\ -v >• ■ iils.-* y if- ";^^x ^a* £ NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Washington Founded 1836 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Service •o/. -y THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA; OR, A DICTIONARY OF FACTS, AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. COMPREHENDING A CONCISE VIEW OF THE LATEST DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, AND IMPROVEMENTS, CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ART; THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND CUTS. IN FIVE VOLUMES. VOLUME IV. Ir. ' . ' '= BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D. AUTHOR OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, iS'c.i^'c. FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS, APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE UNITED STATES: BY JAMES MEASE, M. D. AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL, NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET, AND JOHN CONRAD, fcf CO. NO. 30, CHESNUT-STREET. ROBERT CARR, PRINTER. 1803. District of Pennsylvania: to ivit. Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty- seventh Year of the Independence of the United States of America, William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " The Domestic Encyclopaedia ; or, A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful " Knowledge. Comprehending, a concise View of the latest Dis- " coveries, Inventions, and Improvements; chiefly applicable to " Rural and Domestic Economy. Together with Descriptions of the " most interesting Objects of Nature and Art; the History of Men " and Animals, in a State of Health or Disease; and practical " Hints respecting the Arts and Manufactures, both familiar and " commercial. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts. " In Five Volumes. Volume I. By A. F. M. Willich, M. D. " Author of the Lectures on Diet and Regimen, tsfc. iAc. First " American Edition ; with Additions applicable to the present situa- " tion of the United States. By James Mease, M.,D. and Fellow of " the American Philosophical Society." In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled, "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act, enti- tuled, " An Act supplementary to an Act, entituled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the < Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other Prints." C L. S. ) D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania. CONTENTS OF THE FOURTH VOLUME. PAGE MACE _ 1 Madder _ ib. Madness . 3 Maggot . 5 Magistery - - 6 Magnesia - ib. Magnet - 7 Magnetism, Animal 8 Magnolia - ib. Magpye - 9 Mahogany - ib. Maiden-hair, the Common 10 ib. Maize _ ib. Mallow . ib. Malt . 11 Man * , _ 15 Mandrake - . 16 Manganese . ib. Mange - ib. Mangle-wurzel - 18 Mangel . 19 Mango-tree - ib. Manna . 20 Manslaughter - ib. Manufacture . ib. Manure - ib. Manuscript - • 38 Maple-tree - ib. Marble - 39 Marbling - 40 Mare - 41 Marjoram - 42 Market - ib. Marie - ib. Marriage . 45 Marrow . ib. Marsh . 46 Marsh-locks - ib. VOL.IV. Marsh-mallow Marsh-marigold - Martin, in Ornithology ..... the Quadruped Marygold Mash Mashing Machine Masterwort Mastic Mastication Mastich Masticot Mastiff Matching Mat-weed, the Sea ......the Small - Magazan Bean Maze, (with a Cut,) Mead Meadow Meadow-grass Meadow-s; ffron - Meadow-sweet Measles Measure Meat Medicine Medick Medlar-tree Melancholy Melanthium Me'.ic-grass Meiilot Melon Memorandum Memory Menstruum Mercury Mesentery A Metal Metalic, pointed substances Mezereon Mica Microscope Midwifery Mildew Miliary-fever Milk Milk-house, (wit.h 2 Cuts,) Milk-thistle Milk-vetch Milk-weed Milk-wort Mill Mill-reek Mill-stone Millet Mineral Kingdom Mineral Waters Mint Misseltoe, Mite M ithr idate-mustard Moisture Molasses Mole Mole-cricket Molten-grease Molybdcena Money Moon Moor Mordants Morocco-leather Mortar Mortification Moschatel Moss, in Botany .... in Horticulture .... the Marsh Moss-land Moss-rush Moth Motherwort Mould Mouse Mouth Mowing Mowing Machine Mud Mugwort MulbeTry-tree Mule - CONTE NTS; PAGE ] PAGE 72 Mullein 122 ib. Mullet ib. 73 Mum - 123 ib. Mummy ib. ib. Mumps ib. 74 Mundic 124 75 Murrain ib. 76 Muscle, in Ichthyology 125 77 . ... in Animal Economy ib. 80 Mushroom 126 85 Music 130 ib. Musk ib. ib. Musquitoe ib. ib. Mustard ib. ib. .....the Hedge 131 88 Mutton, 132 89 Myrrh ib. 90 Myrica 133 ib. Myrtle 134 91 93 Nails, in Animal Economy M5 94 .... in Building ib. 95 Nail and Bolt-drawer, (with a ib. Cut) 136 ib. Narcotics ib. 96 Nausea - - ' 137 ib. Neck ib. 98 Nectarine 138 ib. Needle, the Common ib. 99 Negus ib. ib. Nerve - - ib. ib. Nettle 139 100 Nettle-hemp «- 140 103 Nettle-rash 141 104 Newspapers ib. 105 Nickel 142 107 Nightingale ib. 108 Night-mare . ib. ib. Nightshade - - 143 110 144 111 Nipple ib. ibi Nipple-wort 145 112 Nitre ib. ib. Nose 146 113 Nostrils ib. 114 Nostrum i 147 ib. Novel ib. 116 Nourishment - <. 148 ib. Nurse ib. 117 Nurseiy 150 ib. Nutmeg-tree 151 118 Nux Vomica ib. 119 1 12C Oak 1.«J CONTENTS. Oat PAGE 156 Ochre 159 Odour ib. Oil 160 Ointment 163 Olibanum 164 Olive-tree ib. Onion 167 Opium 170 OPODELPOC 171 Orache 172 Orange-tree ib. Orange Wlne 173 Orchal ib. Orchard, (with two Cuts) ib. Orchis 200 Orgeat 201 Ornithology ib. Orpiment 2Q3 Orpine ib. Ortolan 204 Osier ib. Osmund Royal 206 Oven ib. Over-reach 208 Owl ib. Ox, (with two Cuts) 209 Ox-eye 213 Ox-tongue ib. Oxyd ib. Oxygen 214 Oxymel ib. Oyster - * 215 Paint - - 216 Palate - - 219 Pales 220 Palm-tree - ib. Palpitation of the Heart 221 Palsy - , ib. Panic - - 222 Paper - -. 223 Parchment - 230 Paring of Land - 231 Park - - 232 Parsley, the Common, - ib. .....the Bastard Stone 233 Parsley-piert - - ib. Parsnep - - ib. .....the Water - 235 Partridge - - ib. Passion * - ib. Passiflora - 236 Paste - ib. PAGE Pasturage - 236 Patents - - 239 Pea - - , id. . . . the Heath - 242 . . . the Narrow Leaved ib. Peach tree - - 243 Pear-tree - - 247 Pearl - - 248 Pearl-ash - 249 Pearl-wort - - 250 Peat - - 251 Pedometer, (with a Cut) ib. Pellitory - - 254 Pelt-rot - - ib. Penny-royal - 255, Pennywort - - ib. Pepper - - ib. Pepperwort - 256 Perch - - ib. Perriwinkle - - ib. Persimmon-Tree - ib. Perspective Machine 257 Perspiration - ib. Peruvian Bark - 258 Pewter - - 259 Pheasant - - 260 Pheasant's-Eye - ib. Phosphorus - - < ib. Physician - - 262 Physiognotrace - 265 Pichurim Beans - ib. Pickle - - ib. Picture - - 266 Pigeon - - 267 Pigeon-house -. ib. Pigments - - 269 Pike - - ib. Piles - - ib. Pilewort - - 271 Pimpernell the Scarlet * - ib. Pin - - ib. Pinchbeck - 272. Pine-apple - - ib. Pine-tree - - 274 Pink - - 276 Plague - - 277 Plane-Tree . - 279 Plant - - ib. Plant-Louse - 281 Plantain - - 282 .....the Greater Water 283 Plantation - ib. Planting - - 284 Plashing of Hedges - 285 if CONTENTS. Plaster Platina Plethora Pleurisy Plough, (with several Cuts) Ploughing Plum-Tree Plume Poison Poker Poll-Cat Poll-Evil Pollen Polishing - "" Polypody Pomegranate-Tree Pond, (with a Cut) Pond-Water Pond-Weed Poor Polygala Polygonum Poplar Poppy Porcelain Pork Porter Post Pot-ash Potatoe Potatoe-sweet Poultice Poultry Prenanthes Autumnal] Pregnancy Preservation Primrose Print Prinos - Printing - * Privet Prong-hoe Pronounciation Propagation Pruning Pudding Puff-ball Pulse, in Animal Economy . . . . in Botany Pumice-stone Pump Puncheon Puncture Punishment PAGE page 285 | Putrefaction 352 286 Pyrola ib. ib. 287 Quackery 353 288 Quail -f 354 ib. ib. 298 Quaking-grass 299 Quarter-Evil 301 Quassia 355 ib. Quicken-Tree ib. 302 Quills 356 ib. Quince-Tree 357 303 Quinsy - 358 ib. Quittor-Bone 359 304 ib. Rabbit 361 ib. Radish 362 305 Rag-Stone 363 307 Rag-Wort ib. 308 Rails 364 ib. Rain ib. 309 Raisins 365 310 Ram ib. ib. Ranunculus 366 312 Rape id. 314 Rasberry 368 ib. Rat ib. 315 Rat-tails 372 316 Ratifia 373 ib. Razor 374 318 Reading ib. 328 Reaping- 375 ib. Receipt ib. ib. Red-Ink ib. 5 ib. Redemptioner 376 329 Reddle ib. 330 Reed 377 ib. Refining ib. 3:.i Rennet ib. ib. Reservoir 378 332 Rest-Harrow 379 340 Rheumatism ib. - 341 Rhodium 380 342 Rhododendron 381 ib. Rhubarb ib. 343 Rhus 385 346 Ribs - 386 347 | Rice 387 ib. i Rickets 39Q 348 1 Ridges 392 349 Riding ib. ib. | Ring-bone ib. 351 \ Ring-worm - 393 ib. i River ib. ib. 1 Road, (with a Cut) 394 CONTENTS. T PAGE Roaster (with six Cuts) 396 Rocket - ib. Roe 409 Roller ib. Room ib. Root 410 Root-steamer (with a Cut) 411 Rope ib. Rose, in Medicine 413 . . . . in Botany 414 Rose-Bay 416 Rosemary 417 Rose-Wort ib. Rot ib. Rotten-Stone 419 Rowel ib. Ruby ib. Root, the Meadow ib. Ruff 420 Rum 421 Rupture ib. Rupture-wort 423 Rush ib. . . . the Flowering ib. ... the Hare's Tail 424 Rush-grass ib. Rust - ib. ... in Botany ib. Rye 425 Saddle 426 Safflower 427 Saffron 428 Sage 429 Sago 430 Sail-cloth ib. Saintfoin ib. Salep 431 Saliva 432 Sallow ib. Salmon ib. Salt 433 Saltpetre 437 Saltwort 438 ib. ib. Samphire 439 Sand ib. Sand-eel ib. Sand-piper 440 Sand-stone ib. Sandwort ib. Sandal - »■ 441 Sandarach ib. PAGE Sanders 441 Sandiver 442 Sanguinaria Canadensis ib. Sap ib. Sarsaparilla 443 Sassafras ib. Satyrion ib. Sausage 444 Savin ib. Savory 445 Saw-dust ib. Saw-Mill 446 Saw-wort ib. Saxifrage 447 Scab ib. Scabious 448 Scalds - - 449 Scald-head ib. Scammony 450 Scarlet-fever 451 Scirrhus 452 Scorzonera 453 Scratches ib. Screw 454 Scrophula ib. Scull 455 Scull-cap 456 Scurvy ib. Scurvy-grass 458 Scythe ib. Sea 459 . . . Air 460 . . . Sickness ib. . . . Sludge 462 . . . Water . ib. . . . WTrack 464 Sealing-Wax 466 Seed ib. Segg Self-heal 468 469 Semolina ib. Senega ib. Senna ib. Serpent 470 Serradilla 472 Service-tree ib. Setcn, in Surgery 473 Setons, in Farriery ib. Shagreen - , 47-i Shale ib. Shark ib. Shaving 475 Sheep ib. 1 Sheep's-bit 490 vi CONTENTS. PAGE Shepherd's-purse 491 Slaughtering, (with a Cut) Shingles ib. Sleep, of Plants Ship (with two Cuts) ib. Sleeping Shoad-stone 492 Sleep-walking Shoe 423 Sloe-tree ... in Farriery (with a Cut) ib. Slug Shot 495 Small-Pox Shoulder ib. Smalt Shrub, in Botany 496 Smoke . . . . a Liquor ib. Smoking Sight - 497 Smut Silk-worm ib. Snail Silver 500 Snake .... Weed ib. Snake-weed * Simarouba ib. Snake-Root Sinapism 501 Snap-dragon Size ib. Sneeze-wort-yarrow Skin, in Physiology 502 Sneezing ... in Commerce 503 Snipe Skirret ib. Snow Slate 504 Snow-drop PAGE 504 505 506 ib. 507 508 509 510 511 ib. 512 513 ib. ib. 514 ib. 515 ib. ib. ib. 516 PLATES IN THE FOURTH VOLUME. I. Dearborn's Perspective Drawing Machine, to face p. 257. II. Eccleston's Peat Borer, and Jeflferson's Plough, p. 289. III. Beverstone Plough, p. 295. IV. Machine for draining ponds, p. 307. V. Dearborn's American Pump, p. 349. INDEX TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNOYNMS, OR INVERSIONS OF TERMS, OCCURRING IN THE FOURTH VOLUME. Mad wort, the German; see Catchweed. Manheim Gold ; see Zinc. Marcasite; see Mundic. Marsh-meadow-grass; see Mea- dow-grass. Marsh-rice; see Rice. Marsh-Tofieldia; see Spider- wort, the Marsh. May-beetle; see Chafer. May-dew ; see Dew. Meadow-barley; see Barley. Meadow-burnet; see Burnet, the Great. Meadow-clary; see Clary. Meadow-rue; see Rue, the Mea- dow. Meadow Vetchling ; see Vetch, the Chickling. Metals, blueing of; see Blueing. Mignonette, the Wild; see Base- rocket. Mill-mountain; see Flax. Milt-waste; see Maiden-hair, the Common. Missel; see Misseltoe, the Com- mon. Mokha-coffee; see Coffee-tree. Monk's-hood; see Wolf's-bane. Moon-flower; see Ox-eye, the Great White. Moonwort the Royal; see Os- mund Royal. Moor-grass; see Cotton-grass. Morass ; see Bog, Draining, and Fen. More-hough; see Blend-water. Moss-crops; see Cotton-grass. Mother-of-thyme ; see Thyme. Mountain-ash; see Quicken-tree. Mountain-bramble ; see Cloud- berry. Mouse-ear, the Umbelled; see Hawkweed. Muscovy-glass; see Mica. Musk-melon; see Melon, the Common. Musk-rat; see Beaver. Musk-strawberry; sec Straw- berry. Musquet; see Gun. Mussel; see Muscle. Mustard, the Wild; see Char- lock. Naked-snail; see Slug. Naples-yellow; see Yellow. Oat-grass, the Wild; see Dar- nel. Obesity: see Corpulency. Oil of Vitriol; see Vitrolic Acid. One-Berry ; see Herb Paris. Onopordum, the Wooly; see Thistle, the Cotton. Orange-water; see Distilling. Oswego-tea ; see Spice. Pansies; see Heart's-ease. Park-leaves; see Tutsan. Peach-coccus; see Coccus. Peaslirig; see Pea, the Heath. Peasling, the Wood; see Vetch, the Bitter. Pekoe-tree; see Tea-tree. Pellitory,the Bastard; seeSneeze- wort Yarrow. Pepper-disle ; see Sea-wrack, the Indented. Pepper-stone-crop; see Stone- crop. Pestilence-wort; see Butterwort. Plants, Diseases of; see Disease. INDEX. Plantain, the Sea; see Sea-Plan- tain. Plaster-Stone; see Gypsum. Po-poplar ; see Poplar. Pompion; see Gourd, the Com- mon. Prickly Yellow Wood; see Zan- thoxylon. Princes-metal; see Zinc. Print; see Privet. Printing, or Printer's Ink; see Ink. Puceron; see Plant-Louse. Puckefist; see Puff-Bali, the Common. Purging Flax ; see Flax. Purslane, the Sea ; see Orache, the Shrubby. Racoen; see Bear. Raddle; see Reddle. Requin; see Shark, the Great White. Restless Cavy; see Guinea Pig. River-turtle; see Tortoise. Rock-stone-crop; see Stone-crop. Rocket-wormseed; see Mustard, the Common Hedge. Rocket Yellow-weed; see Base Rocket. Rose-bay, Willow-herb; see Wil- low-herb. Rose-root; see Rose-wort. Rough-podded Tare; see Vetch, the Corn. Rowen; see Rouen. Rubicell; see Ruby. Ruddle; see Reddle. Rue-weed; see Rue, the Mea- dow. Salt-clod; see Sea-sludge. Salt of Glass; see Sandiver. Sallow-willow; see Willow. Samphire, the Marsh; see Salt- wort, the Jointed. Samphire, the Shrubby; see Salt- wort, the Jointed. Scab, in Dogs; see Dog. Scarlet Tree-mite; see Spider, the Red. Sea-arrow-grass; see Arrow- grass. Sea-barley; see Barley. Sea-beet; see Beet. Sea-belt; see Sea-wrack, the Sweet. Sea-bindweed; see Bindweed. Sea-buckthorn; see Buckthorn, the Sea. Sea-calf; see Seal. Sea-meadow-grass; see Meadow grass. Sea-moss; see Corralline. Sea-onion ; see Squill the Com- mon. Sea-pea; see Pea. Sea-purslane ; see Orache, the Shrubby. Sea-reed ; see Matweed, the Sea. Sea-star-wort; see Starwort, the Sea. Sea-waure; see Sea-wra*ck. Seville-orange; see Orange. Shab ; see Scab. Sharpling ; see Stickle-back, the Common. Sight; see Dimness. Silk-plant; see Swallow-wort, the Common. Similor; see Zinc. Sithe; see Scythe. Skegs; see Oat. Slate-coal; see Coal. ERRATA. Page 19, column 2, line 4, for « 1778,' read « 1798.' Page 27, col. 1, line 7 from bottom, for Fabioni andDarat, read Fabbroni and D'Arcet. Page 31, col. 1, line 18, dele the semicolon after New- York. Page 84. In the cut of Mr. Miller's Milk House, the letter A should designate the trough immediately surrounding the central platform B. Page 251, col. I, for plate I. read plate II. Page 309, col. 2, line 17 from bottom, for faces, read fi.uces. Page 334, line 10 from bottom, in some copies erase the H before typhus. Page 366, col. 2. line 21 from bottom, between 'which' and ' possesses' add, it. Page 408, col. 1, line 15, after the word shelf, read, be made of the same material. THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA. M. MAC MAD MACE, the inner coat of the Nutmeg, is a thin unctuous mem- brane, of a yellowish colour, which it acquires by being dried in the sun. It is imported from India in flakes, about an inch in length, which present a variety of ramifi- cations. Mace emits a very fragrant, agreeable odour, and has a plea- sant, though acrid and oleaginous taste. It is reputed to be an excel- lent carminative, and stomachic, possessing all the virtues of the nutmeg, but with less astringency. Its oil, whether distilled or express- ed, is equally efficacious; and, when taken internally in doses of from one to five drops, frequently affords relief in colics. Externally, it is of great utility, if rubbed on paralytic limbs; it also promotes digestion, and often prevents vo- mit ting and hiccoughs, on being applied to the region of the sto- mach. vol. iv. Mad-dog. See Bite of a Mad- Dog. MADDER, or Rubia, L. a ge- nus of plants, comprising nine species, one of which is a native of Britain, viz. the R. tinctorum, Wild, or Common Dyers'-Madder. It is perennial, and flowers in the months of June and July. The most proper soil for the cultivation of Madder, in this coun- try, is a soft sandy loam, that has been in a state of tillage for several years, and which is at least 2A or 3 feet deep, being perfectly clear from all weeds. It is necessary to plough the land thoroughly, before the commencement of winter, dur- ing which it should be laid in ridges in order to mellow; and early in the ensuing spring, this valuable plant is propagated from slips, carefully taken from the old root: these slips ought, according to the late celebrated Miller, to be set by the dibble, in rows at the B MAD MAD distance of two or three feet from each ether; though,in the opinion of Blchstein, they should be planted only six inches asunder. And,, as madder requires constant moisture, without which the young roots would shrivel and decay, it will be useful, before they are com- mitted to the ground, to immerse them in a fluid paste made of the best garden mould and soft water. Besides, this transplantation should be undertaken only in rainy wea- ther, or when there is reason to suppose that showers will speedily follow. During the first summer, it will be sufficient to scuffle the plants with the Dutch hoe, as soon as the weeds appear : in the succeeding autumn, when the stalks or haulm hz<6m to decay, they must be rak- ed off the ground, and the inter- mediate spaces carefully dug with a spade or turned up with a hGe- plough, the soil being laid over the roots or heads of the plants in a roundish ridge. In the ensuing summer, the same management must be repeated; but, before the ground between the plants is hoed, the haulm must be laid over the next intermediate space for two or three weeks, at the expiration of which it should be turned back again on those intervals which have been hoed; care being taken to scuffle the soil, so that all weeds may be eradicated. In the follow- ing autumn, the haulm must be cleared, and the mould thrown up in ridges, similar to those of the first year. Early in the third spring, before the young sprouts appear, the ground should be well raked; and, as soon as they are ready to be re- moved, they must be carefully taken off, at a distance from the crown of the parent plant. The culture of madder, during this sum- mer, varies little from that of the two preceding, the plant only being earthed up somewhat higher; as it has now acquired more strength. As soon as the haulm begins to de- cay in autumn, the roots must be taken up, carefully dried under an airy shed ; whence they should be conveyed as speedily as possible to a kiln; and managed in a manner similar to that followed with malt or hops ; because the beauty of the colour greatly depends on the ex- pedition with which it is prepared. From the kiln, the madder is con- veyed to the pounding-house, where it is pulverized ; in which state it is fit for use. Madder is employed in consi- derable quantities for dyeing a fine red colour1, and likewise as a first tint for several other shades : if wool be previously boiled in a so- lution of alum and tartar, and then immersed in a hot decoction of tar- tar only with this drug, it will ac- quire a very durable, though not beautiful, red tinge. M. Margraaff obtained from madder a permanent lake of a fine red colour, which is applicable to every purpose of painting. He di- rects two ounces of the purest alum to be dissolved in three quarts of distilled water previously boiled in a clean glazed vessel, which is to be set over the fire. As soon as the solution begins to simmer, it ought to be withdrawn, and two ounces of the best Dutch madder added ; after which the mixture is to be boiled once or twice, removed from the fire, and filtered through clean white paper. The liquor, thus strained, is now suffered to subside for a night; when the- clear fluid must be poured into the glazed pot, M A D MAD 3 heated over the fire, and a strained solution of salt of tartar gradually introduced, till the madder be wholly precipitated.....This mix- ture is next to be filtered, and boil- ing distilled water poured on the red powder, till the fluid no longer acquires a saline taste. It now re- mains only to dry the lake, which will be of a deep red colour; but, if two parts of madder be used to one of alum, the shade will be still deeper ; and, if one part of the lat- ter article be added to four of the former, it will produce a beautiful rose-colour....See also Red. The root of the Common or Wild Madder, is an excellent de- tergent and aperient; on which ac- count it has been highly recom- mended in visceral obstructions, particularly of the uterus; in coa- gulations of the blood, induced either by falls or bruises; in the beginning of dropsical complaints; and especially in the rickets....It may be given pulverized, in doses from five to fifteen grains to chil- dren, and from half to a whole dram, three or four limes a day, to adults. When taken internally, it possesses the remarkable quality of tinging the urine with a deep red colour; and produces similar effects on the bones of animals, if eaten among other food. Madder-roots pay, on importa- tion, a duty of 5.v. 1|/. per cwt. and are subject to a convoy-duty of 2.■.-. 3d. per cwt. The same du- ty is paid for the drug imported in a manufactured state. This root forms an important article for dyeing; and, in order to encourage its cultivation, the 31st Geo. II. c. 35, subjects persons convicted of stealing or destroying madder-roots, to make satisfaction for damages, at the discretion of the magistrate, for the first offence; or, in case of non-payment, the convici is liable to be committed to the house of correction for on;: month, or to be whipped ; for the second trespass, such offender is to be confined in the house of cor- rection for three months; provided the prosecution be commenced within thirty days.....Those who wish to acquire a more intimate knowledge of the culture, &c. of this profitable drag, wiil be grati- fied by the perusal of Mr. Mil- lkr's " Method of Cultivating Mul- der," Sec. (4to. 1758, 2s. 6d.) in which the subject is clearly treated, and illustrated with plates. [Madder thrives in the state of Pennsylvania, and doubtless will thrive in every part of the Union. It is an accommodating plant, being a native of Persia, and yet flower- ing in the moist cold climate of the Batavian Republic. The pro- vince of Zealand is almost entirely covered vXnh this plant, whence it is exported to every part of Eu- rope and America, welding AL- MOST INCALCULABLE 1'KOrit.i. Jt is understood, that madder flourish- ed formerly in South-Carolina, but little or no attention is paid to it at present.] MADNESS, or ManA. one of the most distressing aXiictior.s which humbles human nature. It is usually divided into two kinds, v.-.clancholy, and ?-avhg; but as they are so nearly allied to, and frequently alternate with each other, we shall treat of both in one. connected view. The distinguishing character of melancholic patients, is a gloomy and dejected countenance, fcr which no real cause can he assign- ed. They are seized -wii.il fear and trembling, so that it is difficult to 4 M A D raise their animal spirits. The vio- lence of the disease depends on the different subjects that prey upon the mind, which is extremely va- riable ; inquiring after the most trivial matters: the habit is cos- tive, the face pale, the pulse small and weak, while the stomach is distended with fk.tulently, and the appetite is uncommonly voracious. With respect to those strictly de- nominated maniacs, their condition may be ascertained by their bold and resolute aspect, while their eyes are suffused with blood ; by the tremulous motion of the eye- lids ; an unaccountable aversion to particular personsor things; acute- ncss in hearing ; and by their al- most continual wakefulness. Those hapless individuals who have be- come raving mad, in consequence of fear, generally continue under the influence of that passion..... Such are the most striking symp- toms, which vary towards the de- cline of the disorder ; the victims of which are dull and stupid ; or sorrowful, mednc holy, and sensible of their mental derangement. Caw:cs:....These are various, and often complicated, but may be aptly divided into two classes, namely, mcr.ial and corporeal. To the former belong love, fear, ter- ror, pride, hope, joy ; too ardent enthusiasm for liberty,or other pas- sion that abso'.'-js every faculty of the mind ; too intense or too icng continued meditation upon any person or subject; an ill-founded dread of the divine vengeance, oc- casioned by superstition, or false principles of religion, Stc. Among the corporeal causes are blows, wounds, ulcers, bruises, or water in the head ; congestions of blood in the brain ; phrensy, or inflam- mation of that part, from whatever M A D accident; too sedentary a life ; the taking of poisons possessed of nar- cotic powers ; suppression of the proper or natural evacuations, of cutaneous or other disorders ; sen- sual excesses ; schirrous or glan- dular obstructions of the mesen- tery, S;c. Madness is in certain families hereditary ; and a slight degree of it is sometimes percep- tible after the small-pox, intermit- tent, nervous, or other fevers. Peculiarities :........Uncommon strength of limbs ; almost total in- sensibility not only to cold, but likewise to stripes, however se- vere ; and an inability to support the exhalations of aromatic sub- stances. As the disease is periodi- cal, the patient is particularly af- fected during certain changes of the moon, and in the spring. Far- ther, maniacs are not liable to be attacked by any of the prevailing epidemics; on the contrary, they are frequently cured of their former complaints, or the progress of such disorders is at least suspended, during the continuance of their in- sanity. Cure :t...If madness be the con- sequence of any other malady, its removal should be attempted by nourishing diet; clear air ; gentle exercise, and the moderate use of wine. But, where this disease is hereditary, or has gradually in- creased from the patient's infancy, it becomes incurable : a similar fate generally awaits those persons, whose violent attacks, from what- ever cause they may oriftmate, have resisted every effort of art, beyond the space of twelve months. In the earlier stages of madness, blood-letting, cither in the arm or jugular vein, according to the strength of the patient, has been found eminently serviceable ; but, MAD MAG 5 if he be weak, or much exhaust- ed, leeches may with advantage be applied to the temple:-. Consi- derable benefit has 111.ewise been derived from emetics, such as ipe- cacuanha for more weakly consti- tutions, and antimonial wine, or tartarized antimony, for the more robust. The hot-bath ; partial or total immersion in cold water, un- expectedly ; purgatives ; diuretics; and vitriolated tartar, have all been found occasionally useful in the progress of this disorder. Cam- phor has also been highly recom- mended ; ■ but it does not appear to be very efficacious. According to Dr. Locker, distilled vinegar has been successfully given to maniacal patients, whom it throws into pro- fuse perspiration ; and he observ- ed, that they more speedily reco- vered, when the sweating was ex- cessive, and of long continuance. Formerly, the deplorable victims were chained, and scourged, lest they should injure themselves and others :....a more humane treat- ment now prevails, and we trust that the strait waistcoat will always render such harsh conduct unne- cessary, as it 'answers every pur- pose of restraining them from mis- chief. It will, however, be advis- able uniformly to maintain an as- cendancy over the patient, by a commanding deportment ; as he will thus be impressed with a due sense of subordination, and submit to whatever regulations may be adopted for his safety, or restora- tion. Independently of this coer- cive treatment, attempts have been made to mitigate the violence of the disorder, by the liberal use of narcotics,especially of opium, which others have forbidden, as tending to increase the derangement. In- stances, however, have occurred, in which large doses of that drug have effected a cure, when admi- nistered both externally and inter- nally ; either alone, or combined with camphor and nitre. Profes- sor Hufkland observes that tick- ling the nostrils with a feather dip- ped in laudanum, has afforded great relief during a fit of furious mad- ness. A pillow stuhed with fresh hops has also, in many instances, composed the patient, and induced a salutary sleep. The diet of persons labouring under this dreadful malady, ought to be uniformly light and thin ; their meals should be moderate, and consist for the most part of nutritive vegetable food, especialiv during a course qf physic. Their hours of employment must be re- gular, and their amusements adapt- ed to their natural disposition: last- ly, when the disease appears to be subdued, it will be requisite that the patient drink the chalybeate waters, and resort to the cold bath; as both remedies are eminently calculated to strengthen his whole frame, and to secure him against a relapse. MAGGOT, the common name of the fly-worm generated in flesh, from the eggofthe large blue flesh- fly, known under the name of blue- bottle. Its body is white and fleshy, destitute of legs or feet, and com- posed of a number of rings, similar to those of caterpillars ; and the insect is capable of assuming vari- ous figures, being at times more or less extended in length, and conse- quently of a greater or smaller £ l/.e, according to its different contrac- tion. Although wc are net acquainted with any remedy, by which meat 6 MAG MAG or cheese' infested with maggots may be recovered, and rendered fit for use, yet we shall suggest a simple expedient for preventing the generation of such vermin.... In hot climates, where the flesh of animals undergoes putrefaction within a few hours, it will be ad- viseable to cover the meat with the leaves of the Swallow-wort (Siapelia variegata and hirsuta), natives of Africa ; or with those of the Fetid Goose-foot or Orache {Chcnohodium olidum), either of which possess a very fetid smell, that attracts the oviparous flies to deposit their eggs on these leaves, mistaking them for putrid flesh ; but, as the young brood cannot subsist on vegetable food, they speedily perish....Fuxxe remarks, that a couple of flies, according to a probable computation, may pro- duce in one year, two millions of descendants. MAGISTERY, a name given to almost every precipitate obtain- ed by solution, as opposed to calx, which is procured wholly by calci- nation : it is chiefly employed to denote such precipitates as are used in medicine ; for instance, the magistery of bismuth, coral, crabs-eyes, 8:c. Magistery of Bismuth is a fine powder, prepared by dissolving bismuth in nitrous acid, and pour- ing on it a large quantity of pure water, which precipitates the ma- gistery to the bottom of the ves- sel. It is chiefly employed as a cosmetic by the gay and giddy, on account of the superior beauty and dazzling whiteness which it imparts; but it is very pernicious to health, and eventually injures the skin....See Bismuth. Magb-tcry of Coral, crabs-eyes, pearl, shells, chalk, and other ab- sorbent matters, is prepared by dissolving any of these substances in the nitrous acid ; when they must be precipitated by fixed al- kali, and repeatedly washed in pure water, till the latter is per- fectly tasteless. Magistery rfLead is the calx of that metal, dissolved in aqua-fortis, and precipitated with filtred salt- water, by which means the pow- der acquires a beautiful white colour. It is softened by repeat- ed ablutions, and then mixed with pomatums for improving the skin and complexion of the face...... Like all other preparations of lead, this magistery is a slonv poison, and will therefore never be used by those who have the least regard for their health. MAGNESIA, or Magnesia alba, a kind of absorbent earth, firs.t discovered in the commencement of the 18th century. When pure, it is extremely white, loose, and light, being infusible, as it resists the heat of the most powerful burning lens. This earth, how- ever, easily melts with borax; and is divested of its fixed air by calcination : in this state, it is less soluble than before, and does not effervesce with acids, but it may be safely taken internally. Native magnesia is not found in quantities sufficiently large and pure for general use. It is there- fore prepared by dissolving sepa- rately equal portions of Lpsom salt and pearl-ashes, in double their quantity cf warm water, when the sediment is to be strain- ed: the two liquids are now to be mixed ; adding eight times their proportion of warm water. The whole is suffered to boil a few mi- nutes, being carefully stirred with a wooden spatula, to prevent the MAG MAG 7 powder from adhering to the bot- tom of the vessel. Now the li- quid is to stand at rest, till the heat be somewhat diminished, when it should be filtered through a cloth, on which the magnesia will remain : lastly, it is to be washed till it be totally divested of its saline taste. White magnesia is of consider- able service for preventing or re- moving many disorders of chil- dren, especially of such as are troubled with a redundance of acid in the first passage ; for which purpose it is preferable to the cal- careous absorbents. But even magnesia is frequently misappli- ed, and ought never to be given to infants disposed to flatulency, or where no symptoms of acidity can be discovered ; as it is other- wise apt to lodge in the bowels, and produce obstinate costiveness; being in itself an inactive earth, unlesscombinedwith acids. Hence it is often, and very properly, con- joined with rhubarb ; so that chil- dren above one year old may take from five to ten grains of the for- mer, and from one to two grains of the latter; while adults gene- rally require one or two scruples of magnesia, and from five to ten grains of rhubarb for a moderate dose....See also Heart-bukn. MAGNET, or Loadstone, a kind of ferruginous stone which in weight and colour resembles iron ore, though it is somewhat harder and more ponderous. It is occasionally discovered in iron mines, being sometimes in large masses of different forms and sizes, that are partly magnetic, and partly metallic. Its colour varies according to the country whence it is obtained ; the best magnets, which are imported from China and Bengal, are of a deep blood-colour ; those of Arabia are reddish ; those of Macedonia, blackish ; and such as are found in Germany, Hungary, England, and other parts of Europe, have the appearance of unwrought iron. The distinguishing properties of the magnet are, 1. Its attraction of iron, as well as every matter containing ferruginous particles; and 2. Its inclination to the poles. Hence it is of essential service in navigation, and is employed in constructing the mariners'needles, both horizontal and inclinatory.... As this subject, however, is but distantly connected with our plan, we shall merely state the most simple method of making artificial magnets, which possess the vir- tues of the genuine loadstone, and have been found very useful in extracting particles of iron from the eye, and other delicate parts of the humane frame....Cavallo directs the scales, which fail from red-hot iron, when hammered, to be reduced into a fine powder and mixed with drying linseed- oil, so as to make a stiff paste ; when it may be moulded into any form required. This mixture is. to be put in a warm place for some weeks, till it become per- fectly dry, and hard ; after which it may be rendered powerfully magnetic by the mechanical ap- plication of the magnet. But this friction of the two metals should be performed in a direct horizon- tal line from north to south ; by which simple process, if continued for a sufficient length of time, even two fiat pieces of iron or steel may be easily imbued with the mag- netic fluid, so as to evince, in a considerable degice, the prcper- 8 MAG MAG ties of the genuine load-stone, with- out having been touched by the lat- ter. In order to increase the attrac- tive power of the native magnet, it is frequently armed,that is,cased, capt, and provided with thin iron plates or bars, after its poles have been polished and properly regu- lated. Thus, it will support a weight 20, 40, nay 100 times greater than it could bear in its na- tural state; and, by loading it with ponderous bodies, its force, instead of being diminished, is considera- bly improved. On the contrary, by charging a loadstone with an inadequate weight; exposing it to heat, rust, and lightning; by keeping it in an improper direction to the poles, or frequently dropping it on the floor, its virtues will soon be diminished. MAGNETISM, Animal, a sympathy which was lately believ- ed to subsist between the magnet and the human body ; and, in con- sequence of which, the former was supposed to be capable of curing almost every disease. This fanciful system was origi- nally invented by Father HEtiL,of Vienna, though first brought into general notice, in 1776, by M. X.Iessmee, who realized a princely fortune in France, by imposiug his doctrines on the fannatical and credulous: his pretended myste- ries were at length completely de- veloped by a committee of learned and ingenious men, who were ap- pointed to investigate his preten- sions. Although this successful juggler refused to explain the prin- ciples of his art, \ret from the ac- count of one of his. most eminent pupils, it appears, 1. That animal magnetism is an universal fluid, peevading the whole creation, and forming a medium of mutual in- fluence between the planets; and also between the earth and animal bodies. 2. It is the most subtle fluid in nature, being capable of flux and reflux ; and of receiving, propagating, and continuing all kinds of motion. 3. That the ani- mal body is subject to the influence of this fluid by meansof the nerves, which are immediately affected by it. 4. It operates at a distance, without the intervention of any person. 5. That, notwithstanding its universality, there are certain animal bodies, which are not equal- ly susceptible of this fluid, and the presence of which even destroys the effects of animal magnetism. Lastly, it cures all nervous disor- ders immediately, and others me- diately: in short, its virtues extend to the universal cure and preserva- tion of mankind I Such are some of the principles of this wild and incoherent system, the fallacy of which has been so clearly pointed out, that we should have assigned it to oblivion, had not a similar farce been lately ob- truded, and is still operating on the biassed part of the public. We allude to certain metallic, or even wooden, points, which professedly charm all pain from the bodies of animals, in whatever part it may be situated......How is it possible to believe such absurdities, even though apparently corroborated by the testimonies of titled and unti- tled fanatics? [MAGNOLIA, a genus of trees comprehending several species, most of which are natives of the United Stales..-. 1. JM. acuminata, or Cucumber-tree, Longleaved- Magnolia. The cones or seed ves- sels are about three inches long, and resemble somewhat the cu- MAG cumber in shape, but are in part of a bright red colour. They are a common ingredient in bitters, which they render very warm and pungent. They are used to cure the rheumatism, when infused in spirits. 2. M. glauca, Swamp Sasafras, Sweet Bay, Beaver Tree. It grows naturally in low moist ground, chiefly in the southern states; but becomes more regular, and thrives better in a high dry situation. From an experimental inaugural dissertation, published by Dr. Price, Philadelphia, 1802, it ap- pears, that the operation of the M. Glauca is similar to that of gentian and Columbo roots. The bark of the root is very astringent, and in all diseases where invigorating reme- dies are required, deserves the trials of physicians. Marshall (Arbustrum AmericanumJ says, the bark and berries have been used with success in rheumatism. Mr. Bartram informs the Editor, that the root in decoction, has been equally useful in the same com- plaint. 3. M. grandiflora, Ever-green Laurel, grows to the height of eighty feet in Carolina and Geor- gia : and is one of the most beau- tiful ever-greens. Mr. Bartram thinks it exceeds every other known vegetable when in flower. It is to be regretted, that it will not bear the cold of Pennsylvania. The bark of the root was used as a substitute for the Peruvian bark in intermittent fevers, in S. Carolina, by Dr. Lining. 4. M. tripetala, Umbrella Tree. 5. M. Auriculata, supposed to be a variety of M. Frazeri. 6. J\L pyramidala. 7. M. excelsior. They all flou- rish in the open ground in Pennsyl- VOL. III. MAH 9 vania, except the M. grandiflora, and deserve* to be cultivated for their beauty, and the fragrance of their flowers.] MAGPYE, or Corvus pica, L. a crafty, and well-known British bird, which is about eighteen inches in length, and weighs from eight to nine ounces. It has a black bill, wings, and tail; but the latter are variegated with white, green, pur- ple, and blue of different shades. Magpies construct their nests with art, making a thorny cover, and leaving a hole at the side for admittance: the female deposits six or seven pale greenish eggs, thickly spotted with black. Simi- lar to the crow, this bird feeds in- discriminately on both animal and vegetable substances; and, like the raven, it steals shining objects, such as buttons, knives, coins, and precious stones; which it carefully conceals in its nest....Magpies not only destroy young ducks and chickens, but suck and empty the eggs in ahen'snest. When reared from nestlings, they become ex- ceedingly familiar, and learn to talk many sentences, as well as to imitate every noise within hear- ing....For the best method of tak- ing them, we refer to the article Crow. MAHOGANY, or Swietenia, L. an exotic tree growing wild in South America, and likewise in the Islands of Cuba, Jamaica, His- paniola, and in those of Bahama. It was formerly very common in Jamaica; whence it was first im- ported to London in the year 1724 ; since which period it has been very generally employed for house- hold furniture. Lately, however, it has become more scarce and ex- pensive ; because the low-lands in that island has been gradually tlTln- C 10 MAI M AL ned of those valuable trees which could be readily carried to market, or transported on ship-board. The mahogany tree grows very tall and straight, frequently among bare rocks, and attains a size of four feet in diameter: its wood is hard, admits of a fine polish, and is excellently calculated for chairs, tables, desks, and similar articles. It also affords strong and durable timber, and is usefully employed in the West-Indies for beams, joists, planks, boards, and shingles. Ships built of this wood are said to be almost impermeable to cannon balls, which lodge in the wood, or, if they pass through the planks, occasion no splinters....The fresh bark of this tree has often been used in medicine, as a substitute for the Peruvian, and with equal success. Many attempts have been made for painting and staining inferior woods, so as to resemble in grain and colour that of mahogany. As our own experiments have not af- forded us complete satisfaction, we shall communicate the following recipe, which is extracted from the Hanoverian Magazine (in German) for 1786 :...Take the planedboards of the elm or maple-tree; moisten them first with diluted aqua-fortis, and when dry, varnish them with a tincture made of two drams of dra- gon's-biood, one dram of alkanet- root, and half a dram of aloes di- gested in eight ounces of proof- spirit: by applying this liquor two or three times, with a sponge, or soft painter's-brush, it is said to produce the desired effect. MAIDEN-HAIR, the Common, MlLTWASTE, Or SPLEENW0RT, Asfllenium Trichomanes, L. an in- digenous perennial plant, growing on old walls, rocks, and shady, sto- ny places; flowering from May to October....Its leaves have a muci- laginous, sweetish, sub-astringent taste, without any peculiar odour: they are reputed to possess consi- derable efficacy, in disorders of the breast proceeding from viscid and acrid humours, when taken in the form of an infusion or decoction : hence they have been recommend- ed for promoting the expectoration of tough phlegm,and removing ob- structions of the viscera. MAIDEN-HAIR, the Great Golden, or Goldilocks, Poly- tricham commune, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing in woods and moors, in wet boggy places ; flowering in the months of May and June...-The branchless stem of this moss frequently attains the length of eighteen inches ; and, being covered with many long and soft leaves, it maybe advantageous- ly employed for besoms and brushes....Linn-sus remarks, that the wandering Laplanders con- struct their couches of this elastic vegetable; and, according to Stel- ler, the inhabitants of Kamtschat- ka employ these stalks as wicks in their lamps made of earthen ware. MAIZE, Guinea-wheat, or Indian Corn, Zea Mays, L. [See Corn.] M ALLOW, or Malva,h. a genus of plants consisting of 53 species, four of which are natives of Bri- tain : the principal of the latter is the sylvcstris, Common Mallow, or Mauls, growing in hedges, foot- paths, and among rubbish ; flower- ing from June to August. The leaves of the Common Mallow pos- sess a mucilaginous, sweetish taste, and were formerly often used in food, with a view to prevent cos- M AL tiveness. At present, decoctions of this plant are sometimes pre- scribed in dysenteries, and urinary complaints ; though it is chiefly employed in emollient cataplasms, clysters, and fomentations. The flowers are eagerly visited by bees, which obtain from them an abund- ant supply of honey. All the species of mallow, both indigenous and exotic, are beautiful plants, well calculated for orna- menting gardens, and affording grateful food to cattle ; as they may be easily propagated by seed. But there are three, viz. the Crisfia, or Curled Mallow ; the Peruviana, or Peruvian Mallow; and the Mauri- tiana, or Mauritian Mallow; which, when macerated like hemp, afford a thread much superior for spin- ning, to that obtained from the lat- ter vegetable ; and the cloth made of the three species before men- tioned, is said to be more beautiful than that manufactured of flax...... From the curled mallow, which produces the strongest and longest fibres, excellent cordage and twine have been procured; and M. De Lisle fabricated a new kind of paper from different species of the mallow, which not only served for the purposes of writing and print- ing, but also appeared to be em- inently useful for drawing, and for the hanging of apartments. Mallow, the Marsh. See Marsh-Mallow. MALT, denotes barley prepared for brewing, so as to produce, by fermentation, a potable liquor, known under the different names of Beer, Ale, and Porter. The operation of malting is per- formed by steeping any quantity of good barley, newly threshed, in a leaden cistern containing river wa- ter, for the space of three or four MAL ll days, or till the fluid acquires a bright red colour: but a more eli- gible method is that of changing the water every day, till the grain is sufficiently macerated, so as to slip out of the husk, when com- pressed between the fingers. It is then removed from the cistern, and laid in heaps to drain for two or three hours, at the end of which it is stirred, and formed into a new heap. In this state, the grain is suffered to lie for more or less than forty hours, till the malt is properly come ; during which interval, it will be necessary to examine the barley at the expiration of 15 or 16 hours, because the grains generally begin to sprout about that time. An hour after the roots appear, the heap must be carefully stirred, so that the whole may equally germinate. The malt is now to be spread out, and repeatedly turned over, for the space of two or three days, in order that it may properly cool; in consequence of which process it becomes mellow, dissolves easily in brewing, and readily parts with the husk. To complete the pro- cess of malting, the barley is thrown up into a high heap, where, in the course of 30 hours, it becomes as hot as the hand can bear it, by which both its sweetness and mel- lowness are improved. Lastly, the malt is dried in a kiln, heated with coke, charcoal, or straw: the in- tensity of the fire varies according tp the colour required ; but, where wood or other vegetable fuel is em- ployed, such materials ought to be perfectly dry; as otherwise the smoke arising from damp combus- tibles would greatly injure the grain. [The art of malting cannot be acquired without some aid from experience. The use of the shovel, 12 M AL M AL for instance, on which much of the nicer parts of the process depends, requires method, and practice, which may readily be obtained, by frequent visits to the malt house, and by observing those who are ha- bituated to the business, but can- not be described so as to be under- stood. The best barley for malting, is bright and plump in its appearance, the grains full of meal, and should weigh from 46 to 50 lb. per bushel. It should be well cleaned and fresh thrashed, and must be put into a tub or some other convenience, and placed in a situation, where the wa- ter can be let off from the bottom, a grating being placed so as to prevent the barley from running out when the water is let off; it ought to be kept completely cover- ed with water during the steeping, the time for which varies with the weather and the dryness or damp- ness of the grain ; in warm wea- ther, care must be taken to prevent any putrefactive fermentation from taking place in the steeping ; from twenty-four to thirty hours is gene- rally long enough, and it is better to let off the first water after four- teen or fifteen hours, and to put on fresh ; this will prevent the fer- mentation, which, if suffered in the smallest degree, does considerable injury, and, if continued but for a short time would destroy vegeta- tion. The fermention is discover- ed by bubbles of air on the surface of the water in the steep vat. In , moderate or cold weather, the put- ting on fresh water is unnecessary, and it will require to lay under wa- ter from 40 to 60 hours, or until the grain is so much softened as to press tolerably easy when placed end ways between the thumb and finger. After draining six or eight hours, it must be taken out of the steep vat, and spread on the work- ing floor, (and is then called a floor of malt) in cool weather about 12 inches thick, if the weather is mod- erate or warm, it must be laid thin- ner. After laying from twelve to twenty-four hours, it must be care- fully turned ; and this turning must be continued every eight or twelve hours until the process is com- pleted....care being taken to bring on, and continue the vegetation as gradually and as regularly as pos- sible, by thickening or thinning the floor, by a more or less frequent turning, or by opening or closing the windows of the malt house, as the state of the atmosphere may require. The heat caused by the grain vegetating, should never be suffer- ed to be more than moderate warm when the hand is put to the bottom of the floor ; and it ought to increase gradually, from the mo- ment the grain begins to vegetate, until the root is bushy, and the blade has found its way to the other end of the grain; the heat will then in a great degree subside, and the floor must be thinned in the turning to assist the cooling of it. Previous- ly to every turning, the floor should be carefully examined, and if one part become warmer than another, it should be so mixed, that the vege- tation may go on regularly in every part, and the blade in each grain complete its progress to the end at the same time ; on this, depends, in a great measure, the goodness of the malt; for, if the blade in some of the grains, is at the end, while others have only reached the mid- dle, those at the end will shoot out and weaken the grains, and the other -will be malt no farther than the blade has progressed. If, ow ing M AL to a change in the weather, or from any other cause, vegetation should be checked in its progress, the floor must be moderately sprinkled with water at each turning, to en- deavourto bringit on again. When the blade is at the end, which will be known by its making its appear- ance quite through some of the grains, it must be put upon the kiln, and a moderately strong fire put under it, and continued until the greatestpart of the moisture be evaporated; if it be intended for pale malt, a moderate fire must be continued until it be perfectly dry : but if for brown or porter malt, the fire must be increased in propor- tion to the colour intended to be given ; during the drying it must be frequently turned and mixed to- gether on the kiln, and great at- tention is necessary if it is browned, to prevent its burning too much.... After it is taken from the kiln, it must be trodden and screened, to free it from the dust, and kept in a dry chamber until ground for brewing. The malting of wheat and other grain is similar to that of barley, but varied agreeably to their dif- ferent modes of vegetation." For the above full account of malting, the Editor and his readers are obliged to J. Keyworth, of New Brunswick, (N. J.) a profess- ed English maltster, who wrote it for insertion in the present work.] In order to determine the quality of malt, a handful of it should be thrown into cold water, where those grains that are imperfectly germinated, will swim with one end upwards (Dr. Darwin sup- poses with the root end); and such as are properly malted, float on their side ; whereas sound, ungerminat- ed barley, uniformly sinks in wa- M AL 13 ter. Another criterion of good malt is, its agreeable saccharine taste ; and, likewise, if the whole contents of the grain easily crum- ble into powder, and dissolve in the mouth. In short, it ought to be pure, dry, and to emit a strong, though agreeable odour. Mr. Bordley, an intelligent American farmer,adviseshis coun- trymen to buy malt, or exchange barley for malt, rathev than to at- tempt the making of it; as the principal difficulty he found was in ascertaining the heats of the grain, while germinating. At length he succeeded, on attending to the di- rections given in the 5th vol. of Mill's Husbandry. This prac- tical writer observes, that during the first ten days the heat of the malt on the floor should be between 50 and 60 degrees of Fahren- heit's thermometer ; in the next three or four days, it is to be in- creased from 60 to 65 and 67° ; and during the last ten days of its lying there, to 80, 84, and 87° ; which last will be the proper de- gree of heat, when the malt must be laid on the kiln. After the malt is properly ground in a mill, it is fit for Brewing ; of which process we have already given an account under that ar- ticle. Malt-dust, or the refuse that falls from malt in drying, affords an ad- vantageous manure for wheat- land, especially if it be scattered as a top-dressing : The proper quan- tity of this dust is 80 bushels per acre for wheat, and about 60 bush* els for barley : it is also eminently calculated for grass-lands ; and, if applied in the latter proportion, it will produce a very considerable increase of the best seedv Such manure, however, is most benefi- H M AL cial to clay-soils, or stiff loams; as, on gravelly land, and in dry sea- sons, it will be apt to burn the soil. But, if the succeeding weather be moist, it will be productive of great benefit; for the first shower washes it into the earth, and thus secures the crop, which not only becomes finer and more abundant, but the soil is at the same time effectually cleared from the noxious weeds, that frequently vegetate, when com- mon dung is employed. MASTICATION, the act of chewing or grinding the solid parts of food between the teeth, by the united motion of the jaws, tongue, and lips ; in consequence of which it is broken into small pieces, mix- ed with the saliva, and thus adapt- ed for deglutition,as well as a more easy digestion. This process in the animal eco- nomy is so essential to the prospe- rity of the individual, that those who are unfortunately deprived of their teeth, seldom enjoy a good state of health. Being unable. to masticate solid food, they have recourse to rich soups, broths, jel- lies, &c. all of which require not only vigorous organs of digestion, but likewise a proper share of ex- II 50 M A S MAT ercise : both conditions rarely con- cur in favour of the aged or decre- pid, so that their fluids become gradually tainted with an unnatMfal acrimony ; a disposition to a full habit or plethora is often induced; or the constitution is otherwise impaired. Hence also the absur- dity of suffering nurses (who are perhaps the masked victims of dis- ease) to chew the victuals of heal- thy and uncontaminated infants.... It is equally pernicious to swallow solid food- at meals, in so expedi- tious a manner as to allow no time fir proper mastication. Many per- sons thus ignorantly lay the foun- dation of a foul and disordered sto>- mach ; the consequences of which. are, frequent eructations, flatulency, colic, Sec. Every particle of ani- mal or vegetable aliment which is eaten in an unmasticated state, re- quires at least double efforts of the digestive organs, and is not pro- ductive of half the nutriment w7hich it would otherwise afford.... Daily experience amply corrobo- rates this assertion, especially in the articles of boiled animal food, car- rots, cucumbers, Sec. if hastily con- sumed. Lastly, there is. a degree of brutality in fast eating, which is highly reprehensible ; besides, the injury thus occasioned to the individual cannot be easily re- paired. MASTICH,a resinous substance exuding from the mastieh-tree, or Pistacia lentiscus, L. a native of the southern parts of Europe. The best is imported from Chios, in the Levant, in small transparent grains, of a yellowish colour, and an agreeable smell, when heated over the fire. This resin is recommended in obstinate coughs ; dysenteries ; weakness ol the stomach ; and in all cases of debility and laxity of the fibres. For such purposes, it is dissolved in rectified spirit of wine, and may be taken in doses of thirty or forty drops diluted with water, every three hours, or oftener. :iASTICOT,orYELLowLEAD, is the calx or ashes of lead, obtain- ed by '.low calcination, in conse- quence of which that metal ac- quires a lighter or deeper yellow colour, according to the degree of heat. It is sometimes used by painters; but is also employed me- dicinally, as a drying powder, in the composition of ointments or plasters. See Lead. MASTIFF, Cards villaticus, v. catenarias, L. a valuable species of the dog-kind. This bold animal is alike re- markable for his loud voice in bark- ing, his extraordinary size, and surprizing strength. So great in- deed is their courage and muscular power, that three of these quadru- peds are more than adequate to cope with a libn. The mastiff is particularly va- luable as a vigilant house-dog, and it is much to be regretted, that this species of useful creatures has, within a few years, rapidly declin- ed in numbers. For the most pro- per method of managing dogs, in general, the reader is referred to that article. . MATCHING, a method of pre- paring vessels for the preservation of wines, cyder, or similar liquors, from becoming sour. It is effected in the following manner: Let any quantity of sulphur be melted in an iron ladle ; and, as soon as it is li- quefied, slips of coarse linen cloth are to be dipped in it ; which, when taken out and cooled, are call- ed match.a. One of these slips is MAT row to be lighted, and suspended in the bung-hole of a cask, which ought to be slightly stopped, till the match is consumed ; when the hole may be closed, and the vessel be suffered to stand for one or two hours. On opening the bung-hole, it will be found that the sulphur has communicated to the whole cask a very pungent, though suffocating and acid, odour. The vessel may next be filled with small wine, newly fermented ; and, on carefully closing it, the liquor will speedily clarify. This method is very commonly practis- ed in different parts of England, and is said to be very useful; as many poor wines may thus be pre- served potable for a considerable time. We doubt, however, its salu- brity ; and conceive that other ar- ticles mightbe advantageously em- ployed instead of the pernicious . fumes of sulphur, which render both wine and cyder alike unwhole- some, especially for persons af- fected with diseases of the breast or lungs. . MATWEED,theSea, Helme, Sea-reed, or Marram, Arundo arenaria, L. an indigenous peren- nial plant, growing only on the driest sandy shores, and flower- ing in the month of June or July. This useful reed prevents the wind from dispersing the sand over the contiguous fields, which, by neg- lecting its propagation by seed, are not unfrequently rendered use- less. The Dutch have availed themselves of this advantage ; and, for the same reason, Queen Eli- zabeth wisely prohibited the ex- tirpation of this beneficial vegeta- ble. It is at present cultivated on the Norfolk coast, with a view to prevent the irruption of the sea: the inhabitants of Newborough, in M AZ 51 the Isle of Anglesea, manufacture it into mats and ropes, whence they obtain their chief support.... In Denmark, the fibrous roots of the Sea Matweed are employed for making whisk-brushes; and the Icelanders collect and dry the seeds ; from which, after reducing them to powder, a palatable bread is prepared, resembling in taste the meal of malt. MATWEED, the Small, HEATH-MATWEED,OrMAT-GRASS, Nardus Stricta, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing on moist heaths and marshes; flowering from June to August....It is eaten by horses and goats, but disliked by cows and sheep. This species is often a trouble- some weed, as well on arable lands as on pastures, where it affords but coarse food to cattle: as it, how- ever, forms large and thick tufts, which resist the action of the scythe, it may be usefully trans- planted to loose sandy lands: in such situations, its spreading hori- zontal roots greatly tend to conso- lidate the soil, and increase the stratum of vegetable mould, for the reception of more useful plants....Beciistein remarks, that it would be advisable to propagate the Small Matweed in young plan- tations exposed to cold and bleak winds; on account of the protec- tion it might afford to tender trees. Mayweed. See Fetid Camo- mile. [MAZAGAN BEAN, was no- ticed under the article Bean. The following directions to raise them early in summer, are given by Richard Weston of Leicester.... See Rep. Arts, new series, vol. i. '* Plant Mazagan beans in Octo- ber, on a south border, close to the wall, three inches asunder, in 52 M A Z MAZ two or three rows. In frosty weather, cover them with long litter. Transplant them at spring, leaving the strongest at five or six inches distance."] % MAZE, or Labyrinth, in Gar- dening, denotes a piece of ground, planted and arranged in various meanders, so as to render it diffi- cult, after entering the walks, t,&"" The principal expence of such a maze, will be the green hedges, ■which ought to be seven feet high ; and, if the breadth of the walks be calculated at four feet, besides 12 inches for the room occupied by the shrubs, the diameter of the whole will not exceed 150 feet.... In the centre might be planted a lofty chesnut or other tree, with spreading branches; or a circle of poplar-trees, the height and sprightliness of which invite the wanderer to refresh himself under their cooling shade. It should be remarked, that the plan, as appears from the preced- ing cut, represents only regular intertwined walks which, by vari- ous circumvolutions, lead exactly to the central spot .of ground.... But, if it be designed to establish a real labyrinth, on a larger scale, the hedges ought in various direc- tions to be interrupted; for in- stance, at the points marked with ME A ME A 53 the letters A, and B, in order that those who mistake the true path, might inadvertently return to the avenue whence they came. Lastly, a maze should, if possi- ble, be so situated, that it may be viewed from the windows of a house, or an elevated spot, in its vicinity. Thus, it will afford an interesting spectacle to persons of the most opposite disposition of mind: the gay and cheerful will delight in beholding others per- plexed in the pursuit of the cen- tral spot; while the grave and re- flecting have an opportunity of viewing, as in a mirror, a picture of active life, where man often seems to deviate from the true path, which nevertheless conducts him the nearest way to the end of his journey: while others, though sometimes very nigh the desired object, in a manner blindfold pass by, and with every step advance on the contrary road! Mazzards. See Common Wild Cherry-tree. MEAD, an agreeable liquor prepared of honey and water, with the addition of spices. Various methods are practised in the brewing of mead; which, however, do not essentially differ from each other : the following is one of the most approved:....Let the whites of six eggs be well in- corporated with twelve gallons of water, to which twenty pounds of honey are to be added. The in- gredients should boil for the space of one hour; when a little ginger, cloves, cinnamon, and mace, to- gether with a small sprig of rose- mary, are to be put into the liquor. As soon as it is cool, a spoonful of yeast ought to be added, and the mead poured into a vessel which should be filled up, while it works. When the fermentation ceases, the cask ought to be closed, and deposited for the space of six or eight months in a vault, or cel- lar, of an equal temperature, and in which the liquor is not liable to be affected by the changes of the weather. At the end of that period, it may be bottled, and is then fit for use. A more simple, and, to some palates, more agreeable method is, to mix the honey in the propor- tion of one pound to a quart of water, which is to be boiled, scum- med, and fermented in the usual manner, without the addition of any aromatic substances. It ought to be preserved in a similar man- ner, and bottled at the expiration of the same period of time. [The following receipt is re- commended by the same corres- pondent who furnished that for the currant wine. To 30 gallons of water, add 90 pounds of pure honey, boil and skim, put the liquor into a large open tub, and add two ounces of bruised ginger-root, half an ounce of cinnamon, the same quantity of pimento; let the whole stand un- til of a proper temperature, then add yeast as in currant wine, fla- vour and barrel it up for use, as there directed.] Mead was formerly the favourite liquor of the ancient Britons, and Anglo-Saxons. It still retains its place at country feasts in the wes- tern parts of this island ; where considerable quantities are brewed annually. Being an wholesome and pleasant beverage, it is far preferable to brandy, gin, or other pernicious spirits; though it does not always agree with the bilious, asthmatic, or those whose breast and lungs are in the least affected. 54 M E A ME A But if it be kept for a number of years in proper vessels, and dry cellars, it acquires a flavour and strength equal to the best Madeira or even Tokay wines: in this state, mead is a true medicine to the aged and infirm, when used with moderation. MEADOW, generally signi- fies pasture, or grass land, that is annually mown for hay; but it more particularly denotes such tracts of ground as are too low, and too moist for cattle to graze on them during the winter, without injuring the sward. The best lands for meadow are those situated on a gentle declivi- ty, so as to be irrigated at plea- sure, and which at the same time possess a rich soil and moist bot- tom, especially if it be in the vi- cinity of a brook, or small run- ning stream....See Irrigation. Great Britain and Ireland are reputed to possess the most ver- dant pastures, and the finest na- tural grasses, in the vegetable crea- tion: these advantages, however, do not appear to meet with that attention which they deserve.... Lately, indeed, the cultivation of grasses has been a favourite pur- suit among experimental farmers and freeholders ; but, as the te- nantry, in general, are bound to follow a certain rotation of crops, without having the power of break- ing up old and unproductive mea- dows, extensive improvements cannot be expected, while such limitations prevail....We have cur- sorily mentioned these obstacles to national prosperity; because they would require a more ample in- vestigation than is compatible with or limits. Tire first requisite towards ob- taining a good meadow is, a per- fect acquaintance with the best na- tural grasses, their peculiar soils, and the best mode of collecting their seeds: the most valuable are those of the northern and eastern parts of England. But, as com- paratively few have an opportunity of procuring such seeds, the only- method that can be pursued with hopes of success, appears to be that of selecting those grasses, which thrive luxuriantly on a simi- lar soil; and to gather the ripe seed from a productive old mea- dow. On lands intended for pasture, and especially for sheep, it is ad- visable to sow three kinds of ve- getables, with a view to gain the advantage of successive growth. Thus, Mr. Parkinson sows four bushels of the seed of ray-grass, or red darnel {Loliumperenne, L.); 10 lbs. of trefoil seed (more pro- perly common clover, Trifolium pratense, L.) ; and a similar quan- tity of white clover ( T. rcpens, L.) He is of opinion that the ray-grass j should be grazed early, while the J white , clover is still concealed in * the ground, and the trefoil, or com- mon clover, is just appearing; that, when the darnel is eaten down, the common clover will spring up, and afford excellent food for sheep; after which the white clover will appear: and, when the latter is consumed, the ray-grass again grows, and sup- plies pasturage during the winter months, if the weather prove tole- rably mild. Hence this truly " ex- perienced farmer" maintains, that one-third more in number of sheep,- at least, may be thus supported than by any other method. In order to form a meadow, far superior to the generality of arti- ficial pastures,Mr. Curtis recom- ME A ME A 5o mends six kinds of grass, and two oi clover, to be sown broad-cast. The seeds are. to be mixed toge- ther in the following proportions, viz. Meadow Fescue-grass : Festuca pratensis, 4 parts Meadow Fox-tail-grass : Alopecurus pratensis 4 Smooth Stalked Meadow-grass : Poa pratensis, - 2 Roughish Meadow-grass : Poa trivialis, 2 Crested Dog's-tail-grass : Cynosurus Cristatus - - 1 Sweet-scented Spring-grass : Anthoxanthum odoratum, 1 White or Dutch Clover : Trifolium repens, 2 Common or Red Clover : Trifolium pratense, 2 These are to be mixed together, and about three bushels of them sown on an acre, in rows, so that they may be more conveniently hoed ; in consequeace of which they will vegetate with greater luxuriance. Towards the end of August, or early in September, it will be necessary to weed and thin the grasses occasionally, and also to roll them in the spring ; an ope- ration by which such roots as may have been raised by the frost, will be pressed into the ground. Mr. Curtis is farther of opinion, that the meadow fox-tail, and roughish meadow-grasses, are best adapted to moist soils ; the smooth-stalked meadow and crested dog's-tail, to dry pastures ; and lastly, that the meadow-fescue and sweet-scented spring-grasses will suit land, which is either moist or moderately dry. If the soil be previously cleared from all noxious weeds and plants, the above-specified combination of grasses will, in the course of two years, form a most excellent mea- dow. But, in case it be required to seed a piece of land immediately, and the valuable grasses before mentioned cannot be procured, it has been recommended (" .Yew Farmer's Calendar," p. 440, 2d edit. 8vo. Symonds,. Sec. 1801) to *ow the following seeds, which are easily attainable; viz. Broad clover (a variety of the common clover), or cow-grass ; white clover, trefoil, ray-grass, and, if the soil be suffi- ciently dry, burnet. On clean tilth, they will, in a few years, present a good meadow ; as the clover and ray-grass, in the first or second year, produce an ample swathe for mowing: next, they will be suc- ceeded by a luxuriant crop of the white clover and trefoil, united with the natural grasses of the soil. Grass-seeds ought to be sown during moist weather, either in the summer or in autumn, afterturnips, cabbages, or any other hoeing crop; for it is absolutely necessary to pre- pare for them a fine and clean tilth. On the approach of winter, the young crop should be slightly co- vered with long stable-dung, old thatch, or even sand, earth, or any other manure. The land ought, likewise, to be occasionally cleared of the weeds, together with their roots, and the vacant spots fresh seeded. In laying lands down for rnea-* dows, old turf must he uniformly broken up, by paring and burning, when it is to be sown with new- grasses ; but, such soils as have been completely exhausted by suc- cessive crops of corn, should fust be laid dry ar.ci dili'-prntly cleaned; 56 ME A then sown with proper herbage, top-dressed, and manured for the space of two or three years ; in consequence of which they will recover their former fertility. Lastly, the operation of rolling meadows in the spring, especially such as have been irrigated, ought never to be omitted. The most proper time for this purpose is the beginning or middle of February, after the land has been laid dry for a week. Rolling prepares the grass for being cut close to the surface, when mown; which is a circum- stance of considerable importance; because the ant-hills, and other little elevations, are thus pressed closely to the ground, and many inconveniencies will be thereby effectually removed. MEADOW-GRASS, or Poa,!.. a genus of plants, comprising 53 species, 16 of which are natives of Britain: the principal of these are: 1. The aquatica, or Reed. Mea- dow-grass, growing in marshes and on the banks of rivers, flower- ing in the months of July and August....This species is uncom- monly valuable for being propagat- ed on the banks of rivers or brooks, where it is devoured with great avidity by horses, cows, and sheep: but, as it is apt to blow or distend the bowels of cattle, when eaten too largely, or when its panicles are burnt, these circumstances de- serve some attention. It abounds particularly in the Isle of Ely rising to the height of six feet, though usually mown when about four feet high : after being dried, it is bound up in sheaves, -then formed into ricks, in Avhich it undergoes a slight degree of fermentation, to improve its sweetness for provender. In this state, it is provincially called White-lead, from its acquiring a ME A white surface when dry : it is pe- culiarly useful for milch cows; but horses do not relish it, when thus prepared—The reed meadow-grass is one of those vegetables that de- serves to be more generally known and cultivated ; as it likewise af- fords, if properly dried, an excel- lent substitute for straw, in thatch- ing. 2. The pratensis, or Smooth- stalked Meadow-grass, which grows on dry banks, and even on walls : it flowers in the months of May and June. This plant thrives better in dry than in moist situa- tions, whence it retains its verdure during hot and dry seasons, longer than any other vegetable. Its root spreads along the ground almost as rapidly as the couch-grass, and is nearly as difficult to eradicate: it ought, therefore, to be introduced with great caution, where the pas- turage is not intended to be per- manent.....Though eagerly eaten by cattle, and esteemed to be one of the best grasses for hay, its va- lue decreases, as its quantity every year diminishes in dry soils; and it at length produces very indiffer- ent crops. This diminution is oc- casioned by its roots matting toge- ther, and exhausting the land; which effects, however, may be prevented by manuring the soil, and are not so perceptible on moist grounds, where the plant will flourish, though not so luxuriantly as in dry situations. 3. The annua, Annual Mea- dow-grass, or Suffolk-grass, which grows on pastures, in paths, gravel- walks, and the borders of fields ; it flowers during the whole sum- mer....This grass is devoured with avidity by every kind of cattle; and as it abounds in the county of Suffolk, where the finest salt-butter ME A M E A 57 is prepared, Mr. Stillingfleet G. The palustris, or Marsh conceives it to be the best grass for Meadow-grass, which abounds milch-cows. in marshes and overflowed lands. A.The trivialis, Roughish Mea- It grows to the height of four or dow-grass ; Bird-grass; Fowl- five feet; is excellently calculated grass ; or Fold-meadow-grass. It for laying down spongy or fenny is perennial, grows in moors, moist grounds ; and is reputed to be pastures, and the sides of hedges ; equal, if not superior, to any other and flowers from June to Septem- vegetable for die purposes of the ber. This plant is reputed to be in dairy. In autumn, however, its every respect the first of British leaves become somewhat prickly. grasses; as the best meadows 7. The marhima, or Sea-Mea- abound with it, and particularly the dow-grass, which is frequent on celebrated Orcheston Meadow, in the sea coa ,y and flowers in the the county of Wilts. And though months of June and July. It is few grasses are more productive, one of the principal grasses which or better calculated for hay or pas- grow in salt marshes, and is eager- turage, than the rough meadow- ly eaten by cattle. grass, yet it requires a moist soil, [Poa viridis, Green-grass, Spire- and a situation somewhat sheltered, grass, or Spear-grass was describ- being liable to be injured by se- ed under article Grass.] vere cold or excessive drought. It MEADOW - SAFFRON, or is much relished by every kind of Tube root, Colchicum autumnale, cattle. L. an indigenous perennial plant, 5. The com/iressa, Flat-stalk- being the principal of three spe- ED,orCREEPiNG Meadow-gkass: cics ; growing in meadows ; flow- It is perennial; grows on walls, ering in the months of August and house-tops, and very dry situations, September. and flowers from June to August. The flower of this hardy plant This species, in the opinion of Dr. rises immediately from the root, Anderson, is the most valuable of and its large leaves appear in the the meadow-grasses. Its leaves are succeeding spring : the former af- firm and succulent; of a dark ford a beautiful variety of purple, Saxon-green colour ; and grow so white, red, rose-coloured, yellow, closely together, as to form a pile &c. with single and double flowers. of the richest pasture-grass. Its This vegetable is more ornamen- ilower-stalks continue to vegetate tal than useful; and, though it fre- very luxuriantly during the sum- quently occupies a considerable mer ; and, even in a fading state, part of a meadow, it is never touch- the leaves retain their beautiful ed by horses. green cast. The latter are much In its medicinal properties, the larger, and more abundant than Meadow-Saffron resembles those those of the roughish meadow- of the Squill: the root of the for- grass. Besides, it produces a fine mer has ever been considered as an turf in parks and sheep-walks, acrid poison, but it is less injurious while it renders the flesh of deer in autumn than in the spring ; its and sheep, uncommonly tender and seed is also deleterious, though sweet flavoured ; being a favourite not mortal to either man or cattle. ^ food oflheseanimals..[vol.3 p 196.] The juice expressed from the VOL. iv. I 58 M E A M E A leaves of this plant, when rubbed on the skin of animals, affords a very powerful and effectual reme- dy against vermin, with which they are often infested. MEADOW-SWEET, the Com- MON, orQuEEN-OF-THF-ME ADOWS, Spiraea uhnaria, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing in moist meadows and on the banks of ri- vers ; flowering in the months of June and July. Its stalk attains the height of four feet; and the fragrant flowers, when infused in boiling water, impart to it a very agreeable odour, which rises on distillation: hence they are often employed by wine-merchants, for improving the flavour of macle wines. The roots are so power- fully astringent, that calf-leather has been tanned with them in a fortnight. According to Bryant, the Russians prepare of these roots a palatable granulated flour or groats ; and Olaffen informs us, that the Icelanders dye a durable black colour, by a decoction of the whole plant. Hogs devour the roots with avidity ; goats and sheep also relish this herb, but cows and horses refuse it. Mealy-tree. See Guelder- rose. MEASLES, or Rubeola, a con- tagious disease, accompanied with inflammatory fever, sneezing, de- tluxion of a thin humour from the eyes, and a dry hoarse cough. On the fourth day, or sometimes later, small clustered pimples break out on the skin, but which generally disapper in three or four days, leav- ing behind branny or mealy scales. The measles bear great resem- blance to the small-pox ; and like- wise affect a person once only dur- ing his life. They are most fre- quent amongchildrenin the spring, but, if properly managed,, seldom prove fatal. The disease commences with a fit of shivering, succeeded by in- tense heat, thirst, anxiety, sick- ness, and vomiting, which vary in different constitutions. The eye- lids are swelled ; the eyes partial- ly inflamed, and weeping ; a con- stant drowsiness prevails ; and, on the fourth day the pustules appeal- first on the face, and gradually spread over the whole body. The vomiting ceases, but the fever, cough, and difficulty of breathing, are increased. In the course of three or four days the pimples as- sume a pale colour, and by the ninth or tenth, are not to be per- ceived. But, the fever, and other symptoms will not abate so early, if the patient be not sufficiently coofr they are sometimes succeed- ed by an alarming and dangerous looseness, which may terminate in death, unless the strictest attention be paid to the whole state of the disorder. Cure : As the measles are of an inflammatory nature, it will, i some instances, be necessary first to bleed the patient, especially if the fever be violent; though that operation is, in general, neither necessary nor advisable. In mild cases, it will be suffici- ent to keep the patient's body.cpen, by means of tamarinds, manna, or other gentle laxatives; and tosup- ply him frequently with barley- water, linseed-tea sweetened with honey, or other cooling and muci- laginous drinks. Considerable be- i.eiit will result from bathing the feet in warm water ; and, if there be a disposition to vomit, it ought to be promoted by the liberal use cf lukt-warm v/ater, or chamomile tea. The dry cough will be great- M E A Iy relieved by gentle opiates, if us- ed with due precaution, in pre- ference to the oily or demulcent draughts given on such occasions. The most fatal period of the measles, however, is at the crisis, or turn : should the fever then be- come violent, and the patient be in danger of suffocation, relief may be obtained by repeated venesec- tion and blisters. If, nevertheless, the disorder appear to affect the in- terior organs, or strike inward, the imminent danger may sometimes be averted, by applying blisters both to the arms and legs, and briskly rubbing the whole body with warm flannels. The patient's regimen, through- out this disorder, ought to be strictly cooling. His food should be light, and the drink may con- sist of barley-water, balm-tea, infu- sions of linseed, or other diluent liquids, sweetened with a little ho- ney. When the malignity of the disorder is subdued, it will be ad- visable to administer a few gentle laxatives ; and, if it be attended with a debilitating diarrhoea, this may be mitigated by taking a few grains of rhubarb every morning, and gentle opiates every night..... The diet should uniformly be light, though nourishing; and the patient will also derive great benefit from frequent exercise in the country air. [After the measles, the body is left in a, disposition to be affected by cold, more sensibly than after most complaints. After an attack therefore of this disease, the great- est care should be taken to keep the body warm, and to expose it to the air by degrees.] MEASURE, in a legal and com- mercial sense, denotes a certain proportion or quantity of any com- M E A 59 modity, whether dry or liquid, that is bought, sold, valued, Sec. Measures vary according to the different kinds and dimensions of the respective articles. Hence they are, in general, either longitudinal, which relate to lengths ; or cubi- cal, that is, solid measures, for bo- dies and their capacities. Of both we shall give a concise account ; as our work would otherwise be in- complete. I. Long-Measure. The smallest nominal part of the English long measure, is an inch, which is composed of three barley- corns, being the largest and finest tjiat can be selected from the ear. Three inches form a palm ; an equal number of palms make a span ; 1] span, a foot; 1^ foot a cubit; 2 cubits a yard ; 1-f of a yard make a pace (consisting of two steps); 1-| of a pace, a fathom ; 21 fathoms form a pole ; 40 poles, a furlong ; and 8jurlongs are com- puted to a mile. II. Measure of capacity for-dry articles. 1. For Corn. The standard measure for salt, all kinds of grain, and other dry commodities, is the Winchester gallon, which contains eight pints, or 2721 cubic inches : 2 gallons make a peck ; 4 pecks a bushel : and 8 bushels a quarter. Four quarters of corn are comput- ed to a chaldron ; five quarters to a wey or load ; and ten quarters to a ton. 2. For Coal. In measuring sea»-coal, five pecks make a bush- el ; 9 bushels, a quarter ; 4 quart- ers, a chaldron ; and 21 chaldrons are computed to a score. III. Liquid Measure. The English liquid measures were originally established on the basis of Troy-weight: it having 60 M E A MED been enacted by several statutes, that eight pounds troy of wheat (the grains of which have been se- lected, from the middle of the ear, and well dried,) should weigh a gallon of wihe measure ; and that the divisions and subdivisions of the latter should form the decreas- ing smaller proportions. It was far'her provided, that one liquid measure was to be uniformly adopt- throughout the kingdom. Cus- tom, however, has prevailed, and a new weight, namely, Avoirdu- pois, (which see), was introduced ; so that a second standard gallon has been adjusted to the old one, which it exceeds in the same pro- portion as the avoirdupois does the troy w eight. From this standard, two different measures are regu- lated for ale and beer, which we have already stated under the ar- ticlesFiRKiN, Barrel, Hogshead, Sec. The old standard measure (beingkept under seal at theGuild- hall, London)isemployed for wine, spirits, Sec. and contains the fol- lowing subdivisions :.....28|- solid inches form one pint (wine mea- sure) ;....8 pints make a gallon ;.... 18 gallons, arundlet;.... 1|rundlets, a barrel ;....!-J barrels, a tierce ;.... 1-*- tierces, a hogshead ;.».l^ hogs- head, a puncheon ;....1-|-puncheons, a butt, or pipe ;....and 2 pipes, a tun. These are the chief measures at present employed; a knowledge of which is very useful, and necessa- ry, to prevent imposition. For this purpose, standard measures are kept in various parts of England, in conformity to which all others are directed to be made ; so that, if any one be accidentally lost, it may be easily restored ; or cor- rected, if it be inaccurate. MEAT, a general appellation for the flesh of animals when pre- pared for food. As we have al- ready, under the article Flesh- meat, given the most effectual methods of preserving it in a fresh state during the summer months, and as we specify the simplest and best modes of pickling it under the heads of Beef and Pickle, wc shall at present briefly state the treatment proper to be followed, in case any putrid meat has been accidentally eaten. As soon as this unpleasant cir- cumstance is apprehended, or dis- covered, it will be necessary in the first place to take a brisk emetic ; the operation of which ought to be promoted by strong chamomile tea ; that of itself is an excellent antiseptic. The patient should, next drink liberally of the vege- table acids ; and avoid eating or drinking any matter that may tend to press upon the organs of diges- tion, till the latter be restored to their natural tone and energy. [MEDEOL A, A genus of plants containing two species, one of which, viz. Virginica, is a na- tive of the United States. It is called, Indian Cucumber. The root is eaten by the Indians; and the Editors of the Medical Repository, Vol. I. p. 49, Hexade, 2, stile it the " Delicate Cucumber Root."~\ MEDICINE, is the art of pre- venting, curing or alleviating those diseases, with which mankind are afflicted. The history of medicine is lost in the remotest antiquity; we shall, therefore, confine our atten- tion to the effects of medicines on the human body, and' refer the reader to the article Physician. The operation of medicines on the human body has been attributed to various causes ; several eminent physicians of the 17th and the 18th MED M E D 61 century ascribing their effects to mechanism. This opinion, how- ever, has been strongly opposed, and, though the theory of cliemical decomposition which now prevails among the medical philosophers of Franceand Germany,is more plau- sible,andin many instances strong- ly corroborated by facts, yet this, like all other conjectures tending to account for the hidden opera- tions of Nature, does not deserve the name of a theory. When judiciously administered, medicines are, doubtless, very be- neficial ; but if they be given or prescribed at random (which is but too often the case with those regu- lar and irregular practitioners who degrade an honourable profession to a trade), they seldom fail to be productive of injury :....instead of affording relief, they aggrevate the complaint, and not unfrequently lay the foundation of future dis- ease. Particular constitutions require a peculiar treatment; and, if more attention were paid to this import- ant circumstance, there would be less occasion for employing drugs. Besides, it ought to be considered, that no substances but such as con- tain alimentary matter, are con- ducive to the welfare of the human body, in a healthy condition: hence, by analogous reasoning, no drugs whatever, if devoid of nutritious properties, can be perfectly harm- less, in a diseased state......See Quackery, Physician. MEDICK, or Medicago, L. a genus of perennial plants, com- prising twelve species ; the prin- cipal of which are the following : 1. The sativa, See Lucern. 2. The falcata, Yellow Mi - dick, or Butter-jags ; growing- wild in sandy pastures and corn- fields ; flowering in the month of July. This bushy plant, if its stalks be properly supported, attains a height of four feet: it may be easily pro- pagated by seed, in hot, dry, bar- ren, and sandy, situations, where it produces excellent hay. Its cul- ture deserves to be strongly recom- mended ; as it requires but an in- different soil; withstands the se- verity of winters better than lu- cern ; and is eaten eagerly by cat- tle, especially by horses, though its stalks are hard and woody. 3. The lupulina, Trefoil Me- dick, or Melilot Trefoil ; which grows in corn-fields, mea- dows and pastures; it flowers from the month of May till August..... This species is cultivated in the county of Norfolk, under the name of Mmsuch, and is usually sown together with ray-grass ; whence, the crops are denominated black and white Nonsuch.....The trefoil medick thrives best in a loamy and swampy soil:...goats,'cows, horses and sheep eat both species of this plant; though the latter is less grateful to these animals, than the former. MEDLAR-TREE, the Com- mon, or Mespilus germanica, L. a native of Britain, growing in hedg- es, and flowering in the month of May. This hardy shrub is cultivated in gardens, either for the sake of its fruit, for standards, or as espaliers. It will thrive in any common soil, or situation, and may be propa- gated either by seeds* which lie two years under ground before they vegetate ; or by grafting, or inoculating it on hawthorn or crab- tree stocks....When designed for fruit-trees, they may be trained as dwarfs, for standards, or for espa- 62 M E D MED liers ; in either case, they are ma- naged in a manner similar to apple or pear trees. Grafting, or budding, is the best and most certain method of culti- vating the different sorts of the medlar, so as to continue their spe- cies : after pruning their first shoots from the graft, or bud, it will be necessary to force out a proper supply of wood for raising a head ; then to train the branch- es chiefly at full length, and to suf- fer the standards spontaneously to expand. Medlars possess a subacid, vi- nous flavour, which to many pa- lates is very agreeable; though dis- liked by others: while firm and sound, they are of a remarkably austere and repugnant taste,which, however, is completely changed, when they begin in a manner to undergo the putrefactive ferment- ation, so as to become soft and mellow.....All the species of this fruit ripen about the latter end of October, or beginning of Novem- ber ; when they should be gather- ed ; partly placed in moist bran, in several layers, to facilitate their maturation ; partly deposited on straw, in the fruitery. After a fortnight, or three weeks, those kept in the bran will be eatable ; and the others will gradually ripen. In their medicinal effects, med- lars are very astringent, and have therefore been used with advan- tage in diarrhoeas : on the con- trary, those who are of a costive habit, ought carefully to abstain from this enticing fruit. According to Gleditsch and Bautsch, the leaves, branches, and unripe fruit of the medlar-tree, have been successfully employed in tanning.....The wood, being hard and tough, resembling that of the pear-tree, is useful for va- rious domestic, vessels, as well as for the smaller implements of husbandry, MELANCHOLY, or partial in- sanity without any affection of the stomach, is one of those humiliat- ing diseases which are peculiar to mankind. Innumerable are the causes which may induce this most dread- ful of human maladies ; but there is one ma^m'a/circumstance,which, independently of the mental state, always occurs, and evidently ope- rates in all melancholic patients ; namely, an accumulation of impu- rities in the alimentary canal, con- sisting chiefly of black bile. Hence originate, want of appetite ; a dis- turbed sleep ; obstructions of the intestines ; hemorrhoidal and gouty symptoms ; irregular circulation of the blood ; dulness and gloom of mind, without any apparent cause ; at length, stupefaction and insensibility, terminating in mad- ness....Indeed, the melancholicand hypochondriac are so nearly allied, that it is not always easy to discri- minate between the two diseases; a distinction which is the more important, as the proper method of curing the former would inevita- by be attended with fatal effects to the latter: hence we shall point out the essential difference sub- sisting between them. In hypo- chondriac persons, the nerves are primarily affected, and contribute to generate all those spasmodic and other concomitants symptoms which disorder the organs of the lower belly : whereas, in the me- lancholic, there already exists in the same organs a material and local cause that produces similar MEL MEL 63 effects, of which the nervous sys- tem of the hypochondriac partakes only so far as he is susceptible of such impressions, in the debilitat- ed state of his mind. Cu , ....U the patient be young, robust, and of a full habit, blood- letting will first be necessary. Next, he ought to take resolvent emetices and purgatives, consist- ing of neutral salts, especially tar- tarized kali, in doses of from two to three drams every morning and evening, for several days....Acidu- lated drinks, and a vegetable diet, will be of essential service, if com- bined with exercise and cheerful company. Among the most pro- per articles of the table are, ripe fruit in a fresh or dried state, honey, bulbous roots, salad, and well baked bread ; but animal food should be carefully avoided. For common drink, the patient may use sweet whey, decoctions of bar- ley acidulated with mead-vinegar, or currant-jelly ; infusions of ta- marinds or rennets, Sec. On the contrary, tart wines and spirituous liquors or mixtures of every de- scription, especially jumch, always aggravate the com plaint.. W hen ha- bitual costiveness prevails, Grant recommends the followingdraughts which are grateful and efficacious, without debilitating the stomach or bowels: Take one ounce of manna ; half an ounce of tartariz- ed kali; eight blanched sweet-al- monds ; and six ounces of rose- water ; let the whole be duly in- corporated in a mortar, and a tea- cupful be taken every hour, till it operates, After the desired effect is produced, a glass of good old wine, and nutritive mucilaginous food, may be safely allowed. By a strict adherence to this re- gimen, there is reason to hope for a complete cure, in three months. If, however, the patient be intract- able, and averse to adopt any re- gular plan (as is too frequently the case in this complaint), he should be prevailed upon to travel; to drink purgative mineral waters ; to use the cold bath ; to have his head shaved, for the purpose of applying a sponge or cloths dip- ped* in cold water ; and to receive gentle electric shocks,directed from a wooden point through the region of the lower belly. On the whole, experience has evinced, that cold bathing is most conducive to the recovery of hypochondriacs, while the tepid bath best agrees with maniacs. Lastly, it is remarkable, that the propensity to suicide is, strictly speaking a characteristic symptom of black melancholy ; the princi- pal seat of which [was formerly supposed] to be in the nervous tex- ture of the spleen, and the left arch of the colon. Many writers consider this dreadful complaint to be peculiar to the English ; as it more rarely occurs among other nations of Europe. It is farther worthy of notice, that such gloomy disposition of mind, not unlike the true mania, generally manifests itself at certain changes in the at- mosphere ; for instance, when southern winds prevail, and the barometer sinks till near the mark which indicates storm :....then the fatal crisis either takes place in nine days, or the patient over- comes the attack, which termin- ates in calm, placid, melancholy, or a stupid insensibility....On such occasions, profuse draughts of cold and pure spring water ; a strong, well-fitted waistcoat; and a blister, applied to the region of the spleen, will be the most appropriate reme- 64 M E L MEL dies. If the left side, under the short ribs, should be perceptibly warmer to the touch than the op- posite side, the blister ought to be nine inches long and six inches broad, in order to cover exactly the I ft hypochondriac region, where the spleen is situated. Unexpect- ed relief has often been thus ob- tained : and the cure has been promoted by light, though nutri- tive food, exercise, diversions, mu- sic, Sec. [MELANTHIUM, muscatoxi- cum of Walter. Fly Poison. A beau- tiful flowering plant, growing in the savannas of Carolina and Geor- gia.... A single naked spadix rises erect from a tuft of gramineous leaves, and crowned with a spike of white flowers. The leaves are eight or ten inches in length, and a half or three quarters of an inch broad: of a lively green co- lour, and spread round about the stem on the ground. This plant possesses deleterious qualities, and is seldom or never eaten by deer, or cattle. A strong decoction of it, sweetened, is used to kill flies. Rats are also destroyed by it.... William Bartram. MELI A, a genus of trees, com- prehending five species, one of which, though not a native has been naturalized in the United States, and deserves notice. This species is the M. Azedcrach, which on account of its good qualities, merits particular regard. This tree abounds in the south- ern states, and also bears the cli- mate of Pennsylvania. It arrives to a great size in the southern states; and grows rapidly, if plant- ed in a rich, loose, dry soil. It bears the names of Pride of Chi- na, Poison-berry-tree, (from the effects of the berries on birds) Pride of India, Bead-tree. The pulp surrounding the stone of the fruit, contains a large quantity of oil, of which the inhabitants of Japan, and South-Carolina and Georgia make candles, and soap. In Persia, according to Michaux, the pulp investing the stone, is pounded with tallow, and used in cases of scald-head, ( Tinea Capitis) in children. A decoction of the bark of the root is an excellent re- medy for worms, and is in gene- ral use in the southern states in that complaint. The close is from two table spoonsful, to a gill, three or four mornings, upon an empty stomach.] MELIC-GRASS, or Melica, L. a genus of perennial plants, com- prising 14 species, of which the following are the principal : 1. The nutans, or Mountain Melic-grass, which abounds in the mountainous woods of the northern parts of Britain : it flow- ers in the months of June and Ju- ly. This species is eaten by cows, horses, and goats ;....in the Isle of Raasay, it is manufactured into twine for fishing-nets, which are remarkable for their durabili- ty- 2. The coerulea, or Purple Melic-grass, growing on boggy barren meadows and pastures, and flowering in the months of July and August. This valuable plant is eagerly eaten by horses, sheep, and goats : it also affords an ex- cellent substitute for hair, in the manufacture of brooms, which fur- nish considerable employment for the country people, in the wes- tern counties of England. 