,
which adhere to  the ends of the
hair.  Mr. Chancellor Living-
ston  observes, that the late Dr.
Wemtle,  a man of veracity and
accuracy, proved the truth of Mr.
B's theory by the following expe-
riment : One of his horses having
been killed by  the botts, he took
the largest of the worms, and pre-
serving them in a propertempera-
ture, they went through the usual
changes, and produced flies exact-
ly resembling  those  already de-
scribed.  Mr. B. also kept a hair 
348       BOW
BOW
 to which an egg was attached, for
 some time, in a box, when a per-
. feet bott extricated itself.
   Valisnery's  theory ofthe  in-
 troduction of the botts into the bo-
 dies of the animal, as stated by Dr.
 Willich,  is probably erroneous.
 May not the egg be introduced by
 the horse  licking and  biting the
 part  on which the eggs are depo-
 sited, to relieve an occasional itch-
 ing ?
   To guard against the botts there-
 fore,  attention must be paid to the
 flies,  and killed when  found buz-
 ing about horses.  The nits should
 be scraped off and a handful of salt
 given weekly.] v
   BOUNTY, in  commerce,  a
 premium paid by  government to
 the exporters and importers of cer-
 tain  commodities,  such  as corn,
 fish,  Sec.
   Bounties are sometimes given to
 support a new manufacture against
 one of a similar kind established by
 other nations.  To  promote  the
 manufacture of sail-cloth  in this
 country, is doubtless an object of
 the greatest national importance,
 on account of our vast consumption
 of that article.
   The principal attention of boun-
 ties to exporters is to enable  the
 tinier to become beneficial to his
 country, hy  giving him a com-
 pensation  for his ingenuity and
 industry. As bounties are usually
 granted  only for a  limited time,
 they  can never be the cause of any
 material loss to  a nation, though
 avaricious men  are often stimu-
 lated by  a desire of gain, to con-
 vert  to  their  private  advantage
 what was intended for the benefit
 of the community.
   BOW, a weapon made of wood,
 horn, or  some  other elastic sub-
 stance, and  bent into a curve, in
which position it is kept by a string
fastened to each end.  The  elastic
power thus acquired,  is such that
after bending and unbending, an
arrow is impelled with great force.
  The long-bow, so called by way
of distinction from the cross-bow,
is the most ancient of all weapons,
and has very generally been  used
by remote and  barbarous nations.
The  Laplanders,  who  support
themselves principally by hunting,
excel the most  civilized nations in
the construction of this instrument.
Their bow  is  composed  of two
pieces of strong elastic wood, of an
equal size, which are flat on  each
side, and glued  together.   This
instrument expels the  arrow with
much greater force than if it were
formed of one piece of similar di-
mensions.
  The Indians still make use of
the bow ; and  the  repository  of
the Royal Society contains a West-
Indian bow  two yards long.
  In the  year  1749  a  bow and
quiver containing twenty-four ar-
rows made of  reed, pointed  with
steel, and bearded,  were found in
the New Forest, Hampshire, sup-
posed to  have lain there since the
reign of William  Rufus, who
was shot there  649 years previous
to their discovery : the reeds were
not decayed, nor the steel points
rusty.
  The strength of a bow is calcu-
latedon theprinciple,that itsspring
or elastic power is proportionate to
the extent of its curve.  The use
of the  bow is termed archery, and
those who  practise  it, are called
bowmen,  or archere.....See  Ar-
CHERY.
   Cross-bow.   This weapon con-
sists of a steel bow set in a shaft of
wood, with  a string and trigger....
It is bent by means of a piece of 
           BOW

steel, and expels bullets, large ar-
rows, darts, Sec. with great velo-
city.
   BOWELS,  or  intestines, are
very important parts in the animal
economy,(See Abdomen); and are
often subject  to diseases, which, if
neglected,  may  be attended with
dangerous  consequences.   Of this
nature,  in  particular, are  inflam-
mations of the bowels, which ma-
nifest themselves  by a continued
acute pain,  frequently  accompa-
nied with a  sensation of burning-.
The  abdomen is  pained  on the
slightest  touch, and the body  is
generally costive. After taking any
kind of  nutriment, the patient  is
inclined to vomit; but the princi-
pal symptom, by which the inflam-
matory state ofthe intestines may
be distinguished from a mere colic,
in a peculiar fever,  with a small,
though hard  pulse, while the heat
in the extremities of the body con-
tinues almost the same as when in
a state of health.  The most fre-
quent causes of this dangerous com-
plaint are, acrid substances in the
bowels ; crude and hardened Fees ;
confined ruptures ; suppressed he-
morrhages ; violent diarrhoeas and
dysenteries ;   abortions.  Sec.  At
their commencement, inflamma-
tions are  often  confounded with
other complaints ;  and sometimes
they terminate in  a  fatal  mortifi-
cation, though more frequently in
suppuration.   The degree of dan-
ger may be ascertained by  the in-
creasing coldness  of the extremi-
ties, and the more or less inveterate
obstipations  of the bowels.   Hic-
cough,  and  vomiting of  excre-
ments,  indicate the  approach  of
dissolution.
   If the inflammation be occasioned
by a confined  rupture, it sometimes
may be reduced by applications of
            BOW       349

 cold water and ice, or  still more
 effectually by dropping and evapo-
 rating vitriolic aether on the protu-
 berant pan. Diluent and emollient
 liquids are of no  service in  this
 case, as they only  contribute to
 distend the bowels ; and where the
 external application of cold has no
 dlect, ihe  patient must, without
 'delay, submit to an operation.
   Suppressed   hemorrhoids  [or
 piles] and other  natural fluxes,
 should be restored by applying lee-
 chesto the parts, and repeated warm
 fomentations.  Diarrhoeas and dy-
 senteries ought to be treated ac-
 cording to their causes; and poison
 introduced   into   the   stomach,
 should be  remedied  according to
 the rules given  under the head of
 Antidotes.
   When there is reason to suspect
 an inflammation, venesection  will
 be necessary ; but the quantity of
 blood drawn must be regulated hy
 the strength of the patient, and the
 nature of the fever.  The bowels
 should be opened by emollient chs-
 ters ; or, if these prove ineffectual,
 strong solutions of pot-ash, in vine-
 gar,  ought, without  delay, to be
 injected, and the abdomen rubbed
 with  balsamic and antispasmodic
 embrocations, such as the campho-
 rated liniment, mixed with an equal
 quantity of honey ; or, in cases of
 extremity,  the latter dissolved in
 a  strong decoction made of sage-
 leaves and vinegar. If these reme-
 dies produce no  relief, the smoke
 of tobacco may  be introduced by
 the rectum, and blisters applied to
 the abdome::.  But,  during  the
 obstipation, no medicines should
 be used internally ;  as stimulating
 the stomach  and  bowels cannot
 fail to increase the inflammation,
 ard thus endanger  the life of  the
patient. 
350       BOW
BOW
  [Inflammations  of the bowels
very  commonly  proceed,  in  the
United  States,  from exposure of
the body to alterations of heat and
cold.   The disease should be early
attended to, and the progress of in-
flammation prevented, by copious
bleeding, and frequent clysters of
cool water,in which Glauber's salts
have been  dissolved ; if  these do
not succeed  in  procuring  stools,
cold water  must be  dashed upon
the feet, and clysters of tobacco in
decoction, with  antimonial  wine,
given.  This last remedy  has suc-
ceeded, when  a variety of  others
failed. Med. Com. vol. 6th.]
  Diseases ofthe Bowels in Horses.
It is difficult to form a proper judg-
ment respecting disorders  of  the
stomach and bowels of these ani-
mals. If a healthy horse, on taking
cold after hard  riding, Stc.  should
have a moderate purging, it ought
not to be  stopped, but rather en-
couraged with an opening diet and
water gruel.   But if it  continues
long, w ith  gripings; if the horse
loses his appetite and flesh, and
voids the mucus of the bowels, or
other slimy matter, the following
drench  should  be given, and  re-
peated  every other day for three
times.   Lenitive  electuary  and
cream of tartar, of each four oun-
ces, yellow rosin, finely powdered,
one ounce,and four ouncesof sweet
oil, mixed in a pint of water gruel.
  If the distemper increases, and
the horse's flanks and belly appear
inflated, a clyster should be given,
of chamomile flowers one handful,
red-roses half a handful,pomegra-
nate and balaustines, of each  an
ounce, boiled in two quarts of wa-
ter to one ; and strained with three
ounces of diascordium, and one of
mithridate, dissolved in it, to which
may be added a pint of port wine.
This  mixture should be  injected
once a day, and an  ounce of dias-
cordium given in the animal's night
drink.
  When the griping is very severe,
in consequence ofthe mucus of the
bowels being washed away, a clys-
ter, composed of two quarts of tripe-
broth,  or  thin starch, half a pint
of the oil  of olives, the yolk of six
eggs,  well  broke,  [and  half  an
ounce  of  laudanum,] should  fre-
quently be injected warm.
  Horses  that have weak stomachs,
or bowels, void their aliment undi-
gested ;  and they  are generally
lean.   The following purge  has
been found an efficacious remedy.
Socotrine  aloes, six drams  ; rhu-
barb   powdered,  three  drams;
myrrh and saffron,  each a dram ;
made into a ball with syrup of gin-
ger.   This purge should be given
two or three times, and afterwards
an  infusion of zedoary,  gentian,
winter's bark, and orange-peel,  of
each  two  ounces ;  pomegranate,
bark and balaustines,each an ounce;
chamomile flowers  and centaury,
each  a handful;  cinnamon  and
cloves, each an ounce ;  the whole
steeped in a gallon of port, or strong
beer,  should be given to the quan-
tity of a pint every  morning.  For
the cure  of the  bloody-flux   in
horses, the  following  clyster  is
highly  esteemed:  oak-bark, four
ounces; tormentil-root, two ounces;
burnt   hartshorn,  three  ounces;
boiled in three quarts of forge-wa-
ter to two, and  strained with the
addition of two ounces of diascor-
dium, four  ounces of starch, and
half a dram of opium. Gum-arabic
dissolved  in  hartshorn  should be
the horse's usual drink.
  In costiveness, gentle purgatives,
such  as cream of tartar, Glauber's
salts, and lenitive electuary, should 
BOX
BOX        351
be given. Four ounces of any two
of these dissolved in warm ale, re-
peated every other morning in the
course of one week, and assisted
by an  emollient clyster prepared
with a handful of salt, will answer
this purpose.  Scalded bran, with
an ounce of fenugreek and linseed,
occasionally  given  will prevent
costiveness.  But where it is con-
stitutional, and the horse continues
in perfect health, no inconvenience
will  arise from  it; nay, it  is well
known,  that such  horses are re-
markably vigorous and hardy.
   BOX-TREE,  or Buxus, L.  a
genus of plants containing three
species ; namely, the sempervirens,
or common box, with oval leaves ;
the  angustifolia, or narrow-leaved
box ; and the suffruticosa, or Dutch
box; the first of which only is in-
digenous. The two first-mentioned
species, grow in great abundance
upon  Box-hill,  near  Dorking, in
Surrey, where there were formerly
large  trees  of this kind.   Of the
first species, there are two or three
varieties, which  are propagated in
gardens ; and this, as well as the
second, may be  either raised from
seeds  or cuttings; the latter should
be planted or sown in autumn, on
a shady border.
   Box-trees  may be  transplanted
at any  time, except Midsummer,
provided  they be taken up with a
good mass of earth, but the best
time for their removal is October.
The Dutch,  or  dwarf-box,  is in-
creased by parting the  roots, or
planting the slips : it should be in-
termixed with other evergreens.
   The uses ofthe large kind of box
are  various : many articles of tur-
nery, and musical instruments, are
manufactured of its wood : which
is of greater specific  gravity than
any other of European growth, as
it will not float  upon water.  In
Paris, combs are made of no other
material  than this wood; and the
quantity  imported annually from
Spain into that  city, is  estimated
at 10,000  livres.   Box admits of a
beautiful polish  when  made into
articles of furniture, for which it is
now much employed, as its bitter
quality renders it secure from the
attacks of worms.
  It is asserted, that a decoction of
box-wood rubbed on the  head, will
speedily restore  the hair decayed
in consequence  of  malignant fe-
vers ; but care should be taken  in
applying  it,  to  prevent it from
touching  the  skin  of  the face,
which, in consequence of this em-
brocation,  would likewise  be co-
vered with hair.   A similar decoc-
tion has  been recommended as a
powerful sudorific, even  preferable
to Guaiacum ; though, at present,
neither the wood nor the leaves of
the  box-tree are used for medicinal
purposes'.
  BOXING, the  art of fighting
with the  fists, which, among the
Romans, were either naked, or in-
closed a stone or leaden ball. Hence
this exercise  is very ancient, hav-
ing  been  in  vogue  in  the heroic
ages.
  To the disgrace of England, the
art  of boxing, about half a century
since,  (formed  a regular kind of
amusement, was encouraged by the
first nobility of  the kingdom, and
even tolerated by the magistrates.
About the time above-mentioned,
a booth was erected at Totenham-.
court, to which the public paid for
admission the same as at a regular
theatre, and the  profits .were divid-
ed  among the  combatants;  the
victor received two-thirds, and the
remainder devolving to the lose,-.
In consequence  of the inconveni- 
352       BRA
BRA
 encies sustained atTAYLOR'sbooth,
 by the patrons of this refined art,
 Mr. Broughton, then the princi-
 pal actor in these exhibitions, erect-
 ed a more commodious amphithe-
 atre near Oxford-street. This bar-
 barous amusement was at length
 neglected;  though  within these
 few years it has  again engaged a
 considerable  degree of the public
 attention : a  fatal  issue, however,
 which took place at one ofthe com-
 bats, again  brought the   practice
 into disrepute.  On this occasion,
 one ofthe combatants was killed on
 the spot ; and his royal highness
 the  Prince  of  V\  ales,  who
 was present,  declared, that on ac-
 count of the dreadful example  he
 had then witnessed,he woulfl never
 again be present  at,  or patronize
 another exhibition of asimilarkind.
 [Broughton  was, however, ho-
 noured by being; made one of the
 Yeomen  of  the  King's Guards ;
 and boxing  in England has again
 become fashionable.]
   Boxing also signifies the tapping
 of a tree, to make it yield its juice.
 This operation is performed on the
 maple, by making a  hole in  the
 side of the tree, about a foot from
 the ground, with an auger  or chis-
 el : from this juice or sap a good
 sugar may be extracted.
   BRACES, a supplementary arti-
cle of dress, now very generally
 adopted, which by rendering atight
 cincture  altogether  unnecessary,
 cannot be too much recommended
 both to men  and  women, for  the
 sake of health as well as comfort.
 If they were used to  keep up the
 stockings, instead of tight garters
 it  would be an  improvement of
 much greater moment than many
 are inclined to imagine; for garters
 doubtless occasion great mischief,
 whether  tied above or below the
 knee, in  causing the part to which
 they are applied to acquire an un-
 natural hardness, in disposing the
 thighs and legs to dropsy,  and in-
 ducing great fatigue in walking.
   BRAIN, in  anatomy,  a great
 viscus in the cavity of the skull, of
 an oval figure,  and larger in man,
 in proportion  to his size,  than in
 any other  animal.   The brain is
 uniformly considered as the grand
 sensorium of the body, or  the or-
 gan of all the senses ; and hence it
 is supposed, not without reason, to
 be the seat of the  soul. The most
 important  functions of an animal
 body are those  of  the  brain.  To
 afford  a more distinct  view ofthe
 subject,  we shall  mention a few
 experiments which have been made
 upon animals.
   If the brain  be irritated, dread-
 ful convulsions  take place all .over
 the body.  If any part  of the brain
 be compressed, that part  of  the
 bcfdy which derives its nerves from
 the compressed part,  is immedi-
 ately deprived of motion and sen-
 sation. On compressing, tying, or
 dividing  a nerve,  the  muscles  to
 which  the nerve proceeds, become
 paralytic.  If the nerve thus com-
pressed,  tied, or divided,  had be-
fore  any particular sensation, it
exists no longer ; but on removing
the compression, or untying it, its
peculiar sense returns.
  From  these  phenomena, it is
evident, that every sensation in an
animal body is derived from the
brain, or from the  spinal marrow,
which is a continuation ofthe brain ;
and that  it  is conveyed thence,
through the medium ofthe nerves,
to all parts of the sentient body....
But,  in what manner the various
sensations  are  produced   by the
nerves, and how the will operates
upon the contiguous and remote 
            BRA

organs, so as to put  them into in-
stantaneous motion, are difficulties
which have never been satisfactori-
ly explained, and, in all probability
will always baffle the keenest in-
vestigation.
  As the brain is the representa-
tive organ  of the mind, its sound
and perfect state  is of the utmost
importance in the exercise of the
intellect.   If, therefore, the brain
of an individual, be preternaturally
soft, or too firm and  hard, or  spe-
cifically too light,or proportionate-
ly too  small; or if it be in any man-
ner  compressed  or shaken  by ex-
ternal violence  ; or if acrimonious
humour should settle on it, in  con-
 sequence of various  diseases  ; or,
lastly, if in plethoric habits too great
 a portion  of blood should flow to-
 wards the head,  and too much ex-
 tend its vessels;...in all these cases,
 the  representing faculty will more
 or less partake of the disorder......
 Thus the power  of imagination, or
 fancy, is sometimes  so much in-
 creased, that the patient is either
 in part, or entirely, deprived of the
 faculty of judgment.  Such, for in-
 stance, is the case in  delirious per-
 sons, who are then only called ma-
 niacs,  when  a  total privation of
 their reasoning faculty is evident.
 In ideots, or stupid  people,  how-
 ever,  the   mental disease arises
 chiefly  from  their  incapacity of
 comprehending  and  properly ar-
 ranging ideas.
   The causes  of these humiliating
 derangements of the human mind,
 though  various,  may be reduced to
 the following  heads: namely, in-
 ordinate passions, especially  those
 which are  attended  with a  great
 dissipation of strength; debauchery
 of every kind ; and irregular mode
 of life ;  excessive eating and drink-
 ing ;  intense,  as well as long-con-
      VOL. I.
            B R A        353

tinued application to study ;  and
likewise, a  sudden change of cli-
mate, air, and aliment.
  It deserves to be pointed out as
a vulgar error, that abscesses of the
brain discharge themselves through
the mouth and ears;  and that snuff
is liable to  enter into the  brain ;
neither  of these is capable  of  pas-
sing through that bone,  which has
the form of a sieve; nor is  any
matter,  or fluid, secreted in a com-
mon cold, evacuated by  that canal,
though  discharged through the nos-
trils.  The seat of this  disease is,
indeed not in the brain, but in the
cavities ofthe nose;  andifimpost-
humes  take place in the ear,  they
suppurate  and empty themselves
externally.
   Inflammation of the Brain,  is a
disease more common in hot  than
in temperate climates ; in  the lat-
ter, however, it may  also take place
from external violence, or  in  con-
sequence  of  severe falls, blows
and bruises upon the head ; night-
watching; hard drinking; strong
passions, especially those  of grief,
anger,  and anxiety; exposure  to
the heat of the sun  during sleep,
with  the head uncovered,  Sec. The
principal symptoms  of this danger-
ous malady are, pain of the  head,
redness of the eyes, want of sleep,
and slight dropping of blood  from
the nose ;  these are attended with
costivenessand a retention of urine.
 As the disease, when neglected, is
 often fatal in a few  days,  medical
 advice  should be called in without
 delay.    Meanwhile, the patient
 ought to be kept as  quiet as possi-
 ble, and free  from  the access  of
 strong light;  his  body  must  be
 kept open by clysters;  the legs
 bathed in warm water; the bleed-
 ing of  the nose promoted by warm
  fomentations to the part; and the
      Z z 
554        BRA
BRA
head, after being  shaved,  should
be frequently rubbed with vinegar
and v\ater ; or cloths dipped in the
following solution may be applied,
and repeated  every  hour,  or half
hour, with the best effect.   Take
two ounces of nitre, and one ounce
of sal ammoniac, dissolve them in
five pints of water and half a pint of
strong vinegar.  Of this mixture
the patient may also drink  a table
spoonful every hour, or oftener.
  BRAKE is a large and weighty
harrow used to reduce a stubborn
soil. It consists of four square bulls
each side five inches thick,  and six
feet and a half in length. The teeth
are seventeen inches long, and bend
forward like a coulter; four of these
are inserted  in each  bull, fixed
above  with a screw nut,  having
twelve inches  free  below,  with  a
heel close to the under part ofthe
bull, to prevent  its  being pushed
back by stones.  This instrument
requires  four horses, or the same
number of oxen, and may be ap-
plied  with great advantage in fal-
lowing strong  clay  that requires
frequent ploughings, as a breaking
between  each ploughing will pul-
verize the soil.  In the month of
March  or  April,  on  ploughing
strong ground  for  barley, a cross
brakeing is  preferable to a cross
ploughing,  and may be performed
at half the expense.
  A brake  with a greater number
of teeth than that above described,
is not proper  for ground  that is
rendered adhesive  by the roots of
plants, such as land newly  broken
up : on the contrary, a less num-
ber of teeth would  not sufficiently
break the clcds.
  BRAMBLE,  the  Common, or
Rubus fruticosus, L. a  species of
the raspberry-bush, which  grows
wild in hedges, and has three va-
rieties one of which bears white
fruit....See Withering, 469...«.«
There are several other species in-
digenous in  England ; as the saxa-
tilis, or stone bramble, the arcticus,
or dwarf crimson   bramble, the
chamaemorus, or mountain bramble,
by some called  cloud-berry, and
the  corylifolius,  or,  hazel-leaved
bramble.
  The bad effects of the  fruit of the
bramble, when  eaten  too freely,
have already been mentioned under
the article Blackberry. In Pro-
vence, in France, it is employed in
the colouring of  wine.  The Rus-
sians mix the berries of the saxa-
tilis  with honey,  which, when fer-
mented is a pleasant beverage....
Wine  and vinegar arc also made
from the fruit of  the bramble; and
a syrup and jelly prepared from it,
are  used  as gentle astringents....
The leaves afford  several colours in
dyeing.
 As  this plant is  of quick growth,
it may be advantageously employed
for inclosures ; because it defends
the young  quick-set  hedge  from
sheep, and  by intertwining  itself
with a dead  hedge, preserves it
from injury.  The usual method
of planting it, is in  two  rows  upon
the bank, the lower of bramble and
the upper of white-thorn.
  BRAN,  the husks  of wheat,
which when ground are separated
from the flour by a sieve.  It con-
tains a portion of the farinaceous
matter, less glutinous than flour,
and slightly detergent and purga-
tive.   Infusions of  bran are  often
applied  externally,  to cleanse the
hands instead of soap ;  and it also
removes scurf and dandriff.
  Bran may, in  times of scarcity,
be advantageously  employed  in
the making of common  household
bread;  this is effected by previous-
ly boiling the bran in water, and
then adding the whole .decoction to 
BRA
BRA       355
the dough : thus the bran will be
sufficiently  softened, and divested
of its dry husky quality;  while the
nutritive part, which is supposed to
contain an essential oil, is duly pre-
pared  for food.  It is asserted, that
the  increase in the quantity  of
bread,  by the addition of 14lb.  14
oz. of bran  to 561b. of flour, is
from 341b. to 361b.  of bread, be-
yond what is produced by the com-
mon mode. In  one instance, 591b.
of flour, with 14lb.  14oz. of bran,
produced,  on being weighed the
next day, when  cold, 1061b. and a
half of bread ; which is above half
as much more  than what is com-
monly made, and about  twice the
quantity obtained from a bushel of
wheat, when merely the fine flour
is used.
   [Ten ounces  of bran were boil-
ed in somewhat  more  than two
quarts  of water, from  fifteen to
twenty minutes.  The water was
then strained off;  and when of a
proper degree of  heat,  7 pounds
of flour were wet  with it  in the
usual way, with the common quan-
tities of salt and yeast.  The pro-
duce was, 121b.  10 oz. of bread.....
The same quantity of flour, made
at the same time by the same per-
son,  and baked  in the same oven,
as bread is generally  made, pro-
duced  91b.  of bread.]
   BRANDY, is a spirituous and
inflammable  liquor,  obtained  by
distillation  from  wine.   French
brandies are accounted the best in
Europe ; and those of Bourdeaux,
Rochelle, Cogniac, Charenton, Sec.
are held in the highest estimation.
Good brandy is  clear, not too hot,
nor sharp, and of a pleasant vinous
flavour.  French brandy acquires
by age a great  degree of softness,
and at the same time a yellowish
brown colour, which our distillers
have imitated in their artificial pre-
parations.   But this colour being
found  only  in  such  brandies  as
have become mellow by long keep-
ing, it follows that the ingredient,
from  which it is extracted, is the
wood  of the  cask,  and that the
brandy  in  reality  has received a
tincture from the oak.  The  pecu-
liar flavour which French brandies
possess, is supposed to be derived
from an essential oil of wine, mix-
ed with the  spirit; but, more pro-
bably, it originates from the very
nature of the grape, or  the  wine-
lees.
  It deserves to be remarked, that
our distillers frequently  make use
of the spirit of nitrous xther, com-
monly called dulcified spirit  of
nitre:  a very small proportion of
which, added to pure whiskey,  or
a liquor obtained by the distillation
of malt, imparts to it a flavour not
unlike that of French brandy.
  A vinous spirit has been extract-
ed  from carrots by Mr. Thomas
Horndy, of York, (England,) who,
in 1788,communicated to Dr. Hun-
ter a particular account of the
whole process.  This may be view-
ed in  the light of a national advan-
tage,  as  it affords the  means  of
supplying another material for the
distiller, and of saving great quan-
tities of barley and wheat.  By Mr.
Hornby's   experiment,   it  was
found, that an acre  of carrots (20
tons,)  produced  240  gallons  of
spirit  which is  considerably  more
than what can  be obtained from
five quarters of barley, the average
produce of an acre.
 Brandy, even ofthe most genuine
kind, is less wholesome than rum ;
but the counterfeit and adulterated
sorts are exceedingly detrimental
to those who are habitually addict-
ed to the use  of this pernicious
liquor.  It  should  therefore,  be
drank very moderately, rather from 
$56        BRA
BRA
necessity  than for gratification....
When the stomach isempty, weak,
and lax, a moderate dram excites
a pleasant warmth and gentle ten-
sion ;  it is said to promote diges-
tion,  by  dissolving  the  viscid
phlegm which loaded that organ,
invigorating its fibres, and stimu-
lating its coats to act with  more
T.gour. Yet all these good effects
will not counterbalance  the mis-
chiefs done by an indiscreet and
immoderate  use  of this  cordial.
Melancholy tempers,  as  well as
choleric and sanguine habits, can-
not fail to  be injured by ardent
spirits : and in short, a  too free
use of them  in  any constitution,
is  of the  mo  t fatal consequence.
Hence,  Sydenham,  with  great
justice  and  propriety,  exclaims,
" Would  to God brandy were to-
tally abstained from, or used only
on  occasions  to support  Nature,
and not destroy it, unless  it were
thought proper to prohibit any in-
ternal use of it at all, and leave it
entirely to  surgeons for  bathing
ulcers and burns."....See also Dis-
tilling.
   [Excellent brandy is made from
apples in the U.  States, notwith-
standing what Chaptal has said
on the subject. If carefully distilled
from sound apples, and kept a few
years in a warm situation, it is very
agreeable when  diluted  with wa-
ter.  Peaches  also yield  a liquor,
which when properly distilled, is
by many preferred to the  finest
French brandy.
   One wine  glass full added to  a
half gallon  bowl of punch, highly
improves the flavour of that drink.
In Virginia,peach brandy has long
been distilled, and might be made
a very profitable article of internal
commerce,  as the peach-tree ap-
pears to thrive better in that state,
than  in any other in  the Union.
 The following recipe for making
apple-brandy,  was  communicated
by Mr. Joseph Cooper of New-
Jersey, already  mentioned.  The
liquor made agreeably to this pro-
cess, is mild, mellow, and  plea-
sant, and greatly superior to apple
spirits procured  by  the common
mode.
 " Put the cyder, previously to dis-
tilling, into  vessels free from must
or ill smell, and keep it till in the
state  which is  commonly called
good sound cyder, but not till sour,
as that lessens the quantity and in-
jures the quality of the spirit. In
the distillation, let it  run perfectly
cool from the worm, and in the
first time of distilling, not longer
than it will  flash  when cast on the
still head and a lighted candle ap^
plied under it. In the second dis-
tillation, shift the vessel as soon as
the spirit runs below proof, or has
a disagreeable smell or taste, and
put what runs after with the low
wines.  By this method the spirit,
if distilled from  good cyder, will
take nearly or quite one third its
quantity to  bring it  to proof; for
which purpose take  the last run-
ning from a cheese of good  water
cyder, direct from the press, unfer-
mented,  and  in  forty-eight  hours
the spirit will be milder and better
flavoured than  in  several  years
standing  if manufactured in the
common  way. When the spirit is
drawn off, which may be  done  in
five or six days, there will be a thin
jelly at bottom, which may be dis-
tilled  again,  or put  into the best
cyder, or used for making royal cy-
der:...it being better for these pur-
poses  than  the clear spirit, as  it
will greatly facilitate  in  refining
the liquor."]
   BRASS, in metallurgy, is a fac-
titious metal, made of copper and 
BRA
BRA       357
tine,  or lapis  calaminaris.   The
French call it yellow copper.  The
Scriptures inform us, that the first
formation of brass was previous to
the deluge; but the use of it was
not,  as is generally  believed, and
as the  Arundelian marbles assert,
prior to the knowledge of iron.  In
the earliest ages, whose manners
have been delineated  by history,
we find the weapons of their war-
riors invariably framed of this fac-
titious  metal.    Military  nations
were naturally  studious of bright-
ness in their arms: and  the An-
cient Britons, particularly, gloried
in the neatness of theirs.  Hence
various nations continued to fabri-
cate their arms of brass, even after
the discovery of iron.
   By  long calcination  alone, and
without the mixture of any other
substance with it, brass affords a
beautiful green or blue colour  for
glass: but if it  be  calcined with
powdered  sulphur,  it  will give a
red, yellow, or chalcedony colour,
according  to  the  quantity,  and
other  variations in  using it.
   Brass-colour, is that prepared by
colour-men and braziers to imitate
brass;  of which there  are  two
sorts: namely, the  red brass,  or
bronze, which  is mixed with red-
ochre, finely pulverized;  and the
yellow, or gilt brass,  which is made
of copper-filings only.   Both sorts
are used with varnish.
   Corinthian brass, is a mixture of
gold, silver, and copper; so called
from the melting and running to-
gether of immense quantities of
those metals when the city of Co-
rinth was  sacked and  burnt,. 146
years before  Christ.
   In 1781, a patent was granted
to Mr. James  Emerson,  for  his
invention of making brass of cop-
per and zinc. The Patentee directs
the spelter to be melted in an iron
boiler, then passed through a per-
forated ladle and placed over a ves-
sel  containing water;  by which
means the zinc will be granulated.
Fifty-four pounds of copper shot
are now  annexed  with  lOlbs.  of
calcined and pulverized calamine,
together with  about one bushel of
charcoal:  a handful of this mixture
is first put into a casting pot, then
31bs. ofthe granulated zinc; upon
which the composition before spe-
cified is laid till the vessel is filled:
Mr. Emerson, however, has  not
stated the exact proportion of  the
ingredients.   Eight similar  pots
are now  to be  supplied with  the
same  materials, and the whole
must be submitted to the heat of a
furnace, for the space of 12 hours;
when the process will  be com-
pleted, and 821bs. of brass be pro-
cured ; which  the Patentee  asserts
to be  of a very superior quality to
that  manufactured  from  copper
and calamine.
  [Various articles made of brass
have  sometimes an appearance
of well  gilt metal.   This appear-
ance,  we  now know,  is produced
by means  of a solution of gum-lac
in spirit of wine, with which they
are rubbed.   As long as the  lac
lasts,  they retain their splendour.
These articles,  however, are  at-
tended  with  one  inconvenience,
that they must  never be cleaned
with  a strong brush, or scoured
with  chalk  or whiting,  but only
wiped with a soft rag; for, as soon
as the lac is rubbed off, they loose
their brilliancy.  A varnish of this
kind  may be  prepared  in the  fol-
lowing manner:
  Dissolve two ounces of very pure
and  fine  gum-lac  in forty-eight
ounces  of alcohol,  and place  the
solution in a sand bath exposed to
a moderate heat.  To prevent the
too abundant evaporation  of  the 
358        BRA
6re
 spirit of wine, as well as the burst-
 ing of the glass, a piece of bladder
 ought to be bound over the latter,
 and  a few holes made in it with a
 needle. In another glass, dissolve
 in the  same quantity of spirit of
 wine, an ounce of dragon's blood
 in grains.   When  both the solu-
 tions are completed, mix them to-
 gether, then put  three grains of
 yellow wood into it, and suffer it
 to remain there twelve hours in  a
 moderate heat: after which, strain
 the liquor through filtering paper,
 and  preserve it for  use in a clean
 glass bottle.   To  give  this lac-
 varnish a high gold  colour,  yellow
 wood is preferable  to every other
 substance.   If the  varnieh is in-
 tended to be pale, and not to change
 the colour of the brass, the  yellow
 wood may be omitted,but if a strong-
 er colour be required, a half more of
 the yellow wood may be added.]
   Brassica.    See  Cabbage,
 Colewort, Rape,  Rocket, and
 Turnip.
   BRAWN, is the flesh of  a boar,
 pickled or souced, which is always
 found to be  better tasted, accord-
 ing to the greater age of the  ani-
 mal.  The most approved method
 of preparing it is as follows: Af-
 ter the boar  is  killed,  take  the
 flitches only, without the legs, and
 extract  the bones   from  them:
 sprinkle the flesh  with salt, and lay
 it in a tray till the blood is drained
 off;  let it then be  salted a little
 more, and rolled up as hard as pos-
 sible.  The  collar of brawn  should
 be made of the whole length ofthe
 flitch, so as to measure nine or ten
 inches  in  diameter.   The flesh
 thus prepared is to  be boiled  in a
 large kettle or copper, till it  be-
comes tender enough to be pierced
with a straw:  then  set it by, till
it is thoroughly cold, and immerse
it into the   following pickle:  To
every gallon of water, put near two
handfuls  of  salt, and  as much
wheat-bran:  boil  them  well to-
gether; then drain the liquor from
the bran as clear as  possible; and
when the liquor is quite  cold, put
the brawn into it.
   BREAD, an  important article
of food, prepared of  flour kneaded
with a  mixture  of  yeast, water,
and salt, and afterwards  baked in
an oven.
   Before the invention of mills for
grinding corn, bread was  prepared
by boiling the grain, and forming it
into viscous cakes, not very agree-
able to the palate, and difficult of
digestion. In process of time, ma-
chines were constructed for grind-
ing corn,  as well as for separating
the pure flour; and a method was
discovered to  raise the dough by
fermentation.  Dough may be fer-
mented either by leaven or by yeast;
but as the latter raises the kneaded
mass more uniformly, and produces
the sweetest and lightest  bread,
it  is generally preferred.  Bread
well raised and baked is  not  only
more  agreeable  to the taste  than
unfermented bread, but more rea-
dily  mixes  with  water,  without
forming a viscous mass, or  puff,
and is at the same time more  easi-
ly  digested in the stomach.
  Bread  in  [England] is divided
into  three kinds, namely, white,
wheaten,  and household.    Fine
white  bread is made  only of flour;
the wheaten contains a mixture of
the finer part of the bran ; and the
household of the whole substance
of the grain.
  An act for regulating the assize
of bread was  passsd [in England,]
in  the year 1773; by which it was
enacted, that all bread made of the
flour of wheat, and which shall he
the whole produce of the grain,
the hull thereof only excepted, and 
            BRE

which  shall weigh  three-fourth
parts of the weight of the wheat,
shall be allowed to be made, baked
and  sold,  and shall be understood
to be a standard wheaten  bread;
also, that  every  standard wheaten
peck loaf  shall always weigh  171b.
6 oz. avoirdupois; every half  peck
loaf  8lb. 1 loz. and every quartern
loaf  4lb.  5\ oz. and  be  marked
with  the  letters S. W.  and that
every peck loaf, half peck loaf, and
quartern loaf, shall always be sold,
as to price, in  proportion to  each
other respectively.
   Although we have,  in the article
Baking,  given  general directions
for  successfully conducting  this
complicated process, yet we  think
it will  be useful, in this  place, to
add, by way of supplement, a few
particulars relative to this subject,
and  more  especially applicable to
domestic  purposes.  Mr. Dossie,
who appears to have paid great at-
tention to the art of baking,  gives
the following simple and much ap-
proved method  of making  good
white bread:  Take of fine flour,
six pounds ;  of water,  moderately
warm,  but not  hot, two pints and
a halfj of  liquid yeast, eight spoon-
fuls ; and  of salt, two  ounces. Put
about a pint of the warm water to
the yeast, and mix them well, by
beating them together with a whisk.
Let  the salt be  put to the  remain-
ing part of the water, and stirred
till completely dissolved. Then put
both  quantities  of the fluid  gra-
dually to the flour, and knead the
mass well till the whole is proper-
ly mixed.  The dough thus made
must  stand  four or   five  hours,
that  is, till  the exact  moment of
its being  fully  risen, and  before
it is  sensibly perceived to fall.  It
is then to be formed  into  loaves,
and  immediately  placed   in  the
oven.   To bake it properly, is at-
            BRE        359

tended with some difficulty to those
who are not skilled in the art.  The
first care is to see that the oven be
sufficiently heated, yet not to such
a degree as to burn the crust.  If
a green vegetable turns black when
put in, the  oven will  scorch  the
bread; in which case it must stand
open  till the heat  has somewhat
abated.  The next circumstance to
be  attended to, is, that the mouth
of the oven be well closed,  till the
bread has risen to its  full height,
which will not  take place in less
than  two or three  hours.  After
this, but not before, the oven may
be opened for the purpose of view-
ing the bread, and seeing that it is
baked without being either burnt
or too crusty; for if the mouth ofthe
oven  be not  kept  closely stopped
till the bread is fully risen, it will
flatten and become heavy.   When
properly managed, the above-men-
tioned ingredients  will have lost
about one  pound  two  ounces  in
weight, so that a well-baked loaf of
this kind should amount to seven
pounds twelve ounces.
  Bread may be made without yeast,
as is practised in Hungary, by the
following process: Boil two good
handfuls of hops  in  four quarts
of water; pour the decoction upon
as much wheat bran as the liquor
will moisten.  Then add  four  or
five pounds of leaven;  mix  the
whole  together, till  perfectly unit-
ed.  Put this mass  into  a warm
place  for twenty-four hours ; then
divide  it  into pieces about the size
of a hen's egg; let  these be dried
in the air, but not in the sun, and
they will  keep good for six months.
Or, make the above into six large
loaves, take six  good handfuls of
dough, broken small and dissolved
in eight  quarters of warm water,
and poured  through a sieve into
one end of the dough trough; then 
 360       B R E

 pour three quarts more of warm
 water  through the sieve after it,
 and  what  remains in the  sieve
 must be well expressed.
   [To make bread with salt....Take
 as much salt as is necessary to a
 loaf  of the size intended, dissolve
 it in as much warm water as will
 mix  the flour.  Set it in a pot at
 a distance from the fire, sufficient
 to warm, but  not to bake the flour
 on the side of the pot; a yellow
 water will  rise on the  top, which
 take  off with  a spoon, and the ris-
 ing will begin.   Then mix it with
 as much flour, as will make the
 loaf, and if it should not be suffi-
 cient, add a little warm water; in
 less  than an hour it will be  fit to
 bake.   From the time  the salt
 water and flour are mixed,  three
 or four hours  are required.   The
 mass does not rise  like  bread
 made with yeast.   The Editor has
 tasted bread made agreeably to the
 above recipe, and found il pleasant
 and light.
  Mi\Ferryman, of England, has
 invented a machine for separating
 the  outer coat or bran of wheat,
 without loosing the internal coat,
 which  adheres  to  the outer, and
 has  always hitherto been thrown
 off" with the former in grinding. It
 is asserted  that this second  coat,
 is highly nourishing, and gives a
 sweetness to bread, which it never
has,  when  made  from  common
flour.  The late Duke of Bedford
bore  testimony before a  commit-
tee ofthe House of Commons, of
 the  superiority of bread  made of
 grain thus blanched.  The  only
 objection which can be  made to
 such bread  is  that it is of a darker
hue  than common bread........See
 Wheat.
  One hundred pounds weight of
flour will make from 134 to 133|
pounds of bread.
            BRE

  In an experiment made to ascer-
tain the number of loaves of bread
which a barrel of flour will produce
it appeared that 4lb. of  flour pro-
duced 5lb. 5oz. of good light bread.
This  is an  increase of about 40
per cent.  Therefore, a barrel  of
flour will make 272!lbs. of bread,
which  will  produce 312 loaves,
weighing  14oz. and, at 6 cents,  or
TV of a dollar, yield g 19-,*°,.
  A machine for kneading flour is
used in the  public baking houses
at Genoa, and is calculated to  save
much labour.   An account of this
machine,  together with a  plate
may be found in Nicholson'sPA//.
Journ. and  in  the Rep. of Arts ;
taken from the Trans, of the  Pat.
Society of Milan, vol. 2.]
  Like all other farinaceous  sub-
stances, bread is very nourishing,
on account ofthe copious mucilage
it contains;  but if eaten too freely,
it is productive of  viscidity which
obstructs  the intestines, and  lays
the foundation of habitual costive-
ness.  Leavened  bread, or  such
as has  acquired an  acidulated taste
by  a  slow  fermentation of the
dough, is cooling and antiseptic.
By this process, all the viscous are
combined with  the drier parts  of
the  flour, and the  fixed  air  is
expelled  in  baking.  New baked
bread contains a large  proportion
of indigestible  paste, which  may
be rendered less unwholesome  by
allowing it to dry for two or three
days,  or  by toasting  it.    This
mode ought to be adopted, both  on
account of health  and  economy,
especially  in  times of scarcity.
Stale bread, in every  respect, de-
serves the preference to that which
is newly baked; and persons trou-
bled with  flatulency, cramp of the
stomach,  or indigestion,  should
abstain from new bread, and par-
ticularly  from hot rolls. 
            BRE

   Various substances have  been
used  for bread, instead of wheat.
In the years 1629 and 1630, when
there  was a  dearth  in  England,
bread was made in London of tur-
nips,  on  the  recommendation of
Dr. Be ale.   In 1693 also, when
corn was very dear, a great quan-
tity of turnip-bread was made in
several parts of the  kingdon, but
particularly  in Essex, by a receipt
registered   in  the   Philosophical
Transactions.   The process is, to
put the turnips  into  a kettle  over
a slow fire,  till they  become  soft;
they are then  taken out, squeezed,
and drained a* dry as possible, and
afterwards mashed and mixed with
an equal weight of flour,aud knead-
ed with yeast, salt, and a little warm
water.
   The following is another method
of making bread of turnips, which
deserves to be  recommended for
its cheapness :  Wash clean,  pare
and afterwards boil anumher of tur-
nips,  till they  become soft enough
to mash ; press the greatest part of
the water out of them, then mix
them  with  an  equal weight  of
wheat-meal, make the dough  in
the usual manner  with yeast, &c.
it  will rise well in  the trough, and
after being well kneaded,  may be
formed into loaves and put into the
oven.  Bread prepared in this man-
ner has a peculiar sweetish taste,
which is by no means disagreea-
ble ; it is as light and white as the
wheaten, and should be kept about
12 hours before it is cut, when the
smell and taste of the turnip will
scarcely be perceptible.
   Potatoes  have also been made
into bread, by different processes.
The simplest is to choose the large
mealy sort, boil them as for eating,
then peel and mash them very fine
without adding any water.   Two
     VOL. I.
            BRE        361

parts of wheat flour are added to
one  of potatoes, and a little more
yeast than usual.  The whole mass
is to  be kneaded into  dough,  and
allowed to stand a proper time to
rise  and ferment, before  it is put
into  the oven.  Bread thus prepar-
ed is  good  and wholesome ;  and
if bakers were to make use of no
worse ingredients  than this nutri-
tive  root, they might  be justified
in times of scarcity, provided they
sold  it at a moderate price,  and
under proper  limitations.
   M. Parmentier found, from  a
variety of experiments, that good
bread might be made of equal quan-
tities of flour and potatoe meal. He
also  obtained well-fermented bread
of a  good colour and taste, from  a
mixture of  raw potatoe-pulp  and
wheaten meal, wilh the addition of
yeast and salt.
   Dr.  Darwin  asserts,  that if
eight pounds of good raw potatoes
be grated into cold water, and af-
ter stirring the mixture the starch
be left to subside, and when  col-
lected,  it be  mixed  with  eight
pounds of boiled potatoes, the mass
will  mak-:  as good bread as that
from the best wheaten flour.   He
likewise observes, that  hay, which
has been kept in stack--, so as to
under-o the  saccharine  process,
may  be so managed,  by grinding
and fermentation  with  yeast, like
bread, as to serve in part for the
sustenance of  mankind in times of
great scarcity.  As an  instance of
the very nutritive quality of hay, it
is mentioned, that a  cow, a'fer
drinking a strong infusion of it for
some time, produced above double
the usual quantity of milk.  Hence,
if bread cannot  be  made  from
ground hay,  there is  reason to be-
lieve,  that a  nutritive beverage
may  be prepared from it, either in
     3  A 
362        BRE
BRE
 its saccharine state, or by ferment-
 ing it into a kind of beer.
   There are other vegetables, says
 Dr. Darwin, which would proba-
 bly afford wholesome  nutriment,
 either by boiling, or  drying and
 grinding  them, or by  both  these
 processes.  Among the^e mav be
 reckoned perhaps  the tops  and
 bark  of  gooseberry-trees,  holly,
 gorse, and hawthorn.   The  inner
 bark  of the  elm may be converted
 into a kind  of gruel, [See Elm,]
 and the roots of fern, and probably
 those of many other plants, such
 as grass or clover, might yield nou-
 rishment either by boiling, baking
 and separating the fibres from the
 pulp,  or by extracting  the starch
 from  those which possess an  acrid
 mucilage,such as the white bryony.
   The adulteration of flour and
 bread has often been the subject of
 animadversion. Mealmen andmill-
 ers have  been accused of"  adding
 chalk, lime,  and  whiting to the
 flour,  and bakers of mixing  alum
 with the dough.  There is  much
 reason to suspect, that these prac-
 tices  are but too prevalent.
   It  has  been asserted, that the
 adulteration of bread is owing to
 the legal distinctions in the quality
 of it,  and  to our making colour the
 standard of goodness.   Dr. Dar-
 win  observes, that  where much
 alum  is mixed with bread,  it may
be easily distinguished by the eye :
when  two loaves so  adulterated
have  stuck together in the oven,
they break from each other  with
a much smoother surface,  where
they had adhered, than those loaves
do, which contain no alum.
  An  excellent method  of making
bread  of rice is, by boiling three-
fourths of wheaten  flour and one-
fourth of rice_separately. The rice
should be Well  boiled,  the water
 -oueezed out (which may be after-
wards used as starch for linen, for
there  can be no better), and  the
mass  should then be mixed with
the flour.   It is made in the same
manner  as common  bread, and is
very nutritive.   One pound and a
half of  flour mixed with  half a
pound of rice, will produce a loaf
weighing  from  three  pounds to
three pounds two  ounces, which is
greater than that obtained by bak-
ing bread of wheat flour only. Rice
has  also been tried in  the same
proportion with  barley, and  makes
good bread for  labouring people ;
but  the  gain in baking is  by no
means equal to that obtained by
mixing it with wheat...Ave Rick.
   Another mode of preparing bread
with  all  the bran,  the  result of
which we have stated under  the
head  of Bran, is  as  follows.....
" Take seven pounds seven ounces
of bran  and pollard, and fourteen
quarts   of  water, and  boil   the
whole very gently over a slow fire.
When the mixture begins to swell
and  thicken, let it  be  frequently
stirred, to prevent its boiling over,
or burning either at  the hot'.om or
sides ofthe vessel.   After having
boiled two hours, it will acquire
the consistence of a thin puddin/.;.
New put it into  a  clean cloth, and
squeeze  out the  liquor :  take a
quart  of this,  mix  it with three
pints of  v east, and set the sponge
for twenty-eight pounds  of flour.
The mass, bran, and pollard, even
after the liquor has been separatee',
will  be  four.d  to be above four
times its original weight; it is then
to be placed near the hie.  In about
two  hours,  the  xi ige will have
sufficiently  risen.   The bran  and
pollard, then lukewarm, should be
mixed with the flour ;  and, after
adding half a pound of salt,  the
whole must be well kneaded, with
one quart ofthe bran liquor. Thus 
BRE
BRE        363
prepared, the dough is formed into
loaves, and  baked for two hours
and a quarter, in a common oven.
The bread, when cold, will weigh
one-half more than the same quan-
tity of flour would, without the ad-
dition of the bran.
   if the bran-water  only is used,
and the bran itself (which,  by the
boiling, increases considerably in
weight) is not added to the dough,
the increase of bread will still be
considerable ;  but  not  more  than
one-third of the increase obtained,
when all the bran is  used.
   [It  is known  that  rice gains
greatly  in  boiling ;  and  hence,
when made into bread with flour, is
highly economical, as  will appear
by the following experiments: Six
ounces of rice were boiled  in a
quart of water, till it was dry  and
soft ; two  pounds of  flour were
then added, and the whole,  with
two table spoonfuls of  yeast,  well
worked into dough,  together  with
the usual quantity of  salt, giving it
rather longer  time to  rise, which
it  was  found it required.  The  loaf
thus made, when baked, was light
in quality,  sweeter and more  pa-
latable  than the  common bread,
and produced three pounds, seven
ounces and a half.
  From this experiment the follow-
ing fact appears, that rice  gains in
weight  in a  double  proportion to
that of any other grain. This will
be further seen by  the following
statement:                oz.
   2  pounds of flour,.....32
   Rice..............   6

                           38
   Bread produced.......55^
   Deduct per contra.....38

     Gained...........17|
   To make a quartern loaf
     are generallyusedthree
    pounds and an half of   oz.
    flour.............56
  When baked, is by stand-
    ard  to  weigh   four
    pounds   five   ounces
    eight drams.........691
  Deduct as per contra .... 56