3. The ciliata, or Fringed Mf- lic-grass : MEL MEL 65 4. The allissima, or Lofty Me- lic-grass ......both are exotic, but valuable plants; as the former thrives on barren stony hills, where its stalk grows from two to three feet high, and is an excellent pas- ture-grass ; while the latter is of a bushy nature, delights in almost every soil, and is much relished by cattle. Both species, there- fore, deserve to be diligently cul- tivated in the northern parts of Britain, where large tracts of mountainous land produce scarce- ly any grass for sheep. MELILOT, the Common, Me- LILOT-TREFOIL, KlNG'S-CLOVER, or Harts-clover, Trifolium Me- lilotus officinalis, L. an indigenous plant, growing on a stiff soil; on ditch banks; in thickets, hedges; corn-fields and meadows ; flower- ing in the months of June and Ju- ly....This plant is eaten by sheep, goats, cows, hogs, and particular- ly by horses, which devour it with great avidity. Its fragrance in- creases when dry ; and if its flow- ers be distilled, they yield a wa- ter, which, though possessing lit- tle odour in itself, imparts a very grateful flavour to other substan- ces. Bechstein remarks, that the common melilot is frequently co- vered with mildew, which renders it extremely pernicious to cattle.... Thus, in Thuringia, a distemper prevailed lately among sheep, great numbers of which died of a putrid liver; because this and oth- er species of clover were, through the whole summer, affected with the mildew ; nay, even the hares were then uniformly in a state of putrefaction. MELON, the CoirmcN, or i ' jsk-mei.ov, Cucw.i.'s met:. I.. voi. iv. an exotic plant growing wild in Asia, whence it has been introdu- ced into the south of Europe, and is also cultivated in Britain, on ac- count of its delicious fruit....It is propagated from seed,which should be from three to six years old, and be sown at two different periods, in order to obtain a succession of crops. [Those who wish to rear melons in perfection, must be careful in the first place, to procure good seed ; secondly, to plant them re- mote from an inferior sort, from cucumbers, squashes, and gourds; as degeneracy will infallibly be the consequence of inattention to these directions. The kind called Can- taleupe, has generally been most esteemed in the United States, but the true Cantaleupe, having many knobs and protuberances is never seen in the markets of Philadel- phia. Of late, the nutmeg melon has been much propagated, for its superior flavour. The author of Gleanings from Books of Husbandry, London, 1803, directs, " when the melons have gotten four leaves; to pinch off the tops with the finger and the thumb; and again, when they have two or more lateral shoots, and two or more joints : secondly, to have fine fruit, to permit but one to re- main on a stalk, and to pinch off the end of the runner at the third joint above the fruit; and also new runners, that appear below the fruit should be checked." " Covering the plants with mats when the leaves droop, refreshes tie plants more than watering.... When the fruit appears, the plants should be but slightly watered, but the earth about the beds well moistened. The leaves must no? be taken off." 66 M E L To prevent the ravages of the melon fly, see Cucumber.] The second crop should be sown about the middle of March, and treated in a similar manner. When they have taken root, their ma- nagement will vary but little from that of cucumbers, excepting that melons require more air, and a small quantity of water. As soon as the plant spreads into branches, it must be properly clipped, so that only two of the principal shoots may remain ; and, in order to produce perfect and ripe fruit, one only should be left [with the longest stalk] and all superfluous young melons immediately remo- ved as soon as they appear. Be- sides, the diseased leaves and branches, together with the forked extremities, ought to be continu- ally cut off; and, when the fruit is set or formed, it will be neces- sary to place thin boards, stcr.es, [or tiles] under each, and to turn it gently twice in the week, that the whole may be equally benefited by the sun and air. When fully grown, it must be plucked at a proper time, as it will otherwise lose a considerable part of its fla- vour. Thus, if melons be intend- ed for the table, they should be cut early in the morning, immers- ed in ice, or cold spring water. and kept in the coolest place, till they are used. The most certain criterion to ascertain the maturity of this fruit, is its cracking near the footstalk, and beginning to smell; in which state it may be gathered without delay. MELON,.the Water, or Cucu- mis Anguria, L. though properly a species of the former, is by some considered as a distinct genus of exotic plants, comprising three species, of which one only is known M E L in Britain, by the name of CitruL It is cultivated in all the warm countries of Europe, and also in Asia, Africa, and America ; where its salubrious and cooling fruit is greatly esteemed. The water-melon is propagated from seed, in a manner similar to the former....In its properties, this species nearly resembles the pre- ceding ; but, partaking more of the nature of cucumbers, water-melons require a larger proportion of spice and wine ; as otherwise they are apt to induce flatulency or diarrhoea. [The cultivation of the water- melon is so well understood in the United States, that no directions on the subject are requisite in this place. They afford a very refresh- ing article of diet in our warm summers; and yield considerable profit. The juice of the sweeter kind yield, on inspissation, a bright light-coloured syrup, which would answer every purpose required of any syrup. Mr. Henry Drinker of Philadelphia, procured half a pint of this syrup, from 14 lbs. of melon-juice, a part of which I tasted, and found very pleasant..... Mr. Bordley, who is practically acquainted with the cultivation of the fruit, makes the following cal- culation upon Mr. Drinker's ex- periment. " Melons growing at 5] by 5\ feet apart, are 1433 plants on an acre: these bearing two melons of 14 lb. each, yield 4000 lb. of me- lons, 1433 pints of syrup; which. at 10 cents, would come to 143 dollars, for an acre's produce." Taking the amount at one half the above sum, it would be more than is produced from many acres of land, in othercultivation, in sandy- impoverished soils. Having mil- lions of acres covered with, th? MEM MEM 67 sugar maple, and thousands of acres fit only for the cultivation of the water-melon, the United States need be under no apprehension of the want of sugar....Dr. Pallas, in the account of his journey to the southern provinces of Russia, in 1793 and '94, speaking of a colony of Moravians at Savepta, or Sarpa, on the.river Volga, says ■; " The ingenious inhabitants of this town, brew a kind of beer from their very abundant and cheap water- melons, with the addition of hops: they also prepare a conserve or marmalade from this fruit, which is a good substitute for syrup or treacle."] MEMORANDUM, a term im- plying a note, or mark, made ei- ther on paper or otherw ise, with a view to assist the memory. In the present artificial state of society, the convenience of a me- morandum-book is obvious to every person engaged in active pursuits. And though the utility of such a measure be univei sally acknow- ledged, yet there is reason to be- lieve that it is not so extensively practised as it justly deserves. Those, who reflect on the fleeting nature of human thought, -and on the importance of remembering the train of ideas which lead to a certain conclusion, will readily ad- mit, that annotations might be ren- dered equally interesting and use- ful, if they were extended to that departmentof human affairs, which more immediately relates to the operations of the human mind.... Thus, if every striking idea, whe- ther of an economical or intellec- tual tendency, were duly registered and digested, when a more favour- able opportunity offers, incalcula- ble benefit would thence result to society. Hence we presume to suggest to those who are accustom- ed to reflect and attend to the pro- gress of their reasoning (when in . solitude, as well as in the common intercourse of life), to note and record in a particular journal, all such sentiments and opinions, as appear to be worthy of being pre- served....Sue also Journal. [MEMORANDUM, COMMON PLACE, OR POCKET-BOOK... The necessity of keeping a faithful narrative of circumstances apper- taining to business, is fully appa- rent to every man. The interest we have in the occurrences of past life, as a guide to our future pur- suits, is undoubtedly of considerable importance to the man of leisure and observation ; and the arrange- ment of these events to a philoso- phical observer of nature, from the multiplicity of interesting object3 which are perpetually before him, is undoubtedly of great importance. The following method has been used by S. W. Johnson, esq. of New-Brunswick, for some years, who finds it still to answer his end very well.... The first column is generally left open until either the postings are done in the ledger, or the al- phabetical arrangement of the vol. has taken place. The second contains the begin- ning head of common occurrences. The third is devoted to the Dr. of acct. lying open, when monies are paid, or goods transmitted. The fourth devoted to the com- mencement of improvements, or experiments in agriculture, gar- dening, or chemistry. \\rhen this volume is filled, an alphabet may easily be made by the initials in the first column, und the figures therein, will shew that the different accounts in the ledger, are posted with the journalized entries. 68 MEM MEM 1st. 2d. Stiles Henry Self Bean 5 4. 3 y Choice Mease 3d. 4th. Charges Farming Peas January 1, 1803. (John) agreed to serve me for the ensuing year at 120 dolls, per. ann. at farming, on the new road over swamp, all day. Balanced accts. with A. B. paid in full....See his account. to cash for Christmas boxes" 2 25 to cash, paid for new handkfs. 7 75 {Mr.) called and had his power of attor- ney corrected and forwarded. (Doctor) wrote to........See copy had my first crop put in this morning on S. side of Bowley. And during the time such a pocket volume is filling, if any com- mon occurrence is sought, such as the number of days any labourer has worked, or any specific agree- ment made, or any particular event taken place: by running the finger down the second column, it will soon be manifest. If on accounts of payment being made, the third will shew it, and if any experiments have been made, in any of the three branches alluded to, the fourth will shew every particular concerning them.....The first column should not be filled up except to alphabet by, orwhen the postings are made.] MEMORY, a mental faculty, which consists in the power of re- viving former impressions of our ideas, or the particular circum- stances which occasioned and ac- companied them. Memory may be divided into two species; passive and active: the former is the remembering, or recalling of things or events to the mind with little or no effort; the latter is the recollection of remote circumstances, or objects, which do not immediately or spontane- ously occur. This is a talent of infinite importance to its possessor; and many rules have been given for its direction, improvement, and preservation; but the principal, and indeed the only effectual method consists in the strictest temperance in eating, drinking, and sleep. Excess of every kind clouds the brain, and stupefies the mind: hence we rarely find an intemperate per- son, whose memory is clear, quick, and tenacious. Such, however, is the precarious basis of our mental powers, that notwithstanding every effort, it frequently happens that those ideas, which appear to us the most in- teresting and desirable to be re- tained, insensibly and irrecoverably vanish from the mind. To assist this inherent weakness, various methods have been proposed ; for instance, noting down in a memo- randum-book, or journal, the sub- stance of an essay we have pe- rused ; or extracting the most im- portant passages from the best au- thors ; or even registering such of MEN our own ideas, as often intuitively or spontaneously occur, in conse- quence of sudden and unexpected events. Expedients of this nature con- stitute the art of memory, and those of our readers, who are inclined to avail themselves of such assistance, and to try its effects, may resort to a treatise extant on the subject, and intitled A New Method of Ar- tificial Memory. Let it, however, be remembered, that it is not ex- traneous aid, but constant atten- tion and exercise, which form the true art of memory. MEN ST RUU M, in general, sig- nifies all liquors employed as sol- vents of other bodies, with the mi- nute particles of which the former combine, so as to produce a new, uniform compound : they are chief- ly used for extracting the virtues or ingredients of matters more so- lid than themselves, by infusion, decoction, distillation, Sec. Water is the solvent of all salts, vegetable gums, and animal jellies. Rectified spirit of xvine is the men- struum of the essential oils and re- sins of vegetables, of soap, Sec. Oils dissolve vegetable resins and balsams, wax, animal fat, mineral bitumens, sulphur, and certain me- talic substances, particularly lead: yet, for this purpose, the expressed oils are more powerful menstrua than the distilled ; because the for- mer are not so liable as the latter to bevolatilized in astrongheat, which in most cases is required for ena- bling them to produce the desired effect. All acids act as solvents of alka- line salts and earths, as well as metalic bodies ; but their action greatly varies on different metals : thus, the vegetable acids clissolve a MEN 69 large proportion of zinc, iron, cop- per, tin, and antimony, but parti- cularly lead, if previously corroded by their steam. The marine acid, or spiritof salt, dissolves zinc, iron, and copper ; and, if combined with the nitric acid, or aqua fortis, a proper menstruum is obtained for gold and antimony. The vitriolic acid, or oil of vitriol, acts upon zinc, iron, and copper : it also cor- rodes or imperfectly dissolves most other metal >. Alkaline lixivia, or leys, dissolve oils, resinous substances, and sul- phur : by adding quick-Um-, they become more powerful, as is evi- dent in the preparation of common soap. By such addition, the flesh, skin, and bones of animals may be reduced to a jelly. Solutions effected in water, and spirit of wine, possess the virtues of the substances dissolved ; but oils generally sheathe their strength while acids and alkalies change their qualities. Thus, water and distilled spirits are the proper men- strua of vegetable and animal mat- ters, the efficacy of which is to be preserved. Most of the solutions mention- ed are easily made, by pouring the menstruum on the substance to be dissolved, and exposing both, for some time, to a proper degree of warmth. Oils and alkaline liquors generally require a strong heat to increase their solvent power ; and acids, likewise, do not act on some metals without this aid. Watery and spirituous menstrua may be rendered more expeditious by a moderate heat; and the quantity they hold in solution, will be great- er than without this assistance ; but, on becoming cold, that pro- portion of soluble matter which 70 MER MER was, in a manner, kept suspended by heat, ag^in subsides. As the actioa of acids on metalic bodies is generally attended with heat, effer- vescence, and a copious discharge of fumes, which are highly inflam- mable, such as those arising from the solution of iron in the vitriolic acid, the operator ought never to approach the vessel with a candle, or other burning substance ; as the exhaling vapour would thus in- stantly be set on fire, and cause an explosion. Lastly, there is another species of solution, in which the moisture of the atmosphere is the men- struum. If fixed alkaline salts or earths, for instance, potash, as well as the neutral salts composed of the former, and the vegetable or any other acids (except the vitrio- lic, and some metalic salts,) be exposed for some time to a moist air, they gradually absorb humidi- ty, and at length become liquid ; a process which is termed deliqua- tion. MERCURY, or Quicksilver (Hydrargyrus), a mineral fluid, about fourteen or fifteen times hea- vier than water: it is so remarka- bly thin, that it requires the intense cold of 40 degrees below 0, of Fahrenheit's scale, to render it solid. "When exposed to fire, it may be totally volatilized. Quicksilver is found sometimes in a native state, as in the mines of India, South America, Hunga- ry, S-e. ; but more generally mixed with metals, stone or other sub- stances, from which it is extracted by various processes. Next to gold, and platina, mercury is the heaviest of all metals, with most of which it unites, excepting iron and antimony : hence it is employed in considerable quantities, for ex- tracting gold and silver from the earthy matters with which they are mixed. The amalgam, or incor- poration of quicksilver with gold, serves to gild copper or silver, so that these metals assume the ap- pearance of gold: when united with tin, it is employed in the ma- nufactureof looking-glasses or mir- rors, in the manner already descri- ed. Independently of its utility in various manufactures, mercury is extensively employed in medicine; and, though it is the most violent of poisons, when taken inadvert- ently in too large quantities, yet, if judiciously administered, it has frequently effected a cure, after all other medicines had failed to pro- cure relief. When taken into the stomach undivided, or in its native state, this fluid metal almost in- stantly passes through the intes- tines unchanged, and produces no perceptible effect, except that of promoting evacuation, if any cru- dities or obstructions should pre- vail in the alimentary canal. Hence it might be advantageously pre- scribed in the first stage of the Iliac Passion, before the bowels are too much weakened and cor- roded by the stagnant feces ; espe- cially if it be given together with castor-oil or fat broth, but no spice. The patient, after taking this me- dicine, should, if possible, walk about the room ; and there are in- stances in which several ounces, nay, half a pound, and upwards, of pure quicksilver, have been swal- lowed with the happiest effects. But, in the latter stages of obsti- nate and violent colics, when in- flammation and gangrene have al- ready taken place in the bowels, its MER MES 71 specific gravity would infallibly rend the intestines, and accelerate the fatal crisis. [The general use of that excel- lent medicine Calomel renders its perfect preparation a matter of great importance. The following method to determine its purity is given by an able chemist Mr. Frederick Accum. " Calomel ought to be perfectly saturated with Mercury. Complete saturation can only be known, by boiling for a few mi- nutes, one part of Calomel and ^ part muriate of ammoniac in 10 parts of distilled water. The fluid must then be filtrated and exam- ined by means of carbonate of pot- ash. If the calomel is well prepa- red, no change will take place on the addition of this re-agent; but if the preparation is imperfect, a precipitate will ensue, 47 parts of which indicate 48 of muriatic acid. L14 parts of calomel perfectly sa- turated with Mercury, contain 97 of Metal and 17 of Acid. It should be perfectly inodorous and taste- less, and when rubbed in a stone mortar with ammoniac, become intensely black." Mercury within a few years has !>een extensively used as a medi- cine. It should never be trifled with ; and during its exhibition, confinement to an equable temper- ature in a room, is indispensable. The best way to give it, is in small doses regularly, so that the effects may be gradually exerted on the system, and the impression once made, should be carefully kept up as long as is necessary, to prevent much loss of time. The last dis- ease in which mercury has been used with success, is consumption : *ud several cases of its happy ex- hibition are related by Dr. Rush in the Medical Repository, vol. 5.] Mercury, the Common Eng- lish. See Perennial Gooskfoot. Mercurj (Dog's). See Dog's MERCURY. MESENTERY, in animal eco- nomy, signifies that fat membrane, or membranous duplicative, which is situated in the middle of the ab- domen, for preventing the intes- tines from entangling with each other, as they lie in a small com- pass. It is nearly of a circular figure, being about four inches in diameter, but from three to four yards in circumference, on account of its plaits or foldings. The bowels are tied like a border around the mesentery ; as the former are from ten to twelve yards in length, according to the size of the individuals ; so that to every inch of this circumference, there are fastened three inches of the latter. This membrane is by Naturede- signed to support the intestines in their due place; to strengthen1 them ; and to afford a situation to the milk-vessels (see Lacteals), glands, nerves, blood-vessels, &c which are connected with the bowels. From its important use in the animal'system, it may he easily conceivedthatthe mesentery is liable to be affected with various diseases, the origin and seat of which are often neither suspected, nor clearly understood. It is, how- ever certain, that a disordered state of the mescntric glands generally lays the foundation of the rickets, scrophula, wens, white swellings, and early consumption. Hence the injury done to infants, by stuff.V-» them with superfluous or improper food ;. by allowing children pro- 72 M E T MET miscuously to eat cakes, ginger- bread, and unripe fruit; all of which corrupt the Lymph (which see), and cannot fail to produce distressing maladies. One of the most fatal, however, is an infiam- m at. ion of the mesentery and its glands ; which, though difficult to ascertain, is not a rare occurrence : it is generally accompanied with costiveness, and always with a re- tention of urine ; but seldom with violent fever or pain ; and on exa- mining the parts affected, there will appear a large sAvollen belly, and a deep seated tension in the abdomen. Sometimes blood and fetid matter are discharged by stool ; and it is remarkable, that male children are more frequently subject to it than those cf the fe- male sex ; and that the disorder, unlike other inflammations, may prey on the little patient for weeks, before it be discovered ; though in acute cases, it proves suddenly fatal. Care.... \s soon as the nature of this dangerous affection is ascer- tained, leeches cuqht to be applied to the lower belly, and a large blister to the small of the back. Emollient clysters, fomentations made of an infusion of chamomile floweis, with the addition of lauda- num ; and the tepid bath, will also be of essential service. The patient's rgimen and diet should be similar to that stated under article Inflammatory fe- ver : he may likewise drink sweet whey with honey, or equal parts of Seltzer water and milk. With a view to check a debilitating looseness, he ought to take decoc- tions of the salep-root, sago, ta- pioca, See. METAL, signifies a ponderous, cpaque body, which, in general, is fusible by fire ; but, when cold, coagulates and concretes into a solid moss, that is capable of heing distended under the hammer..... Metals are distinguished by their peculiar brightness, perfect opa- city, and great weight: the lightest of them being seven, and the hea- viest upwards of nineteen times more ponderous than an equal bulk of water. Naturalists have discovered twt;:t;;-Giie metallic substances, which essentially differ from each other : they are generally divided into perfect or entire, and into im- perfect or semi-metals. A more accurate classification, however, is that of ductile or malleable, the parts of which may be displaced by compression, without being divest- ed of their cohesion ; and of fra- gile, or brittle, namely, such as do not admit of being stretched or ex- tended. To the former class be- long, gold, silver, platina, lead, copper, mercury, iron, and tin : of the latter are, zinc, bismuth, arsenic, cobalt, antimony, nickel, molybdxna, telurium, manganese, wolfram, chrome, titanium, and uranium.....Consistently with the plan of our work, we shall de- scribe only the native, and the more important foreign metals, of which the reader will find a con- cise account in their alphabetical series,intcrspersed with such facts, as may tend more fully to display their useful properties. METALLIC, pointed sub- stances are often inadvertently swalloved by children and adults , ...in such cases it will be necessary to tal e !a;':re draughts of vinegar, lemon-juice, or other vegetable acids, in order to blunt the points of iron, brass, copper, and other fragments or pins ; but never to MEZ venture on an emetic. If the me- tallic bodies introduced by the mouth, have been of a round form, or if they happen to be detained within the Gullet, we refer the reader to that article. MEZEREON, Spurge-olive, Spuhge-flax, or Dwarf-bay, Daphne Mezereum, L. an indige- nous low shrub, growing in woods and shady places, and flowering in the month of February or March. When cultivated in gardens, it at- tains, in a rich soil, the height of sixteen feet. The whole of this plant is so corrosive, that six of its ben-ies are said to be sufficient to kill a wolf. ....An ointment prepared from its bark or berries, has been advanta- geously applied to foul or ill-condi- tioned ulcers. When chewed, its root occasions ulcerations, and con- siderable irritation in the throat; but is very serviceable in remov- ing difficulty of swallowing; and Dr. Withering {Botanical Ar- rangement, vol. ii. p. 377), states, that a woman who had been una- ble to swallow any solids, and li- quids very imperfectly, for three years before, was effectually cured in two months, and enabled to take any food without difficulty, by chewing a thin slice of the root of mezereon, as often as she could support its irritating effects....On sudden emergencies, the root of the Spurge-olive, scraped and ap- plied to the surface of the skin, affords, an efficacious substitute for the Spanish-fly, as a blister which speedily operates :....It may also be applied in the form of is- sues. D am bourn ey obtained from the stalks and leaves of the mezereon, a fine vigogne dye ; and the stalks, alone, imparted a beautiful gold- ▼ OL. IV. MIC 73 brown shade to wool, previously dipped in a diluted solution of bis- muth. From the ripe berries of this plant, an excellent red lake is prepared by painters. MICA, Muscovy-glass,Glim- mer, or Glist, a genus of mag- nesian earths, of which there are two species; viz. 1. The colorata martialis, colour- ed martial glimmer, of which there are many varieties, distinguished by their brown, black, semi-trans- parent blue, and green shades: they are found chiefly in Lapland, Sweden, and other northern parts of Europe. 2. The alba, pure or colourless mica, which contains several va- rieties, that are found in Siberia and Sweden, and are perfectly trans- parent ; whence it has obtained the name of Muscovy-glass. Both species consist of thin glit- tering pieces,that are divisible into leaves, or plates ; which when ex- posed to a moderate heat, become brittle ; but, if placed in a strong furnace, they curl or crumple, and are with difficulty reducible into glass. Mica, however, melts easily with borax, by the aid of which it may be converted into glass, with a blow-pipe. The broad and colourless mica is used in Russia, as a substitute for glass, to which it is preferable; because it resists the shock on the explosion of a cannon. [This broad colourless mica, i» found in large quantities in New- Hampshire, and has been used in this city for lanterns, for which it answers very well. For maga- zine ship lanterns it is peculiarly valuable, as no danger .will attend the falling of a candle against the side.] MICROSCOPE, an optical h> L 74 M I D MID strument, consisting of lenses or mirrors, by means of which, small objects appear of a larger size, than they naturally are to the naked eye. This valuable instrument, though not entirely unknown to the an- cients, was re-invented and made public in the early part of the 17th century : it has, since that period received continual improvements from various ingenious philoso- phers and artists, among whom the names of Leeuwenhoek, Wil- son, Hook, the Adams's, Lieber- kuhn, Barker, Grey, Martin, Di Torre, and Smith, deserve to be gratefully recorded. Microscopes are of two sorts, single and double. The former consist in general of one lens or mirror ; but, if a greater number be employed, they only serve to throw additional light upon the ob- ject, without farther enlarging its image. Double or compound mi- croscopes are those in which the image of an object is composed of several lenses or mirrors. The utility of microscopes is very extensive, both to the natur- alist and the artist: hence the in- vention of them must be regarded as one of the greatest efforts of hu- man ingenuity. It is true, they do not contribute in any essential man- ner to the happiness of mankind ; but they serve to unfold the wond- ers of Nature, and thus insensibly raise the mind to the contempla- tion of that Great Being, whose works, however minute and ap- parently insignificant, uniformly evince the highest skill and most perfect symmetry. • MIDWIFERY, or the obstetri- cal art, a branch of medicine which requires no farther definition. In most countries of Europe, and in other parts of the globe, it is prac- tised by women ; for it compre- hends their management both be- fore and after delivery, as well as the treatment of the child during the earliest period of life. Although we have, in a preced- ing part of this Encyclopedia, re- ferred the reader to the present ar- ticle, with respect to afer-birth, yet we cannot, conformably to our plan, enter minutely on the sub- ject. It deserves, however, to be remarked, that every degree of anxiety, or impatient conduct, in midwives and nurses, is highly re- prehensible on such occasions ; for Nature rarely fails to perform her kind offices to the mother as well as to the infant. Hence it will be found from experience, that those accoucheurs are uniformly the most successful in the exercise of their profession, who possess a due share of knowledge of the human con- stitution, together with a philoso- phical coolness to resist the solicit- ous applications made by timorous, and often mischievous relations. On the whole, we cannot omit this opportunity of expressing our con- viction of the benefits which so- ciety has already derived from professional accoucheurs ; and, if the lower classes are still inclined to employ their favourite midwives, we trust the day is not far distant, when such persons will be subject- ed to a rigorous examination of their talents, and qualifications to undertake an office, equally impor- tant and fraught with responsibi- lity. We have ventured to express these sentiments, neither with a uaw to decry the propriety of em- ploying women (who, if possessed of equal skill and information, cer- tainly deserve the preference) in this primary department of the MIL MIL 75 healing art; nor is it our intention indiscriminately to introduce into families an inexperienced young accoucheur, instead of a grave and expert old matron. The former would be an encroachment on fe- male privilege; while the latter might prove a rash and dangerous measure. MILDEW, or Erysiphilc, a disease of plants, consisting of a thick, clammy, sweetish juice, that is supposed to exhale from, or de- scend on, the leaves and blossoms of vegetables. The mildew occurs most fre- quently on wheat, hops, the dead nettle, maple, and the gromwell, It sometimes rests on vegetables in the form of a fatty juice ; which, being naturally tough and viscous, acquires these properties in a still greater degree, in conse- quence of its finer and more fluid parts being exhaled by the sun ; so that the plants affected by it, cannot perform the important office of perspiration, and thus never at- tain to maturity. According to Dr. Darwin, the mildew is a plant of the fungus kind, which vegetates without light or change or air, in the same man- ner as the generality of mush- rooms ; and penetrates with its roots the vessels to which it ad- h.:.s. lie suspects, however, the plants affected, to have been pre- viously injured by internal disease; and directs them to be thinned ; or to remove those which are con- tiguous to the diseased, in order to admit more light, and greater ven- tilation : thus the mildew may be remedied, and the plant at the same time restored to its former vigour. Common wheat is more subject to this destructive disease than that .which is bearded, especially if the land is newly dunged. As, however, it is highly probable, that the greater dampness of some soils, together with their being over-shadowed by too thick foliage, affords onepermanent cause of mildew, Dr. Darwin recom- mends the land to be properly drained ; the ashes of coals, bones, or other drier manures, to be employed ; and likewise to thin the crops. And, as this mucor particularly affects late crops, he is farther of opinion, that the seed should be sown early in the season ; by which means the mil- dew will not only be prevented, but a forward crop will be obta:li- ed. Where this disease has already infested the plants, a brisk shower of rain, succeeded by a smart wind, is believed to be the mo^t efficacious remedy, to prevent its farther progress. If the mildew be observed before the sun rises to its meridian power, it will be advisable to send two men into the field, furnished with a long cord, of which each should hold one end : by dexterously drawing this rope over the ears of corn, the dew will be removed, before the heat of the sun dries and reduces it to that viscous slate, hi which it ob- structs the perspiration of plants. Lastly, it has been confidently as- serted, that lands, which have been affected with the mildew for several successive years, have been effectually cured by sowing soo*, either together with, or immedi- ately after corn; "and that hop- plantations may be secured from its injurious effects, by manuring them with hogs'-dung. M. Seger, in his valuable Ger- man Tr.atise on the Mildew, con- 76 M IL MIL sidcred as the principal cause of Epidemic Diseases among Cattle, Sec. (published at Vienna in 1775) observes, that the mildew is so sharp and corrosive, as to raise blisters on the feet of shepherds who go w ith naked feet; and that it even consumes the hoofs of cat- tle. He supposes it to be a kind of rust, and to possess some ar- senical properties. Its pernicious influence is rendered still more powerful by a variety of circum- stances; such, as sending cattle into the fields too early in the spring; suffering them to drink water mixed with ice ; or keeping them in close, filthy stables, that are not sufficiently aired. M. Seger likewise conceives the mildew to be a principal cause of epidemic diseases in cattle.... The particular species, producing such distempers, is that which burns the grass and leaves. It falls usually In the morning, espe- cially after a thunder-storm ; and its poisonous properties (which do not continue .above twenty-four hours) never operate unless the mildew be swallowed immediately after it has fallen....The disease first affects the stomach, and is accompanied with pimples on the tongue, loss of appetite, a cough, and great difficulty of respiration. As a preservative, the ingenious au- thor directs cattle to be well purg- ed, both in the spring apd in win- ter ; for which purpose he pre- scribes half a dram of sulphur of antimony, and a whole dram of resin of jalap, for one dose :....he concludes with cautioning the pro- prietors of cattle, carefully to avoid the use of emetics, and eve- rv thing that is of a heating na- ture; because such treatment would be productive of fatal con- sequences. Milfoil. See Common Yar- R MILIARY FEVER, or Milia- ria, a disease which affects both sexes, at every age, but particu- larly recluse and sedentary wo- men. It is accompanied with con- tinued fever, anxiety, a sensation of punctures in the skin, and pro- fuse unctuous sweats. Causes..... Excessive watching; the indulgence of the more vio- lent passions; suppression of the natural discharges, as also too great evacuations ; eating of unripe fruit, and similar pernicious trash; a weak watery diet, and impure or putrid water. It is, in general, a primary disease, though it is some- times consequent on quartan and puerperal fevers. Peculiarities....The miliary fe- ver, though not contagious, is an epidemic disease, and sometimes a critical symptom in the autum- nal putrid fever. It generally com- mences its attack with a cold shi- vering, which is succeeded by in- tense heat, pain in the head and loins, oppression on the breast, and difficulty of breathing. An itching and prickling sensation is felt in the skin, which, between the seventh and fourteenth days, is covered with numerous small, red, and distinct pimples, that ap- pear first on the neck and chest, and gradually spread over the whole body, excepting the face. This eruption is usually preceded by profuse sweating ; and, in the course of two or three days, the tops of the pimples are filled with small white vesicles, which speedi- ly disappear. In the course of a few days, the pustules assume a MIL yellowish cast, and at length to- tally vanish, leaving the skin co- vered with branny or mealy scales. Cure....In this, as in all other eruptive fevers, the chief point is, to prevent the pustules from strik- ing inwards; as the patient is then in the most imminent danger. In the first period of the disease, blood-letting will, in general, be necessary; and, if the eruption appear and disappear, repeated small blisters may be advantage- ously applied. It will likewise be advisable to administer, frequent- ly, gentle laxatives; but, if the patient be in a languid state, and the bowels become regular, the liberal use of Peruvian bark will essentially contribute to his reco- very. During the whole progress of this fever, he ought to be kept uniformly cool; his diet also should be cooling and nutritious,and adapt- ed to his strength and constitution. Lastly, as soon as he is able to en- counter the air, gentle and daily exercise will be attended with the best effects. MILK, a well-known, nutritious fluid, with which Nature has wise- ly furnished the breasts of females, and the udders of animals, for the support of their young. Milk consists of three parts, namely, caceous, butyrous, and se- rous. The first comprehends the grosser earthy particles, which serve to suspend the butyrous part; and which, when coagulated by art, are formed into Cheu.se. The se- cond ingredient comprises the bu- (yraceous or oily particles, or cream, which float on the surface of milk, and are by agitation converted into Buttek . The serous are the more watery parts, constituting what is called Whey, and serving as a ve- hicle for the two before stated.... MIL 77 The most wholesome milk is that which contains a due proportion of the three constituent parts. Having already discussed the qualities, as well as the methods of preparing Butter, Butter- milk, and Cheese, under those respective heads, we shall briefly consider the properties of milk, afforded by different animals, as an article of food. The milk of women, mares, and asses, nearly agree in their quali- ties, being very dilute, sweet, though acescent, and, when coa- gulated, easily broken down. That of cows, goats, and sheep, pos- sess properties widely different. these, cows'-milk approaches near- est to that yielded by the female breast. But the milk obtained from goats, is of a peculiar nature ; as its oily and coagulable parts do not separate spontaneously, throw up no cream, and yield no butter. That of sheep is rich and nourish- ing ; produces abundance of but- ter, but which is so unpalatable as to render it unfit to be eaten. Both these fluids afford a large pro- portion of strong and tough cheese. Cows' milk forms a very essen- tial part of human sustenance, being adapted to every state and age of the body, but particularly to infants, after being weaned. It should, therefore, be drawn from sound, young,and healthy animals ; as it is most nutritious, when these are between three and four years old....Good milk is perfectly white, and totally divested of smell. As, however, it contains a great por- tion of the fatty or oily particles, known under the name of cream, it ought always to be diluted with water,before it is given to children. ...But,toscorbuticpersons,orthose troubled with inveterate ulcers, it 78 MIL MIL will be found of great benefit, in a pure, undiluted state ; as it com- bines both saccharine and oleagi- nous particles. From its balsamic nature, milk promotes the different evacuations, especially insensible perspiration : in a serous or diluted state, it has often afforded considerable relief in obstinate coughs ; in disorders induced by worms, hysterics, the putrid sore-throat, the gout, and stone, and various other diseases, with which mankind are afflicted. But, if a person be debilitated, or otherwise exhausted by sickness, milk ought by no means to be used ; as it is apt to generate cramps or violent spasms in the stomach, the heart-burn, &c. Cor- pulent and plethoric persons; those ■who are recovering from febrile complaints ; and particularly such as are accustomed to drink wine, and spirituous liquors, cannot with advantage or safety adopt a milk- diet ; because the fatty and viscid properties of that fluid tend to op- press the stomach, and occasion indigestion.....When milk is used •medicinally, it ought to be taken as speedily as possible after it has been drawn from the cow ; foi its mdst nourishing and attenuating particles exhale, if it be boiled, or even for a short time exposed to the air. Lastly, if milk be suffered to "become sour, it cannot be easily digested: and, though it is in that Mate unfit to serve as an article of Pr verage, its utility does not cease. There is a liquor, distilled from acid milk, butter-milk, or whey, which is asserted to be a valuable menstruum in the preparation of colours. Milk being of such extensive utility, both as footl and medicine. our readers will probably expect some account of such vegetables as are calculated to encrease the quantity of that sweet and whole- some fluid. One of the most ef- fectual methods consists in giving cows, every morning, decoctions of the richest and most fragrant species of clover, and especially of lucern....This subject has alrea- dy been concisely discussed under the article Cattle ; and, as we state the lactiferous plants in their alphabetical order, it would be su- perfluous to repeat them in this place :....they will also be register- ed in the General Index of Refer- ence......But we cannot omit to animadvert on the culpable filthiness in which cows are con- fined, both in the metropolis, and in its vicinity, where these useful animals are literally crammed, not with wholesome food, but with such matters as are calculated to produce an abundance of milk. This unnatural practice, however, would in some degree be venial, if that milk were vended in a/nire state. It is, indeed, a notorious fact, which wre think our duty to state, that vessels both of hot and cold water, are always kept in the cow or milk-houses, for the ac- commodation of mercenary retail- ers. These persons purchase a certain quantity of unadulterated milk, and at a low price ; but, as each must make his or her profit, they mix with it such a proportion of water as they may think neces- sary to make their milk of a suffi- cient standard ; when it is hawked about at the present exorbitant price...Circumstances of this frau- dulent complexion ought to be more generally known ; and we trust that the vigilance of the po- lice will soon be extended to the \ MIL suppression of practices and abu- ses, equally bold and iniquitous. Skimmed milk, is that which re- mains after the cream has been taken off its surface. It is often sold for new milk, and employed in considerable quantities by wine- merchants', for the purpose of cla- rifying, or fining down turbid white wines, arrack and weak spirits ; but it should not be used for red wines, as it discharges their co- lour.....This kind of milk is also useful for whitening such wines, as have acquired a brown tint, ei- ther from the cask, or in conse- quence of having been boiled, be- fore they had undergone the vinous fermentation. In such cases, a little skimmed milk precipitates the colour, leaving the wine almost limped, and of a pleasant flavour.... A fluid of such harmless nature is in every respect preferable to the noxious vintners, with which ava- ricious matters, poison their turbid or damaged wines. The milk of the female Breasts is frequently very trouble- some to delicate women, and sub- jects them to many disorders. The more common of these are : 1. Deficiency of this nourishing fluid, which is often occasioned by the indulgence of anger, or other passion; worms; or intestinal com- plaints. Those who are advanced in years, before they become mo- thers, are particularly liable to this complaint, which is likewise induc- ed by poor aliment, or some consti- tutional defect in the fluids. If the latter cause be obvious, it will be advisable to administer ab- sorbent powders ; but, if it origi- nate from parsimonious living, the patient's diet ought to consist of rich cow's milk, and light nou- rishing food. Should, however, such deficiency be absolute and the MIL 79 breasts be totally devoid of this sa- lutary fluid, the only method of preserving the infant's life will be, to procure a careful, healthy wet- nurse. 2. Excess, or evident abundance of milk, occurs as frequently as the contrary; and requires the greatest attention ; for, otherwise, inflam- mation and abscesses in the breast may be the consequence. Hence the patient should live sparingly, and suckle two infants, with a view to diminish the too rapid flow of milk. 3. The Milk-fever, one of the most alarming diseases of females, is sometimes occasioned by terror, taking cold, Sec. though it is more frequently induced from a false principle of delicacy, by neglecting to put the infant to the breast. It occurs, in general, a few days after delivery, and requires to be treat- ed with the utmost precaution. To check its progress, it will be neces- sary to resort to camphorated clys- ters, gentle evacuations, and em- brocations of linseed and similar emollient oils. The infant ought, likewise, to be put frequently to the breast; and, if no relief be thus obtained, they should be drawn, either by means of the small air- pump, or some expert person. The patient's diet ought to be light and cooling ; but, if the fever prove violent, and be accompanied with putrid symptoms, it will be advise- able to administer Peruvian bark liberally, and to obviate costive- ness, by gentle laxatives. One of the most effectual preventives of this fever is, to place the infant to the breast as early as possible ; a practice which cannot be too strongly recommended; asthe life, or at least the health, of many va- luable mothers might be spared, if such method were more generally 80 MIL MIL followed. The apartment ought to be carefully aired ; and, if the breasts abound with milk, at the commencement of the fever, they should beoccasionally drawn; thus, that fluid might effectually be pre- vented from acquiring an unnatur- al acrimony, or from being absor- bed, while in a corrupted state. Violent passions and affections of the mind must be studiously avoided by those who suckle chil- dren ; for, such irregularities not only lay the foundation of the most painful disorders in mothers or nurses, but also injure the innocent babes, by inducing painful, and often fatal diarrhoeas. In every instance, after sudden fright, or a fit of passion, it will be advisable to squeeze, or gently agitate the breasts, in order to discharge the redundant milk, before the infant be permitted to suck. Lastly, if the breasts become turgid, and there be an apprehension of the milk coagulating in them, shortly after parturition, it will be requisite to present them to the infant; pro- vided it be sufficiently strong: in the contrary case, another child or adult should draw them, and thus diminish the superfluous and hurt- ful part. MILK-HOUSE, a building de- signed for the reception and pre- servation of milk, previously torts undergoing the various processes of the dairy. As we have already, under the head of Dairy-house, treated of the utensils, &c. proper for the ma, nagement of milk, we shall now lay before our readers a cut, repre- senting a milk-house, upon an im- proved plan, by the industriou* Dr. Anderson. }AIL MIL 81 Descri/.tion of Dr. Anderson's Milk-house, ipith its appur- tenances. The uppermost of the three figures represents a section of the whole structure. A, the dairy in the centre, sur- rounded by open passages. B, the entry to the dairy from the north. C, the ice-house. D, the scullery, or wash-house, with the door or entrance from the south, and benches placed be- neath. /, a door, which communicates with the milk-house, &c. h the fire-place. The lowermost of the three fig- ures, is an elevation of the milk- house A. BB, the passages round it. c, the interior window. d, the ventilator or air-pipe. g, the exterior window. The smallestof the figures above given, is a delineation of the venti- lator. i, represents the valve at the top. k, another valve at the bottom, which communicates with the milk- house. n, a similar valve, with the pas- sage. The whole of this structure ought to consist of a range of nar- row buildings, as in the section first delineated, where the middle division marked A, represents the milk-house, properly so called. Dr. Anderson directs it to be built with a double wall, so that a cur- rent of air may continually pass, for the purpose of preserving a re- gular, cool temperature ; the inner Wall being constructed with lath or bricks, doubly plastered on both sides ; and the outer one, sonsist- vol. ir. ingofplaistered lath: both being carefully worked, so as to render them perfectly air-tight. The entrance to the dairy ought to be on the north side B ; but it will be requisite, for greater con- venience, to make another com- munication through the door f, into the front room, especially dur- ing the winter, when the oater door B, should be kept continually shut. The external roof ought to be constructed with tiles, or slate, while the inner one should be made of plaster, closely applied. Be- tween both, it will be necessary to leave a vacant space, at least four feet wide, for the free passage of air, as delineated in the elevation above given; in which the letter A, represents the inside of the milk-house. The letters BB, desig- nate the area between the two walls, that gradually diminishes towards the top, till it terminates in the ventilator or wooden chimney d ; which ought to be constructed, on three sides, with planks or boards lined with plaster; the fourth, or south front, should consist wholly of glass, carefully closed with putty, so as to render it completely air-tight. Its dimensions may vary at pleasure, from one to two feet in diameter, internally ; but it should be elevated at least six or eight feet above the roof; as its effects will be more or less powerful, ac- cording to its length. This tube is furnished at the top with a valve i, placed immediately beneath the air-holes, which may be closed when required; and at the bottom is a similar valve k. The lower pipe, which communi- cates with the milk-house, is con- siderably smaller than the upper tube just described. The opening m, is closed on one side; and at n M 82 MIL MIL is a valve, which, when shut, pre- vents any communication between this pipe and the external area..... Farther, the top of the ventilator is covered with boards, placed in the form of a roof, so that the rain may be thrown off, without imped- ing the current of air; while, by means of the valves above-men- tioned, the air, heated by the action of the sun through the outer wall, will immediately escape, thus con- stantly preserving a due tempera- ture ; and, by the same means, all damp and confined air, which is extremely pernicious in dairies, will be constantly expelled. The building is furnished with a window placed along the slanting interior roof at c, and which is closed down with putty, to prevent it from being opened. Another window, g, is fixed over it in a si- milar manner on the external roof, so as to transmit the light without i impeding the current of air between the two glasses. The passage round the milk- house ought to communicate with the external air below, only at the threshold of the door B. But it will be necessary to make a small aperture on every side, about one foot in height from the floor, in order that such area may be occa- sionally ventilated. Each of these apertures should be secured with a piece of thin wire-work, in order to prevent the approach of insects, or other vermin ; and ought like- wise to be furnished with a door, or cover, by which it may be open- ed, or closed, according to circum- stances. Farther, if this passage be furnished with shelves, and lighted by a glazed window from the inner apartment, so as to admit light only, it may be advantageously converted into a pantry for keeping butter, cheese, fcc. perfectly cool, independently of its use for pre- serving the temperature of the milk-room. The whole of the interior apart- ment should be finished with hard plaster neatly smoothened, and to- tally devoid of ornament, so that it may be cleaned as often as becomes necessary. In its centre, Dr. An- derson directs a large stone table to be placed, being about 21 feet high, 3 feet wide at the least, and of a breadth proportioned to the length of the room. Beneath the table is to be fixed a stone trough, corresponding to the length and breadth of the former and being about one foot deep, that is, six inches above and below the floor of the milk-house. From the bottom of the trough, a pipe is to be con- ducted, for the purpose of carrying off the water: and, in case it be supplied by a running stream, it will be requisite to make one side of such trough somewhat lower, that the water may run over, and thus be carried out of the house. The floor of the building should be constructed with stones neatly laid; and, if these be easily attainable, the shelves, delineated in the ele- vation above given, should be hewn out of the same materials : other- wise, they may consist of wooden planks. If the milk-house be situated near a large town, where ice could be vended during the summer,' Dr. Anderson is of opinion, it would be very beneficial to the owner, to erect an ice-house contiguous to this dairy, as represented at the letter C, in the uppermost cut above given. He r commends it to be surrounded by a double wall on three sides, with a passage or area intervening, as in the dairy. MIL MIL 83 The receptacle for the ice ought to be formed of upright posts, lined with wattled-^work of.wands, or with close rail-work, but so as to leave a walk two feet and a half wide every way ; round which a gutter should be made to carry off such water as may drain from the ice. This is, in his opinion, the cheapest method of building an ice-house, in any situation ; and is far preferable to the usual mode of making vaults, which are not only more liable to be damp, andbec6me mouldy, but are also far more ex- pensive, arid by no means so well calculated to preserve a gentle coolness, and an equal temperature, at every season. The apartment, marked with the letter D, is designed as a reposi- tory for the utensils of the dairy, in which they may be cleaned and arranged. For this purpose, it will be advisable to place shelves round the walls, together with tables, and such other articles as may be found necessary. Its entrance should be from the south, where the roof projects about two feet over the wall, as at/, which door commu- nicates immediately with the milk- house, and may be occasionally opened in the summer ; but which alone ought to be used during the winter, when the chief entrance B, should be constantly shut. At one end of this apartment is a fire- place, on which a cauldron, pro- portioned to the size of the dairy, ought to be fixed; in order that there may be a continual supply of warm or hot water. Such is the outline of Dr. An- derson's ingenious plan, which appears to be well calculated to enable attentive dairy-men, to keep their milk of an equal temperature at all seasons, while they may, at the same time carry on the neces- sary operations with little trouble or expence....Those of our readers, who wish to become more inti- mately acquainted with the whole economy of the milk-house, ■will not without instruction peruse Dr. Anderson's Practical Remarks on the Management of the Diary,which were originally published in the 5th vol. of the Letters and Papers of the Bath Society ; but which have been considerably enlarged in the 3d vol. of the new series of his valuable miscellany, entitled Recre- ations in Agriculture, Ac. [The following cut (Fig. 1), re- presents the ground plan of a milk- house, atthe farm of Mr. J. X h lle r , Chester county, a plate of whose excellent barn was given under the article, Farm-yard. The trough A, surrounds the platform B, and both are made of rubbed marble slabs, set in Tar- ras cement; and the joints well joggled: the water is admitted by a leaden pipe C, which is inserted three inches below the nozzle of a pump near the house. The pipe at D, is level with the platform, anl conducts the water off when it rises as high as the platform; thus affording a continual change of water. The milk stands about two feet six inches below the sur- face. The platform is five feet wide: the deepest part of the trough, is six inches, and the shallowest four inches. The trough extends thirty-five feet round the platform, and is one foot eight in- ches wide. There are two small opposite windows in the house, E Li, a little above the surface. The scale of the cut is l of an inch to a foot. By joggling, is meant the leav- ing a ridge on one edge of the stone, and a channel on another, to receive it....See I ig. 2. 84 MIL M I L Figure 1, Figure 2. MIL MIL 85 MILK-THISTLE, or Ladies' Thistle, Carduus marianus, L. an indigenous plant, growing on ditch-banks, road-sides, the bor- ders of cornfields, and on rubbish: it flowers in the month of August. Though often a very troublesome weed in pasture and other lands, the milk thistle may be eaten in the spring as a salad : and the ten- der stalks, if peeled and soaked in water to extract their bitterness, afford a delicious dish : the scales of the flower-cup may be used as a substitute for artichokes; and the roots, as well as the leaves, while young, are wholesome food. Rabbits, likewise, are exceedingly fond of the leaves and stalks of the milk-thistle, which tend to preserve their health, when kept in a domestic state. MILK-VETCH, or Astragalus, L. a genus of indigenous, peren- nial plants, consisting of 80 spe- cies ; the principal of which, is the glycyphyllos, Common or Sweet Milk-vetch, Liquorice-vetch, Wild- liquorice, or Liquorice Cock's- head: it grows in meadows, pas- tures, and on ditch-banks, where it flowers in the months of June and July—.This plant will thrive with uncommon luxuriance in poor barren soils ; and yield an abun- dance of tender and succulent herbage. Its cultivation has, there- fore, been strongly recommended by Dr. Anderson, who observes, that it would be an excellent win- ter-fodder for cattle, which devour it with avidity.-.Cows depastured on this plant, are said to yield an abundance of rich milk; from which circumstance it has receiv- ed its most proper English name. MILK-WEED, the Marsh, Wild Parsley, or Wild Milky Parsley, Selinum palustrc, L. an indigenous perennial plant, grow- ing in damp and marshy situations, where its stalk attains the height of three or four feet; and flower- ing in the month of June or July. Every part of this vegetable, on cutting it, exudes a milky juice: its aromatic root may serve as a substitute for exotic spices in me- dicine, and for culinary purposes: the Russians use it instead of gin- ger, and the Laplanders chew it in the same manner as tobacco. MILK-WORT,the Common, or Polygala vulgaris, L. an indige- nous perennial plant, thriving on heaths and dry pastures ; flowering in the months of June and July. ....This herb is eaten by cows, the milk of which it remarkably in- creases ; also by goats and sheep, but is refused by hogs....Its roots possess an extremely bitter taste, together with all the virtues of the American rattlesnake-root.....Ac- cording to Du Hamel, it is given withs uccess in pleuretic cases,ope- rating as a purgative, emetic, and diuretic. A spoonful of the de- coction, made by boiling an ounce of the herb in a pint of water, till one half be evaporated, sensibly promotes perspiration, as well as expectoration, and has therefore been used with advantage in ca- tharrhal fevers and defluxions on the lungs:....three spoonfuls of this medicine, taken every hour, have sometimes afforded considerable relief in dropsical cases. MILL, a machine for grinding corn, Sec. of which there are vari- ous kinds, according to the differ- ent methods of applying the mov- ing power; such as water-mills, those worked by horses, wind- mills, &.C. In September, 1801, a patent was granted to Mr. Zachariah Bar- 86 MIL MIL eatt, for a portable mill, design- ed to grind corn ; and which may be worked either by wind, water, or horses. This contrivance dif- fers from the common mills, chief- ly in the following particulars : 1. That its size may be enlarged, or reduced according to circumstan- ces ; the whole running on castors; 2. The mill-shaft is moved by a crown-wheel, containing 3 notch- ed orbits, each being at some dis- tance within the other ; and which wheel may, by a slight alteration, be constructed so as to be set in motion, either by sails, by horses, or by water ; and lastly, the machine may, if required, be conveniently erected at the gable end of a barn. A more particular account of this mechanical invention is given in the 16th volume of the " Reperto- ry of Arts," Sec. where the appa- ratus is illustrated with an engrav- ing. Another patent has lately been granted to Mr. Thomas Wright, for a Hand Stone Corn Mill. The frame of the machine is three feet squLd-L-, and three and a half feet in height: the stones are 18 in- ches in diameter, and are inclosed in a tub, supported by two cross- bearers. Beneath these stones, there is a lever, in which is insert- ed an iron pin; that passes through the centre of the bed-stones, and communicates with various ma- chinery, that sets the whole in motion....Our limits net permit- ting us to detail its constituent parts, we can only add, that a (Ir.Lwer containing three sieves is placed under the stones, for the reception and sifting of the meal. The price of this mill is 16, or, with the drawers and sieves, 17 guineas: and the machine is as- serted to grind six bushels of grain in one day, with perfect ease....A farther account of Mr. W.'s inge- nious contrivance may lie found in the 38th vol. of " Annals of Agri- culture," where his description is illustrated with an appropriate plate....See also Water-mills. [Mills for grinding grain, and for sawing timber, have been much improved within a few years past in the United States. The prin- cipal improver of grain mills, is Mr. Oliver Evans, of Philadel- phia. It would be impossible by any description, or even by engrav- ings, to convey an accurate idea of these improvements; we must therefore refer those who may be anxious to inform themselves res- pecting them, to a mill in which they are constructed, or to Mr. Evans's" Miller'sand Mill-wright's Guide," Philadelphia, 1795, in which they are amply detailed, to- gether with a variety of other use- ful matter respecting the erection of mills. It may be sufficient for the present, to state, that his im- provements consist of the inven- tion and various applications of the following machines, viz. 1. The elevator, 2. Conveyer, 3. Hopper boy, 4. Drill, 5. Descender; Which live machines are variously applied in different mills, so as to perform every necessary move- ment of the grain and meal, from one part of the mill to the other, or from one machine to another, through all the various operations, from the time the grain is empti- ed from the waggoner's bag, or from the measures on board the ship; until it is completely manu- MIL MIL 87 factured into superfine flour, and other qualities, and completely se- parated, ready for packing into barrels. All which is performed by the force of the water, without manual aid, except to set the dif- ferent machines in motion; and serve to lessen the labour one half. Many mills in the state of Penn- sylvania, and Delaware, have been constructed upon the plan of Mr. Evans ; but they are in the fullest operation at the extensive mills of Messrs. Ellicotts, near Balti- more, who have added other im- provements tending to perfect the grinding, and to the diminution of manual labour. Indeed, the edi- tor has been assured by an observ- ing gentleman, who has travelled much in the old world, that more complete mills than Mr. E.'s are not to be seen in Europe. In the 19th vol. of the transac- tions of the London Society of Arts, (1801), Mr. Garnet Terry, of London, describes a hand-mill for grinding hard substances, which is simple in its construction, and may be applied to a variety of useful puiposes, especially in the coun- try ; the editor has therefore, gi- ven a plate of it. See the last plate in Volume III. The front of the mill is taken off, in order to shew its interior construction. description. A, The hopper, the receptacle of the articles which are intended to be ground. B, A spiral wire, in the form qf a reversed cone, to regulate the delivery of them. C, An inclined iron plate, hung upon a pin on its. higher end : the lower end rests on the groov- ed axis D, and agitates the wire B. D, The grooved axis, or grinding cylinder, which acts against the channeled iron-plate E. F, A screw on the side of the mill, by means of which, the iron- plate E, is brought nearer to, or removed further from the axis D, according as the article is wanted finer or coarser. G, The handle, by which motion is given to the axis. H, The tube, whence the articles, when ground, are received. Mr. Terry says, he has made one on a large scale, and finds it answers the purpose of reducing to powder, coffee, bones, beans, peas, malt, barley, Sec. Family mills for reducing wheat to flour, have lately been introduc- ed in England ; and Dr. Willich describes that invented by T. Rus- tall, mill-wright of Purbrooth- heath,nearPortsmouth; but the des- cription has been omitted, because such mills are useless in this coun- try, where water-mills are within an hour's ride of almost every farmer. A plate and description of the ma- chine may be seen in the 18th vol. of the transactions of the above society. Mr. John Jackson, in the en- tertaining Journal of his Route from India to Hamburgh by land, Lon- don, 1799, p. 275, says, " On the river Danube, below Pest, are many floating corn-mills, v\hich are admirably adapted for the pur- pose. The vessels on which the mills are built, are always kept afloat, and at anchor, in the mid- dle of the stream ; the wheel is turned by the current." Such mills might be advantageously used on the rivers of the United States.] 88 MIL MIL MILL-REEK, a dreadful dis- ease, caused by the poisonousfumes of melted lead, which affect not only those who are employed in the smelting or preparing of that metal, but likewise all who reside near the mines whence it is dug, or contiguously to the furnaces, &c. where it is worked. On the first attack of this dis- ease, the patient feels a weight and uneasiness in the region of the sto- mach, and a slight degree of colic in the bowels : the pulse is low ;, the appetite impaired ; the legs become feeble, and the whole bo- dy is debilitated. Sometimes these symptoms abate in consequence of a slight diarrhoea; though, if the latter continue for some time, it is always attended with danger. At first, however, the patient is not prevented from following his usual occupations ; but, if the dis- order progressively increase, and he neglect to apply for relief, the next symptoms will be, obstinate costiveness, violent pain in the in- testines ; a troublesome giddiness, insensibility, and delirium. The extremities become convulsed; the pulse intermits ; and, at length, the highest degree of palsy, or ap- poplexy, closes the distressing scene. As the mill-reek is of a similar nature and origin with the Devon- shire-colic, of which we have alrea- dy treated under the article Lead, we refer the reader to p. 75 of the present volume, where he will find a short account of its most success- ful treatment. We cannot, how- ever, conclude this article, without recommending the following pre- cautions (from the first vol. of the Edinburgh Essays and Observa- tions, physical and literary, 8cc. 8vo. 1754) to the attentive consi- deration of the humane. It is a duty incumbent on all those persons who are in any manner connected with the manufacture of lead, or who reside in the vicinity of lead- mines, to spread and inculcate the means of rescuing many industri- ous members of society from a most painful death ; or, if a per- son be attacked by this terrible dis- ease, to contribute their share to- wards preserving them from feel- ing its extensive horrors. 1. No labourer should be suf- fered to repair to his work, fasting; his food ought to be fat and oily, and it would be very beneficial, if he were to drink a glass of sweet oil, either pure, or mixed with a little brandy, every morning. 2. It will be advisable to take some aperient physic, not only in the spring and in autumn, but like- wise, as often as any symptoms of the mill-reek, however slight, are perceived. 3. No spirituous liquors should be allowed, or at least, be very sparingly used, especially while the labourer is at work, or immediate- ly after it. 4. No workman in a state of perspiration must expose himself to the cold air ; but he should re- tire to his home, as speedily as possible ; and, after having chang- ed his clothes, cool himself gradu- ally. 5. Immediately after the labour- er returns from his work, he ought to take some nourishing aliment, which should principally consist of fat broths, or similar liquids. 6. The diet should be whole- some and nourishing; because scanty or poor food disposes such persons to be more frequently af- fected, and renders them too fee- ble to undergo a complete cure. MIL Lastly, as often as their employ- ment will permit, they ought to visit an open country, where they may breathe an untainted air, and find provisions free from the noxi- ous fumes oflead. Particular care must, however, be taken not to venture upon long joumies ; be- cause such persons will be more fatigued, and reduced, by travel- ling one day, than by labouring two days in the lead-mines. MILL-STONE, signifies the large circular stone, by means of which, when put in motion by machinery, corn is ground into flour. , The diameter of thi common mill-stones is, in general, from five to seven feet, and their thickness varies from 12 to 15 or 18 inches. They usually endure 35 or 40 years ; and, when they have been employed for a long time, so as to be considerably diminished, they are edged, or cut anew, in order to communicate to their surface a figure contrary to that which they originally bore; afterwards the upper mill-stone is made the lower, or bed-stone. These stones are an article of extensive utility, and were former- ly imported in great numbers from France : the Burr-stones of that country having been found harder and more durable than any that were dug out of British quarries. To prevent the national expence incurred by such importation, the Patriotic Society for the Encour- agement of Arts, &c. offered a li beral premium for the discovery of a quarry of mill-stones similar to the French burrs ; which desir- able object was attained in 1799, by Mr. Richard Bowes, of Con- way, in North V/ales, to whose VOL. IV. MIL 80 widow the Society, in 1800, voted the reward of 1001. The quarry which Mr. Bowes discovered, extends to a very con- siderable distance from the town of Conway. The stone dug from it, appears, from its external charac- ters, to consist of quartz and cherts. W nen first taken out of the soil, it is much softer, and more easily wrought into its proper shape, than after it has been exposed to the air, though only for a day. The vein in the quarry contains every varie- ty of the stone, whether cellular, close, hard, or soft, and runs Ac such a depth, that the industrious dis- coverer considered it as inexhaus- tible. Numerous certificates from the most respectable persons have been sent to the Society above mention- ed, all of whom agree in stating, that the Conway-stone will form a very valuable substitute for, and answer every purpose of, the French burr-stones. In the year 1796, a patent was granted toMr. Major Pratt, for his invention of a method of ma- nufacturing a composition-stone, calculated for grinding corn, and various other articles, in the same manner as is effected by the com- mon mill-stones. His artificial compound is stated to consist in mixing certain proportions of sili- ceous and argillaceous earths (that can only be ascertained by prac- tice), with about one-seventh part of calcareous earth. These are exposed to a fire, heated to the de- gree usually required in calcining lime, for the space of twenty-four hours, or such farther period as experience alone can determine ; after which the composition may be formed into durable stones, that N 90 MIL M IN are said to afford proper substi- tutes for those compounded by Nature. MILLET, or Milium, L. a ge- nus of plants, consisting of five species; of which the following are the principal ; namely : 1. The panicum, or Common Millet; which is a native of India, and seldom cultivated in Britain, except in gardens, for the sake of its small round seed, that affords grateful food to poultry. It may, however, be easily propagated, by sowing it in the beginning of A- pril, up^n a warm dry soil, but not too thick ; because the plants, when growing, expand, and require much room. Hence they should be kept clean from Aveeds, at their first shooting up. In August, the seed attains to maturity ; but, if expos- ed to the depredations of birds, they will devour it as soon as it begins to ripen. There is a varie- ty of this species, called the Afri- can Millet, the culture of which has been recommended by M. Tschif- keli, of Switzerland. Itflourish- es in every soil, requires neither rich manures, nor laborious tillage; and it is not devoured by birds, nor does it exhaust the soil, though af- fording very abundant crops. An- other variety of this species is the panicum germanicum, cultivated in Gennany and the south of Europe ; and which, according to M. Buse, of Erfurt, thrives in a good clayey soil, where it sometimes produces more than a thousand-fold returns. 2. The effusum, Millet-grass, or Soft Millet ; which is a na- tive of Britain, grows from five to six feet in height, in moist shady woods ; and flowers in the months of May and June. This plant is very beautiful; and, though it has no useful property to recommend it to the industrious farmer, yet it deserves to be cultivated in shady gardens, on account of its fragrant odour. Its seeds are eaten with great avidity by linnets. Besides its utility for feeding poultry, millet is highly esteemed for making puddings, and by many preferred to rice. As an article of food, however, it is by no means equal either to blanched oats, or barley, and ought not to be eaten by persons whose organs of diges- tion are weak, or impaired. MINERAL KINGDOM, an expression comprising all bodies that are dug out of subterraneous places, or mines, being totally ina- nimate, and devoid of the power of vegetation. From the preceding definition, it is obvious that minerals are inor- ganic substances which, like orga- nized bodies, have a certain origin, progressively increase, andaresub- ject to dissolution, or a decompo- sition of parts. But they arise merely by an accumulation of homo- geneal, or similar particles from without, namely, either by substan- ces combining in consequence of their attractive power, which pro- cess of Nature is called cohesion ; or by the solid particles being se- parated from the fluid ones, when the former attract each other, ac- cording to certain laws, constituting together a solid body ; and this is termed crystallization, a form of which only certain minerals are susceptible. Most metals, however, are supposed to take their ori- gin from the contact or accumula* tion of mineral or subterraneous fumes and vapours; because the latter, which float in mines and me- talic veins, at length penetrate in- to the particular fossil exposed to their action, and produce ore; or, MIN they combine, each according to their peculiar species, and afford native metal. With respect to the origin of minerals, it is probable that, in some kinds of them, a gradual re- finement and change takes place within the bowels of the earth. It is also remarkable that, in the southern hemisphere, there is a greater profusion of precious me- tals ; and these are nearer the sur- face of the earth, than in the nor- thern regions. Minerals increase in bulk only while they remain undisturbed in their natural situation ; but, by ex- posing them to the air for a suffi- cient length of time, they are de- composed, or crumble to pieces, without strictly decaying, such as is the case with organized bodies. Mineralogists divide the mineral kingdom into four classes, namely, I. Earths and stones. II. Salts. III. Inflammable bodies; such as sulphur, bitumens, amber, rock- oil, sea-coal, &c. IV. Metals. Of these, however, we cannot in this place attempt an analysis; as, according to our plan, we give concise accounts of the more use- ful mineral bodies, in their alpha- betical order. Minicm. See Red Lead. MINERAL WATERS,include all such fluids as are naturally im- pregnatedwith heterogeneous mat- ter, which they have dissolved within the bowels of the earth, whether sulphureous, metallic, or saline; and, as many of these are successfully employed in medicine, they have received the appellation of medicinal waters. Mineral waters have been divided into hot and cold, from their being MIN 91 either sensibly hotter or colder than the atmosphere. They have also been classed, according to their predominant ingredients, into aci- dulous, alkaline, martial, sulphureous, Sec. It is not, however, our design to enter upon a minute investiga- tion of their constituent parts; but, as the analysis of mineral springs may, to many inquisitive persons, afford a pleasing recreation, inde- pendently of its real utility, we shall subjoin a few rules necessary to be observed in making such expe- riments. I. All experiments ought to be conducted near the spring, if it be practicable. II. The situation of such spring, the nature of the soil, and the con- tiguous rising grounds (if any oc- cur) should be carefully examined. III. With the view of analyzing the water, it will first be necessary to observe the changes it may spon- taneously undergo, as well as the various parts,or matters, into which it may separate. For this purpose, it will be advisable to fill several shallow but large cylindrical glasses at the well, or spring, which should be immediately examined by the taste, eye, and smell : after which they ought to stand at rest for two, three, or more hours, or even as many days. At the end of this period, the investigation must be repeated ; the fluid compared with water newlydrawn from the spring; and, if any separation of parts take place, any scum arise, or sediment be formed at the bottom of the glass, they ought to be carefully collected for future examination. IV. These glasses should next be deposited in a warm place ; till, the watery parts being totally ex- haled,adry substance only remains; which ought to be compared with 92 M I N the sediment obtained from the same water by evaporation over the fire, in order that the real difference between both dry substances, may be more precisely ascertained. V. It will next be requisite to analyze the water chemically: for this purpose, a certain portion of it ought to be taken from the spring, and poured into a retort with a wide neck, to which a clean glass receiver, well luted, should be affixed. The whole must now be placed over a moderate fire, so as to simmer the water till all the aqueous particles are come over; when the vessels should be suffered to cool, the distilled water care- fully drawn off, and deposited in a well-closed glass: then the dry substance must be separated from the bottom of the retort, weighed, and likewise preserved in a glass. VI. The distilled water must next be examined by various tests, to ascertain whether it materially differ from distilledcommon water; or whether it be impregnated with any saline or mineral particles, si- milar to those observed in the na- tural fluid, when first drawn from the well. In this process, if the water contain any common salt, it will, with a solution of silver, as- sume a white colour: if vitriol of iron be one of its ingredients, it will become black, on being mixed with pulverized galls. VII. In case the water be sus- pected to contain any salts, it will be advisable gently it boil a quan- tity of the dry substance obtained by distillation, in five or six times its weight of pure common distilled water, such as is totally divested of all mineral particles. By this pro- cess, the saline matter will be dis- solved or suspended in such water, in the form of a solution, which, MIN on being filtered, and evaporated to dryness, will re-produce its salt. And, if there should be other salts in the same solution, they may all be obtained, by repeating the filtra- tion and evaporation. VIII. After the different salts are thus evolved, it will perhaps be attended with some difficulty to ascertain those species which are denominated neutral. This may be effected by observing the appear- ances assumed by such salts, on being mixed with other matters. Thus, marine or sea-salt may be known by the white vapour which it emits when in contact with oil of vitriol, and also by its taste, as well as by its cubical figure, on be- ing crystallized. Another distin- guishing characteristic of neutral salts is, their property of producing or regenerating sulphur,when mix- ed and liquefied with salt of tartar, and pulverized charcoal. Jf, there- fore, two parts of such salt be mixed with one part of salt of tartar, and a similar portion of carbon in pow- der, and the whole be melted in a crucible, a reddish mass will be formed, possessing an alkaline sul- phureous taste, and which will communicate a deep yellow, or orange colour to rectified spirit of wine. Lastly, if there remain any mat- ter, after these various operations have been performed, it is general- ly denominated an earth, which, by repeated ablutions in pure dis- tilled water, may be divided into various kinds of species, such as calcareous, siliceous, bolar, or ochreous, &c. These may be still farther examined by the test of fire ; and, according to the appear- ances they assume, on being ex- posed to that element, it may be easily discovered whether thev are MIN vitrescible, or capable of being con- verted into glass ; whether they will calcine, or become a species of lime: or, whether they will yield any metallic substancc.Such is the method by which the analy- sis of mineral waters ought to be conducted; and it is only by a strict observance of the rules above stated, that chemists have been en- abled to enrich the world with numerous discoveries in the mine- ral kingdom. As mineral waters frequently contribute to the recovery of health ; and as many persons are prevented from resorting to the place, whence such fluids are ob- tained, various experiments have been made, with the view of pro- curing them by art, and commu- nicating to them all the properties of the natural waters. The most complete of such chemical proces- ses appears to be that of M. Gold- schmid, who has established a ma- nufactory of factitious waters, at Paris, in imitation of the natural springs of Seltz, Spa, and Sedlitz, which have in all respects been found equal, or superior to those celebrated wells. His prepara- tions have undergone a rigid ex- amination by the ablest chemists, both with respect to their physical properties, and the nature of the salts employed. According to the reports of Buillon-la-Grange, andCHAUSSIER,M.GOLDSCHMID'S artificial waters are very clear and transparent, possessing a strong acid flavour, and communicating a deep red shade to the tincture of turnsol. On being placed in con- tact with various re-agents, these compounds, when mixed with lime-water, produced abundance of carbonate of lime ; with caustic alkalies, neutral salts ; and, when MIN 93 poured on the filings of the purest iron, they acquired, in a short time, a ferruginous taste. With respect to the carbonic acid, or fixed air, it appears that the factitious waters contain of it twice and a half of their volume, which is considerably more than the natural springs. The advantages of these ingeni- ous preparations are stated to be, 1. That they are not liable to be affected by rainy weather, as is the case with the natural water, which is remarkably influenced by the season. 2. That they do not part with any gas and other volatile constituents, by conveyance, and by keeping them for some length of time ; and 3. That the natural fluid can hold in solution only such a proportion of metallic ingredi- ents as the acids and gases con- tained therein, are capable of dis- solving ; while the factitious mi- neral waters are not only cheaper and more efficacious, but retain their virtues without diminution, are impregnated with a larger volume of gas, and may be com- posed of any quantity and quality of salt or earth, according to par- ticular circumstances. Lastly,they are far more convenient to the purchaser, being much stronger than the natural waters,so thatthere will be no occasion to drink such large and nauseating doses, as are usually taken of the latter. MINT, or Mentha, L. a genus of plants comprising 24 species. 12 being natives of Britain; of which the following are the prin- cipal : 1. The Pulegium: See Pen- nyroyal. 2. The Arvensis, or Corn- mint ; growing on moist heaths, pastures, and in sandy inundated 94 MIN MIS fields; flowering from June to September....It is eaten by horses, and goats, but disliked by sheep, and refused by hogs and cows ; though the animals last mention- ed devour it eagerly towards the end of the summer, when pressed by hunger, and the pastures are bare; in which case it prevents the coagulation of their milk, so that it is with the greatest difficul- ty converted into cheese. 3. The viridis, or Spear-mint, which grows on the banks of ri- vers, and in watery situations ; flowers in the months of July and August....It is propagated by part- ing the roots ; and, as its flavour is more agreeable than that of most other species of this plant, it is generally preferred for culinary purposes...The leaves of the Spear- mint, when prepared with sugar, form a delicious conserve ; and the distilled waters,both spirituous and simple, are highly esteemed for their mildness and pleasant taste. ...Theleavesareeaten in the spring as a salad ; and their juice, when boiled with sugar, is formed into lozenges. 4. The piperita, or Pepper- mint, growing in watery places, and on the banks of rivulets ; flow- ering in the months of August and September.....Its stem and leaves abound with minute vesicles con- taining a very pungent essential oil, that rises in distillation....This species is the strongest and most aromatic of the mints, on which ac- count it is alone used in medicine, and the liquor prepared from it, is known under the name of Pepper- mint-water.....Being an excellent stomachic, it is but too often used in cases of impaired appetite, fla- tulence, colics, nausea, and incli- nation to vomit. It has also occa- sionally been found of service in hysteric affections; and, however harmless in itself, when consider- ed as a simple water, this exhila- rating carminative is so far a dan- gerous domestic medicine, as with many nervous and irritable per- sons, it is apt to introduce a habit of tasting the stronger spirituous liquors. MISSELTOE, the Common, White Misseltoe, or Missel; Vis- cum album. L. a parasitical plant growing on Apple and Pear-trees, the Hawthorn, Service, Oak, Ma- ple, &c. ; flowering in the month of May. From the berries, as well as the bark of this plant, good bird-lime may be prepared ; and, if the for- mer be rubbed, when fully ripe, on the bark of almost any tree, they will adhere closely, and pro- duce plants in the succeeding win- ter. Fieldfares and thrushes eat the Misseltoe berries, the seeds of which pass through them unchang- ed, and along with their excre- ments adhere to the branches of trees, where they vegetate....No art has yet induced the Misseltoe to take root in the earth....Sheep eagerly devour this plant, which is frequently cut off the trees for them, during severe winters ; nay, it is even said to preserve these animals from the rot. Professor Bock, in his Natural History of Prussia (vol. iii.p. 367, Germ, edi.), informs us, that poor people have often, in times of scar- city, collected and dried the stalks and branches of the Misseltoe ; then pulverized and mixed them with rye-flower ; and thus obtain- ed nourishing bread, which was by no means unwholesome....Profes- sor Leonhardi, in a similar work, MIT MOI 95 observes that the Misseltoe, or birdlime, when combined with soapboilers' suds, affords a good substitute for soap, and is alike soluble in water and spirit of wine. MITE, or Acarus, L. a genus of insects, consisting of 35 species, the principal of which is the Asiro, Common, or Cheese-mite. It is very small, and when first hatched, is so extremely minute as to be scarcely perceptible by the naked eye. Though principally infesting cheese, there are several varieties of this species, breeding in flour, meal, &c and occasioning consi- derable injury. The most effec- tual method of expelling these noxious vermin is, according to Leeuwenhoek (who was inde- fatigably attentive to their gene- ration and growth), to place a few nutmegs in the sack, or bin con- taining the flour ; as the odour of that spice is insupportable to mites : which will thus be remov- ed, without the meal acquiring any unpleasant flavour.....Funke ad- vises a cheaper remedy, consisting in the decorticated thick branches of the lilac or elder-trees, which are to be put in the flour, and will answer both as a preventative; and for their expulsion. There are other species of mites, that breed in animals when un- clean or filthy, especially in dogs, cows, &c. nay, even on insects..... Nor is the human body exempt from their invasion, particularly when infected with the itch (or other eruptive disease), of which they are by many considered as the cause; mites having been frequent- ly found in the watery pustules which occasion that peculiar itch- ing sensation. In dysentery, also, these vermin have been ejected with the feces; whence it is evi- dent that they live and prey on the interior parts of the system. Mithridate. See Venice Treacle. MITHRIDATE-MUSTARD, or Bastard-cress, Thlaspi, L. a genus of plants comprising four- teen species, six of which are na- tives of Britain : the principal of these is the arvense, Smooth Mi- thridate-Mustard, Treacle-Must- ard, or Penny-cress. It grows in corn-fields, especially in muddy soils, and flowers in the months of June and July. The whole plant has the flavour of garlic ; and its seeds possess the acrimony of mustard. It is, never- theless, eaten by goats, hogs, and cows, to the milk of which it im- parts an unpleasant taste ; but is refused by horses and sheep. MOISTURE denotes a proper- ty peculiar to certain bodies that absorb humidity from the atmos- phere ; such are, sugar, salt,sponge, &c. but which again exhale the watery particles, when exposed to a drier air, or a warmer tempera- ture. The moisture of the air has a considerable effect on the human frame. Thus, if the quantity and quality of the food, together with the proportion of meat and drink, be ascertained, the weight of the body will be less, and the discharg- es will consequently be greater, during dry than in wet weather; because the humidity of the air communicates itself to the fibres of the skin ; and, by lessening their vibratory motion, diminishes the insensible perspiration. A patent was granted, in 1795, to Mr. James Wills on, for his invention of a mode of preventing, in a very material degree, the ef- 96 M O L M OL fects of moisture on the human body ; and of facilitating relief in inflammatory and spasmodic com- plaints, arising from humidity, as well as from other causes. The curious reader will consult the 12th vol. of the Repertory of'Arts, Sec. where a full specification is given, and illustrated with an engraving MOLASSES,orMELAssEs,the gross fluid matter, which remains after refining sugar; and which cannot by simple boiling be reduc- ed to a more solid consistence than that of common syrup, vulgarly called treacle. In Holland, this article is chiefly used in the manufacture of tobac- co, and by the poor people as a substitute for sugar. A kind of brandy is prepared from it in this country, in considerable quantities, by dissolving a certain portion of molasses in water ; fermenting it with wine-lees ; and distilling the whole over a moderate fire. This spirit is, however, generally adul- terated in such a manner as to ren- der it extremely pernicious to the consumer; but as it tinges the hands, or any substance immersed in it, of a fine yellow colour, it may, we conceive, be more advan- tageously converted to the purpo- ses of dyeing. Molasses likewise form a whole- some and agreeablebeverage,when prepared as a kind of Beer, of which we have already given an account, in our first volume..... Farther, this thick fluid may be di- vested of its mawkish taste, and thus rendered fit to be used as a substitute for sugar. We select the followingprocess froniCRELL's Chemical Annals (vol. i. part 2. 