    Gained............131

  Therefore the difference is, that
two pounds of flour and six ounces
of rice, produce four ounces weight
more than three and a half pounds
of flour...Two pounds of flour, and
six  ounces of rice boiled till it was
quite dry and soft, produced four
pounds twelve ounces of excellent
bread......One pound of flour, and
three  ounces of  rice, wet  wilh
bran-water, produced  one pound
twelve ounces of bread.
  Another experiment....In doub-
ling the quantity  of rice to the
same quantity of flour, which was
found  to  answer  for  immediate
consumption,but would not answer
for  general  purposes ; it may  be
safely  concluded,  that  one-fifth of
rice maybe usedwith flour, to great
advantage to the public, by increas-
ing the subsistence, and with profit
to the baker, who can afford to sell
it at lirf. under the assize, and gain
double what he does by baking the
standard bread.
  In making the foregoing expe-
riments, it was proved, that  nine-
tenths  flour  and  one-tenth rice,
and in  the same  way as directed
for  making bread (except  using
yeast  and salt)  produced a finer
crust  in pastry than using flour
alone.
  Bread thus made keeps longer
moist than wheaten bread,  and is
better the second day than the first.
Rice may be steamed rather than
boiled ; and  if the  quality of the
rice is good, half a pound steamed 
364        BRE
BRE
in a little more than a quart of wa-
ter, till it is quite  dry and  soft,
gains two pounds,  that  is, four-
fifths in weight.]
   French bread is prepared in the
following manner:  Take half  a
bushel of the  best wheaten flour,
and dilute one  pint of good^teast
with three quarts of warm water ;
mix  the whole properly, and cover
it with flannel, till the sponge be
formed.  After the dough has suf-
ficiently risen, six quarts of luke-
warm  skimmed  milk, and one
pound  of salt, are to be worked  in,
with the fingers, till the sponge be
weak and ropy ; when it must again
be covered,  and kept warm.  The
oven being  now  made  very hot,
and the paste moulded into bricks
or rolls, they  are put in expedi-
tiously : the former requiring one
hour and a half;  but  the  latter
only half an hour. As soon as the
bread is baked, it must be drawn;
and,  if  burnt,  the  black  crust
should be rasped....When the milk
is added to the sponge, two ounces
of butter are  sometimes incorpo-
rated : but this addition being im-
material, it  may  be omitted.
   The  great advantage of eating
pure and genuine bread must  be
obvious. Every part of the wheat,
which  may be called flour, was
not only intended to  be eaten  by
man, but it really makes the best
bread, since that  may be called the
best which is of most general use,
and  so fine  as to contain no part of
the husks of the grain.   But the
delusion, by which so many per-
sons are misled,  to think that even
the whole flour is not good enough
for them, obliges them  to  pay a
seventh or eighth part more than
thev need, to gratify a fanciful ap-
petite.  Had  it not been for the
custom of eating whiter bread than
the whole of the flour will make,
the miller and baker would  not
have employed all their art to ren-
der the bread as white as possible,
and  make the consumer pay for
this artificial whiteness.
   New Substitutes for Flour
or Bread.  We have, in  the pre-
ceding analysis, as well as on for-
mer occasions, mentioned various
substances which  might  advanta-
geously be employed in the manu-
facture of this indispensable article
of human sustenance ; independ-
ently ofthe different kinds of grain
and roots that are  already made
subservient to this beneficial pur-
pose.   In  order to  exhibit a dis-
tinct view of the  most promising
substitutes, whether indigenous or
exotic, and especially such as have
actually been used, on the authori-
ty of creditable evidence, we shall
here divide them into three classes,
and, in the course ofthe work- give
a more particular account of each
article, in  its alphabetical order.
   I. Farinaceous   Seeds.....Wheat-
grass, or Triticum Spelta; Millet,
or Panicum miliaceum; Common
Buckwheat,  or Polygonum fagopy-
rum ;  Siberian Buckwheat, or Po-
lygonum tartaricum; Wild Buck-
wheat, or  Polygonum convolvulus ;
Wild Fescue-grass, or Festucafiui-
tans ;  Maize, or Indian Corn, the
Mays  Zea ; Rice, or Oryza Sativa ;
Guinea  Corn, or White  Round-
seeded Indian Millet ;  the Holcus
Sorghum, L. Canary-grass, or Pha-
laris canariensis; Rough Dog's-tail
Grass, or   Cynosurus  cchinatus;
Water Zizany, or Zizania  aquatica;
Upright SeaLime-grass, or Flymus
arenarius;   Sea-reed,    Marram,
Helme, or Sea Mat-weed, the Cu-
lamagrostis,  or Arundo  arenaria.
   The following mealy fruits, how-
ever, deserve a decided preference 
BRE
BRE       365 ^
over many of the preceding :  viz.
Water Caltrops, or the fruit of the
Trapa natans, L. Pulse of various
kinds, such as Peas, Lentils, Beans,
and  the  seeds  of the  Common
Vetch, Fetch, or Tare-acorns, and
especially  those  of the  Quercus
cerris and esculis ; the seeds of the
White Goose-foot, Common Wild
Orange, or the Chenopodium album;
the seeds and flowers ofthe Rocket,
or Brassica eruca ; the seeds ofthe
Sorrel, or  Rumex  acetosa ;  of the
different species of Dock,  or La-
pat hum ; of the Yellow and White
 WTater-lily, or the Nymphoea  lutea
 and alba ; of the Corn-spurrey, or
 Spergula arvensis ; of the Spinage,
 or  Spinacia oleracea, L.  of the
 Common  Gromwell, or Graymill,
 the Lithospermum officinale ; of the
 Knot-grass,  or  Paniculum  avicu-
 lare; the Beech-nut (see p. 247);
 the husks ofthe Lint-seed, &c.
   II.  F'arinaceous Roots: namely,
 those  of the Common and  Yellow
 Bethlem  Star, or  Ornithogalum lu-
 teum and umbellatum ; of the  Yel-
 low Asphodel (see p. 141) ; of the
 Wake Robin, or Arum  maculatum
 (after being properly  dried and
 washed); ofthe Pile wort, or Lesser
 Celandine, the Ranunculus ficaria;
 ofthe Common Dropwort, the Spi-
 raea filipendiila ; of the   Meadow-
 sweet, or  S/inzu  ubnaria; of the
 \V hite Bryony, or f'njonia alba ;
 of the Turnip-rooted  Cabbage, or
 Nupobrassica ; of ihe Oreat Bistort,
 or  Snake-weed (p. 284) ; of the
 Sm 11, Welch, or  Alpine  Bistort
 (p. 284)  ; of the Common Orobus,
 or  Heath - Pea ;   the  Tuberous
 Vetch ; the Common Reed : both
 the Sweet-smelling and Common
 Solomon's  Seal ;  the   Common
 Corn-flag, or Gladiolus Communis;
 the S dt-marsh Club-rush, or Scir-
 pus maritimus, Sec......Indeed, some
authors also include in this list the
roots  of the Mandragora,  Colchi-
cum, Fumaria bulb., Helleborus ac-
conitifol. and  nigr., Liliam bulbif,
and many  others ; but for these
last mentioned we have not suffi-
cient  authority.
  III. Fibrous and less juicy roots:
viz. those of the Couch-grass, or
Creeping Wheat-grass;thc Clown's
or Marsh  Wound-wort (p.  34) ;
the Marsh Mary-gold, or Meadow-
Bouts ; the Silver-weed, or Wild
Tansey ; the  Sea Seg, or Carex
arenarius, lAc.
   Having  thus  stated the various
substitutes for bread, which  have
either already been adopted with
success in  this country, or which
might in times of real scarcity, be
easily converted into proper nutri-
ment, we  cannot  better conclude
this  article than in  the words of
Arthur Young, Esq. who, in his
Observations  on the  late  Royal
Proclamation, recommending fru-
gality in the consumption of corn
as one of the  surest and  most ef-
fectual means  of alleviating  the
present pressure of the limes, es-
pouses the cause ofthe unfortunate
poor, nearly in the following words:
 Every master or head of a family
 is in  duty bound to second, without
 compulsion, the humane views of
 the  legislature.   Hence,  bread
 made of the whole produce of the
 wheat, exceptingonly seven pounds
 of the bran in each bushel, and ad-
 ding  one-fourth or third  part of a
 substitute, would probably be the
 most effective saving.  If the con-
 sumption ofthe whole kingdom be
 computed at 8.000,000 of quarters
 in twelve  months, this saving on
 all the  wheat  consumed in nine
 months would be 700,000 quarters,
 which would feed 875,000 persons,
 at the ordinary consumption of one 
^366        BRE
BRE
quarter a head per annum ;  and
probably be  equal, under the pre-
sent restrictions, to afford food to
 1,000,000 of people for the next
nine months  ....Farther, if the sav-
ing of oats to the supposed number
of 500,000 horses  of  luxury,  be
calculated only at  one bushel per
week, this would, in nine months,
amount to  18,000,000 of bushels ;
or sufficient to support 1,000,000 of
persons for the same period of time,
allowing to each not less than twen-
ty-five bushels per  annum... AV ith
due deference to Mr. Young's sta-
tistical information, however,  we
beg leave to doubt whether 500,000
fat horses, crammed on the food of
man, move  aoout  the  country ;
though it must be  acknowledged,
tv.at f leasure horses "are spectacles
of en\y to the starving poor....abo
minable and scandalous spectacles,
which, in  times of  scarcity, ought
to be removed from the view of
those  whose  miserable children
might be fed on the corn thus sav-
ed."
  BREAD-FRUIT-TREE, orthe
Artocarpus,   L......a plant which
grows in the South-Sea Islands, and
is remarkable for the size and nu-
tritive quality of its fruit.  Altho'
this  tree has been  mentioned  by
many voyagers, it was little noticed
till the return of Captain Wallis
from  the South Seas.  It grows in
abundance on the Ladrone Islands.
In the Society Islands, it is of the
size of a middling oak ; its leaves
are about a foot and a half in length,
of an  oblong  shape, deeply sinuat-
ed like those  of the fig-tree, which
they resemble in colour; and, w hen
broken, exude a milky juice. I he
fruit is shaped like a heart, ami  at-
tains the size of a child's heau.  its
rind is thick,  green, and  covered
with excrescences of a hexagonal
figure.   The  internal part of the
rind is  composed of a pulpy sub-
stance,  full of twisted fibres :  this
pulp  becomes softer towards the
middle, where a  small  cavity  is
formed, containing no kernels  or
seeds.  The inhabitants  of Suma-
tra dry  the soft  internal  part, and
use it as bread with other food.  At
Amboyna, they  dress the  inner
rind with the milk of the cocoa-nut,
and fry it in  oil like fritters.   It
affords' much nourishment, is very
satisfying, and therefore proper for
labouring people.  Being of an as-
tringent quality, it is also benefi-
cial to persons of a laxative habit.
Its taste is rather harsii,and similar
to the potatoe bread made in the
West of England. The milky juice
which issues from the trunk, when
boiled with cocoa-nut oil, makes
a very strong bird-lime.
   From the investigations of bota-
nists  it  appears, that this tree can
only be propagated by suckers  or
layers, owing to  a deficiency in the
parts  of fructification.
  Breakstone  (duckweed). See
Procumbent Pearlwort.
   BaEAM, or  Brama,  is a spe-
cies of the Ci.prinus,  or  carp.   It
inhabits lakes, or the deep parts of
smooth  rivers, and affords sport to
the angler, though it is not  much
esteemed for its flavour. The rules
for catching this  fish are nearly si-
milar to those established for taking
carp in general, which will be stat-
ed  under  the article  Carp: the
tackle, however, should  be  finer
than what is commonly  used  for
that fish ;  and the angler should
throw his line as nearly as possible
into the  middle ofthe stream. The
bream may be taken with a  blue-
bottle fly,  either by whipping, or in
the common method, by  paste or
ge;nlc,. 
BRE
BRE        367
  BREAST, or  fore part of the
chest, signifies that  cavity of the
trunk which is composed of many
bones, namely,  the  sternum  or
breast-bone in front, twelve ribs on
•ach side, twelve vertebra:, or turn-
ing joints of the spine, as the body
is turned  upon them, and two shoul-
der blades.  The thorax, or chest,
extends from the lower part ofthe
neck  to  the  midriff, and  contains
the organs most essential to  life,
such  as  the  heart, the  lungs, and
likewise  the wind-pipe and the gul-
let.   With respect to the diseases
of the breast, we refer to the  arti-
cles Cough  and Inflammation.
   Breasts, or mamma, in females,
 are two  glandular, protuberant bo-
 dies  on  the  sides of the  chest, in
 the most proper situation  for giv-
 ing food to  the  infant.   In some
 instances there have been found
 three, and even four breasts in one
 person,  all  yielding milk alike.
 They are very sensible to the touch,
 and ought therefore to be carefully
 guarded against external  injury;
 as a very slight bruise or blow may
be attended  with fatal consequen-
 ces.  No part  of the human body
 is so easily  affected by cold, and
 so liable to cancerous  complaints,
 as that of the female breast....See
 Cancer.
   There prevails a custom of draw-
ing the breasts after delivery, when
 the  secretion of milk  is so gfeat,
 that from an incapacity ofthe child
to empty, or relieve them, by early
 sucking, the vessels are consider-
 ably distended, and  the breasts so
 completely filled as to  occasion
 much pain to  the mother.  This
 practice is severely censured by the
 Rev. C Crutwell, in  his " Ad-
vict to Li/ing-in  IVomen," publish-
 ed  i   1779: and he is of opinion
 that  Xie attempt is unnatural, as
applying a  different agent from
that designed by Nature: and in-
delicate, because a disease of a ma-
lignant tendency may thus be easi-
ly communicated;  while it is pain-
ful and dangerous to the patient.
According to  his  experience, the
neglect of drawing the breasts has
never been prejudicial. If, says he,
they were not touched during this
state  of fullness, hardness,  or in-
flammation, but the w hole suffered
to subside, which would happen in
a few hours, the child might then
be safely put  to the breast.  It  is
the application of too great force in
drawing them, or'placing the child
to suck at an  improper time, and
not  the delay, which causes the
mischief.   If  the  infant cannot be
suckled the first day, or before the
hardness appears, it should  be de-
ferred till the  breast becomes soft.
This callocity is chiefly produced
by  some external injury, such as
drawing the breasts, heated rooms,
hot and stimulating liquors, medi-
cines, &c.  all of which contribute
to excite inflammation, or increase
a slight degree of irritation, so as
to occasion a milk-fever, abscesses,
or both....See  Nipples and  Suck-
ling.
   [Sore breasts are very common
attendants upon lying-in  women ;
and  the source of infinite pain.....
The  most frequent cause of this
complaint  is  a  chill, induced  by
exposure of the body to draughts
of cold air; by permitting the fire
to go down during the night; or by
not  accommodating the  quantity
of clothing to the change  in the
air from heat to cold.   A sudden
fright has frequently been known to
produce it. To guard against this
truly dreadful complaint, attend  to
tha  prevention  of the abojvemen-
tioncd  causes ;  and by all  means 
568        BRE
BRE
keep the breasts well drawn, either
by the child or by a grown person.
Nipple glasses may also be used
for this purpose, but the mouth of
a young person is much more ef-
fectual in  emptying the breasts of
the  milk.  A slight hardness  of
the breast will sometimes go off by
gently bathing it for a quarter of
an hour, twice a day, with a warm
hand  smeared with sweet-oil, and
covering  the part with  a  cabbage-
leaf,  which promotes perspiration
and thus  relieves  the  vessels......
More threatening cases may be
treated by  anointing  the  breast
with an ointment  of the juice of
the leaves of stramonium or James-
Town weed, (commonly called Jim-
sen):  but ihe grand remedy, which
wll  quickly disperse  the most
alarming swelling  in the breast, is
a blister to the /.art.  Care must be
taken to apply it smoothly, and to
cause it to adhere  tightly. A wide
hole  must be cut in the  centre of
the  blister for the nipple to  pass
through.  Dress the sore with an
ointment composed of  equal parts
of sweet-oil and spermaceti.  The
breast must be drawn constantly
during the whole course ofthe dis-
ease, and anodynes given occasion-
ally.  Should an abscess make its
appearance, as it seldom or never
con be dispersed, apply a poultice
of bread  and milk, w ith an onion
cut  fine  in  it,  until fit  to  open,
v hen a slight touch of a lancet in
the  most distended and depending
p?rt, will afford Treat relief by dis-
charging  the matter.  The poul-
tices must now be continued, and
the  wound kept  open, to permit a
free  discharge.  Breasts will fre-
quently  heal and break out again
aud again. A hardness sometimes
follows an abscess in the breast;
this is effectually removed, by ap-
plying a little mercurial ointment,
with a hand covered  with a blad-
der, every night to the hardness,
or rather below it.]
  BREATH, fetid, a misfortune
to which many persons are liabl^
though  they may  appear to be in
perfect health.  It may arise from
various  causes,  the  principal of
which  are,  carious teeth, putrid
gums, ulcerations  of the lungs, or
some peculiarity  in  the constitu-
tion of the individual.
  If it originate from hollow teeth,
care should be taken that no frag-
ments of provisions, and especially
cheese, remain in them after  eat-
ing ; hence the mouth ought to be
washed, or  properly  rinsed, after
every meal, with  tepid water, or
luke-warm chamomile tea. A simi-
lar precaution is  necessary, when
the teeth are carious,  or the gums
in a flaccid and spongy state :  but
if the lungs, or other organs of re-
spiration be diseased, due regard
ought to be paid  to  the  primary
affection, of which we shall treat
under  the head   of  Pulmonary
Consumption.  In this  case, as
well as in some  peculiar habits,
where the real cause of fetid gums
cannot be easily  ascertained,  the
skill of the practioner is frequent-
ly baffled ; yet we shall venture to
suggest a remedy which has,  in a
great variety of instances, been at-
tended with the desired effect.....
Many  persons  afflicted with  that
disagreeable  complaint are,  also,
subject  to  habitual  costiveness,
which  cannot, in  general, be re-
lieved without administering  lax-
atives :   these, by relaxing  the
bowels, ultimately tend  to injure
the constitution.   On  the other
hand  we have observed from  ex-
perience,  that  finely  powdered
charcoal, newly prepared, and kept 
BRE
BRE       369
 in close vessels, has a remarkable
 tendency to open the bowels, with-
 out inducing an extraordinary de-
 gree of weakness,  especially if it
 be mixed with the syrup of yellow
 roses.  For this purpose, a table-
 spoonful  of  each, diluted  with a
 little water, should be taken two or
 three times every day, according lo
 circumstances.   Thus, if  the  pa-
 tient abstain, for some time from
 the use of animal food, the most
 distressing costiveness may be gra-
 dually relieved  with  perfect safety
 to the constitution ;  while the car-
 bon acts  on the  whole system  as
 the most effectual antiseptic with
 which we are acquainted.  To in-
 crease the effect of this mild medi-
 cine, a tea-spoonful  of squill vine-
 gar may occasionally be added to
 each dose, together with a little
 cinnamon, orother aromatic water.
   The best palliatives for sweeten-
 ing an  offensive breath, are gar-
 gles consisting  simply  of  lime-
 water ;  or a decoction ofthe Peru-
 vian bark; or  a liquor made by
 mixing two  ounces of compound
 alum-water,  and half an ounce  of
 essence  of lemons,  with  three
 ounces and  a  half of  fennel-water,
 which should be frequently used
 previous to  going into companv.
   BREATHING, is that alternate
 contraction and  expansion of the
 lungs and breast, by which animals
 inspire and expire the surrounding
 atmosphere ;  a process essentially
 necessary to  the  support  of life.
 From the momenta child enters the
 world  the air penetrates into • its
 lungs, which were previously filled
 with a watery  mucus, but are then
 opened  for the circulation of the
 blood. Thus respiration, one of the
 primary and most important ofthe
 vital  functions,  commences with
birth, and is incessantly active ; as
     VOL. I.
 it cannot be interrupted for many
 minutes, without endangering the
 life ofthe individual.
   There have,  indeed  been in-
 stances of persons wantonly endea-
 vouring  to  restrain  the  act  of
 breathing, nay. even to check the
 pulsation of the arteries, so as to
 exhibit a  specimen of  apparent
 death, for several  minutes.  We
 still remember the account of such
 a hazardous experiment, related
 by a most respectable professor in
 the University of Edinburgh, who
 informed his pupils,  that a man
 possessing the talent here alluded
 to, at length paid the price of his
 life, by remaining  in  one  of his
 exhibitions, a fatal example of his
 temerity.
   More frequent, however, though
 not so immediately dangerous, are
 the instances in which  persons, in
 other respects  sensible,  unthink-
 ingly expose  themselves  to situa-
 tions where they must necessarily
 breathe the most vitiated and per-
 nicious atmosphere.   Such is the
 case in all public assembles, which
 are confined  in narrow  limits, par-
 ticularly in theatres and other places
 of amusement to which numbers
 of spectators  indiscriminately re-
 sort, and where each individual  is
 obliged to respire part of the aggre-
 gate mephitic vapours of the com-
 pany.  Far from wishing to discou-
 rage the frequenting of those fa-
 shionable places of resort,  in gene-
 ral, we only  think  it our duty to
 w arn  such invalids, as are  liable to
 as.hmatic orpuimonarycompla ns
agaii.st a  too free  indulgence  in
these enticing amusements, indeed
we- are convinced, by  numerous
facts, of their deleterious influence:
and if any person be disposed to
doubt the propriety of this  cautk n,
let him reflect on the dicacluri e.-
    3  B 
370
BRE
BRE
fects frequently produced by slutt-
ing up5 or 6 passengers in a stage-
coach, only during a short space
of time ; and he will acknowledge
that our admonition is well founded.
Hence we would advise those who
lead a studious or sedentary  life,
never to continue for several hours
together,in a close,andperhaps low,
apartment, where  they admit the
same air  to  re-enter the lungs,
which has before been respired,and
has become at length totally unfit
for supplying the vital principle....
Thus, they deprive themselves of
the most  beneficial cordial of life,
namely, fresh  air, and exhaust the
source of vitality  as  much in  one
hour, as was perhaps destined by
Nature for the support of weeks,
or even months.   Instead of fol-
lowing such an irrational practice,
they ought either to remove to an-
other atmosphere, or to  open the
window or door, to admit a supply
of pure  air, rather than to destroy
themselves by an  obstinate or in-
dolent perseverance in  their  for-
mer habit.
   BREECHES, a part ofthe dress
of most Europeans, worn by males,
and reaching  from the waist to the
knees.
   With respect to the construction
of this article  of our dress, it may
be useful to observe, that if made
too tight in  the waistband, or of
improper materials, they must ne-
cessarily occasion uneasiness, and
prove injurious to the body.   The
form  most to be preferred, and now
very  generally adopted,  is that of
pantaloons : these ought to be of a
sufficient width, of a thin substance
in summer, and of warm cloth in
winter.  Breeches made of leather
and so narrow as to fit exactly the
shape of  the  limbs, are liable to
many inconveniencies :  they be-
numb the hips and  thighs, occa-
sion a painful pressure upon the
parts, especially the abdomen; and
by the close texture of the leather,
in a great measure impede perspir-
ation.
  BREEDING of Cattle: As the
differentcircumstances to be attend-
ed  to in the  management of  cat-
tle, will be  stated when treating of
the various kinds of useful animals,
we  shall here only observe, that the
first thing to be considered is beauty
of form ;  the  next is proportion of
parts, or what may be called utility
of form ;  the  third, which has en-
gaged  the attention  of midland
breeders, is the texture ofthe mus-
cular parts, or what is called flesh;
a quality which, however familiar
it may have  been  to the  butcher
and consumer, has not in  general
been attended to by  breeders.  In
short, it  is a  rule applicable to all
sorts of  live-stock, to breed from
straight backed,roundbodicd,clean,
small boned,healthy animals: care-
fully rejecting such as have  roach
backs and heavy legs,  with much
external  appearance of offal, &c
  To the late Mr. Bakewell, of
Dishley, who was undoubtedly the
most scientific breeder of his time,
we  are indebted for many new and
important improvements in the art
of breeding cattle.   His principle
was, to procure the best beast, that
would weigh most in the valuable
joints ; and thus, while  he gained
in point of shape, he also acquired
a breed much hardier, and easier
fed, than any other.
  With  respect  to  the breed of
oxen, Mr. Bakewell asserts, that
the smaller  the  bones, the more
perfect  will  be the make of the
beast, and the quicker it will fatten.
The breed preferred, and consider-
ed  by him as the best in England, 
B RE
BRE
371
 is that of Lancashire.  The shape
 which should be the criterion of a
 cow or bull, an ox,  or a sheep, is
 that of a hogshead, or a firkin, with
 legs as small and short as possible.
 He found from various experiments
 in different  parts of the kingdom,
 that no land is too bad for a good
 breed of cattle, and particularly of
 sheep.  The great advantage aris-
 ing from his breed is, thatthesame
 quantity of food will suffice them,
 much longer than it will any other
 kind ; besides which, the wool is of
 the finest quality, and the  sheep
 stand the fold perfectly well.
   The wintering of cattle, also re-
 ceived particular attention from this
 professional  breeder :  his horned
 beasts were tied up during the win-
 ter, in sheds, and fed with straw,
 turnips or hay ; all the lean beasts
 were fed with straw alone, and lay
 without litter.  Young cattle, that
 require to be kept in  a thriving
 state, are fed upon turnips; and as
 the  spring advances, and this ve-
 getable  becomes  scarce,   hay  is
 their only  food.
   The floors, on which the cattle
 stand, are paved, and raised six or
 eight inches above the level ofthe
 yard ; and  each  crib being only
 broad enough for a beast to stand
 on, its dung fallsonthe lower pave-
 ment ;  by which  contrivance it  is
 kept perfectly clean without litter.
 [See Cattle.]
   [Little attention has been paid to
 the preservation of a good breed of
 cattle in the  United States.  Some
 with excellent qualities, have been
 imported, and are occasionally met
 with ; but  they  are  in  general
 fattened and killed, instead of being
 carefully preserved forbreedingcat-
 tlc.  But this is not the way  to im-
 prove. It was by a practice directly
 the reverse that BAKEWELLbrought
his breed to unrivalled celebrity.
   Some attempts have been made
 near Baltimore, and in the state of
 New-York to improve the breed by
 an imported stock.   Will these
 meritorious  gentlemen  who   are
 making the experiments,inform us
 of the breed, the  qualities of  the
 animals, and the success  that has
 attended their well meant efforts ?
   Droves  of cattle  are  annually
 brought to Philadelphia from New
 England and North-Carolina. The
 former are larger and more profita-
 ble than the latter, which are gene-
 rally  small, and wild from having
 been  fed in the woods.
   Several very  large cattle have
 been  fed and killed  within a few
 years in Philadelphia. They have
 in general been raised near Eliza-
 beth-town, New-Jersey, but whe-
 ther  from  a native  or imported
 stock is unknown.   The following
 are the weights of a  few of these
 beasts :
   1. A  Cow raised by the late Mr.
 HiLTZHEiMER,of the city of Phi-
 ladelphia, and killed  on the  2d of
 March, 1787.

 The fore-quarters weigh-
          ed (one) .  . 3261b s.
          The other, 328    lbs.
                            654
The hind-quarters  weigh-
          ed, (one) . . 282
          The other, 289 .  . 571
    The nett beef......1225
The Hide weighed     111
    Head and Heart    49
    Belly and Feet     72
    Fack              35
    Tallow           163 . . 430
Entire wts. (exclusive of guts)l555

  2. A five year old steer,  fed by
Mr. Sickle, of Philadelphia, a few
years since, one summer and one
winter, weighed  alive,  1,4941 lbs.
     The belly fat . . .  278 "*
     Kidney do.....10Q 
372        BRE
BRE
    S. Ten head of cattle, fed by the
  same gentleman, produced  2,439
  lbs. of belly and kidney fat,  with
  one summer feeding on grass.
    4. A steer, raised at Tulpohock-
  en, was killed on the 12th March,
  1787,  weighed alive, 2,184lbs.
    5. A steer raised at Haddonfield,
  New-Jersey, killed at Philadelphia,
  on the  7th April,  1787, weighed
  alive, 2,1401b?.
    Formerly a great prejudice pre-
  vailed  in favor of large beasts, but
  it has  been ascertained that this
  large big boned breed is not  so
  profitable as the middle sized, bar-
  rel shaped, short legged kind.....
  lunch  may be done towards im-
  proving the breed, hy a careful at-
  tention to stock.  Mr. Bakewell
 and his disciples  rcliedupon a kind-
 ly skin, as a ^principal point in the
 choice of a beast. By that is meant
 a skin that feels soft, though  firm
 to the touch, which  is equally dis-
 tant from the hard dry skin, pecu-
 liar to  some cattle,  as  from the
 loose and  flabby  feel of others.
   Some breeds have a tendency  to
 generate fat on certain parts ofthe
 body in great quantities,  while
 others have  it  more mixed with
 the flesh of every part of the body.
 These particulars demand the at-
 tention  of improvers.
   It is said, that cattle having fore-
 quarters heavier than their hind,re-
 quire more food  than others.  Is
 this the fact ?]
   Breeding of Fish.  The neces-
 sary qualities of a pond for breed-
 ing fish, are very different from
 those which are requisite to make
 it serve for their nourishment. A
 good breeding pond is more rare to
 be met  with  than a  good feeding
 one.  The best indications of the
 former,  are plenty of rushes  and
grass about its sides, with gravelly
 shocils, like those of  horse-ponds.
 The quantity ofthe spawn of fish
 is prodigious ; and  where it  suc-
 ceeds,  one  fish  may sometimes
 produce millions.  Hence two or
 three melters, and  as many spaw-
 nens, placed in such  a pond, will,
 in a short time, stock a whole coun-
 try.  If it be not intended to keep
 these ponds entirely  for  breeding,
 but to let the fish grow to a consi-
 derable size, their numbers should
 be thinned, or they will  otherwise
 starve each other. Different kinds
 of fish  may  also be added, which
 will prey upon the young, and pre-
 vent their increasing  in number....
 For this purpose, eels and perch are
 most useful, because they not only
 feed upon the spawn itself, but also
 upon the young  fry.  Some  fish
 will breed  abundantly in  all kinds
 of waters ;  of this  nature are the
 roach,  pike, perch,  &c.   [See
 Fish.]
   Breeding, Good: an expres-
 sion which  is used to denote the
 proper  deportment  of persons in
 the external offices and  decorum
 of social intercourse.
   Good breeding necessarily  im-
 plies civility ; though  a person,
 without being well bred, may be ci-
 vil ; the one is the  result of good
 nature ; the  other,  of good sense
 joined to experience, observation,
 and  attention.
   The most perfectdegree of good
 breeding is only to be acquired by
 great knowledge of the world, and
 keeping the best company. To at-
 tain this desirable object  we would
 advise parents not to  suffer  their
 children,  after a certain age, to
 spend  the  greatest  part  of  their
time among servants, or menial de-
pendents ; from whom neither good
language nor proper manners can
be expected ; and who seldom fail 
BRE
BRE       373
to instruct the susceptible young
mind in all the low  cunning,  and
artifices  of the  vulgar.   Good-
breeding adorns and enforces vir-
tue and truth ;  it connects, it en-
dears, and while it indulges the just
liberty, restrains that indecent li-
centiousness of conversation, which
alienates and provokes.  Great ta-
lents  render a man famous ; great
merit procures  respect;  great
learning, esteem : but good-breed-
ing alone can ensure love  and af-
fection. Hence it deserves to be pe-
culiarly  recommended to women,
as the greatest ornament to such
as possess beauty,  and the safest
refuge for those of a contrary de-
scription.  It facilitates the con-
quests, and decorates the triumphs
of beauty ; while,  on  the other
hand, it atones,  in  some degree,
for the want of that quality.  On
the whole, good-breeding is attend-
ed with so many  advantageous ef-
fects,  that, though  it cannot be
called a virtue  in  itself, it  may
be justly considered  as one of the
most pleasing  and useful accom-
plishments ; insomuch as it has  a
direct tendency to check the  vio-
lence of all the turbulent passions,
and  to render the  path through
life more comfortable and easy.
  BREY\TNG,the art of preparing
beer or ale from malt, by extract-
ing all its fermentable parts in the
best manner;  by adding hops in
such proportions as experience has
shewn, will preserve  and meliorate
the extracts ; and  by causing a per-
fect   fermentation in  them,  by
means of yeast and barm.  One
of the most approved methods of
performing this  operation, is as
follows:
  Take of the purest and softest
water you can procure, as much as
you will have occasion for; boil it,
put  it into large tubs, and let it
stand exposed to the air to purge
itself, at least one week.   Grind
a sufficient quantity  of the  best
brown, high-dried malt; let it re-
main four  days  before you use it,
that it may mellow, and dispose it-
self for fermentation. Fill a copper
with your prepared water,  and let
it boil; then lade about three-quar-
ters of a hogshead into the mash-
tub,  filling  the  copper up again,
a,.d  making it  boil.   When  the
water in the mash-tub  is cooled to
such a degree, that in consequence
of the steam subsiding, you may
see your face in  it,  empty  into it,
by  degrees, nine bushels  of  the
malt, mash it well, and stir it about
with the rudder near half an hour,
till it is thoroughly wetted, and in-
corporated with  the water: then
spread  another   bushel  of malt
lightly over its surface, cover  the
whole with empty sacks to keep in
the steam, and leave it for an hour.
  At the end of the hour, the wa-
ter  in the  copper  being boiling,
damp the  fire,  and let the water
cool a little as before :  then  lade as
much as is necessary on the mash,
till the whole  together will yield
about a hogshead of wort.   When
tins  second quantity of water is
added, stir it again well, cover it,
and leave it for another hour. Then
let  the  first wort run in a small
stream into the  under back, and
lade  another hogshead [or 64 gal-
lons] on the mash: stir it again as
before, cover it,  and let it remain
for two hours.
  In the mean time, return the first
wort into the copper, and put into
it six pounds of fine brown seedv
hops, first  rubbing them between
the  hands.   Then  make a brisk
fire  under your copper, till the li-
quor boils ;  let it continue  to boil 
374        B  R E
BRE
till the hops sink : [the sinking of
the hops is not always a sign of the
liquor  being boiled  enough.   A
better  method is  when the  wort
bucks well and is perfectly clear.
The casks must be filled up every
three hours.  A. A.]   Then damp
the fire and strain the liquor into
coolers. When it is about as warm
as new milk,  mix some yeast or
barm with it, and leave it to work
till the surface appears in curls ;
then stir  and mix the whole pro-
perly with a hand-bowl, and  let it
again ferment.  Repeat the stirring
with the  bowl  three times,  then
tun it,  and leave it to work in the
hogshead.   When it  has nearly
done working, fill up the cask, and
bung it, but let the vent-hole re-
main open.
  Set the second wort aside for the
next brewing, which, as far as wet-
ting the mash, must be managed
exactly in the same manner as the
first;  but  afterwards,  instead of
water,  heat the second wort of the
first brewing, and lade it on the
mash,  which will give the  new
wort additional  strength and soft-
ness.  Make  the  second wort of
the  second brewing with water,
and save it for the first wort of the
third;  and so on for as many brew-
ings as you please.  A third wort
may be taken from the first brew-
ing,  which should be  heated and
laded on the mash of your second
brewing, after taking ofthe second
wort; and thus an additional hogs-
head of very good mild beer may
be procured.
  On taking a review of the above
process, and the multiplicity of cir-
cumstances to be attended to, it is
easy to see  that the operation of
brewing is of a very precarious na-
ture ; and  requires great skill and
dexterity  to manage it with  com-
plete  success.  The goodness of
the beer will depend on the quality
of the malt from which it is made ;
on  the  peculiar properties of the
water with which it is infused ; on
the degree of heat applied in the
mashing ; on  the  length of time
the fusion is continued; on the due
manner of boiling the wort, toge-
ther with  the quantity and quality
of the hops employed : and on the
proper degree of fermentation: to
ascertain all which particulars, with
precision,  constitutes  the  great
mystery of brewing, and can only
be learnt by experience and repeat-
ed observation.
   Mr. Mills, in  his "  System of
Practical  Husbandry,"   and  Mr.
Combrune, in  his "  Theory and
Practice of Brewing," give the fol-
lowing directions for the choice of
materials  used in brewing, and for
conducting the whole process:
   1.  Of  the  Water.   Pure  rain-
water, as being the lightest, is es-
teemed the most proper.  Well and
spring waters are commonly hard,
and consequently unfit for drawing
the tincture completely  from any
vegetable.  River-water, in  point
of softness, is next to rain-water :
and even  pond-water,  if pure, is
equal to any other for brewing.
   2. Of Malt. Those malts are to
be  preferred  for brewing,  which
have been properly wetted and ger-
minated, then dried by a moderate
heat, till all the adventitious mois-
ture is evaporated, without being
blown, vitrified, or scorched, by too
hot or hasty fires.   For, the better
the malt is dried, the sounder will
be the beer brewed from it, and the
longer  it  will keep.   In order to
ascertain the quality of this article,
bite a grain of it asunder, and if it
tastes  mellow  and sweet, breaks
soft, and is full  of  flour from one 
            BRE

end to the other, it is good; which
may also be known by its  swim-
ming on the surface, when put into
the water.  The best way of grind-
ing it,  is to bruise it in a mill com-
posed of two iron cylinders. These
break the malt without cutting its
husk, so that the hot water instant-
ly pierces its whole  substance, and
soon draws forth a rich tincture,
with much less mashing than in
the common way.
   3. Of  Hops.   Experience has
proved, that hops  slack-dried, or
kept in a damp place, are perni-
cious ingredients for making beer;
and likewise, that they yield their
aromatic bitter more efficaciously,
when boiled in wort than in water :
hence,  to impregnate the extracts
from malt with a due proportion of
hops, their strength, as well as that
ofthe extract, should previously be
ascertained.  The  newer the hops
are, the better they always prove  ;
the fragrance of their flavour being
in  some  degree lost by keeping,
notwithstanding the  care used in
preserving them. Private families,
who regard only the flavour and
salubrity  of their malt  liquors,
should use from six to eight bush-
els of  malt to  the hogshead of
their strongest beer. The quantity
of hops must be suited to the taste
of the drinker, and  to the time the
liquor is intended to be kept. From
two to  three pounds will be  suffi-
cient for a hogshead, though some
go  as far as six  pounds......Mr.
Mills is of opinion, that small beer
should  always be brewed by itself;
in which case, two  bushels  and a
half of  malt, and a pound  and a
half of hops, are sufficient to make
a hogshead.
  4. Of the Vessels used in Brew-
ing.....The brew-house  itself, and
every vessel in  it, ought to be per-
            BRE        375

fectly clean and sweet;  for if the
vessels are in the least degree taint-
ed, the liquor put into  them  will
contract a  disagreeable scent and
taste.  A  vessel of the  most sim-
ple  and  excellent   contrivance,
among the multiplicity of brewing
utensils adapted  to family  pur-
poses, is that of Mr. J. B. Bord-
ley,  who has described   in his
" Essays and Arotes on Husbandry
and Rural Affairs."  (Philadelphia,
1801).  He terms his process, by
way of distinction, a tripartite me-
thod of brewing ; because the  ket-
tle-apparatus, represented in  the
subjoined cut,
is worked in three divisions.  The
whole vessel is 40 inches long, 20
broad,  and 24 deep ;  namely, di-
vision a, is thirteen ; b, nine ;  and
c,  two inches deep.   The dotted
lines are marked, where the per-
forated   moveable  bottoms   are
placed.   In a is the water or wort;
b,  contains the  malt; and into c,
the hot  water is pumped up, or
poured over from a to c, by means
of the  small pump, d ; and thus
passes  through  every  particle of
the malt ; so  that,   by frequent
agitation, the  water  in a manner
washesoutits whole substance,  and
extracts all its farinaceous and sac-
charine ingredients.   This opera-
tion is repeated, occasionally stir-
ring up the grains,  till the liquor
becomes clear, [when it must be let
5�956773545� 
 376        BRE

 off into a kettle and  boiled with
 hops,   the  proper proportion of
 which must be determined by ex-
 periment ; it  must afterwards be
 let out  into coolers.]   Mr. Bord-
 ley  ingeniously  acknowledges,
 that a Swedish method of brewing
 in camp afforded him  the hint for
 this inventio w  He also observes,
 that his tripartite kettle is made of
 copper,  and  the small pump of
 metal;  though we are inclined to
 think that, for the latter, wood, or
pure  tin, would  be  preferable to
 bras1;, in order to prevent the for-
 mation of verdigrise.  At the bot-
 tom is  a cock on one  side of the
 vessel.  On the whole,  we consider
 this as  the most  proper and con-
 venient piece  of  machinery, ever
 contrived for family bre.ving.
   [The Editor having no experi-
 ence of the method of  brewing re-
 commended by Mr. Bordley, he
 cannot say any thing respecting its
merits ; bnt wishes to  know from
 those who may try it,  whether, if
 two mashings  of a certain quantity
 of malt, give  ten  gallons of beer
 when boiled in the old way, will
the tripartite mode give the same
 strength and quantity  in one ope-
 ration ?]
   5. Of the heat  of the water for
Mashing.  Particular care  should
be taken, that  the malt be not put
into the water whilst boiling hot.
In order to bring  the water to an
exact heat, Mr. Comdrune advises
us, to  put on  the fire  22 quarts,
gallons, or barrels, according to
the quantity wanted ; and when it
has just arrived at the boiling point
of the  thermometer,  to add  ten
similar  measures of cold  water,
which,  when  mixed  with the for-
mer, will be of a  temperature not
exceeding  161   of  Fahrenheit:
and this he consider1, as the most
proper heat for mashing.  He Lr-
             BRE

 ther  remark,  that  water  which
 has endured the fire the shortest
 time,  provided  it be hot enough,
 will make the strongest extract.
   6 Of MaA.iug. When the water
 is brought to a due  heat, the malt
 is to be put in  very  leisurely, and
 uniformly mixed with it.
   7. Of boiling the  Wurt.  As the
 design of boiling  the  wort is  to
 clear the  liquor  of  its impurities,
 and to obtain the virtue of the hop,
 a much shorter time than usual i.,
 sufficient.  Long boiling  of the
 hop is a most pernicious practice,
 and produces  an austere,  nause-
 ous bitter, but  not a pleasant aro-
 m.tic  one.   Instead of adding the
 hops to the wort, when this is put
 into the copper,  or before it boils,
 they  may be  infused  about five
 minutes  before  the wort is taken
 off the fire: if this is  not  suffi-
 cient to give the desired degree  of
 fragrant  bitter,  ten  minutes may
 be taken,  or as  much  longer  as
 will be  found  ii^ce^sarv.   Mr.
 Mills prefers putting the hops  to
 the wort towards the latter end  of
 the boiling, rather than at the be-
 ginning,   he-cause the  continued
 boiling of the liquor is apt to dis-
 sipate their fragrance.
   8. Of Fermentation. One gallon
 of yeast, in the coldest fermenting
 weather, is, according to Mr. Com-
 er une, sufficient to forment the
 extract from one  quarter of malt;
 and, if properly managed, will yield
 two gallons of yeast.  Great care
 should be  taken  in  the  choice of
 yeasts, as they are liable to be soon
 tainted, and very readily communi-
 cate their infection  to the liquors
 fermented.  The whole  process of
fermentation  should  be carried on
 in the slowest and coolest manner ;
so that the temperature,  which at
the commencement  was between
 40 and 50° of Fahrenheit,  should 
BRE
BRE       387
 very gradually be  raised  to  the
 TOth degree.  [This is proper for
 a large quantity; but for small, 66
 is the  best.]   Fermentation will
 always succeed best where the air
 is purest.   If too hot water has
 been employed for obtainingstrong
 and fatty extracts, from the malt,
 fermentation will  be retarded: on
 the  contrary, in weak extracts, it
 is so much  accelerated,  that the
 whole  soon becomes  sour.........
 When  the fermentation is at its
 height, all the feculent matter, or
 foul yeast, which rises on the sur-
 face, must be carefully skimmed
 off, whatever be the quality of the
 liquor.   The beer as soon as it is
 tolerably clear, should  be racked
 off into perfectly  clean and sweet
 casks ;  and when  managed in this
 manner, will remain a long time in
 a state  of perfection.
   9.  Of fining the Liquor.  As the
 excellency of all fermented liquors
 depends, in  a great measure,  on
 theirtransparency, itoften becomes
 necessary  to resort  to artificial
 means,  in order to bring them to
 this state of perfection, if the pro-
 cess of  fermentation has been mis-
 managed.  Thus, a solution of isin-
 glass in stale beer, is used to fine
 and  precipitate other beers : but,
 as this method has proved ineffec-
 tual  in  brown  beers,  we  are in-
 formed  by Dr.  Combrune, that
 brewers " sometimes put one pound
 of oil of vitriol into one butt though
 four ounces  should never  be ex-
 ceeded in that quantity."  On this
subject  we refer the reader to  p.
 255 of our work.
  10. Of the distempers of Malt
Liquors.  Among the distempers
incident  to  beer,  one, which has
been found most difficult to cure,
is that of its appearing ropy.  A
bunch of hyssop put into the cask
    vol. i*
 will, however, effectually  remedy
 this evil... A satisfactory account of
 the different  methods of recover-
 ing fiat, tart, or sour beer, having
 been already given in this Ency-
 clopedia, p. 256 and 257, it would
 be superfluous to repeat it in this
 place.
   It deserves to be remarked, that
 brown beer, made from well-dried
 malt, is, in the opinion of Dr. Com-
 brune, less heating than pale beer,
 brewed from slack-dried malt.   If
 extracts from pale malt be made
 with very hot water, they will keep
 sound for a long time ;  but those
 obtained  from brown malt, with
 too cold water, will frequently turn
 sour.
   [Family brewing, and brewing
 in small quantities.
   An establishment for a moderate
 family may be thus:
   A Brew-house 20 feet by 15 on
 the ground plan.  A copper with
 a  brass  cock at the bottom ; to
 hold not less  than 40 gallons, to
 be set high. A mash-tun to hold
 twice as much as the  copper, for
 the malt will occupy when wetted
 as'much space as the water.   The
 mash-tun  should stand a little be-
 low the level ofthe cock of the cop-
 per: so that the  water of the cop-
 per can run into the mash.   The
 mash-tun  should have a false bot-
 tom on which the  malt is placed,
 this  should  be bored with i inch
 holes, at about 3 inches distance ;
 the depth between the solid bottom
 and  the false  moveable bottom  6
 inches.    A cock or plug  should
be fixed between the two bottoms,
to let off the wort into the under-
 back ; this should  hold as much
 as the copper.
  From the under-back, the wort is
pumped up into  the copper, to be
boiled: when boiled, it is let into th«^
     3C 
388       BR£
BRE
Coolers: Of these there should be
two, each to hold 45 gallons. They
should be  placed  one under  the
other, and a  little below the level
of the cock of the copper ; that is,
on a level with the top of the mash
tub.  The wort, when boiled, is to
be let off into the first cooler,  and
then  into the cooler underneath ;
whence it runs into a working tun
of the same size as the mash-tun:
for though  not more  than 32 or 33
gallons of  wort runs in  at a time,
yet the head, produced during the
working  or fermentation, will oc-
cupy a considerable  space.   The
coolers should  not be more than
six inches deep. Thence the esta-
blishment of utensils will be,
  A copper of 40 gallons, or 45.
  A mash-tun of 80  gallons.
  An under-back of 40  gallons.
  A working tun of 80 gallons.
  Two coolers  six inches deep to
hold  each 40 or 45 gallons, 6 feet
by 2 feet 6 inches each.
  A hand pump to pump the wort
into the copper, unless it can be
done by  the water pump.
  Pales,  Bowls, See.
  A  stilling, to set  the casks on
when full, about ten  inches high,
and  14 inches  wide in  the clear.
Four rum puncheons sawed thro'
the middle, would answer tolera-
bly well  for almost all the utensils
One  bushel of malt and 1 lb. of
sugar will make one barrel of good
table-beer, of strength between ale
and small-beer, if the first and se-
cond worts are boiled and mixed
together.  This, exclusive of trou-
ble,  will not cost above T^ of a
dollar a gallon.  The Brew-house
should be placed on the  north side
of the buildings ; it should be open
on  three sides to let in air, and
let out steam; the three open sides
should have hooks fixed to them, so
as to hang on flap-boards, or slant*
ing battens to keep out the wet....
But there are many small families,
who cannot afford  such an  estab-
lishment, these may brew in small
quantities as follows :
  Every family has a large  kettle
or vessel to boil their clothes in ;
suppose this to contain about 3 gal-
lons, this will serve for  a copper.
A common pail with a hole  bored
through the bottom, and set upon
a stilling or some other contrivance
to raise it, another pail may receive
the wort, and may  answer for a
fermenting tun, and when the beer
has worked so as that the head be-
gins to fall, draw it off into a five
gallon  keg.
  Porportions for 5 gallons of ale.
  Malt 1 and A peck; of sugar ^lb,
hops i of a lb. malt amber colour-
ed, or  pale dried.
  Proportions for 5 gallons of por-
ter, brewed in that quantity.
  Malt li peck; sugar made into
essentia i lb. molasses -i lb. hops
A lb. ginger about a tea-spoonful.
The malt to be high dried, or else
half amber and half high dried.
  These proportions, used accord-,
ing to the foregoing directions, will
produce a good wholesome liquor,
that the women of the family may
brew occasionally when  they have
not much else to  do.
  Of  the Brew-House.....The
following  is an eligible construc-
tion where brewing is followed as
a trade. « The cold liquor* pump
A. A.  raises  the  water from the
river or well B. which, as well as
the wort pump M. M. is driven by
a horse  with  proper machinery,
which  likewise grinds  the   malt
  * Brewers call water, whether
warm or cold, liquor.  It is a fine
among them to use the term,  water, 
J fen   oj~  f/ie  in-sitfc of* a  f]riJw/iou#ij 
 
BRE
BRE        389
 used  m  the brew-house.   The
 grinding house is situated between
 the pumps, as may be seen by the
 mill-spout P. which conducts the
 malt  from the mill into the mash-
 tun H. The liquor from the  river
 B. is  pumped  into the cistern  or
 reservoir C. where it is ready at  all
 times during the hurry of brewing;
 and  from the  cistern it passes
 through the large pipe D, into the
 liquor copper E, where it may  be
 stopped by a cock at the extremity
 of the pipe.  The liquor when
 warmed for mashing is let into the
 mash-tun H. by opening the  cock
 F. in the bottom  of  the copper,
 and runs down the trunk Z. which
 carries into the raising spout G. in
 the mash-tun H. this  spout  by a
 notch in the moveable or false bot-
 tom of the mash-tun, conducts the
 liquor between the moveable and
 real bottoms, which, by ascending,
 assists the mashing very much.
   "The extract or wort is let go,by
 turning the cock K. into the under-
 back L. and is from thence carried
 by the horse-pump M. M. into a
 level with the wort copper O. and
 runs  from the  pump through the
 pipe N. N. into the wort copper.
   " When cold liquor is required
 for mashing, as is the case in small
 beer brewing, it is  obtained from
 the cistern C. by the pipe Q. which
 communicates with it.
   " Thus these three very labori-
 ous parts  of the  business,  viz.
 pumping the liquor from the river
 or well; mashing, and pumping up
 the worts  into the copper, may be
 easily performed by two men : and
 they are able to mash a very  con-
 siderable quantity of malt, and at-
tend to the steaming of the casks,
liquoring the backs, Sec.  between
the mashes.  When all the worts
 are in the great copper O, and are
 boiled sufficiently, they are run off
 into the first back T. by turning the
 cock  R. the spout W. conducting
 the worts from the drainer S. which
 detains the hops. This back com-
 municates with the two large backs
 Y. Y. which are sufficient to con-
 tain  all the  worts, and they  may
 be laid at a greater or less depth,
 by using one or both these backs,
 stopping either of the pipes X. by
 putting in one of the plugs U. U.
 The situation of these two backs is
 higher than the fermenting tuns,
 and by pipes the worts are convey-
 ed into them below : and if there
 is conveniency, the  tuns, when
 cleansing*,oughttobehigh enough
 to fill the casks in the cellars by
 means of a leathern pipe."
  Of BREwiNG....Take care that
 every  utensil  is made perfectly-
 clean.
  Boil your liquor (water) ; when
 boiled, reduce it to about the tem-
 perature of 175 of Fahrenheit's
 thermometer.  If the malt is new-
 ly ground, do not let the  water go
 on, till it is reduced to 165°.
  If you  have no  thermometer,
 there  are  three  rules which may
 serve  tolerably well.
  1st. Let the boiling water be
 mixed with coldwater, till you can
 perfectly see your face in it;  or,
 2dly. till it will just scald  your fin-
 ger, unless you take it out imme-
 diately.  Or,
  3dly. Add in winter, 1 gallon of
cold to 16 of boiling, and in sum-
mer 1  gallon of cold to about 12 of
boiling water,  if you use rain or
river water;  for of these the tem-
   *  Cleansing  means filling  the
casks from the fermenting tub. 
390       BRE
BRE
perature varies with that of the at-
mosphere.  If you use well water,
1 gallon to 16 for your first wort
throughout the year will be about
enough.   Never  use  rain water,
where the washings  of the  roof
give it a bitter taste.
  Your first wort will require about
twice as much water as  the two
succeeding ;  for the malt imbibes
and retains about one half of the
whole quantity : never let  the malt
stand dry in the mash-tub.   When
the water is risen through the holes
of the moveable bottom sufficient-
ly, pour in your malt, and let a man
stir it about with a rake while you
pour  it in. When the malt is tho-
roughly wetted, stir it up  with the
oars,  and raise the malt repeatedly
from the bottom, and beat it about;
this should be done for a quarter
of an hour or 20 minutes.  Then
sprinkle some dry malt  over the
top, cover  it  with a cloth or mat to
retain the heat, and let it remain 3
hours in winter, and 2 in summer.
Then run it off: pour  back the
first  runnings if they are  muddy.
A handful of hops put into the ves-
sel in which the wort runs, is ad-
vantageous,  particularly  in  sum-
mer ; preventing  the liquor  from
turning sour.
   While this first mash  is about,
fill your copper again and boil the
water for the next mash, which may
now  be at 185, or 10 degrees hot-
ter :  rake  and beat this as before,
and let it stand one hour. For the
third mashing, use water at about
 190 ; let  it stand  also an hour: it
is convenient to finish mashing by
evening, in order to gain  the cool-
ness  of the  night for the wort.....
When all the wort  is extracted,
put them together and boil  them
till you get the quantity you mean
to have from the malt.  The boil-
ing should be quick and fierce: tlv*
hops  should be wetted and then
broken in among the worts.  The
worts may boil from an hour to an
hour and a half: the copper should
have a sloping rim.
   The strength ofthe worts, and of
consequence of the liquor, may be
ascertained  by an hydrometer ; a
mode first suggested by Richard-
son, in his  treatise on brewing....
Thus, if a Florence flask filled with
water accurately,  up to a mark in
the neck, weighs 2 lbs. for instance,
the same flask filled with wort pro-
perly boiled for ale, and ready to
be let off into the cooler, will weigh
more.  When  you  have once as-
certained the weight of the wort
which will make good ale, you may
always know in future when your
wort is sufficiently boiled ;  for lit-
tle evaporates but steam of water
impregnated with the  oil  of the
hops.  When boiled, turn the worts
into the coolers,  and  the  instant
they are cool enough, put them t9
 ferment. Otherwise, especially, in
 summer, they are apt to fox, as it
 is called ;  that is, they acquire  a
 reddish colour  and  a disagreeable
 flavour.
   They are cool enough at45 or 50,
 that is, for a large brewing,  but for
 smaller brewing 60 to 62 degrees
 will be proper, and in family brew-
 ing 66  to 70, and in very cold wea-
 ther 76° will be the right tempera-
 ture.   Fahrenheit's scale is al-
 luded to.
   In winter, allow one gallon of
 yeast to the quarter of malt: in
 summer half a gallon.   In winter
 put in  the  yeast at once,  in sum-
 mer one half at first, or when the
 tun is  about half full of wort, and
 the other half when the beer is fit
 to be cleansed, (that is,filled  up with
 wort).   WThen the  wort begins to 
BRE
BRE       391
•ream, stir it about and mix the
yeast well with  the  liquor.  In
winter the beer should be cleansed
when the head or froth is just be-
ginning to become solid and thick-
en.  In summer, as soon as it be-
gins to shew  a white head.
   Generally, when  the  head be-
comes brown, solid, and of a yeasty
consistence, and seems just ready
to fall back into the liquor, the beer
should be put into the casks. Ne-
ver suffer the head to break. Bet-
ter fill the casks  a few hours too
soon than one hour too late. Strong
beer if brewed in small quantities,
and ale in any quantity, should be
tunned  the second day.
   The  casks,  when well cleaned
with hot water, (and if necessary
also with lime or ashes to neutra-
lize the acid absorbed by the wood),
should be filled and put upon the
stilling, or frame of about 12 inches
high.
   Fill up the casks as they work
over, once every hour, for the first
6 or 8 hours: be  sure to keep the
casks filled till the fermentation has
entirely subsided, which will be in
a few days.
  Place vessels under the casks to
collect the workings over, and the
casks may be  filled up  with the
clear  part  of these  workings.
Take great care to keep  your cel-
lar dry, and free from the drippings
ofthe casks :  if the cellar be  damp
and musty, your beer will be  in ha-
zard of smelling.
  When the beer has worked  in
the casks, bung it and remove it, if
necessary, to the place where it is
to remain : then  draw the  bung,
and fill up with clear beer, scum-
ming off the sediment that may be
thrown  up by rolling.  Bung the
casks tight; bore  a vent hole, and
put in a vent peg, which should be
rather slack while the beer is ob-
served to be on the fret. If it runs
out at the vent hole, draw off about
a quart, to give it room and prevent
the starting of the wood.
   When beer is drawn, take care
never to leave the vent peg out, or
loose : the best liquor may soon
become flat and vapid by the care-
lessness of servants in this  respect.
   Take care also that the  sides of
the barrels, the stoops and the floor,
are not suffered to remain wet with
the  beer spilled or  running over.
Dirtiness and moisture are apt to
make the beer smell in the barrel.
   Of the  proportions of Malt
and  other  Ingredients.....„
The following are about the aver-
age proportions of malt,  used in
England :  but the barley of Ame-
rica is not equally good, nor is the
process of malting carried to such
perfection : hence, the same quan-
tity  of ale or porter will require
about one fourth more of  malt to
make a liquor in America  of equal
strength.
   When nothing is  used to make
ale or porter, but  malt and hops,
it  will  require in England about
three bushels of malt to make one
barrel of ale of 32 gallons, or por-
ter of 36   gallons.   But  this  will
be strong.
   For ale intended to be drank im-
mediately, 1 of a lb. of hops to the
bushel, will suffice.   If meant to
be kept a twelvemonth, allow 1 lb.
to the bushel : if longer i± ib.
   Porter requires 1}  lb. of hops to
the bushel, if no bitter but hops be
used.
   Small-beer is usually brewed from
the malt after the quantity of wort
intended for ale is taken off: then
a quarter (or 8  bushels) of malt,
will make about one barrel of strong
ale, and two barrels and a half of 
392         BRE
BRE
 good small-beer: the hops used for
 the ale, kept in a net during boil-
 ing, will do wilh a little addition
 for the small-beer.
   But small-beer so made, is never
 so good as when it  is run off by
 itself from a quantity of malt  whol-
 ly appropriated  to it.
   In this case about lior lj bushel
 of malt will make one  barrel of
 good  small-beer, with A of a lb. of
 hops  to the bushel.
   But in all malt liquors, the addi-
 tion of a  small  portion  of sugar,
 gives more strength to the liquor,
 and enables it to keep better  ; par-
 ticularly in  summer  time : hence
 the  following   proportions  seem
 preferable  in  practice, for  this
 country (America).
   Ale....Malt (amber) three bush-
 els : hops  3 lbs.; good moist sugar
 1§ lb.; about  \ an ounce of cori-
 ander  seeds will  be  an  improve-
 ment.   The addition  of the sugar
 will nearly make up for the cefici-
 cency in strength of the American
 malt. This will make one barrel of
 strong ale. For an account of Mash-
 ing Machine.....see that article.]
   Having thus   afforded an analy-
 tical view of this important subject,
 we shall conclude it  with  an ac-
 count of the latest patents, which
 have  been granted to those who
 have contributed, or attempted to
 improve the Art of Brewing.
  In March, 1788, Mr. W. Ker,
 of Kerfield, Tweedale, received the
 King's patent for his improvement
in brewing  ale, beer, porter, and
other  malt liquors, so  as  to save a
considerable portion of hops, to pro-
 duce the liquors of a  superior fla-
vour and quality, and render them
 less liable to become acid or putrid.
 The steam which arises from the
boiling  copper,  is known  to  be
 strongly impregnated with the es-
 sential oil of the hops, in  which
 their  flavour  consists.  Instead,
 therefore, of allowing it to escape
 and evaporate,  as  it does  in  the
 common  mode of  brewing, Mr.
 Ker contrives to preserve and con-
 dense  it, by means of a winding-
 pipe fixed to the copper, similar to
 the worm of a still, or by a straight
 pipe passing through cold water, or
 any  other cooling medium.   The
 oil and water, thus  obtained, are
 returned into the worts when boil-
 ed ; or the oil, after being separated
 from the  water, along with which
 it had been exhaled, is returned into
 the worts  after they are boiled; and
 the  watery part, which, after the
 oil is separated, still continues im-
 pregnated with  the aromatic taste
 and  bitter of the hop, is returned
 into the next copper or boiling ves-
 sels, and so on, from one copper or
 boiling vessel into another. By this
 process, a considerable  part of the
 hop  and flavour, which is  lost in
 the ordinary mode of brewing, is
 preserved , the flavour of the liquor
 is improved by the preservation of
 the finer parts of the aromatic oil ;
 and the ale and beer are better se-
 cured from any tendency to acidity
 or putrefaction, and therefore must
 be fitter for home consumption and
 exportation.
   In June, 1790, Mr. John Long,
 of Ireland, obtained a patent for an
 improvement, which he calls  an
 entire new method, in all the  essen-
 tial parts, of brewing  good malt
 liquor. Though his method, in one
 respect, is similar to  that adopted
 by Mr. Ker, yet as  it compre-
 hends the whole process of brew-
 ing, we shall lay  it before our read-
 ers,  nearly  in  the  words of its
author. 
BRE
BRE        393
  1. For the better extracting the
virtues of malt, place near a mash-
tun a shallow copper, or other ves-
sel, that  will readily heat, the curb
of which to be on a level with the
tun, and to contain from two to six
hogsheads, according to the dimen-
sion of the tun, more or less ; and,
at the  lower end of the copper,
have a cock, from two to five inches
in diameter, to conduct the heated
liquor from the copper into a tube,
which passes down the external part
of the  tun, and  enters it through
an  aperture about  six inches  from
the bottom ; then forming two re-
volutions, more or less, through the
body of  the tun, and communicat-
ing its heat to the wort as it passes
through the tube  ;  and then, at a
convenient distance from  the place
where it first entered, it runs from
the tun into a cistern or tub, situate
as near as convenient to the copper
or heating-vessel.    In the tub or
cistern is to be placed a pump, for
the purpose of conveying the cooler
liquor  back to the copper or heat-
ing vessel again,  there to receive
the heat of 208 degrees, more or
less (which it will require after the
first half hour), and then  convey  it
through  the mashing-tun, as be-
fore, and in the same manner, as
long as  the  working brewer may
think necessary, to raise the mash-
ing-tun  to any degree of heat re-
quired.  By adhering to the fore-
going process, the first liquor may
with the greatest safety,be let upon
the  malt,  from  20 to 30 degrees
lower  than the  present  practice;
by  which means it  operates with
gentleness, opens and expands the
malt, and prepares it for the recep-
tion of sharper or warmer liquor,
so  as to extract the whole of the
saccharine quality from the malt.
JJy the foregoing method, the mash-
ing-tun, instead of loosing its first
heat (which  it does by the present
practice), continues to increase in
heat every  moment by conveying
the heated liquor through the tube
into the tun ; by which means, at
the end of two hours, the wqrking
brewer can  have the tun brought
to any  degree  of heat he shall
think best suited to the different
qualities of the malt. Persons who
would wish  to save expense, may
heat their mashing-tun at the side
or bottom, by a large piece of me-
tallic substance  made  fire-proof,
and fixed therein ; which, in some
degree, will  answer the end pro-
posed, but  with great trouble and
delay.
   2. To prevent the wort from
receiving  a   disagreeable  flavour,
while in the  under-back,  a tube
must be placed at the cock of the
mashing-tun, to receive the wort as
it comes off,  and convey it to  a
great  cistern,  or  refrigeratory,
which is supplied with a stream of
water.   The wort, passing through
that medium in a spiral tube, soon
looses  that  heat  which so often
proves prejudicial to the brewer
in warm weather ; it is then  pour-,
ed  from the  tube into a vessel in
which pumps are placed, to return
the worts into the copper, for the
purpose of boiling off.
   3. As the great object of long
boiling the  wort is remedied, by
this invention of taking the extract
from the hops in a separate manner
from the worts, Mr. Long boils the
latter no longer than from fifteen
to twenty minutes ; and, by pur-
suing that method, he saves much
time and fuel, and regulates  the
length of time accordingly.
   4. He steeps his hops, the pre-
ceding day to which they are to be
used, in a copper or other vessel. 
594        BRE
BRE
with as much fluid, blood-warm, as
will cover the hops ; where it is to
remain overa slow fire, at least four-
teen  hours,  close  covered;  the
copper, at  the  tenth  hour, not to
be of a greater heat than 175 de-
grees continuing slow until the last
hour.  Then he brings the copper
gradually to a simmer, or slow boil;
in which state he suffers  it  to re-
main about ten minutes, and then
runs off the fluid ; and this he does
at the same time the first wort is
boiled  off, that they may both pass
together through the refrigeratory,
into the fermentation or working-
tun. After the foregoing operation,
he covers the hops again with other
liquor, brings the copper to boil as
soon as convenient, and lets it re-
main  in that state a  considerable
time, until the second  worts  are
boiled  off.   Then he passes  the
hop-fluid with the wort, the  same
as in the first instance ; and, if there
is a third  wort, he boils the hops
a third time with small worts, and
drains off the liquid as before ; by
which means, he gradually obtains
the whole of the  essential oil and
pleasant bitter from the hops, which
is effectually preserved in the beer.
  5. When the wort is boiled off,
it is conducted from the cock ofthe
copper  or boiler into a tube of a
proper dimension, which passes the
wort from the cock to the large cis-
tern or refrigeratory, and there per-
forms several revolutions, in  a spi-
ral manner,through the same tube;
which  is immersed in a constant
supply of cold water, where it loses
the greatest part of its heat in a
short time, and thence continues a
straight course through the tube, a
little  elevated, and of  a  suitable
length, placed in brick-work, until
it meets a small refrigeratory, sup-
plied with colder water from a re-
servoir made for  that purpose, at
the head of the works ; whence a
continual stream runs on the surface
of the tube down to the great refri-
geratory, cooling the wort as  it pas-
ses, in order to enable the working
brewer to send it into the backs, or
working-tuns, at whatever degree
of heat he may think proper. The
tubes may  be made of lead, or  any
other metallic substance.
   6. To enable him to brew  in the
warm summer months,  Mr. Long
sinks the backs, or working-tuns,
at least to a level with the ground,
but if deeper the better, and covers
them closely by an arch  rriade of
bricks, or other materials, that will
totally exclude the atmospheric air.
He then places them as near as pos-
sible to a spring or sand-drain, as
their depth will naturally draw  the
water thence, which  must  be so
contrived as  to pass or flow  round
the backs or tuns.  Next,  he intro-
duces a  large tube, which passes
through the  tuns, and  keeps  the
wort several degrees lower than
can possibly be done by the present
practice ; by  which means he pro-
duces  a complete fermentation,
even in the dog-davs.
   7. In cold or frosty weather, if the
tun and  backs should lose the first
heat, intended to  be  conducted
through the  process by the fore-
going method, a  supply of  warm
or boiling water may be conveyed
by the tube,  which passes through
the body of the backs or tun, com-
municating its heat, which rises to
any  degree the  working brewer
shall think proper:  by  pursuing
this method,  in the coldest season,
a fermentation may always be pro-
cured.
   In February 1798, Dr. Richard
Shannon obtained a patent for his
method of improving the processes- 
            BRE

of brewing, distilling, boiling, eva-
porating, raising, applying and con-
densing steam orvapour from aque-
ous, spirituous, saccharine, saline,
and other fluids.  The principle of
his invention consists chiefly in the
following arrangement: By cover-
ing and making the mash-tun air-
tight, and f asing it round, under
and over,with a steam-tight casing,
so that,  during the mashing  and
soaking ofthe malt and grain used,
the heat may be preserved or raised
and  regulated to any pitch, by the
application of steam, both in and
between the casing of the mash-
tun ; by  which  contrivance,  the
whole of the farina and substance
of the grain may be as effectually
extracted in one, or at most in two
mashings, as is now done in three
or four.  The steam,  conduc'ed
by a proper tuhc or pipe, is t  be
also employed  for sweetening and
cleansing all  the brewing, distil-
ling, and vinegar-making usensils,
and casks employed in each,  Sec.
so as in  future to prevent furring,
foxing,  2ec.  even  in  the  inmost
crevice;.
   In June 1798, the  same patentee,
in partnership with Mr. Robert
Burnett, of Yauxball, procured
another  patent for the discovery
of a principle  and  invention of a
method of improving  the process
of fermentation,  by which porter,
beer, ale, malt  and molasses wash,
wine, cyder, and all other saccha-
rine and fermentable fluids, may be
conducted with certainty through
the vinous process of fermentation
in mild, warm, hot,  and cold wea-
ther, without  being materially in-
jured as heretofore, by the differ-
ent  changes of  the atmosphere,
Le......But as these improvements
depend on  the application  of an
expensive pneumatic   apparatus,
     vol. i.
            BRE        395

which does not appear to us adapt-
ed to the use of families, we refer
the reader  to the tenth and four-
teenth volumes of the " Repertory
of Arts and Manufactures," where
he will find a detailed specification
of both patents.  '
  The last patent we shall mention,
is that of Mr. Thornton, of East
Smithfield; which being dated A-
pril 1 5, 1778, is earlier than either
of  the preceding,  and does  not
strictly relate to the  process  of
brewing, as his invention  consists
in a new method of reducing male
and h-fis to an essence or extract,
from which beer may be  made ei-
ther at sea or in distant countries.
The whole is managedby the trans-
mitted heat of compressed vapour
of boiling water, and a nroper ap-
paratus for that purpose,   i his ap-
paratus may  be made of iron, tin,
or copper:  it consists of a boiler of
any  dimensions, a  double vessel,
and  conducting tubes.  The dou-
ble vessel  consists of one vessel
placed within anoher, and f.tted
tight at their rims.  The upper
vessel forms the upper part of the
under vessel, and contains the li-
quor to be  evaporated. The under
vessel is every where inclosed, ex-
cept at an aperture communicating
with the boiler, and at another aper-
ture communicating with the con-
ducting tubes;  and is constructed
so as not to allow any  part of the
vapour condensed into drops within
it to escape, except back again into
the heller:  it is not so exten-ive
as to act as a common  refrigerato-
ry, and yet is capacious enough to
prevent the  liquor boiling over.
The aperture communicating with
the boiler,  is large enough to free-
ly admit the vapour from the boiler
into the  under vessel;   and  the
aperture communicating with the
     3  D 
396        B R I

conducting tubes,  is of a proper
size to allow of the vapour in the
under vessel being compressed, to
a degree  capable of transmitting
to the  "liquor to be evaporated  a
proper heat, and at the same  time
to serve as a passage for more heat
than is necessary to keep  up that
degree of compression.  The con-
ducting  tubes are to convey this
superfluous  heat or vapour, to be
used  for farther purposes, or im-
mediately out ofthe building.
   Those of our readers who are de-
sirous of farther information on the
subject, may consult the last edition
of" Philosophical Principles of Brew-
ing," by  Mr. Richardson, of Hull,
England; a work of acknowledged
merit, and practical utility,
   BRIAR,  the Sweet, or  Rosa ru-
biginosa,h. by Hudson andDuROi,
called Rosa  eglantaria, is a well
known indigenous plant,  found in
hedges and on heaths.  It  grows
to the height of five  or  six feet,
 having green brunches armed with
 prickles. SeeWiTH. 466...The va-
 rieties of this species are the com-
 mon single-flowered, semi-double-
 flowered,  double-flowered,  blush
 double-flowered, and  yellow-flow-
 ered.  This shrub deserves  to be
 cultivated in every garden, on ac-
 count of the odoriferous  property
 of its leaves.   The best places for
 planting it, are the borders contigu-
 ous to walks, where it will profuse-
 ly emit  its refreshing fragrance.
 The young branches of the sweet-
 briar are a rich addition to the odour
 of nose-gays and bough-pots. The
 blossoms of this shrub  are con-
 stantly  visited  by bees,  and the
 leaves are  used on the Continent,
 in tanning  soft leather.
   Wild Briar, or Hep- Tree. See the
 more general name of Dog-Rosk.
   BRICK, a mass of clay formed
 into oblong squares,  and dried in
            BRI

the open air,  or burnt  in  proper
kilns, to serve the various purposes
of building.
   English  statute bricks  ought,
when burnt, to be nine inches long,
four and a quarter broad, and two
and a  half thick:  they- are com-
monly used for paving cellars, sew-
ers, sinks,  hearths, bee.  There is,
however, a great variety of bricks,
in consequence of their different
forms,  dimensions, uses, and the
method of making them.
   On  comparing the strength and
durability  of  modern  bricks with
chose of the ancients, it is evident
that the former are in every respect
inferior;  and  that we  are either
unacquainted  with the exact mate-
rials of which those admirable pro-
ductions  of art are composed,  as
well as with the proper manner of
 preparing them ;  or that this use-
 ful manufacture  has been shame-
 fully neglected, while our masons
 and brick-makers are little  con-
 cerned about the quality  of their
 materials, if they  can obtain them
 in a cheap and expeditious  manner.
 Such appears to be the tendency of
 the patents that have, from time
 to time, been procured by various
 s> Iteming men, who are generally
 ignorant of the first principles of
 chemistry, on which the successful
 practice of this important branch
 of the arts chiefly depend.   In or-
 der to afford  a concise view of the
 subject, we shall  premise an ana-
 lysis of the requisites  of  a proper
 clay for making bricks; then state
 a few rules applicable to practice in
 all situations; and conclude with a
 general account of the late inven-
 tions, for which the  King's patent
 has been granted : by which means
 the reader will be enabled to ascer-
 tain their respective merits.
    It  is an erroneous  notion, that
 bricks may be made of any earth 
            BRI

that is not stony, or even of sea-
ouze; for those only will burn red,
which contain iron  particles.   In
England,  they are chiefly  made
of a motley,  yellowish, or some-
what  reddish, fat  earth, vulgarly
called loam.  Those of Stourbridge
clay,  and  Windsor-loam, are es-
teemed the most proper and dur-
able bricks; such as will stand the
greatest degree of heat, without
melting.  In general, the earth for
this manufacture ought to be suffi-
ciently fine, free from pebbles, and
not too sandy;  which would ren-
der the bricks heavy and brittle ;
nor  too fat,  which  would  make
them crack in drying.  Nor should
it contain too many calcareous and
ferruginous  ingredients; as the
former prevent  the mass from be-
coming firm in burning, and occa-
sion the bricks to crumble, when
exposed to the air; while the lat-
ter, or iron  particles, retard the
preparation of  bricks, insomuch
that it is sometimes impossible to
give  them due consistence:  this
inconvenience,  however, may be
remedied, by allowing the clay to
lie for a considerable time  under
the influence of the  atmosphere,
then soaking  it in pits, and after-
wards working it well in the usual
manner.......The common potter's
clay, which is also employed for the
manufacture of bricks, is opaque,
imparts a slight colour, sometimes
yellowish, blueish, greenish, but
more frequently of different shades
of light grey,  excepting that  of
blue,  which   is always dark:  by
kneading and spreading such clay,
it becomes smooth and glossy; it
is soft, fat, and cold, though agree-
able to the touch, slightly adheres
to the tongue, and,  when  of the
best quality,  it should neither be
too light nor  too heavy.  Its con-
stituents, chemically examined, are
            BRI        397

found to consist of thirty-seven parts
of pure argillaceous or clayey earth,
and sixty-three parts of silicious or
flinty earth.
  Whoever is desirous of produc-
ing the best and most durable kind
of bricks, ought to attend to  the
following rules:  1. Clay of every
description, whether fat or lean,
whether more or less mixed with
particles of lime,  iron, &c. must
be dug up  after Midsummer, that
is, between the beginning of July
and  latter end of October, before
the  frost first appears: it should
be  repeatedly  worked with  the
spade, during the  winter, and  not
formed into bricks till the following
spring.  2. The clay,  before it is
put  into pits for soaking,  must be
broken as  small as  possible,  and
allowed to  lie at  East  ten  days:
every  stratum of twelve inches
should be  covered with water, as
in this manner  it will be more
uniformly softened.  3. Two such
pits, at least, will be necessary for
every brick-manufactory, so that
after having been suffered  to re-
main for five days, the second may
be prepared, and  thus  the manu-
facture carried  on without inter-
ruption.   4. The next step is  that
of  treading  and  tempering  the
clay, which requires  double  the
labour to what is usually bestowed
on it;  as the quality ofthe bricks
chiefly depends upon the first  pre-
paration.   If, in tempering them,
too  much  water be used, they be-
come dry  and brittle ;  but, if duly
tempered, they will be smooth, so-
lid,  and durable.  Such a brick re-
quires nearly as much earth as one
and a half made  in the  common
way, when too great a proportion
of water is added;  in  which  case
 the bricks become  spongy, light,
 and full of  flaws, partly through
 neglect in working them properly, 
393        BRI

and partly by a mixture of ashes
and light sandy earth (as is gene-
rally practised  in the vicinity  of
London),with a vievvto dispatch and
facilitate the work,  as well as  to
save culm or coals in the burning.
5. Bricks made of  proper  earth,
being more  solid and ponderous,
require a much  longer time for
dryingthan those made in the com-
mon way; they ought not to  be
removed to the kiln, till they have
become lighter by one half, and
give a hollow sound  on collision;
because the proper drying of bricks
will prevent them from cracking
and crumbling in the kiln.  6. Of
whatever materials the kiln be con-
structed, each  burning of from 6
to 10,000 bricks, requires that the
fire be kept up for  24 hours, and
double that time for a number of
from 12 to 50,000.   The uniform
increase of heat deserves great at-
tention ; the duration of it  should
be regulated according to the sea-
sons; and during the last 24 hours,
the fire should be uninterruptedly
supported by means of flues; but
afterwards  the  kiln must not be
suddenly closed, as there is always
some danger either of bursting the
flues,  or more probably of melt-
ing the  bricks.
   It would be useless here to enter
into particulars relative to the man-
ner of burning bricks in the neigh-
bourhood  of London;  we shall
 therefore only observe, that they
 are chiefly burnt in clamps built of
 the bricks themselves, after  the
 manner of arches, in kilns, with a
 vacancy between each brick to ad-
 mit the passage  of the  fire,  but
 with this difference, that instead of
 being arched, the  bricks  project
 one over another on both sides of
 the space, for  laying in the wood
 f;nd coals  till they  meet,  and are
 bounded by the  bricks at the top.
            BRI

The place  for the fuel  is carried
up straight on both sides, till about
three feet high, when it is almost
filled with wood, over which is laid
a stratum of sea-coal, and then the
arch  is  spanned over.  Farther,
sea-coal  is also  strewed over the
clamp,  between  all the rows of
bricks;  and lastly, the wood is
kindled, which also communicates
with the  coals;  and  when the
whole is consumed, the manufac-
turer concludes that the bricks are
sufficiently burnt.
   [Fire bricks are made in Phila-
delphia  of certain proportions of
clay from  the banks of the Dela-
ware, a few miles below Bordcn-
ton, and the sand  found near the
lower bridge on the Schulykill.
   Besides their great utility in the
construction of furnaces,theyought
to be used for lining the backs and
sides  of fire-places.   See  Fire-
 places.]
   Among the multiplicity of pa-
tents lately obtained for the making
of bricks,  it is somewhat singular,
 that the inventors confine their lu-
 crative views chiefly to the  forma-
 tion of this  useful article, without
 paying much regard to the mate-
 rials of w hich it may be composed.
 Of this nature are the patents grant-
 ed to the following individuals :
    1. Mr. EU31UND Cartwright,
 of Doncaster, England, for his in-
 vention of  a new principle, on
 which bricks, stones, or any other
 building materials to be substituted
 for those  articles, may be so form-
 ed, as to be applied with peculiar
 eXvantage in the erection of walls,
 and in the construction of arches.
 (Daled April 14, 1795.)  I lis im-
 provement consists in giving bricks
 such a shape or form as that, when
 in work,  they shall mutually lock
 into, cr cramp  each  other.  The
 principle of his invention,  he saysj 
BRI
BRI         399
will be readily understood, by sup-
posing the two opposite sides of a
common brick to have a groove or
rabbet down the middle, a  little
more than half the width of the
side of the  brick in  which  it is
made ;  there  will then be left  a
shoulder on each side of the groove,
each  of which  shoulders will  be
nearly equal to one quarter of the
width of the side of the brick, or
to one-half of the groove or rabbet.
Buildings constructed with bricks
on this principle, will require  no
bond-timber,  one universal  bond
running through, and connecting
the  whole building together: the
walls of which can neither crack
nor bulge out, without breaking
through  the  bricks   themselves.
When bricks of this  simple  form
are  used for the construction of
arches, the sides of the grooves or
rabbets, and the  shoulders, should
be the radii ofthe circle, of whieh
the intended arch is to be the seg-
ment.  In forming an  arch, the
bricks must be coursed across the
centre on which the arch is turned,
and a grooved side of the bricks
must  face the workman.  They
may  be either laid in  mortar, or
dry, and the intestines afterwards
filled and wedged up, by pouring
in  lime-putty,  plaster  of  Paris,
grouting, or  any other convenient
material, at the  discretion of the
workman, or  builder.   It is  obvi-
ous, that arches  upon this princi-
ple, having  no  lateral  pressure,
can neither expand at the foot, nor
spring  at the  crown, consequently
they will want no  abutments,  re-
quiring only  perpendicular  walls
to be let into, or to rest upon ; and
they will want no incumbent weight
upon the crown, to prevent their
springing up; a nicumstance of
great  importance in  many situa-
tions, in the construction of bridges.
Another  advantage attending this
mode of arching is, that the cen-
tres  may be  struck immediately;
so that the same centre (which in
no case need be many feet wide,
whatever may  be the breadth  of
the arch) may be regularly shifted,
as the work proceeds.  But the
greatest and most striking  advan-
tage attending  this invention  is,
the absolute security it affords (and
at a very reasonable rate) against
the possibility  of  fire ;  for, from
the peculiar properties of this arch,
requiring no  abutments, it may  be
laid  upon, or  let into  common
walls,  no stronger than what are
required for  timbers, of which it
will  preclude  the  necessity, and
save the  expense......For  a more
particular  account, we refer the
reader to the third volume of the
" Repertory of Arts and Manufac-
tures," p.  84,  and  following,  of
which he will also find annexed two
plates illustrating the subject.
  2;Mr. Francis Farquharson,
of Birmingham, England obtained
a patent  (dated Feb. 20, 1798,) for
machinery for  making bricks and
tiles ; and,
   3. Mr. James  Douglas, also,
for a machine for making bricks, of
the same date ; but we are  not in
possession of the  specifications of
the two last mentioned patents.
   4.  A  very  important discove-
ry has lately been made by Mr.
Whitmork Davis, at Castle Com-
ber, in the county of Kilkenny, Ire-
land.  He observed s'me persons
in the  vicinity of a colliery, to em-
ploy a mortar for the backs of their
grates, which in a short time be-
came  hard.   This  substance  he
found, on examination, to be what
miners  term  seat-coal,  or that
fossil  which  lies  between coal 
400        BRI
BRI
and the rock.  It has been sub-
mitted to the investigation  of Mr.
Kirwan. who  is of opinion, that
it will, when mixed in due propor-
tions with clay, produce a kind of
bricks, capable  of resisting the ac-
tion of fire, and consequently well
calculated for furnaces, or  similar
structures.   Mr.  Davis has  ac-
cordingly  employed  it  with suc-
cess;  and he farther observes, that
seat-coal, if properly prepared, will
answer every purpose of tarras, for
buildings beneath water.
  5.  Mr.  Isaac  Sandford,  of
Hartford,  in  Connecticut,  [New-
England,] on the 20th of January,
1800, received the royal patent for
a method communicated  to him
by Mr. A. Kinsley, of  the same
place,  for ' manufacturing  Bricks,
tiles, and pottery-ware, in general,
and for discharging the moulds used
therein.  The principle of this in-
vention is  amply  detailed in the
specification, a copy  of which is
inserted in the  13th volume of the
" Repertory of Arts," Etc.  p. 148,
and  following,  illustrated  by  a
plate.
  [A fair trial of this plan was made
by a company in Philadelphia, un-
der the direction of the patentee.
It was found that the machine made
bricks with great rapidity, and in
this respect diminished labour to a
considerable  extent;  but  that in
order to lay them on the  ground to
drv, and afterwards to carry them
lo the shed, as many hands were
required as in the common mode.
Hence the  plan was  given  up.]
  To conclude, we shall only add,
that the reasons why the modern
bricks are so very inferior to those
made by the ancients ; which, in
their   monuments,  after  having
withstood  ihe  ravages of time for
many  centuries, are still  in perfect
preservation, appear to be princi-
pally  the following:  In the pre-
sent expensive state of society, the
price  of  manual  labour,  though
far from being adequate to the
pressure of the times, is so consi-
derable,  that the manufacturer  is
under a kind of necessity  to make
choice of those materials  which
are the cheapest and  most easily
procured : thus, a mixture of the
most  improper earths and clay is
often  employed in the manufacture
of bricks,  without reflecting that
two bodies specifically different in
their  nature, must necessarily  re-
quire different degrees of heat in
the kiln,  in  order to  produce an
uniform  hardness, and an intimate
combination of parts. On the con-
trary, the ancients not only select-
ed the  very best sort of  clay, but
combined it with other ingredients
well  adapted to form the  most
complete cement, such as coarsely
powdered charcoal and old mortar
added to the clay.  Of this descrip-
tion,  likewise   were  the  bricks
which Professoe Pallas, on  his
last journey through the  southern
provinces of Russia, discovered in
the stupendous Tartar monuments,
and which would scarcely yield to
the force of a hammer.  Another
advantage peculiar  to the bricks
and  tiles  manufactured  by our
fore-fathers, arose from their me-
thod  of  burning them uniformly,
after  being thoroughly dried. There
is no doubt, that if all the defects
before pointed out, were removed,
and modern brick-makers were to
pay more attention to their art, by
digging the clay at proper seasons,
 working  it better than is done at
present, bestowing more  care  on
the burning of them,  and particu-
larly  by making them much thin-
ner than what is prescribed by ths 
B RI
BRI         401
standard form, we might produce
bricks  of an equal strength  and
durability to those of our less en-
lightened, but more provident and
industrious, ancestors.
   Brick-layers,  artisans  whose
business it is to build with bricks,
and to perform brick-work  ; such
as  tiling, walling,  chimney-work,
and paving with bricks and tiles:
in country places, they also  under-
take the masons'  and  plasterers'
business. The  London brick-layers
were  incorporated as   a regular
company in 1568, consisting of a
 master, two wardens, 20 assistants,
and 78 o. the  livery.
   The art of brick-laying has been
 analysed in a particular treatise by
 Moxon ;  in  which  he describes
 the  materials, tools, and method
 of working used  by bricklayers.
 Great  care should be  taken that
 bricks  be laid joint on joint in the
 middle  of the walls as seldom as
 may be.  If they be laid in  winter,
 let  them  be  kept as dry as possi-
 ble ; if in summer, they  ought
 to be  wetted,  because they  will
 then unite with the  mortar better
 than if  they  were quite dry,  and
 render  the work much  stronger.
 In  large buildings,  or where it is
 too troublesome to dip  each brick
 separately, water  may  be  thrown
 on  every course after they are laid,
 as  was judiciously  done, when
 building the College of Physicians
 in  London, on  the  suggestion of
 Dr. Hooke.  If bricks are laid in
 summer, they should  be covered,
 to prevent the mortar from drying
 too quickly ;  because  thus it will
 not be  cemented so  firmly as if it
 were left to dry more gradually.
 In  winter also  they ought to be
 well covered, to protect them from
 rain,  snow, and frost,  which last
 is  the worst enemy   to  mortar,
especially if the work has become
wet before the  frost happens.
  Oil of bricks, a singular pre-
paration, formerly much esteemed
in the cure of many  diseases ; but
now justly exploded as absurd and
pernicious rather than useful.  It
is obtained by  soaking  fragments
of bricks in  olive oil, and  after-
wards distilling them in the usual
manner. In the present improved
state  of  chemistry,  it  has  been
found that, by this  fanciful  pro-
cess,  the oil of olives, so far from
being impregnated with healing in-
gredients, is necessarily corrupted.
  Brick-water, or water  impreg-
nated with the contents of bricks,
is possessed of properties so pecu-
liarly striking, and at the same time
so pernicious in their effects, when
used for culinary purposes, that we
cannot,  in justice to our readers,
 withhold from them the following
curious experiment  made by Dr.
Percivai., and  stated in the first
volume of his Essays. He steeped
two or  three  pieces of common
brick, four days in a bason full of
distilled  water,  which  he  after-
wards decanted oft", and examined
by  various chemical  tt st^.  It was
not miscible with soap ;  struck a
lively green with syrup of violets;
 by  the  fixed alkali, and by a solu-
tion of  sugar of lead.  No change
 was produced on it by an infusion
 of tormenlil root. Hence the Doc-
 tor justly concluded, that the lining
 of wells with bricks, a practice verv
 common in  many  places,  is  ex-
 tremely improper, as it cannot fail
 to  render the water hard and un-
 wholesome. Clay generally contains
 a variety of heterogeneous matters;
 and coloured foams often partici-
 pate of bitumen, and the ochre of
 iron. Sand and lime-earth are still
 more common ingredients in their 
 402         B R I

 composition ; and the experiments
 of Mr.  Geoffrky and  Mr. Pott
 prove, that the earth of alum also
 may  in  considerable quantity  be
 separated from clay. As, therefore,
 clay is exposed to the optn air for
 a long space of time, before it is
 moulded into bricks and burnt, this
 process in many respects resembles
 that by which  the alum stone is
 prepared. And, it is probable, that
 the white efflorescence,  which is
 frequently observable on the sur-
 face of new bricks, is of an alumin-
 ous nature: indeed the combina-
 tions ofthe vitriolic acid with the
 earth  of alum, may be sufficiently
 accounted for, partly from the long
 exposure of clay to the air, before
 it is moulded into brick^, and part-
 ly from the sulphureous exhalations
 of the pit-coal  used  for burning
 them, together with the suffocating,
 bituminous vapour arising from
 the ignited coal.
   [The  above experiments  of Dr.
 Percival are highly interesting,
 and deserve the serious attention
 of city corporations and private
 persons.  The wells of pumps are
 in general only ,teined, that is, lined
 with dry  bricks.  Two  disadvan-
 tages arise from this practice The
 first, is the bad qualities which, it
 appears, are communicated  to the
 water by the bricks ; the second, is
 the inability of these bricks to pre-
 vent the  filthy contents  of  drains
 and  privies  from soaking through
 the ground into the wells, to  which
 cause may be fairly attributed the
 bad  taste of the  water  in  many
 pumps in Philadelphia, which were
formerly proverbial for their  excel-
lence.  Every privy and well  ought
lo  be lined  with the valuable ce-
ment of Capt. Hunn.  It is  easily
made;  and,  if the  work  be well
              BRI

 done, the cement will last forever.
 See Cement.]
    BRIDGE,  a construction of
 stone, timber, or iron, consisting of
 an arch or arches, and built over a
 river,canal,Scc. for the convenience
 of passengers.   A bridge built of
 stone is evidently the strongest and
 most durable : the proper situation
 for it is easily known ; and the only
 circumstance necessary  to be ob-
 served  is,  to make  it cross the
 stream at right angles, that boats
 may readily pass through the arches
 wilh the current of the river.
   Those bridges built for a com-
 munication between   high roads,
 ought to be so strong as  to  resist
 all accidents, and afford  an  easy
 passage to the waters : they should
 therefore be  at least as long as the
 river  is wide at the time  of its
 greatest flood ; because, by the ac-
 cumulation of the waters  above,
 too great a fall may be occasioned,
 and the foundation of the piers,
 and abutments may thus be under-
 mined.
   The  necessary requisites  in a
 bridge are, that it be well designed,
 commodious, durable, and suitably
 ornamented.   The piers of stone
 bridges should be equal in number,
 that the central arch may be where
 the current is strongest   As  the
 piers always  diminish the bed of a
 river, it  must be hollowed in  pro-
 portion to  the space occupied by
 them,  especially  where  frequent
 inundations prevail,  so  that the
 waters may  gain  in  depth,  what
 they lose in breadth.   It has been
 ascertained  by  experience,  that
when the height ofthe piers is six
feet, and the  arches  are  circular,
it is sufficient to build the former
two feet more in thickness than the
sixth part of the.width of the latter; 
BRI
BRI        403
 or in other words, the thickness of
 the piers  of an arch of  36 feet
 ought to be 8 feet; those of an arch
 of 48 feet, 10 feet, &c.  Rectangu-
 lar piers are seldom adopted, ex-
 cept in bridges over small rivers.
 In all others they project by a tri-
 angular prism,  which presents an
 edge to the stream,  in order to di-
 vide the water, and prevent the
 accumulation of ice,  as well as
 to hinder vessels  from running
 against them.
   When the banks of rivers are of
 tolerable height, the bridge should
 be made quite level above, and all
 the arches of an equal width; but
 where  the banks are low, and, for
 the sake  of navigation, a large
 arch is made in the middle of the
 stream, then the bridge ought to
 be  more  elevated  in the centre,
 than at the ends ; in which case,
 the slope should be  easy and gra-
 dual on both sides, so as form one
 continued curve.
   The  width of small bridges is
 generally thirty feet, but those near
 large towns usually have thirty feet
 clear carriage way,besides the foot-
 path : the  parapet  walls on each
 side are about 18 inches thick, and
 4  feet high ;  they commonly pro-
 ject with a  cornice underneath ;
 sometimes ballustrades of stone or
 iron are placed  upon the parapet,
 as at Westminster-bridge; but this
 method is only employed where a
 bridge of great extent is construct-
 ed near a capital.
   Where stone  bridges cannot be
 erected on account of the expense,
 very  strong  and durable bridges
 may be constructed of wood : these
 ought to be so framed, that all the
parts may  press upon each other
like an arch : and thus,  instead of
being weakened by the pressure of
a heavy body  in its passages over it
     vol. i.
 they will become stronger.   The
 method of forming a wooden bridge
 is so well known to every architect,
 that it is needless to  enlarge upon
 this subject.
   Among the Romans, the build-
 ing and repairing of bridges was
 committed  to  the pontifices,  or
 priests ; and the care of these edi-
 fices was afterwards undertaken by
 the Emperors themselves. In the
 middle  ages, the constructing of
 bridges was classed among the acts
 of religion, and a regular order of
 hospitallers was founded  by  Saint
 Benezet, towards the end ofthe
 twelfth century, who were denomi-
 nated pontifices, or bridge-builders;
 their  office was to  facilitate the
 progress of travellers, by making
 bridges, establishing  ferries,  and
 receiving strangers into hospitals,
 or houses, on the banks of rivers.
   Of all the bridges  of antiquity,
 that built by Trajan  over the Da-
 nube is allowed to  be the  most
 magnificent: the piers were 20 in
 number, built of square stone, and
 each 150 feet  above  the  founda-
 tion, 60 feet in breadth, and  170
 feet distant from each  other.  The
 piers of this vast structure still re-
 main.  Among modern  bridges,
 that built over the Thames at West-
 minster, may  be considered as one
 of  the most magnificent  in the
 world :  it consists of 13 large, and
 two small arches, together with 11
 intermediate piers: the two  mid-
 dle piers are each 17 feet in thick-
ness at the commencement of the
arches,  and contain  3000 <pbic
feet,  or  near  200 tons of solid
stone : the middle  arch is  76 feet
wide.
  We cannot, in  justice, avoid
mentioning the patriotic efforts of
Mr. Burdon, member for Durham,
who in  17-.)2, obtained an  act for
     3 E 
404         BRI
BRI
the erection of a bridge across the
river Wear, near Sunderland. This
structure is of cast iron,  and con-
sists of six ribs, at five feet distance
from each other: the spandrils are
compos-ed of cast iron circles. The
six. ribs were put together over the
rX'er in the short space often davs.
The superstructure  is of timber,
planked over to support the car-
riage-road, which  is composed of
marl, lime-stone, and gravel, with
a cement of tar and chalk upon the
planks, to preserve  them:  the
whole  wridth of the  bridge is 32
feet, and the arch is supposed to
weigh  upwards of 900 tons, of
which  260 are iron.
   This magnificent  structure is
erected on improved principles, yet
differing from those adopted by
the Colebrook-Dale Company. Al-
though adhering  to  the ancient
construction • of bridges, by  the
subdivison  of the parts  of the
arch, in the manner of key-stones,
Mr. Bur don took advantage ofthe
ductility and tenacity of iron, to
produce an arch of that metal, at
least 15 times lighter than  a  cor-
responding arch of stone, and most
easily put  together.
   The expense of constructing this
bridge  amounted to  26,0001. the
whole of which, except 40001. was
furnished by Mr.  Bur don.  This
 gentleman, in 1795, also obtained
 a patent  for his  invention of the
manner of making and applying
cast iron blocks, to be substituted
in lieu of  key-stones,  in  the con-
struction of  arches,  which blocks,
tubes,  8cc  he employed in the
 bridge above-mentioned.
   A patent  was granted to  Mr.
 Nash, of Dover-street, in  1797,
for an invention shomewhat similar
to that above-mentioned.  He pro-
 vides  hollow masses  of cast or
wrought iron, which are to be filled
with earth, sand, Sec. and have the
appearance  of solid bodies.  Ac-
cording to  this plan,  the arch of
the  bridge  is  formed by hollow
frames, or boxes, each consisting
of four sides and a bottom. These
boxes, after being properly arrang-
ed in the  manner stated by the pa-
tentee, are then to be filled with
sand, stones, &c. by which means
the  arch  becomes like  one solid
body cased  with iron.  A farther
explanation of this invention may
be seen in the sixth volume of the
Repertory of Arts and  Manufac-
tures.
   The latest  patent  for bridges,
was that granted in June 1800, to
Mr. Samuel  Wyatt, of Chelsea
College, for his invention of a new
method  of constructing bridges,
ware-houses,  ike. without the use
of wood, as a constituent part. The
principal  of his discovery consists
in the combination of pipes, tubes,
or hollow pieces of cast iron, in  a
longitudinal direction, and plates or
pieces ofthe same material, liaving
sockets in them to receive the ends
or shoulders of the pipes,  placed
transversely,  and extending from
one side of the bridge to the other,
so that when  the requisite number
of pipes,  &c. are put together, they
form an arch so firmly,  as not to
require the aid of  screws, bolts,
cramps,or any iron fastening what
ever;  but  the  joints should be
closed with lead or cement.
   W hen applied to ware-houses and
other buildings, Air. Wvatt's in-
 vention consists in forming arched
cielings of cast iron, and support-
ing them and the floors by hollow
 pillars, or  cylinders,  of the same
 material. It ought to be remarked,
 that the number of sockets in the
 transverse  iron plates, should al- 
BRI
BRI        405
 ways correspond with the number
 of ribs in the arch.
   Various other kinds  of bridges
 are  constructed, according to the
 purposes to which they are design-
 ed,  such as pendant-or hanging-
 bridges,  draw-bridges,  floating-
 bridges, and those  made of cop-
 per, or wooden-boats, fastened with
 stakes or archors, and covered with
 planks ; but as  the  desription of
 them  would swell this article to
 an undue length,  and as they are
 not  immediately  connected with
 subjects of economy, we shall con-
 tent ourselves  with having given
 the  preceding  account  of bridges
 in general.
   [The bridge which Judge Find-
 ley, (nearUnion-town) had under-
 taken to erect across Jacob's Creek,
 at the joint expense of Fayette and
 Westmoreland counties, Pennsyl-
 vania, near Judge Meason's,  on
 the great road leading from Union-
 town to Greensburgh, is now com-
 pleted.  Its construction is on prin-
 ciples entirely new, and is perhaps
 the only one of the  kind  in  the
 world.   It is solely supported by
 two  iron chains, extended over 4
 piers,  14  feet  higher than  the
 bridge fastened in the  ground at
the ends, describing a curve line,
touching the level of the bridge in
the centre.  The first tier of joists
are .hung to the  chains,  by iron
pendants  or stirrups of different
lengths,  so  as  to form a level of
the whole.  The bridge is  of 70
feet  span,  and  13 feet wide;  the
chains are of an inch square bar,
in links from five to ten feet long,
but so that there is a joint, where
each pendant must bear.
  The projector, has made  many
experiments, to ascertain the real
strength of  iron, and asserts, that
an  inch square  bar of tolerable
iron, in this position will hear be-
tween thirty and forty tons, and of
course, less than one-eighth part
of the iron employed in the bridge,
would be sufficient to bear the neat
weight thereof, being about twelve
or thirteen tons.
   Mr. Findley, embarked in this
business at his own risk, and en-
gaged that the work should endure
at least  fifty  years (except what
should be necessary for repairs of
flooring) for the moderate sum of
six hundred dollars.  He further
observes, that  a bridge o: the same
width and 280 fe.t span,  would he
about  50 tons weight, the chains
double as strong as the foregoing,
the  whole  of the  iron  required,
would then amount to 6 tons, and
say the smith-work to half its va-
lue.  The piers 46 feet 8 inches
high....These  chains,  so placed,
would support 240 tons, deduct  its
own weight of timber, and so much
of the iron,  as falls between  the.
piers,  say 53 tons, remainder 237
tons.]
  BRINE, or Pickle, is water sa-
turated with saline particles.  It is
either native, as the sea-water ;  or
factitious, when formed by a solu-
tion  of salt in  water.
  Pickle made  according  to the
common rule, that  il should  bear
an egg, may be sufficiently strong
to preserve substances intended for
early use.  A true pickle, however,
for preserving meat, fish, and but-
ter, during  a  long voyage, ought
to be boiled  down till the salt be-
gins to crystalize, which is disco-
verable by a thin scum on the sur-
face of the liquid while it continues
over the  fire.   The water being
then  completely saturated  with
salt, the pickle is perfect.
  In the salt-works at Upwick, in
Worcestershire, a pit yields at the 
406        BRI

same time three sorts of brine, of
different degrees of strength.  This
pit is worked by  a pump, and the
strongest salt first brought up from
the bottom, is called^rs^ man ; the
next, which is of an inferior qua-
lity, is  denominated middle man ;
and the third,  or weakest, last man.
   Leach brine is  what drops  from
the granulated salt in drying : it is
preserved and boiled a second time,
being stronger than  the  brine of
the pit. The species of sand found
in  the  Staffordshire brines, after
coction, is  supposed  by  natural-
ists to be produced by that opera-
tion,  as it was not previously found
in the water.
   Brine pan,  a place  where salt-
water is  confined and exposed to
the heat of the sun, by which salt
is obtained by evaporation.
   Brine-springs,  those saline foun-
tains which  yield water  for the
manufacture  of  salt.   It  is sup-
posed that the  saline  spring  at
Namptwich,  in  Cheshire, would
be sufficient  to  yield salt for the
consumption ofthe whole country.
   Besides this,  there  are several
other remarkable brine-springs in
England, particularly that of East-
Chennock,in Somersetshire, which
rises twenty miles from the sea ;
and another  at  Barrowdale, near
Keswick,  in  Cumberland.  The
latter rises in a  plain near a bog,
and  sixteen  gallons of the water
yield one of pure salt, which  is
the more remarkable, as  an  equal
quantity  cannot  be  obtained from
less than twenty-two gallons of the
waters  of the German ocean.
   There are  several  other salt-
springs  beside those above  men-
tioned,  particularly  at  a place  in
Durham, called Salt-water Haugh,
where a multitude of saline springs
rise in the river Wear, to the ex-
            BRI

tent of about forty yards in length,
and ten in breadth.  One of these,
which  issues  from a rock is so
strong, that in the space of a hot
summer's day, the surface is cover-
ed with pure crystalized salt.   In
these springs the water is strongest
at the bottom,  and richer in dry
than in wet weather.  They gene-
rally yield four ounces of salt to a
pound of brine.  It is probable that
there is an immense mass of fos-
sil salt in the  bowels of the earth
in the counties where these springs
arise.   There  are  several other
substances dissolved in  this water
beside salt, particularly  sulphure-
ous matter, an impure ochre which
discolours the brine,  but speedily
subsides ;  and in most, a selenitic
earth is found deposited at the bot-
tom of the salt-pans.
   Brining of Corn....See Smut.
   [BRISTOL MINERAL WA-
TERS, are near the town of Bris-
tol, twenty miles north of Phila-
delphia.    Dr.  De Normandie
first analysed them, as appears by
his paper in the  1st volume ofthe
Transactions of the American  Phi-
losophical Society, and  they were
again subjected to  a more critical
examination  by  Dr. Rush ;  both
these physicians found them strong-
ly  impregnated  with iron, and it
is certain that they have produced
very excellent effects in all cases
of  general debility,  whether re-
sulting from previous disease, or
natural causes.   They powerfully
increase the appetite ; and in cases
of  jaundice,  or of  great weak-
ness and derangement of the sys-
tem, attended with chronic  liver
complaints, they have  frequently
been of great service.  In a relax-
ation of the stomach and nerves,
which very often produce violent
sick headachs,  the  Bristol  wa- 
BRO
B R O        407
ters  when used in the way of a
shower-bath, and also drank freely,
are truly valuable.  They have been
highly useful in gravelly complaints:
they must, however, be drank re-
gularly, and aided  by temperance,
and the strict observance of such a
diet as is found to  agree best with
the stomach.  From half a pint to
a pint, may be taken three times a
day:  when the cold bath is used,
care must be taken  to  accommo-
date it to the strength  of the pa-
tient.  At first, the  water may be
a  little warmed;  afterwards, the
water should be used of its natural
temperature.
   Bristol waters were formerly
much  used ; but they have latterly
given way to the more fashionable
places at Ball-town, New-York, and
the springs of Virginia.]
   BROAD-CAST, a term in hus-
bandry, used to denote  a particular
mode of sowing corn,  pulse, tur-
nips,  clover,  grasses,   and  most
field-plants. When seeds  are scat-
tered  over the  surface   of the
ground by the hand, they  are said
to be sown in broad cast; by which
this method is distinguished from
drilling,  and  horse-hoeing, or the
new husbandly.
   The  comparative merit  of the
drill and broad-cast, has, by several
experiments, been determined in
favor of  the  former.  One of the
most practical details on this sub-
ject, was communicated to the So-
ciety for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures,  and  Commerce,  by
Mr. Boote, of Atherstone, who,
in the year 1789, obtained the gold
medal from  that patriotic institu-
tion, as  an acknowledgement  of
his merit, in ascertaining this inte-
resting point.
   Mr. Boote  selected a  piece of
cold clay land of twenty acres, four
of which were drilled with  four
bushels of w heat; and, at the same
time, four acres adjoining, of a si-
milar soil, were sown in the broad-
cast  way, with ten bushels of the
same grain.
  In the beginning of April 1788,
the drilled  wheat was first  hoed,
and again in the last week of the
same month, when the broad-cast
was also hoed, with hoes of a pro-
per size for the purpose.
  At harvest,  the crops were se-
parately  reaped and threshed, to
ascertain  the  difference of  each
produce.  That of the four acres
drilled was one hundred and nine-
teen bushels, one gallon, and four
pints ; and the four acres  broad-
cast  yielded  ninety  four bushels,
two gallons, and four pints.  Hence
the difference in favour of the for-
mer,  was twenty-four bushels, se-
ven gallons, valued at five shillings
and six pence  a bushel, together
with six bushels of seed saved by
drilling, which  cost seven shillings
and four pence half-penny a bushel,
amounting in the whole to nine
pounds one  shilling, and  three
farthings.
  In this comparative experiment,
a bushel of wheat produced by the
broad-cast  was  nearly  equal  in
weight to a bushel of  that obtained
from  the drill.  Mr. Green way,
however, by an experiment made
in the year  1787, found  that the
grain of his drilled crop was supe-
rior  to that of his broad-cast, not
only in quantity but in quality, the
former weighing two pounds per
bushel more than the latter.   But
as his broad-cast crop was not hoed,
it may be fairly inferred, that it did
not arrive at full  maturity, either
in consequence of the injury done
to it by weeds, or for want of the
soil being pulverized by the hoe. 
408        B R O]

  The superiority ofthe drill me-
thod, in the culture of turnips, wa:i
ascertained  by Mr. Dann, of Gil-
lingham, and the  silver medal of
tne Society adjudged to him forhis
successful experiment.
  On the 6th of July,   1789, he
drilled four  acres of  turnips, and,
on t<i? same day, in the same field,
he sowed two acres broad-cast.  A
very considerable difference ap-
peared in favour ofthe drilled plants
iioni their first coming up, in con-
sequence of which he  sowed no
more  by broad-cast.  The drilled
turnips were ready for hoeing five
or six days before those that were
sown broad-cast  on the  same day.
Besides drilled turnips being less
liable  to injury from frost, and less
difficult to hoe, than those sown by
broad-cast, about three-fifths of the
seed used in the latter method, are
sufficient for the ground when dril-
led. When  the turnips were come
to maturity, Mr.  Dann  selected
two perches from each of those cul-
tivated according to  the diherent
methods before  mentioned, and
found that the two perches drilled,
produced 494lbs. and those broad-
cast only 446lbs....making a dif-
ference of 48lbs. in favour of the
former method.
  It must be evident to  the agri-
culturist, that seed deposited from
one and a half to  three inches deep
in the soil will vegetate sooner, and
grow faster, than that sown on  the
surface, which  is  seldom  buried
deeper than from one-quartei of an
inch to an inch....at a season, when
moisture is particularly requisite
for the growth of the plant.
  BROCCOLI,  a species of  the
Brassica, or Cabbage-plant, culti-
vated  for the use of the table......
There  are several kinds of this
plant, particularly the purple, the
            BRO

white, and the black broccoli,  &c.
but the  Roman, or pin pie species,
is preferable  to all  others.  The
seeds of this vegetable should  be
sown about the latter end of May,
or beginning  of June, and when
the young plants have germinated
eight leaves, they should be trans-
planted into beds. By this manage-
ment, towardsthe latter end of July
they will be fit to be planted out
in  some well  sheltered  piece  of
ground, at the distance  of a foot
and  a half in the  rows,  and  two
feet  between each row.
  The soil proper for broccoli is
rather  light  than  heavy.  The
brown or black species, though in-
ferior to the Roman is much har-
dier. It should be sown in the mid-
dle of May, and planted about two
feet  and a half asunder.   Naples
broccoli has a white head similar
to the cauliflower, and is scarcely
distinguishable from it in  flavour.
  According lo Dr.  Darwin, the
cultivation of broccoli and cauli-
flower must be very similar, ex-
cept as  to the seasons of the year;
for they are varieties of the same
species.  The following directions
for the culture of this plant were
transmitted to the Doctor by Mr.
Tighe, of Ireland ; which for their
practical utility, we shall lay before
our  readers.
  Broccoli may be so managed, as
to supply the table with a delicious
and  salutary vegetable during  se-
ven  months of the  year, namely,
from the beginning  of November
till  the  end of May. For this pur-
pose, procure prime seed  from
Rome or Naples, both for early and
late  sowing.  Sow at the cessation
of the vernal snows, and  repeat it
once a month till the end  of May,
or longer.  When three leaves  ap-
pear, transplant them ;  and when 
BRO
B R O        409
»ix leaves appear, transplant them
a second time. Afterwards in'June,
July and August, transplant them
again two or three feet asunder,
and let them remain. During Sep-
tember and October, the ground
must be loosened, repeatedly clear-
ed from weeds and stones, and the
plants earthed up, to preserve their
roots from the frost, and to prevent
their being injured by the equinoc-
tial  winds.  Sprinkle  the mould
about them occasionally with wa-
ter impregnated with dung.  Care
should be taken to sow  and  plant
them at a distance from  hedges,
trees, and walls.
   The head of the broccoli is ge-
nerally  completed  in  five or six
days from its first appearance, and
should  not be suffered  to  remain
much longer;  the  stalk  may be
boiled with the flower, but should
be peeled before it  is  brought to
the  table.
   Some kinds  of Italian  broccoli
are  said to produce bulbs  at their
roots, which are supposed to be for
the  purpose of supporting  other
stems.  If such stalks appear, they
should  be broken  off  when the
principal stem is transplanted.
   In order to obtain good  seed of
the  Naples broccoli, a  few of the
largest heads ofthe earliest growth
must be reserved to run up to seed.
All  the under  shoots   should  be
taken off from time to time as they
sprout, leaving only the principal
stem to produce flowers and seed.
By this management,  if no  other
species of cabbage be permitted to
seed near  the broccoli, its  seeds
will be as good as those imported,
and the propagation  of the  plant
may thus be continued  for many
\,urs.
   BROME-GRASS, or  Bromus,
L. a genus of plants comprehend-
ing  forty-six species.
  1. The  Secatinus,  or Smooth
RyeBrome-grass; the Polymorphus
of Withering ; which flowers in
July.  Cattle are  fond of this grass,
the  seeds of which  are prevalent
among rye, in a considerable pro-
portion, and when ground with the
latter for bread, not only render it
blackish, but produce a narcotic or
stupifying effect.  From its flower-
bundles, as Bechstein informs us,
a beautiful green dye may be easi-
ly extracted.
  2. The mollis,  or  Soft Brome-
grass, Lob-grass  or  Oat-grass, is
mostly  found growing in  corn-
fields, though sometimes in mea-
dows, pastures,  hedge-banks,  and
even on walls: flowers in May and
June. Bechstein affirms that this
plant affords  a very agreeable  fod-
der to all kinds of cattle, and that
it deserves to be cultivated on sandy
lands, as being well adapted to con-
solidate the soil.   But its  merits
and  demerits, in  an agricultural
view, are not sufficiently ascertain-
ed.   Mr. Swayne says, that it is
a troublesome weed in corn-Iields,
and therefore disliked by farmers ;
while it is of little value  in pastures
and mowing grounds, where it ge-
nerally sheds its seed before the
time of mowing, and produces ve-
ry few root-leaves.
  3. The pinnatus (Festuca pin-
nata, L.) or Spiked Heath Brome-
grass is  found growing on heaths,
and  fields of a calcareous  soil : it
flowers  in  July.  This grass is
much relished by cattle of everv
description, but especially by sheep
and  goats.
  It deserves to he- remarked, with
respect to the different species of
brome-grass, that,though theymay
be allowed to grow in meadows and
pasture grounds, their seeds should
not  be  suffered  to mingle with
corn.. To extirpate this  noxious 
410        B R O
BRO
weed from rye and wheat grounds,
the farmer will find it  his interest
to employ (as is frequently done on
the  continent)  young people, or
even children,  in  early weeding.
Such an expedient should be par-
ticularly adopted, when the crop of
a promising  field  of  wheat is in-
tended for seed-corn ;  as, by this
precaution, not only the land may
be cleared of the pernicious  roots,
but the  farther propagation of this
weed will be  effectually prevented.
Lastly,  the seeds of brome-grass,
when mixed  with corn, render it
much lighter, and consequently of
less  value to those who purchase
and  sell grain by weight.
  BRONZE, a metallic compound
of copper and tin, to  which zinc
and other substances are sometimes
added.  It is hard, brittle, sonorous
and  specifically  heavier than the
metals of which it is composed.
  M. Tillet, in his memoir con-
cerning the ductility of metals, ob-
serves, that in bronze the colour of
the copper is totally disguised by
that of  the tin,  even  though the
proportion of the former be  four-
fifths to that of the latter.   This
compound is much more fusible
than copper alone, and less liable to
be covered with verdigrise.
  From the properties here enu-
merated it appears, that bronze is
well calculated for the casting of
bells, cannons;  statues, and other
works exposed to the air and wea-
ther.
  Bronze-colour, in  imitation of
the metal, is much used  by  the
colourmen of Paris, who  prepare
two  sorts of  it, namely,  the red
bronze,  and the yellow or golden :
the latter is made solely of the very
finest and brightest copper-dust ;
the former is prepared ofthe same
material, by adding a small propor-
tion of well pulverised red ochi c.
Both are  applied, with varnishes,
to  the outside of substances,  as
gold leaves are in gilding. But, to
prevent it from turning green, the
bronzed work should,  as soon as
laid on, be carefully dried over a
chafing-dish.
   BROOK, a little river, or small
current of water.  It is distinguish-
ed  from a river  by this circum-
stance, that in general it has a cur-
rent  only  at  particular  seasons,
whereas a  river flows  throughout
the year.
   Considerable damage is  some-
times occasioned  by the overflow
of brooks,  in consequence of sud-
den and heavy falls of rains.  An
inundation is caused by a stoppage
of  the water in its course, which
prevents it from running off as fast
as  it comes in;  consequently, if
the channel for the efflux be larger
than that for the  influx, the water
will not overflow  the banks. Thus
by opening the channel ofthe river
Welland, at Harborough, in Lei-
cestershire, England, to a consider-
able distance  below  the bridge,
the river has never since overflow-
ed the town, as it formerly did after
sudden rain.
 The legislature  has enforced the
clearing of the  channels  of brooks
near turnpike-roads, by  enacting,
that the commissioners shall give
notice in writing, to the overseers
of the highways, of the several pa-
rishes through which such brooks
or rivers flow,  to open  their re-
spective channels, that the water
may have free passaere.
  BROOK-LIME,  the  Veronica
Beccabunga, L. a species of Speed-
well, growing  in slow  shallow
streams and near  springs that sel-
dom  freeze.   The  whole of this
perennial plant is smooth and sue- 
            BRO

eulent;  the  stem creeping; the
leaves are egg-shaped, flat,  ser-
rated with glands; the blossoms
which are blue, appear in June and
July....We have  mentioned it as
one  of the  neglected vegetables,
which may occasionally be  used
for culinary purposes, and particu-
larly as a salad.
  BROOM,the Common,or Spar-
tium scoparium, L. an indigenous
plant, very common on sandy pas-
tures and heaths, and requiring no
particulardescription. When grow-
ing of a large size, the broom de-
serves a place among our flowering
shrubs, on account ofthe profusion
of its gold-coloured blossoms.   Its
use  is very extensive, not  only in
domestic economy, but likewise in
the arts, and in medicine. Although
this  vegetable is  chiefly employed
for  making   brooms,  thatching
houses, and covering stacks in pre-
ference to straw, as it more  readily
admits the air into the stack, and
equally well secures it from rain ;
yet it also serves as a substitute for
the  oak-bark, in  the tanning of
leather ; for  which  purpose both
the twigs and branches are usefully
employed.  The old  wood of the
common broom furnishes the cabi-
net-maker  with  most  beautiful
materials for veneering.  In some
places, the tender branches of this
plant are mixed with hops in brew-
ing ; but we  doubt whether they
are .wholesome, as it is affirmed
that  sheep become intoxicated by
browsing upon them. The  flower-
buds may be preserved as pickles,
and eaten instead of capers. From
the roasted seeds, a kind of coffee
has  been made by the house-wife,
though of inferior taste to that ob-
tained from the roots of the carrot,
beet, succory, &c
  The macerated bark of the broom
     VOL. I.
            BRO        411