1798, in German), published from the experiments originally made by M. Lowitz : Let 24lbs. of molasses, a similar quantity of wa- ter, and six pounds of charcoal coarsely pulverized, be mixed in a kettle, and the whole boiled over a slow fire. When the mixture has simmered for the space of half an hour, it must be decanted into a deep vessel, that the charcoal may subside; after which the liquid should be poured ofiyand again placed over the fire, that the superfluous water may evapwate, and restore the syrup to its former consistence. Twenty-four pounds of molasses thus refined, will pro- duce an equal quantity of syrup. This method has been success- fully practised, on a large scale, in Germany; and, we conceive it might be advantageously imitated; for the molasses thus become sensi- bly milder, and may consequently be employed in various articles of food. For dishes, however, in which milk is an ingredient, or for cordials which are to be mixed with spices, it will be preferable to make use of sugar. MOLE, or Talpa, L. a genus of quadrupeds, consisting of seven species, of which the Europaus, or European Mole, only is found in Britain. It abounds in all parts of Europe, excepting Ireland. This animal is from five to six inches in length : its head is large, without any external cars, and its eyes are so very minute, and con- sealed in the fur, that it is vulgarly believed to be blind. The mole chiefly frequents mea- dows, gardens, and moist fields that are exposed to the sun, espe- cially on the approach of rain ; when it does considerable damage, by loosening fibres and roots of vegetables, while constructing its MOL M O L 97 subterraneous abode. The female produces from four to six young at a time, which are deposited in nests, artfully made with moss, leaves and dried grass, beneath the largest hillocks of the field..... These dwellings are formed with admirable ingenuity, consisting of an interior hillock, surrounded with a ditch, that communicates with se- veral streets, bye-ways and galle- ries. Various means have been con- trived for extirpating moles, such as irrigating the fields infested with them, &c. but the most effectual is that described by Dr. Darwin, in his Phytologia, and derived from the experience of a successful mole- catcher. This man commenced his operations before the rising of the sun, when he carefully watched their situation ; and, frequently ob- serving the motion of the earth above their walks, he struck a spade into the ground behind them, cut of their retreat, and dug them up. As moles usually place their nests much deeper in the ground than their common habitations are . situated, and thus produce an ele- vation, or a mole-hill, the next step is to demolish such nests by the spade ; after which the frequented paths must be distinguished from the bye-roads, for the purpose of setting subterraneous traps. This will be effected by marking every new mole-hill with a slight pres- sure of the foot, and observing the next day, whether a mole has pas- sed over it, and effaced such mark; which operation must be repeated two or three mornings in succes- sion, but without making an im- pression so deep as to alarm and induce the animal to open another passage. Vol.. IV. The traps must now be set in the frequented paths, and ought to consist of a hollow wooden semi- cylinder, each end of which should be furnished with grooved rings, containing two nooses of horse- hair, that are fastened loosely in the centre, by means of a peg, and are stretched above the surface of the ground, by a bent stick or strong hoop. As soon as the mole passes half way through one of these nooses, and removes the cen- tral peg in his course, the curved stick rises in consequence of its elasticity, and thus strangles the animal. The method above detailed be- ing ingenious, it deserves to be ge- nerally adopted ; as those, whose grounds are infested with moles, may easily extirpate them,or teach the art to their labourer*. It is, however, in our opinion, an unde- cided point, whether these little quadrupeds, that live entirely on worms and insects, of which they consume incalculable numbers, are not to be considered as harmless, nay useful rather than noxious ; especially as they have their for- midable natural enemies in foxes, martins, weasels, hedge-hogs, ser- pents, and cats. Farther, it has been observed, that fields and gar- dens, where all the moles had been caught, abounded with vermin and insects. But, if these burrowing creatures become too numerous and hurtful to the vegetation of plants, or dangerous to dykes and banks, the most easy method of de- stroying them is, to expose a few living lobsters in a deep-glazed earthen vessel, the top of which is somewhat narrower than its basis, so that they cannot escape : such a pot must be buried several inches deep in the ground, and covered O 98 M O L MO L with green sods, so as to be acces- sible to the mole, which is remark- ably partial to that shell-fish. No sooner has one of the former en- tered the pot, than others from the vicinity will hasten to the fatal re- ceptacle, in consequence of the noise made by the captive ; and thus meet with inevitable destruc- tion. MOLE-CRICKET, or Gi-yllus gryllo-talpa, L. a destructive insect, in the vicinity of rivers, infesting moist meadows, and gardens, in which it does great injury to the plants and roots ; destroying whole beds of cabbages, flowers, &c. It is produced from an egg, and fur- nished with wings similar to those of the common cricket, together with a pair of fore-feet resembling those of a mole, and with which it works its way beneath the soil, raising up ridges in its subterrane- ous progress, and defacing the beau- ty of garden-walks. No method has hitherto been discovered of preventing the depredations of these pernicious vermin. But, as the generality of crickets are particu- larly averse to the fetid exhalations of hogs'-dung, it is highly proba- ble that the mole-cricket may be ex- pelled, though not extirpated, by spreading this kind of manure up- on infested lands. Mole-plough. See Drain- ing, vol. ii. [And Plough.] MOLTEN-GREASE, a disor- der in horses, consisting ofafator oily discharge with the faeces : it arises from a colliquation or melt- ing down of the animal's fat, in consequence of violent exercise in very hot weather. This disease is always attended with fever, heat, restlessness, start- ing and tremblings, great sick- ness, shortness of breath, and some- times with inflammatory symp- toms. The horse rapidly becomes lean, and, if it survive this attack, commonlv grows hide-bound ; his legs swell, and continue in that state, till the humours are in a more natural condition ; but, if the dis- order be neglected, the farcy, or an obstinate surfeit, generally suc- ceeds, and which is with difficulty removed. The first step towards effecting a cure of this malady, ought to be profuse blood-letting; an operation which should be repeated, though in smaller quantities, for two or three successive days. Immedi- ately after these evacuations, two or three rowels should be introdu- ced, with a view to promote a large drain ; while cooling emollient clysters are administered, to abate the fever. The drink should con- sist of warm water or gruel, with cream of tartar, or nitre, in order to dilute or attenuate the blood; which, in this case, is greatly dis- posed to become clotted, and to engender a total stagnation of the fluids. When the fever has abated, and the horse has recovered his appe- tite, the following mild purgative should be given once a week, for some time, till the disorder be en- tirely removed : Take of Socotrine aloes 6 drams, of pulverized gum guaiacum -i an ounce, of diapho- retic antimony and powder of myrrh, each 2 drams; form the whole into a ball with syrup of buckthorn. While this medicine is operating, the horse's labour should be suspended for two or three days every week : thus, he will lose neither his flesh nor ap- petite, but improve in both ; be- M OL MOO 99 cause this ball is, on the whole, preferable to any other preparation for that purpose. MOLYBDOENA, a mineral that is frequently confounded with black-lead ; though possessing pro- perties widely different from the latter. It is of a laminated tex- ture, or formed of plates which slightly cohere; are some what greasy to the touch, and soil the fingers ; leaving, on paper, marks or traces of a dark-grey colour. This metal has, hitherto, been found only in Sweden, Germany, Carniola, and the Alps. It is of a light lead-grey shade, sometimes shaded with red, or streaked with a blueish grey. It is insoluble in the sulphuric and muriatic acids ; though, in a boiling heat, it tinges them green ; effervesces with warm nitric acid, leaving a grey oxyd or powder undissolved : and also with soda, to which it imparts a reddish pearl-colour. Molybdoena is at present ex- tremely scarce ; but, should it ever be found in abundance, it will cer- tainly be of great utility both for dyeing and painting. If one ounce of the perfect oxyd of molybdoena, be boiled with sixteen ounces of water, till the liquor is reduced to one-third; then filtred, and half an ounce of it poured into a small glass vessel, containing ten grains of tin-filings; and next, if four drops of the muriatic acid be ad- ded to this mixture, and the whole be suffered to stand at rest, a fine blue colour will be speedily pro- duced, which rises from the bot- tom ; gradually acquires a deeper shade ; and is, at length, deposited in the form of a blue powder. A beautiful blue lake may like- wise be obtained, by precipitating the solution of muriat of tin, by means of dissolved molybdat of pot-ash, if both solutions be previ- ously diluted with a considerable proportion of distilled water. This precipitate is called by Righter blue carmine ; and, we conceive, might be of eminent service to por- trait-painters. MONEY, a piece of metal, which by public authority bears a certain weight and value, so that it may serve as a circulating me- dium in commerce. Money is, in general, divided into two kinds, viz. imaginary/, or money of account ; and real, or effective. The former class in- cludes such as never was coined in specie ; and, though a certain term for expressing it has been invented or retained in different countries, with a view to facilitate the stating of accounts, by keeping them on an uniform basis, yet this ideal money is not liable to be changed in the same manner as current coins, which are raised, or lowered, as the exigencies of the State may require. Of this nature, for in- stance, are the Pound, Shilling and penny, as well as the nominal mo- nies of other countries. Real money comprehends all coins or species of gold, silver, cop- per, Sec which do exist and are commonly cuiTent. Such are eagles and half-eagles, in gold ; dollars, half-dollars and quarter-dollars, in silver, and cents, in copper. MOON, in astronomy, one of the heavenly bodies, usually, though erroneously, classed among the pla- nets; for it is with more propriety considered as a satellite, or secon- dary planet. The mean distance of the moon from the earth, is computed by as- 100 MOO tronomers, to be about 240,000 miles: her diameter is as 100 to 365, that is, about 2,180 miles. The moon appears to us under various forms; being sometimes horned, at others semi-circular; then full and round. Sometimes this celestial body increases ; at others, it is on the wane; illumining the globe, we inhabit, at certain periods throughout the whole night, at others only for a few hours.... The cause cf these appearances is believed to arise from the moon being an opaque dark body, which shines only with the light she re- ceives from the sun; hence only the part turned towards that lumi- nary can be illuminated, and con- sequently transmit light; as the other side is involved in its native darkness. These phenomena, how- ever, it is not within our province to explain: and, as the inquisitive rea- der will doubtless consult the pro- found writings of Maskelyne, Herschel, and other astronomers, who have devoted their sleepless nights to the observation of this satellite, we shall not enter into any iXither details....See also Astro- nomy. Formerly, the moon was believed to possess considerable influence on the human body; but such opinion, though sanctioned by the name of Mead, and other eminent physi- cians, is now generally exploded. This luminary, however, greatly influences the vegetable creation, and likewise appears to affect qua- drupeds, especially horses. It is well known, that these useful ani- mals are subject to a weakness of the eyes (particularly when they are somewhat advanced in years); and that such debility increases, or decreases, according to the course ©f the moon ; whence they are said MOO to have moon-exjes. Thus, in the wane, they are dull and muddy, of troubled; but on the approach or the new moon, they re-assume their former lustre.....No remedy has hitherto been discovered for this affection, which generally termi- nates in total blindness. MOOR, or MooR-LAND,a black, light, soft soil, remarkably loose, without any admixture of stones, and containing a very small pro- portion of clay, or sand. This earth usually forms the up- permost stratum of fen-lands, and consists almost wholly of pure ve- getable matter, which renders it very fertile. Moors, however, are subject to inundations, and they retain moisture for a considerable time, so as to render it difficult for cattle to graze, without poaching the soil. To remedy this inconve- nience, the tenants of such lands, pare and burn them at certain sea- sons of the year; by which pro- cess their nature is considerably improved, as the surface readily takes fire, and burns freely. In other respects, the conversion of moors into arable or pasture land, varies little from the method already stated under the article Marsh ; provided such tracts of ground be in a plain, or on a level. It will be advisable, however, to plant the black willow preferably to any other tree or shrub; as it flourishes well on moors, and af- fords an excellent shelter to cattle during stormy weather. The course of crops that has been found most profitable, is, for the first three years, grass; that is, hay-seeds, and the different kinds of clover, sown after the surface has been burnt and ploughed in: during the next three years, two crops of corn, with an intermediate fallow. By MOO MOO 101 audi rotation, lands that were natu- rally of little value, have been ren- dered fit to produce very beneficial crops. But, where moors occur in mountainous situations,Mr.Y'oung recommends them first to be drain- ed and irrigated, as the water will work numerous passages round the heath,that isusually found in moor- lands ; but which will speedily pe- rish when flooded, and will be suc- ceeded by sweet grasses, and other useful plants. The next step will be to inclose the land with a double, dry stone- wall, between which young oaks, alders, ash, holly, mountain-ash, Sec. maybe advantageously planted; for, independently of the immediate shelter thus afforded to cattle, they will, in the course of a few years, become very profitable woods. In some cases, a simple inclosure has, without farther cultivation, been found very beneficial for feeding the common Scotch wethers, which are distinguished by black faces and legs, and long coarse wool..... Mr. Young observes, that moun- tainous moors, if tolerably well co- vered with heath, intermixed with spots of sedge, rushes, and coarse grass, will support a sheep on an acre, throughout the year ; and, as the rot seldom occurs on these lands, it has been found, that flocks pastured on them without the ad- dition of hay, thrive'well, and often- times better than those which are regularly foddered. If, however, the design be to establish a grass- farm, it will be advisable to pare, burn, and lime the lands,afterwhich they must be once thinly ploughed, that the lime and ashes may not be too deeply buried. As the cultivation of mountain- ous moors is either productive of great profit, or of total ruin, the greatest judgment is requisite in fixing the course of crops. The chief object being to convert these soils ultimately into good meadows, or sheep-walks, the tillage ought only to extend to the destruction of spontaneous growth ; to the re- moval of the acidity peculiar to peat soils, and to support a flock during the winter: which purposes may be effected by paring and lim- ing judiciously, and also by sowing hay....The first course, which Mr. Y'oung considers as deserving more particular attention, is: 1. Turnips, or cabbages. 2. Oats. 3. Grasses, mown. 4. See. Grasses, fed. This course is generally prefer- able to others; but, in case it should be found inadequate, he re- commends the following variation to be adopted, viz. 1. Turnips or cabbages. 2. Cabbages or turnips. 3. Oats. 4. Grasses, mown. 5. Grasses, fed. Such rotation is, in Mr. Young's opinion, far superior to that in which turnips, Sec. and oats, are sown twice alternately, previously to laying down grass-seeds ; be- cause the grass is thus defended one year; whereas two alternate crops of oats too much exhausts the virtues of the manure, before the grass-seeds are sown ; while the turnips, &c. being fed on the land, return to it, by the dung of the cattle, comparatively more than they derive or take from it. As there are extensive wastes in various parts of England, which consist of moors, capable of being brought into a high degree of cul- tivation, the patriotic Society for 102 MOO MOO the Encouragement of Arts, £cc. has, from time to time, offered premiums for improving them.... Large tracts of land have, in con- sequence, been rescued from a state of nature ; but the most con- siderable improvement appears to be that effected by John Mire- house, Esq. of Brownsdale, Pem- brokeshire, on whom the Society, in 1800, conferred their gold me- dal ; and whose merit we have in- cidentally mentioned, under the ar- ticle Draining. The quantity of land thus reco- vered, was 274 acres, situated be- tween two hills, which extended nearly two miles in length: it was formerly a common, so complete- ly inundated, as to be of little or no value. The lord of the manor having obtained an act of parlia- ment for its inclosure, Mr. Mire- house proposed to take a lease, on condition that the proprietors should cut a drain, and lay down a tunnel; which being accordingly executed, a lease was concluded, and Mr. Mirehouse proceeded to complete the drainage. He formed a channel onthenorth side, and divided the land into 12 pieces, by double ditches, of such a depth as the fall would allow, from a few inches to four feet: between the ditches, a space of about 30 or 40 feet was left for planting willows. The soil ap- peared a perfect sponge ; and, as soon as the drains began to take effect, it sank so considerably that, after frequently lowering the ditch- es, the surface of the water re- mained nearly the same distance from that of the land. Having re- peatedly sunk the principal drains and ditches, he at length obtained above three feet from the water to the surface of the land, in the low- est parts; and, in others, a level sufficient for his purpose. The common being thus inclos- ed and divided, Mr. Mirehqusl- commenced the draining of each division, by small internal cuts( about twenty inches wide at the top, and of various depths, to three feet and a half, reducing them to six inches at the bottom; leaving those open which were in the direction of the plough, and filling up oth- ers with brush-wood. Both these drains answer to his entire satis- faction ; and he observes that the whole common has been converted from a state of waste into excel- lent land, for the sum of 508/. We regret that our limits do not allow us to detail the course of crops pursued by this truly " Prac- tical Agriculturist:" let it there- fore suffice, to conclude, that bar- ley and oats have seldom succeed- ed ; but the wheat raised on this land, has been very abundant, and the grain weighty : cole-seed has also been cultivated with great ad- vantage ; as a winter food, the crops having in general been very fine, and enabled Mr. Mirehouse to feed great numbers of sheep dur- ing the space of four months, from January to April; and to fat- ten them much sooner than he had ever been able to effect, on turnips of the best quality, produced on his home-grounds. In short, the land, from being of no value, has already been very productive ; and Mr. Mirehouse thinks it will, in a short time, become the most va- luable meadow of the neighbour- hood. The vegetable substance thus drained, has become a fine luxuriant black mould, to the very surface of the waters, and is dai- ly losing its sponginess, and ac- quiring greater cohesion. MOR MORDANTS,orMoRDicANTS, in dyeing, signify those substan- ces, which are employed for the purpose of macerating the stuffs, and rendering them capable of im- bibing the tinging matter. Of this nature are, the sulphat of alumine ; acidulous tartrite of pot-ash ; the solution of tin in nitro-muriatic, and oxygenated muriatic acids; the vegetable astringent principle, or gallic acid ; acetite of alumine ; sulphat of copper, or blue vitriol; arsenic ; acetite of copper, or ver- digrease ; and the sulphat of zinc, or white vitriol. Mordicants act on stuffs in two different ways : 1. By parting with a portion of their oxygen, in con- sequence of which the substance of such stuffs is changed, and their attraction for the pigment or co- louring matter is increased ; and, 2. By altering, in a similar man- ner, the nature of the pigment, and rendering it capable of coagu- lation. Thus, the colouring mat- ter undergoes several changes, and receives various degrees of a light- er or darjter shade. It would exceed our limits, to point out the different mordicants, which are adapted to certain co- lours, or to particular stuffs ; for these can be only ascertained by experience. But, as the fine Tur- key red communicated to cotton by means of madder, depends princi- pally on the mordants employed in that process ; and, as the know- ledge of these is involved in consi- derable obscurity, by the jealousy or avarice of dyers, we shall sub- join a few hints on their effects in dyeing cotton red, selected from the memoir lately published by M. Chai'tal, in the " Annates de Chimie." MOR 103 The three principal mordants used in this operation are, oil, galls, and alum. The greatest caution is necessa- ry in choosing the oil, which ought to be similar to that employed in painting, and to contain a large portion of the extractive principle. Hence, this oil should not be com- pletely saturated with the alkali; but previously to giving the red dye to the stuff, it ought to be combined with a weak solution of soda (or of potash, if the former alkali cannot be easily procured) ; and the cotton duly impregnated with this preparation ; by which every part of it will thoroughly im- bibe the oil. The next process is that of galling, for which purpose, galls only should be employed, as no other vegetable astringent is equally efficacious. The last mordicant is alum, which not only possesses the pro- perty of brightening the red tint produced by madder, but at the same time contributes, by its de- composition, and the fixity of its earth or aluminous base, to give solidity to the colour. In order to judge of its effects in dyeing cot- ton, it will be sufficient to mix a decoction of galls with a solution of alum. The mixture will imme- diately become turbid, and a grey- ish precipitate be formed, which, on being dried, is insoluble both in water and in alkaline ley. Great care, however,is requisite, that the aluminous solution be not too hot, lest part of the astringent principle, obtained from the galls, escape from the cotton, and the alum be decomposed in the immersion ; a circumstance by which the power of themordant isnecessarily dimin- ished, and the colour is impaired. 104 MOR M OR It is, therefore, to be attributed wholly to the united effects of the three principles (oil, the astringent principle, and the earth, or base of alum), which serve as a mordant in dyeing red with madder. If these be employed separately, they will neither produce the same fixity, nor afford a similar brilli- ancy of colour. MOROCCO-LEATFIER, the skins of goats tanned and dyed in a peculiar manner by the Turks; but which processes were original- ly invented in the kingdom of Mo- rocco. The skins are prepared in par- cels, consisting of 36, divided into six bundles, which are folded inthe middle, lengthwise, and thrown into a pit fullTjf lime, whence they are taken out, rinsed in pure wa- ter, drained, and suspended in the shade to dry, till the hair becomes loose. After carefully taking off the latter, the skins are returned to the lime-pit, for two or three weeks, when they are again rinsed, and passed repeatedly through a decoction prepared of 30lbs. of dog's-dung, and an equal quantity of water. As soon as the skins are thus gradually impregnated, they are thrown into a large vessel for the space of twelve hours, after which they are cleaned with pure water, and immersed for seven or eight days in a watery decoction made of bran. The skins are now wrung, and thoroughly washed in clear water, to render them soft and pliable : next they are cured, by spreading a thick layer of common sea-salt, in the proportion of about half a pound to each skin, and piling them up,till they are rendered sufficient- ly supple. The last process which the skins undergo, previously to being dyed, is immersion in a liquor prepared by boiling 24 ounces of dried figs, for each skin, in a copper (we believe, treacle would answer the same purpose), in which they remain till they are about to be suspended in the air for drying : lastly, they are dipped in a solution of alum, that disposes them for the immediate reception of the dye. The chief colours communicated to Morocco-leather, are red and yellow, for the preparation of which, the Turks have long been celebrated. The red colour is prepared by mixing together various articles, in the following proportions, which are required for a parcel of 36 skins: Drams. Cochineal - - 130 Round suchet (crocus indicus) 45 Gutta gamba - - 15 Gum-arabic - - 10 White alum, pulverized - 10 Bark of the pomegranate-tree 10 Citron juice - 2 Common water - 120lbs. The alum is gradually added to the other articles,whichare thrown into a copper, where they should be boiled for about two hours, till one-tenth part of the water be con- sumed. In this mixture the skins are repeatedly immersed ; and, when sufficiently imbued with the colour, they are dried, and again steeped in a vessel, containing three pounds of hot water (for every two skins) together with one pound of sumach, and a simi- lar quantity of gall-nuts, pulveriz- ed and sifted....As soon as the skins are completely impregnated with this liquor, they are slightly rubbed over with a sponge dipped in pure water, and suspended, MOR MOR 105 Without being folded, on a wooden frame, for about three quarters of an hour, to drain. They are now carried to a river, or running wa- ter, where they are repeatedly rinsed, then pressed with weights, in order to extract the moisture, and hung up in a warm room to dry....The last process which red Morocco leather undergoes, is that of polishing : this is effected by means of various wooden instru- ments, that contribute at the same time to remove such of the par- ticles of gall and sumach as may adhere to the skins. The yellow colour is prepared in a manner nearly similar to that just described ; the common Avig- non or yellow berries {Graine . d'Avignon) being substituted for cochineal, and* employed in simi- lar proportions. The only variation between the two processes of dyeing red and yellow, is, that the former is tinged with the colouring matter, before it is worked, or polished with the wooden instruments ; whereas this operation is performed on the lat- ter, previously to its being dyed.... But these two are not the only co- lours dyed by the Turks, who like- wise manufacture black, green, and blue leather ; which last three, however, are not only destitute of lustre, but are extremely perish- able. The Turks, indeed, are as inferior to Europeans in preparing the more common species, as they excel them in manufacturing and dyeing the red and yellow moroc- cos,. MORTAR, apreparationof lime and sand, mixed with water: it serves as a cement, and is employ- ed by masons and bricklayers in erecting walls, houses, isfc. Mortar being an article of "ex- VOL. IV. tensive utility, it becomes an ob- ject of considerable importance to discover such a method of pre- paring it, together with such ma- terials, as will perfectly cohere, and at the same time resist the action of the weather. Having already treated, at some length, on this subject, under the head of Cement, we shall at pre- sent state some of the most simple methods of preparing strong and durable mortar. The proportions of lime and sand usually employed in making the common mortar, are two parts of the former to three of the latter, which are mixed up with soft wra- ter; but its quality and durability will, according to Dr. Anderson, be considerably improved, if the lime be slacked, and the sand mix- ed up with lime-water, instead of the common. The reason assign- ed for this opinion is, that the fluid drawn from wells contains a large portion of fixed air ; which, by- mingling with the mortar before it is used, reduces the quick-lime in- to a kind of inert calcareous earth, similar to chalk, and thus spoils the cement. But, if the mortar be worked up in a perfectly caustic state, it attracts the air so slowly, that it concretes into a kind of sto- ny matter, which, in the course of time, becomes as hard as the rock from which the lime-stone was taken. [The tarras mortar used at the bridge now building over Schuyl- kill, was composed of " one part tarras, two parts lime, and three parts sand," and was found to hard- en in a very short time.] See also Building. In the year 1777 was published (in French), an ingenious " Inqui- ry concerning the Manner in which P 106 MOR ^ the Romans prepared thie Lime they used in Building ; as also on their method of mixing and using their Mortar A by M. De Lafaye..... The principal circumstance ap- pears to be the mode of slaking the lime without liquefying it, so as to reduce it to powder; and at the same time to leave it sufficiently caustic to yield a strong mortar ; which, in proportion to its age, will acquire additional strength.... To effect such object, it is requi- site to select good fresh lime, made of hard lime-stone, which is to be broken into pieces of the size of an egg. These should be placed in a shallow open basket, which ought to be plunged into water, till the surface of the fluid begin to boil. The basket is then drawn out, and suffered to drain for a short time ; after which the lime is put into casks, where it speedily grows hot, and crumbles into powder. The lime thus prepared, is to be mixed with various compositions of mortar, according to the pur- poses for which they are designed. It may be preserved for a consider- able time, and will retain its use- ful properties, by simply covering the casks with straw. M. Guy- ton states, in a late volume of the Annales de Chimie, that he em- ployed this lime, 18 years since, in the construction of a small aque- duct, which was intended to con- vey water to an artificial nitre-bed. The mortar consisted of equal parts of the following three ingredients, namely, sand, fragments of cal- careous stone, and lime slacked according to the directions above given : in a short time, it acquired an uncommon degree of firmness, which has remained unimpaired since that period. MOR [The propriety of the above di- rections of Dr. A. are confirmed bv the experience of the gentlemen composing the building committee of the permanent bridge now erect- ing over the Schuylkill at high-st. who inform the public in their late publication respecting the progress of the work, that the mortar used in cementing the stone work, was made by " throwing sand into a bed of the wash of slacked lime, which then received an addition of sand, till brought to its proper con- sistence for use." The propor- tions were three parts of coarse sharp sand, and one part of lime. Richer mortar was found to dimi- nish the strength of the cement. On the subject of making mor- tar, Dr. A. further says; it is of importance that much water should be used, and that it be retained as long in the mortar as possible, and accounts for the superior strength of the ancient mortar from its grea- ter fluidity, and the slow manner in which it dried. 2. It is impossible to astertain the due proportion of sand for making the most perfect cement, owing to the more or less degree of calcination of the lime stone; and it may be added, the quality of the sand used ; which varies very much. 3. The best modern mortar Dr. A. ever saw, was made of lime, which he had analysed, and found it contained eleven parts of sand to one of lime ; to this there was added between twice and thrice its whole bulk of sand by measure, which may be allowed to have been at least three times its quantity by weight; or, not less, that 47 parts of sand to one of lime. This mortar was used for pinning the outside joints of the MOR MOR 107 stone walls of a house, in a tem- pestuous climate, and in 21 years, exhibited no appearance of fall- ing. 4. When lime is to be employ- ed for plaster, every particle of limestone should be slacked be- for it is worked up, as the action of the water upon the undissolved particles of lime would slack them, and produce the excrescenses, call- ed blisters. Hence the lime, if impure, should lie for a consider- able time macerating or souering in water, before it is worked up. Pure well calcined limestone will soon falljbutthisaoimng'asit iscall- ed, should never be omitted. This process, though not essential, in makingmor?ar,is stillof use, as any dry knots which may fall after the mortar is used, must tend to disu- nite the parts, and render the ce- ment imperfect. The best burnt lime Dr. A. ever saw, required some days to macerate in the wa- ter, before the whole slaked. Mr. Dossie's directions con- cerning mortar, are however very different from the above. See our vol. I. Under the article Cement, re- ference was made by Dr. Wil- lich to Mr. Loriot's publication in France, " On cement and artifi- cial stone :" in which a new mode of making mortar is recommended, viz. by mixing slaked lime with one third part of its quantity of fresh lime. Dr. A. repeated the experiment several times, with only this difference, that he employed lime that had lain a considerable time beat up with water, as is usual to allow it to sour, instead of lime long covered up in a pit, like that which M. Loriot employed ; and asserts, that he perceived no great- er hardness than in common mor- tar ; and hence, he is induced to think that the uncommon effects observed from the mortar by Mr. L. must have been occasioned by some other unobserved peculiarity, and not merely by the circum- stance to which he ascribes it. The water with which mortar is made up, is of great consequence v to the perfection of the cement. It should be as free as possible from carbonic acid (fixed air); when, therefore, about to commence a building, we should add to the water supposed to contain the injurious ingredient, an equal bulk of lime- water. If carbonic acid be present, either free or combined, a precipi- tatewill immediately appear,which on adding a few drops of muriatic acid (spirit of salt), will again be dissolved with effervescence. The water in the pumps of Phi- ladelphia, in general, is impreg- nated with this air; river or rain water therefore ought to be used.] MORTIFICATION, or Spha- celus, in the animal economy, is generally defined to be a total ex- tinction of the natural heat of the body, or rather of a peculiar part, in consequence of inflammation. Under the article Gangrene, we have already given some hints respecting the nature andtreatment of this dangerous affection, so that we shall at present only add a few supplementary observations. Mortifications of the external parts, such as the legs and feet, more frequently occur in debilitat- ed persons, and those who are ad- dicted to the use of spirituous li- quors ; or in the aged, gouty, scor- butic, Sec. than in the young and robust. Beside the means suggested for the removal of this complaint, in article Gangrene, there are thrc'e 108 MOR other remedies, which have fre- quently proved successful. Carminati recommends the external application of the gastric juice of animals to the parts affect- ed, in a manner similar to that de- scribed in article Cancer. The late Mr. Pott, after having experienced the inehkacy of the Peruvian bark in the cure of mor- tifications, accidentally discovered that opium, taken in pretty large doses (one grain every three or four hours), first procured a remission from the great and continual pain which the patient felt in his foot and ancle ; and then stopped the progress of the disease ; but Mr. Pott carefully watched the narco- tic effects of this drug ; keeping the body open by laxative injec- tions. Thus, the mortified parts were cast oft", the bones separated, and a clean sore was produced : while this was healing, the dose of the opiate was gradually di- minimed, and at length totally re- linquiihed. The last, and probably most ef- fectual, remedy against this fatal disorder, appears to be the applica- tion affixed air, whether by means of filling large bladders, or other vessels, in which the affected limb may be confined; or by the repeat- ed use of fermenting poultices..... In the 3d vol. of the London Med- ical Trci::!.actions,M.r. John Power communicates a case, in which all the toes had perished, and the mid- pie of the foot had mortified ; but a cataplasm of wheat flour and ho- ney, fermented by the addition of yeast, completely stopped the pro- gress ; healed the sore ; and the patient, aged 67, recovered her health and spirits. [Peruvian bark, wine, aid other stimulants,are generally associated M O S with the idea of mortification, and when it occurs in debilitated ha- bits, they are certainly proper ; but in vigorous habits, or in persons of inflammatory dispositions, the best way to prevent mortification is to lessen the excessive action of the system, by moderate bleeding, cooling saline purgatives or clys- ters, add light diet. The internal administration of stimulants where necessary, will be greatly assisted by their external application. In the edition of the Surgical Tracts of the late Dr. John Jones, Philadelphia, 1795, p. 137, the editor has recorded a remarkable instance of the efficacy of Peruvian bark, in powder to a mortified limb, and he can with confidence recommend it. A poul- tice of flour, honey, yeast and char- coal powder, is also commonly used, and with success in removing the foeted smell of wounds, ulcers, and mortifications.] MOSCHATEL,the Tuberous, or Adoxa Moschatelltna, L. an indi- genous perennial plant, growing in damp woods, and shady places, where it flowers in the months of April and May. The ripe fruit cf this low plant has the flavour of strawberries. The plant itself pos- sesses the odour of musk, for which it may serve as a substitute in chests, or drawers, among clothes. Its root was formerly in repute among theNnalnerary herbs. MOSS, in Botany, a term for a numerous family of plants, which may be called the dwarfs of the vegetable kingdom. Mosses were formerly supposed to be a mere excrescence from the earth and trees, yet they are no less perfect plants than those of greater magnitude, having roots, MOS flowers, and seeds, though no art has hitherto been discovered, to propogate them from the seed. They are spread over the whole globe, so that in some situations the soil is exclusively covered by mosses ; and thus frequently bare rocks gradually become fertile..... As they grow most copiously on the north-west side of trees, it is probable that mosses serve to pro- tect them from the severity of cold ; but, if these parasitical plants be suffered to increase too abundantly, they not only tend materially to injure trees, but also to stifle the more useful vegetables of the soil. Mosses are almost constantly green ; have the finest verdure in autumn ; and, though kept in a dry place for a whole century, they may be revived, and their colour restored, by immersing them in water. Dry moss is the most proper substance for mattresses, and great- ly superior to straw ; as it is not liable to be infested with mice, bugs, fleas, isfc. When suchcouch- es become hard by compression, they may be easily raised again and rendered soft, by beating them with sticks. For this purpose, however, the longest and softest mosses ought to be collected, in September, during dry weather ; then cleansed from all impurities and woody roots; dried in the shade ; and again agitated with a stick, on a hurdle. Next, the mat- tress is to be stuffed eight inches thick, and quilted in the usual manner. Nor is this soft sub- stance less useful for packing glass, earthen ware, and other brittle ar- ticles, in preference to straw, or wood shavings. Among the numerous ir.os.ies MOS 109 which are subservient to economi- cal purposes, we shall at present only mention a few of the most useful; because others are insert- ed in their alphabetical place. 1. Fontinalis antipyretica, or Greater Water-moss, which grows upon rocks and roots of trees; in brooks, rivulets, slow streams, and ponds: it flowers from June to September. Accor- ding to Linnaeus, this species re- sists the action of fire ; and, if mixed with mortar for lining the inside of chimnies, it renders them fire-proof; as, contrary to the na- ture of all other mosses, it is al- most incombustible. Bohmer al- so remarks, that a thatched roof, if covered an inch thick with the greater water-moss, will be com- pletely secured against fire. 2. Bryum rurale, which grows on roofs, both thatched and tiled ; walls ; and trunks of trees : it is perennial, and flowers from Decem- ber to April. Thatched buildings overgrown with this moss, instead of lasting about ten years, will re- main sound for a century. 3. Sphagnum palustre, or Grey Bog-moss, which is also perennial, and flowers in July and August. This species materially contributes to the production of peat or turf; so that in process of time, bogs and morasses are converted into beau- tiful meadows. In Norway, it is employed for filling up the crevi- ces of planks in wooden walls; and, though it be sometimes used for a similar purpose in tiled roofs, yet as it affords shelter to vermin, we conceive, it might more safely and advantageously be applied be- hind the stones cr brick-work of wells, to prevent the clay or loam from being wasted by the action of the water. 110 MOS M O S 4, Byssus canddaris, L. (Lich- en fiavus of WIT H E RIN g ), or Y E L- low Powder-wort ; an annual vegetable dust generated on old pales, the cracked bark of trees, and antique walls, in all parts of the world , it appears from Sep- tember to June. This powdery substance may, according to Boh- mer, be employed for dyeing a very bright-yellow colour. 5. Lycopodium clavatum. See Club-moss, the Common. MOSS, in horticulture, is a dis- ease which greatly impedes the growth of trees, and at the same time very materially injures the fruit of orchards. The remedy usually employed is, to scrape off the moss with a kind of wooden knife, that will not wound the bark or branches ; or to rub them with a strong hair- cloth, immediately after a heavy- shower of rain. But the most ef- fectual method,inMr.BucKNALL's opinion, consists in washing all the branches with soap-suds, and a hard brush, every spring and au- tumn. The action of rubbing, he observes, will so far invigorate the tree, as amply to compensate both the labour and expence : the plant will not be injured by this opera- tion, which he directs to be per- formed in the same manner as a groom curries or scrubs the legs of a horse. [Moist weather should be chosen for this business, as the moss may be then easily disengag- ed.] The most efficacious preven- tive, however, is to remove the cause, by draining all superfluous moisture from the roots ; and, when the trees are first planted, by pla- cing them on the surface of the ground, and raising a small mound of good fresh mould around them. The moss, vegetating on shrubs, en. is of various kinds, according to the nature and situation of the soil. If the young branches of trees be covered with long and shaggy moss, they will speedily perish ; and can only be preserved by cutting them off near the trunk ; or, by lopping the head of the shurb, &c. if it be found necessa- ry ; as it will sprout again with in- creased luxuriance. In thick plan- tations, however, and in a cold ground, the trees will always be covered with moss : in such cases they must be thinned, and the land drained, or well stirred. Where shrubs, fruit-trees, &c are covered with moss, in consequence of the soil being too dry, it will be useful to spread large quantities of river or pond-mud about the root, and to open the ground for the ad- mission of the manure : such ex- pedient will not only cool the land, and greatly suppress the future growth of moss, but at the same time prevent the fruit from falling off too early....a circumstance that frequently happens in orchards planted in very dry soils. Mr. Forsyth advises moss to be care- fully removed in the months of February or March ; after which the scraped trees must be washed with a mixture of fresh cow-dung, urine, and soap-suds. If this ope- ration be repeated in autumn, when the trees are destitute of leaves, it will not only prevent the produc- tion of moss, but will also destroy the eggs of numerous insects, that would otherwise be hatched ; while it contributes essentially to pro- mote vegetation. But, though moss be in general destructive to the vegetation of shrubs and trees, yet, if growing only on the north side of their trunks, it is attended with considerable advantage; insa- MOS much, that it serves both to shelter them from the severity of the north winds, and also to direct the wan- dering traveller in his course ; be- cause it always points out that quar- ter of the compass. MOSS, the Marsh, or Minium, L. a genus of perennial plants, comprising 32 species, most of which are natives of Britain. The following only deserves to be men- tioned, namely, the fontanum, or Fountain Marsh Moss ; it grows in low wet meadows, turf-bogs, and springs; where it flowers from May till August. This kind of moss, which may be seen at a consi- derable distance, serves as an excel- lent guide for discovering clear and cold springs : wherever it thrives, fresh water may be found, without the trouble of sinking deep wells. MOSS-LAND, an expression used in Scotland, and also in vari- ous parts of England, for denoting what is more properly called a Mokass, Bog or Fen. The theory of mosses is foreign to our plan ; and as we have alrea- dy stated the most approved me- thods of cultivating swampy soils, under the respective heads above mentioned, and also under the ar- ticles Marsh and Moor ; we shall now give the substance ofan inge- nious method of converting mosses into rich vegetable mould, propos- ed by Mr. John Smith, of Swin- drig Muir, Ayrshire, Scotland; who published a small pamphlet on this subject, at Edinburgh, in 1798. The first step will be to mark out proper main-drains for carry- ing off all superfluous moisture ; at the same time taking care to preserve an accurate level. These drains should be eight feet wide at the top, four feet and a half deep, mos in and gradually contract to two feet and a half in width at the bottom : they serve both to drain the soil, and to divide the field into inclo- sures, comprising from, six to ten Scotch acres. The ridges are next to be marked regularly, formed with a gentle de- clivity, and not too high; being six or seven yards in breadth, and worked with a spade in the follow- ing manner. A space of about 20 inches, in the middle of each ridge, remains untouched: on each side of which a furrow is made, and turned upon such central spot, so as to cover it completely. The la- bourer then continues to cut the moss with a spade to the width of about 12 inches, and to turn it over in the same manner as if it had been ploughed, till he arrives at the division furrow; which ought to be about two feet in width, cut out, and thrown upon the sides of the ridges. The depth of this fur- row varies according to circum- stances ; but it should be so regu- lated, as to answer the purpose of collateral trenches, serving to con- duct the water into the main-drains. All the ridges must now be top- dressed with shell-lime, in the pro- portion of from 160 to 200, or 220 Winchester bushels ; which should be spread on the land during the summer, and (if possible), imme- diately after it has been slaked; because the lime, when acted upon by heat, the autumnal rains, and the winter frosts, putrifies more speedily, and thus prepares a pro- per mould. The first and most beneficial crop to be raised from mosses, will be potatoes; for which purpose, beds from five to six feet broad should be marked out in the spring, across the ridges, with intervening 112 M O S M O T furrows or trenches, about two feet in width. These beds must be covered with a thin layer of dung, on which the potatoe cuttings are placed, about 12 inches asunder; the whole is spread with a thin stratum of moss, that is succeeded by another layer, as soon as the potatoes appear above the surface of the ground. No hoeing or other cultivation is necessary,till the crop be taken up, which seldom amounts to less than 320 Winchester bu- shels. When the potatoes are removed, the ridges should be formed a second time, in the manner above described ; and the division-furrow cleared out, for the reception of oats, which are sown in the spring, and covered in by means of a small harrow drawn by two men. The amount of the crop is asserted to be, in general, about 60 Winches- ter bushels per acre: the grain being in all respects equal to that produced on other soils. So bene- ficial, indeed, are the effects of lime, in consolidating and ameli- orating the moss, that five, and even six, successive crops of oats have been obtained, without any appearance of its being exhausted; and that often at the end of the se- cond, and always of the third year, it acquires sufficient firmness to be ploughed by two horses, to within two bouts or stitches of the division-furrow. Farther, the seed should be harrowed in by horses; and when the oats are ripe, they may be removed from the field in carts, without the moss sinking, or rendering the carriage difficult. Suchistheoutlineof Mr. Smith's method, whicli>deserves to be more generally known, especially in Lan- cashire, and those counties that aiound with morasses or fens. We cannot, however, omit to mention, that some intelligent farmers con- ceive this mode of cultivation to be practicable only on sliaUow mosses; though, in the essay above cited, Mr. Smith states that he has suc- cessfully practised it with such as were fourteen feet in depth. MOSS-RUSH, or Goose-corn, Juncus squarrosu.i, L. a native pe- rennial plant, growing on heaths and barren turfy bogs ; flowering in the months of June and July.... This vegetable indicates a barren soil: it is eaten by horses; but, being a very low plant, its leaves adhere so closely to the ground as to elude the stroke of the scythe. MOTH, or Phaloena, a genus of insects comprehending several hundred species, which it would be needless to enumerate: they are uniformly bred from eggs, and are no sooner hatched than they con- struct for themselves a small habi- tation, in which they live ; and may thus be easily distinguished from other insects, which do not form their chrysalis till they are about to change from a caterpillar state into that of a butterfly. Most moths become nocturnal butterflies ; though some species of these vermin, being real maggots, assume the shape of flies; and others that of chafers. With respect to their abode, they are divided into domestic, field, and aquatic moths. The first is the small lead-coloured moth, that lives on fine furs and woollen gcods, by the destruction of which it often occasions considerable damage: the two latter kinds prey on the leaves of trees, the fibres of wood, bark, &c. The butterflies of the domestic moth are scarcely half an inch in length, and have four long wings MOT MOT 113 that cover the whole posterior part of the body. From the early spring to Midsummer, they infest our dwellings, and during the night search for convenient places to de- posit their eggs, which are scarcely discernible by the naked eye. These are hatched within three weeks, and produce very diminutive cater- pillars with sixteen feet, and which immediately begin to weave, for their accommodation, a thin silken cover from their own substance, not unlike the silk-worm, and then gnaw off the wool and hair from the stuffs on which they are settled. Thus arises a cylindrical texture which, being open at both ends, is gradually enlarged with the growth of the insect. In order to extend this fabric, the caterpillar divides it longitudinally into two parts; weaves an intermediate piece be- tween each section ; and joins to both ends a small portion for en- larging its abode. The whole has externally the colour of the stuff from which it is taken, and the substance of the latter affords sus- tenance to the insect. In this state, they remain near- ly a whole year, and during that period greatly injure clothes or other articles manufactured of wool; though these destructive creatures fast for many days (pro- bably when changing 'their skin), and also spend the whole winter in a torpid state. In the succeed- ing spring, they entirely close their case ; change into a crysalis ; ami, after a few weeks, appear in the shape of moths, which speedily propagate themselves in the man- ner of bugs. Some species, how- ever, previously desert their habita- tion, and suspend themselves in the next convenient corner, where VOL. IV, they undergo their transformation ....There is a peculiar kind of these vermin, called lastard-motlis, the cases of which are open at one end ; closely attached to woollen cloths, and removed only when they have devoured the whole sub- stance around the spot: they are of a larger size than the true moths....Another variety of the latter kind, preys only on the dry skins of animals, the leather covers of books, Sec. but their cases are destitute of all motion. It is remarkable, that moths n;- ver infest the fleeces on the backs of animals ; nor even unwashed wool; so that they always abandon the place where such raw material is kept. Hence those persons, to whom the smell of turpentine is too offensive, may avail themselves of this circumstance, and place layers of undressed wool between pieces of cloth, or put small par- cels in the corners of shelves and drawers containing drapery of that description. For the discovery of this curious and useful fact, we are indebted to M. Reaumur. Another, though,more disagree- able mode of exterminating moths, is th« smeke of tobacco, which in- fallibly kills them ; but the articles thus fumigated should be after- wards exposed to the air, which speedily dissipates the peculiar smell of that narcotic herb. Mother-of-Pearl. See Mus- cle, the Pearl bearing. MOTHERWORT, the Com- mon, Lions Tail, or Leonurus Cardiaca, L. an indigenous plant, growing in hecl.pes, rubbish, on dunghills, and calcareous soils ; flowering from Junq till August. The leaves of the Motherwort possess a strong disagreeable Q 114 MOU MOU o lour and a bitter taste....Goats, sheep, and horses, eat this vegeta- ble, but cows do not relish it; and it is totally refused by hogs...DAM- boukney dyed woollen cloth of an excellent dark olive colour, from a decoction of this plant. XIOULD, a general name for the soft earthy substance that serves as the upper stratum of land ; and in which all kinds of vegetables s:rike root and thrive. Mould consists of the following ingredients ; viz. sand, clay, and talcum, or magnesian earth ; car- bon derived from decayed vegeta- ble and animal substances ; the carbonic acid, and water. The good or bad qualities of the soil depend upon a proper mixture of these ingredients ; though, if the carbon, the carbonic acid, and iron, be wanting, the fertility of land will depend on its capacity to re- tain the quantity of moisture, which is necessary for the nutri- ment of vegetables. The relative utility of mould, for the different purposes of the gardener, may be ascertained by the sight, smell, and touch. The best is of a light brown or hazle colour; it cuts easily, and does not adhere to the spade, being light, friable, and crumbling into small clous. The next in quality- are the dark-grey and russet-co- loured moulds ; but the worst are those of a very light, or very dark ash-colour, such as are generally found on barren heaths and com- mons, where they seldom produce any thing except furze and fern. With respect to smell, Miller observes, that the best time for ju.hjim; by that sense, is immedi- ately ai'ter rain has moistened the soil; when the mould, if it be rich and good, will emit an agree- able odour. But the most accu- rate criterion is the touch ; as it may thus be ascertained whether the mould be too sandy, or abound with too much clay ; whether it be fatty and slippery ; or harsh, po- rous, or friable. The most fertile, by this test, holds a medium be- tween the two extremes; being easily soluble, consisting of equal parts of sand and clay ; and not adhering to the spade, after gentle showers. MOUSE, or Mus, a genus of quadrupeds, comprising sixty spe- cies, of which the following are found in Britain, namely: 1. The sylvaticus, or Long-tailed Field-mouse, the length of which is in general from eight to nine in- ches, including its tail....These ani- mals are found in fields, gardens, and shrubberies, where they do incalculable damage ; burrowing under the ground, and digging up grain, acorns, peas, or beans, kc. when newly sown; which they carry to their subterraneous gran- aries. Their habitations may be discovered by the small mounds of earth, that are raised on, or near, the entrance of their abode ; or by the passages leading to their nests, or store-houses: and, by following the course of such passages, the vermin may be easily destroyed. Another method of extirpating field-mice, is by traps, consisting simply of a flat stone that is sup- ported by a stick ; and beneath which is placed a roasted walnu*. They are speedily attracted by the smell of the walnut, which they ■prefer to acorns or cheese ; and, as it is fixed to the stick, that yields as soon as it is touched, the stone falls upon them, and terminates their existence. But the most ef- fectual mode of destroying these MOU MOU 115 animals, would be to encourage the breed of owls, which is so active in the pursuit of nocturalvermin. 2. The messorius, Harvest, or Smaller Long-tailed Field-mouse which is by some considered as a variety of the former species; and is very small and slender: its whole length, together with the tail, not exceeding 4^. or 5 inches. It chiefly infests the county of Hants, where it is very numerous, especially during the harvest..... This creature constructs its nest of a circular form, with blades of corn, which it deposits above the surface of the ground between the straws of standing grain, and fre- quently in thistles, where the fe- male produces from six to eight young ones at a time. The harvest-mice never enter houses ; but are often carried into ricks, among sheaves of corn ; one hundred having sometimes been found in a single rick, on taking it down to be housed. Those remain- ing in the field, shelter themselves during the winter beneath the ground, into which they burrow deeply, forming their beds or nests, of decayed grass. They may also be taken by means of the traps above mentioned. 3. The musculus, or Common Mouse, which has a very long, scaly, and almost naked tail; ex- clusively of which, it is about three inches and a half in length. This species is uncommonly prolific, producing several times in the year, five or six young at a litter. There are several varieties of the common mouse, which are chiefly distinguished by their co- lour, such as black, yellowish, spotted, Sec.; but the most rare and beautiful are white, with red t*yes....They arc in some degree capable of being tamed, especially by means of music, to which all mice are singularly attached. The common mouse inhabits all temperate climates, and is chieliy found in houses and in barns, whither it resorts for the sake of food, ' devouring grain, bread, cheese, butter, oil, Sec. It is ex- ceedingly timid, and very nimble ; never leaves its abode excepting for food ; and retires on the slight- est alarm. These little depredators may be destroyed in houses by the com- mon traps, baited with cheese ; in barns, it will be necessary to al- lure them by means of singed lea- ther, grease, or other animal food ; and, in chambers where cheese is preserved, with malt-meal. As, however, all these methods are troublesome ; and, as the expos- ing of poisonous substances may be attended with danger, we shall communicate a remedy that is both safe and efficacious: Take a few handfuls of wheaten flour, or malt-meal, knead it into a dough, and let it grow sour in a warm place ; then mix with it finely le- vigated iron filings, form the whole into small balls, and put them into the holes frequented by mice. On eating this preparation, they are inevitably killed. Another way to extirpate them is, by keeping cats, dogs, owls, or hedge-hogs, in the places infested with mice or rats. But the most effectual method of preventing their devastations in barns, the floors of which they frequently undermine, consists in laying beneath the lat- ter a stratum of flints, fragments of glass mixed with sand, or bro- ken cinders. It has likewise been proposed to construct such floors on piers of brick, raised about 15 116 MOU M O W or 18 inches above the ground, so that dogs or cats may have a free passage beneath the building....See also Corn, and Mullein. 4. The arvalis, or Meadow- mouse, is from three to six inches in length ; dwelling in bushy pla- ces, corn-fields, meadows, and gar- dens, chiefly near waters. It sub- sists on nuts, acorns, pease, and grain, which last it prefers to eve- ry other kind of food, collecting considerable quantities in its sub- terraneous residence. As soon as the corn is ripe, the meadow-mice assemble together in corn-fields, where they commit great ravages, by cutting down the stalks of corn with their teeth, and robbing the ears; nay, they follow the reapers, consume all the fallen or neglected grain, and, when the gleanings are devoured, they flock to the newly sown fields, and destroy the crop of the suc- ceeding year. Being very proli- fic, the females produce from eight to twelve at a litter, several times in the year. During the winter, they retire to woods, cop- pices, ^c. where they subsist on acorns, hazle-nuts, and the seeds of trees. In some seasons, the meadow- mice become so numerous, that they would consume every escu- lent, if they did not destroy 'each other. Hence, in unproductive years, their numbers are greatly diminished, not only by devouring their own species, but*also by be- coming the prey of the long-tailed Field-mice, of foxes, wild-cats, weasels, and especially of dogs. MOUTH, in anatomy, a part of the face, comprehending the lips, gums, inside of the cheeks, palate, Sec. The mouths of different animals are admirably adapted to various uses, according to their size and nature ; being well formed and calculated for the reception and mastication of food, the seizing of prey, &c. ft would however, be incompatible with our design, to enter into any details relative to the organization of this part; «ve shall, therefore, concisely state only a few of the diseases incident to the human mouth. 1. Affections of the Teeth, and Gums, which are discussed in their respective places. 2. Cancers, which see. 3. If the mouth be affected with excrusiating pain, the internal ap- plication of opium will afford con- siderable relief. But, if any tu- mors or swellings arise, it wiH be advisable to apply externally cata- plasm s of marsh-mallow, and other emollient vegetables, or poultices of bread and milk. When the tumefied parts continue very pain- ful, without suppurating, it will be proper to lance them, in order to reduce the swelling. The patient ought, at the same time, to avoid speaking : and to take no such food as is either of an acrid and stimulating nature, or requires any efforts of mastication. Hence, he ought to subsist principallyh on li- quid, mucilaginous aliment; and his drink should be sweetened with honey, w hich in itself is one of the best baisamics....See Gar- gle. MOWING, the act of cutting down grass, Sec. with the scythe. This method of reaping has hi- therto been practised chiefly on oats, clover, and the grasses ; but there is no doubt that jt may, with advantage, be extended to wheat, and every other kind of grain ; for the following obvious reasons : 1. MOW MUD 117 Mowing is much easier, and less fatiguing tothelabourersthan reap- ing. 2. It is more expeditiously performed. 3. It requires a smaller number of hands. 4. It affords employment for children, aged men and women, who are almost past labour, in gathering the corn, and other lighter branches of the work. 5. The grass being mown together with the straw, the quantity of the latter is increased, while it becomes of greater value as fodder. Lastly, the grass produced on fields which have been mown, vegetates with increased luxuriance, and furnishes excellent pasture for cattle, and particularly for cows, when the har- vest is closed. Hence Du Hamel infers, that a farmer may, by this practice, not only keep a larger number of cattle, but at the same time save his hay, and obtain a greater quantity of dung. It may probably be objected, that, if a wet harvest should occur, mown wheat will sprout more spee- dily than that which is reaped. This injury, however, may be ef- fectually prevented, by disposing the sheaves triangularly, so that the head of one may rest upon ano- ther. The only requisite to effect this, is a little dexterity in closing the triangle, so that the basis of the third sheaf may serve to sup- port the heads of the first and se- cond. We cannot conclude this article, without noticing an easy method, by which the operation of mowing may be greatly facilitated. Ac- cording to the present mode of cut- ting grass, the workmen trace two parallel lines va ith their feet, which they move forward alternately, af- ter every stroke of the scythe: in- stead of which, Du Hamel recom- mends the mower's path to be traced only in a single line ; because he ought to advance with one foot before the other, in such a manner that the left (which is behind), should always forward the right foot. This simple practice deserves commendation; for the labour will not only be performed with more speed, but likewise with greater ease to the mowers, who will thus be secured from those sudden cramps in their left sides, with which they are frequently seized, in the prevailing system of using [MOWING-MACHINE. Mr. Moses Coats, whose ingenious contrivance to pare apples, was described under the article Fruit, has lately invented a mowing-ma- chine, which promises to be of ex- tensive utility to farmers. It is drawn by two horses, and takes a swarth four feet nine inches wide, as fast as the horses walk: but he thinks it would work a swarth six feet wide, to better advantage. It cuts grain uncommonly clean, not leaving one stalk standing, nor dropping one by the way, and r.t the same time lays the grain in regular order for the binder. The irregularity in the surface of most grass-fields, prevents the" general application of the machine to the cutting of grass, but where this difficulty does not occur, and the ground is clear cf stones, it answers fully...The editor has been favoured by the inventor, with a general des- cription of this labour-saving ma- chine, but deems it unnecessary to give it, as persons wishing to pos- sess one must apply to the inventor, to whom letters may be addressed, at Dowmng's-town, Pennsylvc- nia.~\ MUD, the slime or miry earth usually found at the bottom of 118 MUG MUG ponds, and stagnant waters. It also signifies the dust or dirt of streets and roads, rendered fluid by rain. Mud is chiefly used as a manure for loamy soils ; though it may also be applied with advantage to any other land. The best kind is that taken from ponds which have received the draining of farm-yards. The sweepings of London streets have likewise been found of consi- derable service, when mixed with a little horse-dung, in order to fer- ment, before it is carried on the land. Thus prepared, it has been spread in the proportion of ten or twelve loads per acre, and been productive of the most beneficial ef;'ects....See Manure. MUG WORT, or Artemisia, L. a genus of perennial plants, com- prising 49 species, five of which are indigenous : among these, the following are the principal. 1. The n.aritir.ia.....See Worm- wood, the Sea. 2. The Absinthium, Mug wort, Common Wormwood, or Worm- wood-Southernwood, growing on road sides, rocky places, and on rubbish; it flowers in August..... This herb is extremely bitter; and, if it be infused in wort, as a substi- tute for hops, it renders the ale very pernicious to-health, on ac- count of its intoxicating effects..... On distilling the leaves and flowers, they yield a considerable quantity of essential oil, which is used, both externally and internally, for des- troying worms.....If the leaves be put into sour beer, they speedily correct its acidity; and being ex- cellent antiseptics, they are often employed in fomentations, to resist putrefaction.....According to Wi- ■r he ring, an infusion of theseleaves is a good stomachic; and, with the addition of fixed alkaline salts, proves a powerful diuretic in some dropsical cases. Their ashes pro- duce a purer alkali than most other vegetables. An infusion of the same herb, given to a suckling woman, renders her milk bitter ; and, if the plant be eaten by sheep, it also imparts a bitterness to mutton..... Although turkeys are fond of it (on the authority of Mr. Holle- fear), yet it is not relished by horses and goats, while it is refused by cows and swine....If the plant be macerated in boiling water, and repeatedly applied to a bruise, by way of cataplasm, it will not only speedily remove the pain, but also prevent the swelling and discolora- tion of the part....In dyeing, a de- coction of the Common Worm- wood produces, with the addition of alum, &c. various shades of yellowr; and, if such liquor be ap- plied to bedsteads, chests of draw- ers, and similar articles, it prevents the generation of vermin.....The smoke arising from the lighted bundles of this herb, expels bees from their hives, when honey is to be collected, without destroying these useful insects. 3. The vulgaris, Common Mug- wort, or Southernwood, which grows on the borders of fields, ditch-banks, and on rubbish; it also flowers in August...This spe- cies, possessing a more agree- able flavour, is1 in some countries used as a culinary aromatic : a de- coction of it, is often taken by coun- try-people, for curing intermittent fevers....The Chinese employ the fresh plant bruised, for healing wounds: and, according to Dr. Home, a dram of the leaves, dried and pulverized, if taken four times a day, has effectually removed hys- teric fits, after xther and asafctida MUL MUL 119 had failed of procuring relief..... Dr. Anderson remarks that sheep are very fond of the Common Mugwort, devouring it with great avidity,especially the roots; though, according to Linnjeus, these ani- mals, as well as swine, totally re- fuse it; and horses, cows, and goats do not relish it. MULBERRY-TREE, or Moms, L. a genus of exotics, comprising seven species, of which only the ■nigra, or Common Mulberry-tree, is cultivated in Britain, on account of its black fruit. It is propagated both by layers, and by cuttings, which last are pre- ferable ; because, when judiciously selected, and properly managed, they will speedily strike root. For this purpose, the cuttings ought to be taken from shoots of the pre- ceding year, with one joint of the two years' wood at the bottom, and to be set towards the end of March, in beds of rich light earth, which , should be pressed closely around them. If they be placed beneath glasses, their growth will be re- markably promoted ; but, if the young plants be exposed to the air, it will be necessary to shelter them from the severity of winter, with moss ; a precaution, which r.t the same time renders it unnecessary to water them frequently....In the succeeding spring, they should be removed to the nursery, and trained to a stem ; the . more luxuriant branches being carefully pruned, to prevent their too rapid growth ; and, in the course of about four years, they may be finally trans- planted to the place where they are destined to remain. Mulberry-trees thrive best in a light, rich soil, and an open situa- tion ; for, if they stand toonear hous- es or otherbuildings,or contiguous- ly to shady trees, their fruit seldom attains to maturity. It will, how- ever,according to the experience of Miller, be of considerable advan- tage to defend them from the west, and south-west winds, by trees, or walls, placed at a small distance. The fruit of this species, if eaten before it be thoroughly ripe, is ve- ry astringent; but its syrup affords an excellent gargle, for mitigating inflammations of the throat, and ulcers of the mouth. The berries, when perfectly mature, are grate- ful to the taste ; they produce both cooling and laxative effects, while they contribute to allay thirst. Their juice is employed to impart a dark tinge to liquors and confec- tions, which stain the fingers as well as linen of a red colour, that is very difficult to extract. Spots of this kind, however, may be remov- ed from the hands by verjuice, the acid of sorrel, and that of lemons ; but, for linen, the best method is to wash the stained part with warm water, and to dry it with the vapours of sulphur, which imme- diately remove the spot. The fruit of the common mul- berry-tree, when properly ferment- ed and prepared, yields a pleas- sant vinous liquor, known under the name of mulberry-wine. Con- siderable quantities of these ber- ries are likewise consumed in the cyder counties, particularly in De- vonshire, where they are mixed with apples, Sec. in making a deli- cious beverage called mulberry-cy- der. For this purpose, the ripest and bht.kest mulberries are select- ed, and the expressed juice is ad- ded to the cyder, in such a propor- tion as to impart a perceptible fla- vor. The liquor thus acquires a very pleasant taste, as well as a deep red colour, similar to that of 120 MUL MUL the finest Port-wine, both of which continue undiminished by age. The bark growing on the root of the Common Mulberry-tree, has an acrid bitter taste, and is a pow- erful cathartic : hence it has been successfully used as a vermifuge, particularly in cases of tania, or of the tape-worm : the dose is half a dram of the powder, or a dram of the infusion. The wood of the tree is yellow, tolerably hard and may be applied to a variety of uses in turnery and carving. It is, however, necessary to steep it in water before it is worked ; in order to remove the tough and fibrous bark, which is capable of being converted into strong cordage, ropes, and brown paper. There are several other species of this tree (particularly the alba, or White Mulberry) which are cultivated to a considerable extent on the Continent, for their muci- laginous leaves, that afford a most greatful food to silk-worms*; but, as various unsuccessful experi- ments have been made with a view to introduce their culture into Bri- tain, they are seldom raised, ex- cepting by way of ornament, in the hot-houses of the curious. It deserves, however, to be stated, on the authority of Bechstein, and other continental writers, that the last mentioned species is better calculated to withstand the effects of severe frosts • than the common Mulberry-tree ; that it is, therefore, preferably cultivated in the nor- thern parts of Germany, for in- stance, Saxony, Brandenburg, Po- merania, and Prussia ; where it thrives with uncommon luxuri- ance, if planted in a moderately rich, though sandy soil ; and if properly sheltered from the cold north-winds. This observation is amply confirmed by the considera- ble quantities of raw silk annually produced in the Prussian domi- nions from the leaves of that tree, which afford the most proper nu- triment to silk-worms. [The white Mulberry-tree thrives in the United States, and in Con- necticut is much cultivated. The tree grows rapidly, and has been recommended for hedges. Cattle however are so fond of the leaves, that great care would be requisite to preserve the young trees from their depredations.] MULE, or Equus Mulus, a mon- grel kind of quadrupeds, partak- ing both of the nature ofa horse and an ass. Mules are very hardy animals, and therefore much used in warm climates, where they are preferred to horses, for the purposes of ei- ther draught or carriage^ Consi- derable numbers are likewise em- ployed in Ireland, and in some of the northern counties of Britain, on account of their great strength and durability. These animals sometimes attain the height of 15 or 16 hands; though in general, they do not exceed 14. They are calculated for carrying heavy burthens. They are, be- sides, surefooted, and attain a great age; instances of mules'thirty years old, having occurred in Ire- land, and which, nevertheless, were in the full possession of their vig- our. The mules bred in cold coun- tries, are reputed to be more har- dy, and fit for labour, than such as are reared in warm climates.... Hence they deserve to he more ge- nerally propagated in Br'y-sin. For this purpose, however, i. will be. MUL requisite previously to procure a strong male ass, and two females, which should be well fed and kept in good order. Their colts ought, likewise, to be carefully attended, fed, and littered, being kept under shelter in the winter, and the sta- ble-door left open in the summer, that the animals may exercise themselves in the air, for one or two hours, during the middle of the day. By such management, the breed of colts will be consider- ably improved ; and, at the end of three years, the males will be fit for the purpose. The mares se- lected for the stud, should be young, of a lively turn, small limbed, and with a head of a moderate size. These, with proper attention, will drop foals ; each of which, at the age of three months, are said to be worth from ten to twenty-guineas. During the first winter, it will be necessary to house the mule colts, so that they may be frequent- ly handled, in order to render them tractable. When three years old, they may be broken in, but it will not be advisable to work them to any considerable extent, till they have attained the fourth year of their age ; after which time they will, if properly treated, continue in full vigour till they are past thir- ty, and even forty years. It should, however, be remarked, that no wheat, or rye-straw, ought to be given them for their food, whether wbAe or cut; as it greatly disagrees with their nature, and incapacitates them for performing hard labour. Mule, a term which denotes any production, whether of the animal, or vegetable creation, that originate? from two different spe- cier. Thus, lieside the animals pro- perly denominated mules, it ap- vol. iv» MUL 121 pears, that the different breeds of sheep may be advantageously cross- ed.. ..Linn^us observes, that the breed from Swedish ewes and Spa- nish rams, resembled the Spanish sheep in wool, stature, and exter- nal appearance; but was, in all respects, as hardy as the Swedish sheep : the contrary effect result- ed from the Swedish rams and Spa- nish ewes. He farther remarks, that the English ram without horns, and a Swedish horned ewe, produc- ed sheep destitute of that ornament. These facts are equally curious and valuable; they require no com- mentary, to recommend them to the attention of breeders in gene- ral. The vegetable mules are very numerous ; and by scattering the farina, or fecundating dust, over female flowers, several excellent varieties have often been obtained. ....Thus, in the first volume of the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, we meet with an interesting account of a mule-cabbage, which is said to fat- ten cattle six weeks earlier than turnips. The correspondent states, that the sort of cabbage principal- ly raised, is the Tallow-loaf or Drum-headed Cabbage ; which be- ing too tender to withstand the se- verity of the frost, he planted some of this species and of the common Purple Cabbage for pickling alter- nately : when the seed-pods were perfectly formed, he cut down the purple, and left the other for seed. The result completely answered his expectations ; namely, the pro- duce was a mixed stock, of a deep green colour, with purple veins ; and which retained the size of the drum-head, while it acquired all the hardiness of the purple. This is one of the most success. R 122 MUL ful experiments with respect to ve- getable improvements: and, with- out quoting other instances, relat- ed in the subsequent volumes of the same valuable collection, as well as in other works, wc trust these few facts sufficiently evince the practicability of the plan ; and hope they will not be disregarded ; because such attempts not only tend to enrich our practical know- ledge, but at the same time afford additional proofs of the wisdom,and beauties, of the creation. MULLEIN, or Verbascum, L. a genus of plants, comprising 17 species, five of which are indgen- ous : the principal of these are : 1. The Thapsus, Great White Mullein, High Taper, Cow's- lungwort, or Ladies' Fox- glove ; growing on chalky and gravelly soils, and on dry ditch- banks ; flowering in the month of July.....Hochheimer informs us that the roots, stalks, and flowers of this plant, after being properly cleaned of the adhering earth, and other impurities, have long been used in German granaries, where bundles of it are placed in every corner, and on the grain itself, in order to prevent the depredations of mice. It affords so complete a security from these vermin, even in barns, that they suddenly dis- appear, and shun the place for se- veral years after this vegetable has been deposited......According to Bechstein, the root of the Great Mullein, reduced to powder, and mixed with malt-meal; speedily fattens capons and chickens....The herb, in a dry and pulverized state, corrodes the fungous flesh of ul- cers ; and, if applied while fresh, heals the wounds in the foot of a horse, occasioned by improper shoeing....The flower of this, and MUL the following specie:, of the Mul- lein, impart a delicate, though not durable, yellow -colour, to wo..-l and cot.on ; out, on th_ a idition of blue, these stuffs acquire a bine shade of incomparable juslre .. The woody stalks covered with pitch, make excellent flambea -, ... The seeds when thrown into \ .,- ter inhabited by fish, produce an intoxicating effect, so that these creatures suffer themselves to be caught by the hand....In Norway, the farmers give the herb medici- nally to their cows, when threaten- ed with consumption ; and employ its downy fibres as a substitute for tinder...Neither cows, goats, sheep, horses, nor swine, will eat this vegetable. 2. The nigrum, Dark, or Black Mullein, which grows in hedges, and on road-sides ; is perennial; and flowers from July to Septem- ber....This plant is justly admired for its beauty ; the stem is cover- ed with hairs elegantly branched, and has yellow blossoms tipped with purple :....Bees visit its flow- ers, which to them are exceeding- ly grateful....Swine eat the plant; but it is neither relished by sheep, nor touched by cows, horses, or goats. MULLET, or Mugil, L. a ge- nus of fishes, consisting of two species, principally distinguished by the number of rays in the back- fin...Both frequent the sandy coasts of this island, and particularly small bays that admit influxes of fresh water. Hither they resort in considerable shoals ; and, simi- lar to hogs, grub in the sand or mud, leaving their traces in the form of large round holes. Mullets are'extremely cunning: when surrounded with a net, the whole shoal frequently escapes by MUM MUM 12S leaping over it; for, if one take the lead, the others instinctively fol- low : but, if they fail to effect their object, they remain motionless in thewater, as if resigned to theirfate. In the South of France, abund- ance of these fish are taken in shal- low water, by means of weirs con- structed with reeds. From the milts of the males, called alletants, and the roes of the females, deno- minated botar, the inhabitants pre- pare a kind of food, called botargo. These parts are taken out entire, covered for four or five hours with salt, then pressed between two boards or stones, afterwards wash- ed, and, lastly, dried in the sun for about a fortnight. As an article of food, the mullet affords a tolerable dish, being more tender than the haddock, and less juicy than the carp: it is not hovever,so delicious as the ancient Roman mullet, which appears to have been a different species. MUM, a kind of malt-liquor which is in great request on the Continent, whence considerable quantities are imported. It is pre- pared in the following complicated manner: Seven bushels of wheaten malt, one bushel of oatmeal, and a similar portion of ground beans, are brewed in sixty-three gallons of water, which has been previ- ously boiled. The liquor is next poured into a hogshead; and as soon as it begins to ferment, three pounds of the inner rind of fir, one pound of the tops of fir and beech, three handfuls of the blessed this- ti>., and one or two-handfuls of the flowers of round-leaved sun- dew (Drosera rotundifolia, L.), are thrown into the vessel. To these are added a handful of burnct, and a similar quantity of betony, mar- joram, avens, penny-royal, and wild thyme ; two handfuls of elder- flowers, thirty ounces of bruised cardamon-seeds, and one ounce of bruised berberries. The whole mash is now suffered to work gently for a little time, when the hogshead is filled up, and ten new- laid eggs are thrown in, unbroken; after which the vessel is closed, and, at the end of two years, the liquor is fit for use. Such is the method said to be practised at Brunswick, where the best mum in Germany is brewed. The only variation made by Eng- lish brewers, is the substitution of cardamom, ginger and sassafras, for the inner rind of the fir-tree ; and the addition of elecampane, madder, and red sanders. To those whose palate requires the stimulus of viscid and spicy preparations, mum is doubtless a grateful beverage ; and a pint of it taken at night,may serve as a sudo- rific in recent catarrhs and rheu- matic attacks. The Germans drink it frequently, in consumptive ha- bits ; as an opinion prevails among them, that such liquor contributes to obesity, and increases the mus- cular energy. MUMMY, in horticulture, sig- nifies a kind of wax employed by gardners, in grafting and planting the roots of trees. It is prepared as follows: Take one pound of black pitch, and a quarter of a pound of turpentine, mix them in an earthen pot, and set the whole on fire in the open air : the mix- ture should be alternately quench- ed and lighted, till all the nitrous and volatile parts be evaporated, when a little common wax is to be incorporated with the composi- tion, which is now fit for use. MUMPS, or Cynanche paroti- doca, a contagious disease, that 124 MUM MUR chiefly affects the lower classes, and is often epidemic. It is dis- tinguished by an external move- able swelling, that arises on one side of the neck, but more com- monly od both, and frequently at- tains a considerable size : while the fauces appear red, and the pa- tient has a sensation of straitness. The nowers of respiration and of deglutition are somewhat impeded, and the disease is mostly accompa- nied with a slight degree of in- flammatory fever. The tumour in- creases for three or four days ; when it begins to subside, and, in a few days, totally disappears, to- gether with the fever. Next, it is remarkable, that the contents of the scrotum in males, and the breasts of females, become affected with large hard, and often painful swellings, which generally subside in a few days. Sometimes how- ever, the tumor in the fauces is suddenly suppressed, and not at- tended with the last mentioned symptom ; in which case the fever increases rapidly, is often succeed- ed by delirium, and has sometimes proved fatal. The mumps being a disease which commonly terminates with- out danger, it is scarcely necessary to specify any remedies. The principal requisite is, to keep the head and face warm, to avoid tak- ing cold, and to regulate the bow- els by the mildest cooling laxatives. But, should the tumor in the neck suddenly vanish, and the inflam- matory fever increase, so as to in- duce an apprehension that the brain will be affected, it will be advisable to promote and repro- duce the swelling by warm fo- mentations ; and, to obviate the fatal consequences that may re- sult from its sudden repression, by means of emetics, venesection, or blisters according to the nature ot the case. MUNDIC, or Marcasite, a species of copper-pyrites found in the tin-mines of Cornwall, and in other parts of the world. It is of various colours, being sometimes yellow, green, or white ; but is easily distinguished by its glitter- ing, and frequently contains a con- sidcrable portion of copper. The steams of this mineral are very offensive to the miners ; they are, however, reputed to be a good. vulnerary, and are the only remedy employed by the labourers in tin- mines, who wash their wounds in the water which runs from the mundic-ore. MURRAIN, a contagious dis- ease incident to cattle ; it is known by the animals hanging down their heads, which are swollen; by short and hot breathing ; palpita- tion of the heart; staggering; an abundant secretion of viscid mat- ter in the eyes ; rattling in the throat; and a shining tongue. The murrain is occasioned by various causes, but principally by a hot, dry season, or a general cor- ruption of the air. It raged about the middle of the last century in various parts of the continent, and carried off great numbers of cattle. The remedy then employed, both for its prevention and cure, con- sisted in a mixture of equal parts of gunpowder, salt, soot, and brim- stone : one spoonful of this com- position was given for a dose, and washed down with warm water. In the 36th vol. of Annals of Agriculture, the following recipe is inserted for the murraininhogs: A handful of nettles is to be pre- viously boiled in a gallon of small- MUS MUS 125 beer, when half a pound of flour of sulphur ; a quarter of a pound of elecampane, three ounces of li- quorice, and a quarter of a pound of aniseeds, are to be added in a pulverized 6tate. This preparation should be administered in milk, and the quantity here stated, is said to be sufficient for six doses. But the most effectual preven- tive of this destructive contagion is, to keep the cattle cool during the summer, and to allow them a sufficiency of water: all carrion should be speedily buried ; and as the feeding of those useful ani- mals in wet places, or on rotten grass or hay, frequently causes this malady, their food ought to consist of dry and sweet fodder.... See also Distemper. MUSCLE,'or Mussel, Mytilus, L. in ichthyology, a genus of shell- fish, consisting of several species ; the following of which are the principal; viz. 1. The margaritiferus, or pearl- bearing muscle, having a com- pressed shell, the inside of which is exquisitely polished, resembling in whiteness and brilliancy the real pearl. After being divested of its external laminae, by aquafortis, and the lapidaries' mill, the outer part acquires a similar lustre....This is the true mother-of-pearl shell, which is converted into various toys, such as snuff-boxes, buttons, spoons, &c. 2. The edilis, or eatable mus- cle, which has a strong shell slight- ly curved on one side, and angu- lated on the other. It is found in immense beds, both in deep water, and above the low-watermark, in the British seas. The muscle is not only perse- cuted by numerous enemies, in its own element, but also subject to certain diseases, which have been conjectured to be the cause of the ill effects consequent on the eating of these shell-fish. There are two disorders of that tendency, which, by Dr. Moehiung, are termed the moss and the scab. The former is occasioned by the roots of moss being introduced into the shell, so that the water penetrates, and gra- dually dissolves the fish. The scab is caused by tubercles, that are produced by the dissolution of the shell. Whatever may be the cause, it is well ascertained, that the eating of muscles has sometimes produc- ed cutaneous eruptions ; restles- ness and agitation ; an insupport- able'itching throughout the whole body, together with erysipelatous inflammations. These complaints, however, may be easily removed by the liberal use of oil, emetics, and of milk ; as they have in no instance proved mortal. The edible muscle, nevertheless, furnishes a rich food, though it be difficult of digestion. Even in a sound and fresh state, it is to some constitutions hurtful; and, if con- taminated by disease, it becomes, in some degree, poisonous..,..As muscles are most detrimental to health, when eaten raw, it will always be advisable to boil them with onions ; but they should be previously washed with vinegar, and seasoned with pepper: thus qualified, they cannot be injurious, unless eaten to excess, or too fre- quently. MUSCLE, in animal economy, a fleshy, fibrous part, destined to be the instrument or organ of mo- tion. A muscle is composed of a great numberof thin parallel plates, each of which is divide^ into smaller fleshy threads or fibres, and in- closed in its proper cellular mem- 126 MUS MUS brane....The muscles are divided into three parts, namely, the head belly, and tail: the first and third are firmly attached to the bones ; whereas the belly adheres loosely to other parts, by means of the cel- lular membrane which swells,vvhen the muscle acts. Their substance is fleshy in the middle, but tendi- nous or sinewy in the extremities : the fibres of the former are sen- sible and irritable, while those of the latter are destitute of all sen- sation. All the muscles act, by the in- flation of their bellies ; in conse- quence of which they are com- pressed or shortened. Thus, in muscular contraction, the move- able bone only is drawn in the di- rection of the fibres, while the other bone, to which the muscle is at- tached, remains fixed. Hence they operate in some measure as a lever; the two ends of every muscle being fastened to the bones by means of the tendons ; but, if any fibre or nerve of the muscle be divided, or only obstructed by a ligature, the power of contraction instantly ceases. Various denominations have been given to the muscles, accord- ing to the different parts where they are situated ; but, as these particulars belong to the province of anatomy, we shall only men- tion, that their number in the hu- man body amounts to about 450, while some of the lower animals are provided with several thou- sand. Lastly, the colour of the mus- cles, in healthy individuals, is deep red ; but, in dropsical, or those persons whose humours are in a vitiated state, it is of a paler hue. In the aged, the muscles contract and become rigid :.....to retard this inactive and feeble state, there appears to be no bet- ter preventive than the frequent resort to the tepid bath ; and the constant wearing of flannel next the skin, with a view to promote an uniform degree of insensible perspiration. MUSHROOM, or Agaricus, L. a genus of plants, comprising nu- merous species, of which more than 300 are natives of Britain ; among these, the following de- serve to be specified: I. The semi-globatus, or Semi- globular Mushroom, the gills or under part of which are fixed, and when quite young, of a whitish colour ; the edges soon become entirely grey or mottled ; and, when old, acquire a chocolate tinge. The stem is hollow, growing two or three inches high, and about the size of a crow's-quill. This species is found in great abundance on grass-plats, and on pasture, chief- ly between the months of July and October ; when it ought to be care- fully avoided, being one of the poi- sonous fungi, the inadvertant eat- ing of which has frequently prov- ed fatal. 