has been found sufficiently fibrous
and  elastic, to be  manufactured
into cloth.....A tolerably pure alka-
line salt is produced by burning the
whole plant.
  In proof of the medicinal proper-
ties of this vegetable, Dr. Mkad
relates the case of a dropsical per-
son,  who was recovered by taking
half a pint ofthe decoction of green
broom-tops, with  a  spoonful  of
whole  mustard seed, every morn-
ing and evening. The patient had
been tapped three times, and had
tried the usual remedies to no pur-
pose. Dr. Withering, on this oc-
casion,  observes, that an infusion
of the seeds, drank freely, has been
known to produce similar happy
effects ; but whoever expects such
benefit to follow in every dropsical
case, will be greatly deceived. He
has known them  succeed in one
case that was truly deplorable ; but
out of a greatnumber of trials fairly
made, this  proved  to be  the  only
instance, in which  the  medicine
had a good effect. A strong lixivium
of the ashes was used in the Swed-
ish army, in the year 1759 for the
cure of dropsies consequent  to a
catarrhal  epidemic  fever.   The
urine became plentiful, and the pa-
tients were soon  restored to per-
fect health.
  Broom, the Spanish, or Sparti-
um junccum,  L. an exotic shrub,
which may be easily cultivated  in
our climate, by sowing it either  in
the spring or autumn :  but as th«
plants will not succeed  when re-
moved after attaining a large size,
they should be transplanted before
they are two years old....The twigs
are employed for basket-work, and
the flowers afford a plentiful sup-
ply of food for bees : hence the cul-
ture  of this shrub is recommended
near bee-hives,
     3 F 
412        BRO
BRO
   Broom-gras-.    See  Brome-
grass.
   BROTH, a liquor in which the
flesh  of animals has been boiled  ;
and which is rendered palatable by
the addition of herbs, kc. If other
ingredients  be used, such as rice,
pearl-barley,  oat-meal,  &c. it is
then  generally called .<;•,?<•;;.
   We have already, in the  article
Beef-tea,  pointed  out the com-
mon error, that broth is more easi-
ly digested  than solid  food.  And
though we  are  countenanced in
this  opinion by the most enlight-
ened physicians of the age, yet, we
fear,  that old customs and deep-
rooted prejudices will  continue to
prevail,  while supported by  so
many old  women, beside those
of the faculty.   Perhaps nothing
but experimental conviction of the
contrary, can produce  a change of
sentiments imbibed with the  mo-
ther's milk.   Mutton-broth, veal-
broth, and chicken-broth, are such
comfortable things, when the ap-
petite is disordered, and the sto-
mach  fastidious, that they are ge-
nerally administered in all states of
fever, without any  regard  to the
nature of the disease, or the  con-
stitution of the patient.   In  this
preposterous manner, the stomach
is inundated,  and the  bowels  are
drenched, till all their tone  and
vigour are irrecoverably destroyed.
Indeed, from the slight degree of
attention  paid  to  the  subject of
diet, an accurate observer may be
led to conclude, that the stomach
is destined  for  a certain time to
serve the purpose of a laboratory,
where the effect of medicines  is to
be ascertained, before  the vessel to
be used in this chemical process
 has acquired  sufficient vigour to
withstand the attack.   Yet  such  is
the  infatuation  of  the  multitude,
that they would rather encourage
the prosperous commerce in eme-
tics and purgatives, than  listen to
suggestions, which  tend  to con-
fute spurious  notions ;   and,  by
correcting  their former  errors,
would eventually deprive  them of
many favourite  cups and dishe.i.
Thus,  we are not vain enough to
flatter  ourselves with  producing
such a  change  on the prevailing
manner  of  living, as  to banish
either  teas or broths to their pro-
per places, the apothecary's shops;
and  to  substitute in their  room,
more wholesome articles  of nutri-
ment ; though we are firmly per-
suaded, from  reason and  daily ex-
perience,  that the  physical order
of things has also been perverted in
the present age, and that  the swal-
lowing of drugs is not a  primary,
but a secondary, object in the cure
of diseases.
   To return from this digression,
which every friend of suffering hu-
manity will  readily excuse,  we
shall give a few directions for pre-
paring broths from other substan-
ces, besides those made of butcher's
meat.
   Artificial  Broth.   Dr.  Darwin
observes,  that all the mushrooms
which are cooked at our tables, as
well as the ketchup made by pre-
serving their juices in salt and wa-
ter, possess an animal flavour.  In
proof  of this,  the  following cir-
cumstance may  be .idduced, which
occurred  in  a family of invalids,
who frequently wanted weak broth :
the sagacious cook-maid repeatedly
deceived them, by administering a
mixture of thin  gruel with a small
quantity of good ketchup, adding
only a little salt, and a few shred-
leaves of parsley.
   Fish-broth,  though nourishing,
is by no means equal to that made
of wholesome butcher's meat.  Af-
ter separating the  heads of fish, 
BRO
BRU        413
 gutting,  and  carefully cleansing
 them from the gall, put them into
 an earthen pipkin, or a tin sauce-
 pan, and  cover them with water,
 from half an inch to one inch above
 their surface,  accordingly as  the
 broth  is  intended to  be  weak or
 strong. Onions, parsley, or celery,
 may be added at pleasure, and the
 whole  should be seasoned with
 pepper and salt.   After simmering
 the fish over a gentle fire,  till they
 fall to  pieces, add a proportionate
 lump of fresh butter well  floured :
 when this is dissolved, and the li-
 quor strained  from the bones, the
 broth is  ready for the table ;  and
 may be  eaten with  bread,  either
 toastcdorplain.The fish best adapt-
 ed for making this palatable soup,
 are mackerel, perch,  roach, dace,
 gudgeons, bleak, or minnows. And
 though we do  not recommend the
 preparation of such liquid dishes as
 eligible, either in  point of health
 or economy, yet as fish in  many
 places, especially near the  sea-
 coast,  are of easy purchase, they
 may occasionally serve as good sub-
 stitutes for more solid animal food,
 for which we have lately submitted
 to pay anexhorbitant and unreason-
 able price.
   Broth for horses, was formerly
 considered  as  an  useful medicine
 for these  noble animals, especially
 in all complaints of the bowels, or
 the colic. Some farriers also com-
 mended the  use of broth made of
 tripe, on  account  of its  mucila-
 ginous quality, in fevers and other
 distempers, which prevent  a horse
 from feeding. From later and more
 accurate  observations, however, it
 appears  that liquid animal food,
 being contrary to  their nature, is
 pernicious to granivorouscreatures,
 and may generate such disorders as
cannot be easily  remedied.  The
 use of broth  should therefore be
 confined  to the  administration  of
 clysters when a  horse is costive :
 thus, by  injecting  two  or three
 quarts  of a fat and emollient de-
 coction, prepared either of tripe or
 other intestinal substances contain-
 ing fatty matter, the crude visci-
 dities of  the bowels may  be re-
 lieved.  If the guts be very  full, so
 as to require a strong stimulus,
 more or less common salt may be
 added to the clyster, without which
 the operation  will seldom succeed.
   BRUISES, or contusions, being
 frequently neglected at  first, may
 produce consequences more  alarm-
 ing than those of wounds.  Blows
 received on  the head, pit  of the
 stomach, hip, or the knee, are the
 most dangerous. A  violent inflam-
 mation, in consequence of injured
 nerves, or the destruction of blood
 vessels, often  occasions the  morti-
 fication of those  parts, which the
 most skilful  treatment  cannot re-
 trieve, if the accident be neglected
 for many hours or days.   Instead,
 therefore, of listening  to officious
 old women, or neighbours,  an ex-
 perienced surgeon ought instantly
 to be consulted.  We  know a re-
 cent melancholy instance,of a most
 promising youth,  who, when  study-
 ing physic at Edinburgh, was so
 improvident as to suffer a  slight
 contusion on the  knee to pass un-
 noticed  ; which,  however, proved
 fatal to  him a week after the acci-
 dent.
   When  the  contusion is  slight,
 fomentations with lukewarm vine-
 gar and  water, repeatedly applied
 to the part, will  generally relieve
 it: but  if it be of a more serious
nature,  either decoctions of the
German  leopard's  bane  (Arnica
montana, L.)  or arquebusade wa-
ter may be preferably used....Dr. 
414        BRU
BRU
Buchan inform  us, that he has
often  seen  cataplasms  of  fresh
cow-dung applied to violent con-
tusions occasioned by blows, falls,
bruises, &c and never knew them
fail to have a good effect. In more
violent cases of this nature, the pa-
tient's diet and regimen ought to
be in  every respect similar to that
suggested  under the head of In-
flammation.
   Bruises,  if  neglected, even  in
temperate  climates,  are often at-
tended with  painful  effects ;  but
they frequently prove fatal in  hot
countries.....With a  view to pre-
vent  inflammation, Dr. Dancer
advises speedily to apply embroca-
tions, consisting of opodeldoc ; of
camphor and strong  rum ; or of
both the  last mentioned articles
with a little soap ; to which a small
quantity of laudanum may be add-
ed. Should the inflammatory  symp-
toms  increase, he directs the  fol-
lowing  saturnine  solution  to  be
employed :  Let one or two tea-
spoonfuls  of  Goulard's  extract, or
from  one to two drams of sugar
of lead, be combined with 8 oz. of
water, 4 oz.  of  vinegar,  and  two
tea-spoonfuls of laudanum.  Last-
ly, to  remove the debility  which
usually remains  after contusions,
or sprains of the joints, he recom-
mends the affusion of cold  water,
or stimulating frictions, and elec-
tricity.
   Bruises of d^gs, which they of-
ten receive either in hunting, or by
other accidents, may be cured, ac-
cording to Professor Bradley, in
the following manner :  If a bruise
appear externally, anoint the swell-
ing with a decoction of chickweed
and  groundsel, boiled  in  strong
ale ;  which will assuage the pain,
and reduce the tumor :  but, if it
be a wound, cut away the hair, and
cover it with  a  plaster made of
equal quantities  of the roots of
great comfrey, melilot, and oil of
roses.   As  the  latter, however,
might be too  expensive an  ingre-
dient, we  recommend either to
substitute a little of the  spirit of
turpentine, or more simply, to lay
two or three folds of the common
black,  adhesive plaster on the in-
jured part, immediately after the
accident, so as  to  prevent bleed-
ing,  and to exclude the air.   But,
if there be reason  to suspect that
the bruise is inward, give the dog a
drench, composed of a pint of new
milk, and a quarter of an ounce of
spermaceti.
   Bruises on the withers of a Horse,
arise from pinches of the saddle,
and  from want of care, often im-
posthumate,  and  turn fistulous.
Such tumors  may be bathed three
or four times a day  with warm
vinegar;   and if this   application
proves ineffectual, either an ounce>
ofthe oil of vitriol, or half an ounce
of white vitriol, dissolved in a little
water, should be  mixed  with a
quart of vinegar, which makes an
excellent repellent  lotion, and will
frequently  prevent the  formation of
an abscess.   But when the swell-
ing is attended with heat, smarting,
and  little watery pimples, the fol-
lowing  mixture may be preferably
applied : take two ounces of crude
sal ammoniac, boiled in a quart of
lime-water ; or, instead of these, a
handful of wood,  or  pearl-ashes,
boiled in common water ; pour off
the  decoction, when   settled, and
mix it  with half a pint of spirit of
wine ;  anoint the parts afterwards
with linseed   oil,  or   elder  oint-
ment, to  soften and   smooth the
skin.
   In critical   swellings,  however,
the  repelling  method  must  be 
BRU
BRU        41S
avoided, and the swelling relieved
by suppurating poultices.  These
tumours ought never to be opened
before they  are ripe, but suffered
to break of themselves ; otherwise
the whole sore will be spongy, dis-
charge a bloody  ichor, and  soon
degenerate  into an  ulcer.   The
openings, however, may be enlarg-
ed,  and the  lips pared away, that
the dressings may be easily applied,
taking care  to avoid the ligament,
which runs  along the  neck to the
withers.  If  a suppuration appears
on  the opposite side, let it be treat-
ed in the same manner. The open-
ings  should incline downward, to
let  the matter flow out easily.  If
the bones are foul, they must be
dressed with tincture of myrrh, till
they scale off.  When the fungus
is very troublesome, and the matter
discharged is oily, yellow, and vis-
cid, pledgets soaked in the follow-
ing preparation will be found be-
neficial : take of blue  vitriol, dis-
solved in  a  pint of water, half an
ounce ; oil of turpentine, and rec-
tified spirit  of  wine, of each four
ounces ;  white wine vinegar, six
ounces ;  oil of vitriol,  and Egyp-
tiacum, of each two ounces.   Let
this be made hot, and the pledgets
soaked in it, and then immediately
applied to the part affected, taking
care to bathe the swelling round it
with spirit of  wine and vinegar....
When the cavities are fistulous, the
callosities must be cut out with a
knife, where it can be done conve-
niently, and the remainder be de-
stroyed by corrosives.
  BRUSH, a domestic implement,
consisting generally of a collection
of  hairs or  bristles,  fastened in a
frame of wood,  bone or  ivory ;
with,  or  without a handle ; and
used  for various purposes.   This
simple manufacture is capable of
great improvement;  as we seldom
meet with  brushes, the  hair of
which  is so firmly cemented,  or
otherwise secured in  the frame, as
to ensure their constant use, until
the hair  itself is worn out by me-
chanical  friction.  We shall, un-
der the head of Cement, commu-
nicate a few hints for remedying
this defect.
  Flesh-Brush, an  instrument fre-
quently employed  for increasing
the circulation of the fluids in lan-
guid habits, especially in paralytic
and rheumatic cases, in order to
relieve pain and uneasiness of the
skin.  Although we  do not depre-
cate, but rather strongly recom-
mend, friction to the aged and se-
dentary in  particular,  yet we are
of opinion that this simple and use-
ful  opperation may be performed
with equal  ease, and more atten-
tion to cleanliness, by a piece of
flannel, than by a flesh-brush ; be-
cause  the  perspirable matter ad-
hering to each hair of the latter, is
thus spread from one  part of the
body to another : whereas the for-
mer may be frequently turned, and
afterwards  washed,  as often  as is
necessary.
   Stomach-Brush, a curious instru-
ment which  excited considerable
attention about the middle of the
last century.  It was invented by
the ancient physicians, but again
brought  forward by  the surgeons
of  France  and Germany,  with a
view to scour or  cleanse   the
stomach, or remove foreign bodies
fallen down the fauces and gullet.
It consists  of a piece  of sponge
fastened  to  a long  whale-bone
probe ; or is composed of soft hair,
formed into a fascicle by twisted
brass or  steel-wire, the handle or
stem of  which may  be invested
with silk or thread.   Previous to 
416       BRU
BRU
its application, the patient drinks a
small draught of warm water; then
the brush being moistened in some
convenient liquor,  is  introduced
into  the gullet, and slowly pro-
truded into the  stomach, by  twist-
ing round  its wire handle.   We
doubt, however, whether many of
our readers would submit to this
painful operation, which we have
mentioned here, on the authority of
the Gentleman's Magazine  for De-
cember,  1750; where a  medical
correspondent farther advises  the
operator to  draw the handle  of
this  brush up  and down  in  the
stomach,  and  through the oeso-
phagus,  like   the  sucker  in a
syringe  till it be, at length, wholly
extracted. He farther suggests the
utility of plentiful drinking, while
the brush is at work, and so long as
any foul matters  are discharged.
Those readers  who incline  to try
the experiment  (which probably no
modern surgeon would recommend,
unless for  removing material ob-
structions in  the throat, See.) will
find  a cut of this instrument in the
work above-mentioned. See Gul-
let, Windpipe, and [Probang.]
   Tooth-Brush....Many complaints
prevail  concerning the imperfect
manner in whichthese instruments
are manufactured.  We shall not
presume to offer any advice  to the
mechanic ; having, in this respect,
uniformly  deprecated  the  use of
either brushes or sponges. Regard-
less of vulgar prejudices,we venture
to recommend  the application of
the small finger to the gums, w hen
there are no interstices between the
teeth ; or the use of a soft  piece of
calico :  the former  is  a  natural
instrument, not liable  to hurt the
gums, as  it has  the advantage of
being soft and pliable ;  and,  by
feeling  the least pressure or  resist-
ance, will have no tendency to in-
jure the teeth or gums. Nothing,
therefore, but injudicious delicacy
can  oppose this  simple  substitu-
tion.
  BRUTE, a general name for all
animals, except mankind.  Among
brutes, the monkey kind bears the
nearest resemblance to the  human
race, both in external shape, and
internal organization.  Investiga-
tions relative to the structure and
economy of  brutes, form the sub-
ject of what is called  Comparative
Anatonr;.
  The essential characteristics of
brutes, by  which they may be dis-
tinguished from man, have  attract-
ed the attention of many philoso-
phers.  By  some, a   brute is de-
fined to be an animal not risible, or
a living creature incapable of laugh-
ter ;  by others a mute animal. The
peripatetics allowed to brutes a sen-
sitive power, but denied them a ra-
tional one.   The Platonists consi-
dered them as possessed of reason
and understanding ;  though, in a
degree less pure and refined than
that of man.  Descartes main-
tained that brutes are  mere inani-
mate machines, destitute not only
of reason,  but of all thought and
perception ; and that  their actions
are  only'consequences of the ex-
quisite mechanism of their bodies.
This opinion was probably adopted
by  Descartes  with a view to ob-
viate two objections of great mag-
nitude : one,  against  the immor-
tality ofthe souls of brutes, if they
be allowed to have any ; the other,
against the  goodness of God, in
suffering creatures which hadnever
sinned to be subject  to so many
miseries.  The Cartesian  system
is far from being  conclusive, be-
cause, even  admitting the  argu-
ments in its favour, to their utmost 
BRU
BRY        417
extent, it only establishes the pos-
sibility of brutes being inanimate,
and that the power of God is capa-
ble  of producing various actions
from  inanimate  machines, but by
no means proves that he actually
has done so ; besides which, it is
defective, because it has  no limits,
as by the Cartesian method of ar-
guing, every man might prove his
neighbour to be an inanimate  ma-
chine, as well as a brute.
  The most rational tipposers of
theCartesian system,maintain  that
brutes are  endowed with, a princi-
ple of sensation, though of an in-
ferior nature to ours.   From  this
subject many disputes have origin-
ated ; some persons insisting that
the soul in  brutes, is merely sensi-
tive, and that they are entirely  des-
titute of reason and understand-
ing ; others, that  they  not oifly
possess the power of reason, but
employ it to greater advantage than
men  do.  That brutes are endow-
ed  only  with sensation, and  are
destitute of all  power of reason-
ing, or reflection, cannot be main-
tained upon good grounds, nor can
it be asserted  that their  actions
proceed entirely from  instinct. It
is proved by numerous  instances,
that education will overcome many
of the natural  instincts of brutes,
which could never be  the case, if
they  were absolutely incapable of
reflection.   On the other hand, it
is certain that no brute  has ever
yet  been sufficiently qualified by
instructions, either  lo understand
the use of fire, or to undertake the
management of that element ; a
circumstance that  alone seems to
imply a total defect of rationality.
   There is a very  ingenious trea-
tise on this subject, published by
the late Prof.BERGMANN,entitled,
" Researches designed  to shew
what the Brute Animals  certainly
are not, and also what they proba-
bly are." He proves that they are
not machines,  without, however,
considering them as beings whose
actions are  directed to moral ends,
or as accountable creatures subject
to future rewards or punishments.
   That brutes are  capable of re-
flection an 1 sentiment, and are sus-
ceptible ofthe kindly as well as the
irascible passions, independently of
sexual attachment and natural af-
fection, is evident,  from the  vari-
ous instances of regard and grati-
tude daily  observable in  different
animals, particularly the dog : of
these and other sentiments,  such
as pride and glory, many surpris-
ing and indubitable proofs are ex-
hibited by the elephant, of which
we shall give some account in its
proper  place.
   But,  besides  the  qualities above
alluded to, certain animals seem,
on many occasions, to be inspired
with a kind of presentiment,  with
respect to events unforeseen by the
rational  beings whom they  con-
cern ; and various instances of this
faculty  may probably occur to the
recollection of most of our readers.
   By Divine Revelation,  brutes
are held out to us as objects of
mercy :  nothing, therefore, can be,
agreater reproach to humannature,
than  cruelty towards  dumb and
helpless animals.   Ofthe differ-
ent species of  cruelty, none was
more general in England, particu-
larly in the metropolis, than  that
of bullock-hunting ; but it is to be
hoped, that by the  late  legal en-
actments, together  with the  vigi-
lance of the magistracy, this bar-
barous practice will at length be
entirely suppressed.
   BRYONY, the White, or more
properly, the Red-berried  Bry- 
418        BRY

ony,  or  Wild-vine;  the Bryonia
alba or dioica, L. The root is pe-
rennial, large, often  a foot in cir-
cumference ; the stem  is several
yards in length ; the leaves nearly
hand-shaped ; the flowers of a yel-
lowish green colour, appearing in
May and  June; and the fruit is a
smooth red berry, containing five
or six seeds. Some curious persons
have  a method  of carving  these
roots  into human figures, and sel-
ling them as mandrakes ; but this
useful production maybe converted
to much better purposes. By long
steeping, and cleansing in several
waters, the roots may ultimately
be deprived of all their acrimony
and bitterness, so as to afford a to-
lerable flour ; from which (if credit
be due to the  late Rev. Dr. Boh-
mer, senior of the  University of
Wittenberg, in Saxony,) M.  Mo-
rand has prepared both starch and
bread.
   Although this is generally consi-
dered as one of the  poisonous na-
tive vegetables, yet there is reason
to believe that, especially in sum-
mer, when the bitter juice has in a
great measure ascended from the
root to the stalk and branches, it
may  usefully be converted  into
bread :  and as it grows to a prodi-
gious size, a little  trouble would
be well  rewarded.   Mr. Holle-
fear  states, that two or three of
the berries have been eaten with-
out any observable  effect,
   Bryony-root is purgative  and
acrid: its smell, when fresh,  is
strong and disagreeable : its taste
nauseously bitter.   In  spring,  it
abounds with a thin, milky juice,
which is so sharp  as speedily to
excoriate the skin ; but a great part
of the acrimony,  and almost the
whole of the scent, is lost by dry-
            BRY

ing.  In summer, the root is less
juicy, and weaker both  in smell
and taste.  An extract prepared in
water, acts more mildly, and with
greater safety, than the root in sub-
stance.   When given  in a quan-
tity from half  a dram  to a dram,
or half  an ounce of it  infused in
wine, it proves a gentle purgative,
and likewise operates powerfully by
urine. Hence small doses of its
milky juice have been strongly re-
commended by BERGius,for drop-
sical and asthmatic complaints. A
cold infusion of the root, in water,
is externally  used  in  rheumatic
pains, or the sciatica. In the form
of a cataplasm, it  proves a most
powerful discutient.  Decoctions
made with one pound of the fresh
root,  are  the  best purgatives  for
horned  cattle.   In short, observes
Dr. Withering, the  active  vir-
tues of this plant entitle it to more
attention than is bestowed on it at
present.
   BRYONY, the Black; or the
Bryony lady-seal, the Tamus com-
munis,  L.  It  has  a  large root,
sending forth several stems, large
heart-shaped, dark green  leaves ;
greenish flowers, and red berries.
It blows from May to August, and
is frequently found under  hedges.
According to Dr. Withering, its
young shoots are good eating,when
dressed like asparagus ; but horses
refuse to eat the plant.   Its root is
like that ofthe white bryony, acrid
and stimulating.
   The several exotic species ofthe
bryony, as the  Africana, the race-
mosa, with a red olive-shaped fruit,
the Cretica, or  spotted  bryony of
Crete, the variegata, or American
bryony, merit cultivation, on ac-
count of their beautiful appearance,
when full of fruit. 
            BUC

  BUCK-BEAN, or Menyanthes,
L. a  genus of plants, comprising
four species.
  1. The trifoliata,  or marsh tre-
foil,  water trefoil, marsh-cleaver,
or trefoil  buck-bean  : it grows in
moist, marshy  places, in  many
parts  of Britain, and  its very beau-
tiful flowers  appear  in June  and
July.   This useful plant is, accord-
ing to Bechstein, a very agreea-
ble  fodder to cattle :  its cultivation
is therefore recommended for im-
proving marshy lands.  Dr. Wi-
thering informs us that  cows,
horses, and swine refuse it.  From
experiments  made  at Upsal, in
Sweden,  it appears that, though
goats eat it, sheep will not always
relish its leaves ; which, by some
persons, are smoked instead of to-
bacco.   It is farther asserted by
others, that such sheep as have a
relish for the marsh  trefoil are, by
eating it, cured  of the rot.
  In  Lapland, the powdered roots
of this plant, are converted  into
bread, which, however, is  not very
palatable : and the country people
of West Gothland, in Sweden, em-
ploy it for imparting  a bitter to ale;
for  which purpose two ounces are
equally efficacious as one pound of
hops.
  Dr. Darwin  also  recommends
these  leaves as  a  substitute for
hops ; and adds, that they might be
equally  wholesome and palatable.
In dyeing they afford, according
to Bechstein, a green and yellow
colour.
  An infusion of the leaves  is ex-
tremely bitter, and is prescribed in
rheumatisms and dropsies :  one
dram  of  them, in powder, both
purges and  vomits ;  and  is  occa-
sionally given as a vermifuge.  Dr.
Lewis considers the Menyanthes
as a powerful aperient and  deob-
    VOL. I.
             BUC       419

 struent, promoting the fluid secre-
 tions.   It has of late gained great
 reputation in scorbutic and scro-
 phulous disorders.  Inveterate af-
 fections of the skin, have been cur-
 ed by an infusion of the leaves taken,
 at proper intervals, to the quantity
 of a pint in twenty-four hours, and
 continued for several weeks....Bo-
 erhaave cured  himself  of  the
 gout, by drinking the juice of this
 plant mixed with whey. Stubborn
 facts, like this, require great au-
 thorities.
   2. The nymph&oides, or fringed
 buck-bean, or lesser yellow-water-
 lily, growing in large ditches  and
 slow streams.  The leaves of this
 species are  heart-shaped  at  the
 base, rounded at  the end,  some-
 times  spotted, about two  inches
 long, and swim on the water.  Its
 fine yellow blossoms appear in July
 and August.
   Bechstein relates, that the in-
 habitants  of Japan,  where  the
 fringed buck-bean is also indige-
 nous, eat  it as a pickle,   simply
 prepared with salt;  or, after sim-
 mering it in water, and removing
 the impurities from  the top, they
 use it in broths.
  BUCK-THORN, or Rhamnus,
 L.  a numerous genus of plants,
 consisting of 48 species.
   1. The catharticus, or purging
 buck-thorn,  a  shrub growing in
 woods  and hedges, very common
 in  Shropshire,  England.   It  at-
 tains, if cultivated, the height of
 16  feet, flowers in  May and June,
and its fruit ripens about Michael-
mas.  Goats,  sheep,  and  horses,
eat the leaves,  but cows  refuse
them.  In our markets, the fruit of
the black-berry bearing alder, and
the dog-berry tree, have lately been
substituted for  those of the  buck-
thorn.   But this species of fraud
     3G 
 420       BUC

 may be easily discovered by open-
 ing  the berries:  for  the genuine
 kind have  generally  four  seeds,
 those of the alder two,  and those
 of the  dog-berry only one.  Be-
 sides,  buck-thorn  berries  alone,
 when bruised on  white paper, give
 it a  green tint.   The wood of this
 shrub is one of the finest for tur-
 nery, produced in this climate, as
 it sometimes grows to a size of six
 or eight inches in diameter.  From
 the juice ofthe unripe berries, with
 alum, a yellow; and from the ripe
 ones, a fine  green dye is  obtained :
 the bark also strikes a yellow and
 brown-red colour.  The juice of the
 unripe berries is  of the  colour of
 saffron, and  is used  for staining
 maps or paper:  that of the ripe
 berries is the sap-green  of minia-
 ture-painters, and is much esteem-
 ed ;  but  if they are  gathered late
 in autumn, the juice is purple.
  Bechstein remarks,  that the
 book-binders in Germany  extract
 this  colour  by mixing  the  fresh
juice with   deep-red,  or violet li-
 quids,  with  which  they dye  the
 most beautiful sorts of paper and
leather.
  In medicine, buck-thorn berries
 have long been esteemed, and a
 syrup prepared from them is still
 kept in  the apothecaries' shops,
 though  seldom prescribed ;  as it
 occasions much sickness  and grip-
 in;;-.   In a late Latin treatise, pub-
 lished by Dr. J. G. Kolb,  of Er-
 lang, 1794,  the bark of the buck-
 thorn is much  recommended as a
 mild, cheap, and efficacious  reme-
 dy,  in every respect preferable to
the berries.  After being exposed to
 the air,or soaked in water,this bark
 soon assumes  a  yellow, orange-
 colour.  It contains a considerable
 proportion of gummy ingredients,
 which render it a tonic, gently  as-
            BUC

tringent, and antiseptic medicine.
The resinous  extract is acrid and
astringent, strongly purgative and
resolvent: but the bark, in powder,
mixed with honey, gum arabic, or
or any other mucilage, as well as
a watery  decoction of it,  operates
mildly, when taken in small doses,
for the  cure  of intermittents : it
may also be beneficially employed
in slow, putrid, or  nervous fevers,
and in general debility after chronic
diseases.   Externally  applied,  in
green wounds, laxity of the fibres,
malignant foul ulcers, and in stop-
ping the progress of mortification,
this remedy possesses tonic, gently
stimulating and healing  proper-
ties.   The decoction  is  of great
service  in reducing inveterate in-
flammations of the eyesr and cur-
ing the  itch ;  as it cleanses the
skin,  and abates the burning heat,
without repelling the humours. But
it should never be employed in ul-
cersthathavearisen inconsequence
of erysipelas, or the rose : in other
cases its  application, will always
be more safe,  and attended with
better effects, when it is at the same
time used internally.
  2. The frangula, or alder buck-
thorn, or black-berry-bearing alder,
grows in woods and moist hedges;
it generally attains a height of from
six to ten feet.  The wood of this
shrub, when young, is soft and yel-
low, but becomes hard  and light-
red with age:  its external bark is
dark-grey, with white  spots, but
internally yellow;   the branches
contain an orange-coloured medul-
lary  tube.  Its  yellowish  leaves
appear late in May, or June, and
some times a second foliage comes
forth in autumn. The berries are
at first  dark-green, then  become
red, and at length black, when ful-
ly ripe; containing a sweet, though 
            BUC

unpleasant juice.   Goats  devour
the leaves with avidity,  and they
are also eaten by sheep : the flow-
ers are particularly grateful to bees.
The bark dyes yellow,  and with
iron, black. The berries gathered
before  they  are  ripe, dye  wool
green.   Charcoal  prepared  from
the wood, is  preferred in making
gun-powder.   Dambourney made
the following  successful  experi-
ment with the  ripe berries.  He
bruised them in  cold water, and
allowed the whole to undergo the
vinous  fermentation, which took
place in eight days.   This liquor
he boiled, for half an hour, and
then dyed wool that had been pre-
viously prepared  with  bismuth:
thus he obtained a very beautiful
green  colour,  which  he called a
new, or native green, because it
was not in the least affected either
by strong vinegar, or a solution of
pot-ash.  On adding a little  sugar
of lead  to the  dye, the vivacity
of the colour was  considerably in-
creased.
   The  rind,  boiled in milk, is as-
serted to be  a safe and efficacious
remedy for eruptions of the  skin ;
yet we  do not advise the reader to
try experiments with this, or simi-
lar remedies without consulting a
medical friend.  Decoctions of the
bark in table-beer, are very certain
and brisk purgatives,  in dropsies,
or constipations of  the bowels  of
cattle.
   Buck-Thorn, the Sea, or com-
mon  sallow-thorn, the  Hippopha
rhamnoides, L. is a very important
shrub,  growing  wild on  sandy
shores, in various parts of the Bri-
tish coast, it sometimes attains the
height  of eight or ten  feet.  Its
bark  is light  brown, the  wood
white, the small  leaves of a sea-
            B U C        421

green colour, but silvery white be-
low.  The leaves appear early in
spring ; the yellow flowers in June
and July; the  fine red berries late
in autumn.
  In  situations contiguous to  the
sea-shore, or the banks of rivulets,
this shrub eminently  deserves to
be cultivated, as it is well calculat-
ed  to bind a  sandy soil,  and to
prevent the water from penetrat-
ing through banks and fences.  It
may  be  raised from  seeds,  but
more expeditiously by  planting
layers, or propagating  it from the
very abundant spreading roots.....
On account of its thorny points, it
affords  excellent hedges, even on
a sandy soil.
   Although cows refuse the leaves
of the sea buck-thorn, yet they are
browsed upon  by goats, sheep, and
horses.  The  berries are strongly
acid,  wilh an austere vinous fla-
vour.: in Lapland, they are  pickled
and used  as spice,  but the fisher-
men  of the Gulph of Bothnia pre-
pare  from them  a rob, which, ad-
ded to  fresh fish, imparts a very
grateful flavour.
   From the leaves of this shrub,
M. Sucicow  obtained  an agree-
able dark-brown dye for wool  and
silk,  first treated  with vitriol  of
iron : Dambourney succeeded  in
producing a similar colour on cloth
that had been  previously steeped in
a solution of bismuth.
   BUCK-WHEAT,  the  Polygo-
num fagopyrum, L. a species  of
the Persicaria,  also called snake-
weed, bucke,branks, French-wheat,
or crap.   As  this useful plant re-
quires no botanical description, we
shall proceed  to state its most ap-
proved  method of culture,  and im-
portant uses  in agriculture: both
subjectsbeingintimatelVconnected. 
422       BUC
BUC
   Buck-wheat was introduced into
 Europe nearly four centuries since;
 and, according to Gerard's Her-
 bal, cultivated  in England, about
 the year 1597.  It is a native of
 the northern parts of Asia.  Dur-
 ing the last thirty years, it has ex-
 cited the attention of able agricul-
 turists, who have furnished us with
 the following  result  of their ex-
 perience.  This grain delights in a
 mellow,  dry, loose, sandy soil, but
 does  not thrive so  well in a free
 loamy  stone-brash,   and  should
 never  be  sown  in  wet, poachy
 ground.   It  requires little  or  no
 manure, but frequent sun-shine....
 On heaths newly ploughed up, the
 turf of which  has been burnt, or
 that have been manured with wood-
 ashes, its vegetation  is luxuriant.
 The proper season for sowing is the
 last week in  [July.]   A shower of
 rain, after the seed is harrowed in,
 greatly promotes its growth, and
 it generally appears above ground
 in five or six days.
  Buck-wheat is in flower through-
 out the summer, and would yield
 much larger crops, if all the grains
 would  uniformly  ripen,  and could
 be  collected  at the same time.....
 About half a bushel is sown on each
 acre, in this country ; and the Ger-
 mans calculate sixty pounds weight
 to every hundred square rods  of
 land. [From seven to eight weeks]
 only are required for bringing it to
maturity,  and  it produces  from
twelve to twenty fold.  In this state
it affords an excellent substitute for
hay ;  and it  is affirmed, that the
German farmer obtains,  at less ex-
pense than by mow ing and drying
the whole, in the usual way, ten
times the quantity of corn.
 Another variety of this grain was,
about a century  ago, introduced in-
to Germany,  and has lately  also
been cultivated in Britain, known
by  the name  of Siberian  Buck*
wheat.  It possesses  considerable
advantages  over  the  former : be-
cause it is not  only a fourth  part
heavier in the grain, but also more
palatable, and, in this respect, re-
sembles  rice.  It thrives in  the
poorest soil, is not affected by cold,
and being more disposed to branch
out and spread its stalks, requires
scarcely one half of the seed ne-
cessary for the culture of the  pre-
ceding species.
    From  repeated  experiments,
made in  this country, it  appears
that the  culture of   buck-wheat
ought, in  many cases, to be adopt-
ed in preference  to a summer-fal-
lowing ;  as the crop  produced  is
not only so much clear gain, but
also affords a considerable quantity
of straw for fodder and manure;
besides which,  it  is a  more advan-
tageous preparation for the next
crop.   There  will  be  sufficient
time to sow the  land with buck-
wheat after springfeedings,or a crop
of turnip-rooted cabbage or vetch-
es.   When sown in  July,  buck-
wheat  is  an excellent sheltering
crop to  clover; and two crops of
this grain  have, in favourable years,
been obtained from the same land.
Mr. Arthur Young, in the sixth
volume of the " Annals of Agricul-
ture," has inserted  an instructive
paper, communicated by the Rev.
R.  Moseley  (Sept.  11th, 1786,)
from which we  learn the following
valuable facts : That  three crops
were  sown  on  the same  ground,
between autumn and autumn, with
only three  ploughings,  namely,
winter tares  in September, with
one ploughing,  which  were reaped
early in the succeeding summer i 
BUC
BUC       423
then immediately buck-wheat was
sown, after one ploughing and har-
rowing : in September .the buck-
wheat was ploughed in, and wheat
was sown on  this one ploughing,
the crop of which was great. Thus,
says Mr.YouNG, as the spring ad-
vances, and the sun becomes pow-
erful enough to exhale the humidi-
ty of the  land, the crop also ad-
vances and screens it from  the ac-
tion of his beams.  The weeds in
the soil vegetating with the young
tares, are  either strangled by their
luxuriance, or cut off with them,
before they  produce  seed.  This
crop  is cleared from the land so
early, that the  soil would  remain
exposed to the sun for three months,
in the most scorching heat of the
summer; and, if thus left exposed,
the  three ploughings  would  be
hurtful to the soil, except that they
might destroy some weeds.  Hence
to give one ploughing immediately,
and harrow in  buck-wheat, saves
expense; and the growing herbage
shades  the  earth,  when it  most
requires to be  protected :  by this
management, a dressing of manure
is gained  at the cheapest possible
rate.   In short, to introduce a sys-
tem  more complete, is not  in the
power of science.
   It appears to be undecided, whe-
ther buck-wheat improves  or im-
poverishes the soil.  There  can be
no doubt  that it will  produce the
latter effect, like all plants that are
suffered to run to  seed; and, on
the contrary,  that it renders the
soil more fertile, when ploughed in,
before the seeds are formed. Such
at least,  is the opinion of Mr.
Bordley and Mr. Farrer  a con-
siderable corn-factor  in  London.
But Mr.YouNG, whose knowledge
and reputation  are  equally great,
observes, on  the strength  of his
 own  experience, that this  plant
 ameliorates the s'Al, insomuch, that
 the farmer may have any crop af-
 ter it, especially wheat; for which
 reason  it  is  (1784)  commonly
 cultivated  about Norwich,  Eng-
 land.
   One  of  the principal  uses  of
 buck-wheat in this country, is that
 of feeding horses.   Mr. Farreb.
 advises it to  be mixed with bran,
 chaff, or grains, either whole  or
 broken  in a mill. When consum-
 ed in the state of grass, it flushes
 cows with milk; hence it is  pre-
 sumed, that the meal mixed  with
 grains would have the same good
 effect, and enrich the milk.   One
 bushel of it is equal to two bushels
 of oats, even  mixed with beans,
 and four times the quantity of bran;
 it will  be  full  food  for a horse a
 week, and require much less  hay.
 According to his experience, eight
 bushels of buck-wheat meal will go
 as far as twelve  bushels of barley
 meal.  But the American  farmers
 assert, that it is an  improper  food
 for horses on a journey, or employ-
 ed in active  labour;  though its
 meal, when mixed with other corn,
 or cut straw, answers well even for
 horses  in a slow draught.  It is
 unquestionably a cheap corn,  sub-
 servient to many good purposes,
 and peculiarly excellent for fatten-
 ing hogs and poultry:  the former
 are said to become  intoxicated by
 eating the whole plant; but no such
 effect takes place from the seeds
 alone. Dr. Withering observes,
 that sheep feeding upon this vege-
 table, become unhealthy; but  it is
 relished by cows and goats.
   [Hogs feeding upon this vegeta-
ble are very liable to scabby erup-
tions.
   Buck-wheat shauld be sown thin,
because the top blossoms are very 
424        BUC

apt to be burnt by the sun, in which
case, the under ones will be saved,
as they spread out and protect one
another from the  sun.  If sown
thick, the plants cannot throw out
under  branches.   If  the  grain
stands, when ripe, it may be cra-
dled;  but when it has  fallen, the
scythe must be used, and the crop
permitted to lie three days....then
raked while the dew is  on, to pre-
vent the grain shedding.......then
threshed by horses.
   Buck-wheat  answers very well
with clover.  Sow the buck-wheat
first and harrow; then sow the clo-
ver seed, and let the roller follow
immediately. In this way the land
will be sown even, and the ground
made level  for the cradle.  The
advantages of the buck-wheat are,
that it  preserves the  moisture of
the land,  in case  a dry  season
should follow; shelters the clover
till the  month  of Oct. when the
buck-wheat is cut: after  which,
the sun can no longer  injure the
clover, but  gives it a clue  portion
of warmth,  and pushes it forward
until the cold of winter locks  up
all vegetation.
   Writh respect to the question,
whether buck-wheat is, or, is not
an exhauster of the soil, a positive
answer  may be given.  A field in-
tended for barley, was partly sown
with buck-wheat, and when in blos-
som in  Sept. it was ploughed in ;
the other part of the field was left
fallow until seed time. In the suc-
ceeding season, the barley growing
on the part  in which  the  buck-
wheat had been ploughed, was evi-
dently superior to that which grew
on the fallow part.  This experi-
ment, made by  a plain  farmer, on
the Germantown road, with  a lau-
dable  view  of determining the
question, leaves*o room to doubt,
             BUC

 that buck-wheat ploughedin,when iri
full blossom, acts as  an excellent
 green dressing manure.
   The straw of buck-wheat is but
 little esteemed.   Sheep, however,
 feed on it.  It also  makes good
 manure when thrown into the farm
 yard.]
   For culinary purposes, also, the
 grain of the buck-wheat is used in
 various forms, and  affords a nutri-
 tious meal, which is not apt to turn
 sour on the stomach.  Mixed with
 barley, it is, in Tuscany, baked in-
 to bread, which possesses the pro-
 perty  of retaining its  moisture
 much  longer than  that of pure
 wheat; and though  of a darker
 colour, it is equally nourishing....
 In Germany, a very palatable grit,
 or a granulated meal,  serving as
 an ingredient in pottage, puddings,
 &.c. is prepared of buck-wheat;
 and if the seed be pure, the pro-
 duce of  each bushel is ten pecks.
 In the electorate of Brandenburgh,
 not only ale  and beer  is brewed
 from a mixture of it with malt, but
 likewise a very excellent spirit of
 a blueish shade is obtained by dis-
 tillation;  the flavour  of which  re-
 sembles that of French  brandy.
 The taste and colour of stale beer,
 may be much improved by adding
 a small quantity ofthe flour of this
 grain.
   From this, as well as  the pre-
 ceding species of buck-wheat, the
 Tartars  prepare a delicious food,
 by simply  blanching the seeds,
 without mills or ovens, in a man-
 ner very ingenious, and applicable
 to most other  species  of grain.
 They first pour cold water on the
 seed, and stir it well, in order to
 bring the light and imperfect grains
 to the  top, which are thrown away
 with the water. Then the wet corn
 is put  in sacks, where it is suffered 
             BUC

 to remain from ten to twelve hours:
 thus,  after swelling a little,  it is
 roasted,over a slow fire in iron pans,
 and continually stirred till the grain
 becomes tolerably hard,  so that it
 feels tough and elastic between the
 teeth.  In this manner, the husks
 soon crack, and may easily be se-
 parated from the  kernel,  in one of
 the plainest domestic implements,
 a wooden mortar,  or  a  bruising
 machine made of  the hollow trunk
 of a  tree.   By this process, the
 grain acquires  a yellow transpa-
 rent appearance,  and is much im-
 proved in taste.
   [Buck-wheat  reduced to flour,
 mixed with  water, and a  little
 yeast, will rise in  the course of
 two hours,  if placed near a  fire;
 and being then baked  upon a hot
 iron,  previously  greased,  forms
 very pleasant cakes, which when
 buttered, constitute part ofthe diet
 of many persons in  the United
 States during the  winter.  By de-
 priving the grain of its husk before
 grinding,  the  flour is  rendered
 white, and is much  esteemed.]
  From the fresh blossoms of these
 plants, Damuourney  dyed wool,
 prepared with bismuth and  tin, of
 a beautiful  brown  colour;   and,
 from the  dried flower-bundles, dif-
 ferent shades of green.   Those of
 the Siberian species, in particular,
 yielded a fine  yellow,  which, on
 boiling the wool still longer  in the
 dye, changed into a golden  tint,
 and at length assumed a  brilliant
 yellow.
   There  is a third species of buck-
 wheat, the  culture  of  which  has
 lately been strongly recommended
 by Professor Pallas, and Dr.Wi-
 thering; and  which we  shall
 presently  describe.
   Buck-Wheat,  the  Climbing
black bindweed, or climbing snake-
weed;  the Polygonum convolvulus,
            BUC        425

 L. is a native vegetable, growing
 about  corn-fields,  gardens,  and
 hedges;  it  flowers in June and
 July.   Its  seeds are as good as
 those ofthe two preceding species,
 are produced in  greater quantity,
 may be more easily collected, as
 they  ripen  more uniformly, and
 the plants bear cold better than the
 exotics before-mentioned. Accord-
 ing to Linn^us, cows and  goats,
 eat it,  but  sheep,  swine,  and
 horses refuse it.
   Its culture in fields, is, however,
 attended with this  inconvenience,
 that its creeping stalks must be
 supported by brush-wood, and it is
 consequently  better  adapted for
 being  cultivated in gardens.
   It is likewise  remarkable,  that
 most British  and foreign writers
 indiscriminately  recommend the
 culture of  the   buck-wheat,  on
 account of its flowers,  which are
 very grateful, and beneficial tobees;
 and that Dr. Darwin, in particu-
 lar, (see page 242 of this Encyclo-
 paedia), mentions a species of buck-
 wheat, the Polygonum melampirum,
 of which we can find no  account in
 the botanical works of this country:
 with deference  to  his profound
 knowledge of natural history, we
 are almost inclined to think, the
 Doctor alludes to a very different
 species of  buck-wheat  (perhaps
 cow-wheat)  that is  not  cultivated
 in Britain.
   BUCKING, one of the  opera-
 tions performed in  the  whitening
 of  linen  cloth, or yarn..........See
 Bleaching.
   BUCKRAM,  is  coarse  linen
 cloth, stiffened with  glue, and used
 in the making of garments, to keep
 them in proper  form.   It also
 serves for wrappers to cover cloths,
 serges, and other articles of mer-
chandize,  in  order  to  preserve
them from being soiled, and pre- 
426        BUD

vent their colours from fading. In
general,  old  sheets and  pieces of
cloth  are converted into buckram;
but sometimes new pieces of linen
cloth  are  used for that purpose.
Buckrams are sold  wholesale by
the dozen of  remnants, or  small
pieces, of about four ells long, and
of different breadths.
   BUD, in botany, the embryo or
rudiment  of a plant, growing on
the stems and branches of  trees,
and covered with  scales, or with  a
resinous varnish, to protect it from
the winter cold, and from the de-
predation of insects. Buds proceed
from the extremities of the young
shoots,  and  along the branches,
sometimes single, sometimes two
by two, either opposite or alternate,
and sometimes collected in greater
numbers. In general, we may dis-
tinguish three kinds of buds :  the
leaf-bud, the flower-bud, and that
containing both  in one covering.
The first species contains the rudi-
ments of several leaves, which are
variously  folded  over each other,
and surrounded  by scales.   The
second species, or flower-bud, con-
tains the rudiments of one or seve-
ral flowers, folded and covered in
a  similar manner.  This bud is
called by Pliny  oculus gemm<z, or
the eye ofthe bud, and is employed
in that species of grafting,  called
inoculation.  The  third sort, which
is the most  common of any, pro-
duces both  flowers  and leaves.
Buds, together with bulbs,  which
are a species of buds, generally
seated on, or near the  root, are
very properly called by Linn^us
h ibernacula, a term signifying the
winter-quarters  of the  embryon
shoot.
   As plants are supposed to  bear a
striking  analogy  to animals, they
may  not improperly, be reckoned
            BUD

both viviparous and oviparous;  in
which view, seeds may be consi-
dered as vegetable eggs; buds,  as
living  foetuses,  or infant plants,
which renew the species as cer-
tainly as the seed.
  As each  bud contains in itself
the rudiments of a plant, and would
if separated from its parent vegeta-
ble, become in all respects similar
to it, Linnjeus, to shew the won-
derful fertility of Nature, has made
a calculation, from which it appears
that in a trunk scarce exceeding a
span in  breadth, no less  than ten
thousand buds  may be produced.
How great then must be the num-
ber of plants, which are capable of
being raised from one  large tree!
....See the article Leaves.
  Flower-buds of many trees, says
Dr. Darwin,  arise immediately
from  the terminating shoots  or
spurs of the preceding year, and
are either  accompanied with leaf
buds or separately, as in apple and
pear-trees.   Others proceed from
the shoots of the present year,  al-
ternately with  leaf-buds,  as these
of vines, and  form the  third  or
fourth  buds of the new shoots.
They dift'erfrom leaf-buds, because
they perish when  their seeds are
ripe, without producing any addi-
tion to the  tree; the leaf-buds,  on
the contrary, decay in autumn, and
their caudexes are  then gradually
converted into  alburnum, or sap-
wood ;  over which the new leaf-
buds  shoot  forth  their  caudexes
and  radicles, or insert them into
it, and gradually fabricate the new
bark and root fibres.
   Some ofthe disciples of Linnae-
us are of opinion, that about Mid-
summer leaf-buds may be changed
into flower-buds, or flower-buds into
leaf-buds; and this may be effected
even after the vegetable ewibryo-i* 
            BUG

are generated,  by weakening or
strengthening  the  growth of the
last year's buds.   Hence, if some
inches of a branch be lopped off'
at Midsummer, which is sometimes
done  by  unskilful  gardeners, the
remaining buds on that branch will
become more vigorous,and produce
leaf-buds  instead  of flower-buds.
But  the  contrary effect will take
place, if a vigorous branch  of a
wall-tree be bent beneath the hori-
zon, so as to impede the generation
of new caudexes.
  Budding.  See Engrafting.
   [BUFFALO....Some successful
attempts  have been made in the
Western  Country  to domesticate
this very powerful animal.  When
taken young  they are broken to
the yoke with as little trouble as
common steers.  Considering the
uncommon strength of this animal,
which is twice as great as that of
oxen, and the great numbers that
are annually killed by the hunters,
in the wilds ofthe Western World;
it is  surprising that they are not
upon  every farm on the Mississippi
and Ohio.  It is very probable that
a cross with a common cow might
produce  a highly valuable breed,
and it is an experiment worthy of
the numerous enterprising charac-
ters residing in that extensive coun-
try.]
  BUG, in zoology, a species of
cimex, too well known to need any
description. Ofthe various recipes
for the extirpation and prevention
of these vermin, the following have
been  found by experience, to-be
the most effectual:
  1.  Take of the highest rectified
spirit of wine, half  a pint  ; newly
distilled oil, or spirit of turpentine,
half'a pint:  mix them together,
and crumble into it half an ounce
    VOL. 1.
            BUG        427

 of camphor, which will dissolve in
 a few minutes:  shake the  whole
 well together, and with a piece of
 sponge,  or  brush  dipped  into it,
 anoint the  bed,  or furniture, in
 which those vermin harbour and
 breed ;  and it will infallibly kill
 and destroy both them  and their
 nits.  Should any bug, or bugs,
 happen  to appear after once using
 it, the application must be  repeat-
 ed, and at ihe same time some of
 the mixture poured into the joints
 and holes ofthe bedstead and head-
 board.   Beds  that  have  much
 wood-work,  require  to  be first
 taken down, before they  can be
 thoroughly  cleared  of these ver-
 min ; but others  may be perfectly
 cured without that trouble.....It is
 advisable to perform this work in
 the  day  time,  lest the spirit con-
 tained in the mixture take fire from
 the candle, while using it, and oc-
 casion serious damage:
  2. Or, Take  an ounce  of quick;
 silver,  and  the  whites of six or
 eight eggs ; beat them together till
 the quicksilver appears like a black
 sediment at the bottom of the ba-
 son ;  then rub it over all the joints
 and  crevices of  the bed  with a
 painter's brush.   This will  have
 the desired effect, while it gives a
 varnish  to the furniture, and im-
 parts no  disagreeable smell.
  3. Or, mix the  pulp of the bitter
 apple with a solution of vitriol, and
 apply the composition carefully to
 all the crevices, which serve as a
 nursery to the bugs.  The solution
alone has proved effectual:  but, if
applied to  stone  walls, it may be
mixed with  lime, which  will give
it a  lively yellow colour, and en-
sure success. The boiling any kind
of wooden work in an iron caldron,
with a solution of vitriol, efl'ectu-
     3 H 
428        BUG
BUI
ally  prevents  it from taking  the
worm, and preserves it from rot-
tenness and decay.
   4. Professor  Kalm  mentions,
that from repeated  trials  he  has
been convinced that sulphur, if
properly applied, will entirely de-
stroy bugs and their eggs, in beds
or walls,  even though they were
ten times more numerous than the
inhabitants of an ant-hill.  And Dr.
Forster, his translator adds, that
a still more effectual  remedy is, to
wash the infested furniture with a
solution of arsenic.
  5. The cheapest and most plea-
sant remedy,  has lately been  dis-
covered by J.  G. L. Blumhof, of
Gottingen ;  who  asserts  in  the
Economical Journal,  (in German),
for   June,  1797, that the  green
leaves and twigs of the  Bird's-
Cherry,  or Prunus Padus, L. if
placed in the crevices and holes of
places frequented by bugs,mice, and
rats, will effectually expel them.
   [Half  an  ounce  of corrosive
sublimate  powdered  and dissolved
in a  pint of spirits, makes an ef-
fectual wash for bedsteads infested
by bugs.  They must be previous-
ly scrubbed  with cold water.....
Throw  away  what may be left of
the  suhlimate solution for fear of
accidents.
  Boutcher in his treatise on for-
est  trees,  asserts that bedsteads
made of ihe Yew Tree, are never
infested with bugs.]
  BUGLE, or Ajuga, L.  a genus
of plants, comprising three species,
all of which  are natives; but we
shall only  mention the reptens, or
common bugle, which grov/s in
woods and moist pastures, in many
parts of Britain.  It has creeping
suckers, and bears blue, red,  and
white blossoms in May.  Its roots
are astringent, and strike a black
colour with vitriol of iron.
  BUILDING is the art  of  con-
structing and raising an edifice: in
which sense it  comprehends  as
well the expenses,  as the inven-
tion and execution of the  design.
  In  the  practice of this useful
art, there are five particulars to be
principally attended to : 1. Situa-
tion ;  2. Contrivance, or  design ;
3. Strength and solidity;  4. Con-
venience and utility ;  and 5. Ele-
gance.  As our aim is not to im-
part elementary instructions in the
art of  building, we  shall  only
sketch the most essential rules, by
an  attention to which, the reader
may  be enabled to  discriminate
between good and bad building,
and to guard  against many com-
mon errors.
  In  laying the foundation  of a
building,  proper care should  be
taken to ascertain the  nature of
the soil, either by a crow or ram-
mer ; or, which is still better, with
a miner's or well-digger's borer, in
order to discover whether it is tho-
roughly sound, and fit to  bear the
weight that is to be  laid  upon it.
If the foundation be not very loose
it may  be  improved by ramming
in large stones.
  With regard to situation, a dwell-
ing-house ought never to be erect-
ed near marshes, fens, or  a boggy
soil, nor too close on the banks
of a river, unless it stand on rising
ground, at the north or west side
ofthe bank. SeeCouNTRY-HousE
and Farm-House.
  Contrivance, or design,  is of the
first importance in building, as a
skilful architect will not only make
the structure handsome and conve-
nient,  but often save great  ex-
penses ; which cannot be  avoided 
            BUI

when,by hasty and injudicious ma-
nagement, any  future alterations
become necessary.  A model is
the most certain  way to prevent
mistakes, and  is  superior to the
best draughts.  But if the latter
be adopted, they should be of the
largest size, so that the delineation
of all the chimneys, hearths, bed-
places,  stairs, and the latitude of
all  doors and  windows,  in each
floor, may be  distinctly represent-
ed :  and  if the workmanship be
agreed  upon by the bulk, it will be
useful  (for obviating differences
and disputes)  to insert the length
and thickness of the ground plates,
breast-summers,girders, trimmers,
joists, raisings, and wall-plates; as
also the thickness of the walls, par-
titions,  &c.   In timber buildings,
the  several sizes of the ground-
plates, interduces,breast-summers,
beams, principal port-braces, quar-
ters, window-posts, door-posts, cel-
lar-beams, principal rafters, See. 8cc.
should alsobe minutely ascertained.
   Instead of expatiating, in  this
place, on the strength, utility, and
elegance of buildings, it  may not
be improper to give an abstract of
the principal  acts of parliament
passed  on this important subject;
and afterwards compare  the an-
cient method  of building with mo-
dern improvements....On re-build-
ing the city of London,  after the
great fire in 1666, it was enacted.
That in  every foundation within
the ground, one brick be added to
the thickness ofthe wall next above
the foundation ; that no timber be
laid within the funnel of any chim-
ney ; and that the proper size of
timber  for ordinary  buildings be
adapted to certain proportions spe-
 cified in the act.
   For  the regulation  of building
 within  the Bills of Mortality, and
             BUI        429

in other specified  places, it was
enacted in the  eleventh  year  of
George I. and the fourth of his
present Majesty, that party-walls
must be erected of brick or stone ;
which  shall be  two  bricks and a
half thick in the cellar, two bricks
thick  upward to the garret floor,
See.  Besides, there were several
other limitations made respecting
the size and disposition of the tim-
ber. Every building is to be sur-
veyed, and the  person who offends
against the statute, in any of the
particulars recited,  is liable to a
penalty of 2501.   [Some regula-
tions  of a similar nature to the
above,  ought to be introduced in
the United States.]
   During  the  18th century, and
particularly within  the  last forty
years,   great improvements  have
been made in the  art of building  ;
as  our modern edifices  are  more
convenient, and elegant, than those
of  former times.   Our  ancestors
generally inhabited houses with a
blind stair-case, low ceilings, and
dark  windows  ;  the rooms were
built   at random,  without contri-
vance  or symmetry, and often with
steps leading from one to the other;
so that we might be induced to
imagine, they  purposely guarded
against the influence of light and
fresh air.  The more happy genius
of our age is for  light stair-cases,
 fine sash windows, and lofty apart-
 ments. Thus, a  house built ac-
 cording to the prevailing taste, ex-
 cels both in point of compactness
 and uniformity; insomuch that on
 the same extent of ground, it af-
 fords   nearly double the conveni-
 ences  that could  be procured on
 the old plan.  The modern rage for
 building, however,  is  apparently
 attended  with this unfavourable
 effect, that  little  attention is paid 
430        BUI
BUI
 to the quality of the materials, and
 the strength of the edifice, if spe-
 culative  monied men  attain  their
 object, in erecting houses that may
 be let at a certain  rent.  We be-
 lieve there are few,  perhaps no,
 instances recorded in  ancient his-
 tory,  that  dwelling-houses  have
 tumbled down  before they  were
 finished or inhabited ; such events,
 however, have occasionally happen-
 ed, during the last 12 years, es-
 pecially in the metropolis. Instead
 of that variegated tinsel ornament
 bestowed on almost every chimney-
 piece, and other immaterial  parts
 of a mansion, it would  be more ju-
 dicious,  and economical, to attend
 to  the quality  and durability of
 bricks, mortar, and timber.  Nor
 do our  modern  builders, in the
 erection  of  their  widls,  observe
 that uniformity, which rendered the
 buildings of the  Romans almost
 indestructible.  From the descrip-
 tion given  in the 493d number of
 the Philosophical Transactions, by
 Mr. Arderon, it  appears that the
 ruins of two old towers, belonging
 to the Roman camp at Castor, in
 Norfolk, were  built in the follow-
 ing ingenious manner: They be-
 gan  first with  a layer of bricks,
 laid flat as  in pavements ; on that
 they placed a layer of clay and marl
 mixed together, and of the same
 thickness with the  bricks ; then a
 layer of bricks, afterwards of clay
 and  marl,  then  of bricks again ;
 making in the whole, three layers
 of bricks, and two of clay.  Over
 this were placed  bricks and  lime
 twenty-nine  inches, the  outside
 being  faced  with  bricks cut in
 squares ; then brick and  clay al-
 ternately, as high as the old ruins
 now  remain  standing. He  adds
 some remarks on the hardness of
the mortar, and durableness of the
bricks, the length of which last is
found to be 17,4-tenths inches, or
a Roman  foot  and a  half;  their
breadth 11,6-tenths inches, or pre-
cisely a  Roman  foot;  and  their
thickness only 1,^-tenthsofaninch.
This last  circumstance deserves
particular  notice, and we there-
fore refer the reader to the article
Brick.
   Many compositions  have, with
more or less success, been devised
for making mortar impenetrable to
moisture.   The  following we be-
lieve is one of the most simple and
effectual:   Mix  thoroughly  one-
fourth of fresh unslacked lime with
three-fourths of sand ;  and \etfive
labourers make mortar of these in-
gredients,  by  pouring on  water,
with trowels, to supply one mason,
who must, when the materials are
sufficiently mixed,  apply  it  in-
stantly  as  cement or plaster, and
it will become hard as stone.  This
recipe is given  by Mr. R. Dossie,
in his second volume of " Memoirs
of Agriculture  and  other Economi-
cal Arts,"  1771.  The author, on
this occasion,  observes that the
lime used  should  be stone-lime;
that previous to  its use, it should
be preserved from the access of air
or wet,  and  the  plaster screened
for some  time  from the  sun and
wind.  He justly remarks, that its
excellence  arises from  the particu-
lar  attraction  between lime and
sand, which would be destroyed by
slacking the lime.  Skimmed milk,
(says he) is preferable to water;
and  for  the similarity of this mor-
tar to that  of the ancients, he re-
fers us to  the celebrated Pliny,
Vitruvius, Sec.
  Another very durable and cheap
cement in building, which is parti-
cularly  designed as a handsome
coping of walls, is that  of  the late 
BUI
BUI        431
 P. Wych, Esq. Take four or five
 bushels of such plaster as is com-
 monly burnt for floors about  Not-
 tingham,  (or,  according  to   Mr.
 Dossil, a similar quantity of any
 tarras,  plaster,  or calcined  gyp-
 sum) , beat it to fine powder, then
 sift and put it into a trough, and
 mix with  it  one bushel  of  pure
 coal ashes, well calcined. Pour on
 the water, till the whole becomes
 good mortar.   Lay this in wooden
 frames of twelve  feet  in length on
 the walls, well smoothed with com-
 mon mortar and dry, the thickness
 of  two inches at each side,  and
 three inches in the middle. When
 the  frame  is  moved  to* proceed
 with the work, leave an interval of
 two inches for this coping to ex-
 tend  itself, so as to meet the last
 frame-work.
   In December 1780. Dr. R.Wil-
 liams obtained the King's patent
 for  the  invention of a m.rtar  or
 stucco for the purpose of buildings.
 As the term ofthe exclusive privi-
 lege of using this composition is
 now expired, we shall give the fol-
 lowing particulars : Take of sharp,
 rough, large-grained sand, sifted,
 washed, dried, and freed from all
 impurities ;  of well burnt lime,
 slaked, and finely -ffted; of curd,
 or cheese  produced  from  milk;
 (the first fresh made, and strongly
 pressed, to divest it of its whey ;
 the second, whilst perfectly sound,
 rasped into powder with a grater,
 or brought  into a very light sub-
 stance with scrapers, or fine-tooth-
 ed plane irons, in a turner's lathe);
 and  lastly,  of water in  its  natural
 state, in the following proportions,
 viz.  of the  cheese, or  curd, four
 pounds ; the lime twelve pounds ;
 the sand eighty-four pounds ;  the
 water ten pounds.  If the sand is
uot thoroughly  dried, or the lime
 has got damp  from the air,  the
 quantity of water must be less than
 the above  proportion ; and, on  the
 contrary, when the lime is used as.
 soon as slaked, it may  require
 more ;  so  that the  proper stiffness
 ofthe mortar, under those circum-
 stances, will  regulate the making
 of the composition.
    As the  goodness of this mortar
 depends on the preservation ofthe
 natural properties ofthe cheese, or
 curd, made use of, all those parts
 the least tainted or rotten must be
 rejected; and as the cheese, like the
 curd produced from skim-milk, is
 divested of its buttery and oily par-
 ticles, and on that account possesses
 a powerful cohesive quality, which
 makes  it better for this work than
 that made of milk in its rich and
 pure state ; it is at all times to be
 bought of the wholesale cheese-
 mongers at a lower price than any
 other ;  and being more  convenient
 than the curd, as that will require
 frequent making, is to be preferred
 to  it as well as to every other sort
 of cheese ;  for Fss of it is sufficient,
 only four pounds being allowed to
 the net hundred weight of all the
 solid ingredients, more than which
 might make  the mortar too lively
 to  keep in its place without bag-
 ging, but less  should not be used ;
 as  lhat, on the other hand,  would
 endanger its drying loose and gritty
 within  its  surface,  hinder it from
 adhering properly to the walls, and
 thus reduce it to the level of com-
 mon niorlar.  Many tedious and
 trivial rules are stated by the pa-
 tentee,  relative  to  the manner'of
 applying this cement, and its pre-
 servation in boxes  for ready use.
 Those  who wish to acquire additi-
 onal information concerning this
subject, may find the specification
ofthe patent, at  full length, in the 
432        BUI
BUI
third volume ofthe " Repertory of
Arts  and  Manufactures."   [See
Mortar, Cement.]
  In July, 1796, Mr. H. Walker,
of  Thurmaston,  Leicestershire,
procured a patent for his invention
of a method, by which houses and
other buildings, of any description
or dimensions, might be erected in
one entire mass or body, at a much
easier  expense, especially  in  the
articles of timber, lime, and work-
manship,and which would be equal-
ly as durable in  themselves,  and
less liable to accidents by fire, than
buildings erected upon the com-
mon construction.  His process is
as follows:
  1. The patentee takes an argil-
laceous earth or natural clay, which
he purifies by the usual well-known
methods, and compounds  it with
sand, or broken  or pounded pot-
tery or brick, coal-ashes, charcoal,
or, in short, with any other of those
substances  which are adapted to
form  a good, firm,  and  durable
brick, when properly baked :  and
he varies the composition according
to the nature  of the component
parts themselves, and the purposes
which they are intended to answer;
but, for common constructions, he
uses the same proportions as brick-
makers in  general.   He then pro-
ceeds to  mix, knead, and incorpo-
rate the said materials, till they are
brought  to the requisite  firmness
and tenacity for building ; which is
nearly such, that the parts of  any
lump or mass of the same may be
readily incorporated with, or joined
to," any other similar mass, by mo-
derate blows with a wooden mallet,
and the  occasional addition of  a
very small portion of water: this
composition he calls the prepared
material.
  2.  Fie constructs floors, walls,  and
all other buildings,  according  to
this invention, in such  a  manner
that the power of fire, from wood-
coal, charcoal, coak, or other com-
bustible matters, may be applied to
the external and interior  surfaces
of the floors, walls and other parts,
by means of fires maintained in ca-
vities left within, which he calls  by
the name of furnaces.
  3.  With respect to the particu-
lar forms, dimensions and relative
positions of the said floors, walls,
and furnaces left or formed within
the same, together with the aper-
tures or communications, for the
purposes of ventilating the fires, of
suffering the volatile matters to es-
cape, and of converting the whole
into one entire mass of brick, by a
due  communication and  continu-
ance of heat, Mr. Walker says,
the ground must be rendered solid
and the foundation laid in the usual
manner;  after  which he  applies
a quantity ofthe prepared material
before alluded to, and beats, rams
or presses it down to the thickness
of about six inches, and in width,
corresponding with  the intended
dimensions of the  wall, regulated
by boards or framing.   He  then
plants upright,  at the distance of
about thirty inches asunder, in the
said layer or bed of prepared mate-
rial, a number of cylindrical pieces
of wood, of about nine inches in
diameter  each,  and eighteen  or
more inches in length, to serve as
moulds for the cavities of the fur-
naces ; and  between each of such
moulds he places, in the longitudi-
nal direction of the wall, a number
of pipes, of wood or other materi-
als, or rods, of combustible or  in-
combustible matter, for the pur-
pose  of forming communications
between all the several furnaces, or
as many of them as he thinks pro- 
              BUI