2. The muscarius (Musky), or rather Fly-killing, Reddish Mush- room, has a large head, which is nearly flat, being generally either white, reddish, or of a crimson hue, and covered with raised, com- pact, angular warts, that are some- times thin, ragged, and flat. Its stem is solid, but the pith, or in- ternal substance, shrivels as it be- comes old, leaving irregular cavi- ties : it grows in pastures from three to five inches in height, and is from three quarters to an inch and a half, in diameter. Among fir-trees, its head is sometimes twelve inches broad, and the stem MUS MUS 127 from four to six inches high...This species is also poisonous; and, if mixed with milk, is said to de- stroy flies : the expressed juice from this plant, when rubbed on walls and beadsteads, has been employed to expel bugs....GESE- nius, a medical author of great reputation, observes, that the ce- lebrated nostrum sold at Frank- fort, in Germany, under the name of Ragolo's Anti-epileptic powders, is supposed to consist of the Red- dish Mushroom mixed with dis- tilled oil, and pulverized valerian : this remedy is considered, on the Continent, as the only safe and certain specific for the cure of that dreadful malady. 3. The clufieatus, or Long-stalk- ed Mushroom, which has a hol- low, white, viscid, tender stem, that grows to the height of four inches; and is, in general, not thicker than a crow's-quill. It is found in the month of September, in wood-lands and pastures; is highly deleterious; and, if impro- vidently eaten, causes great swel- ling, sickness, looseness, and other fatal symptoms. These are the principal poison- ous species growing in this coun- try ; but there are doubtless many others, equally pernicious, though not generally known.....On the other hand, the harmless and es- culent mushrooms, are chiefly the following : 4. The campestris, Champignon, or Common Mushroom, the stem of which is solid and white, usual- ly 3-4ths of an inch high, and of the thickness of a swallow's quill. Its gills, when first expanded, are of a bright-red colour, which gra- dually acquires a darker shade, till they become of a deep-brown cast. This plant at first represents a small globular figure, not unlike a hazle-nut; in which state it is free from worms, and eatable ; as the skin, in which it is enveloped, may then be easily separated from its white, juicy flesh : by this circum- stance, it will be readily distin- guished from a similar plant, the agaricus vermis, which is said to be poisonous...The common mush- room is found in woods, old pas- tures, and at the side of roads, where it attains to perfection in the month of September. 5. The orcades, v. pratensis, or Meadow Mushroom (by some also called cliampignon) is very fre- quent on heaths, and dry pastures, being generally found in circular clusters. The cap is of a pale brown, nearly flat, and from one to three inches in diameter. Its stem is very tough, solid, and white; grows generally to the height of an inch and a half, and as thick as a crow's quill....This species is also eatable in Septem- ber : it possesses but little smell, while raw, and is somewhat dry; yet, when broiled or stewed, it imparts a pleasant flavour. 6. The cantharellus (Merulius cantharcllus of Withering), or Chantarelle Mushroom, is wholly of a yellow cast, similar to that of the yolk of an egg. Its stem is solid, tapering downwards, being from one to two inches high, and from l-4th to 3-4ths of an inch in diameter. It is found in woods and dry pastures, from July to Sep- tember. This plant, when boiled with salt and pepper, possesses the flavour of a roasted cockle : it is esteemed, together with the pro- ceding species, as a great delica- cy. 7. The deliciosus, or Orange-co- loured Mushroom, grows from one to two inches high : its stem is from l-4th to 3-4ths of an inch in 128 MUS MUS diameter, and is crowned with a flat cap, from one one-half to three inches broad, and of a rich red- dish-brown colour ; but its flesh is of a pale orange cast....In its sen- sible properties, this species is si- milar to the preceding. It is in sea- son in the month of September, and is found in dry and elevated woods....The Italians, especially at Genoa, preserve it in olive-oil, and esteem it as great a delicacy as the celebrated boletus of the Ro- mans. There are, however, two other varieties greatly resembling the orange-coloured eatable mush- room, but which are in a high de- gree poisonous ; especially the tor- minosus (pifteralus of YVither- ing), which grows on the roots of birch-trees, for instance, at Haugh- wood near Woolhope, Hereford- shire ; and the necator, which is of a dirty yellowish cast, appears to be composed of woolly fibres filled with a glutinous dew; and thrives in the same place, as well as in the park at Edgbaston, un- der large Spanish chesnut-trees. 8. The cinnamomeus, or Brown Mushroom, has a convex, but flat- ted, clothy cap ; often with a cen- tral rise, in colour resembling that of a chesnut, or newly tanned lea- ther. Its long stemis^yellowish and naked, and the gills tawny red. This plant is readily distinguished by its cinnamon colour; in the months of September and October, it abounds in woods ; it emits an agreeable odour, and, when boil- ed, possesses a fine flavour. 9. The violaceous, or Violet-co- loured Mushroom, has numerous purple gills, eight in a set: the cap being of a purple or brown cast, convex, and the edge turned down; the stem is also purple and cylin- drical, from A to one inch in dia- meter, and growing from one to four inches in height...This species remarkably varies, both in its size and tints. When full grown, the capchanges its lilac colour to a rus- set hue; but the gills continue nearly in the same state; hence, according to Major Valley, the latter afford a more accurate cri- terion, with respect to colour, than any other part of mushrooms in ge- neral....The violet-coloured mush- room is in perfection from October to December....When thoroughly boiled and seasoned, it is asserted to be as palatable as an oyster. We have now enumerated the principal species of mushrooms that are poisonous, as well as those which may be safely eaten; but, as their harmless, or noxious pro- perties, in a great measure depend on the nature and situation of the soil producing them, it will always be necessary to attend to this cir- cumstance, before they are gather- ed. There is no doubt but that the gills inhale the stagnant or su- perfluous vapours from the ground; hence, they speedily putrefy, and become the prey of worms, flies, and other insects. In horticulture, the esculent mushrooms only are raised artifi- cially ; for this purpose when no young plants can be procured from the fields or gardens, their roots, spawn, or embryons, may be ge- nerated from horse dung, laid un- broken in small heaps, under co- ver. In a few weeks, during the summer months, fibrous roots will appear, resembling white threads, which, on separating the heaps, emit the smell of mushrooms. The dung is directed to be carefully piled up, as entire as pos- sible, about three inches thick, on a hot-bed of a moderate heat; and MUS MUS 129 formed of alternate strata of horse- ed by chemical analysis ; because dung, and tanners-waste ; the up- mushrooms contain a remarkable permost layer being composed portion of azote and phosphorus ; wholly of tan, to the thickness of and morels may be converted into two inches. The bed is next to be fat, by means of the sulphuric acid, covered with a little manure, and or oil of vitriol, diluted with water. to be raised about, three inches, Considered as an article of food, with good soil; when it is finally mushroomsare by no means whole- overspread with a thick stratum, 'some or nourishing: being tough, or coat of straw. and greatly resembling soft leather, The most proper place for the they are almost indigestible, and formation of mushroom-beds, is in ought not to be eaten by persons cf the shed usually erected behind weak or inactive stomachs. Bt- hot-houses; because,as these plants sides, many species of this nume- vegetate without light, warmth only rous genus of vegetables are ex- is requisite, provided they be occa- tremely deleterious, and cannot be sionally watered......The French accurately distinguished from such practise a method of rearing these as are harmless and esculent: it plants, which is both simple and would not, therefore, be attended expeditious : they pour the water, with any loss, excepting to the epi- that has been employed for wash- cure, if mushrooms were totally ing eatable mushrooms,, on the banished from our table;. But, if usual hot-beds, and thus a constant they must be dressed, it will be ad- , succession of growth is obtained, visable to employ a large portion especially if the stalks be left in the of vinegar, or other vegetable acid, ground, when theirheads or caps are to counteract their acrimonious and gathered for the table....In China, narcotic nature....In order to ascer- the putrefied wood of elms and tain, with greater certainty, whe- willows is formed into a bed, and ther all the plants of a collection covered with the leaves of these which is destined to undergo the trees; the whole is then frequently culinary process, be of an inoiVen- watercd with a weak solution of sive nature, it will be proper to put nitre. This composition produces a peeled onion in the vessel in continual crops of the most deli- which they are to be cooked ; and, cious champignons, which are col- if this root acquire a blueish or lected in the manner before stated, dark hue, we may conclude that Mushrooms form an isthmus there doubtless are poisonous mush- between the animal and vegetable rooms among them. Should, how- kingdoms ; and it is not yet ascer- ever, any noxious species have been tained, whether they can be propa- inadvertently eaten, it will be requi- gated by seed. When in a state of site to take a dose of ipecacuanha, putrefaction, they emit a cadaverous or of the antimonial emetics, in smell; and it appears from the order to eject the poison as spee- expriments of Von Humboldt, dily as possible ; or, if the accident that they are equally good conduc- be discovered only after some hours torsof Galvanism, or of the Gal-, have elapsed, copious draughts of vanic Fluid, as real animal matters, vinegar and water, or oil and vine- He farther observes, that their par- gar, will then form the most effi- ticipation of animal nature is evinc- cacious antidotes. vwi.. iv. S 130 MUS MUSIC, denotes the art of pro- ducing and combining sounds, in such a manner as to render them agreeable to the ear. Music forms a pleasing recrea- tion, and-is calculated to produce the happiest effects upon the mind, or to exhilarate the animal spirits. Hence it has with the greatest ad- vantage been employed medicinal- ly ; several instances having occur- red, in which patients labouring under delirious fever, were calmed; and, a critical sleep succeeding, they were eventually cured. This art may be likewise bene- ficially practised by persons of low melancholic temperament; as, ac- cording to the nature of the tunes played, it is equally calculated to excite pity, to sooth the mind, and to rouse the social affections. But, as the principles by which these various combinations are regulated, constitute a profound and extensive science, our limits will not permit us to enter in^o any analysis. The curious reader will derive amuse- ment and instruction from the pe- rusal of Mr. Kollman's Essay on Musical Harmony (fol. 1/. Is. 1796); the same author's Essay on Practi- cal Musical Composition (fol. 1799, 1/. 1*.), and Mr. Shield's Intro- duction to Harmony (4to. Robin- sons, 1800); in which the subject is scientifically discussed......The History of Music, as well as its present state in France, Italy, Ger- many, &c. has been ably treated in the voluminous publications of Dr. Burney, whose writings on this interesting topic possess clas- sical merit. MUSK, a drug resembling clot- ted blood, which is obtained from the musk-bearing animal (Moschus Moochiferus, L.) a native of the South-eastern parts of Asia, Sibe- MUS ria, and China : it is secreted in a small bag found beneath the lower belly of this ruminating quadruped. [MUSQUITOE. A well known and troublesome insect in all warm climates. An experiment lately made in Wilmington, Delaware, would seem to shew, that a small quantity of spirits of turpentine thrown into a water hogshead,com- monly kept in yards,will effectually prevent their propagation.....Ano- ther portion may be added in a few days afterwards, if necessary...... Water hogsheads are fruitful sour- ces of these insects. From eight to ten thousand of them, it is said, may be seen in a single hogshead. They take wing in about 48 hours after the egg is deposited, and give place to as many more. The pe- riod of their breeding is about ten weeks, and allowing a water hogs- head to every house in a city, what myriads of these insects must be generated !] M U ST A RD, or Sina/. in, L. a ge- nus of plants, comprising nineteen species : three of which are natives of Britain : namely, 1. The arvensis. See Char- lock. 2. The alia, or White Mus- tard, which grows in corn-fields, and on road-sides ; it flowers in the month of August.....This species, when cultivated, thrives best in a soil that is naturally heavy, but which has been reduced to a fine mould, by tillage : it is propagated by sowing one bushel of the seed per acre, in the month of March ; it should be frequently hoed; and, when the plants arrive at a proper size for transplantation, they may be set out, ten inches apart...Mus- tard may be sown on the same land, for three successive years ; and it always leaves the soils in suflicient MUS MUS 151 tilth for the reception of any other crop. Its leaves afford a grateful food to sheep, and other cattle: the seed yields from every cwt. 33 or 36 lb. of a sweet, mild oil..... Bees are remarkably attached to the flowers....This plant is likewise raised by gardeners in the winter, and early in the spring, with a view to supply the table with salad. 3. The nigra, or Common Mus- tard, growing in corn-fields, on ditch-banks, and road-sides ; flow- ering in the month of June....The sauce called mustard, and in daily use at our tables, is prepared from the seeds of this species, obtained by culture, and reduced to powder. They likewise afford a considerable quantity of expressed oil, which partakes but little of the acrimony of the plant....When unbruised, they impart a very weak flavour to boiling water ; but, in a pulverized state, they coagulate milk, and strongly impregnate both fluids.... If a watery infusion be taken in a considerable quantity, it operates as an emetic ; but, in the propor- tion of a UuV.e-spoonful or two, it is a gentle laxative ; in this form, it has proved of service in cases of asthma, chronic rheumatism, and palsy....Cataplasms, prepared with crumb of bread, vinegar, and pul- verized mustard-seed, are excellent stimulants, when applied to be- numbed or paralytic limbs; to parts affected with fixed rheumatic pains, and to the soles of the feet, in fe- vers that require such treatment.... In short, mustard acts powerfully upon the nervous system, without exciting a high degree of heat : by its acrimony and pungency, it stimulates the solids, so that it is deservedly recommended for excit- ing appetite, avristiag digestion, and promoting the fluid secretions, being greatly preferable to the ge- nerality of acrid plants of the anti- scorbutic class. In 1798, a patent was granted to Mr. Robert Johnston, for his contrivance of a medicine, which he cajls Improved Essence of Mus- tard. The particulars of this patent are inserted in the 9th vol. of the Repertory of Arts, &c. MUSTARD, the HEDGE, or Erysimum, L. a genus of plants, comprising ten species, four of which are natives of Britain. 1. The Officinale, Common Hfdge-mustard ; Worm-seed ; Bank-cresses ; or Scrambling- rocket : it grows under walls and hedges, on road-sides, and among rubbish ; where it flowers in the months of May and June..'..This species possesses a warm and acrid flavour; and, when cultivated, is used as an early pot-herb. Its seeds, taken internally, promote expecto- ration, the discharge of urine, and other fluid secretions. The juice has been employed with unparal- leled success in ulcers of the throat, and for removing hoarseness, occa- sioned by loud speaking....Sheep and goats relish this species ; but covi s, horses, and swine refuse it. 2. The Barbarea, Wintlr- cuesses ; Winter-rocket ; or Rocket-wohmseed; which grows » on walls, in w atery places, on bank-; of running streams, and is some- times found in cultivated fields : it flowers from May to October....In Sweden, the common people use the leaves of this herb in earlv salads in the spring, and late in lire. autumn : they also boil them u*i kale....It is sown in Britain, to ob- tain spring-salad, and eaten under the name of French Cms.....Cows 132 M U T M YR devour this plant; but horses and swine refuse it; and it is disliked by goats and sheep. The Alliari, Garlic Hedge- mustard, Jack-by-the-hedge, Sauce-alone, or Garlic Worm- seed, thriving on ditch-banks, in hedges, and shady places ; it flow- ers in the month of May....When growing in farm-yards, poultry are induced to eat this herb, which imparts to their flesh an intolera- ble rank taste. The Prussians eat the leaves, in the spring, with salted meat; and they are equally useful with lettuce, and the colder salads....In Wales, it is frequently used as a frying herb. The seeds excite sneezing....Bautsch em- ployed this herb with advantage in the process of tanning. Cows and goats eat the plant; but horses, sheep, and swine refuse it. 4. The cheiranthoidcs, Treacle- FIedge-Mustard, or Treacle- Wormseed, thrives in corn-fields, and on the banks of rivers; it flowers in the month of July..... The seeds of this species are, ac- cording to Dr. Withering, suc- cessfully used by the country-peo- ple, for destroying worms....The plant is eaten by horses, cows, goats, sheep, and swine. MUTTON, denotes the flesh of fp.eep, after they have been de- prived of life. The best and most nutritive mutton, is that of sheep which are at least three, but not more than six years old ; and which have been reared on dry,sweet pastures. The meat afforded by such as have been fed on salt-marshes, or near the sea-coast, is likewise sweet and wholesome; for they have acquired both firmness and a fine flavour, from the saline particles abound- ing in such situations. The flesh of ewes, and especially- of wethers that have not been kept above the age before stated, is of a rich and invigorating nature; while that of rams is not only tough and coarse, but also has a strong, unpleasant taste. Young meat abounds with sweet juices, and is easy of digestion ; though, if under three years of age, it sel- dom attains its peculiar relish, and is generally somewhat ropy. If apiece of mutton be designed for roasting, it will be advisable to expose it to the open air for seve- ral days, according to the state of the weather or season. Thus, it will afford a savoury dish, which is easily digested, and agrees with every healthy person. Mutton-fat, however, is with great difficulty converted into aliment, and ought therefore not to be eaten by inva- lids, or those whose organs of di- gestion are relaxed, or impairedby excess ; as it coagulates in the stomach, and oppresses its ac- tion. Mutton-suet dissolved in milk, or the feet of sheep boiled to the consistence of a jelly, afford ex- cellent clysters, in complaints aris- ing from an acrimony or irritabi- lity of the intestines, such as dy- sentery, Sec. the latter preparation, being a very nourishing dish, may also be eaten. MYRRH, a gummy-resinous, concrete juice, obtained from a shrub growing in the East-Indies, but of which we possess no certain account. The best myrrh is somewhat transparent, of an uniform brown- ish, or reddish-yellow colour ; of a slightly pungent, bitter taste ; with a strongly aromatic, not disagree- able odour, though nauseous to the palate. MYR MYR 133 In its medicinal effects, this aromatic bitter, when taken by the mouth, is supposed to warm and strengthen the stomach and other viscera; it frequently occasions a mild diaphoresis, and, in general, promotes the fluid secretions..... Hence it has been used with ad- vantage, in cases of debility ; in diseases arising from suppression of the urine, or from immoderate discharges, in cachetic habits, and those persons whose lungs and throat are oppressed by viscid phlegm....It is farther believed to resist putrefaction in all parts of the body ; on which account it is highly recommended in malignant, putrid, and pestilential fevers; and in the small-pox. For these pur- poses, it should be taken in doses of half a dram or upwards ; and it may also be usefully combined with nitre, cream of tartar, or some other cooling salt. Being, however, a heating and stimulat- ing medicine ; its proper choice requires some precaution, and ought to be directed by profession- al advice. [MY RICA, Candle-berry Myrtle ; a genus of plants comprehending the following native species: 1. M. Cerifera. This grows upon low boggy lands in the southern states, rising with many strong shrubby stalks, to the height of six or eight feet; the leaves are stiff and spear-shaped, of a yellow- ish lucid green on their upper sur- face, but paler underneath; of a grateful odour when bruised. The catkins come out on different plants from the berries, and are about an inch long, and erect. The female flowers come out on the sides of the branches in long bunches, and are succeeded by small roundish berries, covered with a mealy substance, and af- ford a green wax by boiling. 2. At. Cerifera humilis, dwarf candle-berry myrtle ; a variety of the former: bark grey, leaves shorter and broader, and more serrated. 3. M. Gale, bog gale; also grows in swamps, to the height of two or three feet; leaves lance- shaped, smooth, and a little sawed towards the points. The berries are dry, compressed at the apex, and three lobed. This species grows in New Jersey,but abounds in the eastern states, and in Nova Scotia, according to Mr. Bar- tram. The wax is obtained in South Carolina and Georgia, by boiling the berries of the M. cerifera in water, and skimming it. Mixed with tallow, it forms excellent candles ; a soap may be also made from it. The following receipt for the purpose, by Judge Bee, is inserted in a little pamphlet, published in the year 1788, by the Agri. Sec. of Cliarltston, S. Caro- lina : " To three bushels and a half of common wood ashes, was added half a bushel of unslacked lime ; these, being well mixed, were put into a sixty gallon cask, which was filled with water. In 48 hours, the ley was strong enough to bear an egg : it was then drawn off, and from six to eight gallons of it put into a cop- per kettle, capable of containing about twenty-five gallons; four pounds of myrtle wax were addeu, and the kettle kept boiling over a constant steady fire, from nine o'clock in the morning, till three in the afternoon. For the first three or four hours, a supply of strong ley was added, from time to time, until the liquor appeared 134 MYR MYR like soft soap ; then weaker ley was poured in occasionally, and the whole frequently well stirred. After six hours boiling, two quarts of common coarse salt were thrown into the kettle, which was left one hour more to simmer over a slow fire. The liquor was then put into two large tubs to cool, where it continued twenty-four hours; and then the soap was taken out, wiped clean, and put to dry. The next day it was weighed, and the produce was 49 lbs/2 oz. of solid soap." The loss of weight by drying is not men- tioned ; but Mr. Bee " was inform- ed by one who made the trial, that at the end of six weeks, it was very trifling." From Dr. Bostock's experi- ments on myrtle wax, (Nichol- son's Journal, 4th vol.) it appears, that " when boiled with liquid caustic pot-ash, the fluid becomes turbid ; but, alter seme time, the greatest part of the wax rises to the surface, nearly without colour, in a floculent form. A small quantity of it only remains dis- solved in the pot-ash, and this may be precipitated from it by an acid. That part of the wax which rises to the surface, is converted into a saponaceous matter: it has lost its inflammability and fusibility, and forms an opike solution with water. From this solution, it is precipitated by an acid in the form of white flakes, which, when col- lected, resemble very nearly the wax before its union with the pot- ash." In the Medical Repository, of New York, it is stated, that Dr. Joseph Browne, of that city, had discovered a cheap and easy pro- cess for bleaching myrtle wax, but it has not yet been published. No doubt, however, the colouring mat- ter may be destroyed by the pro- cess for bleaching common bees wax, described in vol. 1, p. 244; or by the vapour of alkalis, which, according to Chaptal, destroys the green colour of all vegetable matter.] MYRTLE, or Myrtus, L. a ge- nus of exotic trees, comprising forty-two species ; of which the communis, or Common Myrtle- tree, only is cultivated in Britain. There are several varieties, known under the names of Broad-leaved, Roman, Dutch, and Jew's 'Myr- tle ; Orange-leaved Spanish Myr- tle ; the Thyme-leaved, Rosema- ry-leaved, Box-leaved, and Upright Italian Myrtles, &c All these varieties are beautiful ever-greens; which, though re- quiring the shelter of a green-house in the more northern parts of Bri- tain, during the winter, vegetate most luxuriantly in the county of Cornwall, and on the southern coast, in the open air, without be- ing sheltered from the severity of the winter. The Common Myrtle is easily propagated by cuttings, which may be set in beds of a rich, but light soil, beneath glasses, or in a green- house, where they thrive with un- common rapidity.....In the Island of Minorca, the young tops are employed for tawning ; and the berries are eaten by the inhabit- ants. In Britain, however, this species' is cultivated chiefly for ornament; though it is likewise of service as a medicine. A distilled water is ob- tained from its leaves ; which, be- ing both detersive and astringent, is sometimes used in gargles, or as a cosmetic for fixing the teeth, when loosened by the scurvy. Its MYR MYR 135 berries are distilled ; and the oil tion of the flowers and leaves is they yield, is reputed to be excel- said to be of great service in fo- lent for thickening the hair; on mentations. which account it is frequently used Myrtle, the Dutch. See as an ingredient in pomatums, and Gale the Sweet. other cosmetics. Lastly, a decoc- N. N AI NAI NAILS, in anatomy, are horny Nails are divided into numerous lamina or plates growing over the classes : their figure and size vary ends of the fingers and toes of according to the purpose for which men, as likewise over the lower they are designed; and which it extremities of the inferior ani- would be superfluous1 to enume- mals. rate. As they are of such essen- The use of the nails, in animal tial importance in building, the economy, is to defend and cover arts, and economy in general, se- the nervous warts or papillae of the veral privileges have been granted toes and fingers from external in- for new inventions, or improve- jury, when they come in contact ments, in the manner of casting, with rugged bodies. They should or manufacturing them. On ac- not be suffered to grow to a con- count of their ingenuity, the fol- siderable length, as the impurities lowing patents deserve to be men- collecting beneath them not only tioned; namely, Mr. Finch's ob- present a slovenly picture, but tained in 1790; Mr. Clifford's, such neglect also renders the nails registered in the same year ; and liable to be split and broken by Mr. Spencer's, granted in 1801. various accidents. But, as these processes can only NAILS, in building, are small be understood and practised bv pointed spikes, generally with a manufacturers, we cannot enter flat, or convex head, made of into any detail, but refer the curi- brass, iron, or other metal; which, ous reader to the 7th, 9th, and when driven into wood, serves to 15th vols, of the Repertory of Arts, connect several pieces, such as Sec. where full specifications are boards and laths, or to fasten a inserted; and Mr. Spencer's pa- piece of timber, fcc. tent is illustrated with an engraving. 136 NAI N AR NAIL and BOLT-DRAWER. In the year 1787, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. conferred a bounty of three guineas on Mr. William Rich, of Yald- ing, Kent, for his invention of a machine, which is represented in the following cut, in the action of drawing out a spike. A, B, the piece of timber, in which the nail or spike C, intend- ed to be drawn, is inserted. D, E, the shape of the tool, con- sisting of a lever, D, that moves on a solid basis, in the form of a seg- ment of a circle, as at E. F, a square staple, turning on a centre at G : and, if the spike to be drawn, be held between the le- ver and the staple, any pressure at D, will act with an effect propor- tionate to the distance a F, and D a ; and the workman will thus be enabled to exert a very great force against the spike C. Mr. Rich's nail-drawer is both simple and ingenious ; it is emi- nently serviceable in breaking up ships, and on other occasions, where large nails and spikes have been driven deeply into wood, from which they are to be extracted. Nail-wort. See Whitlow- grass the Common. Naphtha. See Bitumens. NARCOTICS, a term compre- hending opiates, anodynes, or pa- regorics, and all other drugs which induce sleep, or occasion stupe- faction. The narcotics chiefly employed in medicine are, opium, henbane, hemlock, &c. respecting which the reader will, in the order of the al- phabet, find a concise account of the cases in which they may be used with advantage. Whatever tends to induce stu- por, ought to be carefully avoided, or at least very cautiously admi- nistered, in disorders of the sto- mach and intestines ; for no other class of drugs is productive of such pernicious consequences to the nervous system. If taken in very small doses, narcotics at first ex- cite and increase the action of the nerves, while they produce gentle undulations of the circulating blood ; but, in a larger propor- tion, they stimulate, and at length reduce or debilitate, all the ner- vous and muscular functions. Thus, their consequent effect is similar to that of wine, which; if used in moderation, promotes a tempora- ry activity, by invigorating the nervous power, or rather by caus- ing an additional motion (which in physic is called congestion) of the fluids towards the head ; but, NAU NEC 137 when drunk too freely, it weakens and stupifies all the sensitive or- gans, by the unusual pressure it causes on the brain. Hence it will be readily inferred, that such he- roic remedies can be prescribed with safety, by those only who are acquainted with the animal eco- nomy. NAUSEA, or Sickness, de- notes a propensity and exertion to vomit, which may be induced by various causes, such as apoplexy, fevers, violent pain, crude aliment, indigestion, diseases of the liver, &c but especially by any local ir- ritation of the digestive organs. This affection, though disagree- able, is often very serviceable, by relieving the stomach when over- loaded with incongruous matter, and by promoting expectoration in caseswhere thelungsare oppressed with mucus or phlegm. Farther, it often induces sensible perspira- tion, and contributes to the proper distribution of the fluids through- out the body: hence, nausea has proved to be an excellent remedy in various complaints, where it was artificially excited, by the smallest doses of emetics. In some cases, however, it is injurious to the pa- tient, especially when too violent, or too frequently repeated ; as it is apt to debilitate the stomach; so that, in consequence of the neces- sary exertions, the patient becomes exhausted, and is apt to be afflicted with ruptures or other maladies. Pregnant women are particularly subject to nausea and vomiting, % which, if they be not timely miti- gated, are productive of the most serious consequences. With a view to afford some relief in those dis- tressing situations, Dr. Marcard recommends the use of acidulated VOL. IV. mineral waters, especially tho^e of Sedlitz. The water of pure am- monia, or caustic vegetable alkali, has lately been prescribed with success by Dr. John Sims, who has often found it eminently useful in cases where acidity prevails, such as heart-burn, cough upon taking food, and other complaints of pregnancy. This judicious prac- titioner directed twenty drops of the pure ammonia to be taken in a glass of water, from which the pa- tient experienced immediate relief. Nealing. See Annealing. NECK, in animal economy, that part of the body which is placed between the head and the thorax, or chest. As the description of the differ- ent veins, vertebrae, &c. that com- pose this part of the human frame, is the province of anatomy, we shall here give a few hints relative to those diseases or injuries, to which the neck is peculiarly liable. 1. The wry neck.....This de- formity arises from various causes; being sometimes born with per- sons, though more generally in- duced by a preternatural contrac- tion of one side of the neck ; a re- laxation of one part, while the other retains its usual power, &c. If the distortion be natural, there is little probability of obtaining re- lief by art; but, if it arise from contraction of the skin, occasioned by burns, the repeated use of oils, ointments, and emollient fomenta- tions, will relax the rigidity of the fibres. In some instances, it will be advisable to restore the natural posture of the head by means of a steel collar,or other contrivance in which the neck may be supported, till it resume its proper position. Should these exertions, however, T 138 NEG N ER fail to prove useful, surgical assist- ance must not be neglected ; as delay may be attended with danger. 2. Tumors. See Wens. 3. Luxations of the neck are in general fatal; though, if a partial dislocation take place, it may by proper attention be restored to its natural position. As, however, the treatment in this case is wholly chirurgical, we shall not enter into detail.....Let it be observed that, till proper assistance can be pro- cured, the patient ought to keep himself as quietly as possible; to avoid speaking, and not to indulge in any passions; for the conse- quences of either may prove fatal. NECTARINE, a variety of the common peach-tree, from which it differs only in having a smoother rind, and firmer pulp. There are several varieties of this fruit, known under the differ- ent names of Scarlet, Newington, Roman Nectarines, &c.; but, as their properties and culture are similar to those of the Peach, we propose to give a concise account of them under that article. NEEDLE, the Common Shep- herd's, Venus'-comb, Crake- needle, or Needle-Chervil, Scandix Pecten, L. an indigenous plant, growing in corn-fields, and flowering in the months of June and July.....This weed frequently infests corn-fields, and may be eaten as greens, being a whole- some vegetable....When bruised with marsh-mallows, these two herbs are said to afford an excellent application to fresh wounds, espe- cially with a view to promote the extraction of splinters. NEGUS, a well-known com- pound beverage, prepared of one part of Port-wine, and two parts of water, to which is usually added a small quantity of sugar, lemon- peel, Sec. This liquor is salubrious and harmless, especially if the juice of a Seville-orange be substituted for that of lemons....As the peel of the last mentioned fruit, however, contains a considerable quantity of highly inflammable and volatile oil, negus becomes more stimulating than pure wine, if it be used in large quantities; but, if mode- rately taken, it may contribute to strengthen the stomach. It should, however, be remembered, that asthmatic patients, or those who are subject to diseases of the breast, ought carefully to abstain from this and similar drink; an indulgence in which, may be productive of the worst consequences ; as the heat- ing oil, together with the fumes of wine, is too powerful a stimulus to their organs of breathing. NERVE, in anatomy, denotes certain white, round, delicate, sub- stances, similar to cords, which proceed from the brain or spinal marrow, and are divided into nu- merous smaller fibres or branches, that are dispersed throughout the body. The nerves have been supposed to contain a very subtle fluid, which may be either of a magnetic or electrical nature; and though the nervous fibrils, when examined with the microscope, appear to be solid bodies, yet they probably con- duct a very subtle fluid by means of their interstices. Thus, they are the immediate instruments of sen- < sation, and are indispensably ne- cessary for the continuance of mus- cular motion. Wounds are the chief accidents to which the nerves are liable ; but NET NET 139 as the former require immediate chirurgical assistance, we shall on- ly remark, that the nerves of seve- ral animals are larger than those of man ; though possessing a very inferior degree of sensation. In- deed, the mental capacities of be- ings are by no means proportioned to the size of their nerves, proceed- ing from the brain: amphibious animals,forinstance,possessstrong nerves, in proportion to the diminu- tive size of their brain ; and are nevertheless uncommonly dull of apprehension, and even insensible. On the contrary, children affected with the rickets, and persons of lean habits, have a large brain, and very delicate nerves ; yet they pos- sess not only a high degree of men- tal vigour, but likewise uncommon acuteness in the perceptions of sense. Nervous diseases are supposed to arise from an increased sensibility of the nerves, under the influence of some stimulus ; and are princi- pally distinguished by their pre- dominant painful symptoms ; for instance, violent head-ach, tooth- ach, face-ach, &c. Hence the ab- surdity of classing almost every complaint, the origin of which is not obvious, among the nervous, and to misapply this term to dis- orders of a very different nature, such as general weakness, occa- sioned by muscular relaxation, or mental imbecility, peevishness, want of resolution, &c. if connect- ed with bodily causes, however dis- tant or concealed. NETTLE, or Urtica, L. a genus of plants, comprising 57 species, three of which are natives of Bri- tain ; namely, I. The urens,or Lesser Sting- ing Xktth, which is frequent on rubbish and cultivated lands; it flowers from July to September.... The leaves of this species, accord- ing to Linnaeus, are gathered and cut to pieces, in order to be mixed with the food of young turkies..... the whole plant is refused by every kind of cattle, and ought therefore to be carefully extirpated from pas- tures. 2. The dioica, or Common Nettle, grows on ditch-banks, and among rubbish ; it flowers in the month of July. This species has a square, firm stem, three or four feet high, with long-pointed, serrated leaves, that are furnished with stings, having at their base small vesicles full of a corrosive li- quor ; and which, on being touch- ed, excite a blister, accompanied with a burning and painful sensa- tion. The Common Nettle, though generally considered as a noxious weed, is of extensive utility : its young tops may be boiled during the spring, and eaten as a substi- tute for greens; being not only nourishing, but mildly aperient.... In the Western Islands of Scotland, a rennet is prepared, by adding a quart of salt to three pints of a strong decoction of nettles; a table- spoonful of which is said to be suf- ficient to coagulate a bowl of milk. The leaves are employed for feed- ing poultry ; and especially in the winter, when boiled, they promote the layingof eggs....ina fresh state, they are refused by horses, sheep, goats, cows, and hogs; though asses devour them eagerly. When dry, they are eaten by cows, for which they are an excellent food, increasing the quantity, and im- proving the quality, of their milk. According to M. Van Gewns, 140 N E T NET such fodder is an effectual preserv- ative against the contagious dis- temper affecting horned cattle. The roots of the Common Net- tle, when boiled, communicate a yellow tinge to yarn. But the most valuable part, is its fibrous stalk or stem ; which, on being dressed in a manner similar to flax or hemp, has, in some parts of Europe, been advantageously ma- nufactured into cloth. This useful branch of industry has also been attempted in Britain, and a coarse kind of durable canvas was pro- duced, which is considerably harder than the cloth manufactured from hemp or flax. As, however, this plant requires a rich soil to obtain it in any quantity, and, as a much greater degree of attention and ac- curacy is necessary in the opera- tion of rating, than is requisite ei- ther for flax or hemp, Dr. Ander- son is of opinion, that the cultiva- tion of the nettle will be attended with difficulty. From the rind, as well as the woody substance of the stalk, Dr. Schaeffer has produc- ed a very good white writing pa- per ; though that manufactured by M. De Vili.ette, in France, was of a dark green colour. The seeds, on expression, afford an useful lamp-oil. In a medicinal view, the whole plant, and particularly the root, is esteemed to be diuretic ; and has, therefore, been recommended in the jaundice and in nephritic com- plaints. A leaf, if placed on the tongue, and pressed against the roof of the mouth, is said to be ef- ficacious in bleeding at the nose ; and instances have occurred, in which paralytic limbs have been recovered by stinging them with nettles. If credit be due to some authors, the expressed juice of this plant is a valuable remedy to the asthmatic and consumptive. , Some interesting experiments have lately been made by M./an- netini, in Italy ; from which it appears that the flowers and seeds of the Common Nettle may, with efficacy be substituted for the Pe- ruvian bark, in all febrile affections, especially in tertian and quartan agues. This native vegetable oper- ates more speedily than the fo- reign bark ; and, in large doses, in- duces a lethargic sleep : the por- tion to be given ought never to ex- ceed one dram, and should be ad- ministered in wine, two or three times in the course of 24 hours.... The same cautions that are neces- sary in the use of the Peruvian bark, are likewise to be observed in taking the seeds and flowers of the nettle. Lastly, M. Zanni tiki recommends a slight infusion of the latter, in wine, as an excellent preservative for those who reside in marshy and unwholesome situ- ations. 3. The pilulifera, or Rom ax Nettle, growing among rubbish, and on old walls. It is found chiefly in the vicinity of Yarmouth, and on the eastern coast of England; it flowers in the month of August. Both the last mentioned species possess similar properties ; and, as the Common Nettle, in particular, acquires the height of six feet, when sown in September or Octo- ber, on an indifferent soil, Funke strongly recommends its culture; nay, he maintains, that after the second year of its growth, it thrives rapidly, reproduces itself annually, and may be mown two or three times every year. In this respect, it promises to become an excellent fodder for cattle. NETTLE-HEMP, or Galeofisis, NET NEW 141 L. a genus of native plants, consist- it appears to be laid in the organs ingof four species, the principal of digestion, which prepare a coarse of which is the Tetrahit, Common chyle, consequently crude and Hemp-nettle, or Nettle-hemp All- acrid fluids. From whatever cause heal. It grows in hedges, corn- this affection may arise, Dr. H. fields, and among rubbish ; flow- conceives that it does not corrupt ers in the months of July and Au- the humours, so as to require in- gust. In Thuringia, the small ternal remedies : he is of opinion seeds of this plant are collected by that, if the itching could be spee- thepoor, and hot only sold in con- dily mitigated, no farther medicine siderable quantities as food for would be necessary. For this pur- birds, but their sweet-oil likewise is pose, a mixture of oil, vinegar, and expressed ; as it affords an excel- spirit of wine, may be applied to lent supply for chamber-lamps..... the skin, and will afford a tempo- Hence Bechstein advises the cul- rary relief; though Prof. Starck, tivationofthis vegetable, chiefly on of Jena, believes this eruption account of its mild salad-oil, which (when it is of a periodical or chro- the seeds yield in a large propor- nic nature) to originate from a dis- tion. eased viscus or intestine; andthere- NETTLE-RASH, or Urticaria, fore prescribes, first, sudorifics a cutaneous disease, thus denomi- and diuretics, then resolvent and nated, from the resemblance of the strengthening medicines ; but es- eruption to that produced by the pecially the copious use of Seltzer- stinging of nettles. Numerous water. pimples appear on the skin, often NEWSPAPERS, are certain suddenly after rubbing or scratch- publications, which appear daily, ing it; though they generally va- weekly, or at other stated periods nish in a few hours, and sometimes of the week, in order to commu- in a few minutes. nicate the most important political, The nettle-rash affects some per- domestic, or literary information. sons only for one or two hours ; The first English newspapers others for a few days; while in were published in the year 1642, some it continues for several since which time they have been months, and even years. It more greatly increased, so that now se- commonly attacks females than veral millions of copies are circu- males, and children oftener than lated every year. Independently adults ; but is not infectious. of their utility'as vehicles of gene- The cause of the nettle-rash is ral intelligence, these prints cer- ascribed, by Dr. Heberden, to tainly contribute to disseminate some mechanical object, applied to useful knowledge of a very diversi- the skin, such as Cowhage, or fied nature : and, so long as they the spiculx of cantharides adher- are conducted with the strictest ad- ing after the removal of blisters; herence to truth and decorum, they though the disorder may be indue- may be justly considered as a na- ed by eating muscles, lobsters, tional benefit. shrimps, and even honey, as like- In the United Kingdom, there wise from partaking of fish not are not less than 153 distinct sufficiently dressed, or of fresh newspapers, of which 72 are pub- pork, &c. so that the foundation of fished in the different counties of 142 NIG N 1G England, 39 in the Metropolis, 15 in Scotland, and 27 in Ireland. NICKEL, a semi-metal, the use of which has hitherto been very limited. It is rarely found, and al- most exclusively in cobalt-mines. The reguhn of nickel is in the ore mineralized with sulphur, and mix- ed with iron, cobalt, and arsenic : when dissolved in acids, it affords green crystals; by means of the fixed vegetable alkali, it produces yellow ; and by the volatile alkali, blue solutions. This semi-metal can with great difficulty be fused with other me- tals. We understand, however, from a foreign writer, that the Chinese, by the addition of nickel, prepare their white copper, which is an elegant composition, and may be applied in the arts, to many useful purposes. Nicking. See Horse. NIGHTINGALE, or Motacilla lucinia, L. a small bird, remarka- ble for the melody of its notes : the feathers of the head, neck, and back, are sallow ; the wings and tail brighter than the rest of its body ; and the whole creature weighs scarcely one ounce. Nightingales are birds of pas- sage, probably from Asia, visiting Britain in the beginning of April and returning to the warmer cli- mates in August ;....they never unite in flocks, and their habita- tions are generally at a distance from each other. The female con- structs her nest in low bushes or quickset hedges, well covered with foliage, in the vicinity of brooks ; it is externally composed of dry leaves, mixed with grass and fibres, and lined with hair or down : here she deposits four or five olive- green eggs. During the period of incubation, the females alone sit on the eggs, while the males in the vicinity, in a manner emulate with their melodious songs; but they cease to exert their powerful voice as soon as the young are hatched, when they assist in feeding then nestlings. There are two varieties of this bird, namely, those with a larger and longer body, which sing only at night; and others which are smaller, of a colour inclining to a red shade, and warble more fre- quently during day-light. Some- times also, they are of a whitish cast, but rarely met with in our climate. The proper food for nightingales is, spiders, wood-lice, ant-eggs, flies, and worms; as their diet, in general, agrees with them bet- ter, when mixed with animal food. These birds are subject to various diseases, which according to some ornithologists, may be averted by giving them, in the month of March, one black spider every day, for six days in succession. NIGHT-MARE, or Incubus, a singular affection, occasioned by a spasmodic state either of the lungs or the abdomen ; by a redundancy of blood, or a partial stagnation, in its passages through the heart and the pulmonary vessels. During this affection, the patient perceives,or imagines thathe feels, an uncommon oppression in the region of the breast and stomach, which no effort can remove..... Sometimes he groans, and screams, but more frequently in vain endea- vours to speak. At other times, he fancies himself struggling with an enemy, or with demons ; to be in a house that is in flames ; or in danger of being drowned, &c. so that the terror induced by the frightful ideas which accompauf N 1G NIG 143 these uneasy sensations, causes a tingling in the ears, and produces a general tremor. The night-mare chiefly attacks nervous, hypochondriac, or delicate persons, when lying on their back: beside the causes above stated, it may, in many instances, be assign- ed to indigestion. Hence persons of sedentary habits and weak nerves, especially those who are subject to flatulency, ought carefully to avoid all coarse and heavy nutri- ment ; to eat light but nourishing food; to abstain from late, or solid suppers ; and lastly, to raise their heads in bed tolerably high. As those who are attacked with the night-mare generally groan when labouring under a fit, it will be re- quisite to address or wake them instantly, as the uneasiness will thus be greatly removed. Should, however, the paroxysm continue to increase, it will be useful to ad- minister small, but frequent doses of valerian, asafcetida, or other anti- spasmodics, and to strengthen the body with the mildest chalybeates. But if young persons of plethoric habits be subject to this affection, it will be advisable to use a spare diet, to take daily exercise in the open air, and to attend to the state of the bowels, in order to prevent costiveness. NIGHTSHADE, or Solatium, L. a genus of plants, comprising 66 species ; of which only two are natives of Britain ; namely, I. The Dulcamara, Bitter- sweet, or Woodv-Nightshade, growing in all moist brakes, hedges, aud on the sides of cold brooks and ditches, where it flow- ers in the months of June and July. It endures ten years in the same soil, and attains in the shade, the height of seven feet; hut, if there be no shrubs in their vicinity, the shoots creep along the ground, and frequently strike new roots. On ac- count of their depth, the plant is uncommonly useful towards con- solidating dams and banks of rivers. Boerhaave informs us, that the bitter-sweet is far superior to sar- saparilla ; and, according to Lin- n^us, an infusion of the young twigs is eminently serviceable in acute rheumatisms, inflammations, fevers, &c. It has also been found very efficacious in cases of asthma, jaundice, and of the scurvy ; for which purposes, Dr. Hallenberg directs a pint of boiling water to be poured upon two drams of the stalks, previously sliced and dried : after standing half an hour, the whole must be boiled for about fif- teen minutes. The dose is two tea-cupfuls, or more, in the morn- ing and eveninir. The stalks may be gathered early in the spring, or late in autumn ; in snvell, the root of this vegetable resembles that of the potatoe. Its beautiful red ber- ries have a disagreeable taste, and possess deleterious properties..... Sheep and goats eat the dulcamara, but horses, cows, and swine re- fuse it. 2. The nigrum, CommonNight- siiADE,or Garden Nightshade ; which grows among rubbish, on dung-hills, and in kitchen gardens: it flowers from June to October. Though generally considered as a poisonous weed, the Dalmatians fry it in butter, and eat this dish with a view to procure a comfort- able sleep ; an effect which the writer of these pages had occasion to witness. From one to three grains of the leaves, infused in boiling water, and taken at bed- time,induce a copious perspiration, increase the secretion of urine, and 144 NIG NIP generally operate as a laxative on the following day. Hence this simple preparation, if judiciously administered, may prove of great service in several affections ; but its influence on the nerves is too precarious to admit of its use, without professional advice. The leaves, externally applied, abate inflammation and assuage pain ; the flowers possess the odour of musk. The whole plant is refu- sed bv everv kind of cattle. NIGHTSHADE, the Dead- ly, Dwav-berries, or Deadly Dwale ; the Atropa Belladonna, L. indigenous plant, growing in hedges, among lime-stone and rub- bish ; it flowers in the month of June or July. The whole of this plant is poisonous ; and children, allur- ed by the beautiful appearance of its berries, have too often experi- enced their fatal effects. The most proper antidotes, in such accidents, are strong emetics, large draughts of oil and vinegar, purgatives, blis- ters applied to the neck ; and, af- ter the poison has been ejected from the stomach, the tincture of castor in small doses of ten or 15 drops, should be diluted in a spoonful of water, and taken eve- ry two or three hours. It is as- serted, that tumours of the breasts, even of the cancerous kind, have been resolved by a local applica- tion of the fresh leaves. A poul- tice prepared of the roots, boiled in milk, and applied to hard ill-con- ditioned ulcers, has sometimes ef- fected -a cure. Although the in- ternal use of this medicine, and its great efficacy in the most obstinate diseases, such as hydrophobia, epi- lepsy, melancholy, madness, and the distemper of cattle, is attested by many eminent continental wri- ters, yet we do not advise our rea- ders to venture upon a remedy so powerful and dangerous in its ef- fects. The juice of the berries. when ripe, imparts to paper a beau- tiful and durable purple. Sheep, rabbits, and hogs, eat the leaves of the Deadly Nightshade with- out the least injury ; nay, experi- ence has evinced, that the last mentioned animals have, by the use of this herb alone, been effec- tually cured of the inflammatory distemper, to which they are sub- ject in dry seasons. NIPPLE, a small prominence arising from the middle of the fe- male breast. The lacteal tubes terminate in these projections, through which the milk is drawn in the act of sucking. The nipples of females, when suckling their first child, are fre- quently so diminutive and deep within the breast, as to render it difficult or impracticable for the infant to extract the milk. In such cases, the young mother should frequently, though cautious- ly, protrude the nipple between her fingers, by depressing the project- ing part of the breast; and after- wards covering the protuberances with an excavated nutmeg, to be worn several weeks previously to her delivery. But if this expedient prove insufficient, it will be advisa- ble to draw the breasts, either by presenting them to a healthy infant, several months old ; or, by apply- ing Mr. SAviGNv'ssmall air-pump contrived for that purpose; and which is far preferable to the com- mon breast-glasses, as well as to the disgusting practice of employ- ing quadrupeds. Another inconvenience incident to nipples, frequently arises from chaps, or excoriations. These are not only painful to the mother, but NIP NIT 145 also prevent the infant from draw- ing the necessary supply of milk. In some instances, even part of the substance of the nipple is de- stroyed by violent suction ; so that the mother, from the intense pain thus occasioned, is obliged to re- fuse the breast ; and a stagnation of tfie milk takes place, which is often accompanied with ulcerations and fever. To prevent such dan- gerous affections, the practice of raising the nipples, as before sug- gested, should be timely adopted ; but, if the parts be already in a diseased state, it will then be use- ful to bathe them with lime-water, or diluted port-wine ; after which the nipple should be dressed with a little spermaceti-ointment. Before, however, such applications are re- sorted to, it will be preferable to anoint the sore part with a compo- sition of white wax and olive-oil, and to cover it with a fine linen rag ; by which simple means great relief may often be obtained. These remedies will, in general, be found sufficient; but, if the nip- ple receive no benefit, it has been recommended to apply the neck, together with part of the body, of a hog's bladder (or cow's teat ta- ken from a healthy animal), to the part affected. Either of these, if properly moistened and fixed to the breast, will effectually protect it, while the infant is sucking ; and when not in use, the Madder or teat may be preserved in a little spirit of wine, which will pre- vent it from putrefying. See also Thrush. NIPPLEAVORT, or Lapsona, L. a genus of plants, comprising five species ; one of which is indi- genous, namely, the communis, Common Nipple-wort, or Dock ( rcsses. It grows in hedges, sha- »0L. IV. dy places, and on rubbish ; where it flowers in the months of June and July. The young and tender leaves of this vegetable have the flavour of radishes, and may be eaten raw, as salad. Though pos- sessing a bitter taste, they are a wholesome vegetable ; and, in some parts of England, the country peo- ple boil them as a substitute for greens, NITRE, or Salt-petre, is a species of salt, which, in Persia and the East Indies, is extracted from certain native earths. It is like- wise artificially produced in seve- ral parts of Germany, Hungary, and especially in France ; either from the rubbish of old clay-walls and ceilings, or from animal and vegetable matters suffered to un- dergo putrefaction, which is pro- moted by the addition of ashes and of lime ; when the whole is ex- posed for a considerable time to the access of the air, in a direction from north to south. Nitre is of a sharp, bitterish, penetrating taste, followed by a sensation of coldness. When pure, it dissolves in about six times its weight of water, and, on evapo- rating the latter, concretes into transparent crystals. It easily melts in the fire; where it deflagrates with a bright flame, accompanied with a crackling noise, and after- wards deposits a large portion of alkaline earth. Salt-petre is of great utility both in the arts and in medicine. Its spirit, known uudtr the name of Aqua-fortis, is extensively em- ployed both in dyeing, and in re- fining, as well as for other pur- poses, the principal of which we have already stated. Purified nitre is prescribed with advantage in numerous disorders -. U 116 N O S it is usually given in doses of from two or three grains to a scruple ; being a very cooling and resolvent medicine, which, by relaxing the spasmodic rigidity of the vessels, promotes not only the secretion of urine, but at the same time insen- sible perspiration, in febrile disor- ders ; while it allays thirst, and abates heat; though in malignant eases, in which the pulse is low, and the patient's strength exhaust- ed, it produces contrary effects. When combined with the Peru- vian bark, nitre affords an useful corrective to that drug in the cure of spreading gangrenes ; as it pre- vents the additional heat which the bark frequently occasions: so that the efficacy of the latter is increas- ed by the antiseptic quality of the former. But this cooling salt should never be administered in cases where the violence of the fever depends on bilious or putrid impurities in the abdomen ; and where the patient is subject to hemorrhages or fluxes of blood, arising from a vitiated state of the fluids. On the contrary, salt-petre will be most beneficially used in acute rheumatisms, inflammatory fevers, and even in those hemor- rhages arising from congestions of the blood-in general, or from a plethoric state. With respect to the antiseptic properties of nitre, in domestic economy, we refer to the articles B'--EF ; Butter ; Picxling ; and Pork. Nits (in Horses). See Staves- acre, Nonsuch. See Trefoil Me- dick. NOSE, in anatomy, the exter- nal organ of smelling, or that part which projects from the middle of the human face. N O S The nose is subject to varied affections, such as ulcers, luxati- ons, fractures, Sec. the treatment of which is foreign to our purpose : we have already discussed the subject of hemorrhages, under the article Bleeding. If the nose of an infant be ob- structed with any gross matter, so as to impede respiration, or to pre- vent him from sucking or swallow- ing, it will be advisable, every even- ing to anoint the part with a little sweet-oil, or fresh butter. By this simple application, the gross par- ticles will in most instances be dis- solved, and the faculty of breath- ing speedily restored......Should, however, the obstructions continue after the repeated use of this re- medy, it will be necessary first to administer one or two gentle laxa- tives ; such as a tea-spoonful of castor-oil, or a grain of rhubarb; after which the nose is to be fre- quently bathed with a linen rag, dipped in a filtered solution of two or three grains of white vitriol, in one ounce of marjoram-water. NOSTRILS, are two apertures or cavities of the nose, through which the air passes. These aper- tures are divided from each other by a cartilage: they are lined with a very sensible membrane, and answer the conjoint purposes of smelling, respiration,and speech. As the delicate membrane which lines the nostrils, is the common integument of the mouth, and other interior vessels, it will be readily conceived, that its exposure to sudden changes of temperature, must be productive of injurious consequences. Hence the neces- sity of guarding against cold, when hastily leaving the fire-side for en- countering the frosty air of winter, or returning from the latter to a N OS 'NOV 147 Seated room. Although the fre- quent colds and catarrhs are gene- rally considered as trivial, and too often neglected, yet we are per- suaded, that by far the greater number of consumptive and asth- matic sufferers date the period of their declining health from such inattention. We therefore recom- mend to those who are yet suscep- tible of advice, previously to ex- posing themselves to a damp, cold, or sharp air, to spend a few minutes in a cool, temperate room, or to apply a handkerchief to the mouth, when suddenly coming in contact with the external air, till they be- come gradually accustomed to its stimulus. Thus, we doubt not, many complaints of serious conse- quences, might, be easily pre- vented. NOSTRUM, denotes any me- dicine the composition of which is supposed to be secret, and con- fined to the knowledge of one, or a few individuals. The natural desire of health and longevity, has in all.ages afforded a pretext to designing men, to invent medicines, with the absurd view of curing every disorder. It is true, that the confidence in panaceas, or universal remedies, is gradually declining,among the higher as well as the lower classes of society ; tut innumerable elixirs, drops, pills, x &c. for. particular com- plaints, are daily imposed upon the public by pretenders, whose chemical and medical knowledge is so confined, that they are ge- nerally obliged to borrow the re- cipes for such preparation from printed books. To aggravate the evil, their pernicious compounds for the most part contain opium, h?mlock, cr other narcotic dnujs, • uhich are rendered still mere de- leterious by the addition of stimu- lating gums and aromatic sub- Stances. The duration and extent of such base practices, it is difficult to de- termine ; though we conceive that, so long as the thoughtless and dis- sipated indulge in sensual pleasure of every description, the audacity of pretenders to the healing art will continue to increase. Expe- rience has too often evinced, how little efficacy medicines possess in a variety of cases, without a strict adherence to a proper regimen ; and much less may be expected from any nostrum,however strong- ly recommended by the dignita- ries of church and state. Nay, the excellence and dignity of me- dical science can neither be sup- ported, nor depreciated, by the il- lusion of great names....If a due regard were more generally had to the laws of temperance and so- briety ; if the cool dictates of rea- son were more frequently consult- ed, there would be fewer diseases, and those who enrich themselves at the expence of a credulous pub- lic, would speedily be compelled to pursue occupations less fraudu- lent, and more beneficial to the community. NOVEL, a fictitious history, written with a view to exhibit the emotions of the human heart; the happiness and misery of private life ; the effects of indulging the passions, and especially that of Love. The origin of modem novel- writing, together with the requi- sites essential to an interesting work, we leave to the discussion of the critic. There are, indeed, too many publications of this na- ture ; but the generality of suci; performances, instead of inspiring 148 NOV the young mind with the love of virtue, and a detestation of vice, are only calculated to excite the most insidious and sensual ideas : hence we think it our duty to cau- tion parents with respect to the purity of such compositions as may fall into the hands of their unguarded children. As the design of novels or ro- mances is the interest of the hu- man heart, they are too apt to lead it astray, unless written in a chaste and correct style. Numberless are the victims of delusion, especially in the metropolis, whose wretched state commenced with the indiscri- minate perusal of seductive novels. Nor is this evil confined to the middle ranks of society, in cities, or to boarding schools. The farm- house and the cottage, in many parts of England, furnish subscri- bers to circulating libraries, at the distance of several miles from the town or village, where the most absurd, and frequently immoral narratives) providedthey are hand- somely printed), are eagerly read, and dignified with the title of a " Novel." By these brief strictures, we by no means intend to proscribe the dissemination of knowledge, parti- cularly among the lower classes. ....There undoubtedly are novels (though few in number), which deserve to be perused by inexpe- rienced youth, and which reflect credit on their authors. Such " fa- miliar histories," in the opinion of the late Dr. Johnson, "may per- haps be made of greater use than the solemnities of professed mora- l.fy, and convey the knowledge of vice and virtue with more efficacy than axioms and definitions. But, if the power of example be so great ati to take possession of the memo- NUR ry by a kind of violence, and pro- duce effects almost without the in- tervention of the will, care ought to be taken, that the choice is un- restrained, the best examples on- ly should be exhibited ; and that what is likely to operate so strong- ly, should net be mischievous or uncertain in its effects. NOURISHMENT, in animal economy, denotes the reparation of the continual waste which bo- dies undergo in consequence of ex- ercise, the effects of air, hunger, thirst, sleep, Sec. Nutriment is afforded by proper food containing alimentary juices$ and which, after due mastication, is digested in the stomach, con- verted into chyle, incorporated with the blood, and thus distributed throughout the body for its sup- port. In young persons, the nu- tritious juices not only contribute to restore the continual wraste, but also to increase their size, which is denominated growth. In adults, likewise the epidermis, or scarf- skin, though continually peeling off, is always renewed; and, if any muscular parts be separated from the body, they are speedily supplied with new substance : in a similar manner, wounds heal spon- taneously ; and such persons as are emaciated or exhausted, again grow plump, and even become lusty....See Digestion and Food. NURSE, a woman who profes- ses to rear young children, or to attend sick persons. The duties incumbent on nurses, whether intended for the manage- ment of infants, or of patients, are equally important. Hence the ut- most precaution is requisite to se- lect such as are cleanly, in good health, and uncontaminated by any latent disease, especially if they NUR N U R 149 be destined to suckle children: for, it is a melancholy truth, that the hopes of many families have sunk into an early grave, after they had intrusted their offspring to nurses, who were tainted with the scurvy, or other fatal disorder. Such vigi- lance, therefore, ought not to be relaxed, even though proper per- sons have been procured ; because there are many, who, from selfish and superstitious motives, will not hesitate to use the most hurtful means of lulling the child to sleep : thus, the innocent babe is early inured to the taste of spirits, which it retains even at a maturer age, and insensibly becomes the most detestable of characters, a drunk- ard. To prevent these and simi- lar abuses, we would seriously ad- vise all parents to visit their chil- dren, not merely on Sundays, but as often as their time will permit on other days of the week; as these unexpected calls will enable them easily to ascertain, either the pro- priety, or mal-practices, in the conduct of those persons to whom they may have committed the care of their children. With respect to sick-nurses, we cannot omit to observe, that they ought to be cleanly, and warmly clad. If they are obliged to attend their patients during the night, it would be advisable (especially in dangerous cases, and where the expences can be afforded) always to employ two nurses, so that the one may relieve the other; and the afflicted may receive that prompt attention, which many of those mercenary hirelings unwillingly bestow. Indolence and slight, how- ever, are not the only evils, to which the unresisting patient is of- ten doomed to submit. During the destructive plague, which de- populated London city in the reign of Charles II. the merci- less miscreants who had the charge of the infected, not only plundered them while expiring, but even ter- minated their existence by vio- lence, and had the audacity to at- tribute their decease to the malig- nance of the distemper 1 The mind shudders with horror at the recollection of such atrocious crimes, and is tempted to hope, for the sake of humanity, that such outcasts of society no longer exist. But, alas 1 instances have repeat- edly and lately occurred, in which the cap has been removed, and a better one substituted ; nay, the rings were torn out of the patient's ears, while in the agonies of death. The finest linen has been found on the bed, damp and un-aired, being the nurse's perquisite, when her hapless victim is no more ; and other cruelties have been com- mitted, the enumeration of which would shock the feelings of the most phlegmatic reader. Although it is painful to record atrocities which degrade human nature, yet they cannot be too ge- nerally known, that all persons may be rendered vigilant in the selection of those who are appoint- ed to attend the sick. It is not, however, our intention to insinu- ate, that all nurses are thus de- praved. There may, doubtless be found persons whose humanity and attention to the diseased, render them worthy of the greatest com- mendation ; but the safety and wel- fare of society seems to require, that proper measures be taken, to prevent the repetition of such enor- mities for the future : and we trust, that considerable benefit would re- sult from an institution, the object of which should be the appoint- 150 NUR NUR ment of proper nurses ; so that none be permitted to perform that important office, unless provided with a certificate, signed by three or more medical practitioners. NURSERY, in horticulture, a piece of land selected for raising or propagating plants and trees, with a view to supply both gardens and plantations. As we state, under distinct heads, the mode of cultivation to be adopted in the rearing of plants, both when in the nursery, and also after their removal to the spot where they are intended to remain, we shall at present communicate a few general hints and directions. I. A nursery ought to be situated contiguously to the dwelling-house, that it may be conveniently in- spected in every season : it should likewise be in the vicinity of a brook, or rivulet, in order that there may be a constant supply of water, during the hot days of sum- mer. II. If it be intended for timber- trees, Miller advises the nursery to be formed on the ground which is designed for the future planta- tion, so that a sufficient number may be suffered to stand, when the others have been removed. III. The ground appropriated to powers, ought to be exposed to the south, but at the same time shel- tered from strong winds, either by means of trees or buildings.....The soil should be light and dry, espe- cially for bulbous-rooted plants. IV. With respect to fruit-trees: 1- The soil ought to be fresh, ra- ther dry than moist, and not richer than that into which they are final- ly to be transplanted. 2. It should be carefully inclosed, to exclude hares, rabbits, and all other ani- mals that infest young planta- tions ; after which the ground must be diligently cleared from all weeds, and trenched to the depth of about two feet, in the month of August, so that the nursery may be ready for the reception of the young stocks, in October. 3. On the approach of the planting sea- son, the trenches must be filled up, the soil be laid as level as possible, and divided into equal quarters, which ought likewise to be sub- divided into beds, wherein may be sown the seeds or stones of the fruit intended to be reared....Last- ly, when a sufficient number of stocks is obtained, they must be removed into such soils, and ex- posed to such situations, as the nature of each fruit may require. NURSERY, in domestic life, denotes an apartment devoted ex- clusively to the rearing and accom- modation o! children. The room designed for this pur- pose ought to be lofty, perfectly dry, and in the attic story of the house, or at least above the ground- ffoor. Another requisite to nur- series is, that they be spacious and airy, so that their young inhabi- tants may have sufficient room to exercise themselves, when the in- clemency of the weather prevents them from partaking of the bene- fit of the open air. Too many windows, however, afford too strong a light for infantine eyes, and the rays of the sun are, to their weak organs, not less hurtful than close walls, and dark apart- ment ,. Cleanliness ought particularly to be attended to; and every care should be taken to render the air of nurseries perfectly dry and pure. Whatever tends to corrupt the atmosphere, must therefore be studiously avoided. No damp li- NUT NUX 151 nen, or swaddling clothes, should be washed, or suspended for drying in such apartments ; nor should any provisions, especially animal food, be cooked there; for all these processes vitiate the atmos- phere, and produce exhalations which are highly injurious to the eyes of infants; frequently occa- sioning chronic inflammations in those organs. The nursery ought, likewise, to be carefully swept every day, while the children should be removed at least into an- other room, if the weather pre- vent them from making excursions abroad. Lastly, in case the air of the nursery has become corrupted by accident, the windows should be frequently opened, to promote its purification, by the influence of the fresh atmosphere, which is far pre- ferable to fumigations with frank- incense, or similar aromatics ; for, though such pi. lhimesdissipate the offensive smell for the moment, they introduce a stupefying vapour that is extremely hurtful, especially if the children be descended from weakly parents. NUTMEG-TREE, or Myris- tica moschata, L. an exotic plant growing in India; resembling in size and growth the common cher- ry-tree ; and bearing fruit through- out the year. Nutmegs have long been employ- ed both for culinary and medicinal purpose.. On distilling them, one pound of this fruit affords, accord- in.; to Gllbitsch, only four or five drams of essential oil, which possesses the flavour of the spice itself. An inspissated decoction produces an extract of an unctuous, slightly bitterish taste, which is somewhat astringent. Rectified spirit extracts the whole virtue of nutmegs by infusion. When heat- ed, this spice likewise yields by expression a large portion of a lim- pid yellow oil, namely, four or five ounces from every pound; and which, on cooling, concretes into a soapy consistence. In the Island of Banda, the whole fruit of the nutmeg-tree is preserv- ed, by boiling it first in water, and afterwards in syrup; or by pick- ling it in brine, vinegar, &c. in a manner similar to walnuts. With respect to their effects on the human body, nutmegs are strongly aromatic, stomachic, and astringent: hence this drug has often been used for diarrhoeas and dysenteries, in doses from 10 to 20 grains in powder, or in larger quantities, when infused in Port- wine. In violent headrachs, aris- ing from a debilitated stomach, small doses of this medicine have frequently been found of real ser- vice; but, if injudiciously em- ployed, it is apt to infect the head, not unlike opium and other power- ful narcotics....The officinal prepa- rations of nutmeg are, a spirit, and an essential oil: the nutmeg in substance is also roasted, to ren- der it more astringent...See Mace. Nutrition. See Nourish- ment ; and Food of Plants, vol. ii. NUX VOMICA, a flat, com- pressed, round fruit, about an inch in diameter, of a greyish-brown colour, of a horny consistence ; and the surface of which is some- what wrinkled. It is the produce of a tree growing in the East In- dies ; possesses a bitter taste, and has been found a certain poison for dogs, cats, fish, &c Never- theless, this highly deleterious fruit has lately been employed on the Continent, as a medicine of great efficacy, in spasmodic affec- 152 NUX NYM tions of the bowels, especially in the contagious dysentery, as well as in obstinate quartan agues, &c. But, as its administration can be directed only by professional men, we forbear to mention the proper doses, and shall only observe, that the London brewers have fre- quently been suspected of adul- terating their ale and porter with this narcotic drug, in order to ren- der them more intoxicating, though such charge has, to our knowledge, never been proved in a court cf justice. NYMPH (inBotany) SeeCHnv SAL1S. o. OAK OAK OAK, or Quercus, L. a genus of plants, consisting of 29 species, two of which, according to Dr. Withering, are indigenous. The principal of these is the Robur, or Common Oak, found in various parts of Britain, where it flowers in the month of April. The oak thrives better in hilly than in boggy ground, but flou- rishes most luxuriantly on rich black soils, or in strong moist loams ; and, while it is young, in large plantations. It is propagated generally by sowing acorns in the proportion of from four to six bushels per acre, together with some white thorn-berries, and seeds of furze or whins ; both to shelter the young plants from the severity of the cold winds, and also to pro- tect them from being devoured by hares, rabbits, Sec. As they ad- vance in,size, the stronger saplins should be selected to stand, while the more weakly are occasionally cut down ; because the roots of the oak strike deeply into the ground, and the tree will not always grow with equal energy, if it be remov- ed from its primitive soil. Never- theless, very young oaks may be transplanted two, and even three times, provided the tap or princi- pal root be cut off at every re- moval ; though such trees will be neither so full at heart, compact, and strong, nor so lasting as those which are suffered to stand on the spot where the seed was originally deposited. This tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, its great bulk, and longevity. It has been observed, that the trunk attains, in general, only fourteen inches in diameter, in the course of eighty years. But, after arriving at a certain age, its bulk rapidly in- creases : thus, the trunk of an OAK OAK 153 «ak, belonging to Lord Powis, and growing in Bromfield wood, near Ludlow, in Shropshire, mea- sured, in 1764, sixty-eight feet in girth, and twenty-three feet in length ; containing in the whole 1455 feet of timber, round mea- sure, or twenty-nine loads and five feet, each load consisting of fifty feet. And Dr. D arwin mentions the Swilcar Oak, a very large tree growing in Needwood forest, which measures thirteen yards in circumference at its base, eleven yards round, at the height of four feet from the earth, and which is believed to be six 'hundred years old. The oak is one of the most va- luable and majestic trees: its leaves are eaten by horses, cows, goats,and sheep; deer and swine fatten on the acorns. Its bark, when stripped off, is usefully em- ployed for tanning leather, and af- terwards for hot-beds and fuel. It should not, however, exceed the age of 40 or 50 years, as after that time it becomes corky, and does not answer the purpose of the tanner. Oak-timber is well adapted to almost every purpose of rural and domestic economy, particularly for staves, laths, and spokes of wheels. Being hard, tough, tolerably flexi- ble, and not very liable to splinter, it is generally preferred to all other timber for building ships of war ; especially if the tree be suffered to stand for three or four years after it has been barked; because it thus becomes perfectly dry, and the in- spissated sap renders it much stronger than the heart of any other oak-tree, which has not been stripped; so that the timber ac- quires greater strength, weight, hardness, and durability. VOL. IV. As this tre« is of such eminent utility in naval architecture, and cannot be bent without great diffi- culty, Mr. Randall, of Maid- stone, in Kent, proposed in 1795, to the Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, &c. a method of train- ing oaks to compass-shapes, for the purpose of ship-building. His plan consists in reversing the practice usually followed, in order to obtain strait-stemmed trees ; by taking off, every year, in the months of March and June, all the lateral shoots closely to the stem, commencing when the tree is about eight feet high, and continu- ing the operation every year, till it has attained the height of 20 feet. In consequence of this manage- ment, the oak grows somewhat crooked, and the curvature will in- crease as the tree advances in years. This part of his plan, Mr. Ran- dall considers to be particularly applicable to parks, hedge-rows, or open plantations. The other part of his suggestion relates to forests, in which the underwood is regu- larly cut every fifteenth or twen- tieth year, and where many clean and thriving young oaks are often discovered. If two of these grow so near as to reach each other by inflexion, he proposes to bend down their heads, by means of a hooked stick, and to join them to- gether, by interweaving their res- pective branches; in consequence of which, the trees will assume a direction that will greatly facilitate the future labour of the ship- builder. The proper time for per- forming these operations is from the age of eight to fourteen years, if the oaks grow freely ; and the best season for interweaving X 154 OAK OAK the branches, is in the spring be- fore the leaf appears....Although we cannot enter into farther details, relative to this method of promot- ing the growth of compass-timber, yet we trust the plan is sufficiently obvious and practicable, to be ge- nerally adopted: the curious read- er is therefore referred to the 13th vol. of the Transactions of the pa- triotic Society above mentioned. The saw-dust, and even the leaves, though inferior to the bark, has been found useful in tanning. It appears from numerous experi- ments, made by the Rev. Mr. Swayne, of Puckle-church, near Bristol, and recorded in the 10th vol. of the Transactions of the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, isfc. that half a peck of oak- leaves contains nearly as much as- tringent matter as one pound of bark. Farther, the leaves make excellent hot-beds, and the saw- dust is the principal indigenous ve- getable used in this country, for tinging fustians of various brown colours. The galls, or excrescences, produced on the leaves, are em- ployed for dyeing, and various other purposes, already stated un- der art. Gall in our 2d vol. The balls, or apples, growing on this tree, are sometimes substituted for the galls, in dyeing black colours, with the addition of copperas ; but these shades, though more beauti- ful, are by no means of equal du- rability to those obtained from the former. Lastly, the juice express- ed from oak-apples, when mixed with vitriol and gum arabic, will make an excellent black ink. With respect to the medicinal properties of the oak, its bark is a powerful astringent whence it has often been used with advantage in hemorrhages, alvine fluxes, and other immoderate secretions. Beside the common oak, so ge- nerally known and cultivated, there is an exotic species, which has late- ly been recommended to public at- tention by Mr. Charles White, in the 5th vol. of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Soci- ety of Manchester. This species is there called the Iron, Wainscot, or Turkey Oak, and is stated to be a non-descript" variety of the Quer- cus Cerris, or smaller prickly-cup- ped Spanish Oak, or that which Mr. Ait on (in his Hortus Kewen- sis), terms thefrondosa. The Iron Oak grows to a considerable height, producing a bulky trunk, and wide- ly spreading head, with large ob- long-oval, deeply-serrated leaves, and acorns of an unusual size, in capacious prickly cups: from these circumstances, we believe it rather to be the species denominated JEgilops, or Large Prickly-cupped Spanish Oak; which grows not only in Spain, but also in Turkey (whence the Iron kind was origin- ally brought to England), and cor- responds in every other respect to the Iron or Wainscot Oak. This valuable species is propa- gated in a similar manner with the common British Oak, which it fully equals in hardness, and weight, while it excels in growth or size, as will appear from the following comparative statement: An Iron Oak, 20 years old, measured Another of the same age An English Oak, 20 years old Another 40 years of age Height. Girth. Feet. In. Feet In. 36 0 — 3 3 37 0 — 3 0 28 0 — 2 f> 39 0 — 2 10 OAK OAK 155 Our limits will not permit us to enter into an analysis of Mr. White's Memoir; we shall there- fore, only observe that the species now recommended, will thrive much faster than the common Oak m a similar situation ; and that, as it carries up the thickness of its buts much higher, they contain^-ue or six times the quantity of wood, found in the English species........ The Wainscot Oak has hitherto been employed only in making posts, pales, Sec.; but it appears from Mr. W's observations, that it promises to be equally useful as the British trees, for every purpose of ship-building or of carpentry. [The natural history of the Ame- rican Oaks, was first partially given by John Philip DuRoi,who published his observations in two volumes 8vo. at Brunswick, in Germany, in 1771 : and lately, (1801,) and more extensively, by Andrew MiCHAux,the celebrated botanist, who resided many years at the Botanical Garden which was established by the late Louis xvi, king of France, near Charleston, South Carolina. The species and varieties described, are twenty- nine. This truly superb work, ought to be in the hands of every gentleman in the United States.... Some copies were sold in Philadel- phia last year, at the low price of felO. • The most valuable species of native oaks are : 1. The Quercus alba, white oak; the wood of which is firm and close grained, and in daily use for ship- building, fence posts, rafters, and for every other purpose, where strength and durability are re- quired. 2. Quercus tinctorial Great Black Oak, Champlain Black Oak.....the Q.angulosa and sinuosa are varieties of this species. The wood of this tree is of a coarser grain than that of the white oak, and of a reddish colour : be- tween every year's growth, also, it appears porous, yet when dry and seasoned, it becomes strong and durable. The bark of the sinuosa has, for a long time, been in great repute in this country for tanning, and for the very excellent yellow dye which it affords. Di-.Bancroft of London, learned the use of the bark as a dye, when in this coun- try, during our revolutionary war; and introduced it in the manufac- tories of England, to which coun- try, many ship loads of the article ground, have been annually ship- ped, under the name of Quercitron bark. Dr. Bancroft has treated fully of the chemical.history of this bark, in his late excellent work en- titled " The Philosophy of Perma- nent Colours." 3. Q. rubra, Spanish Oak; the bark of this species is somewhat rough,. and light coloured. The leaves are deeply and obtusely sinuated, and end in several acute bristly points : the footstalks are pretty long. The timber is generally worm-eaten, or rotten at heart; but the bark is preferred to all other for tanning, and is much dearer. 4. Q. virens, Live Oak. This species is confined to Georgia, S. Carolina and Florida. The tree is of uncommon magnitude, and sin- gularly beautiful. The moss hangs in lengths of several yards, from the large branches of the old trees, and waving with the wind, gives the tree a venerable appearance. The wood is proverbial for its du- rability, when cut at a proper sea- 156 OAT OAT son, and is much used for ship timber. When we come to treat of Timber generally, the influence of the season in which the tree is felled, shall be particularly noticed. Mr. Bartram says, the acorns of the live oak, when roasted, are nearly as sweet as chesnuts: and that the Simminoles Indians on the Florida coast, draw a great quantity of oil from them, which they use as food and ointment.] OAT, or Avena, L. a genus of plants, comprising 33 species, of which the following are the prin- cipal : and the six first mentioned are natives of Britain ; namely, I. The nuda, Naked, Oat,. Pilcorn, or Pills, growing wild in some parts of Staffordshire, and flowering .in the month of July..... This species is cultivated in the county of Cornwall; where, in the time of Ray,, it was sold at the price of wheat. It is reputed to be nearly as good as the common oat; for it yiejds excellent meal ; is equally useful in feeding cattle ; and thrives on the poorest lands. II. The elatior {Holcus avena- ceus of Dr. Smith), Tall Oat- grass, or Oat, thrives on wet, damp soils ; in meadows, pastures, and hollow ways ; it flowers in the months of June and July. This grass vegetates with uncommon luxuriance; and, though somewhat coarse, it makes tolerably good hay. It is eaten by cows, goats, and sheep, but is frequently very troublesome in arable lands ; as its roots spread in a manner similar to couch-grass, and are very diffi- cult to be eradicated. [See Grass.] ' III. Thefatua, Bearded Wild Oats, Hover, or Haver, is found in corn-fields, where it flowers in the month of July or August....... This species is eaten by horses, sheep, and goats ; it is a pernicious weed in corn-fields, particularly among barley, where it is some- times so prevalent, that it almost entirely choaks the growth of the latter. It may be extirpated by repeated fallowing, or by laying the land down to grass. IV. Thepubescens,Rough Oat, Downy Oat-grass, or Hairy Oat-grass, which grows on dry meadows, in chalky situations, and flowers in the month of June. It is refused by every species of cat- tle ; and, on account of its rough- ness, does not deserve, to be cul- tivated. V.The./ftnxfsce^YELLOw Oat, or Oat-grass, thrives in mea- dows, pastures, and on hills, in a calcareous soil, and flowers in the months of June and July. This species, though tolerably sweet, is inferior to the meadow and fescue- grasses. Dr. Withering ob- serves, that cattle do not relish it, but Mr. Swayne states it to be one of the best of this genus, for the use of the farmer. VI. The pratensis, Meadow- Oat, or Narrow-leaved Oat- grass, is likewise a native of Bri- tain, growing on heaths, and high calcareous lands ; flowering in the month of July. This species is a tolerably good pasture-grass, and particularly calculated for poor sto- ny soils ; as it prospers where the meadow-grasses will not vegetate. VII. The saliva, or Common Oat, thrives on almost any soil ; and, being extremely productive on land newly broken up, it is emi- nently adapted to cold mountains, or marshy ground. It is divided into three varieties, namely : 1. The White Oats, which are the most valuable, and require a OAT soil somewhat drier than that for the other species : this variety is chiefly cultivated in the southern counties of Bi itain. 2. The Black Oats, which are principally raised in the northern parts of this island :....for feeding cattle, they are of equal quality to the white oats ; though not afford- ing so sweet a meal for culinary purposes as the latter. 3. The Brown, or Red Oat, pro- duces good meal; ripens some- what earlier than either of the two preceding varieties, and does not shed its seed. It is chiefly culti- vated in the north-western parts of England, for the feeding of cattle. All these varieties arepropagated by seed, which may be sown from the middle of February to the be- ginning of June, in the proportion of from three to six bushels per acre, broadcast; though sometimes with the addition of 121bs. of clover, and one bushel of ray-grass. The seed is harrowed in ; and the ma- nagement of this kind of grain does not materially differ from that of barleys rye, Sec. Oats have, in the south of Britain, been both dibbled and drilled ; but, as this new prac- tice has been attempted only by a few farmers, the success has not been completely ascertained ; tho' there is little doubt but that either method, if judiciously conducted, is preferable to the broadcast sys- tem. The last-mentioned species is raised on account of its farinaceous properties. The grain is given to horses, for which it affords a very strengthening food; and, before barley came into general cultiva- tion, it was converted into malt. The meal is, in North Britain, made into cakes, biscuits, 8cc.; or it is boiled into a kind of pottage. OAT 157 Lastly, its soft straw is usefully employed in feeding cattle, when mixed with potatoes ; and. likewise for packing glass and earthen-ware. Beside the three varieties into which the common oat is- divided, there are two others, which have originated from them, namely : I. The Peebles-oat, is a variety of the red-oat, and which was first cultivated in the Scotch county of that name. It is peculiarly calcu- lated for mountainous districts, as it not only ripens early, but also withstands the severity of the wind, and is not easily shaken. Its grains,. though smaller than those of any other oat, have a very thin hull, and yield an unusual proportion of fine, wholesome meal. 2. The Angus-oat, which has in a similar manner been denominat- ed from the county of Angus, in Scotland; and is a variety of the white-oat but produces a better- bodied grain,togetherwith a greater quantity of straw ; and is thus emi- nently adapted to poor, dry soils. It attains to maturity somewhat later in the season than its original common white kind. VIII. The stipiformis, or Skegs, is an exotic grain, that flourishes on the poorest soils, and is propa- gated by sowing it in the propor- tion of two Winchester bushels per acre. The crops produced by this species, generally amount to double the quantity of other oats ; though in weight they are only equal..... Skegs is reputed to afford a re- markably sweet and wholesome food for horses and cows,'especially when given them together with the straw; as likewise for ewes, before they drop their lambs, whe- ther allowed in the straw, or chop- ped ; which latter method, he .- ever, is more economical. 158 O A T IX. The Tartarian, or Reed- oat, is conjectured to be a species unnoticed by Linn^us. It appears to be well calculated for land that has been exhausted by an injudi- cious rotation of crops, and will also thrive on a stiff soil, ahere the common white-oat does not pros- per. Its grain is much inferior to the generality of oats: nor does it ripen so early, or afford an equal proportion of meal ; but its straw is very luxuriant, and the grain is not easily scattered by the wind. X. Tire Friesland, and Poland- oats, which have received their names from those respective coun- tries, are chiefly distinguished by their coming early to maturity. They, however, thrive only on the richest soils' ; easily shed their grain, when ripe ; and afford a very indifferent meal, though they sometimes yield an astonishing in- crease. The quantity usually sown is, seven or eight bushels of the Poland, or six of the iriesland-oats, per acre, in the month of March or April:...these species are chiefly consumed in feeding horses. There is a variety of the Poland grain, first raised in Scotland, and which is called Church's-oat. It is greatly esteemed in Northumber- land, as being the best of the ear- lier sorts, hitherto known for sow- ing on loamy lands in good condi- tion. This variety is very produc- tive, and ripens early : it is known by the grains being remarkably short, round, plump, and well fill- ed : it yields an excellent meal, and is easily converted into flour. Oats are subject to the smut, and various other diseases, and also to the depredations of numerous in- sects, in common with wheat, bar- ley, &c. (see vol. ii. p. 214) ; but they are most materially injured OAT by a kind of grub, which peculiarly attacks them. This pernicious in- sect comes into existence, if the autumn has been warm, toward the end of October ; and progressively increases in size till the beginning of winter; during which it con- tinues stationary, without being in- jured by the most intense cold. Toward the end of February, the grub recommences its devastations, and gradually .becomes larger till early in May, when it is more than an inch long, and one-third of an inch in circumference. At this period, it commits the greatest de- predations, cutting, in a very short time, through the strongest stalks of grain. In the summer, the oat-grub undergoes similar transformations with the caterpillar. While in its reptile state, this pernicious insect is almost invulnerable, and the fly; is equally hardy. The only period, when it is susceptible of injury, is during its passage from the state of a grub to that of chrysalis, about the end of May, or early in June, at which time rain and cold wea- ther equally accelerate its destruc- tion. And, as considerable quan- tities of rain faU during those months, almost the whole race pe- rishes, excepting such as may have settled in soft, dry mole-hills, or on the coarse noxious weeds vegetat- ing at the sides of ditches ; and the seeds of which are wafted into the contiguous fields, whither the eggs of the grubs are conveyed. These destructive insects appear every year, bit chiefly in wet situa- tions : they are more or less nu- merous, according to the heat or cold of the former season. Were it not, indeed, for the vernal show- ers, which fall at the period above mentioned, such devastations would OAT O D O 159 be irreparable. Nor has any bet- ter method of destroying them been discovered, than to clear eve- ry hedge and ditch of all course, rough weeds, and herbage ; for, as the latter afford shelter to the in- sects during the winter, they annu- ally send forth afresh stock, which neither fallowing nor any other at- tention can exterminate : thus, the soilis constantly infested with them, and much labour and expence are incurred, that might, with a little diligence on the part of the far- mer, be effectually saved. All the species of oats are very hardy plants ; and, as, we have al- ready observed, will flourish on al- most every soil. Their strong roots, striking to a considerable depth, open the earth, and thus, when ploughed in, loosen it for other vegetables. But, though the ge- neral practice is to sow oats be- tween the months of February and June, yet they may be advantage- ously committed to the ground late in autumn, especially in moun- tainous situations; for they will thus not only ripen earlier, but will be enabled to resist the violence of the equinoxial winds. Farther, it appears that unripe seed, (namely, such grain as may have been cut before it was fully ripe, in conse- quence of the approach of frost), if carefully dried, will, on being sown in drills, yield as good crops as corn that has attained to its full maturity. This practice has been successfully proved by Mr. Duc- kett; and, as it may be applied to wheat, it promises to be attend- ed with the greatest advantage to farmers in exposed situations ; as they may thus make use of their ripe grain for flour, while the thin corn will serve for seed. Wheq deprived of their husks, and formed into groats, oats are converted into an excellent dish for the infirm and diseased. When ground into meal, and boiled in water, they afford a thick and nou- rishing mucilage, which, with the addition of a few currents, is very wholesome, and produces a mildly laxative effect. OCHRE, in natural history, a genus of argillaceous earths,slight- ly coherent, and composed of fine, smooth, particles, rough to the touch, and readily diffusible in wa- ter. Ochres are of various colours, such as yellow, red, blue, brown, green, &c : they possess virtues somewhat similar to the calces of iron, and are principally employed as pigments. ODOUR, is that property of bo- dies by which they affect the sense of smell at a distance, whether in a pleasant or disagreeable manner. The faculty of distinguishing odours, doubtless has great influ- ence upon the morals and on the disposition of the mind; hence Rousseau justly terms it " the sense of imagination." Virey, a modern French writer, has devot- ed a particular treatise to the in- quiry into the great effect of this sense, on the passion of love ; and, in another paper, he examines the odours exaled by living animals. M. Prevost, an ingenious Frenchman, has lately discovered a method of rendering the exhalations of odorous bodies visible. This re- markable phenomenon was re-pro- duced before the National Institute at Paris, by various experiments, that are equally simple and strik- ing.... A few drops of water are to be distributed at equal distances 160 OIL OIL from each other, on the surface of a glazed plate, or looking-glass.... Next, the odorous substance, for instance, a piece of camphor, is placed in the middle: among other effects, the water immediately re- treats to a considerable distance, in a circle, from the exhaling body, so that the intermediate space be- comes perfectly dry. In propor- tion to the strength of the smell, this interval will be more or less considerable, and thus serve as a measure or scale for ascertaining the intensity of the odour. Oesophagus. See Gullet. OIL, an inflammable, unctuous fluid, drawn from various natural bodies, belonging either to the mi- neral, animal, or vegetable king- doms of Nature. I. Mineral oil is that fluid denominated petroleum, or naphtha, of which we have already treated, under the article Bitumens. II. Animal oils are obtained by distillation from the fat of ani- mals, together with their volatile salts. They may also be procured from certain animal matters, by boiling and expression. Such are the train and spermacetti oils ex- tracted from whales, porpoises,and other fish. This class of oils is chiefly con- sumed in lamps ; and, as they are apt to become rancid, various «neans have been devised to edul- corate, or restore them to their natural state. Among the most easy expedients, are those cantriv- ed by Mr. Dossie, and published some years since by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts : they deserve to be more generally known : 1. Let one ounce of chalk, fine- ly pulverized, and half an ounce of lime, slacked by exposure to the air, be put into a gallon of fetid oil; after which they must be care- fully stirred, and half a pint of wa- ter gradually mixed. The stirring is to be repeated after an hour has elapsed, and at other convenient intervals, for two or three succes- sive days. At the end of that time, a pint and a half of water, in which an ounce of salt has been previ- ously dissolved, is to be incorpo- rated with the ingredients in a si- milar manner, and the agitation occasionally renewed for one or two days. The whole is then suf- fered to stand at rest, when the water and chalk will be precipi- tated, and the oil will be consider- ably purified, though not so com- pletely as by the following pro- cess : 2. Let an ounce of pulverized chalk be added to a gallon of crude, fetid oil, or to a similar quantity of the fluid prepared as above direct- ed, and the whole be repeatedly stirred, as before described. After it has been mixed for several hours, one ounce of pearl-ashes, dissolved in four ounces of water, is to be added, and the stiring continued, at intervals, for some hours ; when a solution of two ounces of salt, in one pint of water, must be add- ed, and the agitation occasionally repeated during the next two days. ....Now, the mixture ought to stand for several days, when the brine will separate from the oil, which will be greatly improved both in smell and colour. Should a great- er degree of purity be required, the proportion of pearl-ashes ought to be increased ; and the period intervening between the addition of the salt and water prolonged : lastly, if the same operation be re- peated, and the quantity of ingre- dients be reduced oae-half each OIL time, the oil may be brought to a very light colour, and its smell rendered equally sweet as the com- mon spermaceti.....By this treat- ment, the coarsest cod, or seal- oil, may be made to burn ; and, though it be too putrid for use, it may be so far corrected by the first process, as to be in all re- spects equal to that commonly sold. In the year 1798, a patent was granted to Mr. Collier, for a chemical process for freeing fish- oils from their impurities, in point of smell, taste, and colour ; and also for improved strainers for oils and other liquids, &c. The whole is performed in the following man- ner : first, the patentee pours any quantity of fish-oil, or a mixture of different kinds of oil, into a ves- sel, which is heated to the tempe- rature of 110 or 120 degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer ; when a portion of caustic minerial alkali is added, the weight, of which is equal to four parts to the hundred of the oil. The mixture is next agitated; and after the sediment and salt have subsided, it is drawn off into another vessel, containing a sufficient quantity of finely pul- verized, fresh-burnt charcoal, and a small proportion of diluted sul- phuric acid. The agitation is re- peated ; and, when the coal, to- gether with the saline and aqueous particles, have subsided, the oil is passed through certain strainers, and thus rendered perfectly trans- parent and fit for use....Such is the patentee's process ; but, as a description of the vessels employ- ed in edulcorating oil, would be unintelligible, without the aid of an engraving, the reader will con- sult the 10th volume of the Re- pertory of Arts, &c. ;■ where the VOL. IV. OIL 161 patent is fully described, and illus- trated with a plate. In April, 1792, a patent was granted to Mr. Cha. Gower, for his method of depurating and im- proving animal oil. He directs equal quantities of oil, and of wa- ter previously acidulated with a due proportion of vitriolic acid, to be poured into a barrel or other vessel, which must be placed near a fire, and briskly agitated, in or- der to unite the two fluids. The liquor is then passed into pans, with a view to complete the solu- tion of-the gelatinous parts ; and that the water may sink to the bottom ; when the clear oil is de- canted. Should, however, the oil intended to be purified have a tur- bid, or ropy appearance, the paten- tee directs equal parts of such li- quid, and pure water, to be mixed with a little yeast, and shaken in the manner above-mentioned. When the fermentation ceases, the whole must be poured into similar pans, where all feculent particles will subside, and the oil float on the surface, whence it may be drawn off for use. Besides its utility for lamps, ani- mal oil possesses a valuable pro- perty which deserves attention. If one drop be laid on a bug, fly, wasp, or earwig, it will cause the immediate death of those trou- blesome vermin ; and, even when it is damaged, it may, according to Mr. Bucknall, be advanta- geously applied to fruit-trees, about a month after they have been washed with soap-suds, in order to eradicate moss. III. Vegetable Oils are pro- cured either by expression, infu- sion, or distillation. 1. Those by expression are ob- tained from the seed, leaves fruit, Y 162 OIL OIL and bark of plants ; which, being pounded in a mortar, the oil is forced out by means of a press, without the aid of heat. Such are the oils of olives, almonds, beech- mast, rape, and linseed. 2. In essential oils procured by infusion or decoction, the virtues of some particular plants are ex- tracted. To this kind belong the oils of roses, chamomile, Sec. ; which, however, ought to be boil- ed only so long as there remains any aqueous moisture ; for other- wise they will become black. 3. Other essential oils of vege- tables are prepared by distillation, only from those plants, or parts of plants, that possess a considerable odour. They contain the fra- grance, warmth, pungency, and often the active powers of the sub- stance from which they are drawn ; whence they have received the name of essences, or essential oils ; for instance, those of cloves, cin- namon, Sic...See Essence. As many of these oils are ex- pensive, and frequently adulte- rated with alkohol, or with ex- pressed and inferior essential oils, we shall point out a few methods by which such practices may be detected. 1. If there be reason to suspect that an essence is sophisticated with alkohol, or rectified spirit of wine, it will be advisable to pour a few drops into a glass of pure water ; and, if it be actually a base mixture, the whole will now be- come milky ; and, on repeatedly agitating the glass, all the spiritu- ous part will be absorbed by the water, while the genuine ojl will float on the surface. 2. If the adulteration be effected by the aid of an expressed oil, the fraud may be discovered, by simply adding a little spirit of wine to a few drops of the suspected oil, and shaking them together : for the spirit will dissolve all the essence, or that obtained by distillation, while the expressed oil will not be in the least affected. 3. Lastly, if an essential oil should have been mixed with a cheaper or inferior essence (which is usually effected by distilling oil of turpentine with the herbs from which the essential oil is drawn), the imposition will speedily and spontaneously appear. But there is a more expeditious mode of de- tecting it; namely, by dipping a piece of rag, or paper, into the suspected essence, and holding it before the fire : when the grateful fragrance of the plant will be vola- tilized, and the scent of the tur- pentine will remain. On the properties or virtues of essential oils, we cannot enter in this place ; for, as they correspond with those of the substance from which they are obtained, the reader will, in particular instances, resort to their alphabetical series.....See also Menstruum. [For observations on the utili- ty of Oil in preserving timber from decay ....See Timber. Serious accidents frequently oc- cur from vessels containing oil, and other inflammable fluids boil- ing over, and setting fire to the surrounding buildings. To pre- vent these, the following form of a vessel, has been recommend by the late lamented T. P. Smith, in the Transactions of the American Philo- sophical Society : vol. 4. Let A B C D, represent a large Kettle ; D E, a spout running out to the distance ofthree or four feet, commencing at D, four or five in- ches from the brim of the Kettle, OIL OIN 163 and the termination of it E, just as high as the brim, C. Let the bottom of this spout be covered with wet sponges, or rags. Now, suppose the kettle to be filled up to D, with any fluid, then as soon as it commenced boiling, it would rise in the kettle, and in rising but a small perpendicular height, would pass a considerable distance up the spout D E ; here the liquor would soon cool, and of consequence fall back into the kettle, and the whole subside to its original height..... This would occur as often as the fluid rose above D, as the evapor- ation from the wet sponges or rags, would keep D E constantly cool. It would perhaps be best to pass the spout through the side of the building into the open air, as there- by the evaporation would be in- creased, and consequently the spout kept at a lower temperature ; in this case it might be covered. In case of the fluid to be boiled possessing a very strong elective attraction to caloric, (matter of heat,) the spout may be extended to the width of the diameter of the kettle, or a projecting shelf might be formed all around it, lined be- low with wet sponges or rags.] OINTMENT, a preparation consisting of certain unctuous mat- ters, whether animal or vegetable, for the cure of sores, burns, ulcers, and tumors. Ointments differ from plasters only in their consistence : those prepared of animal fat appear to be more congenial to the human system, than such as are com- pounded with vegetable oils ; though the former are more lia- ble to become rancid by long keep- ing, and ought, therefore, to be applied when in a fresh state. In the preparation of ointments, the fat and resinous substances 164 O I N OL I ought first to be melted in a gen- tle heat, over which they should be carefully stirred? when such dry ingredients as may be necessary (being finely pulverized), must be gradually sprinkled in ; till, on di- minishing the heat, the mixture become stiff. Simple Ointment consists of five parts of olive-oil, and two parts of white-wax, thoroughly incorporat- ed. Ointment of Hog's-lqrd is pre- pared by triturating two pounds of hog's-lard with three ounces of rose-water, till they are perfectly mixed. The whole should now be melted over a moderate fire, and suffered to subside, when the lard must be poured off, and constant- ly stirred, till it become cold. Both these ointments may be used for softening the skin, and healing chaps. The former, how- ever, being of a more uniform con- sistence, is preferable to the lat- ter : but too large a quantity of ei- ther ought not to be prepared at one time ; because, when they have been kept for some months, or even a few weeks, they lose their healing properties. Van Mons has devised a new, and less troublesome, method of compounding ointments and plas- ters, in which fresh herbs, or their expressed juices, are employed as ingredients. The vegetable sap ought previously to be strained, and deprived of all feculent mat- ters : next it is placed over a very moderate fire, in a shallow earthen vessel, where it is evaporated near- ly to dryness : this coagulated ex- tract is now baked or dried in an oven, so that it may be reduced to powder; in which state it is again exposed to the fire, together with the fat or oil intended for its vehi- cle, till the humidity is complete- ly evaporated. For a cheap and useful family ointment,' See Burns. Old-age. See Longevity. OLIBANUM, a gummy-resin- ous substance, obtained from the Juniperus lyscia, L. It is imported from the Levant, or the East In- dies ; consisting of drops or tears, resembling those of Mastich, though rather larger : they are of a pale-yellowish, and sometimes reddish-colour, possess a moder- ately warm pungent taste, and a strong though not agreeable smell. Olibanum consistsof about equal parts of gummy and resinous mat- ters ; the former of which are so- luble in water, and the latter in rectified spirit. Many virtues were formerly at- tributed to this drug, which it does not really possess. OLIVE-TREE, or Olea, L. a genus of plants, consisting of six species, the principal of which is the Europata, or Common Olive- tree. It is a native of the Southern parts of Europe, especially Italy, France, Spain,and Portugal, where it is cultivated to a very consider- able extent, on account of its fruit, from which the sweet or salad oil is extracted ; and which also; when pickled, forms an article of food. This tree, however, produces no fruit in Britain, even in hot-houses, and as it is planted only in the gar- dens of the curious, we shall con- fine our account to the properties of olives, and to the oil obtained from them. Olives possess, in their natural state, an acrid, bitter, and extreme- ly disagreeable taste ; which, how- ever, is considerably improved when this fruit is pickled. The Lucca olives being smaller than any other, have the weakest taste; OLI O L I 165 the larger ones, imported from Spain, are the strongest; but the most esteemed are the olives of Provence, which are of a middling size, and not so strong as those of Spain. On account of the great quantity of oil they contain, all these varieties, if eaten by persons of de- licate habits, are extremely hurt- ful, especially if taken by way of dessert, after a solid or heavy din- ner. As an article of food, olive oil is preferable to animal fat; but it ought always to be mild, fresh, and of a sweet taste. It should not, however, be eaten by persons of weak stomachs; for, even in its mildest state, it produces rancidity and acrimony, which are extreme- ly injurious to digestion. Olive- oil is chiefly used in salads, and should always be consumed toge- ther with a large portion of bread, or with the addition of sugar, on account of its richness ; as other- wise it requires a powerful and ac- tive bile to assimilate it to alimen- tary matter. Medicinally considered, olive-oil has lately been found an excellent preventive of the plague, when rubbed over the whole body imme- diately after the contagion is sup- posed to have taken place. It is also beneficially employed inter- nally for recent colds, coughs, hoarseness, &c. whether mixed with water into an emulsion, by means of alkalies, or with con- serves or syrups into alinctus..... Lastly, considerable quantities are used in the preparation of plasters, ointments, &c. for external appli- cations. [The following excellent obser- vations upon the culture of this invaluabee tree, were address- ed by Thomas Jefferson, in July 1787, to the Agricultural Society of Charleston, South-Carolina, and published in a little pamphlet by that association, shortly after..... Neither the advice, nor liberal offer contained in the communica- tion, were attended to. " The Olive is a tree the least known in America, and yet the most worthy of being known. Of all the gifts of heaven to man, it is next to the most precious, if it be not the most precious. Perhaps it may claim a preference even to bread; because there is such an infinitude of vegetables, which it renders a proper and comfortable nourishment. In passing the Alps at the Col de Tende, where they are mere masses of rock, wherever there happens to be a little soil, there are a number'of olive-trees, and a village supported by them. Take away these trees, and the same ground in corn would not support a single family. A pound of oil, which can be bought for 2d. or 4c?. sterling, is equivalent to many pounds of flesh by the quan- tity of vegetables it will prepare, and render fit and comfortable food. Without this tree the county of Provence, and territory of Genoa would not support one half, perhaps not one-third, of their present in- habitants. The nature of the soil is of little consequence, if it be dry. The trees are planted from 15 to 20 feet apart, and when tolerably good, will yield 15 or 20 pounds of oil yearly, one with another. There are trees, which yield much more. They begin to render good crops at 20 years old, and last till killed by cold, which happens at some time or other, even in their best positions in France: but they put out again from their roots. In Italy, I am told, they have trees 166 O L I OLI 200 years old. They afford an easy, but constant employment through the year, and require so little nourishment, that, if the soil be fit for any other production, it may be cultivated among the olive- trees, without injuring them. The northern limits of this tree are the mountains of Cevennes, from about the meridian of Carcassonne to the Rhone ; from thence the Alps and Appenines as far as Genoa, I know, and how much farther I am not informed. The shelter of these mountains may be considered as equivalent to a degree and a half of latitude at least; because west- ward of the commencement of the Cevennes, there are no olive-trees in 43°-|, or even 43°, of latitude ; whereas we find them now on the Rhone at Pierrelatte in 44°|, and formerly they were at Tains, above the mouth of the Isere in 45°, sheltered by the near approach of the Cevennes and Alps, which only leave there a passage for the Rhone. Whether such a shelter exists, or not, in the states of South-Carolina and Georgia, I know not. But this we may say, that either it exists, or that it is not necessary there.... because we know that they pro- duce the orange in open air ; and wherever the orange will stand at all, experience shews the olive will it and well, being a hardier tree. Notwithstanding the great quantity of oil made in France, they have not enough for their own consump- tion, and therefore import from other counties. This is an article, the consumption of which will al- ways keep pace with its produc- tion. Raise it, and it begets its own demand. Little is carried to America, because Europe has it not to spare, we therefore have not learnt the use of it: But cover the southern states with it, and every man will become a consumer of it, within whose reach it can be Brought in point of price. If the memory of those persons is held in great respect in South-Carolina, who introduced there the culture of rice, a plant which sows life and death with almost equal hand, what obligations would be due to him, who should introduce the olive-tree, and set the example of its culture! Were the owners of slaves to view it only as the means of bettering their condition, how much would he better that, by planting one of those trees for every slave he pos- sessed! Having been myself an eye-witness to the blessings which this tree sheds on the poor, I never had my wishes so kindled for the introduction of any article of new culture into our own country. South-Carolina and Georgia appear to me to be the states, wherein its success, in favourable positions at least, could not be doubted ; and I flattered myself, it would come within the views of the society for agriculture to begin the experi- ments, which are to prove its prac- ticability. Carcassonne is the place from which the plants may be most certainly and cheaply obtained. They can be sent from thence by water to Bourdeaux, where they may be embarked on vessels bound for Charleston. There is too little intercourse between Charleston and Marseilles, to propose this as the port of exportation. I offer my service to the society for the ob- taining and forwarding any number of plants, which may be desir- ed."] Olive the Spurge. See Me- zereon. ONI ONI 167 ONION, the Common, or Al- lium Cepa, L. an exotic plant, pro- bably originating from Asia. There are several varieties of the common onion, the principal of which are known by the names of Strasburgh, Spanish, and Egyp- tian. They are propagated by seed, which ought to be sown towards the end of February, or early in March, during dry weather; in the proportion of six pounds per acre, on light rich land, that has previously been well dug, levelled, and cleared from all weeds. In the course of five or six weeks, the onions will appear above ground ; and, after growing a month, they will, in a good soil, admit of being hoed ; which operation must be performed with a small implement, not exceeding 2 A inches in breadth; and it will also be necessary to re- move such as may stand too close- ly together, so as to leave the rest about three inches asunder. At the expiration of another month, the hoeing ought to be repeated, and the plants left four or five in- ches apart: in the course of six weeks, the hoe is once more em- ployed ; the weeds are carefully removed ; and the onions suffered to grow only at the distance of six inches square ; by which means they will attain a very large size. Should the weather continue dry, the operations before stated, will be sufficient, till the onions are ready to be pulled ; but, if the sea- son prove damp, and weeds vege- tate luxuriantly, they must be re- moved by the hand ; because, af- ter the onions have begun to bulb, it would be improper to stir them with a hoe. Towards the middle or latter end of August, they gene- rally cease to grow ; a circum- stance which m.iy be ascertained by the shrinking of their blades: it will, therefore, now be necessary to draw them out of the earth, to cut off' the tops of the blades, and to dry them, either in a warm place, or by exposing the bulbs to the sun ; and turning them every second day, less they should bud, as often happens in damp weather. This mode of cultivation is applica- ble to Leeks, on the properties of which we have already treated, in their alphabetical order. Beside the varieties above-men- tioned, there is another, denomi- nated Welch Onions, which are cultivated only for spring salad ; as they form no bulbs. These are sown towards the end of July ; and in the course of a fortnight appear above the ground ; but in October their blades perish, and do not re- vive till January ; when they shoot up vigorously ; so that, in the month of March, the plants will be fit for the table. [The success with which our New-England brethren, prosecute the onion husbandry, has long been known. The following directions therefore on the subject, from Mr. De axe's New-England Farmer, deserve attention. " The common sort of onions, have purple bulbs. The white or silver skinned, which are supposed to have come from Egypt, are by some preferred to the other. They have not so strong a taste. This plant flourishes so well in the southern parts of New-Eng- land, that it has long been a consid- erable article of exportation ; in the northern parts, it requires the very best culture. A spot of ground should be cho- sen, which is moist and sandy ; because they require much heat, and moisture. A low situation^ 168 ONI ONI where the sand has been washed down from a neighbouring hill, is very proper. The most suitable manures are old rotten cow dung, ashes, but especially soot. A small quantity of ashes or sand, or both, should be spread over them after sowing, especially if the soil be not sandy. And it is not amiss to roll the ground after sowing, I have many years cultivated them on the same spot; and have never found the land at all empove- rished by them. But on the con- trary, my crops are better than formerly. But the manuring is yearly repeated ; and must not be far below the surface. The ground should be dug or ploughed in autumn, not very deep; and then made very fine in the spring, and all the grass roots, and roots of weeds taken out; then laid in beds four feet wide. Four rows of holes are made in a bed, the rows ten inches apart, and the holes in the rows ten. About half a dozen seeds are put in a hole, or more if there beany danger of their not coming up well, and buried an inch under the surface. This is allowed by the experienced culti- vators in Connecticut, to be the best way of setting the seeds For they will grow very well in bunches.... They crowd each other up out of the soil, and lie in heaps as they grow upon the surface. The larg- est onions are those that grow sing- ly, some inches apart, but those that are more crowded, produce larger crops. The middle sized onions, are better for eating than the large. The last week in April is the right season for sowing the seeds, if the ground be capable of being put into proper order so early. In wet ground, it is often necessary to sow later. Last year, (1789,) I sowed my onions in drills, twelve inches apart, across the beds : my crop was near double what it used to be, when they were sowed in bunches. I gave them a slight top-dressing of soot, just before they began to form bulbs, which might be the true reason of the great increase: so that I do not yet absolutely pre- fer the drill method, to the other. Onions should be hoed three or four times, and kept quite clear of weeds, before the tops arrive to their full height. At this time the bulbs will begin to swell ; hoeing should therefore be laid aside, and the weeds pulled up by hand, as often as they appear. Weeds not only rob the plants of their food, but injure them much by their shade. To promote the growth of the bulbous roots, I have found it ad- vantageous to trample the ground hard between the rows or bunch- es, and to draw the soil away from the bulbous roots, laying them bare to the sun. They are thus more warmed, and grow faster. Some think it necessary, to pass a roller over beds of onions, or. crip- ple down their tops by hand. But I have never been able to find the least advantage from either of these methods. Nor do I think they ought to be practised ; for I can- not easily conceive how the crush- ing and wounding any plant while it is growing, should conduce to its improvement. Though some may have good crops who treat them in this manner, I am persuaded that if they neglected it, they would have much better. For, be- sides the mischief already men- ONI tioned, the sun is shut out from the bulbs by crushing the tops down upon them; but the more upright the tops are, the more the sun will shine upon the roots. Others shake and twist the tops, to loosen the bulbs in the soil, which I cannot approve of: For if it do not snap off some of the fibrous roots, it gives too free a passage of the air to them, by which if dry weather follow, they will be injured. When onions are thick necked, do not incline to bottom, but rath- er to be what are vulgarly called scallions, the more care should be taken to harden the ground a- bout them, and to lay the bulbs bare to the sun. And it may be proper to let them touch the soil, only in that part which sends out the fibrous roots. At the worst, if they fail to have good bottoms the first year, and chance to escape rotting till spring; they may get them by being trans- planted. Even an onion which is partly rotten will produce two, three, or four good ones, if the seed stems be taken off as soon as they appear. They ripen earlier than young ones, have the name rare- ripes, and will sell at a higher price. When the greenness is entirely gone out of the tops of onions it is time to take them up : for from this time the fibrous roots decay, and no longer convey any nour- ishment to the bulbs, as appears by their becoming quite loose in the soil, and easy to take up. After they are pulled, they should lie on the ground for ten days or a fortnight, to dry and harden in the sun, if the weather be fair.... Then, in fair dry weather, be mov- TOL. IV. ONI 169 ed into a garret, and laid thin...... The scallions should not be mixed with the good onions, lest they cause them to rot; but be hung up in some dry place in small bunches. » That onions may keep well through the winter, they should have a situation dry and cool...... Moisture soon rots them, and warmth causes them to vegetate. A degree of cold which would ruin most other esculent roots, will not injure them. Accordingly in the southern parts of this country, as I am informed, they are usually kept through the winter in dry casks placed in chambers, or garrets..... But they should not be removed while the weather is very frosty. When onions are kept long,they are apt to sprout. To prevent this, nothing more is necessary than to sear the fibrous roots with a hot iron. The pores of the roots will thus be stopped, through which the air enters, and causes them to vegetate. To obtain seed from onions; plant the largest and soundest, in beds nine inches apart. In a month, the tops will appear; and every one will send up several stems..... When the heads of the flowers begin to appear, each plant must have a stake about four feet long, and its stems loosely tied to the stake by a soft string : otherwise, the heavy tops will lay the stalks, or the winds break them. Keep the beds clear of weeds."'] The properties of onions in no respect differ from those of garlic, excepting that the former are less pungent (see Garlic,) and are, therefore, more generally used for culinary purposes. Many persons, however, dislike them on account Z 170 O P I of the strong and disagreeable smell which they communicate to the breath : but this inconvenience may be obviated by eating a few raw leaves of parsley, immediately after partaking of onions, the scent of which is thus completely re- moved, and they are at the same time rendered. more easy of di- gestion. Onions were formerly reputed to be an efficacious remedy for sup- pressions of urine, and in dropsical complaints; but they are at present chiefly used in external- applica- tions, such as poultices, or cata- plasms for suppurating tumors, £:c. A distilled water from these roots is frequently recommended on the continent, as an excellent solvent of the stone and gravel. Ophthalmy. See Inflamma- tion of the Eye. OPIUM, an inspissated gummy resinous juice, which is obtained from the White Poppy (Papaver album v. somniferum, L.) a plant cultivated in Persia and Arabia, where it attains the height of 20 or 30 feet. When the heads are nearly ripe, they are wounded on one side by an instrument furnish- ed with five edges, which make an equal number of incisions : whence the opium flows by the action of the sun's heat, and is collected on the following day, by a person who wounds the opposite side of the head; from which the juice exudes, and is received in a similar man- ner. As soon as it is collected, the opium is moistened with a little water or honey,and is kneaded with the hand, till it acquires the con- sistence of pitch ; after which it is formed into cakes or rolls for sale. The best opium is imported from the province of Bahar, in the East Indies, though it appears from OPI experiments, that this drug may be advantageously prepared in Eng- land ; and the Patriotic Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. having offered liberal premiums to obtain so desirable an object, we propose to give a concise account of the methods adopted by the suc- cessful candidates,under the article Poppy. Opium is very ponderous ; of a close and compact texture ; rather moist; and of a deep brown colour. It emits a faint smell,and has a very bitter acrid taste : the best sort is of a moderate firmness, possessing a very powerful odour, and a bitter, disagreeable flavour. This narcotic drug is at present greatly esteemed; and, whether used in the extract made into pills, or in the liquid form of Laudanum, it is one of the most valuable medicines. Being a very powerful antidote/ as well as a remedy for procuring sleep and mitigating pain, it is but too often abused. If conjoined in cer- tain proportions with vegetable acids, it possesses the remarkable property of preventing sleep, and exciting the mental powers. On this account, it lias often, though injuriously,been employed by those who are obliged to devote their nights to sedentary or active pur- suits....See also Acids. Among the various disorders, in which opium has been given, with good effects, we shall first mention diarrhoeas, and dysenteries. It has likewise been found serviceable in relieving the tooth-ach ; in allaying the pain and preventing the fever arising from wounds, fractures, or similar accidents; and also in the small-pox, both where the patient is troubled with convulsions, before the appearance of the eruption, and on the fifth or subsequent days. OPI But as it is, on the whole, a pre- carious remedy, its proper use can be determined only by the expert practitioner. Opium is the most certain anti- spasmodic hitherto discovered; and, when conjoined with laxatives, is eminently useful in colics ; as, by relieving the spasm, it frequently prevents inflammations of the bow- els....Lastly, it is of the greatest service in the different species of tetanus, and Locked Jaw ; and affords relief in the various spas- modic affections attending indiges- tion, hypochondriasis, the bite of a mad dog, &x.; it facilitates the pas- sage of calculi, or stones, through the ureters, and has been found useful in some species of epilepsy. But, though opium be thus va- luable, it should not be taken in too large doses, or without medi- cal advice ; as it is not unfrequent- ly productive of the most fatal consequences. If, however, any quantity be swallowed, or suspected to have been swallowed, either ac- cidentally, or with a design to ter- minate existence, its effects will become evident by vomiting, deli- rium, vertigo, and an irresistible propensity to sleep. In such case, friction with salt has been found serviceable, in restoring the patient to a slight degree of animation ; immediately after, it will be neces- sary to exhibit 12 grains of vitrio- lated zinc, if he be an adult. This medicine should be succeeded by water-gruel, or similar mucilagi- nous drink, or butter-milk, sour whey, and particularly vinegar, or strong coffee, which last appears to be the most effectual antidote.... The cold bath, and the application of blisters to the head, have like- wise produced beneficial effects in OPO 171 recovering persons poisoned with this drug. It has been proved, from the Custom-house lists, and other sources of information, that a larger quantity ot opium is annually used in Great-Britain, than in all other States of Europe, collectively. [It is a melancholy fact, that this excellent, kind assuager of our bodily pains, and mental distress, is frequently used for the horrid purpose of self-destruction. The remedies are in the first instance, powerful emetics of white vitriol; twenty grains of which should be given as soon as called, in a wine glass of warm water, and repeated every ten minutes, until copious vomitings are excited. Warm water is then to be freely given, together with a smart purgative of rhubarb or jalap, joined with a few grains of pot-ash. When no remedy has been given for some time, and symptoms of apoplexy have come on, the reme- dy is copious bleeding. This has been successfully used in four cases, by Dr. Rush, who remarks, that it should never be prescribed, until great morbid action, or the suffocation of action from excess of stimulus, (manifested chiefly in the depressed state of the pulse), have taken place...See Med. Repos. vol. 5.] OPODELDOC, a well known liniment, which is prepared by di- gesting 3 parts of soap in 16 parts of the spirit of rosemary, till the former be dissolved; when one part of camphor should be incor- porated with the whole....This un- guent is of great service in bruises, rheumatic affections, and similar painful complaints; but, being very- volatile, it ought to be kept in bot- 172 ORA ORA ties closely stopped, to prevent the access of air. ORACHE, or Atriplex, L. a genus of plants, comprising seven- teen species; of which the fol- lowing are the principal, and indi- genous : 1. The portulacoides, Shrubby- ORACHE,orSEA-PuRSLANE; grow- ing on sea-shores ; flowering in the months of July and August.....It may be easily propagated from cut- tings ; as it requires but little cul- ture, and thrives well if planted in a poor gravelly soil, where it sel- dom attains above two and a half, or three feet in height, and be- comes very bushy : hence it is well adapted for gardens, among other low shrubs, where it displays a very pleasing appearance...Being a marine vegetable, its ashes con- tain a large proportion of alkaline salt, and may,therefore, be usefully substituted for soap. 2. The hastata, Wild Orache, Fat-hen, or Lamb's Quarters, which grows on rubbish, dunghills, and in kitchen-gardens : it flowers jn the months of August and Sep- tember....This plant is sometimes tfsed as a substitute for spinach and other greens, though it is not relished by cows, goats, sheep, or swine. • 3. The laciniata, or Frost ed- orache, which thrives on sea- shores, and flowers in July or Au- gust......The fruit of this annual plant contains a viscid yellow juice which, according to Schoepf, a respectable German writer on phar- macy, possesses similar properties with the exotic drug, termed Gum- mi Guttx. Hence it may be sub- stituted for the latter, as a very powerful purgative in cases, where aqueous humours are to be evacu- ated j namely?,, in obstinate quar- tan agues, the humid asthma, me- lancholy, and especially in the dropsy : it may be given in con- serves, pills, or powders, from four to eight grains for a dose. ORANGE-TREE, or Citrus Aurantium, L. an exotic shrub, highly esteemed on account of ita pleasant and cooling fruit. The Orange-tree is divided into several varieties, of which the most esteemed are those of China and Seville: it is seldom raised in Bri- tain, excepting in the hot-houses of the curious; and, its culture being the same as that of the Ci- tron, we refer the reader to that article. The flowers of the orange-tree are highly esteemed, on account of their odoriferous perfume : they are of a slightly pungent, bitter taste, and communicate their fla- vour, by infusion, to rectified spi- rit ; and also, by distillation, both to spirit and water. Formerly they were in great repute, on account of their supposed efficacy in con- vulsive and epileptic cases, though later experience has not confirmed these advantages:...similar virtues have been attributed to the leaves, which have likewise been found ineffectual in those complaints. The juice ot oranges is a pleasant sub-acid liquor, which has often proved of service in inflammatory or febrile disorders ; by diminish- ing heat, allaying thirst, and pro- moting the salutary discharges. It is likewise eminently useful in the scurvy, and has, therefore, been introduced into the Navy, as part of the stores of ships destined for long voyages. Nor is the outer rind less valua- ble, as it forms the basis of an ex- cellent conserve ; and, when pre- served with sugar, is deservedly ORC esteemed in desserts, being a grate- ful aromatic bitter, and one of the best stomachics....There is also an oil expressed from the orange-peel, which is sold under the name of Bergamot. Frem the flowers of this tree, an essential oil is prepared in Por- tugal and Italy, termed Essentia Neroli: this perfume is said to pos- sess a more delicate and agreeable fragrance than even the Ottar of Roses; but it is with difficulty pro- cured in Britain. Lastly, the Seville, or Bitter Orange is seldom employed in medicine at present; the China orange being generally substituted. [ORANGE WINE. Take the expressed juice of eight Seville (sour) oranges, and having one gallon of water wherein 3lbs. of sugar have been dissolved, boil the water and sugar for 20 minutes; skim constantly, and when cooled to a proper heat for fermentation, add the juice and the outer rind of the juice thinly shaved off, and putting all into a barrel let it be frequently stirred for two or three days, and then close bunged for six months or longer before bot- tling.....Communicated by S. W. Johnson, esq.] ORCHAL, Argol, or Cud- bear ; Lichen Roccella, L. an in- digenous plant, growing upon the rocks on the coast of Guernsey ; the Isle of Portland ; and, we un- derstand, also in some parts of the Highlands of Scotland....This spe- cies attains the height of two or three inches, having cylindrical stems, which are internally white. It abounds on the islands of Tene- riffe, and the Canaries, whence it is imported into Britain. Argol is of alight colour, though it is sometimes found of a dark- O R C 175 grey: when mixed with lime, urine, and alkaline salts, this moss is formed into a dark-red paste, which has received the different names above-mentioned, and is much used in dyeing wool of a deep red or purple colour. ORCHARD, in horticulture, a tract of land appropriated to the growth of standard fruit-trees, with a view to furnish a supply of the most useful kinds of fruit. Orchards are sometimes confin- ed to the cultivation of apples, pears, cherries, or other particular fruit, especially if they be situated in the vicinity of a town or city : more frequently, however, they are composed of all the trees be- fore mentioned, with a double pro- portion of those bearing apples; which doubtless are the most plen- tiful and valuable fruit, that may be easily preserved during the whole year. The utility of a general orchard, both for domestic use and the sale of its productions, is evident to the most superficial observer, indepen- dently of the beautiful appearance it presents, from an early period in the spring to the late autumn :.... we shall therefore state a few hints, from practical writers, and actual experience, on the proper manage- ment of this most important de- partment of economy. I. Extent, Situation, and Soil. The extent of an orchard should be proportioned to that of arable land, and the quantity of fruit re- quired either for private use, or the supply of public market; so that the plantation may consist of from half an acre to 20 acres. As, however, there are many friends of horticulture, whose possessions confine them to a small compass ; 174 O R C ORC and who, nevertheless, wish to practise this useful art on a syste- matic plan; we have subjoined, at the conclusion of these observa- tions, a second Cut, in which the proper place of each tree is accu- rately represented; and the" most valuable fruit-trees are distinctly pointed out. The situation and aspect may vary according to circumstances, provided the soil be good. All low, damp, exposures, however, ought to be purposely avoided, as no fruit-trees will flourish there; nor can their productions be fine or well flavoured. A moderately low situation, therefore, is preferable to elevated lands, provided it be dry; because it will thus be shel- tered from the effects of tempestu- ous winds ; though a small decli- vity will be very desirable, especi- ally if its aspect incline towards the East, South-east, or to the South ; which situations are always more eligible than a western exposure. But a northern aspect ought by no means to be selected, unless it be well sheltered, or the ground be peculiarly favourable to the forma- tion of an orchard. [The above directions respect- ing the choice of situation, for an orchard, are left in to keep the reader in mind of the necessity of caution in following the directions of European writers on Agricul- ture, under the article Fruit, vol. 3d. p. ample reasons were given for prefering a northern situation for apple trees.] Vv'ith respect to the soil, any common field, or pasture, which produces abundant crops of corn, grass, or culinary vegetables, may be chosen for laying out an or- chard. If it be of a rich loamy na- ture, it will be of great advantage ; though any soil of a good quality may be prepared for the purpose ; but, it must be neither too wet or heavy ; nor too light or dry : it should be soft, easily worked, and have at least one spade deep of ve- getable mould. [The choice of a proper soil, and exposure, is not sufficiently attend- ed to in the United States. Mr. Riley of Marcus Hook, whose ex- perience in Cyder is inferior to none, assures the Editor, that apples growing in a good loose soil, produce much more rich and ge- nerous liquor, than those that grow in a stiff clayey land.] II. Prepap ation of the Land. This primary object of horticul- ture, is usually effected by trench- ing if the plantation be intended for private use. In the preparation of very extensive orchards, it will be advisable to plough the soil to a considerable depth; but the most eligible method is, to dig trenches, one or two spades deep, according to the nature of the ground, and six or eight feet wide in each row, where the trees are in future to be placed ; especially if it be grass- land, and intended to be kept in the sward; in which case the green-sods must be laid at the bottom of each trench ; because, when putrefied, they will afford an excellent manure. Should hops, or any other under-crop, be de- signed to be raised, it will be re- quisite to trench the whole of the ground; but, in either case, the spade must be carried to the depth of the natural soil. The land thus managed, ought likewise to be secured from the incursions of cattle, by means of a goodditch, [fence] and a well-plant- ed hedge ; which should be trained towards the north, as high and as ORC ORC 175 thick as it can be carried. The plantation ought, also, to be screen- ed on the east and west sides from the effects of boisterous winds, by means of shaws or shelters of Spa- nish chesnut, Scotch firs, ash, or other quick growing trees. Manure is likewise an object of the greatest importance : and, for this purpose, the sweepings of streets, those of cow and slaughter- houses, the emptying of drains and night-soil, are, in the opinion of Mr. Bucknall, eminently sercice- able ; as they " are more disposed to facilitate the growth and health of fruit-trees, than the manure from the stable. [The following statement of the surprising resuscitation of an old worthless apple tree appeared in the "Salem Register of May 1802 ;" and is now republished, to shew what good effects may pro- ceed from manuring fruit-trees. It is questionable, whether Forsyth himself, could boast of a more signal instance of his art in recov- ering an apparently dyeing tree. It may be added in favour of the practice ; that a gentleman, R. S. esq. of Princeton, New Jersey, who has remarkable fine peaches, regularly manures his trees every year, and asserts that the speedy decay of common peach trees is owing chiefly to a neglect of the practice. He even said, experience convinced him, it was owing to the same circumstance, that peach- stones did not in general, produce fruit like the original tree. " In my garden is an apple tree, which, about the year 1763, sprout- ed from the root of a former tree : it now girts three feet six inches : From 1784 to 1790, I observed it to be barren, and a cumberer of the ground ; year after year being the.prey of caterpillars, and exhi- biting the constant appearance of innumerable warts within the out- side bark, which, at the time, I suspected, was natural instinct in the insect for the propagation of its kind. The garden, &c. did not fall under my particular care and cog- nizance, until 1792. In the spring of 1793, I tried an experiment for giving it new life, as follows: Very early in the season, I directed my gardener with a hoe to cleanse the outside bark of such excres- cences, as might bear the operation < with little difficulty: In the next place, I directed him to raise a wall of small stones round the tree, at the distance of one foot, and per- haps nine inches high: and then to fill the cavity with manure from the resource of compost. The effect in the succeeding season was truly worthy of notice: the warts disappeared, the bark clean and thrifty, and the tree so loaded with fruit, as that about one third of the boughs broke and came to the ground with the cumbersome weight. Comparatively no catter- pillars since, and on an average, a very plentiful of fruit yearly. I have not yet renewed my experi- ment, and think it would be well not to neglect it. I was led to the experiment by taking notice of a pear-tree that had been in a very similar situa- tion, and had been resuscitated in a similar manner." III. Method of Planting. The best season for planting fruit-trees is in autumn, shortly after the leaves begin to fall; from the latter end of October till the commencement of December; 176 ORC ORC though, if the weather continue open, or mild, it may be performed at any time, between the months of October and March. [In the United States, no general rule can be given, owing to the im- mense variety of climates with which we are favoured ; in some sates the autumn may be best, while in others, in Pennsylvania, it is probable that early in the spring answers best. Indeed in a comparative experiment, of spring and autumn planting, made near Philadelphia in 18O2I3, the advan- tage was considerably in favour of those put down in the spring. Some planted in the autumn, were from a nursery near the city, and nearly all died; another parcel from the excellent nursery of Mr. Prince of Flushing, Long Island, arrived late in April, and all sur- vived ; there was no reason to sus- pect any difference in the soil, or the care with which both parcels were planted.] As many trees become diseased with the moss, canker, 8cc. in con- sequence of an injudicious selec- tion, Mr. B. directs them to be chosen the year before they are intended to be planted. The or- chardist, he observes must be par- ticularly careful to obtain young and healthy trees; for cankered plants emit a vapour which is very detri- mental to such as are sound; he must, likewise, see them proper- ly pruned in the nursery, so that all extraneous or rambling branches be closely taken off, and only three or four leading shoots be left to every head: thus ma- naged, the trees will not require to be lopped for a considerable time ; and, as they .will have no wci.r.Xs c£>en in the year when transplanted, their growth will be greatly promoted. On taking up the fruit-trees, the roots should be preserved of a con- venient length, in consequence of which they will incline to grow in a horizontal direction, and be more immediately influenced by the sun: their sap will become richer, and produce the sweetest and most beautiful fruit. In arranging the trees, Mr. BuckNall directs them to be plant- ed conformably to the mode re- presented in the following Cut: X7— ORC ORC 1 One row of the tallest and strongest standards is to be set on the three cold sides; parallel to which, must be planted another row of the next free-growers: then, the trees are to be dispose^ in a similar manner, according to their strength, gradually declining in size, to the center. Each stand- ard is to be placed 33 feet asunder, between which two dwarf-trees should be planted ; all of them be- ing so pruned, that each row will, at the expiration of thirteen years, form an actual hedge of fruit. The intermediate spaces may be filled with hops, which should be remov- ed, accordingly as the trees ad- vance in growth. Farther, the rows of trees ought to incline to a point of the compass towards the east; because the sun will shine upon them early in the forenoon, and thus dissipate the vapours, which arise during the vernal nights, and stunt the fruit in the earlier stages of its growth. Having given this general out- line relative to the planting of or- chards, we should consider our work deficient on a subject of such importance, if we neglected the opportunity of communicating a more complete and systematic in- troduction to horticulture, with which we have been favoured by Mr. Christ, an eminent and practical German writer. In or- der to enhance the value of this essay, we have procured the sub- joined Cut, which represents two rows of a design for an orchard occupying two acres of ground (Rhenish measure) that is, 19 roods in length, according to the horizontal rows ; and 17 roods in breadth, conformably to the per- pendicular lines In an extensive orchard, the pro- prietor will find it more advantage- ous to place the fruit trees at a considerable distance; as, by such management, he will be enabled to train a greater variety of useful plants beneath and between those of a larger size. But, in a limited space of ground, such as that ex- iXibited in the preceding Cut, the VOL. IV. primary object will be to make the most economical use of the allotted ground, and to procure the greatest possible variety of fruit- bearing trees. Next he will en- deavour to arrange them so that they may stand in symmetrical or- der, and exhibit a pleasing sight. For this purpose, the arrangement here proposed, in an irregular A a 178 ORC ORC square, will be found the most convenient and agreeable to the laws of vegetation. Thus, the eye, wherever it turns, not only per- ceives a straight line, arc! uniform groves, but the plan itself is like- wise the most consistent; because each tree is planted, in a certain space, at the greatest possible dis- tance from the other; and is, in this manner, less cumbersome to its neighbour, than it would be in a rectangular si;u-.u-e. Hence the proper and most profitable disposi- tion will be that of allowing three rods interval between standards, in the horizontal rows from east to west; and two and an half rods in the perpendicular lines from south to north. This space, however, would, after some time, become too narrow ; one tree would im- pede the growth of another, and, . by obstructing the air as well as the rays of the sun, prevent the ripening of fruit; if the trees were indiscriminately planted in the spots which are marked on the plan...... To obviate such inconvenience, it should be understood to be a fun- damental rule, that each fruit-tree must be provided with a neighbour which is of a different growth. It' will, therefore, be requisite to make such a choice cf the various kinds and species of trees, that one of a vigorous growth, with a spreading crown or tcp, should stand next to another that eapands with less luxuriance, and has fewer or lower branches. This arrangement may be the more easily accomplished, as every zealous friend of horticul- ture will naturally wish to possess, in his collection, at least one, or a few trees, of every valuable kind of fruit. And, in order to facilitate such choice, we have subjoined a catalogue of the principal sorts of fruit-trees. But, though the soil and space for standards, according to our plan be rather sparingly allotted, yet tiyere would remain a considerable piece of ground between them un- employed, for 15 or 20 years, while they are young and growing; hence it will be advisable to plant and train between every two standards in the horizontal rows, a small or dwarf tree, with a limited top or crown; bearing early and abund- ant fruit, till the stems have attain- ed so large a size, and such spread- ing branches, as to overshadow and stifle their useful, but diminutive neighbours. Thus, the latter must, according to circumstances, yield the room they occupy, to the for- mer ; and, after having amply re- paid the trouble of rearing them, and their proportion of ground- rent, they may still, with proper exertion, be transplanted to ano- ther situation. Among all fruit-trees, there are none better calculated for interme- diate plantation between standards than the yellow mirabelle, and the gold.n pij.lun. The former, is of tolerably quick growth, may be managed and pruned e.t pleasure, and generally bears fruit in the se- cond year after having been trans- planted ; its abundant plums av- of great value, both for home con- sumption and for sale, when in a dried state......The gqjdeii pippin maintains the same rank among ap- ple-trees, as the mirabelle among the plum-kind ; its growth is mo- derate ; the fruit plentiful and de- licious, containing a sharp aroma- tic juice, and a tender palp.....it may be preserved longer than six months. ORC ORC 179 A CATALOGUE OF THE MOST ELI- GIB].K KINDS AND VARIETIES OF FRUIT-TREES. I. For plantations of table-fruit, only: 1. The Easter, or Pa-' 6. The Streaked Rose Apple, (Pomme Rose panache) a very early, and beautiful summer-fruit, of a delicious flavour and taste : it is of a middle size, rather oblong than round ; of a fine red colour, mixed with yellow on the shaded side , streaked with a deeper red on the southern aspect, but every where marked with deep yellow dots. Its pulp is of a gfossy white tinted with rose-coloured streaks, about tiie core, and beneath the peal ; mellow, and uncommonly mild ; the fruit ripens in August... The tree does not attain a large size. 7. The Rus.'ian Ice-Apple, or Astrakhan Apple (Pomme d'Astra- chan ; Transparente) is unques- tionably the most eligible summer fruit, provided the situation and climate be proper for its growth, that is not under 49° of polar ele- vation. In such a region, it ac- quires a saccharine juice, which is so copious, that in an apple weigh- ing 4-i ounces, there will be found 180 ORC ORC on expression, 3A ounces of liquor, and one ounce of pulpy fibres. It is one of the most smiling fruits, whitish-yellow, with fine red flam- ing streaks, on the side exposed to the sun ; and may be eaten at ta- ble, or converted into cyder...There are two -varieties of this apple ; namely, a larger and a smaller one; but neither of the trees become re- markably tall. 8. The German-muscadel-pear, (Muscat Allemand) a noble, large pyramidal fruit, with a small bloom, on a shallow excavation, and ra- ther a long stalk. When ripening on the floor, it acquires a red and yellow tint; its flesh is melting and delicate, full of a spicy, deli- cious juice, similar to that of raus- cadel grapes ; eatable from March till May.....The tree forms a fine crown, and is exceedingly produc- tive. 9. The Nut-meg, or Mace-rennet, is a valuable apple of considerable size, more globular than oblong, yellowish green, and somewhat rough, but of a dusky red on the south side. Its flesh is tender, and eats short; contains a large pro- portion of sweet vinous juice, hav- ing a fine aromatic taste ; it be- comes eatable towards the. end of October; and may be preserved in its full flavour for a whcle year ....The tree attains a respectable size. 10. The Trout-pear is a German autumnal fruit, and possesses the advantages of external beauty, a delicious taste, and unusual ferti- lity. It somewhat resembles the Butter-J.eur, but is more oblong, has a finer yellow ground, and many deep'red clots, which stand more closely together on the south- ern aspect. Its flesh is completely mellow, very aromatic, and may be kept longer than the Buerre- blanc....The tree of the Trout-pear presents a bulky stem. 11. The Lauermann-cherry, is the largest and most beautiful of the heart-shaped cherries, and has an excellent taste. In shape it re- sembles the variegated half-ounce- cherry, and frequently surpasses it; the flesh is remarkably white, so- lid, and of a sweet, agreeable fla- vour. The stone adheres to the pulp, which ripens in June or Ju- ly ; when the skin on both sides acquires very bright red spots, that are imperceptibly lost in the whitish- yellow part of the centre and the shaded quarter. The tree is of a large and bulky growth. 12. The Old Royal Cherry, is also of the first rank ; large, dark- red, somewhat heart-shaped, with a long stalk ; its flesh is red, softj and juicy, of a spicy, and very agreeable acid taste; the stone, however, is not heart-shaped ; it ripens towards the latter end of June......The tree is handsome, though not very large; has a close, acid foliage, and is exceedingly productive. 13. The Victorious Rennet (Rei- nette triomphante) an unconfmon- ly fine, large, and well-formed ap- ple ; which, on being deposited on the floor, acquires a deep yel- low tint, marked with stary points, and frequently brown rough spots, or large warts; its eye represents a regular star ; its flesh, beneath the tender skin, is yellow; firm, though delicate; yielding abundance of juice, that possesses a pleasant aro- matic flavour; it ripens about Christmas, and may be kept till March......The tree grows luxu- riantly, and becomes of considera- ble size. 14. The Ladies' Plum (Damas ORC ORC 1X1 Violet), a highly esteemed, brge, fine, oblong fruit, of a deep violet or black colour,and a dusky bloom; its yellow pulp separates from the stone ; has a sweet, delicate taste, and is eatable in the middle of Au- gust.....Plum-trees, on the whole, are of a moderate growth, and ge- nerally slender. 15. The Winter Queen (laReine d'hyver), a very excellent pear, of a middle size, but of different shapes and colours, being some- times of a golden tint, with grey dots, or a few rusty spots, and sometimes marked with many rust-coloured stains....Those of proper growth are pear-shaped, but most of them have an irregu- lar form, with the eye on one side. The pulp is tolerably mellow, gra- nulated about the core, and of a sweet, delicious flavour ; it ripens towards the end of November, and is not easily affected by the win- icr.....The tree is of a moderate size. 16. The Doctor's, or Cardinal's Cherry ; a large, dark-red, globu- lar fruit, with a long and strong- stalk ; its pulp is red and soft; the juice agreeably sweet and acid, in equal proportions. The stone has a sharp point, and the fruit ripens about the middle of July.... The tree becomes of a tolerable size : the leaves are large, and have a sub-acid taste. 17. The Red Borsdorfer is a va- riety of the delicious German ap- ple bearing that name, and almost excels the latter, though of a si- milar size and shape. On one side, this fruit is of a glossy red, and a small part of the other is yellow ; dots of the latter colour being dispersed over it, and some- times also warts. Its flesh is un- commonly white, tender, juicy, and sweet, partaking of the odour of roses. The core is encompass- ed by a bright-red vein. When stored, this apple ripens about Christmas, at which period the German Borsdorfer begins to de- cay....The tree of the red kind is one of the largest standards ; bears every year abundant fruit ; and its vernal blossoms resist the severity of night-frosts. 18. The Duke of Origans, usual- ly called the Lord's Plum (Prune de Monsieur), a middle-sized fruit, of a fine violetcolour,with a strong bloom ; almost globular ; some- what depressed on the top, with a shallow furrow. When the tree enjoys a good soil and situation, its delicate and sweet pulp melts in the mouth. It ripens so early as the end of July ; and the stone readily parts with the pulp. 19. The St. Germain, a well- known and valuable French win- ter-pear, often very large ; of a pyramidal form, having a thick and dotted green skin; but which, while ripening on the floor, be- comes yellow. Its flesh is mel- low, frequently granulated about the core, and of a peculiarly deli- cate taste. 20. The Royal English Apple: there are many varieties compre- hended under this denomination ; but the genuine sort, is an ex- ceedingly large, showy, and valu- able fruit, belonging to the family of the Calvilles : it is very bulky below, and tapering towards the top ; has strong ribs and other pro- tuberances ; and a very short, deeply inserted stalk. The skin is throughout whitish-yellow, shin-' ing, and covered with greenish- white, delicate spots. Its flavour is strong, though agreeable ; the pulp is white, rather mellow ; and 182 ORC ORC contains a very pleasant juice, of a scent resembling that of roses: the apple is eatable in November, and may be kept till January..... The tree is of the larger kind. 21. The Altendorf-Cherry, is a very tender fruit, which, though belonging to the family of the acid glass-cherries with a white sap, has nevertheless a pleasant sweet- ish pulp : it is bright red, of a flat globular focm ; has a very short, deeply inserted stalk ; arid ripens in the beginning of July....The tree bears a thick, acid foliage, and does not attain any considera- ble size. 22. Golden Rennet (Reinnette d'Or) of Du Ha.mkl, a beautiful and excellent apple, the size and shape of which are similar to that of Bori>dorf: it is of a bright yel- low tint, marked on the south side with faint rsd streaks and yellow- ish/brown dots : its flesh is remark- ably tender, and of a glossy white ; the juice has the taste and flavour peculiar to pine-apples, and which is also found in the golden pippin : when stored, it ripens in Decem- ber, but attains to perfection only in February.....The tree has a healthy appearance, and is of a middling size. 25. The Royal Plum. (See No. 10 of the west side of the Espa- lier). 2-.\ The Gilded Butter-pear (Beurre dore) is a luscious fruit, nearly related to the white butter- pear, having a similar taste, and ripening about the same time, but generally of a larger size, and pos- sessing a finer coat than the lat- ter ; its peel, being glqssy and smooth, resembles unpolished gold; is occasionally streaked, and marked with bright-yellow spots. There is no red colour on this pear, but its south side displays greater brightness than the oppo- site part which has been shaded. 25. The Red Perdigron, an ex- cellent plum of the first class, mo- derately Luge, roundish, with a strongly marked furrow ; beauti- fully red ; covered with many small gold-coloured cots, and a fine bloom. Its bright-yellow flesh is streaked with white veins ; per- fectly transparent; and yields a sweet delicious juice. Though its skin be somewhat tough, this plum contains no acidity ; so that, in a peeled and dry state, it aiXords prunes not inferior to those of the white Perdrigon, and other varie- ties. The stone is small and strongly adheres to the pulp : this fruit ripens about the middle of August. 26. The New-town Pippin, or New-York Rennet, a noble Ame- rican apple, [vol. iii. p. 110.] 27. The Prince's Table-Pear, or the Long Green Summer-Pear, is one of the most luscious early fruits, uncommonly long-shaped, quite green, having a very mellow pulp, and ripening in August....... The tree makes a tall and respect- able figure. 28. The Autumnal Ah.ire-Pcnr\et (Yenkel-apple, of the Dutch), a fine fruit, gene>ally of the size of a full-grown English Pippin ; bluntly pointed towards the bloomy part, or eye ; having a very rough grev- yellovv peel, strongly'markedWith whitish dots, and sometimes with warts. Its flesh is remarkably tender, having a palatable sweet juice, and a most grateful aroma- tic flavour resembling that of ani- seed : it ripens about Michaelmas, and some pears are eatable in a fortnight after. But their spicy- flavour continues only six or eight ORC weeks, as it is dissipated about the end of November, when they be- come mealy. The tree is of low grow th, like most of those produc- ing similar fruit. 29. The Pear-Quince, though it cannot be classed among the fruit designed for the table, neverthe- less deserves a place in every or- chard ; as it is used for many cu- linary purposes. 30. 1 he Easter Bergamot (Bugi) an exceedingly delicate fruit; very large, round, somewhat thinner towards the stalk ; green, marked with small grey spots ; yellowish when ripe, and brown-red on its southern exposure : the pulp is un- commonly white, mellow, and with- out kernels : containing a copious sweet juice, slightly acidulated..... This fruit ripens on the floor in January, and remains sound till March ; but it ought to be left on the tree as long as possible, and not to be brought in contact with articles possessing a peculiar smell, Which it readily attracts. Its wood is bulky ; though the tree, like the Bergamot kinds, in general, at- tains only a moderate height. 31. The Grunge Cherry, resem- bles in taste that of Altendorf, de- scribed, No 21 ; being a compound of sweet and acid juice, in which the former property greatly pre- vails. It is of a large size, some- what compressed, with a small ex- cavation, and a middle-sized stalk. On the south side, it is of a bright- red ; on the opposite of a reddish- yellow cast; stained in all direc- tions with transparent spots of the last-mentioned shade. During a rainy summer, it frequently be- comes uniformly of an orange-co- lour ; and ripens about the middle of July. This valuable tree is fer- tile ; and, though growing vigor- ORC 183 ously, never attains a considerable size. 32. The Black Mulberry. If this useful tree cannot be planted near the house, or in some convenient corner of the yard, it ought not to be omitted in a complete orchard, on account of its agreeable vinous fruit, the juice of which is very palatable ; as it gradually ripens, and not only affords a constant sup- ply of berries for eight weeks, but may be converted into an excel- lent and wholesome wine. The tree seldom exceeds 20 feet in height; and though durable, de- mands a sheltered situation, be- cause its sap circulates slowly, and at a late period of the spring : it requires but an indifferent, dry soil, and begins to bear fruit in the second year after being trans- pi anWd. 33. The Folg Cherry is a large, dark-red, and luscious fruit, with a short stalk, and a small acid leaf: it has a sub-acid taste, accompanied with a most grateful sweetness ; is very pulpy, and marked with a deep furrow : it attains to maturity about the latter end of June, and continues till the middle of July..... The tree has a noble appearance, and affords vigorous and bulky wood. • With a view to encourage the friends of horticulture, to intro- duce a greater variety of fruit-trees, chiefly for the supply of the table, we have annexed a list of the prin- cipal sorts most approved, and that justly claim the first rank. apples. 1. The White Italian Rosemary- Apple (Mela di Rosnmrino), a very 184 ORC ORC beautiful species of the Calville, having no ribs, but a most glossy skin, which resembles the finest virgin wax ; is on all sides marked with clear white dots, and on the south, somewhat red ; of an oblong figure, and the size of a goose-egg. Its flesh is white as snow, uncom- monly tender, and yielding a sac- charine juice of a slightly aromatic flavour. Its large pericarpium contains twenty kernels in five cells; the fruit becomes eatable about the middle of November, and remains sound till February. The tree is of low growth. 2. The Net-formed Rennet (Rei- nette filee) is of a moderate size ; yellow; intersected with grey meshy lines ; and frequently covered with warts : it has a very tender, though firm pulp, an agreeably, sweet juice, with the peculiar rennet-fla- vour ; maturates towards Christ- mas ; and may be preserved till the succeeding summer. The tree, exhibits a respectable figure. 3. The Punctured Rennet (Rel- nette piquee), a smooth, reddish- brown apple, approachingto a ches- nut-colour, in shape and size re- sembling the largest Borsdorfer ; covered with whvtc punctures, each of which is surrounded with a green edge : its pulp is firm, mel- low, and of an excellent vinous fla- vour ; being eatable in February and March. The tree becomes of a tolerably large size. 4. The Great Englhh Jlennc', a fruit which often attains the size of the Pound-apple; has generally fiat ribs, and a strong bloom ; is of a bright-yellow colour, with many small brown punctures. Its flesh is somewhat meliow, agreeable to the palate, and may be eaten from December to February. The tree is tall, and very productive. ". The Norman Apple (Reinette de Normandie) ; an excellent fruit, of a middling she, and regular form ; when ripe, it is of a golden tint, covered with many grey, an- gular dots ; has a very tender, yet firm, yellow pulp, containing a pungent spicy juice ; ripens about the end of February, and may be preserved till Midsummer. The tree is of an inferior size. 6. The Noble Pippin, an exqui- site fruit for the table : of an ob- long shape, tapering toward the eye ; smooth, bright yellow, with a few red streaks on the southern side. This apple ripens early, and remains sound till the end of April. The tree, though not growing tall, bears ample fruit, even in those seasons which are unfavourable to the blossoms ; it thrives in situa- tions where other orchard-trees -will not prosper. 7. The Spotted Pippin is one of the most elegant apples, in form and size resembling the largest Borsuorf-kind, having a stalk deep- ly inserted in a wide excavation ; it is of a greenish-yellow cast, marked with numerous grey, often rust-coloured spots, and angular punctures; has a very delicate, though firm, greenish, juicy pulp, possessing a similar aromatic fla- vour with the English Golden Pippin; and remains sound till May. The tree is of a moderate size. 8. The IVinter Anise-Rennet (Fennouillet gris), is of a size and shape like that described No. 28 ; of a grey fawn shade, and some- times marked with warts ; the ten- der pulp has the peculiar anise fla- vour. This apple is edible from December till February...The tree is of low growth. '.'. The Late Yellow Rennet (Rei- ORC ORC 185 nette jaune tardive) ; a moderate- ly large, well-formed, and beau- tiful apple; yellow, but on the south side reddish, with brown punctures; the pulp is mellow, juicy, and of a very agreeable vi- nous taste ; eatable from Christ- mas till March....The tree, though growing vigorously, attains only a middling height. 10. The Ndl-Gwyn, an English fruit; uncommonly large, globu- lar, yellow, and occasionally spot- ted or punctured ;* its yellowish pulp has a delicious sweetly-acidu- lated taste, and an exceedingly pleasant flavour ; becomes eatable in February and March....The tree is of the largest kind, and is very productive. 11. The Pear Rennet, both an autumnal and winter-fruit, pre- sents a capital apple, of a tender yellowish pulp, the juice of which has the acidulous flavour of Rhe- nish'wine; it is sufficiently mellow in the beginning of November, and may be preserved through the greater part of winter....The tree is of slender growth. 12. The Loskrieg, or Princes Table-ay.pie, a delicious autumnal fruit, vying with the former : it is of the Calville family ; moderate- ly large; somewhat oblong ; whit- ish, and on the south side with red streaks....The tree does not rise to a considerable height. 13. The Reval Pear-apple is, next to the Russian Ice-apple, the most acceptable summer-fruit, when planted in a favourable soil and situation; as it is a variety of the latter. Though of a small size, and somewhat depressed, it has a sweet, aromatic taste; is of a fine yellow tint, streaked with red, or handsomely flame-colour- ed. In hot summers, the pulp of vol.iv. this fruit, on the solar side, is converted into a saccharine juice, and acquires the consistence and taste of a delicious apricot: it ri- pens in August....The tree is of the smaller sort. PEARS. a. The MuscadA-Pcar of Metz, a smooth-round, and very sapid winter-pear; whitish-green, but yellow when ripening on the floor, and red on the south side ; having a mellow pulp with an agreeable saccharine juice....The tree is un- commonly fertile ; though it be- comes only of a moderate size. b. The Imperial Pear, much re- sembling the Virgouleuse, has a tolerably mellow pulp, without stones ; a sweetly flavoured juice, and is eatable in April and May. ....The tree grows vigorously, and is easily distinguished by its leaves, the edges of which are curled like the foliage'of the oak. c. The Winter-Thorn (Epine d'- hyver), in size and shape is simi- lar to many kinds of egg-pears.... Its peel is at first whitish-green, and turns yellow, when ripening on the floor: the pulp is mellow, sweet, and of a delicious aromatic taste. This pear is fit to be eaten in November, and remains sound till the end of January....The tree vegetates with great luxuriance. d. The Long Green Winter Pear is a fine fruit, with a large stalk: its green peel is marked with grey punctures, and the mellow sac- charine pulp recommends itself by its strongly aromatic flavour. It is edible from December to Februa- ry, and may be preserved still longer....The tree makes a hand- some figure. e. The White Butter Pear; and Bb 186 ORC ORC /. The Grey Butter Pear, are well known to amateurs, and de- serve to stand in every orchard, being excellent autumnal fruits.... The former is also very useful for culinary purposes, even before it attains to maturity by lying on the floor: in a gocd soil it often forms a very large tree ; but the grey butter pear is of a lower growth, though with more ex- panded bn.nches. g. The De-la-Motte, one of the most luscious autumnal pears; the tender pulp and sweet juice of which, nearly approach to that of the fruit last mentioned. It is ge- nerally large, and in a manner tu- mefied ; of a green shade; and thickly sprinkled with large grey spots: it ripens in October and November....The tree is only of moderate growth and height. h. The Savoury Pear (la Sa- voureuse) is of a similar size and form with the Virgouleuse; more oval than pearl-shaped, with a small, smoothly-situated bloom ; is covered with a thin peel of a greenish-yellow cast, finely punc- tured : Its pulp has a buttery-plea- sant taste, and ripens in Novem- ber....The tree is of a middling size. i. The Radish-Pear, a very supe- rior summer fruit, the juicy part of which is so rich, refreshing, and agreeably acidulated, that it excels in its hind the grey butter-pear.... But, as it easily becomes mealy, though of a muscadel-flavour,when left to ripen on the tree, it ought to be tiuiv ly removed, and depo- sited on the floor....The tree is re- markably fertile, and produces fruit in seasons when almost every other pear-kind has failed : hence it de- serves to be reared, even in cli- mates and situations not very fa- vourable to orchards ; as it is of vigorous growth, and attains a to- lerable size. k. The Non-pareil Bergamont, is a considerably large pear, with a green peel, containing a mellow pulp, of an incomparably aromatic taste : it becomes eatable in Octo- ber and November....The tree is one of the largest among the Ber- gamots. /. The Egg-Pear: this well- known and esteemed fruit requires no description; its delicately mel- low pulp yields a highly palatable sub-acid juice of a peculiar flavour, and justly claims the preference over many of the French butter- pears. m. The Summer Thorn (Epine d'ete: Fondanle musque) is a large delicious pear, of a very penetrat- ing musky scent and taste; ob- long, pear-shaped, with a fatty, tender, green skin, marked with whitish dots: its pulp liquefies in the mouth; and the fruit ripens in the beginning of September....The tree is exceedingly fertile, and its dependent pears appear like ropes of onions ; on which account the trunk arrives only at a moderate height. n. The Green Summer Sugar- Pear, of'Hoyerswerda ; an excel- lent new fruit of a moderate size, and which has taken its origin from the kernel of the Winter-pear (Su- creverd) cultivated in Lower Lusa- tia : it is oblong, but arched toward the blcom ; of a grass-green shade; spotted in every direction with green and grey dots : the pulp is mellow, without stones, and surpas- ses in taste all other summer-pears. Its juice is of a vinous, sub-acid taste, decidedly superior, at least in flavour, to its parent fruit before mentioned. If the Green-Sugar- ORC ORC 187 pear be suffered to ripen on the tree, it acquires a greenish-yellow shade, and its flavour approaches to that of the French Muscat Ro- bert. Its period of maturation is from the middle to the end of Au- gust, and it can be preserved only a few weeks after being deposited on the floor. The tree bears fruit every year ; its blossoms resist the most unfavourable weather ; and the wood remains sound in the se- verest winters. o. The Spicy Muscadel-Pear, a handsome and delicate fruit, of the smaller kind ; being of a roundish form, with a very small depressed bloom, but a long slender stalk ; yellow when ripe, and of a bright orange-colour, inclining to red on the southern aspect; marked with greyish-red dots, somewhat rough to the touch. Its pulp eats short, and is partly granulated ; contains an excellent spicy and saccharine juice, which maturates in July and the beginning of August, but can- not be preserved above eight days, as is the case with the generality of summer-pears. The tree is of a prolific kind, and bears solitary fruit : the wood has a fine grain. GRAPES. For a specific account of these inestimable productions of Nature and Art, we refer the reader to the article Vine. PLANTATIONS OF THE MOST USE- FUL FRUIT-TREES IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY. I. The Red Stettin, Rostock, or Iron Apple, is large, globular, dark- red, sometimes light-green on the shaded side ; has a glassy, hard pulp, containing a large proportion of an excellent vinous juice : this fruit is equally regarded at the ta- ble till the latter tud of August, and serviceable for boiling, baking, and converting it into perry. The tree grows freely, and attains a great size ; is not easily injured by unfavourable springs, while in blos- som ; and possesses other qualities whish greatly recommend its cul- ture. The Green Stettin Apple, a variety of the preceding sort, also deserves to be reared. 2. The Reine claude (See No. 4 on the western side of the Espalier) in the progress of this essay. 3. TheBlessed Pear (Poire be- nite : Belle fertile), is thus justly denominated ; as it is one of the most plentiful productions of the vegetable kingdom. Lewis XIV. who was the first encourager of fruit-gardening in France, introdu- ced this admirable plant into his dominions, and intrusted the nur- ture and propagation of it to the Carthusians, an order of Monks then flourishing at Paris. The French King had judiciously com- missioned all his Ambassadors in Europe, to collect and send the most valuable fruit-trees: with which those monastic gardeners, by their extensive nurseries, exer- cised (till the period of the lateRe- volution) a most lucrative traffic, and realized severed millions of li- vres annually; but these noble plan- tations are now in a desolated state. One of the most beneficial plants thus obtained, was the BlessedPear, a yellow fruit, reddish on the south side, with a straight, rather long stalk : in hot summers, it has an agreeable juicy taste, and ripens toward the end of September. Be- side their use at the dessert, these pears may be prepared in a varie- ty of forms, for culinary dishes.... The tree, when full grown, does not exceed the middling size. 4. The Se ven-sleepcr (Sieben- 188 ORC ORC schlafer, of the Germans) ; an au- tumnal, moderately large, oblong apple ; of a galden tint; broad to- ward the stal'., and somewhat ta- pering in the direction of the bloom. Its yellowish pulp has a very agreeable, sub-acid taste, and serves every purpose of domestic consumption. The tree is peculiar- ly valuable, from this circumstance, that its blossoms appear nearly a month later than those of its neigh- bours : and, though it be thus ex- empt from the injury often occa- sioned by severe night-frosts in the spring, yet its fruit generally ri- pens about the middle of August. Hence, it merits great attention in cold situations, which are exposed to vernal blights. 5. The Pound-Pear is an extra- ordinary large, thick, oblong fruit, of a greenish-grey colour : it is of- ten reared in the vicinity of build- ings, to shelter its ponderous fruit from boisterous winds, before it has attained to maturity. Though its pulp be somewhat tough, it is a very useful pear in domestic eco- nomy, especially for drying. The tree rises to a considerable height, and spreads its branches ; is very productive ; and its blossoms are not liable to be injured in the spring. There is a variety gener- ally called the Sma'l Pound-Pear, which acquires only half the size of the former, but possesses all its valuable properties. 6. The Green Rennet, belongs to the smaller sort of pears ; has an uncommonly rough peel, of a grey colour, with a light green shade : its yellowish pulp is firm ; streak- ed with green veins ; juicy ; and possesses an agreeable rennet-fla- vour. When laid on the floor, it ripens in January ; and may, in a dry cellar, be preserved for a whole year, without becoming insipid. It is a well-tasted fruit, both for the dessert and culinary preparations. The tree is only of a moderate size, but ably withstands the severity of the winter. 7. The Sweet Winter-Calville, is a large apple, externally resem- bling the fruit of the Calville fa- mily, with five broad and shallow ribs, but a confined pericarpium, or seed-capsule ; it is more oblong than globular ; beautifully red, be- neath which appears a fine golden tint on the shaded side, and marked in every direction with white spots. Its flesh is faintly yellowish, toler- ably firm and good ; but, though it have no peculiar aromatic flavour, the fruit serves various economical purposes. In boiling, its slices re- mam entire, unless reduced to pulp bv stirring them ; and this pear is peculiarly esteemed for its sound- ness, which it retains till the sec- cond year after gathering. The tree is of a large and durable kind. 8. The Leopold-Cherry ; a dark- red and excellent fruit, of a very agreeable acidity, and aromatic flavour : it ripens about the middle or latter end of July, and is well calculated for drying....The tree remains of a small size. 9. The Angober, one of the most valuable economical pears, on ac- count of its uncommon abundance it resembles the Grey Butter-Pear; is large, of a dusky-yellow, with brownish dots. Its pulp is not with- out flavour, and peculiarly adapted to the different processes of boiling, drying, he. It ripens in October and November....The tree exhibits a beautiful figure; having very large, long, broad, dark-green leaves ; and its blossoms are not easily scattered. 10. The Long Carthusian Apple, ORC ORC 189 is a capital domesticfruit, frequent- ly of a large size, with irregular angles, and acquires a fine yellow shade on the floor. It may be preserved till the succeeding sum- mer ; and maintains the fi.'st rank for boiliug or baking, in the vari- ous dishes of pastry, where it be- comes sweetly mellow, and has a delicate taste. When other apples (that of Borsdorf excepted) lose their flavour by culinary prepara- tions, »the Long Carthusian is greatly improved by the action of heat....The tree is of an ordinary size. 11. The Sweet May-Cherry, (Royale native), is moderately large , when perfectly ripe, rather black than dark-red ; though it is but two often gathered while red, in order to accommodate the pa- late at an earlier season : its pulp is soft; the juice sweet, and in favourable, dry seasons, of a high- ly aromatic flavour ; on which ac- count it is, among the sweet cher- ries, eminently qualified for dry- ing. It ripens about the middle of June....The tree is of the larg- est kind. 12. The Red-Cap-Pear (Kap- pesbirne, of the Germans), is a most beneficial winter-fruit, and deserves a place in every orchard : it is of a middling size ; round, but sharp-pointed towards the stalks ; of a brown-red tint on the side ex- posed to the sun ; aqd yellow on the opposite. Having generally a rough taste, it is not fit to be eat- en in a raw state ; though in hot summers it becomes partly mel- low, and is well tasted. On the other hand, it is an excellent pear for boiling, drying, and particular- ly, for sauces, or similar purposes ; and may be preserved till the en- suing summer....The tree is un- commonly large, and productive. ....The White-Cap-Pear is round and quite green : it affords the best perry ; but the tree is of a small size. 13. The Great, Sweet May- Cherry, has all the good properties of the variety stated, No. 11 ; but attains a greater height, and ripens somewhat later than that just al- luded to. 14. The White Beard-Pear is a yellowish-green vinous fruit,rather of a small kind, but which yields a very large proportion of juice, and is therefore excellently calcu- lated for making perry. It grows in clusters, like ropes of onions ; and, if left too long on the tree, is apt to become black, and to decay ; though still useful for the purpose above-mentioned.....The tree, on account of its remarkable fertility, arrives only at a mode- rate size. 15. The Been-App.le, a very va- luable fruit for economical uses, and likewise for the table. It is of the larger kind ; bulky at the stalk, and tapering towards the head ; of a yellowish-white cast, with red flame-colouredstreakson the south side. Its pulp is white, tender, though firm, and of an agreeable taste ; the apple being edible in December, and easily preserved till the next crop. When dried in slices, it affords delicious footl ; and also a fine dish when boiled in a fresh state....The tree is of a py- ramidal form, rises to a consider- able height ; has a durable wood ; does not shed its blossoms : and is very productive, so that it seldom fails of being fertile for a single season. 16. The Count-Henneberg Cher- ry, an excellent sub-acid fruit, of a moderate size ; dark-red, with a 190 ORC ORC long stalk; of a very agreeable taste, whether dry or preserved : it ripens in the latter part of July, or beginning of August...The tree is of low growth, and has depend- ent branches. 17. The Summer Christian, or Apothecaries-Pear (Bon Chretien d'ete), is a large tumefied fruit, of a pyramidal form, having a shive- ry pulp, and a copious sweet juice : it is equally delicious in a fresh state, as well as boiled, dried, and for sauces or syrups in cooke- ry....The tree attains a stupen- dous size, and is uncommonly fer- tile. 18. The White Paradise, or Wedding-Apple, in shape and beau- ty resembles that of Borsdorf, but in some seasons becomes larger. On its south side, it is beautifully tinted with red, and the other parts resemble in colour, half-bleached wax. Its flesh is of a glossy white; a tolerably good taste, yet without any peculiar flavour. When cut in slices, it is one of the finest ap- ples, both for boiling and drying : nor is it less useful for making perry ; in which respect it vies with that of Borsdorf, and imparts to the liquor a more pleasing co- lour than any other fruit....The tree is of the larger kind, and its spreading branches are extremely productive. 