 per.  Then he proceeds  to form
 another layer or bed of the mate-
 rial, to the same height,  namely,
 about six inches, and  disposes  a
 number of such pipes or rods, for
 the purpose  of forming   similar
 communications.  In this  manner
 he  constructs  the  whole, or  so
 much of the wall as he apprehends
 at  the time may  be conveniently
 formed, in  the  raw  or  unburnt
 state; taking care, as the work ad-
 vances to raise the wooden cylin-
 ders or moulds,  that a sufficient
 portion of them may remain above
 the surface of the work, to admit
 ofthe reception and proper fashion-
 ing of each subsequent  layer ;  or
 he  forms  the communications be-
 tween the furnaces, by perforating
 the wooden moulds, in various pla-
 ces, at right angles to their respec-
 tive axes; and through the  said
 perforations he passes a bar of iron
 or  other material, which serves  to
 connect three or more of the said
 furnace-moulds, and, being after-
 wards withdrawn,  as the work pro-
 ceeds, leaves cavities of communi-
 cation, similar to those formed by
 pipes, rods, &c. in the manner be-
 fore described.  Farther, he opens
 such a number of horizontal or obli-
 que apertures, or flues, into all the
 furnaces, and likewise into  all the
 cavities, as may be requisite for
 admitting, on all sides, the access
 of atmospheric air.   In  some in-
 stances he forms the horizontal or
 oblique apertures, or flues, by dis-
 posing, along with the pipes, a suit-
 able number of taper-rods, which
 are afterwards extracted.
  4. When the wall is built, he
 either suffers it spontaneously to
 dry, or promotes this effect by mo-
 derate fires in the furnaces.  Some-
 times by increasing the heat with-
in, and at others, by suitable appli-
             B U I        433

cations of fire externally, he con-
verts  the  whole  into one  entire
mass  of bricks.   By occasional
closing or opening of the furnaces
at top, or any of the  other  aper-
tures,  in various  parts, the intelli-
gent operator  will  easily  under-
stand how to regulate the progress,
communication  and effect of the
heat, that the conversion into brick
may be uniform through the entire
mass.
   5. The dimensions  of the fur-
naces, the  positions and relative
distances of the pipes of commu-
nication and lateral apertures, and
the thickness of  the layers of the
prepared material are each sus-
ceptible of  great  variations, ac-
cording  to the nature  of this pre-
paration, the activity  of the fuel,
the proposed solidity or figure of
the work, &c.
   6. He then forms the remaining
parts of the wall  or edifice, by ap-
plying  additional  portions  of the
prepared material in contact with
that already baked ;  while he also
avails himself of proper and suita-
ble external and  internal moulds,
supports, frames,  and  other occa-
sional contrivances, well  known to
builders, for sustaining works, or
forming arches, or determining the
figure  and positions of soft plastic
substances.
   7. The ground-floor is likewise
formed of the prepared  material,
leaving hollow spaces between the
supports beneath, for making fires,
ventilated by side apertures, which
are provided with numerous holes.
When the floor is of considerable
thickness, it will  require the con-
struction of furnaces, in  every re-
spect similar to those before de-
scribed.
  8. The first above the ground-
floor is made upon suitable tempo- 
434        BUI
BUI
rarv framing, in such  a manner
that the upper  surface shall  be
plane,  and the lower concave, so
that.it  may, when baked, support
itself, upon the principle of a low
arch.
  9  and  10.  The  patentee  con-
structs, bdkes or burns other floors
above  the first, and also the  roof,
Sec. he closes the apertures, fills up
the furnaces, amends  the deficien-
cies, adorns the  walls, floors, ceil-
ings, or other parts, with his prepa-
red material, according to the laste
and direction of the proprietor.
  Various plans have lately  been
devised for securing buildings and
ships against fire. We shall, how-
ever, only mention that  of David
Hartley,  Esq. who,  in April,
1773, obtained a patent  for his in-
vention of applying plates of metal
and wire, varnished or unvarnished,
to the several parts of buildings of
ships, so as to prevent the access
of fire, and the current of air ;  se-
curing the several joints by doub-
ling in, over-lapping, soldering, ri-
vetting, or any other manner clos-
ing them up ; nailing,  screwing,
sewing,  or  otherwise  fastening,
the said plates of metal  in, to. and
about the several parts of buildings
and ships, as the case may require.
Convinced that this method would
be too expensive for common build-
ings; and that it does  not  afford
sufficient security  against violent
flames, when the contiguous build-
ings are actually burning, we shall
suggest other and more  effectual
means of protection under the ar-
ticle Fire.
   [A very capital error in buildings
in the United States is, the thinness
of the  walls.  A house with  thin
walls, is both cold in winter and hot
in summer;  a  house with  thick
walls just the reverse.  To the N.
W. and N. E.  in particular, the
walls ought to be three times the
common thickness.  See House.
  The  opportunity  here offered,
cannot be omitted of bearing a tes-
timony  against  the  common but
uneconomical, unhealthy and dan-
gerous practice of erecting wood-
en buildings, particularly in cities.
The evil, however, will correct it-
self.  The frequent fires in  Bos-
ton : the almost entire  destruction
of Savannah a  few years since,'
and the recent melancholy conflag-
ration of Portsmouth, N. H. speak,
more forcibly than words, as to the
propriety of abolishing the custom
of building with wood.  It is  to be
regretted, that in the U. States ad-
vocates for wooden structures are
found.  To such, the following ob-
servations  are offered.
   By building of wood, much im-
mediate as well as remote inconve-
nience, is to be expected; and cer-
tainly, however  suddenly felt may
be the comfort arising  from an in-
crease of dispatch, the numerous
considerations  of  perishableness,
want of safety, and call for repairs,
added  to the  reflection, that the
public taste is, for the time, depriv-
ed  of one  great field of exertion,
will very much weigh  with an en-
lightened people, when once they
become awakened to their advan-
tages,  and proud  of the singular
novelty of  their physical and  mor-
al opportunities  of situation.
   Wood, considered as a material
of architecture, is not only perish-
able, but it is fearfully  accessible
to all the dangers of wind and fire,
and is not so strong  as brick or
stone.   To these  objections  may
be added, the consideration, which
will weigh with the man of  taste,
that wood is unsusceptible of chaste
ornament.   If it be adorned, it is 
              BUI

 in a finical puerile taste, in which
 there  is as great a distance  from
 the simplicity of the Grecian, as
 variance from the  whimsical, yet
 often  pleasantly  fanciful  assem-
 blage  of the Gothic style.
   Batchelors only,  ought to build
 of wood : men who have but a life
 estate in this world, and who care
 little  for those who  come  after
 them.   Those  who  have either
 children or a wife to leave behind
 them, will build of brick, if they
 wish to leave monuments of kind-
 ness, rather than a rent-charge, be-
 hind them.  A well-finished brick
 house, however small, is not  only
 more elegant and immediately use-
 ful and safe,  but it is cheaper in
 the end, than a wooden one.  It
 needs fewer repairs: its prime cost
 is  little more :  it   is  a property
 which  yields  more, inasmuch as,
 if rented out, it carries  from  the
 per cent, of rent, fewer ofthe eat-
 ing repairs, which render the pro-
 fits of wooden rent-rolls,  so equivo-
 cal and precarious.  With  respect
 to insurance, which in all populous
 places sooner or later  takes place,
 it bears an analogy  to policies on
 annuites, where one  subject lin-
 gers under a precarious existence,
 and the other is blessed with youth
 and a  sound constitution. In point
 of ease, taste, and duration, there
 can be no hesitation between them.
 The whole doubt in the mind of a
 builder rests in the competition be-
 tween immediate convenience, and
 the remote advantage of an un-
 known duration; for a good brick-
 house will  be habitable for  centu-
 ries.
   Considered  politically, and in
 this government every citizen is on
 the watch of public happiness and
political warfare, there is this good
attending brick-buildings; fromdu-
    vol. i  .
             B U L         435

 rable habitations,  in which  more
 money has been spent, and  more
 of the refined  tastes gratified, an
 affection for the soil is increased.
 A habitof thought arises, favourable
 to population: a greater proportion
 of money  is thus  realized.   The
 great national  fund  of course is
 augmented, fixed  to the  soil, and
 pledged to the society.
   The  last and highest considera-
 tion,  is, that migration would be
 less easy and not so common, were
 a finer  spirit of building to prevail.
 Were the  Tartars  to build houses
 instead of waggons and tents, as
 Baron Tot says they still do,and as
 they did when  the  Huns impelled
 the Goths  against  the feeble  Ro-
 man empire, they would not  rove,
 and their country might become a
 land of tillage.   The facility with
 which we   may move, is  a strong
 incentive  to that  love  of change
 which it particularly interests us
 to repress in our citizens.]
  BULB, in botany,  a kind of large
 subterraneous  bud,  though some-
 times appearing above ground, up-
 on or near the  root of certain her-
 baceous plants,  which are therefore
 denominated bulbous.   Linnaeus
 considers the bulb  as  the winter-
 quarters of the  future  vegetable ;
 because every  bulb contains,- in
 miniature or embryo,  a plant, in
 all respects, similar to  its parent ;
 so that many plants and trees may
 be propagated,  with equal facility,
 by the bulbs or  buds, as well as by
 the seeds.
  The tender rudiments of the fu-
 ture vegetable,  of which the bulb
or bud is composed, are  inclosed,
 and,  during the severities of win-
ter, defended againstcold and other
external injuries, by a hard bark or
rind, which  generally consists of a
number of scales, placed over each
    3 I 
436        BUL

other, like tiles, and  fastened to-
gether by means of a tenacious re-
sinous, and frequently odoriferous
substance.  Thus  defended,  the
buds remain upon different parts of
the mother plant, till the ensuing
spring.
   Bulbs  are  distinguished  from
buds, by this circumstance, that the
former are generated on the broad
caudex of the  plant within the
 ground, or in contact with it, and
immediately shoot down their roots
 into the earth ;  whereas, buds are
 formed above the soil, on the long
 caudexes which constitute  the fila-
 ments  of the bark of trees, and
 shoot down  new roots  from the
 lower  end  of  those  elongated
 trunks.
  Dr. Darwin observes, that bulbs
 may be divided into leaf and flow-
 er-bulbs.  When  a  tulip seed is
 sown, it produces a small plant the
 first summer, which in the autumn
 dies, and leaves in its place one or
 more bulbs. These are leaf-bulbs,
 which, in the ensuing spring, rise
 into stronger plants than  those of
 the first year,  but no flowers are
 yet generated: in the autumn these
 perish like the former, and leave in
 their places, other leaf-bulbs,strong-
 er or more perfect than their pre-
 ceding parents.  This succession
 continues for four or five years, till
 at length the bulb acquires a great-
 er perfection or maturity, necessa-
 ry for seminal generation, and pro-
 duces  in its place, a large flower-
 bulb, in the centre,  with several
 small leaf-bulbs around it.
    This  successive  formation   of
 leaf-bulbs, in bulbous-rooted plants,
 previous  to the  formation  of a
 fiower-bulb, is curiously analogous
 to  the production of leaf-buds on
 many  trees for several years, be-
 fore the  production of flower-buds:
            BUL

thus, apple-trees, raised from seeds,
generate only leaf-buds for ten or
twelve years, and afterwards annu-
ally produce both flower and leaf-
buds.  Hence it appears, that the
adherent lateral or paternal proge-
ny, being the most simple and easy
is consequently the first mode  of
re-production ; and that the propa-
gation by seed is not accomplished
till the maturer age or more per-
fect state of the parent-bud.
   Bulbous-roots are said to be solid,
when  composed  of one  uniform
lump  of matter, as in  the tulip ;
tunicated or coated, when formed
of a plurality of coats, surrounding
one another, as in the onion; squa-
mous or scaly, when  composed of
lesser scales, as in the lily ; jointed,
 as in the tuberous  moschatel ; du-
plicate, when  there  are only two
 bulbs to  each  plant,  as  in  the
 crocus and saffron; and aggregate,
 when there is a congeries of such
 roots  to each.
   One of the most  striking phe-
 nomena in vegetable nature is that
 of raising plants from their bulbs,
 without   earth.  Duhamel  even
 raised small oak-trees,  merely  by
 water, in which he kept them eight
 years :  they produced  fine leaves
 every spring,  and grew more ra-
 pidly during the  two first years,
 than if they had been  planted in
 the best earth : an useful  hint this
 to the cultivators of that noble tree!
   As  bulbs immersed  in  water
 produce roots, stem, and leaves,
 we might be induced to think, that
 the order of their  growth, in these
 different parts, would be alike;  but
 experience  evinces the contrary.
 Duhamel  cut off  some of  the
 largest  hyacinth-roots,  almost  two
 fingers  breadth from their ends ;
 then placed the bulb on a bottle, in
 such  a position that the end of the 
BUL
BUL        437
 cut root touched the water; and
 made a mark on the outside of the
 bottle, exactly opposite to the ex-
 tremity  of the root; he likewise
 made marks corresponding to the
 ends of  some  entire roots.  The
 latter continued growing, and soon
 extended beyond the mark of their
 former length ; but the ends ofthe
 cut roots remained stationary. This
 experiment  clearly demonstrates,
 that roots only grow at their end.
  BULFINCH, or pyrrhula, a spe-
 cies of bird comprehended under
 the genus  Loxia, and so generally
 known as to require  but  little de-
 scription.   The head, wings, and
 tail are black ;  the breast and belly
 red; the upper  tail, coverts and
 vent, white ; and the breast of an
 ash-colour.  In  the  female, the
 under parts are of a reddish brown.
 This bird is common in most parts
 ofthe Continent, and throughout
 Russia  and  Siberia, at which last
 places it is caught for the  table. It
 is also pretty general in England,
 and builds  in bushes, five or six
 feet from the  ground.  The nest
 is principally composed of moss,
 and the eggs, which are five or six
 in: number,  are of a blueish white
 colour,  marked  at the large end
 with  dark   spots.  The  time  of
 breeding is  about the end of May,
 or the beginning of June ; and in
 summer  its principal  residence is
 in woods;  but in  winter it  ap-
 proaches gardens  and orchards,
 and is, perhaps,  unjustly  stigma-
 tized  for destroying  the  buds of
 trees, though it  appears that its
 object is not the bud  itself, but
 " the worm in  the bud," and that
 the bulfinch is one of those species
 of birds  that defend the  embryo
 fruit,  by  destroying the nests  of
 innumerable insects, and thus pro-
mote  their  growth.  In  its wild
 state, the bulfinch has  a simple
 note, but when tamed, it becomes
 remarkably  docile,  and   may  be
 taught to whistle any notes,or even
 a whole tune, in the most accurate
 manner.  There is a considerable
 number of these birds annually im-
 ported  from Germany into Eng-
 land,  some  of which are  even
 taught  to speak, but they are re-
 markable for imitating wind-music,
 particularly flagelets.
   When  bulfinches  are  taken
 young, they may be  reared in the
 same manner as a linnet. The best
 way  to distinguish the cock of this
 bird  from the hen, is, to pull half
 a dozen feathers from its breast,
 when about three weeks  old, and
 in ten or twelve days after, they
 will appear of a brightish red.
   BULL, or Bos  Taurus, in zoo-
 logy, is naturally a fierce and ter-
 rible animal,  having cylindrical
 horns,  bent outward, and loose
 dewlaps.  When chased, he has a
 majestic and sullen air, often tear-
 ing up the ground with his feet and
 horns. A bull, like a stallion, ought
 to be the most  handsome of hi*
 species.   He  should  be  tall an 1
 well made; his eyes large and pro-
 tuberant,  black  and  rolling ,  his
 forehead broad, and close  set, with
 short curled  hair ;  his ears long,
 hairy withinand without; his horns
 longish, clean, and bright...And as
 Nature has  designed the head as
 his principal instrument,  both of
 offence  and defence, it ought to
 have  every mark of strength, and
 also to be proportionably  aided by
 the  neck.  The large  muscular
 neck, provided it be well propor-
tioned, in its  parts, and the  head
 firmly connected therewith, of all
others deserves the preference...It
ought not, however, to be incum-.
bered with a coarse wreathy skin 
438        BUL
BUL
and  dewlap;  the  latter,  on the
contrary, ought to be thin and sup-
ple,  and  the  former  tight and
smooth.   The  breast  should be
large, and the  shoulders  deep,
thick, broad,  and high ; the back
straight and broad ;  the ribs broad
and  circular;   the  belly  deep,
straight, and tapering a little to the
hind thighs, which should be large
and  square. The roof ought lo be
wide, particularly  over the chine
and hooks; and  the tail (if the bull
is ofthe true English breed) should
not extend far up the roof, and be
strong and deep, with much lank
hair upon the under  part of it;
and the hind part  of the  buttock
rather  square   than exuberant;
from which mark,  there is an ab-
solute  certainty he  does not par-
take of the buffalo, or  muscular-
thighed breed, which are the worst
feeders. The joints and legs should
be short and strong; and the body
long, deep, and round, filling well
up to the shoulder,  and into the
groin.
   The  finest breed of bulls, and
other cattle, ever reared in Eng-
land, was  that  of  the late Mr.
Fowler,  of  Rollright,  Oxford-
shire, whose  stock was sold by
auction, in 1791.   The Eng. edi-
tor of this work was among those
who witnessed this enchanting ex-
hibition  of animals, and admired
their incomparable size, form, vi-
vacity,  in  short,  the  most pic-
turesque  view, both as to objects
and scenery.   Here the most res-
pectable farmers of the first agri-
cultural country in Europe had as-
sembled ; some of whom  had tra-
velled several hundred miles, from
almost every corner of the island.
Fifteen  prime  heads  of  cattle,
namely, five bulls,  and ten cows,
were separately sold for the enor-
mous sum of 24641. or, on an ave-
rage, 1641. each :  the  finest bull,
named Sultan, only two years old,
was purchased by Mess.Freeman
and  Eden, of Gloucestershire, at
the price of 2201.  10s....Such was
the  reputatiou of that celebrated
breeder,  Mr.  Fowler, that Fre-
derick the Great, of Prussia, ho-
noured him with his correspond-
ence,  and  rewarded  him  with a
gold medal.
   By well known artificial  means,
the nature  of  this animal is  re-
markably softened, and all his im-
petuosity destroyed,  without  di-
minishing his  strength :  on  the
contrary, after this operation, which
is usually performed before he is
two  years  old, his weight  is  in-
creased, and he becomes more fit
for agricultural purposes.
   The age of these animals may
be distinguished by  the teeth and
horns; the first four teeth dropout
at the age of six months, and are
Succeeded by  others of  a darker
colour, which  are broader than the
former.  When  they  are  sixteen
months  old, the next milk-teeth
likewise fall out, and at the  com-
mencement of the fourth  year, all
the  fore-teeth are renewed.  The
bull, cow,  and  ox,  naturally live
from fifteen to twenty  years : but
are generally  killed at an earlier
age....See, also, Cow and Ox.
   These  animals  are extremely
fond of licking themselves, espe-
cially when lying at rest; but this
practice should, as much as possi-
ble,  be prevented, for the hair be-
ing  an indigestible  substance, re-
mains in the stomach, where it be-
comes coated  with glutinous mat-
ter,  which, in time, forms  hard
balls, and not unfrequently proves
destructive.   We  conceive  that
small quantities of common salt, or, 
             BUL

preferably,  rock-salt, occasionally
exposed  to cattle  for licking it,
would  not   only  preserve  their
health, in general, but also tend to
obviate the  effects of the unwhole-
some practice before alluded to.
   Dr. Lysons informs us, in his
" Practical  Essays," 1772, that the
epilepsy in bulls, is sometimes oc-
casioned by hydatids (little transpa-
rent bladders filled  with water), or
other matters  immediately acting
upon the brain ; and he relates an
instance where this formidable case
was cured by the operation of tre-
panning, performed by Mr.  Ches-
ton, a very ingenious surgeon, at
Gloucester, England.
   BULLOCKS are most  advan-
tageously fattened by stall-feeding;
a method now brought to systema-
tic perfection.
   The follow ing is the result of ex-
perience, inserted in  the  eleventh
volume ofthe " Annals of Agricul-
ture," as communicated by J. H.
Campbell,  Esq. of Charlton, in
England, who is one of the most
judicious and successful graziers in
that kingdom.   He first remarks,
that the quantity of food required
to fatten  an animal, depends  en-
tirely on  the thriving disposition,
and not in the least on his weight ;
and then gives the following  an-
swers to Mr. Young's queries : 1.
One hundred bushels of potatoes,
and seven hundred  weight of hay,
are generally sufficient to  fatten
any ox that is a  tolerable good
thriver.  2.   Small  quantities  of
potatoes should be given at first;
then increase to one or two bush-
els per day, but always intermixing
the dry  food, and  regulating  the
quantity of hay, by the effect which
potatoes  produce on the bowels.
There  ought to be at  least five
servings in a day, and according to
            BUL         439

the quantity an ox can be induced
to eat with  appetite,  he will the
sooner become fat, consequently
the cheaper, and with  more profit.
The roots need not be cut, except
in the beginning, to entice the ani-
mal to eat them ; but  they should
always be fresh and clean.3.There
is no corn or meal necessary, un-
less it can  be had at  a  moderate
price ; in which case it would tend
to expedite, and  consequently  to
render more profitable  the whole of
the feeding.  Of this nature are
brewer's grains, one bushel mixed
with a peck of pollard, sometimes
pea or bean-meal coarsely ground,
given in two divided portions.   4.
Cleanliness is a principal requisite
in the feeding of cattle : hence not
only the  mangers,  but also the
stalls, ought to be kept as clean  as
possible ;  and the former should be
cleared from dirt and dust, with a
blunt-pointed  trowel, every morn-
ing.  After cleansing their stalls, a
sufficient  quantity of  fresh litter
should be  strewed over, which will
invite  them  to  lie down......Mr.
Campbell is of opinion, and we
fully agree with him, that rest con-
tributes to fatten cattle  much soon-
er ; and likewise that combing and
carding their hides, every day, pro-
motes their  thriving  more than
equal to the small portion of time
thus consumed.   Lastly, he found
the greatest  difficulty in prevailing
upon the people, to whose care the
bullocks were committed, to follow
strictly his directions,  and to abo-
lish the practice of giving them
too great portions of food at  a time.
Thus, the animal  frequently  be-
comes  disgusted,  his  appetite is
impaired,  and the food is wasted.
The hay is  to be cut once ; or,  if
not very weighty, twice along, and
three times across the truss, so  as 
440        BUR
BUR
to be in squares of eight  or ten
inches : in  this state the cattle eat
and  digest it  more readily, while
the fattening is considerably expe-
dited.
  BULL-RUSH,  or  Club-grass ;
the Scirpus lacustris, L. is an  indi-
genous  plant,  frequently found in
river., pools, and fens.  It  attains
a height of  from  five to  twelve
feet, and is, near the  root, about
the thickness of a finger. Its spikes
are  dark-chesnut,  or  dark-brown
with a tinge of red.
  When fodder is exhausted, cat-
tle will  live  upon  this plant; and
for that purpose it  may be  made
into  hay.   Goats and  swine eat it,
but  it  is refused  by cows and
sheep.  In Sweden, cottages are
thatched;  and,  in Britain, pack-
saddles  are stuffed, with  the  bull-
rush. Bottoms of chairs, and mats,
are likewise very commonly made
of it, and their finer or coarser
quality depends upon the age ofthe
grass.   From the  pith, or  medul-
lary  substance of this vegetable, a
kind of paper may be prepared, by
pressing it, and afterwards  giving
it consistence, by a proper addition
of size.
  BURDENS,  or heavy  loads,
cannot  fail to be injurious to the
lungs ;  because  the person carry-
ing  them is obliged to inspire and
expel the air with greater force
than is designed by  nature.  Those
who, either from imprudence, or a
mistaken economy, exceed the li-
mits of  their strength, by doing at
once what should be performed at
two different times, expose them-
selves to various degrees of danger.
Thus persons,  supporting heavy
burdens, as porters,  colliers, and
day-labourers, in general, by over-
straining the tender vessels of the
breast   and  lungs, frequently be-
come liable to blood-spitting, asthe-
nia, ruptures, pleurisies, See. This
fatality is apparently generated in
early youth, from  an absurd  and
hurtful notion, that the children of
working  people should  be timely
accustomed to hard labour. Every
humane master of a family, as well
as the more judicious neighbours of
cottagers, ought seriously to warn
those bold adventurers  of the  im-
minent clanger to  which they ex-
pose themselves by such  impru-
dence.  Young females, in parti-
cular, should  be  stopped  in  the
streets, when walking with heavy
loads on  their heads ;  a measure
no less necessary  than  that of re-
moving  an infant  from  the preci-
pice  of a window.  From the pres-
sure of such burdens, on the vessels
of the brain, young persons be-*
come stupefied; an effect which is
obvious   to  every  accurate  ob-
server.   In countries, where  the
inhabitants carry  all their water
and other commodities onthehead,
many are afflicted with scrophulous
complaints:  but the worst conse-
quences of  this practice  are, weak
lungs, and a constant disposition to
cough and catarrh, which frequent-
ly terminate in incurable consump-
tion.
  BURDOCK, or CLOT-BURR,the
Arctium  Lappa, L. a well known
plant growing on  the road sides,
on rubbish  and ditch-banks, bear-
ing purple blossoms in  July  and
August.
  The  blackish,  but  internally
white root of this vegetable, might
be very advantageously employed
in washing, on account of its sapo-
naceous  property.  Before  the
flowers  appear, the  tender stems,
strippedof their rind,are boiled and
used like asparagus; or eaten with
vinegar and  the yolk of eggs, ra- 
           BUR

ther than  oil, in the form of salad.
The plant is browsed upon by cows
and goats, but refused by  sheep
and horses ;  nor is  it relished by
swine.
   Bohmer  mentions  the  root of
the burdock among those  vegeta-
bles from which starch may be ex-
tracted ; and Schaefer obtained
from the stalks  a  whitish-green
paper.  Boys catch bats  with its
flowers. See the article Bat, p. 197.
   In medicine,says Dr. Wither-
ing,decoctions ofthe burdock-root
are esteemed by judicious physici-
ans,  as equal, if not  superior, to
those of sarsaparilla.  The fresh
root has  a  sweetish-bitter, and
somewhat austere taste ; is aperi-
ent,  diuretic, and  sudorific ; and
said to act without irritation, so as
to be safely used in acute diseases.
The seeds  have a bitterish,  sub-
acrid taste, and are  recommended
as powerful diuretics, when taken
either in  the form  of an emulsion,
or a powder, in  closes not  exceed-
ing one dram.
   BURDOCK,  the Lesser, or
Xanthium strumarium, L. likewise a
native plant growing on dung, and
grounds  highly  manured: the
thornless stem is a foot and a half
high, thick, often spotted; the leaves
heart-shaped, lobbed, on long foot-
stalks ; flowers from June to Sep-
tember.   The leaves are bitter and
astringent:  they  are eaten  by
horses  and goats, but  refused by
cows, sheep and swine.  A decoc-
tion of the whole plant  yields a
bright yellow colour ; which, how-
ever, is more lively when the flow-
ers alone are  employed.
 '  BURGOO, a kind of porridge,
is a nutritive dish, eaten by marin-
ers, and much used in Scotland :
it  is made  by  gradually  adding
oat-meal to  boiling water,  stirring
            BUR        441

it constantly, so that the whole may
mix smoothly ; after which a little
salt and  butter  should  be added.
Cockburn considers  it very pro-
per for correcting  that unwhole-
some disposition to costiveness, so
frequent to persons of a sea-faring
life.
   BURIAL, the  interment of a
deceased person.  The rites of bu-
rial have been, at all times, and in
every civilized country,  considered
as a debt so sacred, that those who
neglected  to discharge it,  were
justly  detested.   It is, therefore,
not a  matter of surprize that the
Greeks and Romans were extreme-
ly solicitous about  the burial of
their dead ;  as, in their opinion,
the souls of their departed friends
could  not  gain admittance into
Elysium, till their  bodies  were
committed to the earth.  Hence,
in ancient  times, it was deemed a
duty incumbent  upon  every travel-
ler, who should  happen  to meet
with a dead body in his way, to
cast three  handfuls  of dust  or
mould upon it.  The  honour of
burial  was, however, denied to  ty-
rants, traitors and those who had
committed particular crimes, and
were punished  with death.
   Among the primitive  Christians
interment  in cities was not per-
mitted for  the  first  three centu-
ries, nor in churches for many ages
after, and hereditary buryingplaces
were forbidden till the 12th centu-
ry.  That the  extravagant abuse
of burying in churches*is highly
infectious, on account  ofthe exha-
lations arising from the  putrid bo-
dies, must be evident to the mean-
est capacity. This absurd and per-
nicious custom is of early origin:
for the honour was at first conferred
on the sacred relics of" martyrs ;
and in the  ninth century it was 
442        BUR
BUR
allowed also to persons of distinc-
tion : the same privilege was grant-
ed to those who revered the shrines;
....the clergy and  monks making
the faithful believe, that to place
them in  the  repository of the bo-
dies of saints,  was  the greatest
mark of dignity they could receive.
Although this custom still prevails,
yet nothing can be more detrimen-
tal to the health of the living, even
though  the  vaults should remain
closed ; because there is a continu-
al putrid exhalation of noxious va-
pours, particularly in  the hot days
of summer.  Hence  this may be
considered as  the  real cause of
many disorders, which are errone-
ously attributed to the various, and
often sudden, changes of the  at-
mosphere.
  Premature Burial,  a complaint
which, in modern times, has excit-
ed the attention of many judicious
inquirers, and  become lately the
subject of public  investigation, in
several  states of Europe.  It is a
well attested  truth, that many un-
fortunate persons are  consigned to
the grave, before they are actually
dead ; and that individuals, subject
to epilepsy and apoplectic fits, have
often been too easily buried, or
more properly speaking, smothered
in their coffins.  To prevent such
fatal accidents, houses for  the re-
ception of dead bodies have, within
these last ten years, been erected
in various cities of Germany, where
every inhabitant has a right to de-
posit the bftdy of a deceased person
till putrefaction has actually com-
menced.  We forbear to expatiate
on  the propriety  and utility of a
measure, which can  be  censured
only by obstinate and superstitious
Jews, who, from  an old religious
injunction, are enjoined to bury
their departed friends on the  day
of their  decease, and  before sun-
set.
  With  respect to the method of
ascertaining the probable causes,
and most  evident  symptoms, of
actual  dissolution,   we  refer  the
reader to  the article  " Apparent
Death ;" and shall here only ob-
serve, that theirs*  stage of putre-
scency may be  distinguished  by
the oily  nature  of the  humours
exuding  through   the pores, and
forming a perceptible clamminess
on the surface of the body.  The
exhaling vapour  is accompanied
with a faintish or slightly cadave-
rous odour, which marks with pre-
cision the point of  time for inter-
ment.    In the  second stage, the
emanating vapour  is sensibly alka-
lescent, with a strongly putrid and
offensive smell,  which may alone
prove noxious  to  the attendants.
On the contrary, in cases of can-
cer and  mortification, the  putrid
effluvia proceeding from vital heat
and motion, ceases after death, or
as soon as the body becomes cold :
hence the two cases are so distinct
that they cannot  be  easily mis-
taken.
  BURNET, the Great,or Wild,
or Meadow Burnet;  the Sangui-
sorba  officinalis, L.  a  native plant
growing  on moist pastures, especi-
ally on a  marly and  calcareous soil.
It is  a  hard,  woody plant, and
grows from two to three feet high,
branching towards the top, and ter-
minated by thick and oval spikes of
flowers,  of  a greyish brown co-
lour,  which  appear  in June and
July.
  This vegetable ought  not to be
confounded with the following, or
the Upland Burnet, which is a very
different  genus of  plants.   The
Great, or Wild  Burnet, has been
usefully  employed in  the art of 
            BUR

dyeing.  Vogler died wool, silk,
linen or cotten, in a decoction of
the dried,  brown-red flowers, of a
grey colour with a greenish shade,
by the addition of alum ; of r. dark
lilac, which soon  assumed a beau-
tiful grey,  by adding a solution of
tin ; and of a deep black colour, on
dropping into the liquor a solution
of copperas.
  According to  Bechstein, the
whole of the wild burnet is used in
tanning  leather,   as a substitute
for oak-bark : and the plant is also
relished  by cattle,  especially by
Iheep.
  BURNET, the Upland, or Po-
terium sanguisorba, L. is likewise
a native  plant, and by some called
the  Common  Garden  Burnet,
though it grows wild in a dry cal-
careous  soil.   It has fibry peren-
nial roots,  and retains  its leaves
throughout the year, but the stalks
are annual : it has long been culti-
vated as a choice salad-herb in win-
ter and spring. The leaves, being
of a  warm nature, are also used in
cool tankards, and for imparting
an agreeable flavour  to  wine......
When bruised, they smell like cu-
cumber.
  With respect to the more or less
profitable culture  of this plant,  the
opinions of practical farmers are di-
vided.  At the head of those who
have discouraged the introduction
of this grass, are  the late eminent
botanists, Mr.  Miller, and Dr.
James Anderson, twoof the most
skilful  and  celebrated writers on
agriculture.  The former asserts,
in his dictionary, that the plants
are left uneaten by the cattle when
the  grass  about  them has been
cropt to the roots  ; that in wet win-
ters, and in strong lands, the plants
are of short duration ; and that the
     VOL. I.
            BUR       443

produce is insufficient to tempt any
person of skill to engage in its cul-
ture : the latter, in the Essays on
Agriculture, also affirms, that the
produce of burnet  is too small to
be worth cultivating.
  On the  other  hand, we  meet
with several authorities by whom
the upland burnet  is strongly re-
commended as proper food for cat-
tle, on account of its partaking of
the nature of evergreens,and grow-
ing almost as quickly in winter as
in summer.
  For the first introduction of this
plant  into arable fields, we are in-
debted to BartholomewRocque,
an  honest  farmer  of Walham
Green,nearLondon; who,inMarch,
1761, sowed six pounds of the seed
upon  half an acre of ground, with
a quarter of a  peck  of  spring-
wheat; but the seed being very bad
it came  up but sparingly.  Not
discouraged by this  failure,  he
sowed two other pounds in the be-
ginning of June, upon about six
rood of ground, which  he mowed
in the beginning of August, and at
Michaelmas transplanted them on
about twenty rood of ground,  at the
distance of one foot each way, tak-
ing care not to . bury  the heart.
These plants bore  two crops of
seed in the following year:  the first
about the middle of June, and the
second about the middle  of Sep-
tember. In the second year, also,
two good crops of seed were pro-
duced.  As it  could not  be cut
after September, he let  it stand till
the next year,  when it sheltered
itself, and grew very well through
the winter, except during a  hard
frost, when it nevertheless remain-
ed  green.   In  March, it  covered
the ground, and was fit to receive
cattle.  It  may be  mown  three
    3 K 
444        BUR
BUR
times in one  summer, just before
it begins to flower. From six rood
of ground, he obtained 1150 pounds
of the first  cutting  of  the third
year; and-was enabled to sell, in
autumn,  1763, no less than three
hundred bushels of the seed !
  The next authority is that ofthe
Rev. Davies  Lambe, Rector of
Ridley, in  Kent,  whose letter to
Dr. Temfleman, the first secre-
tary to the  Society for the Encou-
ragement of the Arts, &c. is dated
December  10, 1765.  From  the
particulars  of  his statement it ap-
pears, that  one acre of land, at two
mowings, produced ten quarters of
seed, and three loads of hay ; that
burnet-straw is a  very useful fod-
der for  horses, calves,  cows and
sheep ;  and that  the chaff is also
valuable, when  mixed  with any
other, for  feeding cattle  of every
description. Mr.  Lambe is fully
persuaded,  that burnet will prove
a very great acquisition to husban-
dry, on many  account^;  but more
particularly for the following rea-
sons :  It is a good winter pasture,
consequently  it  will be of great
service to the farmer, as a constant
crop he may depend on, and that
without any expense  for seed or
tillage,  after  the first  sowing;
whereas turnips are precarious and
expensive ; and when they fail, the
farmer is very often put to great
inconveniencies to keep his stock.
It never blows or hoves cattle, and
will flourish upon poor light sandy,
stony, or chalky  land.  After the
first year it will weed itself, and be
kept clean  at little or no expense.
   The cultivation of burnet is nei-
ther hazardous nor expensive : X"
the land be prepared, it is general-
ly done for a crop of turnips, there
is no  danger of any miscarriage.
It  very frequently happens, that
every farmer, who sows many acres
with turnips, finds several of them
produce little or nothing ; the  fly,
the dolphin, the black caterpillar,
the dry weather, or some unknown
cause, often defeating the industry
and  expense of the   most  skilful
husbandman. When this happens,
as is too often the case, it is advisa-
ble to sowburnet,and in March and
April following, he will have a fine
pasture for his sheep and lambs.
   Mr.  W. Pitt, a respectable
farmer of Pendeford,  Staffordshire,
when speaking of  the culture of
the upland burnet, informs us, that
one of his neighbours has observed
in it this valuable property  as a
meadow-grass, that   it preserves
the hay  from over-heating  in the
stack ; and that the  hay of a mea-
dow in his possession, which con-
tains naturally a considerable por-
tion  of  this grass, always  comes
from the stack of a fine fresh green
colour, while his other hay,without
this  plant,  was overheated  and
turns out quite brown.  The plant
itself makes very good hay ; and,
even after threshing out the seed,
is eaten  as eagerly  by horses as
the best  clover-hay, but is less lux-
uriant in its growth than the broad-
red clover; the produce per acre
not exceeding two thirds of that
obtained from  the last mentioned
vegetable, in the same field.
   T. Le Blanc, Esq. of Caven-
ham, Suffolk,  sowed in October,
1782,a space several  perch square,
with burnet-seed and rye, being a
part of  one  hundred  acres  laid
clown to rye-grass, trefoil,and white
clover; the soil was a blowing sand
upon a chalk bottom, worth about
3s. 6d. per acre. It was folded for
the rye.   A flock of between  six
and  seven hundred  sheep were
turned in  on  the   5th  of  April, 
BUR
BUR       445
 - 784.  The grasses were, in gene-
 ral, backward, but the burnet in its
 growth much more forward than
 the rest. For the first two or three
 days, the sheep  did  not eat it at
 all ; a fortnight after, he viewed it
 again" and found  the burnet eaten
 to the  ground.  On examining it
 again, June 4th, it was pared close.
 When a flock has so large a range
 as one hundred acres, and eat up
 the growth of any  small spot so
 clean, it is a  far more satisfactory
 proof that they have no  dislike to
 the plants growing there,  than if
 they were confined to a small field
 with no other herbage.
   In the second  volume of Dos-
 sie's Memoirs of Agriculture, Mr.
 Barber asserts, that burnet im-
 proves land  from six shillings to
 one pound per acre ;  and though
 sheep do not like it at first, they
 will at length  relish it: he also
 supposes, it  prevents the rot in
 these animals.
  For the more successful culture
 of burnet, we shall  point out the
 following concise  directions, being
 the result of B. Rocque's experi-
 ence, whom we have mentioned as
 its  first  cultivator  in England:
 1. Although  it flourishes on stony
 and gravelly, as well as  in strong
 lands free from water, yet it will
 succeed better on a dry soil:  nor
 will it thrive on  grounds newly
 broken up ; which are best season-
 ed  with  potatoes.  2.  It may be
 sown in April, May, June,July and
 August,  and will  appear above
 ground in about eight or nine clays.
 3. The soil should be worked very
fine with a   harrow,  and rolled ;
twelve pounds of  seed are sown to
 lj) acre, when it should be slightly
harrowed and rolled again. 4. The
first year it  must  be kept very
clean ; and in the next, it will be-
 come strong enough to choak all
 other  grasses,  for  no  drought
 stints it, and no frost  destroys it.
 5. As the seed sheds, when ripe, it
 should be cut in the morning while
 the dew is upon it, and  threshed
 the same or next day : those who
 wish to save the seed, should feed
 the grass till May, as otherwise it
 will be too rank, and lodge; in a
 green state, it is heavier than any
 other  pasture-grass.   6.  If two
 horses are allowed to an acre, it
 will grow faster than they can eat
 it: the first crop purges them as
 effectually as the strongest physic;
 which,  however, is the case only
 for three days.  Mr. Rocqi/E also
 affirms, that he kept  a horse  en-
 tirely on burnet; that it cures these
 animals ofthe distemper called the
grease,  but that this effect is pro-
 duced  only by the first crop, and
 that he recovered one, which was
 considered as  incurable  by any
 other means.
  Lastly, it deserves to be noticed,
that burnet increases the quantity
of milk in cows, and produces good
butter:  it is likewise maintained,
that the mutton of sheep fed on it,
is more juicy, better coloured, and
flavoured, than that from any other
food ; while it not only cures the
rot in sheep, but also recovers such
 as have scoured.
  [Mr.  Deane,  (New  England
 farmer,)  says, " I  have had a bed
of this  grass for two years past on
a hungry sand.   It has grown lux-
uriantly, the stems rising  to the
height of three feet; and the seeds
ripened  the  year it   was sown,
though  it was not sown till the
end if May. The second  year the
seeds ripened,  I think,  in June.
The  severity of our winter frost
neither  killed any  of it,   nor so
much as altered the verdure of the 
446       BUR
BUR
stems or leaves.  Some of it was
cut up and given to cattle, as soon
as the snow was off, which they ate
very greedily.
   u 1 think this plant bids fair to
be a profitable grass  in this coun-
try, where frost occasions the con-
fining our stocks to dry fodder for
six or seven  months.  For on  a
pasture of this grass, cattle, horses
and sheep, may feed till the ground
is covered with snow ;  and again
in the spring, as soon as the ground
is bare.
   " It is also excellent for soiling,
or to give green to cattle in racks;
and when it is  made into hay, the
leaves are not apt to crumble, or
any part ofthe hay to be wasted.
   " They who wish to propagate
this grass, may be  assured, that
there is not the least difficulty  in
doing it: For it is not only a  most
hardy plant,  but I have not found
it to be at all liable to be  hurt by
any kind of insects.  The  English
farmers  recommend  keeping  it
clear of weeds during the first sum-
mer, or till it is so large as to cover
the ground.  This may be  done
partly by harrowing : For as it is a
 strong tap-rooted  plant, the  teeth
of the harrow will not injure the
roots.]
   Burnet- Saxifrage........See
 Anise.
   BURNING, the  action of fire
on fuel, the minute parts of which
 are thereby put into violent  com-
 motion, so that some  of these par-
 ticles assume the nature of fire,and
 escape, while  the  remainder  is
 either dissipated  in the form of va-
 pour,  or reduced  to ashes. There
 are many instances on  record,  of
 persons who have  been  burnt to
 death by fires kindled in their own
 bodies : but such  individuals gene-
 rally had long indulged to excess
 in sprituous  liquors.
  Burning, in surgery, denotes the
application of the  actual cautery,
or a red hot instrument to the part
affected.  In the'Mogul empire,
the natives cure, or pretend to cure
the colic, by applying a ring, red
hot,  to  the pa'ient's navel ; and
among the Japanese, the practice
of burning constitutes  nearly the
whole of  the healing art.   It  is,
however, certain, that several very
extraordinary cures have been per-
formed  by burning ;  and the an-
cients frequently had recourse to
this  remedy, with  singular advan-
tage.
   Burning-glass,  or burning
mirror, a  machine by  which the
sun's rays are collected into a point,
and thus their force and effect con-
siderably  increased, so as to con-
sume objects within its reach.
   There are two kinds of burning
glasses, namely, convex and con-
cave.  Those of the convex form
are lenses,  which  by  acting  ac-
cording to the  laws of  refraction,
incline the rays of light  towards
the axis, and unite them in a point,
or focus.   The concave ones  are
mirrors,  or reflectors, whether
made of polished  metal, or silver-
ed glass ; which,  by the laws of
reflection, throw back the rays into
a point before  the glass.
   These instruments are undoubt-
edly of very ancient origin :  the
most celebrated were those  of Ar-
chimedes and Proclus ;  by  the
former of which the fleet of Mar-
cellus was destroyed, at the dis-
tance of  a bow-shot.  In modern
times, there have  been  several in-
 ventions of this kind, remarkable
 for their large  diameter, and pow-
 erful effects; the principal of which
 are  those of Magine, of Sepata-
 la, Sf. itala,  and Buffon ;  the
latter  of whom made  one that
consisted of 400 mirrors, which 
BU R
BUR       44?
reflected all their rays to one point,
and with this he  could melt lead
and  tin, at the  distance of  140
feet.
  Sir Isaac Newton presented a
burning-glass to the Royal Society,
which consisted of seven concave
glasses, so placed that all their foci
join  in one physical point.   This
instrument vitrifies brick or tile in
one second, and melts gold in half
a minute.
  Burning  of Land, or  Burn-
baiting, a practice long employed
in  agriculture,  but now   nearly
abandoned.   It is performed by
cutting off the turf of the ground,
piling it in heaps to dry, and after-
wards burning it  to ashes, which
are  spread over  the bare  surface
and ploughed in.   Many consider
it as a very profitable  method of
dressing, for it need only be used
on the poorest, and worst  kind of
lands, or barren, rushy, and heathy
grounds, that have long been un-
tilled.  By this useful practice, an
excellent  crop may  be obtained
from the most impoverished soil ;
though the effect does not conti-
nue  longer than three years, when
the  ground becomes as poor as it
was before.
 . Land may be so much exhaust-
ed, by  repeated crops after burn-
baiting, as not to receive  benefit
from any  thing, till  recruited by
ten or twelve years fallow :  hence
the  farmer should, after the  first
crop, prepare for the second, by the
addition of any common manure.
  A  correspondent in the  " Mu-
aeum Rusticum,"  ascribes the ne-
glect of this  system to the follow-
ing  causes :   1.  The poverty of
many small farmers, who, holding
their estates at a rack-rent, will not
venture to lay out such a consider-
able sum on lands, which they may
probably quit before their  money
will  be returned.   2. Landlords,
observing the  parsimonious  con-
duct of farmers, in working out
the land, and  thinking  of no im-
provement  beyond  the  present
crop,  are, in  general  averse to
this  expedient, and will not grant
permission  to  their  tenants to
adopt it.
   Bastard Burn-baiting. This prac-
tice  consists of burning the refuse
product of the land, such as  stub-
ble,  haulm,  &c. upon the ground
which  produced  them; or what-
ever else- is laid on it, for that pur-
pose.   It may be considered under
four heads :   1.  The  burning of
sedge  on wet lands ; a very old
and  successful practice.  2. Burn-
ing  the stubble upon corn-fields ;
which  is also an ancient and  com-
mon method; and though the ashes
thus produced are  light,  and not
abundant, yet the heat imparted
to the ground, makes such a dress-
ing better than 4 times the quan-
tity of ashes of another kind.  3.
The burning of any waste product
on heaths and commons ; the bene-
fit of   which   is not  sufficiently
known : this is performed by  stub-
bing up the broom, or other waste
matter, piling it in heaps, and co-
vering  them with the earth that
had  been raised in digging to the
roots; then burning the whole, and
spreading the ashes on the ground,
to be ploughed in.  4.  The bring-
ing of  certain  substances to impo-
verished land,  and burning them
there;  such  as sticks, stubble,
haulm, or other waste matters of
any  kind.  The  principal  advan-
tage of this  last method does not
so much consist in the quantity of
ashes produced, as in the enliven-
ing warmth  communicated to the
ground, by such a number of small
fires, which  greatly  contribute to
promote its fertility. 
448        BUR
BUR
  BURNS, many proceed from fire
as well as a fluid body ; which lat-
ter may be  either  heated, or con-
sist of corrosive mineral acid, such
as aqua-fortis, oil of vitriol, &c.  In
this place, we shall  treat only of
burns occasioned hy fire, and refer
the reader for an account of other
accidents of this nature, to the head
of " Scalds."
   In slight cases, the burnt part
may be held for a  minute near the
fire ; or, if it be a  finger, the pain
and  inflammation  will  be  abated
by bringing it in contact with the
ear ; which, in this  instance, acts
like a conductor.   Ink, the  juice
of onions, or a little brandy, or
even salt rubbed on the part  affect-
ed,  all  tend to  prevent blisters ;
but  if these, nevertheless, should
rise, open them  with a lancet, or
a tine pair of scissars, without cut-
ting away the scarf-skin, let out the
collected humour,  and then apply
a mixture  of oil and lime-water,
beat up with a new-laid egg, spread
upon the soft linen  rags, and re-
newed every hour, or oftener.
   One  of the most  simple  reme-
dies in  recent burns,  and which  is
in great vogue  on the Continent,
consists in the  expressed juice of
the burdock, or clot-burr; the fresh
and  tender leaves of which possess
healing virtues,  and  are therefore
applied not  only to burns, but also
to wounds,  ulcers, &c.   There  is
a kind of  green  ointment kept in
families for occasional  use  : it  is
composed  of equal   parts of the
juice obtained  from the middle
leaves  of the burdock, and oil of
almonds,  or olives,  in the purest
state.  This composition is said to
be of  singular  efficacy, also,  in
healing ulcers,  allaying pain aris-
ing  from  piles,  removing tetters,
and  suppurating pustules of the
face, if assisted by internal  reme-
dies, adapted to  particular cases.
  BURNT-GRAIN, a distemper
incident  to corn,  and  frequently
confounded with the smut, though
in its nature, very different from
the latter. According to Duhamel,
the husks, or external coverings of
the grains in burnt ears, are, in ge-
neral, tolerably sound, with this dif-
ference only, that when the seeds
begin to ripen, they  appear drier
and  more  parched  than  those of
the healthy ears. The skin, or bran,
which forms the immediate  cover-
ing of the  grain, is not destroyed
in this disease, as is the case in the
smut: and the infected ears are less
firm   and consistent in their tex-
ture,  than  the  sound  ones:  the
husks of the former also become
dry and  whitish, in  proportion to
the increase ofthe distemper. The
grains retain some degree of firm-
ness,  and if opened, are found to
be full of  a brownish  substance,
emitting a nauseous smell, and be-
ing unctuous to the touch.
  The most effectual method of
preventing a distemper, the cause
of which is  as little known as that
of the smut, is first to wash the
seed well in common water, and
scum off all the damaged  grains
that  float on the surface, then to
steep it in brine, a strong  ley of
ashes, urine, &c lastly, to sprinkle
it well with quick-lime, before it is
sown.
  BUR-WEED,the Greater, or
Bur-reed, Sparganium erectum,L..
is an indigenous perennial,growing
in ditches,  marshes, and on the
banks of rivers, where it flowers
in July.   This plant,  though  re-
fused by  sheep and horses, is eager-
ly eaten  by cattle, w,hile in a green
state ; but, when dry,  it produces
a hard fodder.  Its flowers, while 
BUR
BUR        449
in full bloom,  have by Bautsch
been successfully employed in tan-
ning.
   BURYING-GROUNDS are
places consecrated tothe interment
of dead bodies ; and have, from the
earliest institutions of society, been
held in  great veneration, both by
Heathens and  Christians.   It is,
however, to be regretted, that the
latter paid less attention to the in-
fluence of such places on the health
and  comforts of the living,  than
the more sagacious  Pagans, who
generally  appointed distant and
elevated situations, for committing
the remains of their friends to the
maternal earth.
   There can be no diversity of opi-
nion  as to the pernicious tendency
of bUrying-grounds in the vicinity
of dwelling-houses (see the article
Burial), especially in large and
populous cities.  Hence Dr. Dar-
win, in the true spirit of a philan-
thropic philosopher, boldly, though
pertinently, remarks:  No  burials
should  be tolerated  in churches or
church-yards,  where the  monu-
ments of departed sinners shoulder
God's altar, pollute his holy places
with  dead  men's bones, and,  by
putrid exhalations, produce conta-
gious diseases  among  those who
frequent his worship.  Proper bu-
rial  places  should be consecrated
out of towns, and divided into two
compartments: the earth from one
of these should be  removed once
in ten or twenty years, for the pur-
poses of agriculture, when  it will
be sufficiently saturated with ani-
mal decomposition ; and sand,  or
clay, or even soil that is less fer-
tile, should be  substituted.   Dr.
Darwin farther thinks, that the
removal of this earth is not likely
to shock the relations of the de-
ceased, as  the superstition  con-
cerning the  clay from which we
rose, and into which we return, has
gradually vanished before the light
of reason.  Instances of this hap-
py change occurred  about thirty
years ago, in removing a quantity
of rich earth from the close of the
cathedral at  Litchfield, England ;
and  more  lately,  in  changing a
burying-ground  at   Shrewsbury,
both which were executed without
exciting superstitious  terror,  or
popular commotion. Although we
cannot, in conformity to our pro-
fessed sentiments,  and in  justice
to the Doctor's  benevolent design
on this occasion,  differ as to the
propriety of the expedient he has
suggested, yet we  doubt whether
the tide of prejudice, which influ-
ences the multitude, is not, at pre-
sent, too powerful an object to such
innovations.   Before attempts  of
this nature can be made with any
hope of permanent success, we ven-
ture to say, that much remains  to
be previously done  in our schools,
as well as in private education,  to
unfetter the young mind from the
chains of dogmatical slavery, and
to inculcate principles of untainted
morality, being the most substan-
tial basis of pure Christianity.
   [In the city of Amsterdam, and
it is believed, in all Holland, no per-
son may be buried without an order
being previously obtained from the
" high officer." This order is given
without fee,  for all burials which
are to take  place at or before  12
o'clock in the day : after which  a
price is paid, which increases one
ducat for every  hour after twelve.
The consequence is, that scarcely
any will permit their  relations  to
be buried until after dark, and by
torch-light......The more expense,
the more honour.
   This principle of obtaining a re- 
450        BUS
BUS
venue by taxing the folly and pride
of mankind,  shews the profound
wisdom with  which the Dutch re-
gulate even the smallest concerns:
and affords an excellent example to
the rest of the world.]
   BUSH-VETCH, or the  Vicia
sepium, L. an  indigenous plant,
growing in woods, hedges.pastures,
and meadows.  Its leaves are dou-
bled  together ;  bunches  shorter
than the leaves; the stem upright,
sometimes four  feet  high;  the
blossoms  of  a  dirty purple, and
appear  in  May  and June.  This
plant shoots earlier in  the spring
than  any  other eaten  by cattle ;
vegetates late in the autumn, and
continues  green  all  winter.
  Although the culture ofthe bush-
vetch was strongly  recommended
by Dr. Anderson in 1777,  yet
from later experience, it  appears
that  it  is  difficult  to  collect  the
seeds, as  the pods burst, scatter
them about, and being made  the
nest of an insect, scarcely a third
part  of them will vegetate.   Dr.
Withering, however, observes,
that a spot of garden-ground, sown
in drills with this vetch, was  cut
five times in  the course of the se-
cond year, and produced  at  the
rate  of 24 tons per acre of green
food, which,  when dry,  weighed
nearly 41  tons.   The Rev.  Dr.
Swayne  also informs  us, in  the
third volume of the papers of the
Bath Society, that he selected part
of a field  in which the bush-vetch
naturally abounded, sowed it with
this  plant, and it succeeded so well,
that he cut it  four times in  the
same year; the produce of the  hay
was  24 tons 11|  cwt. per acre,
which is upwards of one-third more
than  lucerne generally produces.
But Mr. Swayneha6 since observ-
ed toDr. Withering, that though
the  bush-vetch is very palatable to
all kinds of cattle, its cultivation,on
a large scale, would be  attended
with difficulty, as the seeds are ge-
nerally devoured by a numerous
species of insects......It is farther
remarkable, that ants are extreme-
ly partial to this vegetable.
  BUSHEL, a measure of capaci-
ty for dry substances, such as grain,
pulse, fruit, Sec. it contains, in ge-
neral, four pecks, or eight gallons,
being the eighth part of a quarter.
  According to the earliert excise-
laws, a London bushel is to contain
eight wine  gallons of wheat; the
gallon,  eight  pounds of wheat
(Troy-weight,  which see) ;  the
pound, twelve ounces ;  the ounce,
twenty penny weights ; and  each
penny-weight, thirty-two grains, or
corns,of wheat taken from the mid-
dle of the ear. But as such grains
are  of very different weight in dif-
ferent ears,  nay, in the same ear,
and even in  the same field, the un-
certainty of this calculation must
be  obvious.   Nevertheless, this
standard bushel is kept in the Ex-
chequer: when filled with common
spring-water, and measured before
the  House of Commons in 1696, it
was found to contain 2145,6 solid
inches ; and the  same water being
weighed, amounted to 1131 ounces,
and  14 penny-weights, troy.  The
first malt-act,  however, altered
these proportions, as it was then
enacted, that the legal  Winchester
bushel should be 18i inches diame-
ter, and eight inches  deep.   The
coal-bushel  was  regulated at  191
inches wide : thus, says  Mr. Re-
nardson, in the 491st number of
the   " Philosophical Transactions,"
two measures, both differing from
the original one, were legally esta- 
            BUS

 blished ; and from time to time in-
novations were made, till it became
difficult  to  determine,  what was
meant by the  name of any mea-
sure....Beside  this  inconvenience,
the bushel has, in different coun-
ties and places,  and without any
apparent cause for such diversity,
been made of different dimensions:
at Abingdon and Andover, abushel
contains nine gallons ; at Appleby
and Penrith, a bushel of peas, rye,
and wheat,  holds  16 gallons ;  of
barley, big, malt, mixt malt, and
oats,  20 gallons.   A bushel  con-
tains, at Carlisle, 24 gallons;  at
Chester, a  bushel of wheat, rye,
&c. is  32  gallons ; and of oats,
40 ;  at  Dorchester,  a bushel  of
malt  and  oats,  is  10 gallons;  at
Falmouth, the bushel of stricken
coals is 16 gallons ; of other arti-
cles, 20, and usually 21  gallons ;
at  Kingston-upon-Thames,  the
bushel contains  81, at Newbury,
9 ;  at Wycomb  and Reading, 81;
and at Stamford,  16 gallons.
   In  ascertaining  the  accurate
weight of a bushel of corn, there
is a considerable difference arising
both from the  nature of the grain,
and its relative perfection : thus, a
bushel of oats weighs only about
40  pounds ;  of peas and  beans,
about  60;  and  the  best  wheat
should weigh from 62 to 64 pounds.
With greater  accuracy, however,
may be calculated the cubic, or
solid capacity of vessels ;  so that
a bushel containing  2145  inches,
will be nearly equal to one foot and
a quarter cubic measure :  conse-
quently a body of a cart, compris-
ing  40  feet,  will hold about 32
bushels,  stricken measure....If a
calculation be made as to the num-
ber of perfect  grains of wheat,
which ought to be in one standard
bushel, it will be found that the
    VOL. I.
             BUS        451

net  amount is  491,520 grains, or
7680 to one pint, or pound.
   [Some standard ought to be fix-
ed for the  bushel in Philadelphia.
A friend lately found that the quan-
tity  of  grain  measured in three
stamped half bushels, differed in
weight  to  the  amount  of   two
pounds.]
   BUSTARD, or  Otis  tarda, in
ornithology, is said  to be the larg-
est of the British land-fowl; its
breadth, with expanded wings, be-
ing nine  feet;  the  length nearly
four; and the male weighing from
25 to 27 pounds.  The female is
about half the size of the male,
and  marked with different shades
of colour.
   Bustards  inhabit most of  the
open conntries lying to the south
and east parts of this island, from
Dorsetshire, as far as the Wolds of
Yorkshire.   In autumn, they  are
(in Wiltshire) generally found in
large turnip-fields,near the Downs,
and in flights  of fifty  or more....
They are exceedingly shy, and dif-
ficult to be shot; run very fast, and
fly, though slowly, many miles
without resting : and, as they take
flight with  difficulty,   they   are
sometimes  run down  by grey-
hounds.  Corn and  other vege-
tables are their usual food ;  but
they are  very fond of those large
earth-worms which appear in great
numbers on  the downs, in  the
summer-mornings, before sun-rise.
These are  replete with moisture,
answer the  purpose  of liquid food,
and enable them to live long with-
out drinking.  Nature  has provi-
ded the males with  an admirable
magazine for their security against
drought; being  a pouch, the en-
trance of which lies immediately
under the tongue, and is capable
of holding near seven quarts ; this
     3 L 
452        BUT
BUT
 they  probably fill with water, to
 supply the females when sitting, or
 the young before they are fledged.
 Bustards  lay only two  eggs,  re-
 sembling  those of a goose, of a
 pale  olive-brown,  marked with
 spots of a dark colour ; they build
 no nests, but only scrape a hole in
 the ground.
    BUTCHER,  a  person who
 slaughters cattle for the use of the
 table ; cuts up and retails meat.
    Although, by the constitution of
 England,  the  butchers are not so
 restricted  as they were in ancient
 Rome, nor in such high reputation
 for skill and shamble-learning,  as
 they are among the Jews, yet there
 are proper laws enacted for regu-
 lating their trade, and preventing
 the abuses committed by them, and
 their servants, if they were duly en-
 forced....A butcher selling swine's
 flesh measled, or dead of the mur-
 rain, shall, for the first offence, be
 amerced ;  for the second, stand in
 the pillory :  for the  third,  be im-
 prisoned, and pay a fine ; and, for
 the fourth, abjure the town.  Those
 who exact unreasonable prices  for
 their meat, shall forfeit double the
 value ; they are also occasionally
 fined for forestalling, Sec but per-
 haps never for blowing  (which
 see) as few persons are inclined to
 complain,  when redress of griev-
 ances is attended with loss of time
 and trouble.
   It  appears that our legislature
 has affixed such an imputation of
 proneness  to  shed human blood,
 upon persons who slaughter brute
 creatures for subsistence, that, by
 the laws of  England, no butcher
 is  permitted  to serve on a jury
 when sitting on the life of a fellow-
 subject.
   Dr. Buchan justly censures the
.practice adopted by  butchers, of
 filling the cellular membranes  of
 animals with blood. Thus the meat
 appears  fatter  and weighs more
 than  it  would  do  in  its natural
 state, while it is rendered unwhole-
 some, and unfit for keeping....See
 also Balance.
   Butcher's Broom.  See Knee-
 holly.
   BUTTER, an artificial prepara-
 tion of cow's milk ;  which, either
 in  its entire state, or in that of
 cream, is agitated for a consider-
 able time, till all its unctuous par-
 ticles are  separated from the whey,
 and a soft consistent mass is form-
 ed.
   The Greek writers, though fre-
 quently   speaking of  milk  and
 cheese,  do not mention  butter:
 and the Romans,  while they lived
 without physicians for six centu-
 ries,  never used  it as an article
 of food, but only  as a medicine.
 In modern times,  the art  of mak-
 ing, improving, and preserving but-
 ter,  has  kept pace  with  the  un-
 wholesome  custom of eating this
 animal oil, from an early period of
 infancy.  Thus, we have reason  to
 think, that many diseases of chil-
 dren, especially those  of a scro-
 phulous nature, are wantonly in-
 duced, or at least rendered more
 malignant.
  As butter is, at  present, used in
 our daily  food, chiefly on account
 of its agreeable  taste, we shall
 first speak of its physical proper-
 ties.  To render it less hurtful, it
 ought  to  be perfectly fresh, and
 free from  rancidity; which it easily
 acquires, if the butter-milk has not
 been completely separated. Fried,
 or burnt butter, is  still more detri-
 mental to  health ;  as it is thus con-
 verted into an acrid, and even caus-
tic fluid,  which cannot fail to dis-
order the  stomach,  to  render di- 
BUT
BUT       453
 gestion  difficult  and  painful, to
 excite rancid  belchings, and  ulti-
 mately,  to taint all the fluids with
 a peculiar acrimony.  Hence, toast
 and butter should never be eaten
 by persons who value their health ;
 as  there are many who,  even by
 fresh butter, are affected with those
 inconveniencies.  Nor can we re-
 commend the prevailing custom of
 melting  butter with flour and wa-
 ter ;  for, in this  manner, it forms
 a compound more indigestible,than
 sweet butter is in its natural state.
   Butter, forms a considerable ar-
 ticle of trade.  It is affirmed  that
 not less than 50,000 tons are an-
 nually  consumed in London ; of
 which the counties of Cambridge
 and Suffolk are said  to furnish
 50,000  firkins,  each  containing
 56lb.  None,  however, is  equal
 to  that  produced  in  Essex,  and
 known by the name of Epping but-
 ter, which  was  formerly sold at
 from \2d. to 14rf. per pound avoir-
 dupois ;  but, lately, at the exorbi-
 tant price of Is.  8d.
   With  respect to the various me-
 thods of making  butter, we shall
 state only those practised in Essex;
 to enable the reader to select the
 most useful parts of the different
 processes, and apply them to par-
 ticular situations.
  The Epping method has been
 described by Mr. Josiah Hazard ;
 from whose directions we extract
 the following  particulars: After
 having stated the  proper requisites
 for a  Dairy-house,  which  we
 shall communicate under that head
 of the alphabet, he observes, that
 a good milch-cow  may be worth
 from 7 to 10/. a year, whereas, an
indifferent  one will bring in no
more than from 5  to 6/. during the
same period:  hence,  the  farmer
should never keep any but such as
 afford an abundance of milk.  No
 milk must be suffered to remain in
 the udder, as by this neglect, the
 cow will give less every meal, till
 at  length she becomes dry before
 her  proper  time, and, the next
 season, will scarcely give sufficient
 to  repay the expenses of keeping
 her.
   If a cow's teats are scratched, or
 wounded, her milk will be  foul,
 and should not be mixed with that
 of  other cows, but given to  pigs.
 In  warm weather, the milk should
 remain in  the pail till it is nearly
 cool, before it is strained ; but, in
 frosty weather, this should be done
 immediately, and a small quantity
 of  boiling  water  mixed with it;
 which will produce cream in abun-
 dance, especially in pans, or vats,
 of  a large  surface.
  During the hot summer-months,
 the milk  should   stand only 24
 hours, and the cream be skimmed
 from it, either early in the morn-
 ing,  before  the   dairy  becomes
 warm ; or in the evening,  after
 sunset.  In winter, the milk may
 remain unskimmed for 36, or even
 48  hours ;  the cream ought to be
 preserved in a deep pan, kept, dur-
 ing summer,  in the coolest part of
 the dairy, or in a cool  cellar where
 a free air  is  admitted.  Dr.  An-
 derson (whose aphorism on this
 subject v/e  shall quote at the  con*
 elusion of the present article), is
 of opinion,  that the temperature of
 a dairy should, if possible, be kept
between 50 and 55° of Fahrenheit;
which is nearly about  the average
temperature of a building secured
from the external air,  in the man-
ner he has  proposed ;  and a deli-
neation of  which  the  reader  will
find under the article Milkhouse,
  Those, who have not an oppor-
tunity  of churning  every other 
454       BUT
BUT
day, should shift the cream daily
into clean pans,  in order to keep
it cool; but they should regularly
churn twice  a week in hot wea-
ther, and this in the morning, be-
fore sun-rise, taking  care to fix
the churn in a free draught of air.
Nor should this vessel be exposed
to a  fire  so  near  as to heat  the
wood in cold seasons, as by  this
means  the butter will acquire  a
strong rancid flavour.
   A  correspondent in the Papers
of the Bath  and West-of-England
Society,  observes,  that the opera-
tion  of  churning may be  much
facilitated,  by  adding  a  table-
spoonful or two of distilled vinegar
to a gallon  of cream, but not till
after the latter has undergone  con-
siderable agitation.    When  the
butter is churned,  it should im-
mediately be washed in  several
waters, till it be perfectly cleansed
from the milk; but a warm hand
will soften it, and make it appear
greasy.   Hence, it is  advisable  to
employ two  pieces of wood, such
as are  used by cheese-mongers ;
an expedient by which those  who
have naturally a very warm hand,
might  render  their butter more
saleable....See Churning.
   In many parts of England, but-
ter is  artificially  coloured in  win-
ter ; though this process adds no-
thing to its  goodness.  The far-
mers in and  near  Epping,  take
 sound carrots, the juice of which
 they express through a sieve, and
 mix with the cream, when it enters
 the churn ;  which makes it appear
 like May-butter.   There  is  very
 little salt used in  the best Epping
 butter ; but  it is a fact, that a cer-
 tain proportion of acid, either na-
 tural or artificial,  must be used in
 the  cream.   In order to ensure a
 successful churning, some keep a
small quantity of the old cream for
that purpose ; some use a little
rennet, and others a few tea-spoon-
fuls  of lemon juice.   Cleanliness
in the dairy is, at all times,  ah
essential requisite.
  The Lancashire method of pre-
paring milk for  butter, is as fol-
lows : The whole milk is divided
into two parts ; the first drawn be-
ing set apart for family use, after
being skimmed;  the cream of
which is put into proper vessels, as
also the  whole of the second, or
last drawn milk, provincially called
afterings.   These two, being mix-
ed  together, are stirred, but not to
a great depth, to prevent the bad
effects of foul air accumulating on
the surface, and kept according to
the season  of the  year, exposed to
the fire, for promoting the acetous
fermentation, which is accelerated
by  the acid remaining in the pores
ofthe vessels. For this reason they
are not  scalded,  except after hav-
ing contracted some taint; and, in
this case, they are sometimes very
expeditiously rinsed out with sour
butter-milk :  during  this prepara-
tion for souring, the milk is kept
 ready for the churn ; and, in con-
 sequence of such judicious treat-
 ment,  more butter  is  obtained,
 and  of  a better  quality, than if
 the milk were churned in a sweet
 state.
   Decisive experiments have been
 made, in order to ascertain whether
 it be more profitable to churn the
 whole  milk, or  only the cream
 which the milk produces ; it  was
 found that one day's milk of a par-
 ticular  cow,  churned  by  itself,
 yielded only 12 oz. of butter;  and
 the cream  of two day's milk pro-
 duced 3 lb. 2oz.   Hence it appears
 to  be more profitable to collect the
 cream, and churn it,  than to churn 
BUT
BUT;       455
the whole milk.  Cream-butter is,
likewise,  the  richer  of the two,
though it  will not keep so long
sweet.
   In justice to Dr. Jamfs Ander-
son, who has favoured the  public
with an  excellent Essay " On the
Management ofthe Dairy," inserted
in the correspondence of the Bath
and West of England Society, we
shall  communicate a few  of his
aphorisms:   1.  The  first  milk
drawn from a cow is always thin-
ner, and of an inferior quality to
that which is afterwards obtained ;
and  this richness increases pro-
gressively, to the very  last drop
that can be drawn from the udder.
2. The portion of cream rising first
to the  surface, is  richer in quality,
and greater in quantity, than what
rises in the second equal space of
time, and so forth : the cream con-
tinually  decreasing, and growing
worse  than  the   preceding.   3.
Thick milk produces  a smaller
proportion of  cream  than  that
which is thinner, though the cream
of the  former is of a richer qua-
lity.   If, therefore, the thick milk
be diluted with water,  it will af-
ford  more cream than  it  would
have clone in its pure state ; but its
quality will  at  the same time be
inferior.   4. Milk carried about in
pails, or other vessels, agitated, and
partly cooled, before it  be poured
into the  milk-pans, never throws
up such a good and plentiful cream
as if it  had been put into proper
vessels immediately after it came
from the cow.
   [From these fundamental facts,
says Dr. Anderson, respecting the
dairy, many very  important  corol-
laries, serving to direct the practice,
may be adduced ; among which we
shall only  take notice of the fol-
lowing :
  First.  It is  evidently of much
importance, that the cows  should
be always milked as near the dairy
as possible, to prevent the necessity
of carrying and cooling the  milk
before it be  put into the dishes;
and as cows are much hurt by far
driving, it must be a great advan-
tage, in a dairy farm, to have the
principal  grassfields as near the
dairy  or  homestead as possible.
In this point of view also, the prac-
tice of feeding  cows in  the house
rather than  turning them out to
pasture in  the  field, must appear
to be obviously beneficial.
   Second. The practice  of putting
the milk of all the cows of a large
dairy into one vessel, as  it is milk-
ed, there to remain till the whole
milking be finished, before any part
is put into the milk-pans, seems to
be highly injudicious, not only on
account ofthe loss sustained by the
agitation and cooling; but also, and
more especially,because it prevents
the owner  of the dairy  from dis-
tinguishing the  good from the bad
cow's milk, so  as to enlighten his
judgment respecting the profit that
he may derive from each.  With-
out this  precaution, he  may  have
the whole  produce of  his dairy
greatly debased by the milk of one
bad cow, for years together, with-
out being able  to discover it.  A
better practice therefore would be,
to have the milk drawn  from  each
cow separately,  put into the cream-
ing-pans as soon as milked, without
being ever mixed with any other :
and if these pans were all made of
such a size as to be able to contain
the whole of one cow's milk,  each
in a separate pan, so that the care-
ful  dai  (an  excellent   provincial
word denoting the person who has
the chief concern in  a dairy) would
thus be  able to remark, without 
 456        BUT

 any trouble, the quantity  of milk
 afforded by  each cow  every  day,
 as well as the peculiar  qualities of
 the cow's milk.   And if the same
 cow'smilk were always to be placed
 on the  same  part  of the shelf,
 having the cow's name written be-
 neath,  there never  could  be  the
 smallest difficulty  in ascertaining
 which of the cows it  would be the
 owner's interest to dispose of, and
 which he ought to  keep and breed
 from.
   Third. If it be intended to make
 butter of a very fine quality, it will
 be advisable, not only to reject en-
 tirely the  milk of all those cows
 which yield cream of a bad quali-
 ty ; but also, in every case, to keep
 the milk that is first drawn from
 the cow at each milking, entirely
 separated from that which is  got
 last; as it is obvious, if this be  not
 done,  the quality of the  butter
 must be greatly debased, without
 much augmenting its quantity.   It
 is also obvious, that the quality of
 the butter will be improved in pro-
 portion  to  the  smallness  of the
 quantity of the last  drawn milk
 which is used, as  it  increases in
 richness to the very last drop that
 can  be  drawn  from the udder at
 that time ; so that those who wish
to be singularly nice, keep for their
 best butter a very small proportion
only of  the last drawn milk.
  It is  a matter  of some import-
ance, tb determine in what way the
 inferior  milk, which is thus  set
apart, when fine  butter  is  wanted,
can be employed with the greatest
profit.   In the  highlands of Scot-
land, the people  have adopted a
practice  merely from considera-
tions of convenience and economy,
without thinking  of the improve-
ment of the butter, which answers
many good purposes.  As the rear-
             BUT

 ing of calves is there a principal
 object with the farmer, every cow
 is allowed to suckle her calf with a
 portion of her milk, the remainder
 only being employed for the pur-
 poses of the dairy.  To  give the
 calf the proportion allotted to it re-
 gularly, it is separated from the
 cow, and put into a small inclosure
 made for the express purpose, on
 every farm, of confining  all the
 calves belonging to that farm. At
 regular times the cows are brought
 to the door of this enclosure, where
 the young ones fail not to meet
 them.  Each calf is then  sepa-
 rately let out, and runs directly to
 its mother, where it is  allowed to
 suck till the dairy maid judges that
 it has had enough ; it is then se-
 parated, the legs  of the  mother
 having been previously  shackled,
 by a very simple  contrivance, to
 oblige her to stand  still, and the
 dairy maid milks off what was left
 by the calf.  They proceed in this
 manner till the whole of the cows
 are milked, and thus do they obtain
 a small quantity of milk, it is true,
 but that of an exceedingly rich qua-
 lity ;  which, in the hands of such
 as know how to manage it,  is ma-
 nufactured into  the  richest mar-
 rowy butter that can be any  where
 met with.  This richness  of the
 highland butter  has been long re-
 marked, and  has been universally
 ascribed to the  old grass that the
 cows  feed  upon in  those remote
 glens ; but it is in fact chiefly to be
 attributed to the practice here  des-
 cribed, which has long prevailed
 in those districts.
  Other secondary uses might be
found for the milk of inferior qua-
lity.  It might  be converted  into
butter of a secondary quality ; or
might be sold sweet, where the si-
tuation ofthe farm is within reach 
            BUT

of a town ; or it might be convert-
ed  into cheeses, which  by being
made of sweet milk, if made with
care and skill,  might be of a fine
quality.]
  Dr.  Anderson, in  the  same
paper, imparts the following judi-
cious hints :  The milk should be
forced  out of  the cavities  of the
butter with a flat, wooden  ladle,
or skimming  dish, provided with
a short handle ; and this should be
dexterously performed,  with as
little working of the butler as pos-
sible ; for if it  be too much beat
and turned, it  will become tough
and gluey, which greatly debases its
quality. To beat it up by the hand,
is an indelicate practice.   [When
butter is first made, and just taken
out of  the butter-milk, get out of
it as much of the butter-milk as you
can ; then spread it thin over a mar-
ble-stone, or plate of clean iron, and
soak up the remaining moisture by
patting it with dry towels. This
will tend to keep  it sweet  longer
than otherwise.]  Il  is  also very
detrimental to pour cold water on
the  butter, during this operation.
If the heat should be so great, as to
render  it  too   soft to  receive the
impression ofthe mould, it may be
put into small  vessels, allowed to
swim in the trough of cold water
under the table ; preventing, how-
ever, the water from touching the
butter : thus it  will, in a short time,
acquire the necessary degree of
firmness, especially if a small piece
of ice be put into the vessel.  The
Doctor, on this occasion,  severely
censures the practice that prevails
in many private families, of keep-
ing fresh butter in Avater, and thus
bringing it to table in a glass vessel.
If coolness only is wanted, he ad-
vises to put the butter into a dry
           BUT        457

glass, and immerse this into cold
water: and if it be taken out im-
mediately before it  is used, such
butter will, in our climate, always
have sufficient firmness.
  After the butter has been beaten
up and cleared from  the milk, it is
ready for being salted.   The ves-
sels intended for this purpose, be-
ing rendered perfectly clean, should
be rubbed in the whole inside with
common salt; and a little melted
butter should  be poured into  the
cavity, between the bottom and the
sides : thus  prepared, they are fit
to receive the butter.
  The following method of prepar-
ing butter is advautageously prac-
tised in Holland.  When the cows
are milked,  the fluid  is poured
into pans, till it becomes perfectly
cold ; it is then stirred two or three
times in the day, so that the cream
and milk may more intimately com-
bine, and if it be agitated till a spoon
will nearly  stand upright, the but-
ter thus  obtained is  held in high
esteem.  As soon as the milk ac-
quires a  proper consistence, it is
poured into a churn, worked for an
hour, and when  the butter begins
to form, one or two  pints of cold
water are added, in proportion to
the capacity of the vessel ; with a
view to  separate  the  milk with
greater facility.
  After the butter is taken  out of
the churn, it is repeatedly washed
and kneaded, in pure water, till the
last affusion be clear and free from
milk.  In this simple manner, a
large portion  of butter is  gained
from an equal proportion of milk,
and which  is  not only  more firm
and swreet, but also remains fresh
for a longer time than that usually
made in England, while the butter-
milk is more palatable. 
458        BUT
BUT
   [Dr. Anderson observes, that
wooden vessels are most proper for
containing  salted  butter.   They
should be  made  of cooper work,
and joined with wooden hoops.  It
will  be advisable to  make them
strong where they are to be return-
ed to the dairy; for as it is a mat-
ter of considerable difficulty to sea-
son new vessels so well,as that they
shall not affect the taste ofthe but-
ter,it is always advisable to employ
the old sound vessels, rather than
make new ones. Iron hoops should
be rejected; as the rust from them
will in time sink through the wood,
though it be very thick, and injure
the colour of the  butter : one iron
hoop may  be put  at the top, and
another below and beyond the bot-
tom  ; the projection below the bot-
tom  being made deep for the pur-
pose.
  An old vessel may  be prepared
for again receiving butter by the or-
dinary process of scalding, rinsing,
and  drying ; but  to season a new
vessel requires greater care.  This
is to be done by filling it frequently
with scalding wrater, allowing it to
remain till it slowly cools.  If hay,
or other sweet vegetables, are put
into  the vessel with the water, it is
sometimes thought to facilitate the
process.    A considerable time is
required before they can be render-
ed fit for use.]
  Although common  salt is gene-
rally employed for preserving but-
ter,  yet Dr. Anderson has found
by experience, that the following
composition not only preserves the
butter  more effectually from any
taint of rancidity, but makes it also
look better, taste sweeter,  richer,
and  more marrowy, than if it had
been cured with common salt alone.
Best common salt, two parts ; salt-
petre,  one  part;  sugar, one part;
beat them up together, so that they
may be completely blended.  To
every pound, or sixteen ounces of
butter, add one ounce of this com-
position.  Mix it well in the mass,
and close it up for  use.   Butter
prepared in this manner, will keep
good  for three years, apd cannot
be distinguished from that recently
salted.  It should, however, be re-
marked, that  butter thus cured,
does not taste well till it has stood
a fortnight, or three weeks.   In
the opinion of Dr. Anderson, such
butter would  keep  sweet during
the longest voyages, if  it were so
stowed, that  it could not  melt by
the heat cf the climate, and occasion
the salts to separate from it. Hence
the butter ought  to be  previously
freed  from its mucilage, which is
more putresciblethantheoily parts.
In order to prepare it for a distant
voyage, let it  be put into a vessel
of a proper shape, which should
be immersed into another, contain-
ing water.  Let this be gradually
heated, till the butter be thoroughly
melted, in  which state  it may re-
main  for  some time, and then be
allowed to settle.  Thus, the muci-
laginous part will fall  entirely to
the bottom, and the  pure oil will
swim  uppermost, perfectly  trans-
parent, while hot; but, on cooling,
it becomes opaque, assumes a co-
lour somewhat paler than the origi-
nal butter, before it  was melted,
and acquires a firmer consistence  ;
by which it is better enabled to re-
sist the heat of tropical climates.
When this refined butter is become
somewhat firm, yet soft enough to
be handled, the  pure part should
be separated from the dregs, then
salted, and  packed  in  the usual
manner.
   There is another,  still more cu-
rious way of preserving this refined 
            BUT

butter, stated  by Dr. Anderson.
After it' is purified, add to the but-
ter a certain portion of firm honey,
mix them well, and they will tho-
roughly incorporate; this mixture,
when spread on bread, has a very
pleasant taste,  and may be given to
aged persons,  if they relish it, in-
stead of marrow; and to others, as
being useful for coughs and colds.
The proportion of honey employed
was considerable ; and the Doctor
remarks, thatthis mixture hasbeen
kept for years, without acquiring
the least degree of rancidity;  so
that there can be no doubt that
butter might  thus be safely pre-
served during long voyages.
   Besides  the different modes of
curing butter already described, it
may be easily  preserved in a sweet
state, by melting it down in large
vessels over a slow fire; care being
taken  to  remove  the scum that
rises to the surface.  This method
being adopted by the Tartars, we
have inserted it on the authority of
Mr. Eton, who states, in his late
interesting " Survey ofthe TurkiAi
Empire," Sec. 8vo. that he has used
butter thus boiled, and then salted,
as is usual in Britain ;  in which
stale  it remained  perfectly sweet
for the space of two years.
   [Butter has been sent from Phi-
ladelphia to the W. Indies in sum-
mer, and kept well, by packing it
in a stone jar, and pouring a strong
pickle on the top, about two inches
deep.  The cover of the jar was
secured by  a cloth, and over this
there was a covering of Plaster of
Paris (Gypsum).]
   The"food of cows very often af-
fects the taste of butter.  Thus, if
wild garlic, charloc, or May-weed,
be found in a pasture ground, cows
should not be suffered to feed there
be forethe first grass has been mown,
     VOL. I.
            BUT        459

when such pernicious plants will not
again appear  till the  succeeding
spring ; but milch-cows must not
partake of  the hay made of those
plants, as it will likewise commu-
nicate their pernicious influence.
  Cows should never be suffered to
drink water from stagnant pools,
in which there are  frogs, spawn,
&c;  or from  common sewers,  or
ponds that  receive the drainings
of stables.....all which are  exceed-
ingly improper.
  As turnips and rape impart a dis-
agreeable taste to milk and butter,
Mr.  Arthur  Young directs  the
dairy-man  to  boil two ounces  of
saltpetre in a quart of water, to bct-
tle the decoction; and when cold, to
put a large tea-cupful of the mix-
ture  into ten, or twelve quarts of
new  milk,  immediately   after  it
comes from the cow.  As  the tur-
nips  become stronger, the propor-
tion of nitre may be increased.  A
shorter, and equally effectual me-
thod  is, to scald the pans, or trays,
with  boiling water, just before the
milk is  poured in,  [and add one
quart of boiling water to  eight of
milk.].....But  it is  not generally
known that the bad flavour, or ran-
cidity of turnip-butter, arises solely
from the green food, or the tops of
that plant.   By previously cutting
these away, the evil is completely
prevented.   Lord Egremqnt has
adopted this expedient: he fed from
25 to  30 cows,  for the  greatest
part  of the winter, wjtfi  turnips,
the tops of which were carefully
separated:  and the butter prepared
from their milk was equal to the
very best of the kind.
  For removing, or rather  prevent-
ing, the bitter taste of barley-straw
butter, as well as the rancidity of
turnip-butter, Mr. Marshall sug-
gests the  following  simple, and
     3  M 
460        BUT
BUT
rational means: Instead of putting
the cream, immediately after it is
skimmed off the milk,  into the jar,
or other retaining vessel, it is first
poured upon hot water, and having
stood till cool, it is again skimmed
off the water.
   According  to experiments ac-
curately made  by  Mr.  Joseph
Wimpey, to determine the com-
parative value of butter and cheese,
105^ gallons of milk, properly dis-
posed in pans for skimming off the
cream,  produced 36lb. of butter,
and  60lb. of skimmed  cheese.......
From a like quantity of milk were
made 1061b. of raw-milk cheese,
and  61b. of whey  butter.  After
selling  the  cream-butter  at  8ld.
and the skimmed-cheese at 2d. the
pound, when the raw-milk cheese,
two  months old, was  worth  3|-d.
the pound,  and the whey-butter
7d. it appears  that a small  advan-
tage of about three per cent, lies on
the side of  butter and skimmed
cheese.
  Many abuses are practised  in
the packing and salting of butter,
to increase  its bulk and  weight,
against which  we have an express
statute.  Lumps of good butter are
frequently laid, for a little  depth,
at the top,  and with  an inferior
quality  under  it;  sometimes  the
butter is set in rolls, touching only
at top, and standing hollow at bot-
tom.  To prevent such deceptions,
the factors atUttoxeter, in Stafford-
shire, a market famous for good
butter,  employ a  surveyor, who,
in case of suspicion, tries the cask,
or jar,  with an iron instrument,
made not unlike a cheese-taster,
and which he thrusts in obliquely
to the bottom.  But we  understand
that  the  greatest frauds are com-
mitted with  the Irish butter, im-
ported in firkins.   One of our sa-
 gacious  correspondents  has sug-
 gested to us the propriety of com-
 municating the marks, which the
 butter-casks ought tohave on them,
 to distinguish their real goodness,
 before they are exported from Ire-
 land: such information might be a
 guide to private families, who pur-
 chase a whole, or half a firkin at a
 time.   On  particular inquiry, we
 could only learn from several emi-
 nent butter-men, that the name of
 Belfast, or some other town in the
 north of Ireland, is usually mark-
 ed on the cask, with  an additional
 cross,  and either one or more in-
 cisions under  it, according to the
 superior  quality  of  the  butter.
 We trust, however, that no person
 will be  disposed  to  purchase so
 precarious an  article,  without pre-
 viously examining the contents of
 the vessel.
   Lastly, we cannot  omit  to  ani-
 madvert upon the pernicious prac-
 tice of keeping milk in leaden ves-
 sels, and salting  butter in stone
jars, which  begins to prevail, from
 a  mistaken idea  of cleanliness.
 But, in the hands of a cleanly per-
 son, there surely can be nothing
 more  wholesome  than  wooden
 dishes.   We fully agree with Dr.
 Anderson, that vessels made ei-
 ther of solid lead, or badly glazed,
 are alike destructive to the human
 constitution; that  we may doubt-
 less attribute to this cause the fre-
 quency of  paralytic  complaints,
 which occur in all ranks of society;
 and that the well known effects of
 the poison of lead, are, bodily de-
 bility, palsy.....death.
  Milk-Butter  is   principally
 made in Cheshire; where contrary
 to the usual  practice in other parts
 of the kingdom, the  whole of the
 milk  is  churned, without  being
 skimmed;  prepcaaory to which 
BUT
BUT       461
 operation, in summer, immediately
 after milking, the meal is  put to
 cool in earthern jars, till it becomes
 sufficiently coagulated, and has ac-
 quired  a slight degree of acidity.
 sufficient to undergo the operation
 of churning.  This is usually per-
 formed, during the summer, in the
 course of one or two days. In win-
 ter, in order to forward coagulation,
 the milk is placed near a fire; but,
 in summer, if it has not been suffi-
 ciently cooled, before it is added to
 the former meal, or, if it has been
 kept too close, and be not churned
 shortly after it has acquired the ne-
 cessary degree of coagulation  and
 acidity, a fermentation will ensue;
 in which case, the butter becomes
 rancid,  and the milk does not yield
 that quantity, which it would,  if it
 had been churned in proper time.
 This is also the case, when, in win-
 ter,  the jars,  or mugs, have been
 placed  too near  the fire, and the
 milk runs entirely to  whey.  No
 peculiar process attends the mak-
 ing  of this kind of butter.
   Whey-Butter  is  so  called,
 from its being made of whey which
 is either green or white.  The for-
 mer is taken from the curd, out of
 the cheese-tub; the white whey is
 pressed out of  the  curd, by  the
 hand or otherwise,  after having
 been put into the cheese-vat. This
 kind of butter is made as follows:
 Sometimes the white whey, or, as
 it is  called in Cheshire, the thrust-
 ings, is set in  cream mugs,  to ac-
 quire a  sufficient degree of coagu-
 lation, and  acidity for churning,
 either by the warmth ofthe season,
 or of a room, in the same manner
 as above  described,  for making
milk-butter.   In  other  instances,
the green and the white  whey  are
boiled together, and turned by a lit-
 tle sour ale, or other acid, which
produces fieetings.   See scalding
Whey.   In  this case, when  the
green  whey  is boiled  alone, it is
necessary to  keep up  such a  fire
as will make the whey as hot as
possible, without boiling  it; and,
when it has acquired that degree
of heat, the butyraceous particles,
which it contains, will  break  and
separate,  and rise to the  surface,
which effect usually takes  place in
the space of an hour. Care should
be taken  to  rub the boiler, if of
iron,  with butter, to prevent  the
whey from acquiring a rancid taste.
In other respects, the process of
making whey-butter differs little
from  that of milk-butter.  But the
former will keep only a few days,
has a  marbled  appearance,  and
does not cut  so firm, or clear, as
butter made of  cream.  One of
our correspondents  observes, that,
in the year 1794, whey-butter was
sold  by  contract, for   the whole
year,  at  lOd. per pound, and car-
ried twenty miles to Manchester:
he further remarks, that the fieet-
ings are " nice eating," with sugar,
though some  epicures add  wine or
brandy.
  Butter,Milk is that  part of
the milk which remains after  the
butter  is extracted.  Curds of but-
ter-milk are made by pouring into
it a quantity of hot new milk. The
quality of butter-milk greatly  de-
pends on the manner of managing
the process of churning.  If it be
obtained  according to   the Lan-
cashire mode, above-described, it
becomes an excellent food for man,
being  both wholesome  and plea-
sant;  though it is in many Eng-
lish countX,-s, given to hogs.
  Good; butter-milk is  refreshing
and cooling:  hence it is often  re,
commended in hectic  fevers,  for
abating  preternatural   heat  and 
462        B U T
BUT
flushings of the face.  In spring,
if drank freely,  it is said to pro-
duce  a  favourable change on the
fluids, when they are in a state of
acrimony,  and,   though modern
physicians  smile  at  the idea of
sweetening, or purifying the blood,
yet the good effects of butter-milk,
as well  as  sweet whey,  in proper
cases and  constitutions, have  too
often been experienced, to admit
of  any  doubt, in consequence of
an unsettled theory.
   BUTTER-BURR,theCoMMON,
or Colt's-foot,  the Tussilago  Peta-
sites,  L. grows in moist meadows,
pastures, and banks of rivers.  Its
leaves are  the largest of any plant
in Britain,  and, in heavy rains, af-
ford a shelter to poultry, and other
small animals.  Its flowers appear
in April, before  the  leaves,  as in
most  other vernal plants.   The
root,  dug  up  in spring, abounds
with a resinous,  aromatic matter:
it has a strong  smell, and  a bit-
terish, acrid taste.
   In  Germany,  the leaves of the
butter-burr are bruised, and mixed
with chaff, or  cut straw; in which
state  they  are  fondly eaten by
cattle.
   Formerly, the root of this plant
was highly esteemed as a sudorific,
and alexipharmic, for which pur-
pose  a dram of it was  given for
a  close; but, as  it has been  found
to possess  those virtues  in no very
eminent degree, it has again been
neglected in the shops.   The  late
Sir John  Hill, however, in his
"  Virtues  of British  Herbs,"  pub-
lished in 1770, calls the common
butter-burr an admirable medicine
in fevers  of the  worst  kind;  as,
when taken early, it prevents the
mischiefs that often arise naturally
in the disease;  and  oftener from
n-.e  errors of  physicians.    Sir
John farther informs  us,  that
about the middle of the last cen-
tury, when a disease of the putrid
kind  prevailed in  England,  the
same fever raged also in  Germany;
and  while the English died by
bleedings, and by chemical medi-
cines, the Germans lived  by the
use  of the  butter-burr.  He also
very seriously speaks of a heavier
visitation, and if the greatest of all
calamities should come, there are
few things from which we might
expect so great relief as this herb.
The Greeks used it with the great-
est success; and the very name of
the plant among the Germans, is
pestilence-wort......We trust,  how-
ever, there will  be no necessity
for  putting  Sir John's assertion
to the test  of experience; as we
should  be  apprehensive  of  the
result.
 BUTTER-CUP, Butter-flow-
er, or Upright Meadow  Crow-
Foot, the Ranunculus acris-  L.  a
very common weed, abounding in
meadows and pastures:  it  has
hairy leaves and  leaf-stalks ; and
bears yellow flowers in June and
July.
   Many continental farmers  attri-
bute the  sudden  death of cattle,
which is often inexplicable,  to
their feeding on  this plant;  and
therefore care fully extirpate it from
fields and meadows......It is,  how-
ever, certain, that the seed-buds of
the butter-cup are extremely acrid,
and may therefore be employed for
vesicatories, instead ofthe Spanish
fly ;  though  its blossoms  are ea-
gerly visited by bees.  Indeed, the
whole plant is very acrid,  and ea-
sily  blisters the  skin.   Neverthe-
less'it is eaten by sheep and goats,
but  refused by cows, horses, and
swine, let their pasture be  ever so
bare.  When made into hay, the 
BUT
B U T       463
butter-cup  is  perfectly harmless,
nay, even nutritious to cattle. For
this important discovery we  are
indebted to Dr. Pulteny, (Tran-
sactions ofthe LinuxanSociety,) who
extends the same observation lo the
lesser  Sfearwort, the Bulbous,
the round leaved Water,  and  the
common Crow-foot : He farther
remarks,that the avidity with which
sheep, cows,  and horses,  eat the
last mentioned plant, is an excepti-
on to the commonly received opi-
nion, that animals are led by  in-
stinct to reject what is noxious.
   BUTTERFLY, or Papilio, in
zoology, a well-known insect, of
which there are 275 species, prin-
cipally distinguished by the colour
of their wings.
   The beauties of this elegant pari
of the creation, excite the admira-
tion of every  contemplative mind.
Many persons, who conceive but-
terflies to be of a poisonous nature,
 are frequently under apprehension
lest they should eat  them with
herbs and sallads; but such alarm
 is groundless, as they are perfect-
 ly harmless,  and  equally eatable
as snails and oysters.
    Mr. Edwards, in his " Natural
 History of Birds," gives the fol-
 lowing curious directions for tak-
 ing the figure of  these  insects:
 Take butterflies,  or  field-moths,
 clip off the  wings close  to their
 bodies, and lay them  on clean pam-
 per, in the form of the insect when
 flying;  then  have ready prepared
 gum-arabic, which has been some
 time dissolved in water, and is of a
 thick  consistence; then  pour  a
 drop of ox-gall  into a spoonful of
 this liquid,  mix  it well  together,
 and spread a little of it on a piece
 of thin, white paper, wide enough
 to take both sides of the fly; when
 it begins to foel clammy, the paper
is in proper order to take the down
from its wings ;  lay the gummed
side on the wings, and it will ad-
here so as to take them up ;  then
double the paper, so as to have all
the wings between it; lay  it on a
table, pressing it close with the
fingers, or it may be rubbed gently
with something hard and smooth;
after which, on opening the paper
the wings will come forth transpa-
rent ; the down of the  upper and
under sides, adhering to the gum-
med paper, forms an accurate like-
ness of both sides  of the  wings,
in their natural shape and  colour.
   WThcn the gummed papers have
been opened, the bodies of the flies
should be copied from the  natural
ones, upon stiff, and separate paper,
painted in water colours, and fixed
between the representations of the
wings.
   As  the larvae  or  grubs, and
chrysalids, or butterflies, do exten-
sive injury to fruit-trees, Mr. For-
svth directs then to be carefully
collected   and  destroyed:  after
which the trees must be washed
 with a mixture of lime and tobac-
co-water.
   BUTTERWORT, or the Pin-
guicula, L. a genus containing six
 species, of which the most remark-
 able is the  vulgaris, or common
 butterwort, or Yorkshire  sanicle,
 growing  on bogs, or low,  moist
 grounds,  in England  and  Scot-
 land.  Its leaves are covered with
 soft, upright,   pellucid prickles,
 secreting  a  glutinous liquor;  the
 blossoms  violet, purple, and red-
 dish, with white lips  and an ash-
 coloured  woolly spot on the  pa-
 late : its  flowers appear in  May
 and June.   Linn^us informs us,
 that if the fresh  gathered leaves of
 this plant  be put into a  strainer,
 through which  the  milk of  the 
  464       B U X

  rein-deer is  poured while warm,
  and set by for a day or two, to be-
  come acescent, it acquires such a
  degree of consistency and tenaci-
  ty,  that neither whey nor cream,
  separate.   The inhabitants in the
  north of Sweden eat this coagulat-
  ed milk, as a very grateful food....
  When the leaves have been once
  used, it is not necessary  to have
 recourse to them  again ;  for half
 a spoonful of prepared milk, mixed
 with a fresh quantity of other milk,
 will  always effect the  purpose :
 but  Mr. Hawes,  who tried this
 experiment with cow's  milk, did
 not succeed.
   The juice of the leaves  of com-
 mon butterwort kills lice  in men
 and  brutes ;  and likewise cures
 chaps in  cow's udders.  Neither
 sheep,  cows, horses,  goats,  nor
 swine, will feed upon the  plant;
 though it is erroneously believed
 that it occasions the rot in sheep.
 External applications of the root,
 are,  according  to  B/chstkin, a
 good vulnerary ;  and, if credit be
 due to him, decoctions made ofthe
 whole plant,  tend to restore the
 hair to  a bald head.
   BUXTON WATERS are those
 warm mineral springs which rise
 in a village of that name, in Der-
 byshire, England, and have long
 been celebrated for their medicinal
 properties.  One of  the   earliest
 treatises  on  the virtues  of this
 spring, was published in the year
 1752, by Dr. Jones, of Derby : at
 which period Buxton appears to
 have been a place of great resort.
   With respect to its sensible pro-
 perties, the Buxton water  cannot
 be  distinguished  from  common
 spring water, when heated  to the
 same temperature. It is clear and
colourless, and does not become
turbid on being exposed to  the air;
             BUX

 it leaves no sediment, nor does it
 form any incrustation on the pipes,
 or stones, through which it flows.
 Its temperature in the gentlemen's
 bath is invariably at 82°.  During
 the cool of the morning and even-
 ing, a thin column of steam is per-
 ceptible over the surface of  the
 bath; but,if this continues through-
 out the day, it is  considered as an
 indication  of approaching rain.....
 The principal peculiarity in the ap-
 pearance of this spring, is a large
 quantity of elastic vapour that rises
 and forms  bubbles, which pass
 through the water, and  break as
 soon as  they reach the surface.
 The air of these bubbles was  as-
 certained by Dr. Pearson, to con-
 sist of azotic gas, mixed with  a
 small proportion of atmospheric air.
 By evaporation to dryness, he found
 that a gallon of the water contained
 only  15 grains of  residuum,  of
 which he estimated 11 grains to be
 muriat of soda, 2J- suiphat of lime,
 and 101 carbonate of lime.
   As the  temperature of 82° is
 several degrees below  that of  the
 human body, a slight shock of cold
 is felt on the first immersion into
 the bath; but this is almost imme-
 diately  succeeded by  a  pleasing
 glow over the whole system. It is
 therefore proper  for very delicate
 and irritable habits.
  The cases which derive most  be-
 nefit from the external use of Bux-
 ton  waters,  are those in which a
 loss of action, and  sometimes of
 sensation, affects  particular limbs;
 in consequence of long-continued,
 or violent inflammation, or  exter-
 nal injury.   Hence, the  chronic
 rheumatism, succeeding the acute,
 and  where  the inflammation  has
 been seated in particular limbs, is
often wonderfully  relieved by this
bath. The internal use of the wa-« 
BUZ
BUZ        465
ter has  been found to be of consi-
derable  service in symptoms of de-
fective digestion, and derangement
of the alimentary organs. A judi-
cious use of this  simple remedy
will often relieve the heart-burn, fla-
tulency, and sickness ;  it will in-
crease the appetite, animate  the
spirits,  and improve the  health.
At first, however, it sometimes oc-
casions  a diarrhoea, which is rather
salutary than detrimental. It  also
affords  great relief, when taken in-
ternally, in painful disorders of the
bladder  and kidneys; and has like-
wise been recommended in cases
of the gout;  but when  taken for
these complaints, Dr. Denman ad-
vises the addition of some  aroma-
tic tincture.
 BUZZARD, or the Buteo, a spe-
cies of  the Falco, or eagle, is the
most common of the hawk-kind in
England. It breeds in large woods,
and lays two or three eggs, which
are either perfectly white, or  spot-
ted with yellow. This bird is of a
sluggish and inactive disposition,
as it will remain perched upon the
same bough  for many hours, and
is generally found in one place. It
feeds on small birds, rabbits, moles,
and mice ;  but it will also eat frogs,
worms, and insects.  The colour
ofthe buzzard is various: the breast
and belly of some  are brown,  but
more frequently the former is of a
yellowish white, with oblong rust-
coloured spots : the back of the
head, neck,  and coverts  of  the
wings, are of a deep brown, edged
with a pale rust colour ; the tail is
barred either with  black, or  ash
colour.
   There   is another species,  the
aruginosus, or moor-buzzard, with
a greyish body, and yellow legs.
It makes its nest in a tuft of grass
or amongrushes, is a fierce and vo-
racious bird, and a great destroyer
of rabbits,  young ducks, and other
water-fowl. 
c.
            CAB

   CABBAGE, or Brassica,  L. a
genus of plants  comprising  six-
teen species, of which the follow-
ing are the principal :
   1.  The campestris, or field cab-
bage, which is also  a native, and
grows on the  sea-shore near  Do-
ver.  The severest winters do not
injure this plant,  which becomes
peculiarly useful when every other
species is destroyed.   It  is more
generally known under the name
of cauliflower, and its culture  has
been  much  improved in  Britain,
where it has become a source of
national wealth ; the greater part
of Europe being supplied thence
with seeds, and, till lately, Holland
almost wholly with plants.
   2.  The Napus, or rape, or cole-
seed cabbage, which is indigenous,
and also reared in  various parts of
England,  especially in the Isle of
Ely, for its seed, from which rape-
oil is extracted ; the refuse is called
oil-cake, and is useful for the fat-
tening of oxen,  and  other cattle.
The most piercing frost affects not
this hardy plant, which, in severe
winters, is of no small service in
feeding ewes ; when, from the in-
tenseness of the cold, the ground is
so frozen that no  turnips  can be
taken up.  In the  county  of  Nor-
folk, the cakes are  broken to pieces
and strewed on the land as manure,
for which purpose  it is considered
            CAB

particularly efficacious.  The cul-
tivated  variety,  though  it  has a
stronger taste, may  be eaten like
the turnip.
  3. The rapa, or turnip-cabbage.
This is a  native of Britain,  and
grows  principally in  corn-fields:
it is eaten either boiled, roasted, or
raw, generally with the addition of
pepper.  The importance and va-
lue of this species, for the fattening
of cattle in  particular, havenotbeen
generally  known  or  ascertained
till  within these  few years.  The
soil intended for planting, ought to
be manured and  tilled  in the same
manner as for the common turnip,
the necessary extent of old pasture-
ground  being  previously  breast-
ploughed and  burnt.  The land
should be dug as shallow as possi-
ble, and the ashes turned in: about
midsummer, or sooner, should the
weather be favourable, the planting
ought  to  be  commenced;  two
perches,  if well  stocked  with
plants, being sufficient to  supply
an  acre.           « .
  Independently  of the  utility of
this plant,  as  a  fodder  for  cattle
during  the winter season, it has
been much recommended as a sea-
store, from the facility with which
it may be preserved on ship-board:
and as  it  furnishes an  agreeable
and wholesome food for  sailors on
long voyages, at a time when eve i y 
              CAB

  other fresh vegetable  is  entirely
  spoiled.
    4. The Oleracea, or sea-colewort,
  sea-cabbage, or common cabbage,
  is also indigenous, and grows prin-
  cipally on cliffs near the sea-coast.
  Early in the spring, this species is
  preferred to those that  are culti-
  vated ;  but, when gathered on the
  sea-coast, it  is requisite  that it be
  boiled in two waters, to  deprive it
  of its saline taste. The roots may
  be eaten like those ofthe preceding
  species; but they are by no means
  so tender.  All the  various kinds
  of garden-cabbage in use  at  our
  tables, originate  from this.  The
  red  cabbage  is  chiefly  used for
  pickling.   In some  countries, the
  white cabbage is buried in autumn,
  when full  grown, and is thus pre-
 served during the whole  winter.
  See  Withering, p. 592.   They
  are cut in pieces by the Germans,
 who, mixing them with some aro-
 matic herbs  and salt, press them
 closely down in a tub, where they
 soon ferment, and are eaten under
 the name of sauer kraut.
   Dr. Darwin observes, that Sea-
 Cale is much esteemed for the de-
 licacy of its taste, which is superior
 to most  kinds of broccoli.  It  ap-
 pears that this species of the cab-
 bage should be sown the latter end
 of  March,   or  the beginning of
 April, in  drills, and  afterwards
 earthed up.   In autumn,  it  should
 be transplanted into high beds, one
 row of roots in each  bed, about a
 foot asunder;  and, in winter, it
 should be covered up.  The beds
 should be made in dry ground, and
 the produce will not be fit for the
 table  till  the third year after sow-
 ing.  The year before it is cut for
 eating, it must be covered,  in the
beginning of winter, first with sta-
    VOL. I.
              CAB        467

  ble-dung which may be prevented
  from pressing on  it, by placing a
  few sticks in the  form of a cone
  over each root; it should then be
  covered with  long litter  to  the
  height of two or three feet. About
  the  beginning of  January  it may
  be gathered, and the cutting conti-
  nued till May, one bed being kept
  under another.  It should be boil-
  ed, and  sent up on toast, like aspa-
  ragus.
   To this species also belong those
  varieties ofthe brassica, denominat-
  ed the turnip-rooted cabbage,  and
  the  drum-headed  cabbage.   The
  former  is  generally supposed to
  have been brought from Lapland,
  and is found  to be well calculated
  for uplands and wolds.  It delights
  in a  dry, sandy, mixed soil, which
  is prepared in the same manner as
  for turnips.  The  seed is usually
  sown in  the beginning of June, and
 yields so abundantly, that  half a
 pound of it, if sown on a seed-bed
 two or three  perches  square, will
 produce plants sufficient to stock an
 acre.  But if they run too much to
 stalk, care must be taken to trans-
 plant them, and thus to check their
 luxuriant vegetation.  This plant
 is very hardy, and its bushy tops
 furnish a most excellent and abun-
 dant  food for cattle  during the
 spring.  It is principally raised for
 feeding  oxen,  cows,  hogs,  and
 horses ;  but, if given to sheep dur-
 ing winter, it occasions a species of
 white flux, of which, however, they
 soon recover on a change of food;
 and which is  seldom, if ever, at-
 tended with any dangerous conse-
 quences.
   The  drum-headed cabbage  is
usually sown on a bed towards the
end of February or March; but
sometimes also in August,in which*
    3 N 
468        CAB

case the plants are set out in No-
vember, and  transplanted in July.
A hardy  variety, of a deep green
colour with  purple  veins, and of
the same  size as  the drum-head,
has been produced from this cab-
bage, by  planting  it alternately
with the  red  kind; and when  the
pods  were completely formed, by
cutting down the red and leaving
the other for seed.  This  variety
is particularly useful in the feeding
of cows or ewes ;  as it affords  an
increase  of milk,  far superior to
that produced by  turnips: and is
equally excellent for the fattening
of cattle, which  it does  six weeks
sooner than  any other  vegetable.
Although these  plants  are gene-
rally  supposed  to impart a disa-
greeable flavour to butter and cheese
made from the  milk of cows fed
upon  them, yet this may be easily
prevented,  either by  putting one
gallon of boiling water to six gal
Ions of milk, when it is exposed in
the leads; or by dissolving one
ounce of nitre in  a  quart of spring-
water, and mixing about a quarter
of a pint of it with  ten or twelve
gallons of milk,  when warm from
the cow.  By  breaking off the loose
leaves, and giving only  the sound
heart to the cows, this disagreeable
quality may  also be obviated;  as
other cattle  will  eat the leaves
without injury.
   5. The muralis, or wall-cabbage,
which is usually  found on old walls
and rubbish.  This plant is a native
of Britain ; all its parts are consi-
derably  acrid, and  have a rank,
disagreeable  smell:  it is, there-
fore, never cultivated.
   6. The Alpina, or Savoy.  This
is an  exotic,  and is chiefly propa-
gated for winter  use; being gene-
rally  preferred  when nipped  by
the frost.   It is  sown towards the
            CAB

latter end of April, and the culture
of it varies but little from that pur-
sued with respect to the common
white cabbage; the only difference
being, that the latter species may
be Sit more closely  together than
the former; for, if planted in close
places, it is subject to be almost
consumed by caterpillars or other
vermin.
  To these species may be added
the Scotch cabbage, so denominat-
ed  from being more particularly
cultivated in Scotland, where it con-
stitutes a very considerable article
of food for cattle.  The variety in-
troduced into England a few years
since, is the green Scotch cabbage,
which will  grow extremely well
on  moor-lands, and, if cut just
before the frost sets in, and hung
up  under cover, forms a food so
peculiarly agreeable to cattle, that,
when once they have tasted it, they
will rarely  relish any other.
  There is another species of the
Brassica, denominated the mowing
cabbage (choux a foucher).  It ap-
pears to  be a native of Germany,
but has been cultivated with consi-
derable success in France, both as
a pulse  for mankind, being free
from the bitter herbaceous taste of
the other cabbages, and as a fodder,
equally  good   and  abundant  for
cattle.  This plant is reared from
seed,  and will  admit of being cut
four, five, or six times in the year
it is sown ; after which it is left
for the winter.   In the month of
February it shoots forth, when its
leaves may be cut again ; in April
it begins to grow up, and produces
stalks and seed, which  may be ga-
thered in June.  During the first
year of its growth, this plant does
not send forth any stalks; its leaves
appearing to rise immediately out
ofthe ground, from which circum- 
            CAB

stance it may be cut like grass, and
dried in a similar manner for hay.
It will also yield  oil, far  superior
to that of cole and poppy seed, and
equal to that expressed from olives.
  Culture. The different modes of
cultivating this plant do not, in
general, vary much. The soil best
calculated for cauliflowers, is a spot
of ground tolerably rich, and well
defended from the north, east, and
west winds,  by hedges,  pales or
walls, the first of which, especial-
ly if constructed with reeds,  are
most preferable, as they meet the
wind, which,  by  falling  on them,
cannot  reverberate,  as is the case
with the latter. But, should the soil
selected for this purpose, be natu-
rally wet, it will be requisite to
raise it  up in beds two feet and a
half or  three feet broad, and about
four inches above the level of the
ground.   On the contrary, if it
be  dry, no embankment is neces-
sary.
  [To produce early cabbages....In
the  spring, as  soon as the sprouts
on the cabbage-stalks have grown
to the length of a plant fit for set-
ting, cut them out with a small
slice of the stalk, about two inches
long ; and, if the season permit,
plant them in a garden, and the
usual care will produce good cab-
bages.
  A gentleman in the vicinity of
Philadelphia pursued the following
plan : He sowed his seed in  Au-
gust, and set out the plants in au-
tumn, letting them remain out all
winter.   If very cold, he covered
them with straw ;  of 500 plants,
300 commonly lived and headed
very early : the rest answered for
greens.
   Dr. Darwin says, that in trans-
planting  cabbages, it is  better  to
pluck them than dig them up ; as
            CAB        469