19. The Blue Egg-Plum, or Hungarian-Plum, is of the size of a hen's egg ; has a greenish pulp, containing a copious and sweet juice. It is less calculated for boil- ing and drying, than for the des- sert ; as jt is in much request, and ripens in August...'.The tree is one of the most fertile. 2<'>. The Sarasin-Pear (See No. 2. :i. The Early Mued-Apple of the Germans, is large ; oblong -f streaked with red, but yellow on the shaded side ; having a mellow, loose pulp ; and affording an ex- cellent juice for cydei ....Although the tree be of low growth, it is re- markably prolific, and its wood very compact: the blossoms are not easily shed in unfavourable springs, so that the fruit seldom fails. 22. The Caraway-Pear (Besi d'Heri) is of a middling size ; al- most globular ; brown-red on the south side, and greenish-yellow in other parts: while fresh, it sup- plies the table, and may also be converted to other economical purposes; being a very tender aromatic pear, which ripens in September.....The tree does not exceed a middle size, though it bears abundance of fruit. 23. The Domestic A mm is so generally known and cultivated, that it may be considered as one of the most useful fruits ; though a single tree will yield but a scanty supply. This species may be easi- ly propagated from the kernel; and those trees which have been improved by engrafting, inoculat- ing, or inarching, produce a large and more delicate fruit, which rea- dily separates from the stone. 24. The Streaked, or Striped Ap- ple, of the Germans, is a very pro- fitable fruit in domestic economy ; of a globular, though compressed form ; a moderate size; yellow cast; and marked with red streaks. Its sweet pulp yields a copious juice ; it furnishes a palatable dish, whether boiled or dried in slices; and may be advantageously con- verted into cyder. This apple ri- pens early, and remains sound till February. The tree attains a very respectable size and age ; is one ORC of the most productive ; and its blossoms resist the vernal frosts. 25. The Spanish Cherry, a noble fruit for drying, preserving, &c. is of a large size ; dark-red tint, ap- proaching to black ; flatly com- pressed below ; and having a short stalk. Its juice is of a deep-red dye ; of a mild sub-acid, and plea- sant taste ; it ripens about the middle of July. 26. The Late Maat-Apple of the Germans, is a most beneficial fruit both in autumn and winter. Al- though its blossoms appear several weeks later than those of the for- mer, in consequence of which it is seldom affectedby the spring-frosts, yet it ripens, and is eatable at an earlier period, and may be preserv- ed throughout the winter. It is of a considerable size; of a yellow shade with red streaks ; its pulp has a fine taste; and it is, on the whole, a veiy useful apple in do- mestic life. The tree forms a large, spreading crown, and bears in abundance. 27. The Egg-Pear (Bestebirne) a national fruit of the Germans, is not only (see /. p. 186) much es- teemed at the dessert, but also yields fine perry, or vinegar. The tree is of the productive class, and deserves a place in every orchard. 28. The Pound-Apple (Tellerap- fel), is likewise a German produc- tion, which deserves to be reared both for its uncommonly large size, and the steadiness of its blossoms in unfavourable springs. It ripens on the floor, and becomes unctuous to the touch. Its pulp is partly mellow, and of a fine sub-acid taste. It remains sound from No- vember to February, and frequently till May ; being chiefly calculated for boiling, drying, and the making ORC 191 of cyder. The tree exhibits a fine and expanded crown. 29. The Pear-Quince (see above No. 29) is a very serviceable fruit to the house-wife; and though, when boiled, it requires a large portion of sugar, yet this expensive article may be supplied by the sy- rup obtained from pears. Dried in slices, the pear-quince imparts to boiled fruit an agreeable flavour. 30. The German Fleiner Apple, is a large, beautiful, glossy, yellow fruit, rather oblong than globular, and ranks in the first class of eco- nomical fruit: on the south side, m it is tinted With red, and may be regarded as a counter-part of the Been-apple, described No. 15, p. 189. It remains sound till April; and its pulp partakes of a sweet and acid taste ; having a strongly aromatic and agreeable flavour..... The tree attains a respectable size. 31. An improved variety of the Plum. See No. 23. 32. A Black Mulberry Tree..... See above No. 32. 33. The Brussels Brown Morel, a dark-red, spherical, acid cherry, containing a richly tinctured juice, of a very pleasant taste. When perfectly ripe, about the latter end of July, it is equally fit to be dried and preserved for use. The tree remains of a small size, like the Morels in general, and has depen- dent branches ; but it is exceeding- ly fruitful, immediately after the first year of engrafting. On the most advantageous method of arranging the Espuliers. An orchard that is encompassed by a wall, or railed with suitable boards, not only affords protection to the fruit, but its value may be 192 ORC ORC considerably enhanced by the rear- ing of dwarf-trees. The most pro- fitable and deliciousof this descrip- tion are doubtless the Peaches, es- pecially if they be intended for sale in a public market: hence we shall concisely state the principal sorts of such fruit as may be planted with the greatest' advantage on the eastern and southern sides. Early peaches are always more favour- ably situated in an eastern than in a southern aspect; for, when placed in the former, they are not so liable to be injured by night-fronts as in the latter : on the contran . late peaches require more solar heat, and will consequently be better adapted to a southern exposure.... Apricots, likewise, may be more easily and beneficially raised en the east than on the south side of the garden ; because the heat of the sun exsiccates, and renders them mealy ; independentiy of which circumstance, they are in the me- ridian direction more liable to be injured by night-frosts. The west- ern wall will be most usefully formed into espaliers of Cherry and Plum-1 re<-s, as likewise for planting early Grapes . Lastly, even the northern side is advantageously em- ployed by the skilful gardener, who will, in this situation, endeavour to introduce the best species of hazle- nuts, filberts, &c Plantation along the Eastern side cf the Wall, or Ruilment ; con- sisting of early Peaches and Apricots. If the wall, or other inclosure round the orchard, be from 7 to 8 feet high, the espalier ought to oc- cupy a space of from 12 to 14 feet. In case, however, the wall should be only 6 or 6 £ feet high, it will be necessary to form the planta- tion of peaches, at the distance of 18 or 20 from the neighbouring trees. I. The following list contains a vieno of the most valuable and early sorts of Peaches and Apricots, which should adorn the Eastern side of the Wall. 1. The Small Naked Early Peach (Petite Violette-hative) yields a to- lerably mf';ow fruit, of a yellowish shade, but > ose-coloured about the kernel ; it > juice is strongly aro- matic, and of a delicious taste. It ripens in the. beginning of S. ptem- -er, somewhat earlier than the large variety of the same name. 2, and 3. The Fin<--Ajiple - liri- cot, is one of the most savoury; more obiong than round, marked with deep-red spots on the south side, and in other parts of a golden tint. Its pulp is throughout of a reddish-yehow colour, and contains a highly flavoured, palatable juce. It never turns mealy, like the other sorts, and ripens about the middle of August. Its kernel is as sweet as an almond. 4. The Brussels Apricot (Abri- cot de Nancy), is of a considerable size : somewhat oval, being slight- ly red ; and for the most part of a pale yellow shade ; its pulp is red- dish yellow, and melts in the mouth ; the copious juice is of an agreeable taste and flavour. This fruit also attains to perfection in August. 5. The Large Early Apricot (Grand Abricot hatif; Abricot comniun), a large and beautiful fruit, of a dark-yellow shade, and sometimes red; it has a good juicy ORC pulp, but no peculiar flavour; and easily turns mealy, after having arrived at the point of maturity. It becomes ripe soon after the small early apricot. 6. The Large Sugar Apricot re- Bembles in size and shape the pre- ceding variety; but, when full grown, has a coat somewhat fal- low ; its pulp is of a golden hue, and remarkably saccharine ; it ri- pens after the early sort last men- tioned. 7. The Early Montague Peach is of a large and handsome size ; of a fine red tint on the side expos- ed to the sun, and a yellowish cast in other parts ; being juicy, sweet, and without any red dye about the kernel, from which it is not readi- ly separated : it ripens about the latter end of August. 8. The Bellegarde is likewise a very beautiful, large, and excellent peach, with a strong tint of red on a yellow ground, and of a deep- red shade on the south side. Its pulp, though rather firm, yields a sweet juice of an agreeable taste ; the fruit is in season together with the preceding kind. 9, and 10. The Maltese Peach is highly esteemed by those who prefer a sweet to a vinous taste: It is of a middling size, a spheri- cal form, red-streaked on the south side, and, in other directions yellow ; the pulp is white, exceed- ingly delicate ; melts without ap- pearing watery ; contains an un- common proportion of saccharine matter ; and has an exquisite fla- vour. The stone firmly adheres to the flesh, and presents a small point in one of its extremities ; the fruit arrives at maturity toward the end of September. 11. The Red Magdalen is also a fine, inviting peach ; having a VOL. IV. ORC 193 white mellow pulp, which is red around the kernel; affords a sa- voury, sweet juice; and ripens about the middle of September. 12. The Charlestown, or Ananas Peach, is a new sort, reared in America, from the kernel. Al- though its colour is inferior to that of most other peaches, being of an uniformly pale yellow, without any red tint, yet its firm and juicy pulp possesses the delicious flavour of the pine-apple : it ripens in the beginning of October. 13. The Genoese Peach main- tains the first rank; being of a considerable size, and marbled of a bright-red tint on the south side ; its dark-yellow pulp is incompara- bly delicate, resembles in flavour that of the melon; and is of a rose- red hue around the stone; this fruit attains to perfection about Mi- chaelmas, or somewhat later. 14. The White Magdalen, a to- lerably large, round peach, of a yellowish-white, but of a lively red on the south side: its pulp is mellow, and very grateful to the palate ; of a rose-red tint about the stone, and yielding a sweet juice : it is eatable about the mid- dle of September. II. Plantation along the South-side of the Orchard, with Peaches of the first rank, but which attain to maturity at a later period. 1, and 2. The Maltese Peac/i..„ See above, No. 9. 3. The Red Magdalen.....Se2 No. 11. 4. The Admirable Peach, a very large and comely fruit, of an agree- able mixture of colours; its pulp though rather firm, has a delicate taste; contains a sweet, vinous juice, of a fine flavour; and is pale-red near the stone: itbecomes C c 194 ORC ORC eatable about the middle of Sep- tember. 5. The White Magdalen....See above, No. 14. 6. The Genoese Peach...A>ce No. 13. 7. The Charlestown Ananas Peach....See No. 12. 8. The Small Charlestown Ana- nas Peach, agrees in colour and other respects with that of a larger size ; and, though of inferior growth, it excels in taste, and partakes more of the Pine-apple flavour. y. The same Peach of the small- er kind. 10. The same, of the larger sort. 11. The Genoese Peach. 12. The Great, Red, Nuked Early Peach, the top of which is of a very dark-red hue, and the lower part grcenish-yellow; its mellow pulp partakes of a yellow tint, but is rose-red around the stone ; of an agreeably sweet vi- nous taste, and excellent flavour ; arriving at perfection in the begin- ning of September. 13. The Noble Peach is large, spherical, marbled; of a purple tint; has a luscious taste ; is faint- ly red about the stone ; and ripens in September. 14. The Giant Nectarine (Pavie monstreuse, ou de Pomponne) is the largest of all the peaches, and a true ornament to Jhe dessert; as it displays a beautiful red tint on a white ground. Its pulp is white, though red in the parts next the stone, and contains a vinous, sweet juice ; but requires a favourable summer, a mild autumn, and the warmest situation in the espalier : it is mature in October. 15. The Chancellor's Peach, a v?ry large, somewhat oblong fruit, marked with a deep furrow, and i* small wart; having a fine skin, beautifully red on the south side: its pulp is delicate, and yields a saccharine juice. It may be eaten in the beginning of September. 16. The Princess's Peach, or Large French Mignonne, one of the most handsome and delicious fruits, of a dark-red and greenish- yellow cast; having a white, melt- ing, and agreeable pulp; contain- ing a sweetish vinous juice ; and being in season about the middle of September. III. Plantation along the Western side of the Orchard, for raising Cherries, Plums,and early Grapes. 1. The Large Glass-Cherry, is the most bulky of those early pro- ductions, and one of the finest bright-red morels ; having a white juice and a short stalk: its pun- gent taste is accompanied with an agreeable sweetness ; and the fruit ripens in the beginning of July. 2. The Black Perdrigon, a large oblong plum, of a dark-blue co- lour mingled with faint yellow, and covered with a strong bloom: its light-yellow pulp is firm, yet delicious to the palate ; abounds with a sweet, aromatic juice ; and the fruit may be gathered towards the end of August. 3. The Large Montmorency is one of the best glass-cherries, flat- ly compressed below; with a thick, short, and deeply-inserted stalk: the pulp is yellowish, of a delicate taste ; yields an agreeably acidu- lated juice, and is in perfection about the latter part of July. 4. The Large Green Reinc-Claude (Dauphine), a well-known cherry, that ranks among the finest fruits of the kind ; it is in great estima- ORC ORG 195 tion on account of its copious, mel- low, and saccharine juice, which is of a peculiarly delicious taste : this cherry attains to maturity in the beginning of August. 5. The Black Burgundy Grape is rather below the middling size, but of a sweet, delicious taste, and begins to ripen about the middle •f August. 6. The White Early Leipzig Grape, is likewise of a moderate size, and produces very sweet, oblong berries: becomes eatable about the latter end of August, but is much improved by remaining on the vine till towards autumn. 7. The Black Burgundy Grape. ....See above, No. 5. 8. The St. John's Plum, a very early, blue, round, and valuable fruit. 9. The Leopold Cherry is a dark-red morel, with a long stalk, and is highly esteemed : it has an acidulated, savoury juice, of an ex- ceedingly pleasant taste, and ripens in the latter part of July. 10. The Royal Plum is of a very large size, and one of the most de- licious fruits; having a spherical form, with a thin, long, and deep- ly-inserted stalk : its skin is of a violet hue, marked with many gold-coloured spots: the yellowish- green pulp abounds with a sweetish juice, slightly acidulated, so as to impart to it an agreeably-pungent taste : its period of maturity is to- wards the end of August. 11. The Early Natt, of the Ger- mans, is an exceedingly luscious and large cherry, produced from the kernel ; its bright glossy skin, is of a fine red colour ; and the tender pulp yields a sub-acid juice highly grateful to the palate. The tree is uncommonly productive ; and the fruit, being one of the earliest in season, ripens in the be- ginning of June. 12. The Green or White Indian Plum, is a most grateful produc- tion, exceeding in flavour the Rene- Claude (No. 4.) : and though it be little known at present, this whit- ish-green fruit merits a place in every orchard. 13. The Red Early Wanfried- Cherry is of German origin, and of a large size : its pulp is delicate, though not very tender: and con- tains a whitish sub-acid juice : this savoury fruit is eatable in the be- ginning of June : and the tree is of the most fertile kind. 14. The Black Spanish Early Heart-Cherry, vies with the most exquisite kinds of that class, and is eminently calculated for espaliers. On account of its early and great fertility, the tree is of an inferior size, but loaded with fruit, the mellow pulp of which has a sub- acid taste, and an excellent flavour. IV. Plantation along the North- side of the Orchard: or Espaliers consisting of fruit-bearing Shrubs. Although this situation is, on the whole, less favourable to the growth and maturity of fruit, yet every industrious gardener will here also endeavour to cultivate quinces, medlar trees, hazel-nuts, Sec. because their productions are subservient to many useful pur- poses in domestic economy. Such plants, indeed, will not vegetate very luxuriantly, or afford early and luscious ornaments of the des- sert ; but they may with advan- tage be employed for culinary- dishes, or for supplying the table in a fresh state, at an advanced sea- son. Among the Quinct s, the Ger- man Pear-quince, and that of Por- tugal, are the two principal vaiie- 196 ORC ties : they are of similar shape, and differ only in this circumstance, that the former, when boiled, re- mains entire ; while the latter, be- ing more tender, is dissolved into a pulp. There are thirteen species of the Medlar-tree ; of which only one is indi genous (se Medlar); but among all the foreign sorts, Mr. Christ recommends the Dutch Garden Medlar, as the only and most eligible one for espaliers. hazel nuts. In the enumeration of the fol- lowing excellent varieties, we have adopted the botanical characters given by Bechstein, both on ac- count of* their precision, and the appropriate nomenclature, which Mr. Christ has omitted in his Essay. 1. The Zcllar, or Pound-Nut (Avellana fructu rotundo maptimo), which bears large round nuts flatly compressed on the top; the shell is brown, streaked with white, and spontaneously opens on the point. 2. The Common Lambert, or Almond-Nut (Corylus sativa), with a long, thin, pointed, sweet kernel; the shell of which is completely in- closed in the flower-cup. 3. The Large Lambert, or Blood Nut (Corylus sativa fructu oblongo rubente maximo): the green co- \ er inclosing the young nut is near- ly cylindrical, and somewhat edged at the top. While in an unripe state, it is of a reddish cast, and ra- ther downy on the upper part: in seme, the kernel has a dark-red ; in others, a white skin : they are of a peculiar sweet, and agreeable taste ; and ripen about the middle «i August, O RC 4. The Spanish Hazel-Nut (Corylus Hispanica), which attains the uncommon size of two inches in length, and one in thickness : its thin shell is angular towards the head ; always remains white ; and is half covered by the flower-cup, It ripens at a later season ; and the kernel is less sweet than that of the preceding sort. 5. The Hazel Nut-Tree (Cory- lus arborescens) attains a high, thick stem; and forms a crown at the top: the nuts are disposed in large clusters ; they have a nearly globular form, being smoothly compressed above, and somewhat pointed below. On the most advantageous method of employing the space between the Espaliers, and the Wall, or Railment. The borders of espaliers require a breadth of 2£ or three feet from the dwarf-trees or shrubs: such soil will, however, not admit of ve- getables striking deep roots, or of bushy plants, which rise to a consi- derable height; as the former would withdraw the nourishment from the roots of fruit-trees ; while the lat- ter might obstruct their growth, by intercepting the air, and solar rays. Nevertheless, a variety of useful herbs may be reared on these borders, with a view to sup- ply the dessert, throughout the summer and autumn, with delici- ous fruit. For this purpose, the Strawberries claim the first rank; because they may be cultivated on the four different sides : those ex- posed to the south will be the ear- liest ; then will follow those grow- ing along the eastern wall; some- what later such as occupy the western border ; and lastly, those ORC ORC 197 which have a northern aspect j the plants being 12 inches distant from eaeh other. Next, in rank, is the Raspberry {Rubus Idoeus, L.) which ought properly to stand along the northern border ; but, being a luxuriant and spreading shrub, it will with advantage be placed in a distant corner. The principal, and most productive va- rieties of the latter, are those two, termed the English Double-bearing Red, and White Raspberry. Be- side the shrubs already mentioned, a complete orchard should like- wise contain the best sorts of Cur- rants and Gooseberries, of which we shall here enumerate the most esteemed varieties ; having alrea- dy given an introductory descrip- tion of both, in their alphabetical order. CURRANTS. As these berries, which remain for several weeks on the bushes without decaying, progressively be- come sweeter and more vinous, we would recommend the culture of the following varieties, as the most valuable: 1. The Large, Red Dutch Cur- rant. 2. The Large, White Dutch Currant. 3. The Large, Flesh-coloured Champagne Currants GOOSEBERRIES. There are numerous sortsof this excellent fruit, which have been raised from the seeds, principally by English gardeners, who at pre- sent enumerate not less than 280 varieties: from these we have se- lected the following 24, which are equally esteemed for their uncom- monly large size and exquisite fla- vour. Red Gooseberries. 1. Cheetham's Bright Verius, is a large berry ; smooth, or without hair ; beautifully red ; and of a de- licate taste. 2. Coe's Hannibal, a very large, oval, smooth berry. 3. Down's Cheshire Round, a pale-red, transparent berry, mark- ed with red spots. ^.Mason's Hercules, a very in- viting fruit; large; globular ; with- out hair ; uncommonly handsome ; and very transparent. 5. Taylor's Red Rose ; also very large ; oval; rose-coloured ; and hairy. 6. Victory; one of the largest gooseberries ; oval; hairy ; and rose-coloured. 7. Withington's Princess Royal; is of a good size ; round ; hairy ; and dark-red. White Gooseberries. 8. Chapman's Highland White ; is large ; globular ; red-spotted on its south side ; and covered with a lew fine hairs. 9. Liptrot's Duke cf Bedford ; a large, oblong, and smooth berry. 10. Mill's Champion; is also large and oblong, but somewhat tapering towards the stalk ; having a white and perfectly transparent skin. 11. Stafford's White Imperial; a capital, early sort; uncommonly bulky ; so that the largest, which are slightly oval, attain the size of a walnut ; but the smaller op.cs are of a round form; having a smooth, tender skin, and ripen;::"" about the middle of July. 198 ORC ORC Green Gooseberries. 12. Boardman's Green Oak; is large, globular, and smooth. 13. Creeping Germcs, a very early,large,globular, berry, though some are oblong; green, with white ¥eins; of a sweeter and agreeable taste. 14. Fox's Green Goose, is like- wise unusually large ; globular ; covered with hair ; and of an ex- ceedingly fine flavour. 15. Mill's Langley Green, vies in size with the two preceding sorts, but is of an oval form : its taste is delicious ; and the leaf is distinguished from other varieties by its indented shape. 16. Johnson's Green Willow, a moderately large, oblong berry ; pointed near the stalk, and round towards the bloom: it is oval, smooth, and streaked with white veins. 17. Shelmardine's Gently-Green ; a large, oblong, and smooth berry. Yelow and Amber-coloured. 18. Bell's Bright Farmer; a very large, oval, and elegant, early fruit; marked with bright-yellow veins: it is smooth, though a few hairs occasionally appear on the skin. 19. Blackley's Eclipse ; a large, smooth berry ; oval; yellow, with green veins; and of a savoury juice. 20. Bradshaw's Yellow-top, is globular; smooth, with a few hairs, and of early growth. 21. Clayton's Canary ; a large, round, greenish-yellow berry ; co- vered with hairs; and being of a good taste. 22. Meson's Golden Conqueror; a large, handsome, bright-yellow berry. 23. Stanley's Dolfihin; a very early sort; being one of the largest and most esteemed: it is oval, greenish-yellow, and smooth. 24. Taylor's Nimrod, is also an early fruit, of an uncommonly large size ; globular ; without hair; of a dark yellow shade, marked with bright yellow veins : it has a transparent skin, and ripens about the middle of July. Beside the varieties here speci- fied, we find in a late catalogue, published by an eminent gardener, the following sorts enumerated un- der the head of New Gooseberries. White : Beeman's White Ele- phant ; and white Lily. Yellow: Nonsuch ; Wigley's Mellon ; Golden Lion ; and Invin- cible. Green: Anthony Triumph; Miss Bold ; Nield's Green Gage ; Mrs. Ewe ; Royal George ; and Mont- gomery. Red : Black Prince ; Black Con- queror ; Robin Hood ; Stafford's Hedge-hog ; General Howe ; and Supreme. For an account of the most eligible and productive species of the Raspberry, as well as the Strawbeury, we refer the readep to these articles, in the progress of the alphabet. It will, however, not be super- fluous, to remind the friends of gardening in this country, that the preceding arrangement and de- scription of the difi'erent standard and dwarf fruit-trees, as well as of the espaliers, shrubbery, and fruit-bearing plants, is the result of experience communicated to the public by a German Orchardist..... Hence we think it useful to re- ORC ORC 199 mark, that though his statement, with regard to the nature and rear- ing of the various fruit-bearing ve- getables before detailed, may be perfectly correct; yet the tempera- ture of the British climate, when compared with that of the middle of Germany, naturally retards the maturity of all fruits reared in the open air, at least a fortnight, in the counties situated to the west, whe- ther in a southern or northern di- rection; and from three to four weeks, in the direct northern parts of the kingdom:....on the other hand, the climate in the southern and south-eastern counties of Eng- land, may be considered as nearly equal in point of heat, to that of the German provinces bordering on the rivers Rhine and Danube.... This circumstance deserves parti- cular attention ; as otherwise, the practical gardener will often be disappointed in the expectation of early fruit. Scions for engrafting or inocu- lating from most, or all, of the fo- reign varieties before specified, may be procured either by way of Hamburgh, from the orchardists of that city, or by applying to the gardener who superintends the Electoral Orchard at Herrnhaw- sen, near Hanover. With respect to the method of planting the trees :....A wide hole must be dug for each, being suf- ficiently capacious to receive all the roots freely, so that they may not touch the sides. A single fruit- tree should now be deposited in each hole, one person holding its stem erect, while another breaks the earth in small pieces, and throws it in equally upon the roots; the tree being occasionally shaken, that the mould may lie closely on all the smaller roots and fibres, and the plant be gradually elevated, till the top or crown of the roots is only two or three inches below the common surface of the earth. When the cavity is properly filled, it must be gently pressed with the foot; first on the outside, and then advancing gradually towards the stem, the surface being formed somewhat hollow. Lastly, a few inverted sods, or pieces of turf, must be laid over the whole, so as to form a kind of circular bank, three or four inches high ; which will not only support the tree, but at the same time shelter the roots from drying winds, and those droughts that sometimes prevail in hot summers. During these? operations, the planters must be particularly attentive, that each tree stand perfectly erect, and be arranged in rows, in the manner above described. Lastly, the soil beneath and be- tween the fruit-trees, till they ar- rive at their complete size, should by no means be neglected ; as the excellence and maturity of the fruits will in a greater measure de- pend upon its proper culture..... Hence, no grass or weeds should be suffered to grow under the standards; but the ground ought to be frequently stirred with the spade and hoe, in order that the fertilizing particles of rain, air, dew, snow, &c. may more easily penetrate into the earth, and pro- duce beneficial effects on the roots of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs. Such an expedient not only tends to promote their fertility ; but it is likewise one of the most effectu- al means of preserving them in a sound and healthy state. Inde- pendently of these advantages, the soil itself will thus be so much im- proved, that it may serve for rais- 200 ORC ORC ing the most abundant crops of ve- getable roots, and especially tur- nips and potatoes. The former are peculiarly calculated for this pur- pose ; as they do not exhaust the soil in any degree equal to the im- poverishing effects of the latter. On the whole, we shall conclude with observing, that the art of gar- dening has lately been carried to a very high degree of perfection in this country, [England] which may justly boast of the most intelligent and skilful orchardists. We think it our duty to mention the title of the following practical and useful work, though we have not had an opportunity of examining its con- tents : " A Plan of an Orchard: exhibiting, at one view, a select quantity of Trees sufficient for planting an Acre and a Half of Land, properly arranged according to their usual size of growth and hardiness of bearing : in which is comprised, a Collection of the most esteemed Orchard Fruit, proper for the Table and the Kitchen, in re- gular succession throughout the season : shewing also, in a distinct Table, others nearly similar in qua- lity, size, use, and time of matu- rity ; with an Alphabetical List of above Eight Hundred Species and Varieties, such as are now culti- vated in England ; together with the different names by which they are generally known. By George Lindley." (Fol. 2s.Lond. Cham- pant and Whitrow, 1796.) The Monthly Reviewers observe, that 14 this is a pretty present to the young orchardist; and the alpha- betical list of fruit-trees may be found useful to the more experi- enced. Difficulty will always be a spur to ingenuity :....gardening, therefore, is studied in Scotland, and orcharding in Norfolk." [T« the above may be added, Buck- nell's Orchardist,London. For further information repect- ing fruit-trees, the reader is refer- red to the different articles, and to Apples, Blight, Fruit, Moss, Nursery, Plant-Louse, Prun- ing.] ORCHIS, or Orchis, L. a genus of plants, comprising sixty-five spe- cies, nine of which are indigenous ; and the most remarkable of these are : 1. The mascula, Early Or- chies, or Male Fool-Stones, growing in meadows and pastures; flowering in the month of May.... According to an account inserted in the 59th vol. of the •' Philoso- phical Transactions," Mr. Moult maintains, that from the roots of this species is prepared the cele- brated Salep-powder, which has been highly recommended in cases of consumption (see vol. ii. p. 179) bilious dysenteries, stranguary,and disorders of the chest....The roots should be gathered when the seed is formed, and the stalk is about to decay ; for the new bulb (of which salep is prepared) has then attained its full size. After sepa- rating the new roots from the stalk, washing them in water, and removing the exterior thin skin, they are placed on a tin plate in an oven, previously heated to the degree requisite for baking bread. Thus", in about ten min- utes, they will acquire, the trans- parency of horn, without being di- minished in size: next, they should be spread out in another room, where they will dry and harden in a few days : or the same object may be effected in a very mode- rate heat, within a few hours. ORG O R N 201 2. The morio, Meadow Or- chis, or Female Fool-stones, grows on moist meadows and pas- tures ; flowers in May and June.... The roots are roundish ; the stalk is about a foot high; and the leaves have the shape of lancets. This species deserves to be mentioned here, on the authority of Bech- stein, who observes, that it is con- sidered as possessing, and even sur- passing, the virtues of the foreign salep-root; and, though some na- turalists have been of opinion, that the Early Orchis is the genuine root imported from Persia, yet we would recommend the culture of the meadow orchis. Either of these species may be propagated by their roots ; which, as the seeds do not vegetate, must be planted in summer, about three inches deep, in a dry soil; where they should remain undisturbed for several years, because they will flourish in proportion to the length of time they have been suffered to grow in the same place....If, at any future period, this excellent vege; table should be introduced into ge- neral use, by the patriotic efforts of enlightened agriculturalists, its roots will furnish a cheap, whole- some, and most nutritious substi- tute for many foreign drugs, such as Sago, Tapioca, Arrow-root, Sic. ....See also Salep. [ORGEAT. A very agreeable syrup, which when diluted with water, forms an excellent drink in summer. The following receipt to make this syrup, is translated from a late French publication en- titled " Cuisinicr Burgeois." Tohalf a poundof sweet almonds, add half an ounceof bitter almonds; put them into boiling water, when the skin comes off easily, take them out, and as they are skinned, voi. IV. throw them into cold water, then drain and beat them in a [marble] mortar, adding occasionally half a table-spoonful of luke-warm water, to prevent their turning to oil; simmer over hot ashes for 3 hours, and filter through an open cloth, pressingtheemulsionwithawooden ladle ; boil a pound of loaf-sugar, as in the,case of Capillaire, and finish in the same manner on hot ashes.] ORNITHOLOGY, is that sci- ence which treats of birds ; des- cribing their form, animal econo- my, and various uses. Although birds are, by their pe- culiar form, distinguished from all other creatures, yet their internal structure jm many respects coincides with that of mammillary animals. Thus, both have a heart with two ventricles and two auricles; red, warm blood ; and solid bones ; but which, in the former, are almost uniformly hollow, and contain no marrow. Through these concave bones, the air communicates with the lungs, that are grown together with the back and the ribs ; being connected with different cellular webs, which serve as reservoirs of air....The flesh of birds also re- sembles that of the mammillary tribe ; but the urine of the former, though secreted in the kidnies, is evacuated by the same canal- thro' which their excrements are dis- charged : nor is their bile collected in a peculiar gall-bladder ; for it is, inmost instances,conveyedfrom the liver directly to the intestines. The stomach of birds is either furnished with a hard membrane for grinding their food ; which is the case with all such as subsist on grain ; or, it has the power of dis- solving their aliment, by the gas- tric liquor secreted in all carnivo- D s 202 O R N rous birds, being similar to that found in the digestive organs of men and quadrupeds; but the for- mer possess the advantage of spon- taneously vomiting hair, feathers, and other indigestible matters. The instinct displayed by every species of birds, in constructing permanent and artificial nests, in the most appropriate spots, de- serves the admiration of contem- plative minds ; though such proofs of providential care, and wisdom, are often regarded -with indiffer- ence : this extraordinary effort to propagate their species in the most convenient manner, is the more remarkable, as almost every genus of these creatures build habitations of a peculiar form, and with the most prop*er materials. Another diversity prevails in the shape, co- lour, and namber of their eggs; the deficiency of which the female supplies, in case one or more have been robbed from her nest. Nor is the migratory instinct of many birds, in autumn, less surprising ; for at the approach of winter, they often retire to more genial climes, in order to avoid the hardships arising from cold weather and want of food ; both being removed on their return in the spring. This wonderful propensity is evi- dent, even in those creatures which are confined in cages; and which, at that season evince an unusual degree of anxiety and turbulence, in their captive state. Lastly, it deserves to be noticed, that all birds arc once, and many kinds of them twice, annually, sub- ject to a change of their feathers, which is commonly termed the moulting siufoii. At this period, birds appear diseased, or in a state similar to that proceeding from the obstructed oleaginous gland, which ORN is situated above their fundament; and which secretes an oily thjid designed to lubricate their downy coat; thus enabling them to resist moisture. Without these charming warb- lers, the most beautiful and fertile regions of the earth would exhibit a silent, and often dismal scenery. How much, therefore, are mankind indebted to these airy companions of their journey through life !..... Male birds greatly surpass the fe- males in beauty, song, and size; excepting in those of prey; where, in general, the contrary prevails. Many species of the winged tribe are so remarkably docile, as to imi- tate human speech, and to learn melodious tunes. But, indepen- dently of the pleasure thence de- rived, they are farther of material service to the inhabitants of a coun- try, more especially in hotclimates, by destroying myriads of insects, and devouring carcases; which would otherwise prove an intole- rable nuisance. The occasional mischief and damage committed by some kinds of birds, on the fruits of fields and gardens, is amply counterbalanced by their extensive services in general. Hence, nume- rous species which furnish us,either with their palatable flesh and eggs, or with their useful feathers, have been gradually domesticated, so as to become the inmates of our habi- tations ; and particularly those which recommend themselves, ei- ther by their beautiful plumage, or by the sweetness of their har- monious strains. In order to afford a view of the principal kinds belonging to this interesting class of animals, we have been induced to present the reader with the following arrange- ment : ORP O R P 203 T. Domestic and Tame Birds :... Cock and Hen ; Turkey ; Goose ; Duck ; Swan ; Pigeon ; Peacock ; Pheasant; Guinea-hen, &c II. Wild, useful Birds :......Bus- tard; Woodcock; Grouse; Heath- cock ; Partridge ; Quail; Lark ; Throstle ; Ortolan ; Starling, &c. III. Singing Birds :.....Nightin- gale; Hedge-sparrow; Red-breast; White and Yellow Wagtail; Wren; Gold-crested Wren ; Canary-bird ; Greater Red-pole ; Chaffinch and Brambling ; Goldfinch ; Siskin ; Fly-catcher ; Bullfinch ; Green- finch ; Titmouse ; Swallow, he. IV. Marshy and Aquatic Birds : ....Crane ; Stork ; Grey Heron ; Bittern ; Gull; King-fisher; Snipe; Lapwing; Water-hen, See. V. Birds of prey .-...Eagle ; Fal- con ; Owl; Butcher-bird ; Raven ; Crow ; Jack-daw ; Magpie ; Nut- cracker; Garrulous Roller; Wood- pecker ; Bee-eater; Haw-finch ; Oriole or Cherry-bird ; Sparrow, Sec. ORPIMENT, a bituminous mi- neral, consisting of arsenic and sulphur, often found native in the earth, though it may also be artifi- cially prepared. This ore has also lately been dis- covered in the county of Cornwall, whence a specimen was sent to Dr. Hill, under the name of red mundic. It is both red and yellow; and, when refined by distillation, forms the colour known by the name of King's Yellow. Orpiment has,by some,been sup- posed to be harmless, on account of the large proportion of sulphur which it contains ; but, according to Macquek, it is productive of the most fatal consequences, and ought not to be used without the greatest caution. Instances having occurred of its noxious properties, it may be ascertained by the fol- lowing symptoms, whether any person has actually swallowed this drug: Shuddering, anxiety, tremor, violent nausea, and vomiting ; an ardent sensation in the throat; le- ver ; thirst; suppression of urine ; costiveness ; gnawing pain in the intestines ; the face swells; while torpor and stupefaction close the scene. Remedies: As soon as it is ob- vious that oupiment has been swal- lowed, the patient (if he be an adult) should drink a tea-cupful of a luke- warm solution of soap in pure water; or, with equal effect, strong solutions of honey ; and repeat these draughts according to cir- cumstances. If the former has been used, it will be advisable to take a piece of sugar in the mouth, to overpower its very disgusting- taste. Considerable benefit has, likewise, been derived from imme- diate emetics, or vomiting, excited by stimulating the throat with a feather. At the same time, it will be necessary to apply to the abdo- men, cloths dipped in a solution of soap in soft water, with a view to alleviate the pains in the intestines. ....Clysters of milk and oil, and tepid bathing in diluted soap-water, have also been found very service- able, in restoring the patient to some degree of animation. ORPINE, the Common, or Or- pine-Stonecrop, Sedum Telephi- um, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing on pastures and in hedges ; flowering in the month of August. , This luxuriant herb may be easily propagated either by parting the roots; or by slips, or cuttings of the stalks, in summer; it thrives well in dry soils, being of succu- lent growth ; and spreads rapidly 20* O S I O SI into tufted branches ; when culti- vated in gardens, on account of its variegated appearance....A decoc- tion of the leaves in milk, operates as a diuretic, and has occasionally been administered, with success, as a cure for the piles....Cows, goats, sheep, and swine, eat this plant, but it is wholly refused by horses. ORTOLAN, or Emberiza hor- tulana, L. a delicate exotic bird, inhabiting France, Italy, and the southern parts of Europe ; though it also visits Germany, Sweden, and Britain, in which countries these birds are caught during their mi- gration. They feed principally on panick-grass, and grow very fat, especially when fed with oats and millet; and confined in dark cages. The greatest traffic with orto- lans is carried on by the inhabitants of the Island of Cyprus, where they are caught in great numbers, and pickled in casks ; each containing from 3 to 400 birds, prepared in spice and vinegar; after having cut off their heads and lower extremi- ties. In this state, they are im- ported into England, France, and Holland, for the table of the epicure, who pays a high price for these delicious morsels, on account of their exquisite flavour.......Funke informs us, that, in productive years, 400 such casks, or, upon an average, 140,000 of these charm- ing warblers, are sacrificed to the palate of man, in the small island above-mentioned. OSIER, or Salix viminalis, L. an indigenous plant, growing in woods, and hedges, especially on boggy land: it flowers in the months of April and May. This shrub is very valuable; as its leaves are eaten by horses, cows, sheep, and goats ; its pliant twigs are woven into putcheons ; wheels for taking eels : and into bird-cages ; the branches are much used for making hoops, and large baskets. Farther, it forms a hardy and use- ful hedge for excluding boisterous winds; and, as it flourishes in wet situations, is frequently planted, with a view to prevent the banks of rivers from being washed away by the force of the current. On account of these valuable properties, osiers have deservedly become an object of public atten- tion ; and, in consequence of the liberal premiums offered by the Society for the Encouragement of Art, Sec. we are enabled to specify ' such of the numerous varieties as deserve to be preferably cultivated. Osiers are divided into two classes : the first is known by their more blunt, and downy or mealy- leaves; which, in the other, are more pointed, smooth, and green, resembling those of the myrtle. The first class contains, accord- ing to the statement of Mr. Phil- lips (Transactions of the Society, he. vol. 16), nine or ten varieties, the best of which is denominated the Grey or Brindled Osier. It va- ries from the others only in its bark being streaked with a red or blood-colour. The grey osier thrives vigorously on fenny lands ; is very hardy and tough ; and, having a white glossy surface, is peculiarly adapted for cradles, and the finer kinds of basket-work. The other varieties of this class vegetate in the dampest soils, and flourish even on the most barren kinds of peat ; but, being coarse, brittle, and de- caying speedily, they will not an- swer the expence of planting, un- less in the vicinity of navigable ca- nals: besides, they are. fit only for OSI OSI 205 the coarsest baskets and hampers; generally known and cultivated. and will not pay the expence of It is divided into two sorts, viz. tae land-carriage. • *«<> and rth,e {"ferior. r*sfw vltd; To the second class belong : the bark of the iormer is of a hght- 1. The Welsh Osier, which is brown shade, while that ot the Lt- both red and white, and was ori- ter resembles rusty iron, having ginally cultivated in Wales. It light longitudinal streaks, whence forms an useful part of a planta- it has received the sppellatmn of tion ; being well calculated forty- Cordcroy. This variety flourishes ing the bunches or bundles after on mellow land : on account of its the rods have been peeled and luxuriant vegetation, it requite, bleached. Nor is it less service- considerable space to receive rc-i able for binding bundles or sheaves rishment, and the influence o; ;.. ; of reeds for thatching ; though it sun ; so that the number ph ..• is extremely bitter, and refused by seldom exceeds 11,000 per .v.: . every kind of cattle, unless the ani- 4. The French Osier is the uio-.t mals are compelled to eat it frtom valuable of the numerous vai ittics.. hunger. The Welch osiers are It is preferred to every other, for very pliant and tough; and, if they making the smr'lest and fineK could be perfectly bleached, would baskets, hats, fans, and other light not be inferior to the best sorts, articles: for which purposes ^ con- fer manufacturing baskets. Rats siderable quantities w;. e imported have a particular aversion to this a few years since from l-iance, variety ; and, though every other Holland, and Flanders; because species of bandage be subject to the manufacturers could thus ob- their devastations, they never touch tain them at a cheaper rate, tnan those bundles which are tied with if they had been planted in Er.g- Welch osiers: the application of land. The French osiers are of this practical fact, to the purpose slower growth, than any other scut of expelling those depredators from of this shrub : hence planters aie granaries, deserves the attention not inclined to cultivate them ; as of farmers and corn-dealers. the small profits are inadequate to 2. The West Country Spaniard the ground-rent and price of labour is thus denomiwated; because it in England. This variety, never- was first introduced into the west- theless, deserves to be reared ; for era counties of England, from it is extremely pliable, tough, ta- Spain. This variety flourishes in per, close-grained, and durable : every soil, and attains a considera- though it be less profitable to the bfo size ; its bark being of a blue- cultivator, it is certain of meeting ish-grey colour. Although it does with a more ready sale. Besides, not thrive so luxuriantly as the considerable sums of money,which Welch osiers, yet Mr. Phillips must otherwise be carried out of deems it worthy of cultivation ; the cquntry, would thus be annu- having ascertained by experience, ally saved to the nation, and em- that one acre of land will more fit- ployment might be furnished to ly contain 14,000 plants of the Spa- numerous indigent families. nish kind, than 12,000 of the next Osiers are propagated by plant- following, ing slips or foot-sets in wet or 3. The New Kind, is a variety marshy situations: they should be 206 O S M put in the ground shortly after Christmas ; because the plants will be less liable to fail, than if the set- ting were deferred till the end of April, or the commencement of May. When the soil is sufficient- ly dry, it will be advisable to scat- ter a smail quantity of cole-seed, or with more advantage, turnip- seed, that will serve as a shelter to the young plants ; but either of which ought to be grazed with sheep about Michaelmas ; because it will then grow so large as almost to choak the osiers. In the course of three or four years, they will have attained a size sufficient to be cut, and formed into bunches or bundles, by compressing them in an iron hoop of one ell in circum- ference : eighty of such bundles constitute a load, the price of which varies from 12 to 14/. The best soil usually produces one load pier acre ; but, on an indifferent or poor ground, half a load is computed to be a tolerably good crop. The rent of the land, upon an average, is from 20 to 25s. per acre ; and the expence of weeding, renewing, cutting, and peeling, such a plan- tation, is estimated at about 5l. if the work be well executed. Some careless cultivators, however, suf- fer the ground to be over-run with weeds, in consequence of which the value of the crop is necessari- ly diminished. OSMUND ROYAL, Flower- ing Fern, or Royal Moonwort; Osmunda regalis, L. an indigenous plant, growing in watery places and boggy marshes ; bearing flow- ers in the months of July and Au- gust. It is remarkable, that impres- sions of the leaves of this vegeta- ble are frequently met with in the O VE nodules, or small masses of iron- stone found in the mines at Coal- brook Dale. • The root of the Os- mund Royal, boiled in water, af- fords a thick mucilage, which, in the North of Europe, is employed as a substitute for starch, to stiffen linen. On account of its viscid, sub-astringent nature, it was for- merly often used in the gout, as well as in the rickets. It appears, however, to be better calculated for external applications, in contusions and bruises, of which, it is said, to be a powerful discutient :....aj it smoothens and softens the skin, it makes a tolerable cosmetic : and is reputed for its property of dispers- ing freckles, and other pimples from the face. OVEN, a kind of domestic fur- nace, used for baking bread, pies, tarts, Sec. Ovens are generally construct- ed of brick-work in a semi-circu- lar form, with a very low roof, and the bottom of which is laid with stone : in the front is a small aperture and door, by the shutting of which, the heat is confined while the bread is baking. They are usually heated by means of dry faggots, wood, Sec. As these ovens, however, are not calculated for small families, on account of the quantity of fuel they consume, others have been contrived, on a more diminutive scale : these are usually formed of cast or hammer- ed iron, and may be heated by the same fire which serves for the cooking of other provisions. Among the ovens of this con- struction, that of Mr. Powers, who obtained for it a patent in 1801, deserves to "tie noticed. It is formed of iron, so as to be port- able, and may be conveniently O VE conveyed to any distance, at the option of its possessor; but, as the reader cannot form a distinct idea of this contrivance, without the aid of an engraving, we refer him to the 14th vol. of the Reper- tory of Arts, &c. where the patent is described, and illustrated with a plate. In the year 1800, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. conferred a bounty of 15 guineas on Mr. S. Holmes, for his inven- tion of an oven, which is heated without flues. The whole consists of a cast-iron oven, from the side of which a solid piece of that metal projects into the fire, where it con- stantly remains ; and, on becom- ing red-hot, communicates to the whole oven a degree of heat suffi- cient for baking bread, while it at O V E 207 the same time assists the fire in roasting meat. In the common iron ovens, the heat is communicated by means tof flues, which waste a consider- able part of. the fire in its pas- sage, and likewise requires much labour to keep them of an uniform heat. The contrivance last allud- ed to, is intended to supply this and other inconveniences: and Mr. Holbies state, that his oven uniformly remains at a baking heat, without any additional ex- pence, or trouble. We under- stand, however, that such improve- ment is by no means new; and that a similar method of saving fuel, has for several years been practisedin the West of England. [The following cut represents Mr. Holmes'oven. 8 O V E O W L Fig. 1. Is a perspective view of the oven. Fig. 2. A horizontal section of the same. A. That side of the oven which is placed next the fire. B. The projecting piece of iron which remains stationary in the fire, and communicates heat to the oven. C. The door of the oven. It is 13| inches wide at the door or in front, and 15 inches deep. 'It will be evident that Mr. Holmes's, oven is calculated ex- clusively for a coal fire, in which it would certainly answer a valua- ble purpose....See Article Roast- ing OvfcN.] OVER-REACH, in farriery, signifies a wound upon the coro- net towards the back part of the foot, or heel of a horse : it is oc- casioned solely by striking the sinew of the fore-heel with the toe of the hind-shoe on the same side; in consequence of which the ani- mal halts, or walks lame....See Halting. Young horses are very apt to cut their heels when travelling ; as their hind-foot moves in the same direction with the fore-foot; and as they are generally too spirited in their first excursions. Although an over-reach is a wound of the complicated kind, yet it is not attended with danger, provided proper application be made,- to induce a suppuration. For this purpose, the most effica- cious external application -will be a proper poultice :....take oatmeal, or coarse wheaten flower; diges- tive ointment (prepared of equal parts of common turpentine and hog's-lard), two ounces ; beer- grounds a sufficient quantity. This may be repeated at least twice in twenty-four hours, till the wound be well digested, smooth, and free from cavaties, or excresences of proud flesh. Next, the surface of the bruised part should be sprink- led over with the following mild escharotic powder :......Take of burnt lime-stone slaked in the open air, three ounces: and Ar- menian bole, one ounce : triturate these ingredients in a mortar, and pass them through a fine sieve. ....After sprinkling the wound with this powder, a pledget of dry lint may be laid gently over it; and, when the surface of the contusion is nearly equal with the skin, the powder alone will be sufficient effect a cure. Ounce. See Weight. OWL, the Common, or Strix flammea, L. a well-known British bird, the elegant plumage and other good qualities of which am- ply compensate for the ugliness of its form. This species of the owl may be considered almost a domestic bird: it inhabits, during the greater part of the year, barns, hay-lofts, and other out-houses ; where it is as useful as the congenial cat, for clearing those places from preda- tory vermin, especially mice. To- wards twilight, this bird quits its perch, takes a regular circuit round the adjacent fields in quest of prey, and speedily returns to its usual abode. It may be easily distin- guished by a hooting and snoring noise ; but, when on the wing, it utters the most frightful screams. From the peculiar structure of their eyes, owls enjoy a very distinct vi- sion in the dawn, or evening ; though, in a dark night, they can see no more than other animals. As the young of these birds keep their nest for a conriderable time, ox 0 X 209 and are fed long after they can fly, pends, as Lord Somerville has hundreds of mice become neces- justly observed, on the joint power sar/*for supplying them with food, of the neck and base of the horn. Hence, their breed ought, by every This object is effected in Portugal, possible means, to be encouraged, by a long leather strap, which is Besides, they may be employed wrapped round the yoke ; thence with great advantage for decoying round the lower part of the horns; other birds, particularly crows, that and is again fastened to the yoke. are easily attracted by the uncom- Thus, the heads of oxen become mon figures of the owl, the beak more steady in performing their and legs of which are singularly work, and the animals themselves covered with downy feathers. are rendered more tractable. OX, a general appellation for Another mode of working oxen male black-cattle; but which strict- is that termed, by the head, which ly denotes a castrated bull. is practised in France, and repre- The principle of draught de- sented in the following cut: To afford a more complete idea heads; as such method, in the of the manner, in which the French opinion of Lord Somerville, is oxen are fastened to the bow, we the best preparatory step towards have added an accurate front-view introducing that practised in Por- of the upper part of the animals' tugal. vol. IV. Ee 210 O X OX This method was a few years since introduced into Ireland, by Lord Shannon, with complete success ; two oxen thus harnessed, being able to draw with great ease three tons in weight. The most valuable breeds of these animals for draught, in this country, are those of Sussex, De- von, Herefordshire, Glamorgan, and Pembrokeshire ; which, on ac- count of their large size, are well calculated for labour, and justly preferred in those counties, to cart- horses. The Sussex oxen have beaten horses at plough, in the deepest clays ; and those of Here- fordshire are reputed to be superi- or in long jcurnies, for conveying chalk, or similar heavy materials, over a hilly and flinty country. Ah hough some prejudiced per- sons may object that oxen are un- fit for draught in mountainous si- tuations, yet let it be remembered, as Mr. Comder pertinently re- marks {Real Improvements in agri- culture, Sec. 8vo, 17 72, Is. 6d.) that in such instances, " no draught can be well used ;" and that the de- scending of steep hills is in all re- spects as hurtful to horses as to oxen....The Devonshire cattle walk with uncommon speed; and, if four or five horses can till 100 acres of land, the same work might doubtless be managed equal- ly well by a similar number of the Devonshire or Herefordshire breeds, if they were trained and fed (particularly with a view to speed) with the same care as horses: the farmer would also save a considerable part of the expence in their food. For though, after being very hardly worked, they require a little corn, yet their keep, in all other respects, is much cheaper (see vol. 3. p. 315); and, if well shod, they will perform eve- ry kind of draught in the same manner as horses: lastly, they will pay for their labour; and, after being moderately work- ed, for 10 or 12 years, if properly managed, they will leave all the profit of their growth, in clear gain to their owners. Besides, should an ox, from any unforseen accident, be lamed, or become blind or old, he may be fattened, and sold at any time for a larger price than he originally cost; be- cause these animals uniformly feed in a more kindly manner, and sooner grow fat, after they have been worked for several years....On the contrary, the value of a horse decreases, after he at- tains the age of seven years ; and, should any accident happen, he be- comes utterly useless. [In addition to the observations on the comparative superiority, or relative merit of oxen and horses ; given in vol. 3d. p. 31 5 ; it may be here stated, that it is absolutely impossible, to give either animal the entire preference over the other, for every kind of business- on, a farm. There are some cases in which oxen certainly do as well as horses, in others they do better ; in both these instances therefore the use of the horse is an unnecessary expence ; thus, wherever oxen can be used for draught, as in hawling manure,stones, rails, timber, grain, to or from the mill, oxen are on every account, speed excepted, on a par with horses ; and even as to speed, care in breeding, in select- ing the quick travellers, and in training them to a quick step, might be so well bestowed, as to render that advantage a doubtful one ; nay,from some trials it would seem that the advantage as to ox OX 211 speed, is on the side of the oxen. k' A team of five oxen, and a team of four horses, went 14 miles twice a week, with a load of two tons.... The oxen were generally at home two hours before the horses. Ano- ther person who drew with oxen, two or three years, and made fair experiments with them and horses, says, an ox valued at 30 dollars, is equally strong in draught, with a horse valued at 90 dollars, and equally fit for ploughing, or cart: that the ox requires a fourth part less provender than the horse ; and lastly, that an ox works and in- creases, from four till ten years old ; but that seven hours work a day is to him as much as eight to a horse." Young's Eastern Tour, vol. 1. p. 172. In order to call forth their exertions, oxen must be gently driven, and with good temper, without hurrying; it is owing to 1 he foolish practice of trotting along the road, with a horse team, that our farmers have learned to despise the regular pace of the patient steady ox. Mr. Bordley makes the fol- lowing comparison of the expence and value of a horse and ox. An ox costs % 40 An ox 3 years keep g24 72 An ox 1 year, and fattening 40 He gains from 4 years but partial work S 160 Gains from 4 years manure 40 Sold for 80 152 280 The absurd mode generally fol- lowed of yokingoxen, is one cause of their slow pace : and yet fann- ers without reflecting upontheawk- vvardness of the position in which oxen draw, when their heads and necks are unnaturally pressed far below the line of their backs, con- tinue to use the yoke /ecause [.heirfathers did, thus loosing full one half the beasts' power. Mr. Cooper (Young's Eastern Tour) uses collai s as on horses, except that they are buckled on with the narrow end open and downward : the chains ars fastened to them in the same direction as on a horse harness, the draught is therefore more inclined than with horses, the line of the chains being almost up to their backs; which is necessary from the different shape of horses and oxen ; (this line we shall prove, when we treat on Wheel Carriages, to yield the most power.) They draw when in har- ness, abreast, in pairs ; single or in a line, and walk as fast as hors- es. Mr. Bordley says " he saw a waggon in Pennsylvania, drawn by two bulls and two oxen, brid- led and geered in harness and col- lars ; and in Maryland, he saw a wo- man going to a race with her chest of cakes, and sitting in a truck drawn by a bull bridled and guided by herself; and that in the same, state, one Sutton Sicklemore, rode a bull about the country." There are some cases in which horses are without doubt much preferable to oxen, as in harrowing. The faster the harrow goes over the ground, the better ; as a quick stroke against the clods, breaks them much easier than aslower mo- tion ; hence Mr. L'Hommedieu of New-York observes, that har- rowing with horses, is to be pre- ferred to 1 arrowing with oxen, be- cause they move quicker : with a 212 O X O X light harrow, the horses may go on a trot. This he has seen done to good purpose. Mr. Kent, who has the charge of the farm of the king of Great Britain, at Windsor, says " he has found oxen to answer so well, that now, not one horse is kept on the farm. The working oxen are mostly divided into teams of six, and one of the number is every day rested, so that no ox works more than five days out of seven. This day of ease in every week, beside Sunday, is of great advan- tage to the animal, as he is found to do better with ordinary food and moderate labour, than he would do with high feed, and harder labour. This is the first secret to learn concerning him ; for an ox will not admit of being kept in condi- tion, like a horse, artificially, by proportioning food to labour..... These oxen are never allowed any corn (oats) as it would prevent their fateningso kindly afterwards. Their food in summer is only a few vetches (peas) by way of bait, and the run of coarse meadows, or what is called leasows, being rough, woody pastures. In winter, cut food, two thirds hay and one third straw, 24lb. hay and 12 of straw in 24 hours. They are fed in open sheds, but not confined. The result of the ox system is 20 per cent, profit on each ox. They are all worked with collars, as their step is more free than when yok- ed." To train oxen, Mr. K. directs to put a broad strap round their necks; fasten one end of a cord to it, and the other end to a large log of wood ; permit the ox to drag it about as he feeds in his pasture, for three or four days before he is put into harness, by which his do- cility is much forwarded. Trans- actions of the Society of Arts, 1800. To know the age of an ox. In addition to the directions given in vol. l.p. 438, Mr. Deane "New- England farmer," " says, when an ox is four years old, he has one circular ring at the root of the horns; at five, two rings ; and one ring is added each year ; so that if you would know the age of an ox, count the rings on one of his horns, and add three, which a- mounts to the true number of his years. It is the same in a bull or cow."] Oxen, then, being of extensive and permanent utility, deservedly claim every attention from the hu- mane and unbiassed husbandman, particularly with respect to shoeing; as they will thus be enabled to walk and draw, both with greater speed, and with superior effect, when carefully shod. This opera- tion is usually performed by casting them on their backs, when the far- rier proceeds to affix the shoes, in a manner similar to that practised on horses. By such attempts, how- ever, they are liable to numerous accidents ; for the prevention of which, an ingenious machine has been contrived, in order to secure the animal by mearts'of short posts. On these, the forej or hinder legs are fastened according to circum- stances ; and thus the shoes are ap- plied, so that it is almost impossi- ble to injure the helpless creature. The curious reader will find two neat engravings of this useful con- trivance, in the 26th vol. of Annals of Agriculture. Before we conclude this article, we shall mention the ingenious Circular Ox-Stalls, erected by the OX E OXY 213 late Mr. Hutcheson Mure, at Saxham, in the counry of Suf- folk ; and which, we conceive, de- serve to be more generally known. The structure contained forty-six beasts : the cabbage-carts entered at the opening in the circle ; and, going round in the area, distribut- ed the allowance of food.to each animal directly into the manger, at the heads of the oxen : their dung being piled up in a circle round the whole building, formed a kind of wall, that afforded a convenient shelter to the cattle. For a mi- nute account of this ingenious con- trivance, the reader may consult the 31st vol. of the practical work above quoted, where it is also il- lustrated with an engraving. See Bull, Cattle. Ox-eye Chamomile. See vol. 2. p. 82. Ox-heel. See Hellebore, the Fetid. OX-EYE, the Great White, Greater Daisy, Moon-flowek, Corn Marigold, or Daisy Gol- dins ; Chrysanthemum Leucan- themum, L. an indigenous plant, growing in dry meadows, pastures, and on walls : it flowers in the months of June and July. The young leaves of this vege- table may be eaten in salads..... Horses, sheep, and goats relish this plant; but it is refused by cows and swine. Bradley recommends the cul- ture of this elegant Rower, hv di- viding the roots, and planting them on the largest borders of gardens, three inches deep; as it grows quickly in any soil, but must be watered as soon as planted. Dioscomdes assures us, that the leaves of the great white ox- tye, when bruised, afford a good application to cold schirrous tu- mours ; and that a decoction of them, if taken by persons subject to the jaundice, immediately after coming from the tepid bath, will tend to restore their natural co- lour :....we have had no experience of its medicinal effects. OX-TONGUE,the Common, or Lang-de-boeuf, Picris echioides, L. an indigenous plant, growing on the borders of corn fields, and flowering in the months of July and August. When young, this ve- getable affords an agreeable pot- herb : its juice is milky, and not too acrid. OXYD, a term, in the anti- phlogistic system of chemistry, de- noting those compound bodies which are formed by the decompo- sition of oxygen-gas, either by means of metals, or certain other substances. All oxydes are the basis of some metallic bodies, the most remark- able of which, we re formerly known under the name of calces (or magi- steries, if dissolved in acids), and have received their present appel- lation from the acidifying princi- ple which they are believed to con- tain. Metals are converted into oxydes by combustion, and by solution in acids : but, many of them acquire this form, by the action of the at- mosphere alone ; though they as- sume it with greater facility, when the latter is aided by moisture..... During the process of conversion into oxydes, metals are divested of their lusture ; and, after increas- ing considerably in weight, they exhibit an'earthy appearance. Spe- culative chemists have, therefore, lately conjectured, that all earths are metallic oxydes, and that they are all susceptible of reduction to a metallic state, provided there be 214 O X Y O X Y any matter for which oxygen has more powerful elective attraction than that, by which it is kept in combination with the bases of such supposed oxydes. As this opinion, however, is unsupported by actual proof, it cannot be admitted in the present system of chemistry. OXYGEN, is a term invented by the French chemists, and at present employed to express the acidifying principle. Oxygen is considered as an ele- mentary something, utterly inca- pable of decomposition ; nor will it admit of being exhibited by it- self, or of being produced in its simple state: for, at the moment of its becoming free, it unites with the light, and caloric, or heat of the surrounding medium, and thus forms what has been severally de- nominated vital-air, fire-air, de- phlogisticated or pure-air, and last- ly, Oxygen-gas. The peculiar cha- racter of this elastic fluid was first developed by Dr. Priestley, whose experiments have been con- firmed, and the properties of gas- oxygen fully explained, by Lavoi- sier, Cavendish, and other illus- trious chemical philosophers..... From their discoveries it appears, that this uhcompounded invisible matter can be known only in its combinations; that it forms a con- stituent part of the atmospheric air, in which it exists in the proportion of 27 or 28 parts to 100. Farther, oxygen may be sepa- rated not only from the atmos- phere, but also from water ; from all acids ; and also from vegetables exposed to the rays of the sun. By this natural process, a considerable portion of it is evolved from the leaves of plants during their per- spiration, in consequence of solar heat: thus, when oxygen is car- ried to their roots, by means of the circulating fluids, it is believed to promote their growth ; though, if it be absorbed too copiously, and rapidly, it is unfavourable to vege- tation. On the contrary, a very large proportion is requisite to con- duce to the growth, and to nour- ish the vitality of animals. Lastly, oxygen is supposed to exist in all bodies, whether of the vegetable, animal, or mineral kingdoms, and particularly in.certain metallic cal- ces or oxydes ; such as ruddle, calamine, and burnt clay ; which on account of the large quantity of the acidifying principle they con- tain, are conjectured to be of con- siderable utility as manures. [Oxygen, vital, or pure air, constitutes twenty-seven hundred parts of the atmosphere ; it is in- dispensably necessary to the exist- ence of life, and of combustion, and forms the principal part of all acids, whence its name. The other seventy three hundred parts of the atmosphere, consists of azote, (Septon) which takes its name from its inutility to life in animal respiration ; it is also called nitro- gene, because it constitutes the basis of nitre.] OXYMEL, in pharmacy, a mix- ture of honey and vinegar, which are boiled to the consistence of a syrup. Oxymel of Squills, consists of three parts of honey, and two parts of vinegar of squills, which are boiled in a glass vessel to the con- sistence of syrup. It is an use- ful expectorant, and resolvent in asthmas, coughs, and similar com- plaints, when the patient is op- pressed with viscid mucus : it is generally given in doses of two or three small tea-spoonfuls, together with a little cinnamon, oe oth.r O YS O Y S 215 aromatic water, to prevent the nausea which it frequently excites. In larger doses, it may be occa- sionally administered as an emetic. OYSTER, or Ostrea, L. a ge- nus of shell-fish, comprisingthirty- one species, which are distinguish- ed chiefly by the peculiar formation of their shells. Oysters cast their spawn in the month of May, when they become subject to a periodical affection ; the male-fish, having a black sub- stance in the fin,is black-sick; and the female oyster, from a milky juice in its fin, is said to be white- tick : in June and July they begin to recover , and are in August per- fectly sound.....They are saltish in the pits, more saline in the beds or layers, and very salt in the sea. These shell-fish should be fresh, tender, and moist ; as the want of fresh water renders them hard, bitter, and unpalatable.....Epicures give the preference to such as are edged with a small brown fringe, or beard, and which they errone- ously suppose to be females. It is equally absurd to conclude, that the fine green observed in oysters taken from artificial beds, is the effect of copperas; as this sub- stance, or a solution of it, is in- evitably fatal to all fish. Oysters are esteemed as excel- lent food, and are eaten both raw and dressed, in various ways : in a fresh state, however, they are doubtlefs preferable ; for, by cook- ing, they are in a great measure deprived of their nourishing jelly, and of the salt-water which pro- motes their digestion in the sto- mach. Hence raw oysters may be used with equal advantage by the robust, the weak, and the consump- tive. Independently of the nutritive effects peculiar to this shell-fish, it generally tends to open the bowels, especially if a certain quantity be swallowed at one meal: hence to persons of a costive habit, they afford a dietetic supper. The shells of the oyster, like those of other crustaceous fish, are composed of calcareous earth, and animal glue. They possess nome- dicinal virtue superior to common lime-stoae or chalk; but, by cal- cination, they yield a quick-lime, which is perfectly free from any metallic ©r other fossil substance ; and being less permeable to water, when mixed with sand, it is better calculated for the plastering of walls in damp situations. Hence the Dutch prepare their excellent mortar generally of marine shells burnt into lime; which makes a most durable cement. The great importance of this fact, in point of health and economy,deserves equal attention ; so that the immense quantities of oyster-shells annually thrown away in cities, might easily be converted into a very useful sh^ll-lime. p. P AI PAINT, a term used to express more particularly the preparations employed in painting houses. [ The danger to health,and other numerous inconveniencies attend- ing the common method of paint- ing with white lead and oil, have induced several persons to propose various substitutes ; among others Cadet de Vaux', has published a process, which for cheapness and efficacy, appears to possess great advantages over the common me- thods. The way in which he pre- pares his paint is the following:.... Take of skimmed milk, two quarts, (2 Paris pints) fresh slacked lime six ounces and an half, Linseed, Caraway, or Nut oil, four ounces, common whiting three pounds; put the lime into a stone-ware ves- sel, pour upon it a sufficient quan- tity of milk to make a mixture re- sembling thin cream. Then add the oil a little at a time, carefully stirring it to make it mix thorough- ly : the remainder of the milk is then to be added ; and lastly, the whiting is to be crumbled and spread on the surface of the fluid, in which it gradually sinks ; at this period it must be well stirred in, and the paint is fit for use. It is to be applied by a brush in the same manner, and in a few hours will become perfectly dry. Another P A I coating may then be added, in the same manner as the former, and thus the work is completed. This paint is of great solidity, and pos- sesses a slight elasticity, which en- ables it to bear rubbing even with a coarse woollen cloth without be- ing in the least degree injured. It has little or no smell even when wet, and when dry, is perfectly in- odorous ; it is not subject to be blackened by sulphureous or ani- mal vapours, and is not capable of injuring the health, all which ad- vantages give it a decided su- periority over the white lead paint. The quantity of paint above mentioned is sufficient for covering twenty-seven square yards with one coating. For out-door work, a much great- er degree of solidity is given to the paint, by increasing the proportion of lime to eight ounces and an half; of the oil to six ounces, and by add- ing two ounces of white Burgundy Pitch. The pitch is to be melted by a gentle heat in the oil, and then added to the smooth mixture of milk and lime. Decade Philosophique, No. 29. year 9lh. Citizen Darcet has proposed come alterations in Cadet de Vaux's method of painting in PAI t> A 1 217 milk, of which the following are the most important. In the first place, he finds that the oil adds no- thing to the solidity of the colour, and is apt to render its tint dull and yellowish. The proportion of lime is also greater than is absolutely necessary, two ounces being suffi- cient for two quarts of milk. The proportion of whiting may be in- creased without inconvenience ; five pounds, and even eight pounds of this substance have been used instead of the three pounds pre- scribed by Cadet de Vaux and the colour did not appear to be less solid, than that made according to the original receipt. The whey of the milk is however absolutely useless, all the glutinous part being contained in the cheese or curd ; hence the following preparation is recommended by Darcet as cheaper and equally good with that proposed by Cadet de Vaux.... Take, New Cheese or Curd 5 oz. avoird. Slacked Lime, A oz. WThiting, lOoz. Fine povvd. Chareoal 1 dram. Water 3 oz. At the moment of commencing this process, a certain quantity of strong quicklime must be slacked in the least possible quantity of water, being then allowed to fall into powder, it must be sifted, in order to separate all the lumps. Of this powder ^.proper quantity being taken, is to be-rq^xed up with the cheese, and pounded in a mor- tar till the mass is reduced to the consistence of new made glue. The whiting and charcoal being previously mixed with care, are to be diffused in the water and made into a liquid homogeneous paste. The mixture of lime and cheese is then to be added, and carefully mixed with the other; the colour is then finished. In this state it may be kept for several days without injury ; when used, it must be diluted with a pro- per quantity of water, and applied in the common manner. The quantity of materials above men- tioned is amply sufficient for co- vering four square yards. All the advantages of the paint proposed by Cadet de Vaux are possessed by this. It has indeed even a greater solidity, is less disposed to become yellow, is more economi- cal, and is not capable of becoming in the least degree spotted by water. Decade Philosophique, No. 5, year 10. ' Mr. Carbonel a Spanish phy- sician, proposes to substitute the serum (or water) of the blood of oxen, instead of the solution of glue commonly used to mix up the co- louring matter employed for paint- ing. After the blood has settled, the water must be poured off and strained the adhesion of its integ- rant parts diminished by powdered quick-lime, taking care to preserve the mixture of a proper fluidity to be easily spread with the brush* The colour so prepared shonld be used as quickly as possible: and when any particular colour is wanted, the material for the pur- pose must be added at the time the lime is mixed: but as these addi- tions diminish the strength of the composition, a few whites of eggs must be added to preserve the pro- VOL. IT. Ff 218 PAI P AI per degree of solidity ; too many whites will subject the paint to scale off. This paint can only be applied to wood or plaster not previously painted : a beautiful polish may be given to it by friction with cloths greased with clean whale oil. The serum or water must be perfectly free from putridity J] In February 1799, a patent was granted to Mr. Joseph Tidmarsh, for his invention of a compound, which may be either substituted for paint, or mixed with other pigments, for . enlarging their quantity, or reducing their price. The patentee directs the following articles to be pulverized, namely ; glass, burnt clay, the slag of glass, copper, iron, or other manufacto- ries ; marble, spar, flint, or similar vitrefiable or calcareous earths. The powders, thus obtained, may be employed as a paint with the li- quids commonly used in mixing colours; or they may be immedi- ately incorporated with any kind of paint. The following preparation, how- ever, appears to be more simple, and is equally efficacious : it was first published in the Bibliotheque Physico-economique," for 1792, by M. Ludicke ; who has employed it with great success for painting ceilings, gates, doors, and even furniture. He directs fresh curds to be bruised in an earthen pan, or in a mortar ; after which they must be mixed with an equal portion of slacked lime : the result will be a white fluid, that may be applied with as much facility as varnish ; but it will be necessary to employ such mixture on the same day, as it dries very speedily, and is apt to become too thick, if it be kept 24 hours....He observes that Ar- menian bole, ochre, and all pig- ments that are miscible with lime, may be incorporated in various proportions, according to the co- lour to be communicated; but some caution is necessary, in making such addition, to use the smallest possible quantity of water ; as the painting will otherwise be less du- rable. When two coats of this paint have been applied, it may be po- lished with a piece of woollen cloth, or other proper substance; in consequence of which, it will be- come as bright as any varnish ; and, if the ceiling, Sec. be exposed to moisture, it should be coated with the;whites of eggs ; byswhich expedient it will become as dura- ble as oil painting. The principal advantages, derived from the use of this substitute, consist in its cheapness, and the facility with which the two coats may be ap- plied, and polished ; one day be- ing sufficient for both operations. Hence, it deserves the attention of those whose lungs cannot support the disagreeable smell arising from oil paint; and who are not disposed to encourage the extra- vagant charges of house-painters. [Mr. Hatchet has pointed out the great utility of prussiate of cop- per as a pigment. " During some late experiments," says he " I was much struck with the beauty of this precipitate, and was therefore induced to make several trials of it as paint: the result exceeded my most sanguine expectation." It has also been tried by Mr. West, Mr. Trumbull, and sir H. C. Englefield, in oil and water, who agree that in beauty and in- tensity it surpasses every brown paint now in use. It forms with white, various shades of lilac co- P AI PAL 219 lour, which do not appear liable to fade, like those which are formed of lake. The prussiate obtained from acetite, sulphate, nitrate and muriate, of copper, are all very beautiful; but the finest and deep- est colour is afforded by the muri- ate. The best mode of forming this pigment, is to take green mu- riate of copper, diluted with ten parts of distilled or rain water, and to pour in prussiate of lime, until the whole is precipitated: the prus- siate of copper is then to be well washed with cold water, onsthe filter, and to be dried without heat. Journal of Roy. Inst. A Green Paint for inside walls.... Communicated by S. W. Johnson, esq. Take 4lb. of Roman Vitriol (Blue Stone) and lib. of Spanish whiting. Put these ingredients (being previously bruised, together) into an earthen vessel, and pour on them some warm rain or soft water. Simmer this over a slow fire for 3 hours, occasionally stir- ring it with a stick. Take it off and let it stand ; in 24 hours the ingre- dients will subside, and the water become clear. Pour off the water, and in this state it will keep for years ready to mix for use at plea- sure. When wanted, it must be mixed with water wherein a small portion of glue has been dissolved, and laid on the walls, (one, two, or three coats) as may seem neces- sary. 12lbs, of vitriol, and 4lbs. whiting will give 4 coats to a wall 40 feet by 24, and produce a lively and refreshing green. The following composition is re- commended for colouring and pre- serving gates, pales, barns, roofs, and timber generally, from the weather. Melt 12 oz. of resin in an iron pot or kettle, add 3 gallons of train oil, and 3 or 4 rolls of brimstone; when they are melted and become thin, add as much Spanish Brown or Red or Yellow* ochre (or any other colour you like, ground fine as usual with oil) as will give the whole the shade wanted. Then lay it on with a brush, as hot and as thin as you can. Some days after the first coat is dried, lay on a se- cond. It is well attested, that this will preserve plank for years, and pre- vent the weather from driving through brick work. Another composition....Take three parts of slacked lime, two of wood ashes, and one of fine sand, or stone coal ashes; sift these through a fine sand sieve, and add as much linseed oil, as will bring it to a consistence for working with a painter's brush ; great care must be taken to mix the ingredients per- fectly. Two coats are necessary ; the first may be thin, the second as thick as can conveniently be worked. See also Cements vol.p. 67.] Painting of the Face, is a pro- stitution of the human countenance, too absurd to be described....See Cosmetics, and Washing. PALATE, or the organ of taste, consists of that flesh which com- poses the roof, or the upper and inner part of the mouth. It has a similar structure with the gums, but a greater number of glands, situated in the posterior part near the Uvula (which see), and se- creting a mucus that serves to lu- bricate the mouth and throat, as 220 PAL PAL well as to facilitate deglutition, or the act of swallowing. These glands have a great number of apertures for the discharge of the secreted humour into the mouth : hence it will be understood that, if the sto- mach, or the glandular system, be in a disordered state, the palate likewise will become corrupted ; and, that persons who continually stimulate their appetite with heat- ing drugs, spices, liquors, 8cc. can- not expect to possess either a na- tural relish for plain and whole- some food, or a good digestion.... See Mastication. For the cure of a vitiated palate, we cannot suggest a better remedy than temperance, and occasional abstinence. If, however, the mouth be affected with an unpleasant taste, especially in the morning, it generally originates from a foul or diseased stomach, Which ought to be previously restored to its healthy state. As a palliative, or temporary remedy, we recommend frequent gargling and rinsing the whole mouth with infusions of aro- matic herbs, or common tea slight- ly acidulated, or even toast and water ; a practice equally condu- cive to health and cleanliness..... See also Teeth. PALES, denote planks or pieces of larch, oak, or other hard wood, which are driven into the ground, and serve as a fence for parks, paddocks, gardens, and similar in- closures. As pales are exposed to all the vicissitudes of the weather, in con- sequence of which they often ra- pidly decay, a proper method of rendering them more durable, is an object of importance to landed proprietors. With this view, the following varnish has been recom- mended :....Let any portion of tar be ground with as much Spanish brown, as it will bear without be- coming too thick, to be applied in a manner similar to paint. Tho mixture must be laid on the wood by means of a large brush, and the work kept as free from dust and insects as possible, till the var- nish be perfectly dry: thus, if the wood be smooth, it will acquire an excellent gloss, which preserves it against the injurious effects of air and moisture. Being not only cheaper, but drying more speedily, it is far preferable to paint; and may be advantageously applied to all other wood-work that is expos- ed....Should the glossy brown be disliked, a greyish-brown tinge may be imparted to the work, by mix- ing a small quantity of white-lead^ and ivory-black, together with the Spanish-brown....[See Paints.] PALM-TREE, or Date-tree, Phanix dactylifera, L. a native of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and other hot climates, where it grows to the height of 100, and even 150 feet. Dates resemble in form the largest acorns, but are covered with a thin, semi-transparent, yel- lowish membrane; containing a fine soft saccharine pulp, of a somewhat vinous flavour; and within which is inclosed an oblong, hard kernel. They afford, when fresh, a very wholesome nourish- ment, and possess an agreeable taste. The best are obtained from Tunis, in a half-dried state. There is an oil prepared from the fruit of this tree, known un- der the name of palm-oil; which is imported from the West Indies, whither the tree has been trans- planted from Africa. It is of an orange-colour, and of the consist- ence of ointment ; emittinga strong agreeable odour, but having very PAL PAL 221 little taste; both of which it entire- ly loses by long keeping ; when it becomes unfit for use.....On the Coast of Guinea, this oil is said to be used by the inhabitants as a substitute for butter. In Britain, however, it is chiefly employed externally, for mitigating pains, cramps, and similar affections : it is likewise used for the cure of chilblains ; and, if early applied, has often proved successful. PALPITATION of the Heart, a violent and irregular action of that muscle, accompani- ed with great uneasiness and op- pression of the breast. This affection is obvious from the vehement pulsation of the heart against the breast, which is sometimes so great, as to be au- dible at a distance. It chiefly af- fects persons of sedentary occupa- tions ; those, whose periodical bleedings have suddenly ceased ; and also, hypochondriac, hysteric, and scorbutic patients. Palpitations of the heart origi- nate from various causes ; such as mal-con formation of that organ, or of some of the large vessels; wounds, abscesses, and ossifica- tions in the vessels near the heart; all of which are incurable. It may likewise proceed from plethora ; from fear; and from spasmodic affections. CMra pulp of a proper consistence for making paper: this operation is effected in mills, by the joint action of water, and cylinders provided with iron blades; after which the slnff is conveyed into a general repository, that supplies the vat or vessel, whence the pulp is drawn. In order to cast this pulp into paper, the workman immerses in the vat a mould, composed of wire- cloth, and furnished with a frame to retain the stuff: thus, he draws as much of the pulp as is necessary to form one sheet, on which he lays a felt for the purpose of ab- sorbing the moisture ; and thur- he continues, placing alternately a sheet and a felt, till he has formed six quires of paper, which is called a post. When the last sheet of the post is covered with a felt, the whole is pressed ; after which the sheets are suspended on cords in an airy room to dry, and then to undergo the process of sizing. This is per- formed by plunging a few sheets together, and turning them, in a vessel full of size, which is pre- pared of the shreds and parings of tanners, curriers and parchmenr- makfcrs ; and into which a small portion of alum is thrown, before the sheets are immersed. The paper is now carried to the drying room; and, after being gradually dried, it is conveyed to the finishing room ; where it is submitted to the action of the press; selected; examined; folded; form- ed into quires of 24 sheets, and, finally, into reams, consisting of 20 quires each. 224 PAP PAP Thus manufactured, it is called writing-paper ; as it is adapted for this purpose by the process of siz- ing. There are, however, various other sorts, such as blotting, brown, and coarse papers which will not bear ink without sinki?ig. To these may be added, the different sorts of paper intended for draw- ingi engraving, and printing; which, though prepared in the usual way, are not sized so tho- roughly as that designed for the pen. Paper being an article of exten- sive utility,for literary, commercial and domestic uses, many vegeta- bles have been discovered, which may be advantageously substituted for rags....In justice to those in- genious men, who first devoted their attention to this important subject, we shall only remark, that many schemes had been proposed, but none carried into effect, pre- viously to the year 1751 ; when Guettard, in France, and, in 1765, Dr. Schaeffer, in Germa- ny, published their experiments ; and communicated to the world new specimens of paper, made of the bark, leaves, wood, straw, &c. of different plants, shrubs and trees. Soon after that period, the works of M. de Villette, who describ- ed the properties and uses of dif- ferent plants, were printed on pa- per manufactured partly from the marsh malco^, and partly from the bark or rind of the Lime-tree, or Linden-tree: it deserves to be re- marked, that the paper obtained from the former, was tolerably fine, and of a yellowish-green shade ; that from the latter, was somewhat coarse r, and of a redd i sh-brown cast; both were smooth, equally fit for printing and writing, but especially for drawing. Another French ma- nufacturer, however, Leviek Dk Lisle, has been erroneously con- sidered as the original inventor of the art of converting raw vegetable matter into paper ; though his spe- cimens are said greatly to surpass those produced by Schaeffer, in Germany....We shall here briefly enumerate the principal of those specimens; namely, from nettles, dark-green; from /j&/«,dark-brown; from mosses, greasy or dusky-green; from reeds,light-green; from three species of the conferva, different shades of green mixed with grey ; from the bark of the willow, red- dish-brown ; from the wood of the hazle-nul-tree, white as milk; from the bark of the oak, reddish-brown; from that of the poplar, somewhat lighter than the preceding; from the osier, nearly of the same tint; from the elm, somewhat darker- brown ; from the burdock, and the leaves of the thistle (Char- don) a green and white spotted paper. In conducting experiments with plants, the following remarks of Schaeffer deserve attention...... The boiling of vegetable substan- ces, or the wood itself, in alka- line solutions, with a view to sof- ten them, and facilitate their con- version into a pulp, is of no service, as, notwithstanding such treat- ment for several hours, they not only remained hard, but likewise assumed a yellow cast, though they had formerly been white. Even immersion in pure water affects the colour of vegetables ; hence it is most advisable to carry them as fresh and expeditiously as possible to the mill to convert them into pulp ; to draw the paper ; and sus- pend the sheets to dry in an airy PAP place. Though lime-water, if em- ployed for macerating vegetables, that are to be made into paper without rags, facilitates the decom- position of the former ; yet, at the same time, it imparts a yellowish cast to the paper : such discolora- tion, however, may in a great mea- sure be obviated by long-continu- ed washing of the materials in the engine, during their conversion into a pulpy mass. Plants of ten- der fibres, which are naturally soft and pliant, require no lime-water, especially when they are to be redu- ced in afresh state ; but, for those that are dry, hard, and of a woody consistence, lime will be indispen- sably necessary ; as otherwise the paper manufactured of them, al- ways remains brittle, and unlike that obtained from rags. Among the different productions of the vegetable kingdom, which have been employed in the manu- facture of paper (before any at- tempts to that effect were made in Britain), we shall enumerate chief- ly the following : 1. Cotton, when treated in a manner similar to that practised with linen rags, affords an excel- lent paper, which is incomparably more durable, and better calculated for writing ; on account of its un- common whiteness, great strength, and fine grain : it was first invent- ed in Greece ; and at present forms a very extensive branch of the Le- vant trade. 2. The pith of the various spe- cies of Thistle have been employed with success by Schaeffer, who first decorticated the stalks of this plant, bruised them, extracted the inner spongy substance, and sent it in a fresh and sappy state to the mill: after being worked three hour:;, it afforded, without rags, a VOL. IV. PAP 225 tolerably white paper. Dr. Bou- mer, however, observes, that the white down growing on the Cottcn- thistle (Onopordon Acanthium, L.) might be more easily collected and usefully employed for this purpose. 