by that means more of the  root
fibres are torn off, and the plants
become almost totally oviparous.
  Mr. Deane(N. England farmer)
says, cabbages require a rich soil,
rather moist than dry. A clay soil
well mixed with other matters, is
very proper for them.   They are
said to grow well in drained swamps,
without  manure.  Hog-dung well
rotted,  door-dung and ashes are
suitable manures  for them....Each
plant should have at  least four feet
of ground: in other  words, the
plants should be two feet asunder.
In gardens and small yards, this is
a  good distance :  but in fields.
where they are to be cultivated by
the plough, a greater distance is
necessary.  The rows may be three
feet apart,  and the plants two feet
in the  rows.
   Some think cabbages will not
answer  more than one year on the
same spot.  But this is an erroneous
opinion.  I have raised them for
eighteen years in the same part of
my garden, being an unfavourable
soil, dry and gravelly :  and the
crops are better than they were at
first, though  the ground has been
but little manured.   Though cab-
bages seem to require much nour-
ishment, they do not impoverish
the soil.  This is so well known to
Europeans, that they call cabbages
a  fallow crop,  meaning a  crop
which answers instead of fallow-
ing. They form so close a covering
for the surface of the ground, as to
cause a putrefaction of the soil,
which increases its fertility.
   Some set  the  seeds where the
cabbages are to grow. By this they
escape being stinted by transplant-
ing.  For  winter  cabbages, the
latter part of May is early enough
to put  the seed  into the ground,
whether the plants are to be remov- 
470        CAB

ed or not. I have tried both ways,
and  on the  whole, I prefer trans-
planting.  They are otherwise apt
to be too tall, and to have crooked
stems.  WTet weather is favourable
for transplanting them;  and the
holes should be filled with water
before the plants are set, unless the
ground be naturally  very moist.
This has a better effect than pour-
ing  a much greater  quantity  of
water on them afterwards.   Suds
would be better than  clear water
for wetting the plants.....Covering
of plants with leaves is not a good
practice. They will be much  heat-
ed through some sorts of leaves ;
the  free circulation  of air about
them will be prevented, and  their
perspiration partly obstructed. If a
hot  sun cause them to droop, a
shingle stuck into the ground will
be a sufficient shelter if it be on the
south side of the plants.  I  com-
monly allow each plant two shingles,
one  on the south-east side, and one
on the south-west.
  The principal things which pre-
vent the growth of cabbages, are,
the fumble-foot, so called, grubs,
and  lice. Manuring with ashes and
lime tends to prevent the first, as the
roots become misshapen by means
of being wounded by insects,  to
which the hot qualities  of ashes
and  lime are antidotes.
  The grub, or black-worm, travels
in the night from plant to plant,
eats  off the stalks just above the
ground, and  buries  itself  in the
soil when the sun is up. To guard
against this worm, a little circle
of lime,  or  rock-weed round the
plant is of service.
  To destroy lice on cabbages, they
should be washed with strong brine,
or sea-water, or smoke should  be
made among them with straw, sul-
phur, tobacco, S;c.   But the  hard
            CAB

frosts in autumn do not fail to sub-
due them.
  If cabbages grow near to a barn-
yard, or other yard where cattle are
lodged, the under leaves, when they
begin to decay, may  be taken off,
and thrown  to them.   The plants
will not be at all injured, and they
are an excellent food for cattle, and
will  increase  the  milk of  cows.,
But  the least decayed of  them
should go to the cows, lest they give
the milk an ill taste.  Much ac-
count is made of cabbages in Eng-
land for feeding cattle in the win-
ter. But the difficulty of preserving
them alters the case with regard to
us. They can gather them tlyre as
they have occasion to use ♦them,
through the winter.
  Preserving cabbages through the
winter for the table, is a matter of
some difficulty in this country,  My
methodis,to pull them up in windy,
dry weather, and let them lie a few
hours with the roots  upwards, to
drain.   The later they are  taken
up, the  better, while the ground
continues open. I let  as much soil
remain on the roots as I can,  and
set them upright together in  a cel-
lar, which is so cold as to admit of
some degree of frost; and I seldom
fail of making them keep till April.
In very warm cellars they will soon
decay.
  But that  I  may have a few yet
later in the spring, I make a trench
in the driest  sandy ground, nine
inches wide, and of equal depth ;
in which I place a row of cabbages,
roots upwards, contiguous to each
other : fill the cavities about them
with  some  dry  straw ; and then
shovel the earth up to the stalks on
each side, almost as  high as the
roots, shaping it like  the roof of a
house.   The cabbages  will come
out in May  as sound as when they 
            CAB

were put  in, and the outer green
leaves  will be turned quite white.
As they are not apt to keep well
after they are  taken out,  two or
three at a time may  be taken, as
they are wanted for use, and the
breach immediately closed up with
straw and earth as before.]
  With respect to the other species
of caboage with a few exceptions,
they;delight in situations rich,open,
and dry, yet not too much exposed
to the  inclemencies of our variable
climate ; care  being  taken at the
same time not to plant them too
near, especially when intended for
seed ;  as,  independently of  their
mutually obstructing the growth of
their roots, by the commixture of
their effluvia,  they  will produce a
mixture of kinds.  This is particu-
larly the case with respect to the
planting of white and red cabbages
together, and of Savoys with either
of those species.  In fact, it is to
this cause  we  owe the continual
importation of fresh  seeds  from
abroad,our gardeners rarely saving
any good red cabbage-seed;  where-
as, if a contrary conduct were pur-
sued,  they  might  continue  the
species as good in Britain  as any
other part of the world.
   In whatever light we view  this
plant, whether as an article of food
for man, or as fodder for cattle, it
fully merits all the attention which
of late years  has  been bestowed
upon it.   It amply repays the care
and diligence which the industrious
cultivator confers on it,each species
being equally fruitful.  And it is a
fact, though not generally known,
but which deserves greater publici-
ty,  that when  the common  garden
cabbage  is  in perfection, and we
wish to cut it,  if, instead of sever-
ing the whole  from the stalk, as is
            CAB        471

usually  done, the  loaf,  or heart
only be  scooped out, and all the
large lower  leaves left  entire, a
young cabbage will, in due time,
be produced, superior in flavour, if
not equal in size, to that ofthe first
growth.
  Upon the whole, from a compa-
rative estimate, and from the con-
current testimony of the  most ex-
perienced cultivators,  it appeart
that the  success of cabbages de-
pends much on their being planted
in a rich soil; for,  as  this plant is
extremely vigorous, its roots strike
deeply into the ground, so that it is
well calculated for improving the
fertility ofthe soil: it demonstrates
the advantage of manuring and fal-
fowing, as also the very great profit
of applying the best land of a farm
to its culture.
  From  the  earliest  stage of its
growth, the cabbage  becomes the
prey of a variety of insects, none
of which is  more formidable than
the caterpillar.   When young, its
principal enemy is the Chrysomela
saltatoria, or turnip-fly, and as it ap-
proaches nearer to maturity, the
Papilio Brassica, or cabbage-but-
terfly.  To expel the former,  Dr.
Withering directs the ground to
be strewed with soot. He also adds,
that if the plants be whipped with
the green boughs of alder, [elder,]
the latter will not  touch them....
With respect to caterpillars, it has
been recommended as a  certain
remedy for the mischief they cause,
that all the borders of the ground,
where it  is  intended to plant cab-
bages, be sown with  hemp ;  and
however, the  vicinity  may be in-
fested  with  those  insects,  the
ground enclosed will  be  found to
be perfectly  free from them ; no
vermin will approach  it.  There 
472        CAB
CAB
is also another remedy prescribed,
which  though  somewhat  more
complex than that above-mention-
ed, has nevertheless been  of con-
siderable efficacy in exterminating
those insects from cabbage planta-
tions :  for an acre of ground, two
ounces of common  asafoetida are
directed to be taken and boiled in
a small pot of clung juice,  till the
whole  is dissolved. This decoction
is to be emptied into a shallow tub,
with the addition  of a pint or two
of dung-liquor;  and  the whole,
being well stirred  with a stick, car-
ried into the field for use. All the
plants, previously  to being set, are
to be steeped in  this decoction in
the following manner : As many as
can be clasped in both hands should
be immersed in this composition,
so as to moisten thoroughly every
part of the plants  ; which, as soon
as this operation is performed, are
to be placed in heaps on the ground
and sprinkled with a little mould.
Thus moistened, they are to be dis-
tributed to the  planter, who must
immediately set them in holes pre-
viously prepared,  and, with a piece
of wood for that purpose, press the
earth against each plant.   Such is
the effect of this operation, that no
game  will touch these plants, but,
on the contrary,  will  avoid them
with  the  utmost abhorrence and
precipitation. It must be observed
at the same time,that noapprehen-
sion whatever, need be entertained,
lest the plant should contract any
bad  or unwholesome  scent from
this preparation, as the united effect
of the sun and air will purify it in
the  course of time.  The same
intelligent correspondent,  in  the
Gentleman's Magazine,  for  1753,
mentions  also  another   remedy,
somewhat more simple in its com-
position,  which, when sprinkled on
the plants that are infected by in-
sects, will soon destroy them, or
compel them to retre* '. He directs
six dwts.  of  asafoetida, three of
woad. a similar quantity of garlic,
and bruised laurel-berries,  to be
infused in a pailful of dung-water.
To this are to Le added one handful
of the leaves or tops of aldjer,  [el-
der,] and another of cai line, white
camelcon,  or  thistle-root.   The
whole of this is to digest for three
days, and as many  nights ; and,
when there  is occasion to  use it,
on sprinkling the infected plants
with  a wisp of rye-straw, it  will
eradicate those noxious insects.
   [Oneoz. of flour of sulphur,mix-
ed with half a pound of cabbage-
seed, and covered up in a  pot for
some time before sowing, it is said,
will prevent injury from the fly.
   Mr. F. sows cabbage-seed in a
box elevated a few feet from the
ground,  and  thus  preserves his
young plants from the bug.
   Particulars of  a crop of winter
cabbages, on three  acres  of poor
land, worth only  12 shillings ster-
ling per acre, raised by Dr. Parry,
of Bath, England.  Eight rows of
cabbages in number 381, weighed
691511b.  Total  number  of cab-
bages on these acres, 12170.  To-
tal weight  of the  cabbages,  cut
with  an inch or  two of stem,  and
avoiding fractions, 98 tons 12 cwt.
Weight per acre, 3217 cwt. .and
somewhat more.   The land  was
pretty well  manured.
   Cabbages are esteemed  in Eng-
land, greatly preferable to turnips,
as food for  sheep.
   Mr. Bordley advises to plant a
cabbage in the step, between two
hills of corn, (maiz), as the shade
may be favourable to them : he al-
so asks, " what would be the dif-
ference between letting the plants 
            CAB

grow into cabbages,from the seeds,
without removal, and transplanting,
as usual ?"  Who will answer this
query ?]
   Qualities. Every species of cab-
bage is generally considered as be-
ing hard, affording but little nou-
rishment, and as  tending  to pro-
duce flatulency ;  but  this  suppo-
sition does not appear to be well
founded. Different vegetables have,
we know, different effects on vari-
ous constitutions ; and to this cause
may be attributed the opinion, ge-
nerally   received, respecting the
unwholesomeness of cabbages.....
They have a strong tendency to
putrefaction, especially when frost-
bitten ; they become putrid much
sooner than any  other  vegetable,
and, when  in that state, their smell
is extremely offensive, and bears no
small resemblance  to that of ani-
mal substances in a  state of pu-
trescency. The cauliflower is con-
sidered as the easiest to be digested
of all the  various species of cab-
bage. But, notwithstanding these
apparent obstacles to the use of this
plant, it is  not destitute of utility in
a medicinal way ; a  decoction of
red  cabbage being frequently  re-
commended for softening acrimo-
nious humours in some disorders
of the breast,  and also in hoars-
ness.
   [The  highly beneficial effects
experienced from pickled cabbage,
on long voyages, is well known
and  will be more  particularly men-
tioned under the head  Sea  Voy-
age.....See also Sauer Kraut.]
   CABBAGE, the  Anjou,  is a
shrub, a native of France, in the
western  provinces of which, and
also in Glamorganshire, and other
parts of Wales, it is successfully
cultivated.   It  is leguminous, and
           CAB        475

equally useful  both for food and
fodder.  Its stalk, which generally
grows to the height of seven feet,
when dried, makes excellent fuel.
The following circumstances more
particularly recommend the culture
of this plant : 1. That it will grow
on the  most indifferent soil;  2.
That it will endure the severest
winter, and produce a constant suc-
cession of sprouts during the
spring ; and, 3. That it will yield
an abundance of seed, though the
young shoots be ever so frequently
gathered.  Lastly, it never causes
any flatulency or uneasiness in the
stomach,  and is so tender that a
minute's  boiling is sufficient for
dressing it. Cattle likewise  eat  it
eagerly, and especially cows, whose
milk it considerably increases.
   CABBAGE - PALM, or Areca
oleracea, L.  an exotic plant, and,
perhaps the tallest, and most beau-
tiful  of  vegetable productions,
growing generally to  the  height
of 170 or 200  feet.  It is  about
seven feet in  circumference, near
the  ground ; its  branches,  when
full grown, are 20 feet in length,
and  have  a great number of green
pennated  leaves,  some of which
are nearly three feet long, though
only an inch and a  half broad. The
bark of the cabbage-palm, which
tapers as  it ascends, is distinguish-
ed for a peculiarity, that is not to
be observed in any other tree. Till
it reaches within   twenty-five  or
thirty  feet of  the extremity, it is
of an ash colour, but then  imme-
diately changes toadeep sea-green,
and  continues  so  to the top, near
which,  what is called the cabbage,
is found, enveloped in several thin,
snow-white brittle  flakes,of a taste
similar to almonds, though some-
what sweeter.  The cabbage-flower 
 474       CAB

 first appears like a small husky
 spatha, or sheath, and grows to the
 length of twenty inches, and to the
 breadth of about four inches.  On
 being opened when young, a fari-
 naceous yellow  seed in  embryo,
 resembling saw-dust,is found abun-
 dantly  dispersed  among  its  fila-
 ments, which are pickled and eaten
 with great relish.  But if it be per-
 mitted  to arrive at maturity, it
 bursts, and the inclosed part pro-
 duces several small oval nuts, re-
 sembling  coffee-berries.
   The other parts of this plant are
 employed for various purposes, one
 of which  deserves  particularly to
 be noticed.   On the inner side of
 the young foot-stalks are  tender
 pellicles, of which, it is asserted,
 good  paper  might  be manufac-
tured.   When  the materials  for
making that article are so scarce,
this substance deserves at least a
fair trial, as it grows abundantly in
the West Indies, and  might be
thence procured without much dif-
ficulty.
   [CABBAGE-TREE, Corypha
umbraculifera. A  tall and beautiful
species of palm-tree, which grows
on the sea-coast of Carolina, Geor-
gia,  and  Florida.  Its  stem, or
trunk, is erect, and rises 80 or 90
feet, embellished  at top by a globe
of plumed leaves, each somewhat
like a large fan, and plicated in the
 same manner, each frond  with its
stipes or stem, 30 feet in  length ;
the frond or expanded part of the
leaf, 15  feet over.  There are six
species ofthe palm in Carolina and
Florida, all of which have flabelli-
 formed leaves or fronds.
   It is the central part of this vast
plant at  top, which stands erect,
like a sharp cone or sugar-loaf, sur-
 rounded by the expanding leaves,
which is  eaten, roasted or boiled,
            CAB

like cabbage ; and consists of the
young frond, rudiments of fronds,
with all  the  succeeding  append-
ages of the future growth, involv-
ed together, white and tender as a
curd, as rich, and of  the like plea-
sant flavour.
  A well grown palm  stands per-
fectly erect, on a shaft or column of
60 or 80 feet high,  its base three
feet diameter, having three or four
rings and circular mouldings,three
or four feet upwards ; from thence
upwards  to the top,  it diminishes
almost imperceptibly, forming  a
model of a pillar for the  greatest
architect, perhaps inimitable.   A
tree produces but one cabbage, and
as soon as that is cut off, this glori-
ous production of nature perishes.
But, though the tree  dies, yet  it
ceases not to be useful; the exte-
rior ligneous part, of l inches in
thickness, is as hard as bone, when
dry,  and  the interior spongy con-
sistence being rotted out, or devour-
ed by worms, it makes excellent
trunks or conduits for  draining off
water, being  almost incorruptible
under ground.  These shafts also
split in two, and set upright in the
ground, make strong and durable
palisades ;  and  we  are informed
that  they answered a  very  good
purpose in South-Carolina, at the
time of our revolutionary war, par-
ticularly at Sullivan's Island.  The
ramparts of the fortifications being
lined with the trunks of the  cab-
bage-tree, split in two, and set up-
right againstlhewall; theirsmooth,
firm, and elastic surface, together
with their spongy  interior, united
to repel the shot of their assailants.
   The stems  are  also  used in
Charleston, S. C. for the facing of
wharfs,  as the  salt-water worm
never touches them.  Pieces of the
spongy part of the stem  afford  a 
             CAJ

 very good substitute for scrubbing-
 brushes, and are even preferred for
 whitening floors.
  The leaves ofthe smaller species,
 afford excellent and durable thatch,
 for covering barns and out houses;
 and the younger leaves ofthe cab-
 bage tree, are manufactured by the
 negroes, into beautiful, light, and
 durable  hats,  called  Bermudian
 hats.  The repent caudex of the
 saw-palmetto, being torn  from the
 surface of the  earth, cut  into pro-
 per lengths, dried,  and  burnt to
 ashes, produce the greatest quanti-
 ty of pot-ash of any known vegeta-
 ble.   And the  drupes,  or  large
 berries of this species, which are
 of the size and figure of dates, and
 as sweet, afford good and nourish-
 ing food to the Indians and hun-
 ters.  They are  not palatable to
 white people, till they  become ac-
 customed to them.   Wm.  Bar-
 tram.]
  CAGE,   an  inclosure  of  wire,
 wicker, &c.  interwoven in  the form
 of lattices,  and ured for  the con-
 finement of birds, or beasts.  The
 latter were, in ancient times.brought
 to Rome in cages artfully formed of
 oak, or beech, and  covered  with
 boughs, that the creatures, deceiv-
 ed by the appearance of their place
 of confinement, might fancy them-
 selves in a forest.  In France, there
 are two sorts of cages, viz. high,
 or singing cages, and low, or dumb
 cages : those who expose  birds to
 sale, are obliged to putthe cocks in
 the former, and the hens in the lat-
ter, that persons may not be deceiv-
ed by purchasing  a hen for a cock.
  C AJEPUT,-an oil brought from
the East Indies, and  resembling
that of cardamoms. Its uses are so
little known in this country, that
it is rarely  kept, even in the shops
     VOL. I.
             CAJ        475

of the metropolis.   According to
Prof. Thunuerg, the  celebrated
Swedish tra\ eller, it possesses pre-
eminent Tirtues as an anodyne, an-
tispasmodic, and stimulant.    In
chronic inflammations of the eyes,
great benefit has been derived by
pouring a few drops of it upon a
sofr, white, linen cloth, and letting
them evaporate while held close
to these organs, over which  the
cloth is to  be afterwards tied for
the night.
  In acute  rheumatism, and  the
gout, this  ethereal  oil has been
known to afford immediate relief,
when the affected part has been
anointed with  it, as  it has a re-
markable tendency  to open  the
pores : it is also highly beneficial in
violent head-aches, when applied to
the  temples, or inhaled through
the nostril-;.  But its most remark-
able effect is in that painful com-
plaint, the tooih-ach.   From what-
ever cause this affection may pro-
ceed, whether from  a  carious, or
hollow tooth, rheumatic acrimony,
catarrh,  8cc the cajeput  oil   has
generally been found efficacious in
removing it if dropped on  lint,
and  placed in the cavity of  the
tooth,  or even around  the gum.
Hence it deserves to have a place
in the medicine-chest of every pri-
vate  family.  In acute  rheuma-
tisms, however, we would observe,
that it ought  to be  administered
with circumspection; but, when ap-
plied in p.-.infill chronic disorders,
or paralytic complaints,its use may
be attended with salutary conse-
quences.....Perhaps the only  shop
in London where this oil is vended
tolerably pure, as imported from
the  East, is  that of Messrs. Cox-
well and  Bromet, Fleet-street,
near Temple-bar.
     3 O 
476        CAL
C AL
  [An account of this oil may be
found in Amoenitates Academic*.]
  CAKE,  a fine sort of bread,
which has received this denomina-
tion, on account of its 4flat  and
round figure.
  There are various compositons
under the name of cakes , as seed-
cakes made of flour, butter, cream,
sugar,  coriander, and carraway-
seeds,  mace,  and  other spices ;
plum-cakes, cheese-cakes, sugar-
cakes, Sec. which are so well known
as torenderany description of them
unnecessary.  Oat-cakes, which are
made in most parts of the country,
but particularly in Yorkshire, and
in Scotland, consist of fine oaten
flour, either with or without yeast,
rolled  thin, and baked in a warm
oven, or over a slow  fire.  Rose-
cakes,  are the leaves of roses dried
and pressed into a mass, and sold
in the shops for epithems.
   CALAMINE, or Calamy La-
pis calaminaris, or Cadmia fossilis,
a speciesof stone, or mineral, which
contains zinc,  iron, and some other
substances.   It  is of various co-
lours,  somewhat hard and brittle,
and of considerable weight ; its
magnitude is generally considered
as  a proof of its excellence.   It is
found  principally  in  Derbyshire,
Nottinghamshire,the western parts
of  England, and  also in Wales,
This mineral constitutes an article
of  the Materia Medica;  but, pre-
 viously to being used, it is gene-
 rally roasted, or calcined, in order
to separate the sulphureous matter
 it is supposed tocontain in its crude
 state ; and also to render it more
 easily reducible into a fine powder.
 Thus prepared,  it is  employed in
 collyria, against defluxion of thin
 acrid  humors from the eyes : for
 drying up humid,  running ulcers,
 and for healing excoriations.
  CALAMINT, or  the  Melissa
Calamintha, L. an indigenous spe-
cies ofthe balm. Its botanical cha-
racters are: the foot-stalks axillary?
forked, and generally shorter than
the leaves; fibrous,perennial roots;
upright, square, hairy, stalks, ris-
ing about a  foot high ; roundish,
indented,  opposite leaves, and ver-
ticillate clusters of small, blueish
flowers.   It grows on the sides of
roads and corn-fields, and is easily
propagated by offsets.
   The  calamine, as  well  as the
other species ofthe melissa, is now
only  ranked in  medical practice
among the mild corroborants.  In-
fusions of the leaves in water have
an agreeable smell,  but a weak
taste ; yet, when inspissated, they
leave a considerable quantity of a
bitterish extract.  See Balm.
   Calamus.   [See Acorus.]
   CALANDRE, an  insect  of the
Scaraboeus,  or beetle class, thus
denominated by some French wri-
ters, and  which is particularly de-
structive in granaries.  It has two
antennx,  or horns,  consisting of
several round joints,  covered with
a soft, short down.   From the an-
terior part of  its head projects  a
proboscis, or  trunk, the  end of
which is  so formed, as to facilitate
the insect in penetrating Ihe coat,
or skin that  covers the grain, and
to enable it to  reach the meal,
or farina, which supports  it, and
in which the female deposits her
eggs.
   The female  lays  an immense
number of eggs, but seldom leaves
more than two in one grain ; these
eggs, in  the course of time, pro-
duce small  worms,  the bodies of
which  are generally found rolled
 up in a spiral  form.   When, dur-
ing their residence  in the grain,
they have attained their full growth, 
CAL
C A L        477
they are changed into chrysalis,
and, after the lapse of a fortnight,
into perfect calandres.  So prolific
are  these  insects,  that their  in-
crease  would be alarming,  were
they not destroyed, while in the
egg-state, by a  species of mites
which abound particularly in gra-
naries, and devour by far the great-
er part of these larvx.
  CALCAREOUS   MATTER,
consists  of various  kinds, which
have their respective use and  value
in  agriculture.   Lime-stone and
marble are both calcareous sub-
stances, but the latter is in a  crys-
talized state.
   [Calcareous  Earth,  a.  Pure
lime, caustic or  pure  calcareous
earth,  in a  state  of  mixture with
aerated calcareous earth,  is rarely
found.
  b Carbonate of lime. Synonimous
names :.........Chalk ; Limestone ;
Calcareous Mephite;  Aerated Cal-
careous Earth ;  Effervescent Cal-
careous Earth ;  Calcareous Spar;
Calcareous Carbonate. Effervesces
with acids, is convertible into  pure,
or quick lime by  calcination ; and
is then  soluble  in 680 times its
weight of water, forming  lime-
water, in v/hich action it gives out
its latent heat, causing the mass to
become  hot.   There  are many
other varieties.]
   It is clearly ascertained,  says
Dr. Darwin,thatcalcareousearth
either  alone, or  in some of the
states  of chemical  combination,
may  contribute  to  the  nourish-
ment both of animals  and vege-
tables : first, because  it constitutes
a considerable part of  them, and
must therefore either be  received
from without, or formed by them;
and, secondly,because from the ana-
logy of all  organic  life, whatever
has composed a part of a vegetable,
or animal, may again, after its che-
mical solution, become a part of
another vegetable, or animal: such
is  the general transmigration of
matter.
  Unburnt calcareous earth is said
to forward the putrefaction of ani-
mal and vegetable substances; while
pure  lime,  though  it  apparently
prevents  putrefaction, destroys, or
dissolves, the texture of the flesh.
If lime be mixed  with oak-bark,
after  the tanner has extracted  its
soluble parts in water, the bark will,
in two or three months, be reduced
to a fine black earth; but, if it were
only laid in heaps, as many years
would be required to effect its spon-
taneous fermentation, or putrefac-
tion.   See Lime.
  Von Crell, a celebrated Ger-
man  chemist, a short time since
made experiments, in order to as-
certain the comparative  effects of
alum,  magnesia,  and' calcareous
earth, in the dyeing ofj*ths with
madder; by which itflHped that
no advantage was derivVcTTrom the
two last mentioned substances, as
alum,  and its solutions,  produce
finer  colours, and may always be
employed  in preference to  the
others.   [See Manures.]
  CALCINATION is the reduc-
tion of solid bodies by fire, to a state
df powder,  or ashes :  a  process
which is  attended with a change of
their quality, and is essentially dif-
ferent from communication, or me-
chanical  trituration.
  Having, under the article Ashes,
treated of the burning of vegetable
and animal matters, we shall con-
fine our  account,  in this place, to
metals.
  To calcine  such metals as melt
before ignition, they must be kept
in fusion for some time ; nor will
this  operation succeed, without A 
478        C A L

free admission of air: the surface
ofthe metal must therefore be kept
clear of the calx. , Should any part
be excluded from the air, no such
change of quality will take place:
fu-viffany coal, or unctuous, inflam-
mable matter, be suffered to fall
into the vessel, it would reduce even
the quantity,  already calcined, to
its  former metallic state.   The
continuance of fusion  causes the
increase of the particles  of  fire ;
which.as they penetrateevery pore,
decompose the whole so complete-
ly, that the fluidity can no longer
subsist. The body isthusleftporous,
extremely brittle, and easily redu-
cible  to the finest powder.   This
accounts for the parts of the  body
calcined being much broken and
rarefied,  and  specifically lighter
than in their original slate.
  The calcination of metals,  gold,
silver, and mercury excepted,  is
much promoted by nitre : the pro-
cess of which is usually termed de-
ffagraticJ~Mk detonation.
   Fusion Will any vegetable, or
animal inflammable matter,will re-
 store all calces and scoria to their
natural metallic state.   They are,
however,  more  difficult  of fusion
than the  metals themselves, and
scarcely any but those of antimony,
lead,  or bismuth, can he  melted,
without some additional flux, con-
sisting  chiefly of alkaline salt,  in
the strongest fire that can be fur-
nished  by the common  furnaces.
The reducing flux, which is a mix-
ture of alkaline salt with inflamma-
ble matter, brings the calx into fu-
sion, and revives it into metal. The
common preparation of such a mix-
ture, consists of two parts of water,
and one part  of nitre, well ground
together, then set on fire,  and co-
 vering  the deflagrating  powder,
with some vessel, till it be changed
            CAL

into a black alkaline, coaly mass.
This  is  called,  by chemists, the
black  flux, a  double quantity  of
which, in proportion to the calces,
or scorise, exposed to a proper heat
in a crucible, closely covered, will
make them melt, and resume their
metallic form.
  CALCULARY of a Pear, is a
cluster of small, strong knots, which
are dispersed through the whole of
the parenchyma of the fruit.  It is
mostly found  in rough-tasted, or
choke-pears, of  which it does not
form any essential part as the seve-
ral  knots which compose  it, are
only so  many concretions,  or pre-
cipitations out ofthe sap, in a man-
ner similar to that seen in urine,
wine, and other  liquors.
  Calculus.  See Stone.
  Calendar.  See Kalendar.
  CALENDER, a  machine em-
ployed in manufactories to press
woollen and silken stuffs, and linens,
in order  to  make  them smooth,
even, and glossy, and also to give
them waves, as  is done with mo-
hairs  and tabbies. This apparatus
consists of two thick cylinders or
rollers of very hard and well-po-
lished wood, round which the stuffs
intended  to  be  calendered,  are
wound. The rollers are then placed
cross-wise between two very thick
boards,  the lower of which serves
as a fixed base, while the upper one
is moveable by  means of  a thick
screw, with a rope fastened to a
spindle  that forms  its  axis ; the
uppermost board is also laden with
large 6tones of above twenty thou-
sand pounds weight.
  In the year 1797, the Soc.ofArts,
Lond.conferred  a reward of 30gui-
neas  on  E. Bunting for  his irar
provement on Calender Mills. The
mechanism of Mr. B.'s ingenious
contrivance being such as cannot 
C AL
CAL       479
 he described without  delineation,
 the inquisitive  reader  will consult
 the 15th vol. ofthe Society's Trans-
 actions, where the whole is illustra-
 ted with an engraving. We shall,
 therefore, only add, that these im-
 provements have received the sanc-
 tion of able mechanics, who consi-
 der them as a valuable acquisition
 to calenderers ; and who, from its
 cheapness and  practicability, con-
 ceive them to be worthy of public
 attention.
   CALF, in zoology, the young of
 a cow.  On account  of its great
 utility, the means of rearing, feed-
 ingandimprovingthis animal,have
 from its earliest existence, exercis-
 ed all the  ingenuity  of mankind.
 There are two  methods of feeding
 calves : the first is, to let them run
 about with their dam the whole of
 the first year; a plan  which is ge-
 nerally acknowledged to be pro-
 ductiveof the best cattle,and is pur-
 sued  in counties where fodder is
 cheap.  The other mode is, to take
 them from the  dam when about a
 fortnight  old,  from  which period
 they  are "  brought up by hand."
   Various plans have, with consi-
 derable success, been  tried and re-
 commended for the rearing of calves
 with a small allowance of milk, and
 in some cases, without any. In se-
 veral  counties of England, calves,
 on being taken  from the cows, are
 taught to drink lukewarm,/tef, or
 skimmed milk ; it being dangerous
 to give it them too hot.  The time
 selected  for this purpose, is from
the latter end of January to the be-
 ginning of  May, about 12 weeks
after  which, for nearly a month,
they are fed with milk diluted with
water.   Small   wisps  of hay  are
then  placed round them  on cleft
sticks, in order  to induce them to
eat.   About the latter end of May,
 they are turned out to grass, being
 only taken in a few times at first,
 during the night, when they have
 nulk and water given them ; which
 is  also continued, though  in less
 proportion, during the last month,
 till they are able to feed themselves,
 and consequently disregard it. Care
 is also taken to wean them with
 short and sweet grass ;  for, if hay
 and water be used,  they become
 liable  to swellings and the rot.
    In  other  parts of England, a
 composition  called linseed-milk is
 found  to be of considerable  utility
 for this purpose. The principal in-
 gredientsof which are, a small quan-
 tity of linseed-oil-cake finely pul-
 verised, which may  be  increas-
 ed as occasion may require, in pro-
 portion as the calf becomes  accus-
 tomed to it,  and gradually  mixed
 with some skimmed milk,  sweet-
 ened with treacle.  This must be
 made nearly as warm as new milk,
 when first taken from the cow.....
 An infusion of hay, called indiscri-
 minately  hay-tea, or hay-water,
 mixed  with  linseed,  and  boiled
 down to the consistence of a jelly,
 has likewise  been  tried  with suc-
 cess ;  as also a species of water-
 gruel,  consisting  of  nearly one-
 third barley,  and the remainder of
 oats, ground very fine.  A similar
 composition is used in the county
 of Cornwall  [England];  the only
 difl'erence  being  the addition  of
 scalded or skimmed milk.  These
 are some of the principal modes'
 adopted for the rearing and  wean-
 ing of  calves ; from which,  in ge-
 neral, the rest differ but little.
  The  fattening of calves, from the
 esteem in which their flesh is held,
is an object of importance,  espe-
cially in the vicinity  of London,
where  the lands are not so profit-
able for breeding cattle, as in other 
480        C A L
C AL
   parts of the country ; and the me-
   thods used for that purpose are as
   various as those for rearing them.
   Since theimpravements which have
   taken  place  in  rural  economy,
   calves have a much greater variety
   of food than before.  Grains,  po-
   tatoes,   malt-dust,  pollard,  and
   turnips, together  with sweet hay,
d   now constitute their common  ali-
   ment.   But  in  order  to  make
   them  fine  and fat, the  best and
   most efficacious way is, to keep
   them as clean as possible, by ele-
   vating the coops in such  a manner
   that the sun may  not   have  too
   great power over  them,  and  to
   such a height above the level ofthe
   ground, that their urine  may pass
   off;  by giving them fresh litter
   every  clay, and suspending  over
   the  coop a large  chalk-stone,  so
   that they can easily lick it.  Be-
   sides this, it is usual to bleed them
   when they are about a month old,
   and again  just before  they  are
   slaughtered; which practice contri-
   butes  in a  considerable degree to
   the  beauty and whiteness  of the
   flesh,  and is  therefore  more fre-
   quently repeated by some persons;
   but  this is not altogether  neces-
   sary ; twice bleeding being  fully
   sufficient for  that purpose, in the
   opinion of  the  most experienced
   breeders.  It is,  however,  to  be
   observed, that those calves which
   are intended for bulls, or to be gelt
   for oxen, should be selected as soon
   as possible ; as for the latter ope-
   ration they should not be older than
   twenty days.
     Distempers....From the first day
   of their birth, calves are subject to
   various distempers, which require
   great attention.  The   earliest is
   that generally called the scouring,
   for which an ingenious  correspon-
   dent in the  Annals of Agriculture
(vol. xix. p. 43?, prescribes a mix-
ture of powdered chalk and wheat-
meal wrought into a ball with gin,
as a medicine that  may be  given
with safety.  They are also liable
to be hoven, in  which  case, the
thrusting of the penknife through
thai part of the swelling which rises
highest near the hip-bone, and in-
troducing a large quill into the ori-
fice, have been  attended  with suc-
cess in relieving them.  The shoote
is another distemper which is par-
ticularly fatal to calves, and attacks
them  a few days  after their birth.
The symptoms generally are, l.A
colic more  or less violent, which is
often  very  severe  and dangerous,
especially  when it is infectious....
This antecedent colic is  terminat-
ed, and the animal relieved, by a
discharge taking  place  from the
bowels; but this  is sometimes fa-
tal  before  the  shoote appears. 2.
A loathing, and refusing of food,
even  previous  to the evacuation,
which  increases and  decreases in
proportion  to the violence and du-
ration  of the distemper.  In  this
disorder, the cheapest, and perhaps
the best medicine which has gene-
rally been administered by several
experienced breeders, is milk well
mulled with eggs ;  or  eggs and
flour properly mixed with oil, melt-
ed butter, and mucilaginous rbots,
or seeds, such  as linseed, aniseed,
&c.  But the most fatal of the va-
rious diseases to  which calves are
subject, is that  denominated  in
Herefordshire, the gut-tie, where it
mostcommonly prevails; the symp-
toms of which are, a total stoppage
in the bowels, except a copious dis-
charge of blood and mucus,accom-
panied by  a violent  fever, that oc-
cations the afi'ected  animal to-kick
at  its belly, lie  down  and groan.
This is the effect of an erroneous 
            C AL

method of castration, which causes
a stoppage in the bowels, and brings
on  mortification, and which in a
few days proves fatal.  The only
safe mode of cure is, to make a
perpendicular incision four inches
under the third vertebra  of the
loins  over the paunch, or stomach,
and introduce the arm to find the
part affected, the beast being kept,
if possible, in  an erect position, by
the help of proper assistants.  In
order to remove the stoppage in
the stomach occasioned by the  tie,
and to  carry  off the  fever, four
ounces  of  Glauber's salts,  two
ounces  of cream of tartar, and one
ounce  of  senna,  infused  in two
pints of boiling water, are given,
to which are  added half a pound
of  olive oil; the  whole  of this is
worked off with gruel,  in  which
mallows and alder-bark have been
infused.  In order to avoid any far-
ther  detail of this and the preced-
ing distempers, we must refer our
readers to the third volume of Mr.
Young's  Annals of Agriculture, p.
200....216 ; and to the second vol-
ume, p. 98.... 104, of the Repertory
of Arts and Manufactures.
  [The following method of raising
calves,  by Mr. William Budd, of
Boston, obtained the prize from the
Agricultural Society of Massachu-
setts : " Take the calves when three
days  old  from the cows, and put
them into a stable by themselves ;
feed  them  with gruel,  composed
of one third barley, two thirds oats,
ground together very fine,  sifting
the mixture.  Each calf is to re-
ceive a quart of gruel, morning
and evening, and to be made in the
following manner: to one quart of
the flour, add twelve of water, boil
the  mixture  half an hour, let it
stand until milk-warm. In ten days
tie  up a bundle of soft hay in the
            C  A L        481

middle ofthe stable which they will
eat by degrees.  A little ofthe flour
put into  a small trough for them
to lick occasionally is of service....
Feed thus until they are two months
old, increasing the quantity. Three
bushels of the above mixture will
raise six calves."
   Those who attend our markets
with fine white veal, are known to
be in the practice of keeping  the
calves  in dark stables,  of bleeding
them frequently,  and of  giving
them occasionally powdered chalk.
   Mr. Clift,  of  the New-York
Agricultural Society, takes the calf
from the cow at two or three days
old ;  then  milks the cow, and
while the milk  is warm, teaches
the calf to drink, by  holding the
head in the pail: if the animal will
not drink,  he puts his  hand in the
milk, and  a finger in  his mouth ;
by this method, it will soon learn
to drink without the finger. After
the calf has been fed on new milk
for two weeks, he skims the cream
off the milk, and gives it  to  the
calves, by adding one half or more
of thin flax-seed jelly, which must
be given as warm as new milk....
As the spring of the year is by far
the most favourable time for mak-
ing butter,  by  treating the calves
in the above manner,  we mav be
able, in  the six or seven weeks
Which  are  contemplated  to ktfto
them before they are  fit to  wean,
to  make as much butter as  the
calves  will be worth, which will be
a  very great saving for those who
wish to raise their calves.
   Air. E. L'Hommedieu (Trans-
actions Agricultural Society Aew-
York), is  of opinion,  that calves
taken  from the cows  were much
better  in a pasture without water,
than in a pasture of equal goodness
with water.  The reason  is that 
482        C A L

when indulged with  water, they
drink too much to supply the want
of the milk; whereas, when depri-
ved of water,  they  are  forced  to
eat grass  containing some mois-
ture,  and  soon learn to allay their
thirst by eating while the dew  is
on, and for the sake of the dew eat
more than they would do, if they
could go to water.]
   Calf's Snout. See Lesser Snap-
dragon.
  [CALLICARPA  AMERICA-
NA, or Bermudian Mulberry. This
curious shrub is a native of the low
countries of Carolina and Florida,
and as far north as Hampton on
Chesapeak Bay, also of Cochin
China,  The  flowers are rose co-
loured ; the berries are of the size
of a small pea, at first bright red,
afterwards of  a deep  purple, one
celled.  They are  aromatic, and
constitute  one of the ingredients in
beer,  combined with baked sweet
potatoes, sassafras, and China bryer
root.  After they are frost bitten,
they are of a pleasant sweet taste.
\Vh. Bartram.
   Schopf says, that Dr. Dale
used the leaves of callicarpa with
success in  dropsy.]
   CALICO,   a  stuff or cloth  of
cotton, originally manufactured  in
India ; but, within the last twenty
or thirty years, it has been imitated
inBBritain, and brought to great
perfection, since the invention  of
machines  for spinning cotton.  In
the towns  of  Manchester, Glas-
gow, Paisley, Sec. many thousands
of industrious  hands are employed
in the manufacture of this article ;
which according  to its  different
degrees of fineness, is  sold from
(-"-('. to 6s.  and upwards,  a yard.
   Cotton  cloth is an intermediate
substance  between  that  made  of
flax and animal wool; but by no
            CAL

means deserves to be commended
as a substitute for flannel, next the
skin.  Calico imbibes and retains
the perspired humors, unless it be
as  frequently  changed  as  linen ;
while flannel admits a free evapor-
ation through its  more  numerous
pores.
  CALKINS  are the prominent
parts at the extremity of a horse-
shoe, bent  downwards, and  the
edges blunted.  They often  occa-
sion horses to trip, and sometimes
also to produce the bleyme, or an in-
flammation in the foot between the
sole and the bone ; while the dis-
ease is communicated to the back
and the sinews.
  Calkins,  when  formed like a
hare's ear,  and if the  horn of a
horse's  heel be pared pretty low,
seldom  do  much damage;  but
when left large and  square,  they
spoil the foot entirely.  There are
single and double calkins, accord-
ingly as  they are made at one or
both ends of the  foot:  the latter,
however, are but  rarely hurtful,
and  generally  make a  horse trot
more even  and steady.
   CAiha.  ,See Marsh  Mary-
gold.
  Calomel.   See Mercury.
  Caltrops.  See Pondweed.
   [CALYCANTHUS   FLORI-
DUS.  Sweet scented shrub,
Carolina All-Spice.   This favour-
ite shrub is a inuive of the south-
ern states, and occupies a consider-
able range of hilly country beneath
our chains of mountains, fromPenn-
sylvania to  West-Florida.   This
shrub is  of a  middle size, many
stems  ascending  from  the  fame
source,  eight  feet high, covered
with a brown aromatic bark, with
two entire  leaves placed opposite
on every joint, on short foot stalks.
The flowers grow single, on short 
CAM
CAM       483
peduncles at the extremity of the
branches : they have two series of
narrow thick  petals, which spread
open  and turn inward at the top.
These are of a dusky purple colour,
of a scent composed of the pine-
apple and the strawberry fragrance.
The pericaps are also highly aro-
matic.  There are two varieties:
one with long leaves; another with
round leaves.  The flowers appear
late in May.
   This charming shrub bears the
climate of Pennsylvania very well,
and may be easily propagated by
laying down  the young branches,
which will take  root in one year,
and may then be taken from the
mother plant, and set where they
are designed  to  remain ; for they
do not bear transplanting well, af-
ter they are grown to a tolerable
size.]
   CAL*X properly signifies lime ;
but the term is  also used by che-
mists  and physicians  for  a fine
powder, which remains after the
calcination of metals and other mi-
neral substances. All metallic cal-
ces are found to weigh more than
the metal from  which they were
originally produced.   See Calci-
nation.
   CAMBLET,  or Chamdlet, a
stuff made of wool, silk, and some-
times of hair, especially  that  of
goats, combined with  the  first-
mentioned substances.  In some,
the warp consists of wool and silk,
and the woof of hair.  The real
oriental camblet is made from the
hair of the Angora goat.   There
are no camblets made in  Europe
of goat's hair alone :  France, Hol-
land,  Flanders,  and England, are
the chief places  where this manu-
facture  is carried on.   Those  of
Brussels are allowed to be of the
    VOL. I.
finest quality, and those of England
stand next in repute.
  These  articles are of  various
kinds, which are denominated fi-
gured camblets, watered camblets,
waved camblets, &c.
  CAMBRIC,in commerce,a spe-
cies of very fine white linen, made
of flax,  which  derives  its name
from Cambray, a city of France,
where it was first invented.  This
article has long been an object of
considerable  advantage  to  the
French, who formerly drew large
sums annually from  England, by
its sale.   A cambric manufactory
was established some years  since
at Winchelsea, in Sussex, to  re-
gulate which the statutes of the 32
Geo. II.  c. 32, and 4 Geo. III.
c. 37, were passed; but it was very
soon relinquished, and the manu-
facture  carried  into Scotland and
Ireland, whence we are now sup-
plied with that article.
  Camline.  See Gold of Plea-
sure.
  Cammock.  See Thorny Rest-
harrow.
  Camomile.  See Chamomile.
  Campeachy Wood.  See Log-
wood.
  CAMPHOR, a white solid,trans-
parent resin, of a very volatile pe-
netrating smell, and a bitterish aro-
matic pungent taste, accompanied
with a  sense  of coolness.  It is
chiefly  extracted from  the  wood
and roots of the Laurus Camphora,
L. a tree growing in Sumatra and
Japan ;  but  may also be obtained
in small quantities by distillation,
from a variety of vegetables, such
as the peppermint, cardamoms, &c.
in which  it  may easily  be disco-
vered by their peculiar camphorat-
ed odour, and their cooling pungent
taste.  From these, the camphor
    3P 
484        CAM

may be disengaged by distillation,
either in a pure state, or in combi-
nation with essential oils. In order
to separate  it, dissolve the whole
of the camphorated oil thus obtain-
ed in a proportionate quantity of
alcohol: then dilute this  solution
with twelve  times the quantity of
distilled water;  if the oil contain
no camphor, the water used for
the mixture will remain clear and
transparent; the alcohol will gra-
dually  combine  with it,  and the
oily  particles separate.   On the
contrary, if  the oil be mixed with
camphor, the whole mixture  will
be converted into a milky liquor,
from which the camphor will be
gradually precipitated in the form
of a white powder,  while  the  oily
parts ascend to the surface of the
water.   By melting this powder in
a close  glass vessel, over a mode-
rate fire, it will assume the concrete
form of camphor ; though the re-
maining liquid will retain a small
portion  of this substance, as well
as of essential oil.
   Camphor is justly esteemed one
of the most  efficacious medicines
for promoting perspiration, reliev-
ing spasms, and resisting putrefac-
tion : hence it has long been cele-
brated in malignant fevers, and epi-
demical distempers.  In delirium,
it frequently procures a composed
rest, after  opiates  have failed of
success. In modern practice, how-
ever, it is chiefly employed exter-
nally to diminish inflammation, to
disperse tumors, too bviate morti-
fication, to stimulate in cases of lo-
cal palsy, and to allay rheumatic
and paralytic pains.  We state on
the authority of Dr. C. L. Hoff-
man, of Mayence, the oldest phy-
sician now living in Germany, that
tamphorated applications  in   the
            CAM

malignant, confluent small-pox, are
often the means of saving the pa-
tient's life ; and that he once re-
stored to health, a  young lady in a
hopeless  situation, by  useing, in
the course of twelve days, not less
than eighty four ounces of solid cam-
phor, chiefly in  the form of an oint-
ment made with the yolk of eggs,
spread  on clean napkins, and ap-
plied, as often as they became dry,
over the whole body.
   Internally, camphor is  given in
nervous affections, in order to ex-
cite the vital power, and  alleviate
spasmodic complaints.    It is re-
commended  as singularly  effica-
cious in cases of ardor urine, or
scalding of the urine, and nervous
head-achs: the  dose maybe increas-
ed from three to twenty grains;
and, in  cases of madness, from five
to thirty grains; two or three times
a  day,  after the  necessary  bleed-
ings purgatives, and the tepid bath.
To render camphor  properly dif-
fusible  in water, it should first be
dissolved in a little spirit of wine,
or expressed oil, and then well tri-
turated with mucilage of gum ara-
ble.
   [Camphor has been occasionally
employed with success  in mad-
ness ; and one case  is related by
Dr. Cullen, in which  the cure of
a  sudden  attack,  was  apparently
terminated by large doses, after co-
pious bleeding, and frequent purg-
ing and blistering had been used.
The dose of camphor was gradual-
ly increased from five grains,  to
sixty grains, three times a day.....
Sleep was produced when the dose
amounted  to  more  than forty
grains, and the senses were gradu-
ally restored.  The effects of cam-
phor  have not  been  so evident
when  exhibited  in  the  Pennsyl- 
            CAN

vania hospital, to several persons ;
but the particular states ofthe sys-
tem in which it was given, we are
ignorant of.  It most certainly is
a  very  powerful  stimulant, and
ought not to be given where bleed-
ing is proper.   Dr. Cullen, in-
deed, ranks camphor among the list
of sedatives; and Dr. Dobson's ex-
periments  would seem to confirm
the  professor's  theory ; but  the
able and late  experiments of our
countryman Dr. Church, clearly
prove the  stimulating quality  of
this medicine.
   On this principle we can account
for its  use in the small-pox,  as
mentioned  by Doctor  Willich,
when externally used, and also join-
ed with Peruvian bark in mortifi-
cations : in which  complaint very
excellent effects are  said to have
been produced by the combination.
As a preservative against infectious
or contagious  diseases, camphor
is entirely  useless.  The best way
to  give camphor is to rub about
eighty grains  in a mortar, with six
or eight  grains of myrrh, (first
dropping two or three  drops  of
spirit of wine  on  the  camphor,)
then add ten  or fifteen grains of
gum arabic or  cherry-tree gum,
and gradually  as  much water as
will suspend the whole.
   For the use of camphor in worms.
See  Worms.]
   CANADA BALSAM, a trans-
parent resinous juice, of an agree-
able  smell, and a  warm pungent
taste.  It  is imported from Cana-
da, in North-America, and may be
considered as a very pure turpen-
tine, being obtained from a species
of the fir-tree.  The genuine kind
is of a light amber colour, and a
firm consistence.   Although it has
not hitherto been much employed
in medicine, yet it appears to be
            CAN       485

possessed of all the properties and
virtues attributed to the balsam of
Copaiva, to which we refer.
  Campion. See Catch-fly.
  CANAL, an artificial cut  in
the ground, which is supplied with
water from rivers, springs, &x. in
order to make a navigable commu-
nication  between different places.
There are  various circumstances,
upon which the particular opera-
tions,  necessary for constructing
navigations, depend;  and which
consequently increase, or diminish,
the labour  and  expense of execut-
ing  them: such as the situation
of the  ground ; the vicinity to, or
connection with rivers ; the facili-
ty or difficulty with which the ne-
cessary quantity of  water can be
procured ;  and  many other requi-
sites.  The utility of canals to a
trading nation are too well known ;
we shall therefore only refer to the
following, among the many works
that have lately been published on
this important subject,  in which
the  structure,  economy,  and  ad-
vantages of canals are amply  and
perspicuously treated,  viz. 1.  Mr.
Fulton's "Treatise on Canal Navi-
gation ;" 4to.   18s. Taylor, 1796.
The author displays an ingenuous
disposition, and a sincere wish to
promote useful improvement.  His
work  is well written,  the engrav-
ing beautifully executed, and the
whole is replete with  useful  in-
formation.  2.   Mr.   Chapman's
" Obsewations  on  the  various  sys-
tems of Canal Navigation ;" 4to. 6s.
 Taylor.  This  performance  also
abounds with  useful  instruction,
and forms a valuable and necessary
 addition to Mr. Fulton's work. 3.
 Mr. Tat ham's "On  the Politi-
 cal Economy of Inland Navigation,
 Irrigation,  and  Drainage;"  4to.
 1/. 6*. Faulder, 1799.   This work 
486        CAN
CAN
likewise contains some  valuable
hints,  and is  not  destitute of uti-
lity.
   On the subject of clearing navi-
gable  canals  of weeds,  we  shall
treat under the  head of Weeds.
   CANARY  BIRD, or Fringilla
canaria, is a species of finch, and a
native  of the  Canary Islands.  It
is  supposed  to  have been  first
brought to Europe in the 14th cen-
tury.  At a still later period, ca-
nary-birds  were  more generally
introduced into  Germany, where
the greatest attention is paid to the
breeding and rearing of these beau-
tiful creatures,  which are much
celebrated for their song,  and do-
cility in imitating musical notes.
Hence they  have become a source
of considerable emolument to the
Tyrolese, who export vast num-
bers to various  parts  of  Europe,
and  also to England.   If treated
with proper care, they will breed,
and become as vigorous and health-
ful in this country, as in their na-
tive  islands.
   These delicate birds are subject
to a variety of diseases ; to prevent
which, the greatest care should be
taken to provide them with  pure
water and simple food.
   During the time  of moulting,
which  often proves  fatal to many
of them, a little  white  wine drop-
ped  on  a piece of biscuit, or sugar,
will be  of a considerable service.
   [For a more particular account
of their early captive state, and im-
provement in colour,  shape and
song, the reader is referred to Buf-
fon,s Natural History.
   The  following original observa-
tions, upon  raising these pleasing
songsters,  were  furnished  by  a
friend,  who  has paid  uncommon
attention to  the subject.
   The  account though minute is
 highly valuable, because it is the
 result of long experience, and no-
 thing has ever been published on
 the subject in the United  States ;
 The Editor has pleasure in think-
 ing,  that,  by communicating the
 history of the economy of these
 pleasing birds he has laid the foun-
 dation for a permanent and rational
 source of amusement, especially to
 those in retired situations.
  Colour of Canary Birds in general.
 ....The colours of canary birds are
 various, those most regularly span-
 gled wilh several rich and glowing
 colours distinctly marked, are to
 be preferred, especially when the
 bright yellow or clear white is  con-
 trasted with a deep green, black,
 chocolate or dove.   Those of the
 last mentioned  colour  are  called
 agates:  when a rich  yellow   and
 chocolate  colour are  united,  the
 combination is very grateful to the
 eye, but it must be  observed  that
fine feathers do not always make fine
 birds, for many ofthe  handsomest
 shaped and best breeders are found
 among the plainer  coloured,   and
 any person intending to rear them,
 should pay more attention to the
 latter, than the former qualities, as
 he can seldom find them all united
 in the same bird.
   Shape...The body and legs, espe-
 cially of the  males should be long,
 the eyes large, the feathers close,
 tail long and  but little forked or
 spread.  Topnots add much to th»
 appearance of the bird.  The claws
 should be short and clean, for when
 clogged with dirt, they bespeak a
 sleepy, lazy  disposition, not likely
 to entertain with frequent songs.
   Song.....In this there is  also a
 great variety, and Canary birds may
 be brought up to almost any note.
 Those  that sing the longest   and
 with the clearest note, and with the 
CAN
CAN       487
most gradual changes, are esteem-
ed the best.   Some have a way of
chattering,  and  of breaking off,
which has an unpleasant effect, and
when a bird has once contracted
any particular notes, he will seldom
if ever lose them. On this account,
when they are reared in a room, no
strange bird must be admitted with-
out first approving his song ; for so
docile and attentive are young birds
to every particular note and turn in
song, that  by taking them early
after leaving  the nest, out  of the
way of hearing the old  ones, they
may be taught to imitate not only
the notes, and tunes of the hand-
organ, but even its sound.
   Disposition....$>ome are bold and
sociable, others are fearful and will
not  appear as if at home,  unless
while  at  a  considerable  distance
from those who are observing them.
The  latter sometimes have a fine
song, but the  former kind is to be
preferred, especially for the  breed-
ing room, for obvious  reasons....
In this country they seldom  live
longer than ten years,butinasingle
state they sometimes live longer.
Much depends upon those who have
the care of them.   A great variety
of food should not be given ; con-
tinue that which is found to agree
best with  them....for the little crea-
tures, pleased  with something new,
will often  eat too great a quantity
of things, which, if given sparingly
to them, might have been not only
of use, but gratifying.   The cage
should not cramp  them,  and it
ought to be hung in a warm  place,
during the winter, and where the
sun can sometimes shine  on them :
if no danger from cats is to be feared,
the lower  the cage is hung the bet-
ter, as most birds will be thus ren-
dered familiar. For common food,
mix  two-thirds Canary  seed, and
one-third rape-seed, and add about
one twentieth part of the whole
quantity of hemp-seed and oats,
mix the whole well. Fill the food-
box if large enough to hold a week's
food, but once during  that period,
and where a fountain is used to hold
the water, this  also  need not be
filled more than once during the
same time in the winter, and three
or four times a week  in the sum-
mer. The cage bottom ought never
to be washed; but scraped dry only
once a  week, at which time the bot-
tom must  be covered  with river
bar sand.   A piece of loaf sugar,
scuttle fish bone, or a small piece
of soaked bread, stuck between the
wires of the cage occasionally, and
a little maw seed is quite sufficient
in winter, and in summer, chick-
weed or sallad may be sparingly
but daily supplied.  A sprig of the
former, and half a small leaf of the
latter is enough at a time.  Place a
small bason of water in the cage
twice or thrice  a week to enable
them to wash.
   Sex....Figure and colour are not
sure marks of sex.  When about
to purchase, hear the birds sing ; a
cock's  song may  be distinguished
from the chattering of a hen by the
motion ofthe throat, which heaves
freely up and down like a little pair
ofbellows, and the neck puffs, but
in the hen  this appearance of the
throat is seldom if ever observed.
  Age.....A young bird has clean
short claws and legs  ; an old one
always haslongclaws of a yellowish
white colour, frequently very crook-
ed, and their legs covered  with a
kind of scurf or hard  shelly sub-
stance, which in old birds is very
perceptible.
  Onrearing Canary Birds in
a Room....In rearing Canaries, the
great error lies in feeding irregu- 
488        CAN

larly, and with too great  variety,
and in nursing them too much. In
this state, Canaries generally breed
three times  in a summer,  and lay
from three to five eggs at a time.
Seldom more than four young ones
are raised in one nest, the eggs are
commonly hatched in 12 or  14 days,
but it will be right  not to disturb
the hen, or to take the  eggs from
under her, until after the 17th day
from the  time of laying the  first
egg  shall  have expired.    If  the
eggs are not  then hatched,  the
sooner they are  taken away  the
better, as  the  longer she  sits  the
more she will  be kept from going
to nest again.
  After the  hen has begun to sit
steadily, she must not be interrupt-
ed, until  the young are hatched,
when the nest must be daily look-
ed into, in  order to take  out any
that  may die.
  Matching.....When any particu-
lar coloured or marked birds  are
desired to be propagated, put them
with clean, fair, mealy, or  cream-
coloured birds that have no marks
on them, in preference to deep yel-
low or any other colour, always re-
membering, that a weak, small, or
loose-feathered  bird ought to be
matched with a strong,large, close-
feathered  one, and that a top-not-
ted bird is best matched with one
that i s plain-headed,as two top-knots
often produce bald heads. The best
way  to pair  them is to  hang them
in separate cages near  each other
for a week or ten days, and then
put them  both  in  one cage for a
week longer, and rather  turn  the
hen into the cage the cock has been
accustomed  to, as it often happens
that if the cock is turned into her's,
that  she becomes a  Xantippe, and
overpowers  him for several days,
which is  a great  disadvantage, as
            CAN

he is almost always afraid of her
afterwards. If two birds have been
paired one year, and bred together,
they need never be put into cages
to pair a second time, as they will
generally, if not always, find their
mates in  the room, year after year,
as long as they live.
  Large  strong birds are not best
for the breeding  room, especially
when the males are of this descrip-
tion, as they generally fight for two
or three hens after they are let loose,
and thusderange a numberof pairs,
and cause confusion,so that birdsof
a moderate size, and spirit, and just
able to fight their way  well in the
room, are to be preferred ; as  they
make the best parents, as well  as
the  best  neighbours.
  Preparing the Room.....Let  it  be
fronting the south, having a  pas-
sage somewhere for the air to pass
freely through ; in the  heat of the
season, it must first be  well clean-
ed from all vermin, and  then white-
washed  two or three  times, and
previously  to the white-washing,
every crack  or   crevice  through
which mice, cockroaches, or  bed-
bugs can enter, must be stopped
up  with  mortar.-   These are  all
enemies  to birds  ; and the bugs,
though small, are often as injurious
among the newly  hatched  young
as any :  let  the  window be  well
wired with a close mashed wire,
for if this wiring be too open,  they
will often push their heads through,
and sometimes not get  them  back
again, and so hang themselves.  In
the  room  fix a   shelf all  round,
about three feet from the floor ;  on
this, place boards up and down of
a foot  wide and  three feet long,
slanted on the  top, and about tw$>
feet apart,  which  will form re-
cesses, in which  hang baskets or
boxes for their nesting. The steep 
CAN
CAN       489
slant on the top is to prevent them
from lighting there over the sitting
birds, and  frequently  quarrelling
with  the hens on  the  nest.....
Through each board, bore several
large holes, and put roosts through,
so that when the birds which  have
taken possession of one recess may
not, when they light on them, see
their neighbours  in  the next; for
if they do, their quarrels will be
almost endless, during the season.
In each  recess,  drive  sprigs or
nails, to hang boxes or baskets
upon, (say two in each recess) on
the opposite side of it, for  hens
often lay again before their young
are out  of  the first nest; and if
they  do not find  a  box  or basket
very  near  them, they must  fight
for one  in a distant part of the
room, and will, on such occasions,
often make much disturbance, or
else build a  nest over their young
in  the  old one, which kills  them
before they can get out of it. Boxes
ought to  be  about four inches
square, and  about an inch and an
half deep, with a high back to bore
holes through, for  the purpose of
hanging them up in the  recesses ;
but baskets are much better than
boxes, and should be made of fine
willow, about three  inches and an
half over,  and about  two inches
and a quarter deep ;  let these be
nailed to a small piece of thin stuff
of seven or eight inches long, and
three inches broad ; through which
bore two holes to hang them on the
nails on each side of the recesses,
and it will soon be evident that the
birds  generally  prefer  them.....
Swinging and standing roosts may
be placed in  the  room, and others
nailed about  where most conve-
nient, and the floor covered one
inch deep  with common river bar-
sand, all over.  The window should
be so constructed as  to open and
shut  with  a weight  and  pully,
without  going into  it to disturb
them,and especially where a garret
is used having  a dormer window.
For building their nests, fine hay
cut five or  six inches  long, and
bent, and buck's tail or deer's hair
is sufficient  for them.   With re-
spect to the hair or tails, take great
care to guard against the deer-bug
bred in the stump of  the tail, and
sometimes in the skin, at the roots
of the  hair;  but  as  the buck's
tails,  which afford both long and
short hair,  and of  different  fine-
ness are the  best, let these only  be
obtained ; cut off all the hair with
large  scissars,  throw  away  the
stump, and boil the  hair well for a
quarter of an hour; then dry it well
in the sun, and pack it  away in a
close box or bag, and as it may be
wanted, pull it apart,  and throw it
into the room.  Two  other ob-
servations may here be made ;   1.
with respect to the outer part ofthe
window  of  the  room : carefully
guard  it  against the cats, which
although lhey  cannot get within,
will often present themselves out-
side, and hy their sudden appear-
ance  so  frighten  the birds, that
they  often fly with such  force
against a roost, wall, or partition,
as  to  maim or  kill  themselves ;
2.  with respect to stocking the
room,  twelve  or fifteen pair of
birds, for a middle  sized room,  is
quite sufficient; for if the room is
over-stocked, instead  of ten or  fif-
teen  birds  being raised by each
pair, perhaps not more than from
ihree to six will be raised in each
nest,  which vrill  cause a greater
expense and care, with a less  in-
crease.
  Feeding.....As soon as the birds
are let loose  in the  room, place 
490        CAN
CAN
their  mixture  of  canary,  rape,
hemp-seed,  and  oats, as  above-
mentioned, in pans or small boxes,
with holes ; also  water in a large
and shallow pan, and some in large
fountains, and  then  begin   with
feeding with eggs boiled hard, and
chopped  up or grated, and  well
mixed with a third of the quantity
of wheat bread.  Let the number
of birds be  ever  so great, begin
with one  egg,  and  gradually in-
crease it daily, till  your young birds
begin to come out ofthe egg ; then
rest at an average of about  four
eggs a day for twelve pair of breed-
ing birds, remembering  that the
eggs  must be  sound, and are al-
ways  to have about one-third the
quantity of bread  added  to  them
when chopped or grated,and some-
times the proportion of bread  may
be lessened,  and  Naples biscuit
used instead.....Besides this food,
they must be daily, but sparingly
supplied  with fresh greens,  espe-
cially chick-weed and sallad ; ofthe
latter  a very small quantity is suf-
ficient, and of the  former, be care-
ful that it is not of the rank  sort,
but rather fine and full seed ; feed
with greens, and egg  and bread,
and mix or chop the latter fresh at
least twice in the day, though thrice
would be better in the longest sum-
mer days.  The whole number of
eggs may be boiled over night,  or
early  in  the morning, and  their
shells will preserve them sweet till
used ; beware of  heavy or musty
bread.  When  the young ones be-
gin to fly about the room,  if there
be a considerable number of them,
(say twenty or thirty)bruise a table
spoonful of hemp-seed daily, and
lay before them, mixed with a like
quantity of maw-seed, and a piece
of soaked  bread may also  be daily
given them, equal to a sixth part
ofthe bread and egg ; but if young
birds appear to be too loose, lessen
the quantity of soaked bread and
greens, and increase that of the
bruised hemp-seed and maw-seed,
and  mash  some loaf-sugar on the
feeding-table ; and it will be  well,
early after  the young fly about, to
nail  up a  number  of  pieces  of
scuttle fish-bone in  the room, and
sometimes  scrape a little fine chalk
near to where the  birds feed.....
Towards the latter end of August,
lessen  the  quantity of salad and
chick-weed,  and  substitute the
small round plantain ; use also the
leaves and  seed when full, but be-
fore  it has  become  ripe and dry.
There is also a kind of grass which
shoots high in seeding, and forms
a kind of  little  fox-tail,  of which
the birds are very fond before it is
quite ripe, and they may be freely
indulged with it.
   Treatment during sickness and in
moulting.....When a  bird is sick it
will generally crouch, and hang its
wings, appearing in a heap. When
it  puts the  head under the wings,
great danger is to be  apprehended.
When sick, and the bird discharges
its dung, it will bolt its  tail after-
wards ; and the discharge will have
the appearance of a slimy white-
ness without any black in it.
   Having  passed  the dangers of
the first moult, birds seldom sick-
en unless  from want of regular
care.  When  a bird droops, ex-
amine the  water and food, and if
either  have been  neglected, give
both in very small quantities, and
only once in  an hour, during the
first  day : for death  will soon fol-
low a sudden repletion  after long
abstinence. If they do  not suffer
from fasting or thirst, observe the
dung ; if thin and watery, and with-
out any black, it may be concluded 
            CAN

that too much  opening food has
been eaten.   In this case, give spa-
ringly of scraped chalk,  scuttle
fish-bone  and hemp-seed  bruised,
or maw-seed.  If an old bird be
sick from no apparent cause, give
a  choice  of the above articles of
food :  as  he will  seldom  eat any
thing injurious in its nature ; but
when well, confine it to the usual
food.  With young birds, (during
the first year) a general choice of
food must be avoided, as they will
injure, and  sometimes  kill  them-
selves by  eating improper food.
   The first disorder young birds
are subject  to, is a surfeit, arising
from over-feeding, either by the old
ones or themselves, with too much
greens, especially of that species
of chick-weed which has little seed,
but is rank and full of leaves.  The
surfeit may be known by blowing
the feathers  aside from the lower
parts of their bellies, which  will
appear swelled, and almost transpa-
rent, shining and full of red veins;
and their  bowels sunk toward the
extreme parts of their bodies; and
when this swelled part is of a dark-
brown colour, the  bird seldom  re-
covers.   This disorder also  fre-
quently happens from exposure to
cold while in the  moult, and dur-
ing cold damp weather, when the
north windows of the room happen
to be left open.  This negligence
Hiust be carefully guarded against,
for when  a large number of birds
are together, it is difficult to nurse
a few with proper food, without the
risk of injuring  those  that are in
health.
   Moulting generally begins with-
in six weeks after  the birds are
hatched,  and is  a  very  dangerous
time ; one-fifth  generally  dying
during the first moulting.  But as
     VOL.  I.
            CAN       491

a prudent management of them, in
that state, will lessen the  danger,
the following short directions are
given :
   When moulting,thebird appears
rough and sleepy, putting  its head
uiufor its  wings.   The  first year
they only shed  their down  and
small feathers; but afterwards they
annually shed their feathers,  in-
cluding  those of the wing and tail.
   The room must be kept warm,
and a place  allowed them where
they may lay in the rays of the sun
at pleasure;  and  the north aper-
ture closed,  when  cold  N. or  N.
W. winds blow.  Scrape some loaf
s-.igar upon the table, and mix Na-
ples biscuit  with  the  egg  and
bread, and increase the proportion
of bruised hemp and maw seed....
Give also a small quantity of sound
oats or lettuce-seed...the latter will
be eaten if bound in their  bowels :
if the weather be very warm, the
addition of a few leaves of the com-
mon short plantain daily, will  be
proper.
   In the aviary, when the old birds
are breeding and  begin to moult,
do not disturb them  more than is
absolutely necessary,  as their fea-
thers are easily injured, while the
quill part  is filled  with blood, and
the loss of any of them would causo
pain.    Finally :   Naples-biscuit,
bread and  hard egg, are called
warm nourishing food ; rape-seed,
hemp-seed, maw-seed, scuttle fish
bone, chalk  and  loaf sugar arc
astringent(hemp-seed the mostso);
and  chick-weed,  sallad,  plantain
and other  greens, soaked-bread,
lettuce-seed, and oats, are all of a
purgative  cooling nature.   Proper
attention being paid to these quali-
ties of the different kinds  of food,
and to the effects produced by them
     3 Q 
492-,      CAN

on  sick birds :  these  little song-
sters  may be more easily  raised
than is commonly imagined.  The
CARDINAL  RULE  IS,  REGULAR
care.   For though they  may  be
well attended for six days, yet if ne-
glected on the seventh, the young
will perish.]
  CANARY GRASS, orPhalaris,
L.  a  genus of plants,  comprising
twenty-four species, of which, two
only  are  cultivated in  England;
viz. 1. The Canariensis, or the ma-
nured canary-grass, which is raised
from seed, and requires the soil to
be  made very  fine and light on the
surface.   It is sown the first dry
week in February.  The plant is
generally ripe in the beginning of
September, and requires to be a
considerable time  in the field, but
it is seldom injured  by wet wea-
ther.  It is chiefly cultivated on
account  of its  seeds, which are
found to be best calculated for ca-
nary, and other small birds. It also
nourishes  the  Coccus  phalaridis,
which is properly a native of the
Canary Islands, but is become na-
turalized  in England.
   2. The arundinacea, or painted
lady-grass, or ladies' traces, which
is  occasionally  sown  in our  gar-
dens,  on account of  its beautiful
striped leaves.  It is  of consider-
able utility for thatching ricks, or
cottages, as this plant is more du-
rable than straw.   In  the north of
Europe, where its stalks attain the
height of from two to  six feet, it is
mow^ed twice  a  year, and given to
cattle, as a nutritious and whole-
some food.  We are, therefore, of
opinion,  that this species might
also be successfully cultivated, for
the same purposes, in Britain.
   CANCER, a  round, though un-
equal, and, at first, indolent tumor,
generally  situated  in  glandular
            CAN

parts,  such as the breasts,  arm-
pits, Sec. When this tumor grows
large, it is  of a livid, blackish, or
leaden hue, and attended with ex-
cruciating pain, it is called an occult
cancer;  but, when it becomes a
sore, or ulcer, discharging a very
fetid, ichorous matter, it is then an
open, or ulcerated cancer.  The lat-
ter species  is by far the most dan-
gerous, and has by the best practi-
tioners of all ages, been considered
as incurable by  any internal reme-
dies ; the occult cancer, however,
has sometimes, especially before it
had attained a considerable size,been
cured by external applications, of
which we shall give a short account.
   The  causes  of this formidable
disease are not distinctly ascertain-
ed ; though its origin is supposed
to depend chiefly on a scrophulous
predisposition of the body ; which
if increased by depressing and de-
bilitating passions of every descrip-
tion, as  well as  the cessation of
periodical  and  salutary  fluxes of
blood, frequently produces that fa-
tal malady.
   The  peculiar  acrimony of the
fluids which, by its stimulus, often
changes a  scrophulous ulcer into a
true cancer, is of a very diversified
nature ;  and thence  arise the va-
rious forms and  characteristics of
this complaint, as well as  the nu-
merous difficulties with which the
cure of it is attended.   Hemlock
and arsenic, used  internally, and
applied externally, have  indeed, in
a few  instances,  been attended
with  success; but it  is,  on  the
other hand, very doubtful whether
these,  or any other medicine, have
ever cured  a real cancer.  Hence
it is generally believed, that  extir-
pation by the knife is the only cer-
tain remedy.  Lately, however, a
physician has appeared in the me- 
C AN
CAN        493
tropolis, who confidently maintains
that he has discovered a method
of curing a disease, which has hi-
therto baffled the  ingenuity and
skill of the most  able and  expe-
rienced practitioners.   Although
we  have promised to  analyze his
medicines, and  thus  to  ascertain
whether  they  contain arsenic, yet
having had no opportunity of per-
forming  the experiment, we  are
obliged to delay the farther account
of that discovery,  whether real or
pretended, till we arrive at the ar-
ticle Scirrhus.....To compensate,
in some  degree, for this apparent
defect, we shall communicate the
latest and most important informa-
tion on this subject, received from
the Continent.
  In  cancers  of  the  face,  Dr.
Handel has lately, and with un-
common  success,  prescribed  the
application of the  expressed juice
of the Carduus tomentosus, L. the
woolly-headed  thistle,  or  friars'
crown.   This simple remedy was
formerly  in  great repute,  and
strongly recommended by Borell,
Stahl, Timmermann, and other
continental physicians.  Dr. Han-
del ordered his patients to  anoint
the parts affected, with  the fresh
juice, six or eight times every day ;
and he found, that, in the course of
a fortnight, it checked the progress
of the most malignant cancer.....
The editor of this work has, in one
instance  only, observed  a similar
happy effect, though there always
appeared to be great alleviation of
pain, and an abatement ofthe fetid
smell, emitted  from cancerous ul-
cerations, when this liniment  was
duly administered.  For this pur-
pose, he made use  of a soft fealher,
but previously  added to the juice
about the eighth part of rectified
spirit of  wine, in order to precipi-
tate the feculent particles, and also
with a view to preserve it longer in
a sweet state.....Dr. Handel far-
ther asserts, that by the application
of this juice, after the  necessary
internal remedies had been used,
he has cured the itch, scald heads
in children, the thrush, violent in-1.
flammation of the eyes, inveterate
ulcers of the legs, Sec.  especially
in those constitutions,  which had
been reduced by the use of mercu-
rial medicines.  Notwithstanding
these  favourable   accounts,  we
doubt whether a confirmed cancer
will  always yield to such  super-
ficial treatment;  nay, it is admit-
ted by all those foreign practition-
ers, that the juice of the woolly-
headed thistle was of service only
when applied to cancerous ulcers
in the face, and produced no relief
whatever, where the female breast
was  afflicted with that  loathsome
disorder.  In such cases, unfortu-
nately,  all remedies hitherto dis-
covered fiave  been found ineffec-
tual,  unless they  were applied in
the earliest stage of the cancerous
tumor.   Thus it is  affirmed by
Broomfield, Collignon, Cul-
len, Theden,  Unzer, and many
other medical  men of eminence,
that  the timely use of the belladon-
na, or deadly nightshade, has often
dispersed  glandular  indurations,
and large tumors of this descrip-
tion ; but, as the internal-adminis-
tration of this virulent plant'can-
not  safely be  intrusted  to those
who are unacquainted with its na-
ture,  and  the constitution  of the
human body, we shall only remark
that it may, with equal advantage,
be employed externally.  For this
purpose, the leaves of the deadly
nightshade  should  be  boiled  in
milk, to form  a decoction suffici-
ently strong,  and with which the 
494        CAN

part affected must be frequently
fomented.
   Another  method of procuring
relief  in  this  painful complaint,
has been discovered by Bassiano
Carminati, an  ingenious Italian
who first observed the benefit de-
rived from  the application of the
gastric liquor of living animals to
putrid and cancerous ulcers.  Se-
veral other physicians on the Con-
tinent,  and  especially J.  V.  H.
Kohler,  have lately, by the test
of experience, confirmed the truth
of this observation.  It is,  there-
fore, much to  be regretted, that
this  animal fluid  cannot  be easily
procured  in sufficient  quantities
to produce so desirable an  effect.
For  the gratification of our readers
we shall extract the following curi-
ous  particulars  from  Kohler's
Treatise on  Chirurgical  Subjects,
published at Leipzig, in 1796......
From granivorous animals, such
as cows, oxen,  calves, 8cc. he ob-
tained a quantity of gastric juice,
but  it was  not  in  a pure state,
and always  mixed with alimen-
tary  matter;  on  the  contrary,
that of carnivorous animals, for in-
stance, dogs, cats, and especially
birds  of prey,  though in smaller
proportion,  was much purer........
Among the latter class, the liquor
extracted from the stomach of a
large species of  raven, which  he
terms in German, " Golkraben,"
he  found  to be  the most, effica-
cious.  But each  of these* vori-
cious  creatures  devoured  twelve
ounces of solid  meat in twenty-
four hours, as their usual  allow-
ance.   They  ought, however,  to
receive no food  for  twelve hours
before  and after  the  extraction of
their  gastric juice ;  an operation
which is performed in the manner
as follows :  The  neck of the Lird
           C AN

must he  stretched, till no folds or
wrinkles are observed in it;  an
assistant then  introduces into its
throat a small tube, made of  horn
or bone, wrhich has three longitu-
dinal incisions, and two small holes
near the top:  through the latter
a piece  of tape is passed, the pro-
jecting ends of which are fastened
across a little stick, in order to pre-
vent the creature from swallowing
the tube.   Into this apparatus is
introduced a proportionate piece of
a moist, but well expressed sponge,
by means of a whalebone rod, to
which  it is firmly  tied,  and  then
thrust down so far as to  reach the
stomach of the bird.  An expert
operator will easily ascertain the
length to which he may safely pro-
ceed.  After having thus fixed the
apparatus, each raven is locked up
in a different  cage, or  partition,
made of boards, where  it cannot
easily  disengage itself from  this
incumbrance.   The liquor  pro-
cured by carefully expressing the
sponge,  ought to  be immediately
applied;  for, after  having  stood
twenty-four hours, it becomes so
corrupt that worms are bred in it;
though, in its sweet state, it pos-
sesses neither odour nor taste. It
is,  however, difficult to  obtain a
sufficient quantity of this juice for
effecting the complete cure of a can-
cer :  as eight ravens afford only
one ounce of  it in twenty-four
hours.   Nevertheless, as the effi-
cacy of this simple, though expen-
sive remedy, especially in eradi-
cating the most virulent  cancers of
the face, is well attested by seve-
ral respectable practitioners, we
thought it our  duty to  insert the
preceding account. See Scirrhus.
   [Many volumes have been writ-
ten on Cancers, and numerous re-
medies recommended for the cure 
CAN
CAN       495
of this disease. It appears for the
most part at first in  the form of a
moveable hard lump and if then ex-
tirpated by a careful surgeon may
be easily cured. But by delay, and
tampering with quack remedies, in-
ternal  ulceration takes  place, and
death very commonly ensues after
submitting to ineffectual operations
and undescribable torture from the
disease.   As  an urging argument
in favour of early   extirpation  it
may be mentioned that Mr.  Hill
in his surgery, relates, that he cut
out fifty cancers from persons, all
of whom except ten were below 50
years  of age.  I have also seen the
late Dr. Jones of Philadelphia, op-
 erate for cancers, which he inform-
 ed me at the time, had increased
 to many timesthesizeof the tumors
 when he first  saw them and  advis-
 ed the operation. Tumors in the
lips, or any part ofthe head or neck
ought especially to obtain the ear-
liest attention.   When extirpation
will not be submitted to,or has been
neglected from ignorance or inat-
tention, low diet must be enjoined
 and one or two leeches applied to
 the tumor every day ;  great good
 is said to have been derived from
them.  Mr. Fear on  also recom-
 mends small  bleedings  as highly-
 effectual, especially in internal can-
 cers.  Frogs  have been applied to
 ulcerated cancers in Portugal, and,
 it is said with  success, when  the
 animal has sucked  as  much as  it
 can contain, it falls  off.  The Rev.
 Dr. Bennett has published  an ac-
 count ofthe great benefit  derived
 from  the  use of the pkmt  call .d
 " Cleavers or  goose-grass;" in can-
 cers. See Gallium  aparin e,Lin-
 naki.
   As  a concluding advice, the Edi-
 tor thinks it his duty to bear a tes-
timony against the prejudices  too
prevalent in this  and most other
countries, in favour of the  merits
of men who undertake the cure of
cdncers, solely.  They have done,
and continue to do mischief in the
United States, being half-bred doc-
tors, profoundly ignorant and in-
capable of distinguishing a genuine
cancer from common tumors,  and
foul ulcers.  They universally pro-
fess to use vegetable remedies but,
Arsenic is the general application,
variously disguised.
   The Editor has seen more than
one victim to the  ignorance of
quacks in  Philadelphia, and  has
heard of numerous others. At the
same time it is certain that Mar-
tin, Mc. Kee, Bush, and others,
have  removed  tumors  by their
medicines,  but  how  much more
safely  and  rapidly  would  a cure
have been effected, if the  Arsenic
had been applied by the hands of
a judicious physician.
   Where a case does not admit of
cure, it is still of consequence to di-
minish the  evils attendant  upon so
dreadful a malady. The disagreea-
ble fcetor of the discharge  may be
abated by the application of scrap-
ed carrotts or by yeast or charcoal
dust mixed with flour and  honey.]
   CANDLE, a light made of tal-
low, wax, or spermaceti, the-wick.
of which  is  usually  composed of
several threads of cctton.
   There arc two species of talbw
candles, the one  dipped, ;>nd  the
other moulded ; the first are those
in common use ;  the invention cf ~
the second is  attributed  to  Lk
Brege, of  Paris.' Good  ta'- nv
candles  ought  to be'  made  n:th
equal parts of sheep andox-tnllow ;
care being taken to avoid any mix-
lure of hog's-lard, which occasions 
496        CAN                          CAN
a thick black smoke, attended with
a disagreeable smell, and also causes
the candles to run.
  When  tluj  tallow  has  been
weighed and mixed in due  pro-
portions, it is cut very  small, that
it may be more speedily dissolved;
for  otherwise it would  be liable to
burn, or become  black, if left too
long over the fire.  As soon as it
is completely melted and skimmed,
a certain quantity of water,  pro-
portionate to that ofthe tallow, is
poured  in for precipitating  the
impure  particles to  the bottom of
the vessel. This, however, should
not be done till after the three first
dips ; as the water, by penetrating
the 'wicks, would make  the candles
crackle  in burning,  and  thereby
render them  useless.   To  purify
the tallow still more, it is strained
through a coarse  horse-hair sfove
into a tub ; where,  after having
remained three hours,  it becomes
fit for use.
  Wax  Candles are of various kinds
and forms ; they are made  of cot-
ton or flaxen wicks, slightly twist-
ed,  and  covered with white or co-
loured wax. This operation is per-
formed  either by the hand or with
a ladle.   In order  to  soften  the
wax, it is first worked  repeatedly
in a deep narrow  cauldron  of hot
water:  then taken  out  in  small
pieces,  and  gradually  disposed
round the wick, which is fixed on a
hockin thewall, beginning withthe
foy.ye end, and diminishing in pro-
portion  as the neck approaches ; to
prevent  the wax from adhering to
the hands, they are rubbed with oil
of olires, lard, or other unctuous
substance. When it is  intended to
make wax candles with a ladle, the
wicks being prepared as above men-
tioned, a dozen of them  are fixed at
equal distances round an iron cir-
cle, which is suspended over a tin-
ned coppei* vt-s-:el containing melt-
ed wax; a large ladlel'ul of which is
poured gently and  repeatedly on
the tops of the wick, till the can-
dles have  acquired  a  proper size,
when  they are taken  down kept
warm, and smoothed upon  a wal-
nut-tree table with  a long  square
instrument of box, which is conti-
nually moistened  with  hot  water,
to prevent the adhesion ofthe wax.
In other  respects  this mode  of
making wax  candles  corresponds
with that of manufacturing them
with the hand.
   From the increasing demand and
price  of wax, various experiments
have been tried, in order to  disco-
ver  proper   substitutes,  which
might possess similar solidity. We
are informed by a foreign journal,
that this desirable object has been
satisfactorily  attained, by melting
down  an equal  quantity of tallow
and resin.   In  order  to ascertain
the truth of this assertion we were
induced lo repeat the experiment,
but without success :  for, though
the two substances incorporated,
they had not a sufficient degree of
cohesion;  and, when moulded into
a proper form, the  tallow burned,
but the resin dissolved,  and sepa-
rated  from it.
   In September,  1799, Mr. Wil-
liam  Bolts, of London, obtained
a patent for new modes of improv-
ing the form, quulity, and  use of
candles, and other lights, made of
tallow, wax, spermaceti, Sec. This
invention  the patentee founds on
four principles: 1. On the fabrica-
tion -of the  body  of such  lights,
prior to, and independently of, the
wicks, which may be subsequently
applied to them.  2. On the appli-
cation of  moveable wicks,   which
may be  applied  to, or extracted 
            CAN

from  the  candles, or  lights, any
time after they have been im de. 3.
On the using of fixed,  or ordinary
wicks, for those lights or candles,
at any period subsequent to the
making of  either;  and  4.  On
placing the  inflammable substance
while in fusion, in a close vessel and
submitting it there to the action of
a vacuum, and of a pressure supe-
rior to that  of the atmosphere......
This was effected  with a view to
extract,  by  the  vacuum, whatever
elastic fluid may remain in it, un-
der  the  ordinary  pressure ; and
also to increase the  solidity and
whiteness of the substance by the
superior weight applied to it, when
cooling.
   From the very great utility of
candles, they-early became the ob-
ject of adulteration ;  hence it  is
provided by various  acts of parlia-
ment, that all adulterated candles
shall be forfeited ; and if any tal-
low-chandlers,  or melters,  make
use of melting-houses without giv-
ing clue notice  to the excise-offi-
cers, they shall be subject to a pen-
alty of 1001.
   Although candles are preferable
to lamps, as their light is less in-
jurious both to the eyes and lungs,
and as they do not produce so great
a volume of smoke, yet a  clean
chamber-lamp,  which  emits  as
little smoke and smell as possible,
is far superior even to wax candles;
for.  1. As all candles burn down-
wards, the eye necessarily becomes
more fatigued,  and strained dur-
ing the later hours of candle-light;
2. Because they yield  an irregular
light, which  occasions the  addi-
tional trouble  of snuffing  them ;
and lastly,  because, if the  air  be
agitated ever so little,  or if the can-
dles  are  made of bad mcterials,
            CAN       497

they in;ure the eye by their  flar-
ing light.
  A method of making this useful
article with  wooden wicks, is prac-
tised at Munich, in Bavaria :  and,
as it promises to be of great utility,
we lay the following account  be-
fore our economical readers.
  The  wood generally used  for
this purpose, is that of the fir-tree,
when one year old ; though pine,
willow, or  other  kinds  are   fre-
quently  employed;  the  young
shoots must first  be deprived of
their  bark  by scraping;  which
operation ought to be repeated af-
ter they become dry, till they be
reduced lo the  size of  a small
straw.  These rods are next to be
rubbed over with tallow,  or wax,
so  as  to be covered with a thin
coating  of  either of these  sub-
stances ; after which they should
be rolled on a  smooth table, in fine
carded cotton, of the same length
as the rod or candle-mould ;  care
being taken that  the cotton be of
an  uniform thickness  around the
wick, excepting  at the upper ex-
tremity, where it  may  be made
somewhat  thicker.  By this  pre-
paration, the  wicks will acquire
the size of a small quill, when
they  must be placed  in moulds,
in  the usual  manner; and good,
fresh  tallow, that  has  previously
been melted with a little water, be
poured around them.
   The candles thus manufactured,
emit nearly the same  volume of
light as those  made of wax : they
burn considerably longer than the
common tallow  candles;  never
crackle  or  run ;  and, as  they do
notfiare, are  less prejudicial to
 the eyes of those persons who are
 accustomed to long continued lu-
 cubrations.  It  ought,  however, 
 498        CAN

 to be observed, that a pair of sharp
 scissars must  be employed for
 snuffing such candles ; because, in
 performing that operation, great
 precaution  is  required  that  the
 wick be  neither  broken  or  de-
 ranged.
   [Prof. Hermbstadt, of Berlin,
 finds by  experiment, that pure
 white-wax candles,  are, with re-
 gard to the time they last, the most
 economical: that  tallow  candles,
 provided the wicks be in propor-
 tion to  the tallow,  burn the slower
 the  smaller  they  are, because in
 larger ones a  greater quantity  of
 the substance is wasted in burning;
 the oxygen (pure air) cannot act up-
 on the whole flame, and the increas-
 ed heat disperses the combustible
 matter  in vapour, without decom-
 posing  the air, which would aug-
 ment the light.  He also finds that
 spermaceti candles are subject to
 the greatest waste of any, and emit
 more smoke than  tallow candles,
 although their vapour causes no
 disagreeable  smoke  like them.....
 He thinks that those candles would
 be the  brightest,  and  afford the
 most pleasant  light, which, instead
 of a round, were > made  with  a
 broad flat wick,  or rather in the
 form of a hollow cylinder, that the
 air might act upon the flame both
 internally and externally.]
  CAND0CK....See  White  Wa-
 ter Lily.
  Canine  MADNEss....See  Bite
 of a mad dog.
  CANKER,  a disease, to which
 trees are subject; it proceeds prin-
cipally from the nature of the soil,
 and causes  the bark to decay.  If
 the canker be seated  in a bough,
 and a large one, the general prac-
tice is to cut it off at some distance
from the stem ; if a small one,
 close to it.
             CAN

   When the tree is  thus open and
 exposed, it is liable  to receive  in-
 jury from the air, moisture, and in-
 sects.  To prevent this, white lead
 and boiled oil, made into a kind of
 thick paint,  with  the  addition of
 sublimate of mercury, has  been
 recommended by Dr. Darwin, as
 an useful remedy, especially when
 applied  to the wounds  of  those
 trees, the wood of which contains
 less acrimony, and is consequently
 more liable  to be penetrated, and
 eaten by a large worm or maggot,
 that would otherwise consume the
 whole internal wood.
   In the  13th vol. of the Transac-
 tions ofthe Society of Arts, iAc. the
 ingenious Mr.BucxN ALL,observes,
 that in  pruning, this  medication
 ought never to be omitted, as  ex-
 perience has  demonstrated,  that
 mercury removes the  noxious ef-
 fects of canker in the  more deli-
 cate fruit trees, so effectually, as to
 influence the vegetation of plants,
 by affording both smoothness and
 a free growth to the bark.
 He directs every stump, together
with  the  decayed  or  blighted
branches, and all those that  cross
the infected  tree,  or where the
leaves curl, to be taken off smooth
and even ; the gum is likewise  to
be pared down close to the bark,
and rather a little within it, but
not so as to destroy the rough coat;
the fissures, out of which it oozes,
are next to be opened to the bot-
tom, the blotches to  be cut away,
and the  canker extirpated: all the
wounds  are then to be  anointed
with the medication, a little being
smeared over that part of the can-
ker which was not large enough to
be cut.   The tree  must  also be
scored, and the moss rubbed off;
but care should be taken to  avoid
breaking off  a single  branch,  us 
CAN
CAN        499
this would  be productive of dan-
gerous  consequences.
  " A  tree  thus managed (says
Mr.  Blcknall), will,  with  its
remaining free shoots, run large ;
which as they require a great flow
of sap, will keep the  roots in con-
stant employ, and thus necessarily
establish it in permanent health."
He also  remarks  that, Where the
sole object is to remove the canker,
hog's lard will be found of consi-
derable utility ; but, if wet also is
to be guarded against, it is by no
means so beneficial as tar.
  There is another method of cur-
ing this  disease, which  has been
tried wilh success ; namely, where
a branch of a valuable tree is likely
to be destroyed by the canker, to
inclose the affected part, and some
inches above it, in a garden pot of
earth, previously divided, support-
ed  by stakes, and tied  together
round the branch which will then
strike roots in  the   mould;  and
which, after some months, may be
cut off,  and planted in the ground :
thus  preserved, it will  produce a
new tree.
  CANKER-WORM,  a species
of insects particularly destructive
of corn,  grass,  and  every other
vegetable in.which it can harbour.
It has been erroneously supposed,
that excessive  and continual  wet
weather will destroy them, but this
is so far from being  true, that an
instance has occurred of their hav-
ing been found buried six feet deep
in a firm  soil.
  These worms, every fourth year,
become flies, when  they deposit
their spawn in the ground,and thus
produce maggots.  Soot has been
strewed on the land infested  with
these vermin, and various  other
remedies have been tried, but with-
out  success ;  except that prac-
     VOL. I.
tised   in  the  county of Norfolk,
where some years since, the can-
ker-worm was  particularly perni-
cious.  The expedient  alluded to
is as follows :  when they become
flies,  and are settled on the  trees,
especially those  of oak, elm, and
maple, they are shaken  off, so as
to drop on pack-sheets,  or tilters,
spread under  them for  that pur-
pose.  If, in this manner, they are
destroyed soon after their first ap-
pearance, when in the state of flies,
and before they can do farther mis-
chief by  lodging on  the ground,
their numbers will be considerably
diminished, and in a few years they
will  be  almost wholly  extermi-
nated.
  [The general opinion respecting
the cause of this disease is, that it
proceeds chiefly from the nature of
the soil.   Mr. Forsyth, however,
proves from experience, that it
originates from  the following cir-
cumstances, namely : injudicious
priming ; leaving the foot-stalks of
fruit on trees after it has been ga-
thered ; bruises arising  from the
use of ladders in collecting fruit:
nailing trees against  walls,  with
too tight trelisses ;  wet  autumns,
which prevent  the  young  wood
from  ripening, and are succeeded
by severe frosts that kill the shoots;
birds  and insects devouring  the
buds ; and, lastly, from  carelessly
leaving  dead   shoots  on trees,
throughout the summer.
  From whatever cause the canker
may arise,  Mr.  Forsyth directs
all the  diseased parts  to be cut
out, with  a draw  knife, or any
other convenient  instrument, and
if the  inner white bark be infected,
this must also be cut away until no
appearance of infection remains....
The  composition  must  then be
applied.
     3 R 
500        CAN

  Should any gum be observed to
exude after such excision, Mr. F.
states it to be a certain criterion, that
the canker is not completely ex-
tirpated : it will therefore be ne-
cessary to repeat the operation as
soon as possible ; for, if these de-
fects are suffered to remain, the
whole tree will be overspread with
canker and gum ; so that it must
speedily perish.
  Apple-trees are peculiarly liable
to this distemper ; in consequence
of which their value, together with
that of their fruit is  greatly  dimi-
nished.  To prevent the total loss
ofthe trees, Mr. Darwin suggests
the ingenious expedient of reno-
vating the diseased bark, by paring
its edges to  the quick, and care-
fully  adapting  a piece  of sound
bark taken from a healthy tree of
inferior value ;  the whole being se-
cured with a flannel  roller, or other
elastic bandage.
   Doctor Darwin  considers can-
 ker as  a vegetable  gangrene,  as
 it spreads  round  the   trunk  or
branches, and destroys them. Mr.
 Knight has observed this disease
 to be  most  frequent  and fatal to
 those trees the fruit of which has
 been  long  in fashion ;  as  they
 have been perpetually propagated
 for a century or two by ingrafting,
 which he believes to be a continu-
 ation of the  old tree, though nour-
 ished  by a  new stock.  It never-
 theless is frequently produced on
 trees  by  external   violence, as a
 stroke with  a spade by  a careless
 labourer.
   Mr. Deane  says, that the can-
 ker worm is produced from the
 eggs  of an  earth   coloured bug,
 which   having continued  under
 ground, during winter,  passes up
 on the bodies of apple-trees early in
 the spring.  They  are hatched
            CAN

early, and destroy the leaves of a
tree, and give it the appearance of
its having been burnt.
  The worms let themselves down
by threads in quest of prey,  like
spiders ;  by means of which, the
wind  blows  them  from  tree to
tree ; so that  in a close  orchard,
not one tree will escape them. But
trees which  stand singly  are  sel-
dom infested  with these  insects.
As they are  the most pernicious
kind of insects with  which New-
England is now infested,if any per-
son could invent some easy, cheap,
and effectual method of subduing
them,  he would merit the thanks
of the public, and more especially
of every  owner of an orchard.
   Several methods have been tried
with some degree of success : 1.
Tarring. A strip of canvas, or lin-
en, is put round the body  of a tree,
before the ground is open in the
spring, and well smeared with tar.
The females, in attempting to pass
over it, stick fast  and perish.  But
unless the tarring be renewed very
frequently,  it will become hard,
and permit the insects to pass safe-
ly over  it.  And renewing the tar
in season is too apt to be neglected,
through hurry of business and for-
getfulness.   If bird-lime  were to
be had,  it might  answer the pur-
pose better.  2.  Some tie straw
round the bodies of the  trees.....
This serves to entangle and re-
tard the insects, and prevents the
ascent of many of them. But they
are so  amazingly  prolific, that if
ever so  few of them get up, a tree
is ruined, at least for the ensuing
season.
   The pasturing of  swine in an
orchard, where it can conveniently
be done, I suppose to be an excel-
lent method.  With their snouts
and their feet,  they will  destroy 
CAN
CAN       501
many of the insects, before they
come out of the  ground.  And I
have  never known  any orchard,
constantly used as a hog-pasture,
wholly  destroyed, or even  made
wholly unfruitful by  worms.  But
this method cannot always be tak-
en ; and if  it could,  I do not sup-
pose it would be quite effectual.
  There are several experiments I
could wish to have tried, for sub-
duing these insects :  such as burn-
ing brimstone under the trees in a
calm time.....or  piling dry ashes
round the  roots of  trees in  the
spring.....or throwing  powdered
quick-lime, or soot,  over the trees
when they are wet.....or sprinkling
them about the beginning of June,
with  sea-water,  or water in which
wormwood, or walnut leaves, have
been boiled....or with an infusion
of elder, from which I  should en-
tertain  great hope of success. The
liquid may be easily applied to all
the parts of a tree by a large wood-
en syringe.
   I  should suppose that the best
time for making trial of these meth-
ods would be soon after the worms
are hatched:  For at that stage of
their existence they are tender, and
the more easily killed.
   But as tarring the  trees is the
best antidote that we yet know of,
and as many persons of experience
believe it is possible that the in-
sects may  be thus quite prevented
passing up the trees, I  shall here
give directions how  to perform it
in the most effectual manner.
   In the first place,  it is necessary
to begin the operation very early
in the  year.   Not  observing this
caution, has occasioned  the want
of success which many have com-
plained of: For it  is certain that
the bugs will begin to pass up as
soon as the ground  is  so much
thawed,  that  they can extricate
themselves;  which  is  in some
years as early as February. There-
fore to make sure  work, it is best
to begin as soon as the ground is
bare of  snow in that month, that
the first thawing ofthe ground may
not happen before the trees are pre-
pared ; for, beginning after ever so
few of the insects are gone up, the
labour will all be lost.
   Another thing to be observed is,
to fill the crevices of the bark with
clay mortar, before the strip of lin-
en or canvas is put on, that the in-
sects may  not find any passages
for them under it.
   Having put on the strip, which
should  be at least  three inches
wide; drawn it close, and strongly
fastened  the ends together,  a
thumb-rope of tow should be  tied
round  the tree, close to the lower
edge  of the strip.   The design of
doing this  is, that  the tar may not
drip, nor run down on the bark of
the tree, which would injure it.
   When all the trees of an  orch-
ard are thus prepared, let the strips
be plentifully smeared  with  cold
tar, put  on with a brush.  It should
be renewed once a  day without fail.
The best time is soon after sunset;
because  the insects are wont to pass
up in the evening, and the tar will
not harden so much in the nighta s
in the day, becauseof the dampness
of the air. The daily task must be
renewed, and performed with the
greatest care, till the latter end of
May, or till  the  time  when the
hatching of  the  worms is  com-
monly over, which will be earlier
or later, according to the difference
of climate.
   Another mode  of tarring,  and
 which bids fair  to be preferred  to
the foregoing, is as follows. Take
two pretty wide  pieces of board, 
502        CAN
CAO
plant them,  make  semicircular
notches in each, fitting them  to
the stem,  or body of the tree, and
fasten them securely together at the
ends, so that the most violent winds
and storms may not displace nor
stir them.  The crevices  betwixt
the boards and  the  tree  may  be
easily stopped  with  rags, or tow.
Then smear the under sides of the
boards with tar.  The tar being de-
fended-from the direct rays of the
sun, will hold its tenacity the long-
er : and therefore will not need to
be so frequently renewed. And the
trees may be more secured in this
way from the dripping of the tar,
as a margin of two or three inches,
next to the tree, may be  left un-
smeared.
   Anotherexpedientmuch recom-
mended,  is, to put a strip  of raw
 sheep or  lamb skin round the body
 of each tree, the wool outwards. It
 is asserted, that though the insects
 can pass  over hair and straw, they
 cannot pass  over the wool.  But,
 to render this the more effectual, it
 will be proper to open the fibres
 of the wool now and then, with a
 coarse comb.
   When it so  happens that the
 worms are permitted to prevail in
 an orchard for two or three years,
 the limbs will be so corrupted, that
 the trees are  not apt  to  recover
 their fruitfulness, although the as-
 cent of the worms should be after-
 wards prevented. In such a case, it
 is advisable lo cut off all the limbs
 from the trees, near to the stock
 where they are produced, that so
 the tops  may be wholly renewed
 by fresh shoots, as they  will be in a
 few years.
    It is not less  than about fifty
 years, since this insect began its
 depredations  in  New-England, in
 the parts which have been longest
cultivated.   But perhaps there is
some reason  to  hope that provi-
dence is about to extirpate them :
For a kind of little bird has lately
made its appearance in some parts
of the country,  which  feeds upon
the canker-worms.  Should these
birds have a rapid increase, the in-
sects will be thinned, so as to be less
formidable,if not wholly destroyed.]
  Cantha.idcs. See Spanish  Fly.
  CAOUTCHOUCElastic Re-
sin, or India  rubber, is a substance
produced  from the Syringe Tree,
or latropha elastica, L.  which is a
native of South America. It oozes
in the form of vegetable milk, from
incisions made in the tree, and is
principally collected  in wet wea-
ther, w hen it flows abundantly.
  Various conjectures  have  been
formed by the  most  eminent bo-
tanists, and  chemists,  as to the
means used for inspissating and in-
durating this vegetable substance.
The general opinion,  however,  is
that it concretes  gradually  when
exposed to the air.  It is particu-
larly  celebrated for the uncommon
flexibility and elasticity, which it
displays immediately on acquiring
a solid  consistence, and  for the
many purposes to which  it is ap-
plied by the Indians,  who make
boots of it that are impenetrable  to
water, and when smoked, have the
appearance of real leather.   They
also make bottles of it, to the necks
of  which  reeds are affixed, and
through these the liquor is squirted
by pressure. The  inhabitants of
Quito, in Peru,  also prepare from
 this substance a species of oil-cloth
 and canvas,  which are  formed by
 moulds made of clay, and worked
 into  a  variety  of  figures.   Over
 these moulds is spread the juice
obtained by  incision ;  ancl as often
 as  one layer is dry, another  is ad- 
C AO
CAP        503
ded, till the vessel acquires a pro-
per thickness ; when the whole is
held over a strong smoke of burn-
ing vegetables, which gives it the
texture and appearance of leather.
Before the operation is completely
finished, the substance,  while still
soft, will  admit of any impression
being made on its surface, which
is indelible.
   The chemical  properties, and
other  interesting peculiarities  of
this elastic resin, have  been dili-
gently explored by the most inge-
nious natural philosophers of Eu-
rope,  from  the time it was. first
known. Various experiments have
been made  to dissolve  it,  and to
 ascertain whether it would assume
 different   figures,  with the same
 facility as it did in its original state.
 This has been effected  by the fol-
 lowing simple process: Mr. Winch
 put a pound of good vitriolic xther
 into a bottle, capable of containing
 four pounds of any common  fluid.
 On this aether he poured two pounds
 of pure water,  stopped the bottle,
 inverted  it, and  agitated both li-
 quids for several minutes, in order
 to mix,  or, rather,  to wash the
 »ther in the water.   On subsiding,
 as the <ether floated on the top, he
 left the bottle  in the inverted di-
 rection, opened it cautiously, sub-
 stituted his thumb for the stopper,
 and thus  let the water gradually
 escape into the vessel  beneath....
 This  operation  he  performed  re-
 peatedly,  till the  sixteen ounces of
 xther were  reduced to  five.  Hav-
 ing thus obtained a very pure aether,
 he found  it to be the most perfect
 solvent of elastic gua.   When im-
 mersed into it, after being cut into
 small pieces, it began to swell in a
 very short time ; and,  though the
 jcther acted on it but slowly at first,
 yet, in five or six hours, the whole
was completely dissolved, and the
liquor  remained  transparent.   If
too large  a proportion  of elastic
gum be employed,  it will subside
to the bottom ; and may, after be-
ing taken  out of  the  bottle,  be
moulded into any  form, so as to
retain its former  elasticity.
   The caoutchouc is at present
chiefly employed by surgeons, for
the injection of  liquids, and  also
by painters, and others, for rubbing
out pencil marks,  Sec. though we
do not hesitate to say, that it may
be advantageously  used for  socks,
or even shoes and boots, as well as
various useful articles of domestic
convenience.
   An elastic substance resembling
that imported from S. America, is
now prepared  from  the  Caoutch-
ouc-Vine, or Urceola elastica, a na-
tive of  the Prince  of Wales'  Isl-
and, in the East-Indies. On wound-
ing the bark of this plant, a milky
fluid exudes ; which, on exposure
to the air,  separates into an  elastic
coagulum, and a watery liquid....
The former possesses all the pro-
perties ofthe common India rub-
ber, and may now be procured from
Indian  Colonies.
   CAPER, or Cappris, L.  an ex-
otic genus of plants comprising se-
 ven species, of which the spinosa,
or common caper only is cultivated
in Britain, but with great difficulty.
 This plant delights in the crevices
of rocks, old walls, Sec.  and thrives
luxuriantly in an horizontal direc-
tion. In the warm parts of Europe,
 it is propagated by seeds, and the
buds, pickled with vinegar, Sec. are
 annually  imported from  Italy, or
 the Mediterranean.
   Capers  are  supposed to  excite
 the appetite, to assist digestion, and
 to be useful detergents, and aperi-
 ents, in obstructions of the liver. 
504        CAP
CAR
  [Mr. Jefferson, in a letter to
the Committee of Correspondence
of the Agric.  Soc. of S. Carolina,
dated Paris, July 1787\recommends
the introduction of the caper into
the southern states. He observes,
" The caper, though a tender plant,
is certain in its produce ; because
a mound of earth of the size of a
cucumber hill, thrown over the
plant in the autumn, protects it ef-
fectually  against  the  cold of the
winter.  When the danger of frost
is over in the  spring,  they  are to
be uncovered,  and the culture be-
gun.  There are  a great deal in
the neighbourhood of Toulon.....
The plants are set about eight feet
apart, and yield one year with an-
other about two pounds of capers
each, worth on the spot about six
pence sterling the pound.  They
require little culture, and this may
be performed either with the plough
or hoe.  The principal work is the
gathering of the fruit, as  it forms.
Every plant must be picked every
other day from the last of June,
until the middle of October.  But
this is the work  of  women  and
children.  This plant  does well in
any kind of soil,  which is dry, or
even in walls, where there is no
soil, and they last the life of a man.
Toulon would be the proper port
to apply for them."
   The seeds must be brought over
in their capsules, as they will keep
much better  than without them :
but these should be secured from
insects, by  wrapping them in to-
bacco leaves which are well dried :
without this precaution, the seeds
willbedestroyed before they arrive]
   [CAP1LLAIRE...This pleasant
syrup is much used in the West-
Indies, when mixed with water, to
allay thirst, and ought to be gene-
rally introduced into this country
during warm weather, instead of
brandy, or spirits and water.
  To make  the syrup, put  1 oz.
of the leaves of capillaire, (adian-
tum, pedatum, or maidenhair) into
a pint of boiling water ;  pour the
water off in  a minute or two, and
after gently stewing them, at least
twelve hours, rub them through a
sieve  and mix  them  with sugar
prepared in the following manner:
Put a pound of sugar  into half a
pint of water, boil ancl skim it well,
let it boil till upon dipping a  silver
spoon first into water,and then into
the sugar,   and into  cold water
again, the sugar which remains on
the spoon may be broken off clear ;
add  to this the water which the
leaves were put into, and put it in an
earthen pan over hot coals covered
up  close....care must be  taken  to
have  the heat always equal for 3
days, and not too great,  or it will
burn.  Take some  of this syrup
between your fingers, and in draw-
ing them apart, if a thread be form-
ed which cannot be easily broken,
it has been sufficiently done ; then
add the capillaire as before direct-
ed, and put it  into  bottles, which
must not be corked till quite cold.]
  CapontailGrass. SeeFEscuE.
  CARAWAY, the Common, or
Carum carui, L. is an indigenous
biennial  plant  propagated  from
seeds, which ought to be sown in
autumn ;  it blows  in the second
year, and decays a short time after
the seeds are ripe.  This plant fur-
nishes a wholesome and agreeable
food  to  goats,  swine  and sheep,
but is refused by cows and horses.
The young roots  are said to  be
more delicious than parsnips, and
the  tender leaves may be  boiled
with herbs. 
            CAR

  Bechstein asserts, that cara-
way, if carefully transplanted into
a richer soil, produces roots not in-
ferior to those of the scorzonera,
both in taste and utility: they also
afford a very agreeable pickle, when
preserved in vinegar, sugar, &c.
  On  account  of their aromatic
smell, and  warm, pungent taste,
the seeds of caraway may be class-
ed among the finest stomachics and
carminatives of  our  climate.  To
persons  afflicted with flatulency,
and liable to colics, if administered
in proper quantities,they generally
afford considerable relief, and may
sometimes be used with advantage
in tertian agues.
    Caraway seeds,   when  finely
pounded, spread on bread and but-
ter, with a small quantity of ginger
and salt, and eaten every morning
and evening, have been found to be
an excellent remedy against hyste-
rics ; unless this  complaint arise
from improper diet,  acrid humors,
bile, passion, Sec.  They are like-
wise used in cakes,  and, when in-
crusted with sugar, are called cara-
way-comfits.  Besides these mul-
tifarious  purposes, caraway-seeds
are distilled with spirituous liquors,
on account  of  their flavour; but
they produce a noxious, heating
oil, which renders those liquors far
more  pernicious  to  health, than
they are even in a pure state.
   Carbon.  See Charcoal.
   CARDAMOM,or Cardamomum,
a species of the Amomum, is a na-
tive of India, comprising two va-
rieties.   1. The majus, or greater
cardamom, which, when it arrives
in England, is a dried fruit, or pod,
about an inch long, and contains
two rows of small triangular seeds,
of a warm aromatic flavour. 2. The
minus, or lesser cardamom* a fruit
 of an inferior size to that ofthe pre-
            C  A R       505

ceding variety,  but considerably
stronger, both in smell and taste.
  The cardamom is, in this coun-
try, only known by its seeds, which
are sometimes usefully employed
in colds,  flatulency,  colics, and in
laxity and debility ofthe intestines.
Its seeds are said to possess this
advantage over those of the pepper
species, that notwithstanding their
pungency,  they  do  not immode-
rately  heat or inflame  the bowels.
   Cardinal Flower.  See Wa-
ter Gladiole.
  CARL1NE, or Caroline This-
tle,  the Carlina,  L.  a genus of
plants comprising nine species, of
which the vulgaris,  or Wild Car-
line Thistle, only is indigenous,and
generally indicates a  barren soil.
The other species are propagated
from seeds, which should be sown
in a bed of fresh undunged earth,
but not be transplanted, as they will
not bear this operation.  When the
plants appear above ground, they
must be carefully weeded, and af-
terwards thinned, being left about
a foot apart.  The Carline blows
generally in the  second year, but
if the  season be wet, it seldom pro-
duces good  seeds, and often decays
 soon after  blowing.   Its  flowers
have the remarkable  property of
expanding  in dry, and closing in
 moist weather;  from  which cir-
 cumstance they are often consider-
 ed  as natural  hygrometers.   In
 Germany, the acaulis, a species of
 this genus, forms an article of food,
 and the roots when dressed like ar-
 tichokes, or made  into salads, are
 highly esteemed. In Switzerland,
 this plant is also cultivated on ac-
. count of its culinary  utility ; be-
 sides  which, it furnishes an agree-
 able food to goats, as they eat it
 eagerly, but it is refused by cows
 and other animals. 
506        C A R

  The Carline is known principally
from its roots, as they are some-
times used in hysterical ca:.es, for
which they are said lo be an excel-
lent remedy.  They have a strong
smell, a  sub-acrid,  bitterish,  aro-
matic taste,  and were formerly
imported from the more southern
parts of Europe.
  CARMINE, a powder of a  very
beautiful red colour, partaking of
the shades of scarlet and purple.
Il is used by painters in miniature ;
but, on  account of  its high price,
they are often induced to substitute
lake.  The  manner of producing it
is preserved a secret  by colour-
makers ;  and,  though many re-
ceipts have been  published,  none
has ever  been found to answer the
purpose.
  The following process, however,
we shall communicate on  the au-
thority of the Gentleman's Maga-
zine, for 1753, in which it is assert-
ed, that this costly article  may be
made, even in greater perfection
than that produced by the French
artists :  Take four  or five gallons
of pure water, and dissolve  in it
a sufficient  quantity of pot-ash to
make a strong ley.   After having
filtered the solution, put it in a brass
pot, ancl boil in it one pound of the
clean  shreds of scarlet cloth dyed
in grain, till they have totally lost
their  colour; tnen squeeze   the
shreds, and pass all the ley through
a flannel bag. Dissolve two pounds
of alum in a proper quantity of wa-
ter, and  add  this solution to the
ley ; stir them well together,   and
the whole will become rather thick;
it is then to be repressed through

                   END OF  VOl
            CAR

the flannel bag, and the liquor will
run out clear; but if it be at all ting-
ed, it is again  to lie boiled, with
the addition of a  small quantity of
dissolved alum, passed through the
bag'  a  third time, and all the car-
mine will  be  left behind.   Fresh
water is then to be poured repeat-
edly into the bag, till all the alum
is washed away ;  when the  colour
must be dried, so  as to prevent any
dust from settling on it, and may
then be kept for use, being  previ-
ously reduced  to an  impalpable
powder in a glass or  marble.  If,
however, in the .boiling, so  much
water evaporate,  as  to  require an
addition, care  must be taken to
add  only  boiling  water to supply
the deficiency.
   Carnation. See Clove-Pink.
   CARNIVOROUS animals are
those which seek  for, and feed on,
flesh.  It is a question among phi-
losophers, whether man is natural-
ly carnivorous. Those who are of
a contrary opininion, rest their argu-
ments  chiefly  on   the structure of
the human teeth,  which are mostly
incisores,  that  is, cutters, or mo-
lares, i. e. grinders,  and not such
as carnivorous animals  are pro-
vided with : besides, it deserves lo
be remarked,  that, even when we
eat flesh, it has previously under-
gone an  alteration by boiling, or
roasting. Nevertheless, it must be
allowed, that we are furnished with
teeth necessary for 'he mastication
of every kind of food,  whence  it
may reasonably be inferred, that
Nature has kindly intended, both
the vegetable and animal kingdoms,
for the sustenance of mankind.

UME FIRST.
miNTED  BY  ROBERT CA.RK,
  NO. 10, CHURCU-STitEET. 
 


 
The Domestic Encyclopaedia. Volumes 1.
Willich, A.F.M.
Philadelphia: William Young Birch..., 1804.
National Library of Medicine
Bethesda MD

rONiniTION ON RECEIPT:
The full leather binding with  leather  spine labels was
worn,  particularly at the corners, edges, endcaps, and
joints, and was deteriorated. The leather was powdery.
The labels  were  lifting  or detached.   The joints and
internal hinges were broken, and the  board attachment
was very weak. The sewing was weak, but intact. Most
of the pages were dirty, discolored, and acidic.  They
were slightly brittle.  Some pages were foxed or stained.
The pages  were  heavily water stained.  Notations in
 graphite pencil appeared  on  the exterior leaves  and
 pastedowns.  A  bookplate was adhered to the front
 pastedown.


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