3. The Whiten, or Sallow (Seilix caprcata, L.) In the year 1788, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. conferred their silver medal on Mr. Greaves, of Mill Bank, near Warrington, for pre- paring 20 quires of paper from the bark of this tree. The quantity of the material employed, was about six cwt. which had been stripper! off the twigs in the month of Sep- tember ; and two-thirds of which were heckled and dried, in a man- ner similar to hemp, so that it was reduced to one cwt.: the remain- der was dried in its natural green state, by which it lost one half of its original weight. The heckled bark was then chopped small; worked in the usual manner, and produced eight quires o f a finer kind of paper: from the other, Mr. Greaves obtained 24 half quires of coarser paper; which, though not in all respects equal to that manufactured of linen rags, nevertheless " seems likely to an- swer some valuable purposes here- after, when the mode of working raw vegetable materials, shall be better understood." Mr. G. is of opinion, that paper may thus be obtained at one half of the expence usually incurred in the common mode of preparing it from ropes or rags ; and that it will be more serviceable, when made of the bark and leaves in a green state. 4. Hemp, is one of the most proper plants for being converted into paper, provided it could be pro- cured at a reasonable price. Du Halde informs us, that the inha- G G 226 PAP PxVP bitants of Nangha, in Japan, ma- cerate this plant in lime-water, beat it, and then immediately prepare their paper. Guettard asserts, that the very shaws, and other re- fuse from the stalks of hemp, may- be made into a good and strong packing-paper. In order to im- prove shaws, they ought to be dri- ed in an oven ; when the small, woody particles should be separat- ed, by beating them with thin sticks; next, the clean and pure material must be suffered to putrefy, and af- terwards treated in a manner simi- lar to old rags. Iondi, an Italian author, relates, that from shaws alone, he obtained a paper resem- bling the finest sort manufactured in Holland, after exposing them to the open air, for a whole winter : thus, from time to time, a white pellicle appeared on the surface, liil their woody substance is entire- ly decayed ; this coat or skin should be occasionally removed, being one of the best substitutes for linen rags. Press-boards have, in this country, always been manufactur- ed of shaws ; and we have no doubt but that the latter may be render- ed subservient to more valuable purposes. 5. Hop-bines :....Dr. Schaeffer plunged them for fifteen minutes in boiling water, then separated the rind from the woody substance, cut the latter into small pieces, and sent it to the engine. After being worked eight hours, they became fibrous, pulpy, and were fit to be formed into paper : on adding rags, the sheets assumed a"whitish ap- pearance ; but, without them, had a brownish shade, and were uni- formly of a firm consistence. 6. The stalks of Frown or Blue Cabbage, when deprived of their external skin, macerated for twelve hours in lime-water, then reduced to a pulp, afford, with the 20th part of rags, a good white paper. 7. The dry down of the Cat's- tail : See vol. ii. p. 31. 8. The stalk of the Mallow, and particularly those of the Alcea ro- sea, L. from which a fine and white paper may be prepared, without adding any rags. 9. Maize (Indian corn,) from the leafy husk of this fruit, according to Plancus, the most beautiful post-paper is prepared in an Italian mill, near Rimini. Schaeffer made an experimentwith the whole plant, and obtained a greyish pa- per ; but, after steeping the pulp four days in lime-water, the sheets acquired a greenish shade. [The Editor saw a book, print- ed at Regensburg in Germany in 1771, upon paper from a variety of substances, and among others, there was one leaf made from the Indian corn or maize husks.] 10. From the woolly catkins of the White Poplar, Schaeffer also obtained an excellent smooth pa- per ; having previously cut them into small pieces, and then sub- mitted them for three hours to the operation of the engine : he re- marks, that the pulp was easily drawn, formed into sheets, pres- sed, sized, he. The paper made of the woolly substance produced by the Black Poplar, was grey, and neither firm, nor free from knobs. 1 1. The stdks of the Common Broom, after depriving them of the external rind, afford, without rags, a solid writing-paper. 12. The Shaws of Flax, together with other refuse from that article, have lately been used with advan- tage by the German paper-makers: it is well known, that the stalks of the fiax-piant maybe employed in PAP their natural state for this pur- pose ; but the expence would not be equivalent to the profit: hence the shaws ought not to be thrown away as useless. 13. The stalk of the Common Sunflower (Helianthus annuus, L.) contain a large portion of a white, shining, fibrous substance, which, more, than any other, deserves the attention of the manufacturer. 14. Peat has, at Erfurt, lately been converted into an useful wrap- ping-paper, paste-boards, playing- cards, &c. without the addition of rags :....we conceive, it would af- ford a good material for paper- hangings. 15. Grass-wrack, (Zostera ma- rina, L. vol. iii. p. 202)is with great advantage employed in North-Hol- land, where most of the packing- paper is manufactured of this ma- rine vegetable. 16. The tendrils of the Vine, after having undergone the putre- factive fermentation, yield a beau- tiful paper. 17. The Common Horn-beam Tree (Carpinus Betulus, L. vol. ii. p. 311). The shavings merely washed, and submitted tu the mill, were made into a tolerably white paper. 18. The stalks of the Mugwort {Artemisia Absinthium, L. vol. iv. p 118), when soaked for several days in lime-water, and reduced to a pulp, were formed into a whitish writing-paper ; but that produced from the external rind was fit for all the purposes of packing. \). The stalks of the Clematis. ....See Traveller's Joy. 20. Barley-straw is, perhaps, the most abundant and profitable ma- terial which might, in this respect, serve as a substitute. Dr. Sc h a l * - Fhit (whose inventions have noial- PAP 227 ways been acknowledged by an un- grateful posterity) obtained a yel- lowish paper of this straw, after soaking it in boiling water, then steeping it in lime-water, and ad- ding the 20th part of linen rags. [21. A very good paper for com- mon purposes may be made from an East-India article, called Paut, or Jute, Crotalaria Juncea: it is the same from which Gunny bags are made. The plant which yields the fibre, whence this flax-like sub- stance is obtained, is called by the natives Paat; the fibre is called Jute: and is muoh cultivated in Bengal for making sacking. The editor has seen a good brown paper from this article, which answered for printingandwriting,ec]ually well with paper made' of rags; and re- commends to the numerous Ame- ricans who visit India, to bring over a quantity of the seed,which would, doubtless, thrive in the southern states, and in the newly acquired territory of Louisiana. The de- mandfor rags is so incredibly great, that recourse must be had to some substitute, which may be used to make common paper. It would hardly be believed, that rags are profitably imported into the Unit- ed States, in immense quantities from Leghorn, and that the pa- per of great part of the present work is made from them. 2 2. It is stated above, that pa- per has been made in Germany from three speeiesof Conferva,a\\d it may be of importance to note, that Chancellor Livingston has recorded a successful experiment in making very good hanging and wrapping paper with little trouble, from a species of the same plant, growing in immense quantities in the river Hudson. No doubt the same material may be found in 228 PAP cher rivers in the United States. Manufacturers of paper will find it their interest to attend to this fact, for the demand for every kind of paper is annually increasing in the United States, and the deficiency of rags is already felt, as stated above.] In a late volume of the " An- nates de Chimie," we meet with some useful hints relative to the manner of re-manufacturing the paper of old books (or even new ones of a certain description), or any letters, or other paper already used for writing or printing; by M. M. De Yeux, Pelletier, Molaud, and Verkaven. I. Process for re fabricating Printed Paper :.... A.11 paper of the same quality should be collected, and separated from such as may have any writing on the pages ; the edges of those leaves which may have become yellow, and also the backs of books, being cut off' by the instrument used by book- binders....One hundred weight of paper is now to be put, sheet by sheet, into vats, sufficiently capa- cious to contain it, together with 500 quai ts of hot water ; but which ought to be filled about one-third: ....the whole is next stirred by two men for the space of one hour, who are gradually to add as much water as will rise about three in- ches above the paper ; after which it is left to macerate four or five hours ; the agitation being occa- sionally repeated, so as to sepa- rate, and at length to form the pa- per into a kind of paste. The water is now drawn off by means of pipes, and the pulp con- veyed to the mill, where it is to be coarsely ground for one hour ; at the expiration of which, it is boiled in a chaldron for a similar space, PAP with a sufficient quantity of water to rise four or five inches above it. A short time before the mixture begins to boil, thirteen quarts of caustic ley of pot-ash are to be add- ed to every cwt. of paper. The ley alluded to, is prepared by dis- solving 100 lbs. of pot-ash in 300 quarts of boiling water, to which are to be added 20 lbs. of pulveriz- ed quick-lime ; and the whole must be briskly agitated, till it become of an uniform consistence, when it is suffered to stand for 12 hours ; at the end of this time it must be drawn off, and 75 quarts of boil- ing water added to the sediment, which being stirred for half an hour, and suffered to stand till it become clear, is to be mixed with the liquor first decanted. When the paste has boiled in this ley for one hour, the fire is to be extinguished, and the matter suffered to macerate for 12 hours ; after which it must be taken out, drained, put into bags, and sub- mitted to the action of a strong press for a similar length of time, to deprive it of all moisture ; and, if it appear white, so that the prin^ ter's ink be properly extracted, it may be re-manufactured ii: the usual manner. II. Process for the re-fabrication of Writttn Paptr:.....The paper must be sorted ; the yellow edges cutoff; and the whole thrown, leaf by leaf, into a tub half-full of boiling water, where it is to be agi- tated as before directed. After it has macerated four hours, the wa- ter should be drawn off; a fresh quantity of boiling water added ;• and the mixture stirred for half an hour ; at the expiration of which the paper is again left to dissolve for three hours. The fluid is now drawn off, and PAP PAP 229 260 quarts of cold water poured on each cwt. of paper ; which be- ing perfectly mixed, 6 lbs. of oil of vitriol are to be gradually added ; and the whole strongly agitated for a considerable time, that the pa- per may thoroughly imbibe the li- quor. This composition is next suffer- ed to macerate for twelve hours ; the agitation being occasionally re- peated, when the tub is to be filled up with cold water ; and the mix- ture again stirred, to wash the paper, which will now be reduced to a perfect paste. Lastly, after drawing off the water, the pulp must be put into bags, pressed, and ground in a mill; after which it is conveyed to the vat, and work- ed in the manner practised with linen rags. In the year 1801, a patent was granted to Mr. Koops, for extract- ing ink from printed paper, and restoring it to its original state. His process varies little from that above described ; the paper being agitated in hot water, to extract the size, and reduce it into a pulp : next, the adhesion of the ink is to be removed by a caustic alkali pre- paredoflime and pot-ash,the quan- tities of which, should be propor- tioned to those of the paper. After discharging the ink, he directs the pulp to lie bleached by means of the oxygenated marine acid, in the proportion of 10 or 12 gallons to 140lbs. of the msterial ; and, when sufficiently whitened, it is re-ma- nufactured in the usual manner. According to the patentee's ac- count, writing paper does not re- quire so large a proportion, if any, of the caustic alkali; but is bleach- ed by confining it in a wooden box, rendered air-tight; into which the acid gass is thrown directly from the retort wherein it was produced. The staining, or dyeing of paper, is performed by applying, with soft brushes, any of the colours used for tinging other substances, after tempering them properly with size or gum water. Should the paper not be sufficiently hard to receive the tint without sinking, it will first be necessary to size it, or to em- ploy a larger proportion of gum with the tinging matters. And, if the paper is to be of an uniform colour, the latter must be fixed by several thin coatings, each being suf- fered to dry, before another is ap- plied ; as the shade will otherwise appear unequal. As writing paper is often impro- perly sized, in consequence of which the ink is apt to sink, it has been recommended to dissolve a small piece of Roman alum in a glass of pure water. This liquor should be gently spread over the suspect- ed part, with a soft sponge ; and, after becoming dry, it may be safe- ly used for writing. Should there be any occasion to write on a print- ed book, or on paper that is too fresh and moist, it will only be ne- cessary to mix a little gum with the ink. Lastly, in case any book or manuscript be stained with oil, or grease, it has been directed to calcine and pulverize the boms of sheep's trotters ; and to apply a small portion of the powder to each side of the stain, which should be placed between two sheets of white paper, and the whole submhtcd for the space of twelve hours to the action of a press : if the stuns do not disappear, the process should be repeated in a warm place. Various patents have been grant- ed for inventions or improvements, in the different branches of the pa- per-manufacture ; but as the speci- 230 PAP P A R fication of them would benefit only a small part of our readers, we shall not enter into particulars..... the following, however, deserves to be noticed, namely: Mi-.FIoopee 's, in 1787, for his invention of a pa- per lor printing ; and, in 1790, for making p .per of different sorts from leather-cuttings; Mr. Cun- ninghams, in 1794, for manufac- turing paper from various mate- rials ; ?,!r. Bigg's, in 1795, for a cheap and expeditious mode of bleaching paper; and Mr. Carpen- ter's patent, obtained in the same year, for a new method of bleach- ing in the water-leaf or sheet. Paper-Hangings, are a parti- cular kind of paper, which is much thicker than that used for the pur- poses of printing, writing, &c. ; so that it is manufactured solely for hanging or lining the walls of rooms. Such papers are coloured in various ways ; but, as a descrip- tion of these processes would tres- pass on our limits, we shall merely take notice of a patent, which was granted in 1793, toMr.EcKHARDT; for his method of preparing and printingpaper-hangings in different patterns, and silvering them so as to resemble damask, lace, and va- rious silk stuff's. The patentee directs the paper to be coloured in the usual manner, and a proper coat of size, consisting of solutions of isinglass, or parchment, to be applied. When this ground is sufficiently dry, a gold size, or other preparation, may be substituted, and laid on those parts, on which the ornaments are intended to ap- pear. Before the gold size is per- fectly dry, leaves of silver are spread over it; the paper is sized two or three times; and then fi- nished with such varnish as will resist moisture. To conclude: As many acci- dents happen by the all-devouring element of fire, both to printed and written papers, as well as to hang- ings, when entrusted to improvident persons, we shall communicate a very simple, but effectual, method of rendering all sorts of paper fire- proof. Such desirable object may be easily effected, by immersing these combustible materials in a strong solution of alum-water; and, after drying them, repeating this immersion, if necessary. Thus, neither the colour, nor the quality, of the paper, will be in the least af- fected : on the contrary, both will be improved ; and the result of the experiment may be ascertained, by holding a slip of paper so prepared over a candle. PARCHMENT, the skins of sheep or goats, prepared in such a manner, as to be subservient to the purposes of binding books, the re- ception of ink, Sec. The wool is first stripped off the skins, which are plunged in a lime- pit for the space of 24 hours, then taken out, drained, and stretched on a kind of frame ; when the flesh is scraped off by means of an iron instrument. Next, they are moist- ened with a wet rag, then sprinkled with pulverized chalk, rubbed with a pumice-stone, and afterwards with the instrument; when the skins are again moistened, rubbed with the pumice-stone, drained, and the iron instrument is passed a third time over them. The wool, or hair-side, undergoes similar operations ; and the whole being carefully extended on the frame, the flesh-side is again scraped ; when it is a second time sprinkled with pulverized chalk, which is af- terwards gentiy brushed off, and the skin again suspended, that PAR PAR 231 it may become perfectly dry. The next operation is that of paring; when the skins are reduc- ed to one half of their thickness ; and rendered smooth by the action of the pumice-stone. The parings are consumed in making size, glue, he. while the skin is employed for ingrossing deeds, and other pur- poses. There is a finer sort of parch- ment, kown under the name of vellum, which is prepared from the skins of sucking-calves. It is ma- nufactured in a similar manner with the first mentioned article, excepting that it is not immersed in the lime-pit. A very excellent glue, or cement, may be obtained by boiling the small shreds of vel- lum, so as to convert them into a jelly ; but care should be taken that no fragments of parchment be used, because the skins of goats and sheep are unfit for such pur- pose. For a simple method of restoring damaged parchment, so as to ren- der the writing on it legible, see the title Deed, in our 2d volume. A patent was lately granted to Mr. Hitchcock, for converting old skins of parchment or vellum into leather. Although we doubt the practical tendency of the paten- tee's ingenious, but complicated processes; yet, in the present in- stance, as they may be applied to other useful purposes, we shall observe, that he endeavours first to reduce the skins to their natural state, by washing them well and often in water for 24 hours ; then removing them for a similar time to a bath composed of lilb. of white vitriol, lib. of cream "of tar- tar, and loz. of sal ammoniac, dissolved in 20 gallons of water. In order to soften their texture, and to discharge the lime, he adds to this liquor 101b. of oil of vi- triol, lib. of aqua-fortis, and one pint of spirit of salt; in which acid bath the skins are to be steep- ed only for a short time. After washing them properly,rinsing out all the acid, and completely wring- ing out the water, without tearing the skins, they are to be immersed and well soaked in a tanning li- quor, composed of 20lbs. of oak- bark, Tibs, of sumach, 5lbs. of elm-bark, 3lbs of sassafras, and the same quantity of lignum-vitas shavings mixed with 20 gallons of water, previously warmed (proba- bly, boiled), for 12 hours, and cooled to the temperature of new milk, before the skins are immers- ed. Next, they are to be tanned in the common way, with oak-bark, or oak and sumach, then washed and dried. Lastly, to make the renovated leather water-proof, it should first be soaked for five or six days in linseed or nut-oil ; and,' after wringing out the superfluous oil, the skin ought to be repeatedly dressed with the following compo- sition : Take 71bs. of nut, or lin- seed oil; red lead, litharge, sugar of lead, white vitriol, bees-wax, re- sin, and pitch, lib. of each : melt them together over a moderate fire. PARING of Land, an ancient practice in agriculture ; but which has, within a few years, been ex- ploded in various parts of Britain. It consists in cutting off old turf at such a thickness as the labourer can conveniently effect; together with the more recent turf, at such a depth as will render it sufficiently dry for burn ing....See p. 447 of our first volume. Paring is chiefly practised on breaking up land from a state of 232 PAR nature ; though it is with advan- tage employed periodically, on cul- tivated ground. An instance of this fact occurs in the 24th vol. of Annals of Agriculture, where the industrious Mr. Boys states, that several acres of wheat, barley, oats, and sainfoin, were at that time growing on soil, which had been repeatedly pared and burnt. He adds, that the crops were of suffi- cient value to buy the land at more than forty years purchase, at a rent fairly computed before the improvement. Hence it appears, that such practice, in the hands of judicious farmers, is excellent : and Mr. Middleton observes, in the 12th volume of the same work, that it almost invariably se- cures a large, first crop of turnips ; which, (when fed upon land well stored with ashes) are the best pre- paration for subsequent crops, and that there are very few (if any) cases, in which, with proper ma- nagement, paring has not perfectly succeeded. [" In performing these opera- tions of paring and burning, the Rev. Mr. E.Cartwright directs, that " Care should be taken to do it with a smothering heat ; for if the fires are too intense, the ash- es will be of inferior quality. The advantages of this practice are nu- merous: it, in a great measure, annihilates seed weeds ; it is de- structive to many hinds of insects and other vermin, noxious to agri- culture ; it decomposes whatever comes within the sphere of its activity ; and the ashes it produ- ces, neutralize the soil, and assist in the farther decomposition of the vegetable and animal matters con- tained in it; and these substances it converts into suitable food for the future crop. Its operation on P A R the soil is something analagou? to the operation of malting on grain ; as malting disposes the grain to part freely with its most nulricious principle, the saccha- rine matter ; so will paring and burning dispose the soil profusely to part with its nutrition to the plants which are committed to it; and this it will do, not for a sin- gle year only, but for several years, according to the original degree of fertility, in succession ; and if the crops are exhausting ones, till it is soon worn out. Hence on pared and burnt land, more so, perhaps than on any other, no two exhaust- ing crops should follow each other. By exhausting crops, are under- stood, wheat, rye, barley, oats, and [buckwheat] ; by fertilizing ones, crops of every kind which are con- sumed upon the land or mown, or carried off before they perfect their seed, and which are brought back again in the state of manure."] PARK, a tract of ground in- closed, for the retention and pro- pagation of animals of chase. The best inclosure for a park is doubtless a brick or stone wall; but, as the erection of either is at- tended with great expence, the same purpose may be effected by paling ; which ought to be made of the soundest heart of oak, and firmly fixed in the ground, to pre- vent any animal of prey from pe- netrating. '1 o render it more se- cure, it will farther be advisable to train a quickset hedge to a consi- derable he'ght, which should be kept in periect order. PARSLEY, the Common, or A plum Petroselinum, L. is a native of Sardinia, whence it has been introduced into Britain. It is pro- pagated by seed, which according to Miller, should be drilled (early PAR m the spring, as it remains several weeks under ground) in the pro- portion of two bushels per acre ; in rows about one foot asunder, and hand-hoed ; though Mr. Mills (in his Practical Husbandry, vol. in.), is of opinion, that the plants will flourish better ; grow to a larger size ; and be in all respects more perfect, if the distance between the rows be sufficient to admit a hoe- plough. He adds, that a smaller quantity of seed will be required ; the culture will thus be less ex- pensive, and, he is confident, the plants will afford better food for cattle. This vegetable is eaten with great avidity by sheep ; as it not only renders their flesh more deli- cious, but is also believed to pre- serve them from the rot ; instan- ces have occurred, where sheep fed on parsley remained sound, while those in the vicinity of the farm were uniformly subject to that disease. Mr. Mills, there- fore, recommends these animals to be fed with it, twice in the week, for two or three hours at each time....It may likewise be beneficially given to sheep affect- ed with the scab or red-water; and is said to be very efficacious in recovering surfeited horses, or such as are subject to the grease. Besides its utility for feeding cattle occasionally, parsley is cul- tivated to a considerable extent in gardens, for culinary purposes.... Its seeds possess an aromatic fla- vour, and are sometimes used as carminatives: the root is of a sweetish taste ; being slightly pungent and aromatic ; it is prin- cipally employed in diet drinks ; but, if taken too liberally, is apt to produce flatulency. VOL. IV. PAR 233 PARSLEY,theBastard Stone, or Sison, L. a genus of plants, con- sisting of eight species, four of which are natives of Britain. The princir. a! of these is the Amomum, Common Bastard Stone-Parsley, or Hedge Honewort; growing in moist woods and hedges ; flower- ing in the month of June....Its small, brown, striated, and oval seeds, possess a warm, aromatic flavour ; being reputed to be ape- rient, diuretic and carminative, they were formerly used instead of the genuine Lesser Cardamom PARSLEY-PIERT,or Aphanes arvensis, L. a low, indigenous plant; growing in corn-fields, and in dry gravelly lands ; flowering from the month of May till Au- gust....It is eagerly relished by sheep, and may also be used as a salad-herb....In its medicinal ef- fects, it is strongly diuretic ; and supposed to be an effectual sol- vent of the stone in the urinary bladder. L-. PARSNEP, or Parsnip, Pasti- naca, L. a genus of plants, com- prising three species, of which only the sativa, or common Wild Pars- nip, is indigenous. It grows on the borders of ploughed fields, in calcareous land, and flowers in the month of June or July...As no cat- tle will touch this weed, it ought lobe carefully eradicated. In a cultivated state, this plant is known under the name of th? Garden Parsnip; which requires a rich deepioam, though it will also thrive in sandy soils : on the con- trary, wet and stiff land is very un- favourable to its growth. Parsnips are propagated by seed, which should be sown in the months of February or March; and like- wise in autumn, immediately after H K 234 PAR PAR the seed is ripe ; as otherwise the young plants will be over-run with weeds. If the seed be broad-cast, the plants must be thinned to the distance of 10 inches, or one foot, asunder: in case it be drilled, the rows ought to be 18 inches apart; the roots being also left at the dis- tance of 10 inches from each other; horse-hoed twice ; and earthed up after the second operation, but not so as to cover the leaves......They are very hardy ; and, if allowed to remain in the ground, are not in- jured by the severest frost. Parsnips are of great value both for feeding cattle, and likewise for culinary purposes. They are re- puted to be equal, if not superior, to carrots, for pigs, which eat them with avidity, and fatten speedily, while their flesh becomes much whiter. If washed clean, and sliced among bran, horses eagerly devour the parsnip-roots, and thrive well; nor are they easily heated, or/liable to the disorders that often attack these useful animals, when fed with corn. Parsnips fatten sheep and oxen in a very short time ; and the as- sertion of the Jersey Society of Agriculture, that these roots " will fatten a lean beast in three months," has been verified by the experience of the Rev. Dr. De Salis, on whom the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, 8cc. in 1799, conferred their silver medal, for the cultivation of those excellent roots, for the above-stated purpose. ....Hence they are particularly val- uable as a winter food. The beef of cattle fattened on them, together with hay, is said to excel that pro- duced from the best pastures alone: ....the milk of cows thus fed, is not only richer, but yields butter of a fine saffron-colour, which is equal to that obtained from them, when feeding on the most luxuriant grasses. If parsnips are to be housed, they ought to be taken up, when the leaves begin to decay ; and these should be cut off' three or four days before they are stored. It is not, however, advisable lo dig them out early in the morning, be- fore the dew is dissipated ; as the leaves then contain a scalding fluid, and excite blisters, which continue troublesome for several days. Considered as human food, pars- nips are exceedingly nourishing. In the North of Ireland, they are brewed with hops ; and, when fer- mented with yeast, afford an agree- able beverage : they may also be preserved in sand for culinary use; and, if reduced to a dry state, by cutting them in oblong slices, which ought to be suspended on strings, either in a warm room, or the open air, such roots vyill remain sound for any period of time. Hence, they promise-to be of con- siderable service on long voyages ; for, by soaking them in warm wa- ter for the space of one hour, previ- ously to the process of boiling, they will become as tender, and will taste equally sweet, as if they had been newly brought from the gar- den......There is, however, a pre- caution which deserves to be stated; namely, that pai snips should never be dug up in the spring; because, when the roots at that season are growing upwards for producing seed, their juices acquire a poison- ous quality ; and instances have occurred, in which the internal use of them has been productive of fa- tal effects on the human constitu- tion, such as furious madness: this PAR PAS 235 remarkable phenomenon in vege- table nature, we relate on the au- thority of M. Bechstein. The seeds of parsnips are slight- ly aromatic, and contain an essen- tial oil, which, according to Dr. Withering, " will often cure in- termittent fevers." This fibrous root possessing a peculiar sweetness, Prof. Hermb- staedt was induced to make va- rious experiments, with the view of extracting sugar. He caused a parcel of such roots, weighing 24lbs. to be pounded in a stone mortar, with the addition of a little cold water ; after which the juice was expressed, the residuum washed in pure water, and like- wise submitted to the action of a press: the result was a turbid, sweet liquor. After standing in a cool place for a few days, till it be- came clear, and evaporating it over a moderate fire, Prof. H. obtained 5^1bs. of an agreeable syrup. PARSNEP, the Water, or Slum, L. a genus of plants, comprehend- ing sixteen species , four being na- tives of Britain ; and the most re- markable of these are the follow- ing : l.Thefof//ci//Km,BROAD-LEAVED Water Parsnip, or Skikret, grows in rivers and fens, where it flowers in the months of July and August......This herb is eaten by horses and hogs, but is disliked by sheep : the roots of this plant are very hurtful to man and cattle ; and ought, therefore, to be care- fully avoided. 2. The angustifolium, Upper Water-Parsnep, or Narrow- leaved SKiRRET,thrivesinditches and rivulets, where it flowers from July to September....This plant, as Dr. Withering observes, " cer- tainly possesses active properties, which ought to be inquired into;" and Bechstein remarks, that it is not less noxious in its effects than the preceding species. 3. The nodifiorum, Creeping or Procumbent Water-Parsnip, grows in rivulets and ditches; flow- ers in the months of July and Au- gust....This plant is very service- able in diseases of the skin. Dr. Withering cureda child 6 years old of an obstinate cutaneous affec- tion, by administering three large spoonfuls of the juice, twice a day. He likewise gave three or four ounces to adults, every morning, in similar complaints, with the greatest advantage. Its juice is readily taken by children, when mixed with milk ; and neither af- fects the head, the stomach, nor the bowels. PARTRIDGE, or Tetrao Per- dix, L. a well-known bird to the sportsmen of Britain. In shape, it resembles a quail, but is of more than double the size; its whole plumage is beautifully variegated, and it has a reddish spot on the breast. [The partridge of Pennsylvania, and of the States south, is the Tetrao Marylandus, or Virginianus, of Linn.su s. In the States east of Pennsylvania, the same bird is called Quail. It is found in abun- dance, from one end of the United States to the other. The male is white under the throat, and has many black feathers on the head. The under part of the female is yellow, and there are fewer black feathers on the head than on the male...The distinction between the quail and partridge, is very trifling.] PASSION, a term employed to denote an actual degree of desire, 236 PAS or aversion, prevalent in the hu- man mind, on realizing certain af- fections. The influence of the passions on the human frame, is truly aston- ishing: sometimes they operate suddenly, at others slowly, and al- most imperceptibly ; but their ef- fects are equally certain. Thus, sudden joy, and long continued sorrow, may become alike fatal ; both terminating in death: the phlegmatic and indolent, however, are less subject to their sway than those who possess great sensibili- ty, with an acute understanding. All violent passions are of dan- gerous tendency, and not unfre- quently lay the foundation of in- curable disorders. Hence those, who have any regard for their health, cannot exercise too strict dominion over their passions and affections : and, though the parti- cular mode in which they act up- on the human constitution, has not hitherto been determined, yet there doubtless subsists an intimate con- nexion between the mind and the body ; for whatever injures the one, disorders the other. The inquisitive reader, who wishes to derive information on this interesting subject, will peruse Dr. Cocan's truly Philosophical Treatise on the Passions (8vo. pp. 367, Us. 6d. Cadell and Davies, 1S00), in which amusement is blended with instruction. [PASSIFLORA, ir.carnata, L. Maracock May Apple: A native plant of Virginia, and Carolina, growing in cultivated lands, and being a rambling climber, mantles the shrubs, and trails over fences and hedges, exhibiting a fine ap- pearance, decorated with festoons of large blue and purple flowers; PAS which are succeeded by large oval fruit, of the size of small lemons, of an orange colour when ripe, and in taste resemble a China or- ange. The vines die on the ac- cess of frost, but the root being perennial, produces other vines in the succeeding spring. Wm. Bart- ram.] PASTE, denotes a preparation of wheaten flour, boiled up and incorporated with water, till it ac- quire a viscid consistence. It is used in various trades, as a substi- tute for size, or glue, in pasting or cementing papers, books, he. If the composition be intended for paper-hangings, or for other pur- poses where a considerable degree of adhesion is required, one fourth, fifth, or sixth part in weight, of pulverized resin is added; and, if the paste is to be still more tena- cious, gum-arabic, or any kind of size, may be dissolved in the liqqid, while the mixture is boiling....As this viscous compound, unless it be preserved in a damp place, is apt to dry speedily, it has been re- commended to dissolve a little sub- limate of mercury (in the propor- tion of one dram to a quart), in the water employed : thus, it will not only retain its fluidity, but will also be secured from the depreda- tions of rats, mice, and other ver- min. There are, however, various and less expensive vegetable substan- ces, that may be aptly substituted for four; a valuable article, of which considerable quantities are annually consumed for paste ;....on this and similar occasions, we re- quest the reader to consult the Ge- neral Index of Reference, subjoin- ed to the last volume of this work. PASTURAGE}orPASTURE,siS- PAS PAS 237 nifies either the business of feed- ing tame animals, or such land as is expressly reserved for the graz- ing of cattle. Pasture ground is, at present, often preferred to corn-land, on account of the comparatively less labour which it requires ; and, be- cause it is erroneously believed, that the manure dropped by the cattle enriches the soil, and thus renders it more profitable, when laid down for grain....Such land is divided into two classes : 1. Mea- dows, which are frequently over- flowed ; and, 2. Uplands, that are considerably more elevated, and consequently dry. The former produce a larger crop of hay than the latter, and do not require to be manured so frequently ; but the hay is generally inferior to that ob- tained from the uplands. The flesh of animals fattened on the latter, is much finer and more de- licate than that of such as are fed in rich meadows; the luxuriant herbage of which, remarkably pro- motes the growth of cattle. On the other hand, dry pastures are preferable to meadows ; as they afford food during the winter, and are not so apt to poach on the re- turn of spring: nor are they so liable to be over-ran with weeds : advantages which amply compen- sate for the smaller crops of hay. Having already pointed out the profitable nature of MEADOw-land, or that where irrigation is prac- ticable, under those respective heads, we shall proceed to state the more eligible methods of im- proving upland pasture. The first measure to be adopted for this purpose is, the division of the land into fields, each compris- ing four, five, or more acres ; to fence the whole with good neages ; and to plant timber-trees at pro- per distances, in order to shelter the grass from the boisterous ver- nal winds. The inclosure, how- ever, ought not to be too small, par- ticulai ly when the hedge rows are to be planted with trees; for, if these be placed too closely toge- ther, they will render the grass sour, and thus materially injure the pasture. All weeds infesting the ground, must be carefully eradicated to- wards the end of summer,, previ- ously to their seed-vessels being formed: when sufficiently dry, they ought to be burnt, and their ashes spread on the land before the commencement of the autum- nal rains; after which, the surface of the soil should be levelled, and sown with grass-seed that will ve- getate the succeeding spring..... Where the surface of the ground is of a cold, clayey nature, it may be improved by paring and burn- ing ; but, if it be hot and sandy, it will be necessary to apply consi- derable quantities of chalk, clay, marie, or lime. Every mole-hill should likewise be pared, burnt, and the ashes immediately scatter- ed over the land; though it will be advisable to sow the bare spots with grass-seeds, shortly before the rains of autumn. The next operation is that of le- velling the surface with a heavy wooden roller, in the month of February or March, during moist weather; in consequence of which, the grass will vegetate more luxu- riantly, and the growth of weeds will be counteracted. In laying down land for pasture, the greatest attention is requisite in the selection of seeds : the best 238 PAS PAS for this purpose are, the finest up- land hay-seeds, and the White or Dutch Clover. If the former be sifted from all extraneous substan- ces, three bushels will be fully suf- ficient for an acre of land: of the latter, eight pounds will be neces- sary, which ought to be sown af- ter the hay-seeds; because the clover, being considerably heavier than these, will otherwise sink to the bottom ; and its distribution in the ground will be irregular. When the first grass appears, all weeds mustbe speedily eradicated ; as they will otherwise impede its growth ; and, if suffered to stand till they shed their seed, the land will be so completely over-run, that the herbage will be totally suppressed. Various methods are practised with a view to enrich pastures, and to promote the growth of the grass. Among these, rolling the ground two or three times, at proper inter- vals, during the spring, has been found very beneficial; for it com- presses the grass, which thus ac- quires a thicker bottom : and the clover striking roots from every branch in contact with the ground, they will be matted so closely to- gether, as to form a beautiful thick sward, that will cover the whole surface of the land, and flourish during the severest droughts..... Some graziers turn a few sheep, and one or two colts, into each pas- ture ; which practice is very suc- cessful ; for the sheep eat down and destroy the rag-wort {Senecio Jacobeea, L.) which vitiates many of our best pastures, where oxen only are fed. New pasture-land may be ad- vantageously stocked with sheep; because those animals will par- tially check the luxuriance of the grass ; in consequence of which, the latter will unite, or mat, at^the bottom; and thus produce a tender herbage for cattle....Pastures may likewise be materially improved, by alternately mowing and feeding off the crops. In the counties of Cardigan and York, an excellent practice pre- vails, which, if it were more ge- nerally known, would be the means of ameliorating poor or indifferent pasture-grounds. The farmers put up such lands as early as possible in the month of May, for the sum- mer season ; during which they pay no other attention, than to eradicate docks, to destroy this- tles, he. In this state, the ground remains till December, when all the stock is turned in, and every animal will be in excellent condi- tion, without the aid of hay, straw, or oats ; while the milk, or but- ter, in all respects becomes equal to that produced at any other pe- riod of the year. The grass is sweetened by the frost, and re- mains uninjured by the snow; but, while the latter covers the ground, it will be necessary to resort to dry food. In the spring, young shoots of grass will burst forth beneath the shelter of the old ones, and both are eaten with avidity. By this practice, land formerly in- fested with moss, in consequence of its having been over-stocked and grazed too bare, will soon be covered with palatable herbage; and the moss disappear without the aid of the plough, or of any surface-manure. For a comparative view of the advantages and disadvantages of pasturirg and soiling cattle, the reader is referred to p. 37 of our 2d volume. See also Grass, and Mealow., PAT PEA 239 PATENTS, or Letters Pa- tent, are privileges obtained from government, in order to convey the title, property, and exclusive right to an invention, discovery, or pe- culiar establishment, &c. Letters Patent are usually grant- ed for the term of 14 years, upon condition that the patentee specify his invention or improvement, in such a manner that the public may- receive the benefit of it, and may be at liberty to practise or employ such contrivance at the expiration of the exclusive privilege. [The law of the United States respecting patents requires some alterations which it may be well here briefly to state. 1. Patents should be granted to foreigners as well as to citizens.... The present restriction of our pro- tection to the genius of the latter, is not only illiberal, but highly de- trimental to the country, by pre- venting many ingenious men from divulging their discoveries as soon as they come among us. By pur- suing an opposite system, England has become the depot of the inven- tions and discoveries of all Europe and America : and hence her arts and manufactures have arrived at a degree of perfection, of which no other country can boast. 2. Inventors and discoverers ap- plying for patents, ought to be obliged to secure to the country the advantage of their discoveries, by entering into an obligation to erect or make for sale all their in- vention ■;, or to impart a knowledge of them for a reasonable reward : as it is known that many persons arc so selfish, as neither to make use of them, nor to grant to others that liberty, unless at an extrava- gant price, far beyond what the va- lue of the invention would warrant. 3. Some tribunal should be es- tablished to determine upon the right which persons may possess to obtain a patent. It is a fact well known, that several persons have obtained patents from the go- vernment of the United States, for supposed discoveries and inventions which have been long known, or in use in Europe ; some of these are noticed in this Encyclopaedia, and more plagiaries might doubt- less be detected, if a list of all the patents were published, which have been granted in the United States. 4. Provision should be made for making void the claim of any pa- tentee, as in England, if not support- ed by originality, or if he wilfully give a confused and erroneous specification.] PEA, or Pisum, L. a genus of leguminous plants, consisting of 4 species; of which the following are the principal: 1. The maritimum, or Sea-Pea, is a native of Britain ; growing on the sea-coasts, and flowering in the month of July or August. It is eaten by horses, cows, sheep, and goats. 2. The sativum, or Common Pea, which has long been cultivat- ed in this country. There are two sorts of this species, known by the names of Grey, or Hog-Pea, and of the Common, or Garden-Pea. The latter is again divided into many varieties, of which gardeners enu- merate not less than thirty ; but we shall only state the names of those which amply repay the la- bour and expence of cultivation ; namely, the Grey Hog-Pea ; the Common White Boiling-Pea; the 240 PEA Charlton (or, forry-tlaxj) Hotspur ; the Rounceval, Blue, Large Grey, and Speckled Pease. All these varieties delight in dry warm soils, though the blue pea will also succeed on poor land. They are raised from seed, which is sown from the middle ofFebru- ary to the middle of April, in the proportion of from three to five bushels per acre, broad-cast ; but, if drilled, two bushels will be fully sufficient. When they are sown broad-cast, the ground is usually harrowed, to protect the seed from the depredations of birds ; but the drilled pease are earthed up, and weeded twice ; the first time, when they are about an inch above the ground ; and secondly, when they attain the height of about four in- ches. No sooner do pease arrive at maturity, than they are attacked and devoured by rooks, wood-pi- geons, and other birds : hence, it will be necessary to watch them with care : and, after cutting, or hacking them, as it is provincially termed, thev should be formed in- to small wsAs, or bundles, and ex- posed for some days, so that the straw may wither, and the fruit be- come dry. Beside their utility for culinary purposes, pease, when harvested dry, and ground into meal, are un- commonly serviceable for fattening hogs ; as no other grain agrees better with those animals. If the straw be forward in autumn, and has been housed without injury, it will be little inferior to ordinary hay, and afford a very useful arti- cle of fodder ; on which every kind of cattle will thrive: and, though it be apt tooccasion gripes in hors- es, if given to them before the PEA month of January, yet such effects may be corrected, by allowing a few turnips, cabbages, or potatoes, either with, or after they have eat- en the pea-straw. A crop of pease is so far from exhausting the land, that it may be considered as an excellent and a- meliorating manure. Thus, grey- pease, in particular, if sown to- wards the end of March, and ploughed in shortly before they flower, will prove a valuable dres- sing for wheat. Hence, likewise, if the Charlton or forty-day Pea be sown early in the same month, the crop may be cleared off the field to- wards the end of June, or early in Ju- ly ; so that it will become an excel- lent preparation for turnips. Should the harvest, however, be later, the wads ought to be laid in rows, and the intermediate spaces ploughed without delay ; by which practice the soil will not only be cleared from weeds, but at the same time be materially improved ; the sur- face being rendered more loose and friable in consequence of the putre- factive fermentation beneath the pease ; which exclude the rays of the sun, and retain moisture. In this manner, the culture of pease is not only a source of profit, but also saves labour in tillage ; the turnips being sown after a single ploughing, which cannot be effect- ed by any other crop. Such is the method in which pease are cultivated for general use ; but, in order to obtain them at an early season, the gardeners in the vicinity of the metropolis,raise them on hot-beds. For this pur- pose, they sow the Dwarf-Pea, about the middle of October, in warm borders contiguous to walls or hedges : when the plants ap- PEA £EA 241 pear, they are gently earthed up, to protect them from frost. During the severer parts of the winter, they are covered with pease-haulm, straw, or other light shelter, and occasionally earthed as they ad- vance in size. Towards the end of January, or early in February, they are removed to a hot bed, and afterwards sparingly watered till the fruit begin to appear ; be- ing also screened with mats from the intense heatof the meridian in. In order to obtain a regular sup- ply for the table, the gardeners in a similar manner cultivate the Chariton, or forty-day pea, Golden Hotspur, or the Master and Read- ing-Hotspurs, which afford crops in succession. The greatest care, however, is necessary to clear them from weeds in the spring, and also from verm in, which will otherwise destroy the whole produce. Their most formidable enemies are slugs, which particularly infest wet soils, or such gardens as are over-run with weeds. These insects conceal themselves during the day in small cavities under ground, and come forth in the night, when they do extensive mischief. With a view to check such devastations, it will be advisable, first to clear the land around the plants, then to destroy their recesses, and next to scatter a little slakedlime over the ground, very early in the morning, when the vermin arc in motion. By this simple expedient, they will be ef- fectually exterminated, without any injury to the pease, provided the lime be not too thickly spread over the plants. In common with all other legu- minous fruits, pease possess a strong mucilage, with an earthy V , 20, 10, 5, or April, in the third year after and down to one year old, ell from transplanting, cut them all off by the the same stump. The young trees ground; plough and bar row amongst coming up, after any of the c'A them as before, taking special care trees split off' or die, and are cut not to wound or tear them in the away, will bear fruit the second smallest degree, letting all the year; but this fruit will not ripen sprouts or scions grow that will so easily as the fruit on the old grow; cut none away, supposing trees from the same stem. Three six or more should come from the years after the trees are cut off by old stump ; the young scions will the ground, they will be suffcient- grow up to bearing trees on ac- ly large and bushy, to shade the count of the roots being strong, ground so as to prevent grass cf Let no kind of beasts into peach- any kind from matting or binding orchards, hogs excepted, for fear of the surface, so as to injure the wounding the trees ; as the least trees ; therefore, ploughing is use- wound will greatly injure the tree, less, as well as injurious ; unless, 246 P E A PEA because nothing can be raised in the orchard, by reason the trees will shade all the ground, or nearly so ; injurious, because either the roots, stock or branches will be wounded: neither is it necessary ever to manure peach-trees, as manured trees will always produce less and worse fruit, than trees that aie not manured ; although by ma- nuring your peach-trees, they wi)l grow larger, and look greener and thicker in the boughs, and cause a thicker shade, yet on them will grow very little fruit, and that little will be of a very bad kind....gene- rally looking as green as the leaves, even when ripe, and later than those that never have been ma- nured*. "Peach-trees never require a rich soil; the poorer the soil the better the fruit....a middling soil produces a more bountiful crop. "The highest ground, and the north side of hills is the best for peach-trees ; they keep back vege- tation, by which means the fruit is often preserved from being killed by late frosts in the month of April, in the Pennsylvania latitude. ....I have made these observations from actual experience. " A gentleman from Mononga- hcla county, in Virginia, called at my house, and asked me who in- structed me to cultivate peach- trees : 1 told him that observation and experience were my teachers. The gentleman observed that Col. Luther Martin, in the lower parts of Xvlaryland, and another gentleman near the same place, whose name he could net recollect, * This direction is directly contrary to the o.ix.-ience of a gentleman mentioned in P. 175. lAi:. were pursuing the same plan ad- vantageously." The propriety of transplanting trees, was explained in vol. ii. p. 96-7. The practice of Mr. Coulter,in cutting down the trees, is highly rational : they are thus forced to spend their rigour upon their bo- dies and roots, instead of shooting up into the air with thin barks, which are easily penetrated by the fly. The best kind of peaches is said to be produced from inoculation ; and upon an afiricot stock, as they are not liable tobe injured by the fly; and that peach-trees thus produc- ed, grow larger and rise higher, than when on the peach-stock..... Grafting the peach upon a plumb- stock, has also been practised, with a view of resisting the attack of the fly; but this operation must be performed under ground.otherwise an unsightly knob will be the con- sequence of the peach-tree over- growing the plumb-stock, and en- danger the breaking off of the tree, at the place of junction. The directions given by For- sythe, with respect to wall peach- trees, may be applied to our stan- dard trees, viz. To pinch off all the strong shoots in June, the first year the tree bears; which will make them throw out side-shoots : these, if not laid too thick, will make fine bearing wood for the succeeding year. If the strong shoots be suffered to grow to their full length, they will be large and spongy, and will neither produce good fruit nor good wood for the following year. Sometimes weakly trees are covered with blossoms, but if too much fruit be suffered to remain on them, they will be weak- ened so much that they will never PEA PEA 247 recover. In that case, I would recommend picking off the greater part of the fruit, to let the tree re- cover its strength. When trees in this state are pruned, never prune at a single flower-bud; as the shoot will be either entirely killed, or at least die, as' far as the next wood- bud. " I have - ften topped the strong shoots twice in the course ofa sum- mer, before they produced the fine kind-bearing wood. These strong shoots exhaust the tree, and never produce good wood when neglected to be topped. I would recommend to cut out such shoots when the trees are pruned in the spring, and to leave only the bearing wood, which may he known by two small leaves where the flower-buds will be in the following year: (the \ strong shoots having only one leaf- bud at each eye) and to pick off' all side-shoots near the tops of the branches, as soon as they can be laid hold of." Peaches yield, on distillation, a highly flavoured spirit, which is deservedly much prized. One or two spoonfuls added to a bowl of common punch, greatly improves it. Indeed, it is difficult to find a more agreeable assuager of thirst, th:m such a combination.] The flowers of peaches emit an agiv able fragrant odour, and have a biit^.-ish taste. If distilled in a water-bath, they yield a whitish liquor, about one-sixth part of their weight; and which commu- nicates to a large quantity of other liquids, a flavour similar to that of the kernels themselves.... An infu- sion of half an ounce of the fresh- gathered flowers, or a dram of them vvhen dried, in half a pint of boiling water, sweetened with a little sugar, is said to be an useful laxative, and vermifuge, for chil- dren, PEAR-TREE, or Pyrus com- munis, L. a valuable indigenous tree, growing in woods and hedges, in various parts of Britain ; and flowering in the months of April and May. The pear-tree delights in rich soils and gentle declivities; but will not thrive in moist situations It resists the severest frosts ; its wood is smooth, light, and com- pact ; and is used in considerable quantities by turners, for making carpenter's or joiner's tools, and for picture-frames, which are stained black, in imitation of ebo- ny. The leaves impart a yellow dye, and are sometimes employed to communicate a green colour to blue cloth :.....they are eaten by horses, cows, sheep, and goats. In a wild state, the fruit of the pear-tree has an austere and un- pleasant taste ; but, when culti- vated; it is highly grateful ; and skilful gardeners have obtained not less than 1500 varieties, by inocu- lating, inarching, engrafting, Sec. the common wild stock, with scions of other fruit-bearing trees. ....The most valuable of tiiese, whether for the dessert, or for cu- linary purposes, we have already specified, under the article Or- chard and shall therefore confine our account to the best method of rearing them, and to a concise view of their properties. All the varieties of this tree are hardy, and will succeed in any common garden-soil, provided it be open and dry. They are pro- pagated by engrafting, and by bud- ding, or inoculating either upon free stocks, that is, such as have been raised from seed, or upon quince-stocks : the latter,however, 248 PEA requires a rich and moist soil. Sometimes the scions are engraft- ed on medlars, in order to render them dwarfs ; and nursery-men have also ventured to bud them on white or hawthorns, when there has been a scarcity of original or free-stocks. But such practice ought to be adopted only in cases of real necessity ; as it renders the fruit stony, and otherwise di- minishes its value. The relative salubrity of pears depends not less on the state of ripeness, or imma- turity, in which they are used, than on their different properties ; some of them being hard, astrin- gent, and difficult of digestion..... The more juicy onei, however, possess a saccharine fluid, which does not oppress the stomach : ne- vertheless, all the varieties are more flatulent than apples, plums, or the generality of fruit; and win- ter-pears are particularly liable to such inconvenience ; as they are commonly eaten at a period of the year, when the stomach requires stimulating, rather than cooling, nourishment. Independently of their utility for domestic or culinary purposes, pears (if managed in a similar manner with apples for making Cyder) afford a pleasant liquor, known under the name of Perry. The best fruits for this purpose are those of Bosbury and Bare- land, in the county of Worcester, and the Squash-Pear, as it is term- ed in Gloucestershire ; to which may be added the varieties known under the names of the John, Har- pary, Drake, Lullu?n, and Horse Pears. All these, being reared in hedges, are so extremely harsh and tart, that no person can cat ihem in a fresh state ; ap.d they are refused even by hogs. PEA PEARL, a hard, white, glossy, and roundish concretion, which is usually found in the shell of the East-India pearl-oysters ; though it is also occasionally met with in the shell-fish of Europe.....About the middle of the last century, a very extensive fishery was carried on, in the rivers communicating with lakes in the northern parts of Scotland ; whence London was supplied with a considerable num- ber of pearls, that were little infe- rior to those of the East; but this source of wealth is at present ex- hausted. Pearls are formed of the same matter as the inner shell of the' fish in which they are found ; and consist of several coats spread with the greatest regularity over each other, in a manner similar to those of an onion. The most esteemed and true form of pearls is, a complete sphere ; though they are sometimes pear-shaped, and of a considerable size, ac- cording to which their value rises progressively ; as they serve for ear-rings, and other ornaments. They ought to possess a pure white lustre, perfectly clear from spots or stains ; and their surface should be smooth and glossy; having a beautiful natural polish, which no art can improve....The finest pearls are imported from the East; and, like rubies, he. may be brought to England from any place, and in any ships, free from all duty. Artificial Pearls ;....As the ge- nuine pearls are sold at an extra- vagant price, ingenious men have contrived methods of imitating them so completely, that they can scarcely be distinguished from those collected in the East. The principal ingredient, employed PEA for this purpose, remained a pro- found secret for many years ; but it is now ascertained, that it con- sists of the fine silvery matter, which is found on the lower side of the scales of the blay, or bleak- fish {Cyprinus alburnus, L.). These scales are first removed ; then washed repeatedly in pure water; and, after the different liquors have subsided the fluid part is carefully decanted ; when a pearly matter, of an oily consist- ence, remains at the bottom ; which is denominated by the French, Essence d'orient. A small portion of this matter is dropped in a hollow, blueish glass-bead, that is gently agitated, till the whole internal surface is com- pletely lined; when the cavity is filled up with wax, in order to im- part solidity and weight. Pearls thus manufactured, possess fewer blemishes than such as are natu- ral or genuine, to which they are fully equal, in point of brilli- ancy. PEARL-ASH, a kind of fixed alkaline salt, prepared in various parts of Europe, and also in Ame- rica, by melting and extracting the salts from the ashes of burnt vege- tables ; and, after evaporating the moisture, and reducing them to dryness, by calcining such ashes for a considerable time in a fur- nace moderately heated......See Alkalies. The best pearl-ashes arc obtain- ed from weeds, the ashes of which yield a larger proportion of salt than most kinds of wood. And it appears from the numerous ex- periments of Mr. Km wan, that among weeds, the fumitory pro- duces the greatest quantity of salt; and next to it, wormwood ; though he observes, that if we attend only voi.. IV. PEA 249 to the proportion of salt in a giv- en weight of ashes, those of worm- wood contain the most....The Trefoil-Buckbean {Menyanthes trifoliata, L.)also produces a larger quantity of ashes, and salt, than fern. Pure pearl-ashes should possess a very acrid, caustic taste, and be uniformly white ; though such cri- terion is not always to be relied upon, as they are frequently adul- terated with lime and salt; im- positions, not easily discovered by the eye. In order to detect this fraud, let a small portion of the suspected pearl-ash be exposed to the air till it becomes soft, when it should be held over the fire in a shovel: if the alkali contain any common salt, the latter will crac- kle, and a slight explosion will take place, as soon as it becomes hot. Pearl-ashes are very generally employed in the- manufacture of glass; for they combine with earths in a proper degree of heat, and form a vitreous mass: they are also used for domestic purpo- ses in washing linen. In 1791, a patent was granted to Mr. George Glenny, for his method of obtaining a larger pro- portion of pearl and pot-ashes from those of wood, than that vyhich is usually procured....The patentee's process consists in calcining the common wood-ashes in a furnace ; previously to which, a small quan- tity of lime is to be sifted among them, to prevent the mass from vitrefying ; though, if the latter be continually stirred during the pro- cess of calcination, the addition of lime will be unnecessary. When the ashes are calcined into a fine powder, they may be treated in the usual manner; but he observes, R K 250 PEA PEA that it will be better to boil them in large vessels, especially during frosty wea her. [See Potash.] PEARLWORT, the Procum- bent, Trailing Pearlwort, or Break-stone, Sagina procum- bens, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing on walls ; in sandy and boggy situations ; in garden- walks, and paved courts : it flow- ers from May to August.....This elegant herb is one of the smallest productions of the vegetable king- dom : its thread-like stem divides itself into many branches ; the letves are slender and minute ; the blossoms greenish-white ; and the whole plant scarcely exceeds two inches in height. PEAT, a well-known inflamma- ble fossil, which is used in various parts of the world as fuel. There are two species of this remarkable substance: 1. A yellowish-brown peat found in Scotland, Holland, and Germa- ny. It is composed, according to Mr. Kirwan, of clay, mixed with calcareous earth and pyrites, and sometimes contains a portion of common salt. When fresh, it is of a viscid consistence, but hardens by exposure to the air ; and, after separating the calcareous and sto- ny matters, it is cut while soft, into oblong pieces, and thus sold for fuel. ' 2. Another species of a dark- brown colour, is dug up near New- bury, in the county of Berks, and consists of the branches, twigs, leaves, and roots of trees, together with grass, stra-\ plants, and weeds; which, after having lain for along time in water, are converted into a soft mass, that may be ct through with a sharp spaX'j. It is al.-o p' in- cipally employed as a substitute for sea-coal, or wood. Independently of its utility as fuel, the ashes of peat afford a va- luable manure- We have already stated, in articles Ashes and Ma- nures, the soils as well as the manner, in which they may be most beneficially employed.....For an ingenious and practical method of cultivating peat-mosses, see the article Moss-land. [Inert vegetable matter or peat, is for the most part formed of the remains of vegetables in humid si- tuations. It is very retentive of mois- ture, and inflammable. In peat- mosses there are frequently springs of mineral waters, which contain saline and ferruginous matters..... Hence the ashes of peat, besides the earthy matter, (consisting for the most part of phosphat of lime) contain likewise phosphat of iron, gypsum, epsom salt, and green vitriol: and hence their different effects, when used as manures. Peat soils, which acquire an unc- tuous, rich clamminess, by the ap- plication and action of dung, urine, and alkaline salts, are according to Lord Dundonald, the fittest for the growth of hemp. The cul- ture of this plant would be a source of employment in the winter, and would furnish an internal, or home supply of an article so indispensa- bly necessary to a maritime state. The oil of the seed might be em- ployed to make soap, superior to that made from tallow ; for which purpose it is imported into Britain from Russia. Shell-marl is frequently found under peat mosses; they should therefore be bored in different places, to ascertain if they possess this valuable substance. Improved peat mosses, are pro- ductive ui luxurient vegetation..... Tlay should be dedicated to pas- PEA P E D 25i ture, and only ploughed when, notwithstanding the utmost endea- vours, the ground produces coarse, rank grass ; but this may be pre- vented by due attention fo the fol- lowing directions : I. To keeping the water in the ditches at a proper level. 2. To stocking the ground with a due proportion of cattle, sheep and horses. 3. To folding cattle on different parts of each field. 4. To using heavy rollers. 5. To top dressing, with alkaline salts, and other saline substances, lime either by itself, or when mix- ed with peat or fen mould.] PEAT-BORER.....In the 19th. vol. of the " Transactions of the Society for the Ecouragement of Arts," &c. we meet with a descrip- tion of an implement contrived by Thomas Eccleston, Esq. of Scarcebrick-hall, Lancashire. It is denominated a Peat-borer, and is designed for draining boggy land : as its application has been attend- ed with uncommon success, we have given an engraved figure re- presenting its construction. Description of Mr. Eccleston's Peat-borer. (See Plate I.) A, is the cutter of the borer, which penetrates the peat. B, is the body of the borer, six inches in diameter. C, the aperture, through which the peat, introduced by boring, is extracted from the ground. D, represents a portion of the iron bar of the borer; to the upper part of which a cross handle is to be affixed. It frequently happens, that the bottoms of drains and ditches, when newly cut, rise so consider- ably from the pressure of the sub- jacent waters, as to be nearly filled up, and consequently to impede the course of that fluid which they were intended to carry off; so that the work is rendered ineffectual.... To prevent such accidents, re- course is generally had to a, com- mon auger, or even to a pole, which procures a temporary pas- sage for the water ; but, the peat being thus pressed only in a lateral direction, without being cut, the sides speedily close; and the course of the fluid again becomes ob- structed. Mr. Eccleston's- im- plement, therefore, is calculated to remove such impediment; for by means of his auger, a cylindri- cal column of peat, six inches in diameter, will be completely cut out and removed ; thus affording a free passage to the confined wa- ter, for a considerable length of time. Hence, the expence of drain- ing boggy lands may be consider- ably reduced ; and they will even- tually he rendered so firm, that the first drains will stand unim- paired. The proper depth to which the peat-borer should descend, must be regulated by the situation of the soil....~where moss-lands are very low, and liable to be inundated, it will be advisable to penetrate only to such a depth as will be suffici- ent to drain the surface ; because deep boring would cause it to sink so low, as to be overflown by every sudden shower of rain. PEDOMETER,orPoDOME ter, a contrivance for measuring dis- tances, which is usually construct- ed in the form of a watch, and con- sists of several wheels with teeth, that are arranged in the same plane 252 P E D PED and correspond with each other.... Such instruments are either fast- ened by means of a string, chain, &c. to the knee of a person, or to the wheel of a carriage ; and ad- vance one notch at every step, or each revolution of the wheel ; so that the number being marked on a dial-plate, the traveller is ena- bled to compute his progress by the number of his steps, or to mea- sure accurately the distance be- tween certain places. Some of these machines are contrived so as to mark both the time and dis- tance ; by combining within the same case, the mechanism of a watch, so that they may be conve- niently worn in the pocket. The utility of pedometers for the purpose of surveying land being obvious, various instruments of this description have been con- structed by ingenious mechanics, in order to facilitate the practice of geometry. Among these, Mr. Edgeworth's late contrivance de- serves to be first mentioned, on account of its great simplicity ; but as it is calculated only for level grounds, and is apt to be deranged by hilly or irregular surfaces, we decline to enter into any detail. A pedometer, upon a new plan, was a few years since contrived by Mr. W. Fraser, mathematical in- strument maker, of New Bond Street. It is stated to be perfectly correct, and not liable to be out of order. The wheel-work is con- structed on the scale of 1000 paces to a mile ; and, as it winds itself up, while in motion, being adjust- ed to pockets of all sizes, it is at- tended with no trouble to the wearer. It is provided with a com- pass, by means of which the tra- veller is enabled to ascertain the different directions which he takes on his excursion ; while he learns the accurate distance which he has walked- Hence it recommends itself to those invalids, who are obliged to take a certain degree of exercise within doors; as they may thus measure the thousandth part of a mile. Another machine, which deserves more immediate attention, is the pedometer invented by Mr. Lewin Tug well, of Beverstone, in the county of Gloucester, and which is represented in the following Cut: PED P E D 253 A, The stock of the pedometer, which is marked separately on an B, B, B, he. Twelve spokes; engraved index on one of its sides: one end of which is fastened by and, in order to apply this part of means of a screw to the outward the machine, it is screwed firmly ring, or periphery of the wheel, into the stock of the wheel, with while the other is inserted in the which it revolves when in motion. stock. F, A style, or alidade being an ex- C, The periphery, which is an panding screw-nut, that embraces iron ring 16^ feet, or one pole in the axis, along which it screws, as circumference ; and which is di- the latter revolves with the wheel; vided into 25 equal parts, corres- and, as each revolution describes ponding to the links of Gunter's an exact longitudinal pole (four of chain for land-measuring, &.c. which are computed to a chain), D, D, D, he. Are twelve small the style being pendent, and mov- plates, representing the separate ing towards its proper figure, de- spokes, and each of which includes notes the length of ground passed ; two links of the chain above-men- as it is divided into chains and poles tioned ; the twelfth spoke being on the index of the axis E, and into divided at its foot, for comprehend- links on the periphery C. ing the 25th link. G? is a small adjusting screw ; E, An iron axis, being a screw which being turned, the style may with 320 circumvolutions, each of be removed to the beginning of the 254 P E D PEL index, after the given line, in sur- veying or measuring land, has been ascertained in chains, poles, 8cc. H, represents a cross, or square, with sights, for determining per- pendiculars in land-measuring. It is suspended at its ends on the axis, whence it may be occasionally de- tached by a simple touch of the finger and thumb, when in use. Farther, this cross prevents the style from being revolved with the axiaby any accident. As the 320 divisions marked on the index of the axis E, describe a mile, the style F, after having passed over them, will stop: and, as it will now move round with the axis, it will carry with it the standard; which will strike on the wrist of the operator, and thus prevent him from proceeding to any farther dis- tance, till he withdraws his hand from between such standard and the axis. Having received this hint, he turns the screw G; puts the style F. back to the bottom of the index, and continues the revo- lution of the machine, till he has completed his course. Mr. Tugwell's contrivance is particularly calculated to prevent error in measuring land; as one per- son may thus survey with greater accuracy and expedition, than by the use of the chain alone. Be- sides, no fraud can possibly be com- mitted by labourers, in measuring task-work ; a circumstance of the utmost importance to agriculturists. The last contrivance, we have been requested to mention, is that of Mr. Ralph Gout, of Bunhill- row, London ; whose new pedro- meticral patent-watch differs from the instrument invented by Mr. Fraser, in this essential circum- stance, that the former is connect- ed with a time-piece, while the latter is combined with a compass. Those who live in the. metropolis. or visit places, the situation of which is known to the traveller, will perhaps give the preference to Mr. Gout's capped metal watch with a pedometer, which he manu- factures by subscription for 15/. 15«. (or the pedometer alone, for 8/. 8s.) :....on the other hand, we cfinceive, persons residing in the country, especially sportsmen, who are generally provided with a watch on their excursions, will probably find Mr. Fraser's pedometer, on account of its compass, the more useful instrument. PELLITORY-of-the-Wall, the Common, Parietaria officinalis, L. an indigenous plant, growing on old walls, and among rubbish; flowering from May to September. The leaves of this vegetable, when dry, exhibit a glassy appear- ance : and, if strewed on heaps of corn infested with weevils, are said to destroy these predatory in- sects. In cases of strangury (see Urine), three ounces of the ex- pressed juice of the plant, taken in- ternally, or, a fomentation made of the leaves, applied to the parts, are said to be of service, on account of its cooling and diuretic proper- ties. Although chemists pretend to have extracted considerable quantities of nitre from the pellito- ry, yet we doubt whether this herb would answer the trouble of boiling it, and crystallizing the salt-petre ; unless it were collected from such ground as is naturally impregnat- ed with nitrous particles, which may more easily be obtained from the earth itself. PELT-ROT,a disorder incident to sheep, in which the hair or wool falls off spontaneously. It arises from various causes, but PEN PEN 255 more especially in consequence of a sudden change from scanty or bad provender to full feeding; also from a local weakness in the skin, which parts with the wool; and, lastly, from the Scab, loosen- ing the hair at its roots. This malady may be prevented by pro- per attention to the animals ; by giving them wholesome food, and in regular proportions, particularly during the winter. Should it, how- ever, originate from the scab, the removal of that distemper will also cure the pelt-rot. PENNYROYAL, or Mentha Pulegium, L. an indigenous plant, growing on moist heaths and pas- tures ; flowering in the months of August and September. This herb possesses properties similar to those of the mint; but it is more acrid, and less agreeable to the palate. It has long been esteemed as an ape- rient and deobstruent, particularly in,hysteric and other female com- plaints. Hence, the distilled wa- ter is generally preferred ; though an infusion of the leaves would an- swer the purpose, without giving an opportunity for tippling. Dr. Withering observes,that the ex- pressed juice of pennyroyal, with a little sugar, is an useful medicine in the hooping-cough. PENNYWORT, the Marsh, or Hydroeotyle vulgaris, L. an in- digenous perrenial plant, growing in marshy or inundated grounds ; and flowering in the months of May and June. This herb is sup- posed to occasion the rot in sheep: it certainly contains an acrid, poi- sonous juice, which, according to Bechstf.in, produces in the ani- mals feeding on it, inflammations, bloody urine, and other mortal symptoms. Hence, evtiy indus- trious farmer will endeavour to eradicate the pennywort from his meadows. PEPPER, an aromatic berry, chiefly employed for culinary pur- poses. There are three species of this spice at present in use, which are known under the names of black, white, and long pepper. The first, or black-pepper, is the fruit of the Piper nigrum, L. a na- tive of the East Indies, where the berries are gathered in the month of October, and exposed to the sun for seven or eight days. They are at first green, but afterwards assume a red colour ; and on being divested of their external covering, they appear in the state in which the corns are used. The white-pepper is prepared by steeping the preceding sort in sea- water, and afterwards exposing it to the heat of the sun for several days, till the rind become loose. It is then taken out, half-dried, and rubbed till the husky shell sepa- rates ; after which the white fruit is perfectly dried. By this process, the spice is deprived of a consider- able portion of its heating property, and thus rendered more fit for va- rious purposes, than the native black pepper. There is, however, a kind of white pepper produced on a species of the Piper, that is far preferable to the factitious, and is little inferior to the black spice of that name. Long pepper is said to be ob- tained from a third species of the same genus of trees ; it is of a cy- lindrical form, about an inch and a half in length : its external sur- face appears to consist of several small grains, arranged in a spiral direction. Afl the species of pepper possess 256 PEP PER a strongly aromatic smell, and a hot, pungent taste. The long sort, being the most powerful, is gene- rally employed for medicinal pur- poses : the black is chiefly used in culinary preparations. On account of their heating and stimulating properties, however, the use of every sort requires some circum- spection. Pepper is an excellent spice, which should always be coarsely ground, and eaten only with fat, srnoaked, or tough animal food ; with cabbages, cucumbers, and other flatulent and « old vegetables; and likewise with fish, and all sub- stances that are difficult to be di- gested. On the Continent, this spice is highly esteemed for its efficacy in relieving flatulency, weak or, impaired digestion, and the giddiness which generally ac- companies the complaint last men- tioned. For this purpose, from six to ten grains are directed to be swallowed every morning, previ- ously to taking food: such prac- tice, however, ought to be adopted only in cases where the stomach is in a high degree vitiated ; or the patient has been habituated to the free use of spices and spirituous liquors. . Pepper-mint. See Mint. PEPPERWORT, DlTTANDER Pepperwort, or Poor-man's- Pepper ; Lepidium latifolium, L. an indigenous plant growing in meadows and pastures, where it flowers in the months of June and July. The whole plant possesses an extremely hot taste, not unlike pepper ; and the leaves are fre- quently employed by the country people, as asubstitute for that spice. It is esteemed an acrid antiscor- butic ; was formerly used instead of the Horse-radish Scurvy-grass; and may be easily propagated by its spreading roots. PERCH, the Common, or Perca fiuviatilis, L. is a well known Bri- tish fish, of a middling size, being covered with rough scales, and the back furnished with spiny fins. It frequents fresh water rivers and lakes, where it inhabits deep holes, and is exceedingly voracious. Perches are very tenacious of life, and have occasionally surviv- ed a journey of 60 miles, in dry straw....The smaller of these fish are said to be a very tempting bait for the Pike. The perch is a firm and delicate fish, being much esteemed at ta- ble. PERRI WINKLE, the Lesser, or Vinca minor, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing in woods and hedges : it flowers in the month of May....The leaves of this evergreen are smooth, glossy, and resemble those of the laurel: if suspended in a cask of wine re- cently filled, they not only clarify the liquor, but also improve its taste.....Glkditsch has success- fully tmployed the whole plant, while in blossom, for tanning leather. In Germany, the conn- try girls construct their garlands of these elegant leaves, during the winter. [PERSIMMON-TREE, Dios- pyros Virginiana, or American Prune, DaNi, or Plum, a well known and valuable native tree growing in all the states in the union, south of New-York, inclu- sive. The unripe plums are green and very astringent; towards win- ter they become of a light brick- dust colour, and when acted on by frost, are softened,and have a sweet agreeable tas':e. Ti9. 2. r -v / A A , f) _ t PER A fine transparent gum, of a light-brown colour, insipid to the taste, readily soluble in water, ex- udes from the body of the tree. According to Dr. Woodhouse's experiments on this tree, detailed in his Inaugural Dissertation, Phila- delphia, 1792, it appears, that the juice of the unripe fruit inspissat- ed in the sun, yields a large quan- tity of a brown, semi-transparent, astringent, gummy substance, of which common spirit dissolves a Jarger quantity, than spirit of wine, or the vegetable oils. The unripe fruit divided, well dried in the sun and reduced to powder, may be used as a valuable astringent reme- dy, in either the forms of powder, pills, or spirituous tincture, in all cases requiring astringents. Use of the Persimmon in the arts ...Dr. Woodhouse says, "The un- ripe juice of the plum, is prefera- ble to oak bark, for tanning. Al- lowing every tree to produce four bushels of fruit, and suppose three hundred trees cultivated, the quan- tity of gum resin, which would be produced, would be 1800 pounds, computing six pounds to a tree. The quantity of juice, would be several hundred gallons, which might be kept in barrels till want- ed for use. Country tanners should attend to this useful fact. As a Black Dye....Dr. W. dyed silk with an ink made of this sub- stance, which was as black, and bore washing as well, as that dyed with galls or log-wood. From an excellent Memoir upon this tree, by the late Isaac Bart- ram of Philadelphia, inserted in the first volume of the Amer. Phil. Trail-,, it appears, that from half a bushel of perfectly ripe fruit, mash- ed, and mixed with two gallons of water, and fermented with a small VOL. IV. PER 257 quantity of yeast, he produced half a gallon of proof spirit, of an agreeable flavour....Beer is also made from the fruit in Maryland, by boiling it. in water, strain- ing and fermenting it, and adding hops to prevent the fermentation from going too far. Bread is also made from the fruit, by mixing them as potatoes are with flour, in the case of potatoe bread. The wood of the tree which grows rapidly, burns nearly as well as our favourite hickory, and its ashes yield a large proportion of salts. The great value of this tree ought to induce farmers to cultivate it.] Perry. See Pear-tree. [PERSPECTIVE MACHINE. A simple machine for drawing in perspective, was invented by Mr. Bent. Dearborn, of Boston..... Fig. 1, A, B, C, D, (in the annex- ed plate) is a plain board, with the ledges E F and G H nailed on its upper side ; at E and G are notches to receive the ruler I K set in firm- ly edge-wise, upon this ruler slide the pieces M N and O P perpendi- cular to the board, the ruler pas- sing through the brasses M and O ; Q, R, S, T, are four pointers made of thin plate brass, and bent round the sliders, so that the point- ing ends are upon a fine with that side of the sliders which is next to the object to be drawn ; the other end of the brass, coming round the slider, acts as a spring to keep the pointer in any place assigned. L is a perpendicular standard, on the top of which is a piece of plate brass with a small hole for viewing objects. The standard should be so contrived, as to be set at any re- quired distance from the pointers, as the size of the draught will be in proportion to that distance. The Ll 158 PER PER board being firmly fixed level in a window, or elsewhere, place the eye at the hole, and bring the pointers to bear for some part of the object, as for the four corners of the distant house ; the instru- ment is then ready for drawing, which is thus clone. Having a drawing-board prepared as in Fig. 2d, with a sheet of paper fixed on it, take the ruler, with its sliders, out of Fig. 1 st, and carefully place it flat-wise in the notches of Fig. 2d, which are made in the pieces W and X, nailed on the drawing- board for that purpose : the point- ers, by being on the under side of the sliders, will then lie flat on the paper, and direct in drawing the lines from point to point, as Z Z Z Z for the front of the house ; this done, remove the ruler, he. to their former position in the other board, take other points of the building, and transfer them to the paper, in the same manner as be- fore : thus, in a short time, the whole building may be drawn with great accuracy." In the Trans, of the Royal Irish Academy, may be seen another ma- chine for perspective drawing, in- vented by Mr. Edgeworth.] PERUVIAN BARK, or Jesu- its' Bark, a well-known medicine obtained from the Cinchona, a na- tive of South America and the West Indies. Of this valuable tree, botanists have di .covered ten species; but the following only deserve particular notice, viz. 1. The officinalis, or Peruvian Bark-tree, which was introduc- ed into Europe by the Jesuits....It is of eminent use in fevers, espe- cially intermittents, which it sel- dom fails to remove, provided it be properly administered. The doses vary according to the age of the patient, the violence of the dis- order, and other circumstances; but, in vernal agues, this drug is often unnecessarily swallowed. Peruvian bark operates differ- ently on various constitutions: sometimes it causes vomiting, in which case it will be advisable to take it in Port-wine, with a view to check nausea or retching. If it induce looseness, such effect may be counteracted by combining the bark with opium; and, should it oppress the stomach, this inconve- nience may be remedied by the ad- dition of some aromatic. Beside its use in febrile disorders, dar/thas frequently been found of service in the confluent small-pox, by pro- moting the eruption, and suppu- ration of the pustules, while it tends to abate the violence of the fever. Nor has it been found less useful, both internally and exter- nally, in every species of gan- grene, if employed in sufficient quantities. Farther, this drug has often been successfully adminis- tered in contagious dysenteries; in passive hemorrhages, for obvi- ating the disposition to nervous or convulsive diseases; and, when combined with the vitriolic acid, it has been of essential service in the rickets, scrophuia, ill-conditioned ulcers: in the last mentioned cases, however, it will be advisable to adopt a milk-diet. 2. The Caribaa v. Jamaicensis, Carribbean, or Jamaica Bark- tree, grows to the height of fifty feet....The bark obtained from the trunk abounds with fibres, and is more woody than that from the branches and roots: the latter, when dried, breaks more easily, and is pulverized with greater facif lity than the Peruvian. The Ja- maica-bark is produced in the ut- PER PEW 159 most perfection on the north side of that island, where it is highly esteemed, on account of its very agreeable bitter, answering every purpose of that imported from Peru: nor does the former occa- sion any oppression at the sto- mach, vomiting, or nausea, but checks such disagreeable sensa- tions in remitting fevers ; and also in other cases where the stomach is disordered. 3. The Trifiora, or Triple- flowered Bark-tree, is like- wise a native of Jamaica, where it grows in the district of Manchineel, to the height of about 35 feet. Its bark is considerably thinner, and also more fibrous and red, than either of the preceding sorts ; and, on being pulverized, assumes a deep cinnamon colour. It posses- ses a musty, bitter, and astringent taste, and has been given for the cureof fevers, in doses of 20 grains, to adults; but, as it occasions great nausea and sickness, it is seldom employed. 4. The Floribunda, or St. Lucia Bark-tree, produces a very thin, fibrous rind, which possesses an extremely nau'seous bitter taste, and is remarkably astringent.... When fresh, it proves a violent emetic ; of which property it is not totally divested by age. This drug has cured both intermittent and remitting fevers, that had re- sisted the Peruvian bark : it is, however, seldom used, excepting in its native island ; or in cases where the latter has either failed to afford relief,or cannot be easily pro- cured. 5. The Brachycarfia, which was discovered about sixteen years since by Mr. Lindsay, an eminent sur- geon and botanist, then of West- moreland, in Jamaica. It seldom exceeds eight or ten feet in height; its bark is extremely smooth and brown; internally, itreoembles that of Peru in colour, but is more fi- brous....This species is less bitter, and more astringent than the com- mon bark, and has been given by Mr. L. in doses of 25 or 30 grains, with the greatest success, in inter- mittent, as well as remitting fevers. He has also administered it, with advantage, in the forms of tincture and of decoction, in various cases of dyspepsy or indigestion. If, therefore, a sufficient supply of this drug could be obtained it might prove an excellent substitute for the Peruvian bark. PEWTER, a compound of me- tal employed in the manufacture of plates, diriies, spoons, and similar domestic utensils. The basis of this metal ought to be tin, one cwt. of which being melted with I5lbb. of lead, and 6lbs. of brass, the whole forms what is called pewter. But there is another composition known by this nam'.', and which consists of differ- ent portions of tin, regulus of an- timony, bismuth, and copper: these, after being incorporated in- to one mass, over the fire, are manufactured into vessels like those of common pewter. From the dangerous properties of the ingredients employed for such domestic articles, great atten- tion will be requisite, to keep them constantly in a clean state, and to suffer no acids or fermented liquors to remain in those utensils.....We are persuaded that many hidden and unaccountable causes of dis- ease, especially of nervous and pa- ralytic affections, arise from a quar- ter where they are least suspected. See also in the articles, Cyder, and Lead. 260 P H E PHEASANT, or Phasianus, L. a genus of birds, comprising seve- ral species, of which the following are the principal, viz. 1. The Gallus. See Cock and Hen. 2. The Colchicus, or Common Pheasant, originally a native of Asia, and thus denominated from the river Phasis, in Mingrelia: it is one of the most beautiful birds, on account of the vivid colour, and diversity of its plumage. In Bri- tain, it inhabits woods, brakes, and thickets, in the day-time; and at night, roosts on the tops of the highest trees. Wild pheasants construct their nests of dry grass andleaves,among bushes ; and the female lays from twelve to twenty eggs in a season: the period of incubation extends to 24 days ; but the young, being un- able to provide themselves with food, would starve, if left solely to the protection of the hen......For breeding pheasants, five hens may be allowed to a cock; these, if put together in a farm-yard, will soon acquire habits of familiarity with the common poultry. Young pheasants are extremely difficult to be reared : their most proper food consists of ant's eggs, mixed with, curds, or sweet oats and barley, which must be given them with great exactness, both as to the quantity and the time of their meals. The place in which they are confined, should be kept thoroughly clean ; their water fre- quently changed; and the young birds not exposed to the dew of the morning, or allowed to ramble about, after sun-set. When diseased, a repast of ant's eggs will, in general, speedily pro- mote their recovery ; but, if this remedy prove unsuccessful, wood- PHO lice and earwigs, in equal propor- tions, seldom fail of restoring their health. As an article of food, the flesh of pheasants is esteemed one of the greatest dainties. [See Tetrao.] ' PHEASANT's-EYE, the Au- tumnal, Corn Adonis, Adonis Flower, Red Maithes, or Reb Morocco ; Adonis autumnalis, L. an indigenous annual plant, grow- ing in corn-fields, and flowering in the months of June and July.....It may be easily propagated from seeds, which ought to be sown in a light soil, in autumn, soon after they are ripe; as otherwise they seldom succeed. W hen the plants appear above ground, they should be carefully weeded, and occasion- ally watered in dry weather; but it will not be advisable to remove them till the autumn of the second year; when they may be trans- planted to the place of their desti- nation—The beautiful scarlet blos- soms of this plant, greatly recom- mend its culture in gardens ; incal- culable quantities of them being sold in the metropolis, under the name of Red Morocco Flowers. PHOSPHORUS, a term gene- rally given to such bodies as are luminous in the dark, without emit- ting heat or flame. According to modern chemists, phosphorus is asimple,inflammable substance, which cannot be decom- posed : when pure,it is transparent, and of a whitish colour; being slightly tenacious, and fusible in a degree of heat inferior to that of boiling water. It constitutes a part of all organized bodies, whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom. Thus, if wood be de- composed by putrefaction, in a cer- tain degree of heat and moisture, then broken into fragments, and PHO P H O 261 •xpesedtothe oxygen of the atmos- phere, it will become luminous in dark places. Putrescent veal also shines under similar circumstan- ces ; and likewise the sea-weeds visually employed in packing oys- ters. The existence of phosphorus in vegetables, was first ascertained by M. Margraaf, who observed,that farinaceous grains, when exposed in close vessels to an intense heat, in a peculiar degree possessed this property of emitting light. It has, farther, been discovered in sugar, gum-arabic, flower, dung, urine, bone-ashes, and every other animal and vegetable substance ; by the process adopted in preparing the artificial phosphori of Homberg, K.unkel, and other chemists. Properties of Phosphorus:...Cha- racters drawn on paper with solid phosphorus, will appear like a flame in the dark; though, in the light, a dense smoke only will be percep- tible : and, if such paper be held near the fire, the letters will imme- diately become black, and continue to be as legible as those formed with ink. Great caution, however, ought to be observed in making such experiments; because, if a particle of phosphorus be rubbed between two papers, they will im- mediately take fire, which cannot be easily extinguished; hence it will be advisable to keep this in- flammable matter continually im- mersed under water. As phosphorus exists in all vege» tables, Dr. Darwin conjectures that it forms one of the articles of their food, and is absorbed entirely by their vessels, as often as it oc- curs in a state of solution ; though it may also be occasionally formed, and secreted, by plants. In his •pinion, it essentially contributes to their growth, and imparts firm- ness to timber-trees....Sec Phos- phoric Acid. In a medicinal view, phosphorus has a remarkable effect on the hu- man frame; and, when adminis- tered with judgment and circum- spection, forms a very powerful and valuable remedy. According to M. Barchewitz, and other Continental writers, it has proved of essential service in paralytic,epi- leptic, melancholic, and maniacal attacks ; in every species of erup- tive fevers ; particularly in those where the eruption strikes in, and is accompanied with anxiety, con- vulsions, and other nervous symp- toms. He directs it to be given in doses of one grain, mixed with conserve of roses, or with any of the syrups....Farther, a variety of cases have lately been publishsd by M. Leroi, in France, who admi- nistered phosphorus internally with the greatest success, in consump- tive diseases ; in malignant fevers, where it effectually checked the progress of gangrene ; and espe- cially contributed to the recovery of persons who had been reduced by intemperance. So potent a medicine, however, ought to be employed only with the utmost caution, and under the immediate superintendance of a competent judge. Phosphoric Acid, is a pecu- liar acid, fixed in the fire, and com- posed of phosphorus, in combina- tion with oxygen. It constitutes a material part of hone-ashes, from which it may be easily extracted by calcination, in the following manner: Take a large glass-jar and dilute one pound of oil of vitriol with twelve pounds, or pints of water; then add gradually, under constant agitation of the mixture, 262 PHY PHY one pound and a half of finely pul- verized ashes of bones, calcined to whiteness. During this process, an effervescence takes place, and a very pungent odour is disengaged. The vitriolic acid now forms gyp- sum, or sulphat of lime, by com- bining with the calcareous earth of the ashes; and the phosphoric acid, thus separated, unites with the water....We have purposely inserted this experiment, as we have reason to believe that the phosphoric acid, when largely dilut- ed (for instance, in the proportion of one or two drams of the acid to every gallon of water) will prove highly fertilizing to the vegetable mould employed by gardeners. And, though we cannot sufficient- ly corroborate such conjectures from our own experience, yet there appears to be ample ground to re- commend farther trials to be made with this active and powerful agent. We have already remark- ed, that it exists throughout the vegetable kingdom, and is sup- posed (by one of our most pro- found inquirers into the arcana of Nature) to have a considerable share in the process of vegetation. It has also been discovered in the mineral kingdom ; for instance, in the apatite, or phosphat of lime ; and in the green lead-spar found at Zschopau, in Saxony....This acid produces similar effects in the animal economy with the solid phosphorus : and, when used as an ingredient in lemonade, M. Le- roi informs us, that it has proved of eminent service in the disorders above mentioned. Phrenzy. See Inflammation of the Brain. Phthisis. See Pulmonary Consumption. Physic. See Medicine. PHYSICIAN, an appellation given, in general, to those persons only, who exercise the medical profession, under the sanction of a diploma granted by an university, after a regular course of study. In a strict sense, every surgeon, or apothecary, who has received a li- beral education, and practises the healing art on scientific principles, is fully entitled to the same distinc- tion ; though he have not obtained the degree which constitutes 4 doctor of medicine.....Consistently with this explanation, we shall ven- ture to illustrate the official capa- city of a physician, with a few oc- casional remarks. When we consider the almost boundless acquisitions to be made in the different branches of natural knowledge, as well as in the prac- tical acquaintance with that com- plicated machine in which the hu- man mind acts the most conspicu- ous part; when we reflect on the various requisites to form the cha- racter of a true physician, and the great trust reposed in him by all ranks of society....it will not appear surprizing to the cool observer, that, in this honourable profession, the number of its adepts should be equally diversified by their talents, their claims to public favour, and their modes of action. A man, who maintains this im- portant station in society, ought, besides a competent share of knowledge, to possess a humane and sympathizing, though intre- pid, disposition of mind : he must be candid on all occasions, with- out any studied reserve, but cir- cumspect in his declaration to the patient; and, where danger is to be apprehended, nothing should deter him from concealing the probable termination of the case from parents, or the nearest rekti tions. Nor will a physician of a PHY liberal and enlightened mind, he- sitate to explain the reasons, or causes, which induced him to pre- scribe certain medicines, in pre- ference to others, perhaps differ- ing from those of his predecessor. And, if he cannot, on the spur of the moment, determine himself respecting the most proper treat- ment, instead of prescribing con- formably to the common routine of business, or copying a recipe from his memorandum-book, he will frankly inform the patient of the difficulty attending his compli- cated disease, and give the most appropriate directions for arrang- ing every part of his diet and regi- men. Thus, he cannot fail of ac- quiring confidence and credit; while he enjoys the pleasing sa- tisfaction, that he has acted con- sistently with his conscience, and the dignity of his profession. On the contrary, the man of bu- siness, when entering the sick- room, will previously direct his attention to the curtains, pictures, chairs, he. instead of examining with the most scrutinizing atten- tion the expressive countenance of the person, whose life perhaps de- pends on the first criterion, thus neglected. The truth of this re- mark must be obvious to every rational practitioner; though the result of it be not always of equal consequence. Having asked a few superficial questions (which are scrupulously repeated to every patient, and couched in the most concise phraseology, in order to save time and trouble) the man of business hastily feels the pulse ; and, as it were by inspiration, u rites a most elaborate and mys- terious prescription, which is al- ways obedient to his will :....a work of ten or at the farthest PHY 265 fifteen, minutes I Its effects, how- ever, are not so uniformly favour- able to the expectations, and san- guine hopes of the patient ^...ne- vertheless, after observing the ope- ration of the medicines swallowed, in consequence of the second, third, or fourth visit, the disease acquires a name and character, not only corresponding to the symptoms now evident, but like- wise to the definition given by the best nosologists. Thus, error is reconciled to error ; and the daily reward is collected, while Nature exerts herself under this struggle of symptoms, till she at length makes a critical effort, either for the recovery or dissolution of the patient. Such is said to be the practice of those physicians, who degrade their profession into a trade ; which is comparatively less respectable than that of the low- est mechanic ! Having hazarded these observa- tions on the usual routine of a modern, or fashionable, physician, we deem it our duty to point out those circumstances, and condi- tions, which deserve minute at- tention in the first exanwiation of a patient. In order to obtain a clear and complete view of chronical diseas- es, it will be requisite to proceed systematically, and to enquire into the following particulars : 1. Du- ration of the disease. 2. Age and sex of the patient. 3. His exter- nal form and constitution of body. 4. His usual occupations, trade, or rank in life. 5. Whether mar- ried or single. 6. Climate ; na- tive country ; and local situation with respect to dwelling. 7. Do- mestic circumstances and employ- ment, if connected with the disor- der. 8. Disposition of mind ; cha- 264 PHY PHY racter ; mode of thinking ; if in- fluenced by political or religious views. 9. Extent of his mental capacity, or cultivation of mind. 10. Favourite pursuits. 11. Usual intercourse, or society. 12. Parti- cular habits or customs. 13. Mode of living, with respect to food and drink. 14. Local or external af- fections. 15. The peculiar tem- perament. When these preliminary inqui- ries have been cautiously institut- ed, without intruding on the pa- tient ; or appearing too officious to his affable relations ; the systema- tic practitioner will next endeavour to ascertain the following data, leading to a more intimate know- ledge of the disease : 1. The coun- tenance of the patient. 2. His situation and posture in bed, or gait in the room. 3. His previous state of health. 4. The remedies and physicians he has employed on former occasions. 5. Idiosyncrasy, or peculiarity of constitution. 6. Instinctive propensities. 7. The prevailing character of diseases at the time, whether of an infectious, epidemic, or endemic nature. Lastly, in order to discover the exact deviation from a natural or healthy state, none of the following points ought to be disregarded ; though it should be impracticable to pay the most scrupulous atten- tion to each, at the first interview : namely, 1. The internal and exter- nal sensations of the patient. 2. The commencement and progress of the disease. 3. Pulse. 4. Breath- ing. 5. Muscular energy. 6. The appearance of the head and hair. 7. The throat and neck. 8. Deglu- tition, or swallowing. 9. The chest. 10. The abdomen. 11. Appetite for eating or drinking. 12. The back or vertebrae. 13. The anus. 14. Vision, and the eyes, eye-lids, region about the eyes, and lachry- mal glands. 15. The skin, with respect to its colour, and elasticity, 16. The nails. 17. The organ of smelling. 18. The prevalent taste in the mouth ; appearance of the tongue and palate, together with the lips. 19. The organs of hear- ing. 20. State of the bowels, whe- ther lax or costive. 21. Urine. 22. Insensible perspiration. 23.Ex- pectoration. 24. Nausea, retching, or vomiting. 25. The circulation of the blood. 26. The organs pe- culiar to the sex, and their func- tions. 27. Periodical evacuation* designed by Nature. 28. Sleep. Beside these general points, which relate to every individual, an experienced inquirer will adapt his questions to the particular age, sex, and condition of the patient:.... thus, children and young mothers; the nervous and hysteric ; the hy- pochondriac and melancholic ; each will suggest to his mind a different course for ascertaining the nature, seat, and origin of the disease. The result of this examination consti- tutes the difference between the: empiric, and the rational physician: the former cures symptoms, not unlike the sagacious old woman who has studied Hill's and Cul- pepper's Herbals, or Buchan's Domestic Medicine, and similar Fa- mily Physicians : but the chief ob- jecthof a medical philosopher, is the removal of disease, without neg- lecting the mitigation of painful symptoms ; provided they origin- ate from natural, not incidental causes ; or in other words, if they are connected with the state and progress of disordered functions. Who, then, will pretend, or be- lieve, that a task so important and complicated, can be accomplished PIC during the usual short visit paid by ifuhiemebte physician ? [PHYSIOGNOTRACE, an in- strument lately invented by Mr. Joav Hawkins of Philadelphia, by means of which, the outlines of the human fece may be taken in a minute, and so striking is the like- ness produced, that it may be im- mediately known. The person, whose portrait is to be taken, is seated upon a chair, with his cheek resting upon a pro- jecting piece of board, that the head may be kept steady in one po- sition. A brass ruler is then pas- Bed over the head and face, and a metallic pin, which makes parallel movements with the ruler,marks the exact profile upon a small sheet of paper. One of these machines is placed in Pealk's Museum in Phi- ladelphia, and has been used with success.] PICHURIM BEANS, are the fruit of the Fata Pichurim, a na- tive of South America ; and of which there are two varieties, known under the names of the Greater and Lesser Pichurim Beans. The pods of the latter con- tain a gross oil, which is obtained by bruising and submitting them to the action of a press. The for- mer, when reduced to powder, yield an essential oil by distillation. These beans possess considera- ble astringent properties, and were formerly employed, in doses of ten grains reduced to powder, in diarrhoeas and dysenteries. PICKLE, a kind of brine or li- quor, which is generally prepared of salt and nitre, with the occa- sional addition of spices, or aroma- tic herbs, for the preservation and seasoning of flesh-meat. Pickle also signifies vegetables preserved VOL. IV. PIC 265 by the use of vinegar and aroma- tics. See Pickling, of Vegetables. Under the articles Bacon and Brine, we have already stated the general requisites to a good pickle: we shall, therefore, only add a few particular directions relative to this subject. It has been ascertained by experience, that the best proportion of salt and nitre to that oibeef, is the following : Take 8lbs. of common salt, previously dried in a warm room, and l|oz. of salt-petre, like- wise in a dry and pulverized state, to every 112lbs. of meat: let the salts be properly incorporated be- fore they are applied. The beef should be perfectly fresh and cool; as otherwise it cannot be preserv- ed for a considerable time: the cask or vessel ought to be clean, dry, and provided with a moveable lid or cover, so as to support a weight on its top. Much, how- ever, depends on the exact propor- tion of the saline ingredients in the pickle ; and the accuracy with which these compound salts are distributed between the different layers of the meat; for if any ca- vities remain between the pieces so that air can penetrate and cir- culate through the interstices, it will be impossible to keep such meat many weeks, in an eatable state. A similar preparation may be used for pork, mutton and geese ; which last, however, should be di- vided at least into two equal parts. Thus, the farmers in Germany pickle the different kinds of meat above mentioned, together with their beef, in the same vessels ; chiefly with a view to fill up the vacant places at the sides, and pre- vent the corruption of the latter. Pickling, of vegetables, is one M M 266 PIC PIC of the modern refinements of lux- ury, which, in point of health, de- serves no commendation. It is effected by employing the strongest vinegar, together with the most heating spices. This compound is rendered still more efficacious by previously boiling the vinegar with cream of tartar, before the aroma- tics are added. In such state, most vegetable roots, plants, fruits, seeds, walnuts, Sec. may indeed be pre- served for any length of time, in order to stimulate the palate occa- sionally ; and as it is supposed to promote the digestion of animal food : but, as the nourishing juices of vegetables are thus decomposed and the fibrous or woody parts alone remain in the form of a sponge, we conceive such artificial preparations to be useless to a ro- bust stomach, and detrimental to the digestive organs of invalids, or delicate constitutions. When used in very small portions, and only with fi:t and tough animal food or fish, pickles may serve as substi- tutes for salt, mustard, horse-ra- dish, or pepper....It deserves far- ther to be remarked, that all pickles should be kept in earthen, but un- glazed vessels; no copper or ver- digrease must be employed; the air should be carefully excluded ; and the room in which they stand ought neither to be damp nor waim. PICTURE. aspecimen,or piece of painting, in which particular persons,or subjects, are represent- ed in colours, on wood, paper, can- vas. h>.:. Pictures form a valuable, though not a necessary, part of domestic furniture ; and, as they are liable to Ik come obscured by dust and smoke, or otherwise damaged, va- rious expedients have been con- trived to clean them. With this view, an ounce of tartar, and a si- milar quantity of glass-wort, may be boiled in a pint of water, till the liquor be reduced to one half, when it should be strained : while luke- warm, a sponge is to be dipped in the fluid, and rubbed over the pic- ture ; which must be washed im- mediately after with tepid water, and gently wiped till it becomes dry. A few whites of eggs are now to be beaten up, and applied with a feather to the painting, which will thus acquire a fine var- nish. As, however, the ingredients used by the painter often vary in different pictures, there can be no general rule given for removing superficial impurities ; because the success of the experiment entirely depends on the application of pro- per substances ; such as are capa- ble of combining with dust, smoke, Sec. without affecting either the varnish or colouring matter......... Hence, the safest process will be that in which the mildest means are employed ; of this nature is the following expedient: Let the picture be first taken our of the frame, then covered with a clean napkin, which should be moisten- ed with pure water, and suffered to remain in that state for a fort- night or longer, according to cir- cumstances. During this pcriod.the cloth should be occasionally wetted, till it has loosened or softened all the adventitious particles on the surface. A small quantity of pn- rified linseed-oil is now to be pas- sed over the picture, which will thus, in most instances, resume its former lustre. For cleaning very old pain'ivg*, it has been recommended to make a ley of rain-water and wood-ashes,. PIG or preferably with purified pearl- ashes ; and to cleanse them care- fully with this lixivium. Such ap- plications, however, as well as those of soap-water, spirits of wine, turpentine, &c. require to be em- ployed with great precaution ; be- cause they are apt to corrode the oil of the painting, and thus ex- pose the colours to material injury from the slightest friction. Alka- line solutions, or spirituous liquors, therefore, should be used only for particular spots, that have resisted the action of simple water, the oil of olives, or fresh butter. If these substances were timely resorted to, they would, in general, restore the picture to its pristine beauty, without affecting the delicacy of its shades. Pig-Nut. See Earth-Nut. PIGEON, or Columba, L. a ge- nus of birds, consisting of 70 spe- cies, of which the anas, or Domes- tic Pigeon, is a native of Britain. It is in general of a blueish ash-co- lour, and weighs from twelve to sixteen ounces. This bird, with all its numer- ous varieties of tumblers, carriers, powis, he. is derived from one spe- cies, denominated the stock-dove. In a wild state, it breeds in the holes of rocks, and in hollow trees; but is easily reclaimed, and indu- ced to build in artificial cavities, assigned for its habitation, where it becomes completely domesti- cated. Pigeons are uncommonly proli- fic ; and, though the hens, or Doves, lay only two eggs for each brood, yet those reared about the house, and suffered to fly abroad in quest of food, breed eight times in the year; nay, the species term- ed monthly pigeons, produce young ones almost every month: hence PIG 267 it has been computed, that from one pair of these birds, if proper- ly managed, the astonishing num- ber of 14,760 may be obtained in. the course of four years. It is far- ther remarkable, that the eggs laid in the afternoon are generally ad- dled ; that the dove sits on her eggs from three o'clock in the afternoon till eight in the morning; that the male performs this office dur- ing the rest of the time ; and that the term of incubation is from 17 to 20 days....Tlity attain an age of 12 years; though, after the fourth year, their fecundity begins to di- minish. An open situation and a free exposure to the sun's rays, equally contribute to their pros- perity ; while common salt and nitre ought to be frequently given them, in order to preserve their health. Pigeons are esteemed as a deli- cacy at the table, especially when young, and properly fed.......their dung is an excellent manure for particular soils; beside which, these birds are of great service in farms where wheat is chiefly cultivated ; because they devour the seeds of weeds, that would otherwise im- pede the growth of the corn. PIGEON-HOUSE, or Dove- cote, a structure usually tree-tad of wood, for the accommodation and rearing of pigeons. Dove-cotes ought to be built of a moderate height, and spacious, so_ that the birds may find sufficient room to fly about them with ease; and, in case any external object should alarm them, that they may readily escape. In constructing the nests, it will be advisable to interweave wickers, in imitation of those formed by wild pigeons; as they will thus be more easily domesticated, and have no in- 268 PIG PIG ducement to forsake their habita- tions. Should any repairs become ne- cessary in the cote, or in the nests, it will be proper to complete them before the middle of the day ; be- cause, if the pigeons be disturbed in the afternoon, they will not rest quietly during the night, and the greater part will perhaps sit moping on the ground, till the ensuing day : such unfavourable accidents, in the breeding season, will either occasion the destruction of many eggs in embryo; or if there should be any nestlings, they will conse- quently be sta* ved. In Mr. Parkinson's Experienc- ed Farmer, we meet with a remark made by a skilful pigeon-breeder, who cautioned him " against let- ting the first-flight fly to increase his stock," but advised him to take them without exception ; because they will otherwise appear at the Bentingseason, that is, between seed-time and harvest, when pi- geons are very scarce, and many of the young birds would pine to death, from mere weakness. Pi- geons rise early: and, as they re- quire to be supplied with food only during the benting season, it should not be carried to the cote later than three or four o'clock in the morning : for, if it be served long after that hour, they will ho- ver restlessly about the house, and thus be prevented from taking their proper exercise. During the greater part of the year, they ought to provide their own food ; as they will find abundance in the fields, from the commencement of har- vest to the end of sowing season : on the contrary, those which are constantly fed at home, will not be prolific. The spring-flight generally ap- pears in the month of April or May ; when all the eggs, which have been laid too late, must he removed. And, as the weather becomes cold after the harvest, tie parent bird should not be suffered to sit so late as to be injured ; for, though the young ones be hatch- ed, they will be weakly, and use- less ; a warm situation being most suitable to their nature. The utmost cleanliness ought to prevail in pigeon-houses: hence the holes should be carefully exa- mined, before the breeding-season arrives. If any of the young die during the summer, they will spee- dily become putrid, and emit a disagreeable stench, which is ex- tremely injurious to the inhabi- tants of the dove-cote : thus, from the insupportable filth, and smell, they ate often unwillingly compell- ed to quit the eggs laid for a se- cond brood *, so that the principal part of the season is lost. Far- ther, as pigeons are very liable to be infected with fleas, all the nests ought to be cleaned; and, if it be conveniently practicable, they should be washed out, and the dung, or other impurities removed,- im- mediately after the first flight is hatched: this business, however, should, on all occasskms, be per- formed at an early hour in the morning ; and the remaining eggs must likewise be removed, so as to render the habitation perfectly clean for the harvest-flight. Thu9 managed, pigeons will thrive and multiply to an uncom- mon degree ; but, as they have a great antipathy to owls, which sometimes enter their habita- tions, such intruders must be im- mediately destroyed. Rats, cats, weasels, and squirrels, are likewise their mortal enemies, and will PIG speedily depopulate a whole dove- cote. To prevent these depreda- tions, it will be necessary to exa- mmethe different avenues tothe pi- geon-house, regularly oncea week, oroftencr, and with minute atten- tion. Among the most common dis- ese as of these birds, are, a speciesof itch, and a pnstular eruption re- sembling the small-pox ; either of which may be cured by mixing small quantities©! crude antimony, in powder, with pure water, for their daily drink, till the skin ap- pear perfectly clear. From Mr. Pxkkinsoh's book before quoted, we learn, that a fdgevn-eonjnrer, wbO) by fascinating means effected the return of his emigrant birds, together with a colony of strangers, employed sate and a$a-f0tida, as the principal ingredients in his se- cret composrtort. Those of oar readers, who wish to acquire more extensive informa- tion, respecting 288 P L O PLO der Inflammation of the Lungs, to which article the reader is refer- red. PLOUGH, in agriculture, a ma- chine for breaking or turning up the soil, by the draught of cattle. No implement has more essen- tially contributed to the comforts of mankind than the plough: for, without this contrivance, much time, labour, and expence, would be wasted, in digging the ground, and preparing it for the reception of seed. Hence, ingenious men have invented a variety of ploughs, but, as a detail of their various constituent parts, would exceed our limits, we shall confine our attention to an account of such machines as deserve more parti- cular notice. [The great points to be attended to in ploughing, are, 1. to open a fair regular furrowr, and 2, to do this, with as little resistance as pos- sible. It is believed that these advantages are to be obtained, by the use of a plough, to which the mould board invented by Thomas Jefferson, is affixed: and of which the annexed views will give a clear idea. The following account of this mould-board, and of the principles upon which it is constructed, are taken from a communication ad- dressed to Sir John St. Clair, in 1798, then president of the Bri- tish board of agriculture? and in- serted in the 4th vol. of the Trans- actions of the American Phlosophi- cal Society, vol. A fi. 314. " The mould-board should be a continuation of the wing of the ploughshare, beginning at its hin- der edge, and in the same plane. Its first office is to receive the sod horizontally from the wing; to raise it to a proper height for being turned over; and to make, in its progress, the least resistance possi- ble ; and consequently to require a minimum in the moving power. Were this its only office, the wedge would offer itself as the most eligi- ble form in practice. But the sod is to be turned over also. To do this, the one edge of it is not to be raised at all; for to raise this would be a waste of labour. The other edge is to be raised till it passes the perpendicular, that it may fall over with its own weight. And, that this may be done, so as to give al- so the least resistence, it must be made to rise gradually from the moment the sod is received. The mould-board then, in this second office, operates as a transverse, or rising wedge, the point of which sliding back horizontally on the ground, the other end continues rising till it passes the perpendicu- lar. Or, to vary the point of view, place on the ground a wedge of the breadth of the ploughshare, of its length from the wing back- wards, and as high at the heel as it is wide : draw a diagonal on its upper face from the left angle at the point to the right upper angle of the heel : bevil the face from the diagonal to the right-bottom- edge which lies on the ground. That half is then evidently in the best form for performing the two offices of raising and turning the sod gradually, and with the least effort: and if you will suppose the same bevil continued across the left side of the diagonal ; that is, if you will suppose a straight line, whose length is at least equal to the breadth of the wedge, applied on the face of the first bevil, and moved backwards on it parallel jjr7 Past. Fig. J. /$£/•'^ tL Bamltl 3d P L O P L O 280 with itself and with the ends of the the weight of the sod shall prepon- wedge, the lower end of the line derate over its elasticity. This is moving along the right-bottom- an angle of nearly 22°. The edge, a curved plane will be gene- block must be 12 inches high, be- rated, whose characteristic will be cause, unless the mould-board be a combination of the principle of in height double the depth of the the wedge in cross directions, and furrow, in ploughing friable earth, will give what we seek, the mould- it will be thrown in waves over the board of least resistence. It offers mould-board: and it must be 3 too this great advantage, that it feet long, one foot of which is ad- may be made by the coarsest work- tied to form a tail-piece, by which man, by a process so exact that its it may be made fast to the plough- form shall never be varied a single handle. The first operation is to hair's breadth. One fault of all give the first form to this tail- other mould-boards is that, being piece, by sawing the block, Fig. 2. copied by the eye, no two will be across from a. b. on its left side, alike. In truth it is easier to form (which is 12 inches from its hin- the mould-board I speak of with der end) along the line b. c. to c. precision, vvhen the method has within \\ inches of the right side, been once seen, than to describe and to the corresponding point in that method either by words or the bottom, lj inches also from -figures. I will attempt however the side. Then saw in again at to describe it. Whatever may the hinder end from d. e. {1 *- in- notbe intelligible from the descrip- ches from the right side) along the tion, may be supplied from the mo- line d. c. The block a. b. c. d. e. del I send you. f. g. drops out and leaves the tail- " Let the breadth and depth of the piece c. d. e. h. i. k. 1 J-inches furrow the farmer usually opens, thick. The fore part of the block as also the length of his plough- a. b. c. k. I. m. n. is what is to form bar, from where it joins the wing the real mould-board. With a to the hinder end, be given ; as carpenter's square make a scribe these fix the dimensions of the all round the block at every inch. block of which the mould-board is There will of course be 23 of them. to be made. Suppose the furrow Then from the point k. Fig. 2. and 9 inches wide, 6 inches deep, and 3. draw the diagonals k. m. on the the plough-bar 2 feet long. Then top, and k. o. Fig. 3. on the right the block, Fig. 1. must be 9 in- side. Enter a saw at the point m. ches wide at bottom {b. c.) 13£ being the left-fore-upper corner, inches wide at top, {a. d.) because and saw in, guiding the hinder if it were merely of the same width part of the saw along the diagonal with the bottom as a. e. the sod, m. k. (Fig. 2. 3.) and the fore part only raised to the perpendicular, down the left edge of the block at would fall back into the furrow by the fore-end m. I. (Fig. 2.) till it its own elasticity. I find from ex- reaches k. and /. in a straight line. perience, that, in my soil, the top It will then have reached the true of the mould-board should overjet central diagonal of the block X:. /. the perpendicular A\ inches in a Fig:. 5. then enter the saw at the height of J2 inches, to insure that point o. being the right-fore-bot- vol. iv. P p 290 P L O PLO torn corner, and saw in, guiding the hinder part of the saw along the diagonal o. k. (Fig. 3.) and the fore part along the bottom edge of the fore end o. I. till it again roach- es k. I. Fig. 5. the same central diagonal to which you had cut in the other direction. Consequent- ly the pyramid k. m. n. o. I. Fig. 4. drops out and leaves the block in the form Fig. 5. You will now observe that ii in the last opera- tion, instead of stopping the saw at the central diagonal k. I. we had cut through the block in the same plane, we should have taken off a wedge /. m. n. o. k. b. Fig. 3. and left the block in the form of a wedge also /. o. k. b. a. p. k. which, when speaking of the principle of the mould-board, I observed would be the most perfect form if it had only to raise the sod. But as it is to be turned over also, the left half of the upper wedge is preserved, to furnish on the left side, the con- tinuation of the bevil which was proposed to be made on the right half of the bottom wedge. YV e are now to proceed to the bevil, for which purpose the scribes round the block were formed before the pyramidal piece was taken out; and attention must be used not to mismatch or mistake them, now that they are disjoined by the with- drawing of that piece. Enter the saw on the two points of the 1st scribe where it has been disjoined, which is exactly where it intersect- ed the two superficial diagonals, and saw across the hollow of the block, guiding the saw, both be- fore and behind, along the same scribe, till the fore part of the saw reaches the bottom edge of the right side, and the middle of the saw reaches the central diagonal; the hinder part will of course con- tinue the same straight line, which will issue somewhere on the top of the block. Then enter the saw in like manner on the two projec- ting points of the 2nd scribe, and saw in, along the scribe, before and behind, till it reaches the same bottom edge of the right side, and the central diagonal. Then the 3d, 4th, 5th, Sec. scribes succes- sively. After cutting in several of the earlier scribes, the hinder part of the saw will issue at the left side of the block, and all the scribes being cut, the saw will have left straight lines from the bottom edge of the right side of the block, across the central diagonal. With an adze dub off all the sawed parts to the bottoms of the saw-marks, just leaving the traces visible, and the face of the mould-board is fi- nished. These traces will shew how the cross wedge rises gradu- ally on the face of the direct wedge, which is preserved in trace of the central diagonal. A person may represent to himself, sensibly and easily the manner in which the sod is raised on this mould-board, by describing on the ground a pa- rallelogram 2 feet long and 9 in- ches broad, as a.' b. c. d. Fig. 6. then rest one end of a stick 27A inches long on the ground at b. and raise the other 12 inches high at e. which is A\ inches from el, and represents the overhanging of that side of the mould-board...... Then present another stick 12 in- ches long from a. to b. and move it backwards parallel with itselfi from a. b. to el. c. keeping one end of it always on the line a. d. and letting the other rise as it recedes along the diagonal stick b. c. which represents our central diagonal. The motion of the cross stick will be that of our Firing wedge, and PLO P L O 291 will shew how every transverse line of the sod is conducted from its first horizontal position, till it is raised so far beyond the perpendi- cular as to fall reversed by its own weight. But to return to our work. We have still to form the under side of the mould-board. Turn the block bottom up. Enter the saw on the 1st scribe, at what was the bottom edge ofthe left side, and cut in, guiding the instrument at both ends by the scribe, till it has approached within an inch, or any other distance according to the thickness you choose, of the face. Then cut in like manner all the other scribes, and with the adze dub out the sawed parts, and the mould-board is done. It is to be made fast to the plough by resting the toe in the hinder edge of the wing, which must be made dou- ble like a comb-case, to receive and protect the fore end of the mould-board. Then pass a screw through the mould-board and helve of the ploughshare, where they touch each other, and two others through the tail-piece of the mould- board and right handle of the plough, and cut off so much of the tail-piece as projects behind the h.mdle, diagonally, and the whole is done. " I have described this operation in its simplest mode, that it might be the more easily understood. But, in practice, I have found some other modifications of it advanta- geous. Thus, instead of first form. ing my block as a. b. c. d. Fig. 7. where a. b. is 12 inches, and the :ingle at b. a right one, I cut a wedge-like piece b. c. e. off the bottom through the whole length of the block, b. r. being equal to thethickness ofthe bar ofthe share (suppose 1^ inches) because the face ofthe wing declining from the top of the bar to the ground, were the block laid on the share, with- out an equivalent bevil at its bot- tom, the side «. b. would decline from the perpendicular, and a. d. from its horizontal position....... Again, instead of leaving the top of the block 13\ inches wide from m. ton. Fig. 8. I cut a wedge from the right side. n. k. i. c. p. n. \\ inches thick at top, and tapering to nothing at bottom ; because I find that the tail-piece, being by this means made oblique, as c. i. instead of k. i. is brought more ad- vantageously to the side of the handle. The first superficial di- agonal is consequently brought from m. to c. and not from m. to k. as in the first directions." In a letter (of 19th August, 1803,) with which the editor was favoured from Mr. J. on the sub- ject of his mould-board, he says ; " I have since thought of an alter- ation in the form of that mould- board, which would recommend it more to common opinion, and perhaps improve it. In the one described in the Phil. Trans, the toe of the mould-board is at a right angle with the bar, and is lodged in a duplication of the hinder edge of the wing like a comb-case. But I would propose to make that duplication parallel with the fore edge of the fin, and two or three inches back from it, consequently the mould - board would be pointed at the toe, in- stead of being square. To do this, after the pyramidal block is cut out, the fore-right comer of the block should be sawed off by a line leading from the fore-left cor- ner, paralell with the fore edge of the wing. This being done, the bevil is to be formed by exactly 292 P L O the same process, as in the first description. The principle of this is rigorously the same with the first ; it is only one of those ac- commodations of it to different circumstances and views, which practice may produce. It will probably enter and pass on with less resistance ; but it will at the same time lose a beautiful and advantageous effect, which I ob- served produced by the first form, which being flat in front like a wedge, the earth of the furrows rising on it, kept it steadily in the ground, without any wabbling, and without any effort of the plough- man. Its motion was as smooth as that of a ship through the wa- ter in a steady wind, and smooth surface." '* These variations will be easy to any one after understanding the general principle. While these mould-boards have been under trial, and essays have been mak- ing of greater or less projection for the upper right edge of the block, and of different heights in proportion to the depth of the fur- row, I have continued to make them of wood. But now satisfied by a sufficient experience, that for a furrow of 9 by 6 inches, the di- mensions I have stated are the best, I propose to have the mould- board made of cast iron. " I am sensible that this descrip- tion may be thought too lengthy and elaborate for a subject, which the hardly been deemed worthy of h-is application of science. But if th^ plough be in truth the most useful of the instruments known to man, its perfection cannot be an idle speculation. And in any case whatever, the combination of a theory which may satisfy the learned, with a practice intelligible PLO to the most unlettered labourcr,will be acceptable to the two most use- ful classes of society." Robert Smith, of the Town- ship of Buckingham, Bucks Coun- ty, Pennsylvania, has obtained a patent from the United States, for a cast mould-board plate, con- structed upon mathematical prin- ciples, which is much approved of. The editor has been favour- ed with a copy of the specification, but as no figures explanatory of the progress of the work accom- panied it, any description would be unintelligible*. He will there- fore only add the following useful remarks by Mr. Smith, on the construction of ploughs. " In constructing ploughs the beam ought to be placed directly over the land side of the plough, so that the cut of the coulter may be square with the cut of the share ; and the land should be given to the plough, between the coulter mortice, and the fore end of the beam : for if the cutting of the share and coulter makes an acute angle in the land, then the plovgh will incline to fall to the right; but if it makes an obtuse angle, then it will in-line to fall to the left. A plough for two horses ought to be not less than nine inches, nor more than ten inches wide in the bottom, and for three horses, from eleven to twelve inches wide. The share should never differ much in width from the plough. The cut of the share and bottom of the plough, should be exactly in one plane. A three horse plough requires no land in its construction. A crook of three * The patentees agents, are llobtson and Paul, Philadelphia. PLO P L O 293 inches and a half in the beam, be- fore the coulter mortice to the right, will suffice for the land of a two horse plough. A plough with a long beam runs the steadiest, and it being long, prevents the plough from kicking ; and long shafts gives the ploughman a greater command of its direction. The cast iron plate ought to be scoured with a grit stone before it is used." In ploughing down weeds, or long stubble, it is well known, that much trouble is experienced from the difficulty with which they are completely buried. To remedy this a farmer of Pennsylvania, con- nected, loosely, one end of a small chain to the end of the large swin- gle tree, and the other end to the coulter, with the desired effect.] The Rotherham-Plough is too well known to require any descrip- tion of its various parts : its simpli- city, together with the facility of its draught, have recommended it in preference to the unwieldy ma- chines formerly used in Scotland, wid various parts of England..... This valuable implement has, with- in a few years, been reduced in size, and otherwise improved, by Mr. Small, of Bosebank ; who, we understand, obtained a patent for his contrivance. In its present state, the wood-work is composed of ash or elm ; and the plough differs from that commonly used, chieliy in the bridle, with which it is furnished at the end of the beam : this enables the ploughman to give the implement a more ef- fectual power of action, and also by means of certain holes that are made in the beam, to cut the soil to a ;■rente, or less depth, as occasion may require. Another peculiarity that distinguishes the Rotherham from the common plough, consists in the coulter and share, which are so constructed, and fixed, as to cut off the new furrow, without tear- ing it. Lastly, according to Mr. Small's plan, the mould-board being a plate of cast-iron, is so carved as to make less resistance to the earth turned up, and conse- quently requires a smaller force to draw it,thanthe common ploughs ; while the furrow is gradually laid over to its proper position....This ploughisnot provided with wheels; is light and convenient; it costs, we believe, from 40 to 50s ; and deserves to be introduced into the southern counties. The Kentish Turn-wrest Plough consists of an oak beam, about ten feet in length, five inches in depth, and four inches in breadth ; to the end of which is tenoned afoot, or piece of timber (3-J- feet long, 4 inches thick, and 31 inches broad) that is mortised at the bottom, to the end of the chep. The handles are fixed on the lop of the beam, through which, at the distance of two feet five inches from the foot, is passed a sheath of oak, seven inches in width, and an inch and a half thick, being mortised into the chep in an oblique direction, so that the point ofthe share will be two feet ten inches asunder from the beam. The ch-.p is five feet in length, four inches in width, and five deep : to this is fined the share, which weighs about 32 lbs. and is manufactured of hauuneied iron, being one foot eight inches in length, and from four and a half to seven inches wide at the point. The upper end of the beam is supported on a carriage, fur- nished with two wheels, that are three feet two inches in height ; on the a.-.ic-tree of which a gal- 294 P L O P L O lows is placed, and provided with a sliding bolster, for the purpose of raising or lowering the machine. A clasp-iron likewise enters through the axle, to which a strong chain, or a tow passing over the beam, is fixed in such a manner, that the plough may, by means of notches, or a pin known under the name of a check, be let out to a greater length from the axle ; and will consequently penetrate more deep- ly into the earth. We have been induced to give this description of the Kentish Plough, because it is an instilment of great strength, and eminently calculated for rocky and hilly coun- tries, as it turns the soil to a consi- derable depth, lav ing it perfectly level, without making any furrow, or opening; a circumstance of equal advantage and importance, in dry situations....The price of the drawing, is computed to be about five guineas. A valuable implement has very lately been introduced into the county of Lancaster,by Mr. Duck- ett, jun....lt is denominated a Trench-plough, and furnished with two shares, one being directly over the other, so that one narrow su- perficial furrow may be drawn from the surface of the soil, while ano- ther, at a moderate depth, is taken off beneath. This machine is v/ell adapted for ploughing-in green crops, or long dung, by way of manure ; and, if the surface of the soil he foul, it may be turned un- der, and fresh soil brought up, from the deph of 10 inches, by employing three horses. The earth being thus loosened, the roots of plants are enaHvd to strike down- wards without any impediment; p.r.d, while the land is drained, and exposed to the influence of the air, it is thereby considerably im- proved. The Scalp-plough, or Extirpa- tor, as it is generally termed, was lately invented by Mr, IIaywakd, of Stoke-Ash, in the county of Suf- folk. Its beam is seven feet in length, and is furnished with two handles. The shares are eight inches broad, nine in length, and are fixed to stalks, about ten inches in height, and eleven inches asun- der. Such implement may be adapted to the wheels of a common plough, and will penetrate the soil to a greater or less depth, in a simi- lar manner. The object of this contrivance is, the eradication of weeds, and the clearing of plough- ed lands for seed ; in which respect it is said to be more ser- viceable than any other instru- ment. Before the extirpator is employed, the soil ought to be once ploughed ; and, if it have lain fal- low during a summer, the scalp is passed over it twice ; namely, the first time about two inches deep, and the next, in a transverse direc- tion, at the depth of about four inches. This operation, together with harrowing the ground once, will not only destroy all weeds, but will pulverize and prepare the soil for the reception of seed, whether drilled, or broad-cast. Farther, if lands, intended for the production of spring-crops, be ploughed in autumn, and the ex- tirpator be afterwards passed over them, they will be rendered fit for immediate sowing...This maehine may be drawn either by two or by three horses, according to the nature of the soil, and the depth required : it possesses the pecu- liar advantage, that it may be %ff *■ PLO P L O 295 worked on all arable land, by any person capable of directing a plough, and that it will turn over an acre of ground, in one hour, without fatiguing either horses or oxen....Should the soil, howeverhc overrun with weeds, it will be ad- visable to plough it with the scalp, twice; and, in some cases, three times ; a short space being allow- ed to intervene, with a view to de- prive the weeds of .their vegetat- ing power. Among the most valuable im- plements that have, within a few years, been constructed and adopt- ed in this country, is the Bever- stone Plough, designed, or at least improved, by the ingenious Mr. Llwin Tugwkll, of Beverstone, in the county of Gloucester. [It is believed that this plough has never been introduced into the United States; but as it is highly praised, a plate of it has been an- nexed from the Annals of Agricul- ture.] Dimensions of the Beverstone I'lough. Feet .Inches. A to B - -24 A.....C - - 2 5 C.....D - - li D.....E ,- -'2 5 Diameter of the wheel 1 9 1) to F - . o 11 <;.....ii - - o ioi K.....I - - 1 3| K.....L - -09 Breadth at the heel : 0 9 Breadth of the fin 0 7 Top of beam at the Ik el to the groui-.d - 0 8£ 1 he mould-beard projects at the tup, mwre than the Feet. Inches. breadth at the heel 0 6 1 to 2 - - 6 0 3.....4 - - 3 8 3.....5 - - 4 3 5.....6 - - 2 5 7.....6 - - 2 8 1.....5 - - 1 5 1.....8 - 2 10 1.....9 - - 3 8 From the heel to the tuck- hole of the share 2 6£ From the tuck-hole to the point of the share 0 8i This excellent machine, which considerably varies from the Ro- therham, and other valuable ploughs, gained the prize at the ploughing match in 1798, held near Pipers-Inn, Somersetshire, under the patronage of the Bath and West of England Society. It may be easily worked by a pair of oxen, without a driver ; and, on account of its'simplicity, we believe that the representation, now giv- en, will be sufficient to guide a skilful mechanic in the construc- tion of a similar implement. [Mr. Arthur "Young, makes the following remarks upon this plough: " This plough I saw working, drawn by a pair of oxen, and with- out a drivt r. The structure of the plough demands several tri- als. The line 5 K 6, has an ea- sy wedge-like entrance into the ground, and is free from that ob- tuse angle which is prejudicial in many ploughs; but the depth from G to 11 being only ten inches and a half, or but an inch and a half more than at K L, should seem to indicate a fitness only for a shallow furrow. But the great question, is, the utility of the wheel uf.parmu*, and the diautrht 296 P L O to a wheel plough not being ap- plied to the axis of the wheel : these points should be ascertained by varied experiments. There are reasons for believing that the draught in ploughs should be above that line. The height of the wheel is a m iterial object in ploughs, as well as in carriages: and of this I know but one conclu- sive experiment, that of Mr. Ar- cs o f e £^ a The handle, one only being ustcl: its length is six feet, and mortised into the beam at b ; c the b.nim, six feet eleven inches long ; d the coulter fifteen inches long, ten and a half wide, wedged as usual ; e the cone or mole made of cast iron, twenty inches long, and two and a half in diameter at its base ; having an upright piece of bar iron, two feet long, and three inches and a half broad, with a sharp edge, which passing through the beam at /, is held fast by wedges, and the pin g, being put through one of the holes in the bar, serves to regulate the depth of the cavity below the surface of the land, the lo-ter side of the beam bring in contact with the ground during the working.] Beside these, now described, se- veral other piau^lio have been con- P L O burthnot's drain plough, which by this only, was reduced from twelve to eight horses." Under the head Drain, (vol 2d, p. 363,) an account is given by Dr. Wii.lich, of Scott's mole- ploit^h. We have since been en- abled to procure a drawing of this itnplinient, from which the follow- ing cut is taken. trived for particular purposes; hut, having already given an account of the most valuable improvements, under the heads of Draining, and Drilling, we shall conclude the present article with a description (extracted from M. Simonds's " Tableau de I'Agriculture Tos- cane," 8vo. Geneva, 1S01) of two ploughs, that are used in Tuscany, as well as in other parts of Italy ; and which, from the simplicity of their construction, deserve to be more generally known. The first is denominated the Greater Tuscan Plough : the sock is an iron plate,somewhat concave, which is from eight to nine inches, both in breadth and in length ; it is sharpened on every side so as to divide the soil in an horizontal di- rection, and with great ease. The coulter is perpendicular upon the PLO P L O 297 angle of the sock; and a moveable board (versoir) is placed flat over the chep, in such a manner as to form a continuation of the sock, and to pass under the clod which the latter has raised: but, as it describes a curve on the side oppo- site to that of the coulter, it devi- ates from the line, and is turned upside-down, together with the soil which it has received. The imple- ment, thus constructed, meets with the smallest possible resistance in working the ground ; its sock di- vides the earth with a facility equal to that of a common spade; and, as its motion is continued, it aoquires greater power of action than the latter:.....the coulter also, being- vertical, passes on with less diffi- culty than such as are always in an inclined position. Lastly, the Ita- lian mould-board being flat, re- ceives the soil from the sock, which it turns over to the side, without increasing the resistance encountered by the implement, in consequence of this secondary op- eration. The Lesser Tuscan Plough, cf which the following representation will afford a tolerably distinct idea, (MXM&ti(Q& -ir^zr is lighter, and more deminutive in all its dimensions, than the preced- ing. Its sock is of a similar shape, but the coulter is perpendicular be- neath its beam, between the course of the sock; and instead of the .mould-board (of which this ma- chine is destitute), its broad chep is formed in the shape of a plane (doloirej, so as to turn the earth equally on both sides. In order to work the plough, the labourer con- VOL. IV. ducts it between each border (plate-bandej, which he divides at a single stroke, thrusting the soil of either side towards the fur- row of the preceding year : and, while the latter is nearly filled up, he forms the trench, which is to continue open during the next sea- son ; so that the soil is alternately stirred, according to the system of Mr. Tull ; being sown one year, and serving as a furrow in the sub- Q beauty of their costly feathers, we shall insert the following methods of cleaning them :.... White plumage may be ef- fectually bleached by dipping it in the oxygenated muriatic acid, or bleaching liquor of Berthollet; tod, if this cannot be easily pro- P O I 301 cured, by simply immersing it for a few hours in pure water acidu- lated with oil of vitriol, in the pro- portion of six or eight drops of the latter, to every ounce of the for- mer ; then drying the feathers in the sun, or at a distance from a fire.....Variegated plumage may be cleaned and restored to its former brightness, by gently wiping it with a soft sponge dipped in spirits of wine ; and, after it has been gradually dried, by moistening the downy part with a filtered solution of gum-arabic, or tragacanth ;...- then cautiously exposing the tops and sides to the heat of a bright fire, in order to curl their extre- mities. POISON, a term denoting any matter that may prove detrimental, and frequently fatal, to the life of animals, whether it be taken in small portions by the mouth, mix- ed with the blood, or applied to the nerves by friction of the skin, or other means. Poisons are divided into vegeta- ble, animal, and mineral; but, as we "state the particular substances, together with theit appropriate re- medies, in their alphabetical order; and, having already given the ge- neral precautions in case any poi- son have been swallowed (under the article Antidotes), we shall at present add a few suplementary directions, to be followed in those situations, where poisoning has ei- ther actually taken place, or is strongly suspected. I. In order to ascertain the na- ture of the deleterious matter, the remainder of the poisoned aliment (if any) should first be examined. The patient, as well as the persona present,oughtlikewise to be strictly interrogated, and the symptom* accurately investigated. 302 POK II. The next measure necessary to be pursued, is to learn the por- tion of the poison taken into the stomach: whether it was admi- nistered by mistake in medicine, food, drink, or in any other form. In this case also, attention must be paid to the symptoms, such as vio- lent looseness, nausea, and vomit- ing, convulsions, swelling of the face, &c...Lastly, the time elapsed since the swallowing of the poison, and the antidotes given, together with their operation, should be minutely inquired into, as well as the effects resulting from this un- fortunate casualty, such as palsy, apoplexy, colic, &c. Where poison has been recently swallowed, it may be discharged either by means of an emetic, or by tickling the throat with a fea- ther, and administering such a quantity of oil, mixed with milk, as the patient is able to drink. But, if the accident be discovered seve- ral hours after it has happened, emetics would be productive of fa- tal consequences: it will, there- fore, be advisable to prevail on the patient to take large draughts of lukewarm water, milk and oil, and to resort to tepid bathing. POKER, a well known instru- ment, generally manufactured of iron ; and employed for stirring the fire. As many casualties occur from negligence, or imprudence, in leaving pokers in the fire, we shall state the following expedient, by which they may in future be pre- vented. It consists simply in weld- ing or soldering a small cross of iron (projecting about an inch and a half each way), immediately above the square part ofthe poker, •ailed the bit. By this contrivance, POL the instrument cannot be thurst into the fire farther than such bit; a circumstance of some advantage, where fire-irons are highly polish- ed. Besides, if the burning coals should yield, or any other accident happen, so as to cause the poker to slide out, it will probably be ar- rested on the edge of the fender. And, though it should fall on the hearth or carpet, neither of these will sustain any material injury ; as the heated part or bit, will be elevated several inches above the floor. POLE-CAT, or Mustela fiuio- rius, L. an animal of prey, of a dusky-yellow colour, with whitish ears and muzzle : it inhabits most parts of Europe ; and in tempera- ment, manners, disposition, and form, resembles the Martin. Pole-cats burrow under ground, forming a shallow retreat about two yards in length, which gene- rally terminates under the roots of a large tree. The female breeds in the spring, and brings forth three, four, and sometimes five young at a time. These predatory animals ap- proach our habitations, mount on the roofs, or take up their abode in hay-lofts, barns, and unfrequented places, whence they issue during the night, in search of prey. They occasion greater havock among poultry, bees, &c than the Martin: with a view to obtain honey, they attack the hives in winter, and compel the bees to abandon them. When frightened, the pole-cat emits an exceedingly offensive fe- tor ; which is so pungent and hurt- ful to fowls, that they sometimes fall down from the places where they roost; and thus become a prey to this quadruped. POL POL 303 Tor a method of exterminating Edinburgh. As soon as matter is these depredators, we refer to the perceived to fluctuate in the part article Martin. affected, Mr. C. directs a large POLL-EVIL, in farriery, is an seton-needle, armed with a cord, abscess formed in the sinuses be- to be introduced at the upper tween the poll-bone, and the up- part of the swelling, and brought permost vertebrae of the neck oi a out at the under or lower part of horse. it: from which orifice the pus will When this malady is occasioned speedily discharge itself; and in a by blows, bruises, or any external few weeks the wound will be per- violence, the swelled part should fectly healed, without leaving any first be bathed with hot vinegar ; scar or blemish, or the least trace but, if the hair be fretted off, and of the disorder. Deep-seated ab- a discharge ooze through the skin, scesses may be treated in a similar a fomentation, prepared of two manner ; and if there be two or parts of vinegar, and one of spirit more sinuses, the same method of wine, will be more proper..... may be adopted, in order to obtain Should, however, great irritation a depending orifice, for a free dis- arise from heat and inflammation, charge of matter : thus, a cure is it will be necessary to bleed the generally and speedily effected. animal, and to apply poultices of. POLLEN, or Farina fecundans, bread, milk and elder-flowers; denotes the fertilizing powder, which method, with the assistance found in the anthers, or tops ofthe of appropriate physic, willfrequent- stamina of plants ; and which, ly disperse the swelling, and pre- when sufficiently mature, is con- vent the farther progress ofthe dis- veyed to the pistils for the purpose ease. of fecundation. But, when the tumour becomes The farina is, in general, of a critical, and contains fluctuating yellow colour ; it is very conspicu- matter, its maturation ought to be ous in the tops of young or unripe promoted by poultices, till it either flowers, and especially in those of burst spontaneously, or arrive at a lilies and tulips. It consists of state proper for applying the knife, minute hard particles, covered with If such operation become necessa- one, two, or three elastic mem- ry, it should always be performed hranes, bursting and shedding the by a skilful veterinary surgeon ; as flower dust to a considerable dis- it frequently happens, that though tance, as soon, as it has arrived at a complete cure of this evil be ef- maturity. When viewed through fected by common farriers, yet, by the medium of a microscope, they making deep incisions, resorting to usually present a particular form, corrosive mixtures, and a tedious that is observable throughout the course of hot, irritating applica- genera of an order, as well as all tions, the poor animal is so disfigur- the species of a genus of plants. ed as to be fit only for the mean- Naturalists have discovered, that est drudgery. the pollen contains a waxy, unctu- A more judicious and simple ous matter, and is collected in the method of discussing tumors of hairs with which the thighs of bees this description, has lately been re- are covered. These insects tritu- eommended by Mr. Clark, of rate, and otherwise prepare it in 304 POL POM their stomachs, whence it is eject- ed in a concrete form, under the name of Wax. POLISHING, in general, de- notes the act of smoothening and imparting brightness to hard sub- stances, such as metals, marble, glass, &c. by rubbing them with certain matters adapted to the pur- pose. Having, on many occasions, stated different mineral and vege- table bodies that may be employed with a view of polishing metals (a summary account of which the reader will find in the concluding General Index of Reference), we shall at present only remark, that one of the most proper articles, in this respect, is the Asphodelus lute- us, L. or Common Yellow Aspho- del, the useful properties of which we have described vol. i.....The stalks of this plant are some- what thicker than a goose-quill; and when dipped in Colcothar, or Crocus Martis (which may be had of the druggists), reduced to a paste with sweet-oil, and properly applied to iron and brass utensils, will not only render them exceed- ingly bright, but also prove a bet- ter preservative from the rust, than sand-paper, or other rough mate- rials. Poltanthus. See Primrose. POLYPODY, or Polypodium, L. a genus of plants comprising 142 species; IS of which are indige- nous, but the following only de- serve to be mentioned: 1. The vulgare, or Common Polypody, is perennial; grows on old walls, shady places, and at the roots of trees : it flowers from June till October...The root of this plant has a sweetish taste; but, by long boiling, it becomes bitter. When fresh, it operates as a mild laxative, so that an infusion of six drams of this root, in half a pint of boiling water, may be taken in divided doses. 2. The Filix-mas. See Fern the Male. 3. Oreopteris, or Heath Poly- pody. This plant is likewise pe- rennial, and its leaves emit a very agreeable scent. POMEGRANATE-TREE, or Punica, L. an exotic, growing in chalky soils, and consisting of two species: 1. The grenatum, or Common Pomegranate-tree, which is a na- tive of Italy, and other southern parts of Europe, where it grows to the height of 18 or 20 feet. In Britain, it is cultivated only in the gardens of the curious ; as its fruit seldom attains the delicacy of that imported from warmer climates.... Among other experiments made with different parts of this tree, in dyeing, we shall relate only one mentioned by Boh mer. From the deciduous leaves in autumn, whan they present a brownish-red shade, he obtained, by boiling them, a thick muddy liquor, in which cot- ton, silk, and woollen clothes, ac- quired a good French-blue colour: these materials had been previous- ly immersed in a solution of green vitriol; and, after becoming dry, they were, by different trials, plunged in vinegar, and soap-wa- ter, neither of which in the least affected their tint, so that it was doubtful whether they were dark- blue, or black....In Germany, the tanners formerly employed the bark of this tree as a substitute for sumach....See alsoMoRocco-LtA- THER. 2. The nana, or Dwarf Ameri- can Pomegranate, has a short stem rising only four or five feet high, bearing narrow leaves, and minute red blossoms, which are PON PON 305 succeeded by small fruit....It flow- ers from June till October. Both these species vmy be pro- pagated by layers, that should be selected from young branches, and planted in autumn. They may be trained either as half or full stand- ards, or as dwarfs ; but, if the po- megranates are to be raised against walls, it will be advisable to pursue a treatment similar to that directed under the article Peach-Itree. The fruit of this shrub is agree- able to the palate ; and, in com- mon with other sweet summer fruits, allays heat, mitigates thirst, and is mildly aperient. Its rind is powerfully astringent; on which account it is, together with the bitterish red flowers, occasionally employed in diarrhoeas, dysente- ries, and other disorders proceed- ing from debility. POND, a small pool, or collec- tion of standing water. Ponds are of great utility in ag- riculture, and for various other purposes: hence different methods and expedients have been devised? with a view to obtain a constant supply of water: from these we have selected the following, which appear to merit particular attention. In the first vol. of the Journal de Physique, we meet with an in- teresting method of making ponds water-tight, without the aid of ma- sonry, by M. Dambourney....Hc directs the pit to be.dug to a con- venient depth ; and its sides to be carefully sloped to an angle of about 40 degrees. The cement with which it is to be lined, should then be prepared in the following manner. A sufficient quantity of brick- clay ought previously to be pro- cured, in a moist state, so that it VOL. IV. may be easily worked and incor- porated with one-fourth part of quick-lime, slacked the preceding evening, in such a portion of wa- ter, as will reduce it to the con- sistence of cream-cheese ; and the whole must be formed into balls, about two feet in circumference. Wfien an adequate stock is col- lected, the workman descends in- to the cavity, and an assistant sup- plies him with a ball, which the former throws with all his strength on the ground, near the centre of the pit: thus, he continues the plastering with other balls, in such a direction that each may come in contact with the next following, till the sides and bottom of the in- tended pond are perfectly lined. If the whole cannot be finished in one day, the last row laid on in the evening should be moistened, in or- der that it may be sufficiently ad- hesive; to incorporate exactly with the new part of the work on the subsequent morning......Two or three days after this composition is applied, it should be beaten with a flat piece of wood ; and, accord- ingly as its firmness increases, the beating must be stronger, and the surface occasionally wetted, to pre- vent cracks, till it become one uni.. form, solid piece. Lastly, the whole is to be covered with a coat of any cheap oil : and (previously to the admission of water), with gravel, to the thickness of one inch. By this management, the coating will acquire a very re- markable degree of firmness ; and, if the pond be constantly full, no repairs will become necessary ; as the only injury to be apprehended, may proceed from intense frost, which is apt to damage such parts of the work as are exposed to the air. B R 306 P O N PON In the sixth volume of Annals of ficial ponds, in dry soils :...the sub- AgricuUure, an account is given joined cut represents an outline of of a simple method of making arti- their construction. The line A. describes a circular level, both of the water and of the hole made in the ground, of such ground. size as may be found necessary ; This method of forming ponda and on which a stratum of clay, B. was contrived in Yorkshire, about must be carefully beaten, and trod- 25 or 30 years ago, by a well- den into a solid, compact body, sinker-...numerous artificial pools from four to six inches in thick- have since been made in that, as ness. well as the adjoining counties..... , C, represents a layer of quick- The expences attending a work of lime about an inch, or an inch and the dimensions above stated, are a half thick ; and which should be computed to be from 41. to 6/. ac- uniformly spread over the whole, cording to the distance from which D, is a second stratum of clay, the clay is carried. Such a pond that ought to be of a thickness si- will remain unimpaired for a series milar to that above-mentioned, and of years ; because the lime prevents should be pressed down in the worms from striking either up- same manner. wards or downwards, and conse- E, denotes stones, or gravel, quently from injuring the clay, either of which must be spread on which naturally resists moisture. the second layer of clay, to such Beside the utility of ponds, by depth as may prevent the pond from affording a constant supply of wa- being injured by the feet of cattle; ter for various purposes, the Mud for otherwise, they will penetrate settling at the bottom furnishes an the stratifications of clay and lime; excellent manure. Hence it is a in consequence of which, the water desirable object to draw off the willbedischargedthroughthepores fluid part so as conveniently to ar- of the earth. When thus completed, rive at the sediment: for this pur- according to the section above pose, a hole or pit should be dug given, the pond will remain five in the center of the pond, as far as feet deep, and forty-five in diame- the stratum of sand, which usually ter ; at which size these reservoirs lies under that of clay. Thus, the are in general constructed ;.....the water will be immediately absorb- Jetter r, representing the line of ed, and the pond completely emn- SO: < PON PON 307 tied :....the sides of the cavity, however, ought not to be made so steep as to prevent the return of cattle, in case they should enter it by accident. In the 8th vol. of the Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, &c. we find a short account of a Machine for draining Ponds, without disturbing the mud. It was communicated by Lieutenant-Colonel Dansey, to- gether with a drawing and model, of which we have given an engrav- ing? Fig. 1. A, is the pipe, loaded with a rim of lead, of such a weight as serves to sink it beneath the sur- face of the water. B, represents the discharging pipe, that is laid through the bank H. I. C, the joint on which the pipe, A, turns ; and the form of which is delineated in Fig. 2. D, the ball or float, that swims on the surface of the pond, and thus prevents the pipe A from de- scending to a greater depth than the length of the chain, by which they are connected, will admit. E, a chain that winds on the windlass F; and serves to raise the tube A, above the surface of the water, when the machinery is not in use. G, a stage. II, I, the bank, which is repre- sented as if it were cut through at I, in order to delineate the tube B, lying within it. K, is a post designed for the re- ception of the pipe A, when the latter is lowered, and also for pre- venting it from sinking in the mud. Fig. 2. A, is a cast cylinder, furnished with a brass plate or cheek, which is fastened to the timber of the tube, on one side only ; because the part of the cy- linder C, turns in the hollow ofthe wooden tube, when it is immersed in the water. A piece of strong sole-leather is placed in the inside of such plate, to prevent leaking. The model represented in our engraving, was constructed from the description of a machine em- ployed by a gentleman residing in the vicinity of Taunton. In the year 1783, Colonel Dansey's re- giment was quartered at Windsor; and, conceiving that the invention might be useful for the supply of the grand cascade at Virginia- Water, he presented the model before-mentioned to His Majesty, who graciously signified his appro- bation. In consequence of this event, a pen-stock was erected on the same plan, at one of the ponds in the vicinity. Colonel D. observes, in his com- munication to the Society, that he has often tried the model in a vessel of water ; and, as the prin- ciple on which it is constructed, may be farther improved and ex- tended, in the hands of ingenious men, we have furnished our read- ers with an accurate engraving : this machine is applicable to silk, cotton and other mills ; where an uniform and steady velocity of wa- ter is required, which may at plea- sure be regulated, without occa- sioning any current to disturb the fish, or mud ; because the stream constantly runs from the surface. POND-WATER, to which cat- tle generally resort for drink, is a fluid strongly impregnated with sa- line and oily particles: hence it should never be suffered sponta- neously to evaporate during the summer. For the important purpose of 308 POO POO Irrigation (which see), pond- water is in every respect equal to the liquor collected in farm-yards. See also Fluid Manures in this volume. POND-WEED, the Broad- leaved, or Potamogeton natans, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing in ponds and slow rivers ; flowering in the months of July and August. The leaves of this weed float upon the surface ofthe water, and thus afford an agreeable shade to fish : its roots are said to be ex- ceedingly grateful to swans. POOR, an appellation given to persons whose situation is so re- duced as to render themchargeable to the parish. Previously to the Reformation, the poor received alms, and other benefactions, from the monasteries, and religious houses; but, on the suppression ofthe latter, the wealth with which they were endowed, was diverted into other channels ; and the poor, being thus left desti- tute, became a heavy burthen to the nation at large. The 43d Eliz. is generally re- garded as the basis of the poor- laws in England; and, though it was framed with great judgment and circumspection, yet experi- ence has evinced, that it is not cal- culated to produce the salutary ef- fects, that were expected to result from these regulations. It would, indeed, be a task equally invidious and foreign to our plan, to point out the defects of any statutes that have been passed for the relief of the poor ; yet, as this national pro- vision (which prevails in no other country in Europe), has been con- sidered as tending to produce con- sequences prejudicial to society, we shall briefly state a few of the objections that, have been urged against its principle. First, it is argued, such compul- sory relief checks the spirit of in- dustry, and frugality ; because the apprehension of being in want at some future period, which would otherwise stimulate -persons to ex- ert themselves during health and youth, in order to provide against the approach of sickness and old age,must necessarily be weakened, when a prospect of receiving as- sistance from the parish is held out to the indigent. In consequence of such fallacious hopes, many un- principled or phlegmatic individu- als wilfully neglect to seize oppor- tunities of advancing in life, and obtaining an honest competence against the day of want; so that, on the most trivial occasions, they become chargeable to the parish. Farther, this legal relief is sup- posed to destroy every emotion of gratitude in those who receive it, and who are consequently led to imagine that they have a lawful claim to such assistance. These exactions apparently tend to extin- guish charity, and to steel the hearts of the humane, even against a truly deserving object. It is true, the covetous are compelled to con- tribute towards the support of the poor, disabled, aged, and distres* sed ; but the evils arising from such a system, more than coun- terbalance this advantage, and are eventually oppressive to many indus- trious families ; who can ill afford to pay their quota ofthe poor-rates. To remedy these notorious grievances, houses of industry, poor-houses, and work-houses,have been proposed and carried into ef- fect, In some places, they have been attended with the most bene- POO POL 309 ficial consequences ; while, in others, the rates have continued to increase in a most alarming de- gree. This growing evil has been attributed (and we fear, in many cases, with too much justice), to the almost unbounded and resistless power, exercised by overseers in their respective parishes; who are, for the greater part, illiterate land- holders, that are puUnto office^ac- cording to the routine of business, on account of their large farms, or other occupations. One of the most rational expedients that can be suggested, with a view to check such inconveniencies, is the incor- poration of the hundreds ; and the appointment of men ot liberal edu- cation to the superintendence of all affairs that respect the poor. In- fluenced by no selfish or pecuniary motives, they would conduct every part of their duty in the most eco- nomical manner; and the neces- sary consequence would be the re- duction of the poor rates : indeed, experience has proved, in parishes, where the attention of liberal- minded men to parochial business was obtained, that a saving of se- veral hundred pounds per ann. re- sulted to the benefit both of the poor, and ofthe house-keeper ; but, as soon as gentlemen resigned their office, the old abuses were renewed, and the rates were annually aug- mented in arithmetical progres- sion. See some valuable remarks in Mr. Saunders's Observations on the present State, and Influence of the Poor-Laws, he. (8vo. p. 190, 3s. 6rf. Sewell, 1800); in Mr. Bleamire's Remarks on the Poor- Laws, and the Maintenance of the Poor (8vo. p. 36, 1«. 6d. Butter- worth, 1800); and lastly, in the Reports of the Society for bettering the Condition, and increasing the Comforts ofthe Poor ; a work that is periodically continued under the patronage of that benevolent asso- ciation. Poor-man's Pepper. SeePEP- PERWORT. [POLYGALA, a genus of plants,comprehendingfourspecies; three of which, according to the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, grow in Pennsylvania, viz. the senega, san- guinea, and verticillata. The first species only, shall be here noticed; as the virtues of the others, have not been ascertained. • The Poly gala Senega, abounds in nearly all of the Uniied States, and was first introduced into use, in 1739, by Dr. Tennent of Vir- ginia, who wrote a pamphlet on the subject, and highly extolled it, as a remedy for many complaints, and particularly as a specific for the cure of the bite of our rattle snake. Hence it has been called rattle snake root, but more com- monly senaka snake root, since it has been repeatedly found to fail either in preventing or curing the effects of the bite. In small doses, it stimulates the throat and faces to a consider- able secretion of saliva and mucus; in large doses it nauseates, power- fully promotes perspiration, and purges. This remedy has been found useful in the following complaints. 1. In the Cynanche Trachealir,, hives or croup. See vol. 2. p. 28.3. 2. In the Scarlatina Anginosa, or scarlet fever and sore throat, ac- cording to Dr. Withering, it produced good effects as a diu- retic. 3. In Drojisy, Dr. Millmah and Dr. Percival used it with advantage in this complaint, pr£- 310 POP POP pared agreeably to the Edinburgh dispensatory ; in the Pennsylva- nia hospital, it has been also used with success, and appeared to ex- cite the powers of mercury, which had been previously given. Where an increased circulation is present in dropsy, which frequently hap- pens, moderate bleeding must be premised. 4. In Tetanus, or lock-jaw caus- ing a copious sweat, Massie's In- augural Dissertation, Philadelphia, 1803. 5. In the decline of pleurisies and catarrhs, to promote expecto- ration. In suppressed coughs of aged persons, and in asthma it doubtless is useful ; a gentle constant stimulus on the throat should be kept up, in these dis- eases. 6. In female obstructions, it is a powerful remedy, as appears from Dr. Massie ; the preferable mode of exhibition is in decoction or tincture. 1. For Decoction.....Root ^oz. water half a pint, boil to a gill, dose one tea spoonful. 2. For Tincture...yRoot-oz. spi- rit half a pint, digest for ten days, and strain....dose twenty to thirty drops, two or three times a day. POLYGONUM, Persicaria. A native and common plant of the United States. Dr. Danar of Jamaica, relates {medical assis- tant) on the authority of Mr. Felsted of Jamaica, that an in- fusion of the dried plant, or a de- coction of the fresh plant, is a powerful promoter of urine, and very useful in the gravel.] POPLAR, or Populus, L. a ge- nus of trees comprising 13 species, of which the following are the principal, and the three first are natives of Britain : 1. The alba, White Poflar," or Abele-Tree, grows in hedge* and brooks, where it flowers in the month of March. It delights in gravelly soils and lofty situa- tions, though it also thrives in clay-lands. This tree is remark- able for its speedy growth ; as it attains its full size in 20 years ; being, however, subject to excre- scences resembling warts, that sometimes become exceedingly large ; and, as they absorb humi- dity, occasion the tree to decay.... Its wood is white, soft, though tough, and neither exposed to the ravages of worms, nor subject to warp or shrink: hence it is ad- vantageously employed for wains- cotting and floors ; as well as for packing-boxes, laths and turnery- wares. The bark of the white poplar, according to the Rev. Mr. Stone (Phil. Transac. vol. 53), is eminently serviceable in curing agues. He gathered it in the sum- mer, while abounding with sap; and, after drying it in a gentle heat he administered one dram, in pow- der, every fourth hour, between the paroxysms. In some instances, he was induced to combine it with the Peruvian bark ; but, in gene- ral, the former alone proved sin- gularly efficacious. The dried leaves in the winter afford excel- lent provender for sheep. 2. The tremula, Trembling Poplar, Asp, or Aspen-tree, flourishes best in moist woods and boggy grounds, though it will thrive in all other soils, excepting clays: it is in flower during the months of March and April. This species impoverishes the land : its leaves destroy the grass, and the numerous shoots that spring from the roots, spread so near to the surface of tire ground, as to pre- POP vent the vegetation of every other plant. The leaves are eaten by sheep and goats, but refused by horses and hogs:....the bark, when young, is made into torches. The wood is extremely light, smooth, white, soft, and durable in the air ; and though inferior in point of ex- cellence to that of the preceding species, it is usefully employed for pannels, or pack-saddles, milk- pails, clogs, pattens, he.....From the straight stems of this tree, the mostdurable shingles are obtained; and Du Roy observes, that bricks burnt with such wood, in a green state, acquire a blueish glazing, and additional firmness. Nor is it less excellent for water-pipes ; for which purpose it should be felled from April to June, immediately bored, and laid under-ground. It is, however, remarkable, that the wood of the trembling poplar is very liable to be infested with bugs ; and consequently improper for bedsteads. 3. The nigra, or Black Poplar, grows very rapidly near rivers, and in shady, moist situations, it flowers in the month of March. The wood of this species is soft, light, and not apt to splinter. Its bark is uncommonly light, resem- bling cork, and is therefore em- ployed by fishermen to support their nets : the inner-rind is used by the inhabitants of Kamschatka as an ingredient in their bread.... The buds, which appear early in the spring, contain an unctuous, yellow, fragrant juice, which is the basis of Bek-glue {Propolis), and is employed only in ointments for plasters; though its medicinal pro- perties recommend it for internal use :....if formed into a tincture, by means of rectified spirit, and then Inspissated, the buds yield an odor- POP 311 ous resin, that is reputed to be equal to many of the expensive re- sinous drugs imported from foreign countries.....The leaves afford a good winter fodder for cattle, and should be collected in October, be- fore the branches are cut for fag- gots....Lastly, the roots of theblack poplar dissolve into a kind of jelly. The wood is useful for the engra- ver ; and, when sawed into boards, and sap-dried, is uncommonly dur- able.. ..Dioscoridf.s asserts, that the bark of this tree, when chop- ped small, sown in richly-manured ground, and well watered, will pro- duce an abundant crop of eatable mushrooms: yeast diluted with warm water, and poured on a stump of the black poplar, will be attended with a similar effect; but these fungous plants ought to be gathered after the first autumnal rains. 4. The fastigata, Po-Poplar, Italian, or Lombardy-Poplar, is a native of the northern parts of Italy : it also flourishes in moist situations ; but will not succeed if its roots are too long covered with water....On account of its rapid growth, this species is greatly es- teemed for ornamentalplantations: its cuttings are useful for hop- poles : the wood being soft, free from knots, and easily worked, it is much employed by joiners, car- penters, and cartwrights ; it may be wrought into very flexible shafts for carriages, or fellies for wheels. Farther, it forms excellent masts of small vessels, and is particular- ly serviceable for packing-boxes; because the plank, yielding to the nail, is not liable to he split; and, in case the box, he. be accidental- ly dropped on the ground, the boards are not so easily broken or splintered, as those of oak and 312 POP POP other trees. Lastly, it appears from numerous experiments made by Damhoukney, that the Italian Poplar affords a dye'of as delicate a lustre, and equally durable, as the finest yellow wood : its tinging matter is more readily extracted ; but, instead of striking a proper green with indigo, it changes to an olive shade. The dry branches are preferable to those in a green state; nor should they be cut or bruised; being possessed of the property of fixing the colours obtained from Brazil and logwood. 5. The balsamifera, is a native of Carolina, where it attains a con- siderable size. It is best adapted to boggy soils; and, as it grows with greater rapidity than any of the other species,'it soon repays the expence of planting. Its wood is very soft, spongy, light, and principally employed jr packing- boxes, though it also furnishes good posts for fences....Damsour- ney obtained from the Carolina, as well as the other poplars, a fine fawn, nut, and similar grave co- lours for wool, according to the quantity of wood employed, and the length of time it was boiled. ....The balsamic juice, expressed from the flower-buds, is probably the American Tacamahaca, an excellent application to recent wounds, provided no nerves or si- news have been injured. [The native species of poplar in the United States are, 1. The P. TrenrAa; 2. P.Negra; 3. P. Bal- samifera ; 4. P. Deltoide, of Bar- tram, White Poplar, orCotton-tree of Carolina, the bark of which re- sembles that of the Aspen-tree ; with large leaves nearly triangular, toothed or indented with deep ser- ratures. The timber is white, firm, and elastic, principally in use for rails. 5. P. Heterophylla, Vir- ginia Poplar-tree ] All the Poplars may be propa- gated either by layers, cuttings, or suckers, which should be plant- ed in a nursery for two or three years previously to their removal. The most proper time for trans- planting suckers is in October, when their leaves begin to decay ; but, if the trees are to be reared from cuttings or layers, it will be advisable to set them in February, when they ought to be put about a foot and a half deep in the ground, and closely rammed in. These will speedily take root; and, if the soil be moist, will in a few years attain considerable size. To conclude this article, we shall briefly state an important fact which deserves the attention of those who are in possession bf nu- merous poplars. The different species of these trees produce, on the upper part of their seed-ves- sels, a woolly or downy substance, which is of considerable value : by combining it with cotton, Prof. Herzer, of Munich, has lately converted this composition into wadding, counterpanes, gloves, stockings, &c.....From a mixture of two ounces of the down before mentioned, and four ounces of hare's wool, he obtained excellent hats; and, according to his calcu- lation, each poplar-tree yields not less than 401b. of such material. POPPY, or Papaver, L. a genus of plants comprising nine species, eight of which are indigenous; the following, of these, are the most remarkable : 1. The Rhaas, Red Poppy, Corn-rose, Cop-rose, or Head- wark, grows in corn-fields, and '-^ flowers from June till August. The pctald, when infused, yield a fine POP colour; and a syrup is prepared from such infusion, which par- takes in some measure of the pro- perties of opium, and is occasion- ally used in coughs, and catarrhal affections, on account of its ano- dyne effects....These flower-leaves also yield, on expression, a bright- red juice, which imparts its co- lour to water, and the tint of which may be greatly improved by the addition of the vitriolic acid. Thus cloth, linen, and especially silk and cotton, were dyed of a beautiful deep-red shade.....The stuffs, previously immersed in a solution of bismuth, acquired a yellow cast; though Dambour- ney obtained only a pale nut-co- lour. 2. The album, v. somniferum, White or Wild Poppy, is found in neglected gardens and corn- fields, where it flowers in the month of June or July. The juice, which, after making-incisions, exudes from the heads of this species, is suffer- ed to inspissate by the heat of the sun, and thus affords the drug called Opium. An extract is also prepared from these seed-vessels ; which, being less powerful than the foreign opium, is given in a double quantity, to produce similar effects. The seeds are very nour- ishing ; are divested of the narco- tic property of the flower ; and yield on expression, a mild, sweet oil, little inferior to that of al- monds : hence, they are often em- ployed as an article of diet....LiN- naus counted in one poppy-head 32,000 seeds; and as there are white and blue grains, we under- stand from an experienced garden- er, that the former, when found in heads, the capsule of which is of a blueish cast, are the most success- ful for propagating the species, vol. iv. POP 313 and likewise afford a larger pro- portion of sweet-oil than the blue seed. Poppies grow in almost every soil, but they flourish most luxuri- antly in rich loamy ground, well manured with rotten dung, and frequently ploughed or turned, so as to render it mellow. The seeds may then be either drilled in rows about nine inches apart, or sown broad-cast, first towards the end of February, and a second time in March; though the latter process is sometimes followed, for winter- seed, in the month of September or October. As soon as the plants appear, they must be carefully weeded, by which means their growth will be promoted ; so that each root will produce from four to ten heads, or pods, containing large variegated flowers. When the leaves begin to wither, it will be proper to extract the opium : for this purpose, four or five longi- tudinal incisions, about one inch in length, must be made on one side of the head, so as to cut through the outer or scarf-skin, without injuring the seeds. In consequence of such wound, a glutinous milky fluid will exude, which should not be removed till the succeeding day, when it.ought to be scraped off into proper vessels ; and, in the course of one or two days, the opium will be of a proper consis- tence to be formed into a mass. The dpposite side must next be wounded in a similar manner, in order that the viscous juice may be completely extracted. In the year 1796, the Society for the Encouragement cf Arts, feq. granted the premium of 50 guineas to Mr. Ball ; and also a similar reward to Mr. Jones ; for their exertions in obtaining the largest * s 314 POR POR quantity of British Opium. As their method was nearly similar to that above described, it is but justice to observe,that theirpreparations have received the sanction of several medical gentlemen, in whose opi- nion, the new produce is in all re- spects equal to the best Turkey opium. [Opium has also been raised in the state of New-York, in the year 1787, by Dr. S. Ricketson, and found to be fully equal to, nay stronger than the foreign drug. See the Medical Repository, vol. i. p. 420, and vol. iii. p. 206.] 3. The Argemone, Prickly, or Long Rough-headed Poppy, is an annual plant. It is distinguish- ed from the genuine, by its prick- ly seed-capsule, and the black points of its red flower-leaves. PORCELAIN,orCHiNA-wARE, a most refined, and almost vitre- fied, species of earthen-ware, which is not only manufactured in China, but likewise in England, France, Holland, and Germany : the most esteemed and beautiful, both for its painting, and the taste display- ed in shape and figure, is that im- ported from Meissen, in Upper Saxony. As a detail of the manner in which porcelain is manufactured, would be foreign to our plan, we shall concisely relate the simple, but valuable method of converting common green glass into porce- lain, discovered by M. Reaumur. It consists in exposing such glass, surrounded with white sand, plas- ter of Paris, chalk, or gypsum, in a luted crucible, to a degree of heat equal to that of potters' furnaces, so as not to alter its form or shape. At first, it will assume various shades of blue ; become gradually white ; and, at length, no appear- ance of glass will remain. By this process, entire green bottles and other vessels may be converted into the finest china-ware. Porcelain, if not properly an- nealed, is extremely brittle, and liable to crack: to prevent such ac- cidents, it ought to be well boiled in pure water, before it is used ; and, when cold no hot fluid should be put into it, unless there be some sugar, or a tea-spoon in the vessel. Another method of obviating casu- alties, is that of holding china-ves- sels over steam, immediately be- fore tea or coffee is poured into them. Such accidents, however, often deface the beauty, or other- wise diminish the value of a set of china: hence, it becomes a desira- ble object to join or cement the fragments, so as to be impercepti- ble to the naked eye. Under the article Cement, and likewise on other occasions (for which the rea- der is referred to the General Index of Reference), we have stated the most proper expedients for this purpose. PORK, is the flesh of hogs, kill- ed for culinary purposes. Having already, in the article Hog, treated of the relative salu- brity of this aliment, when eaten in a fresh state; and likewise stated the best mode of preserving meat in general, under the heads of Beef, Flesh-Meat, andPicKLE; we shall at present only add the method formerly practised for but- canning, or pickling pork, by the famous Buccanneers of America. First, they cut the flesh into long pieces, about an inch and a half thick; and, after sprinkling it with salt, and suffering it to remain in that state for 24 hours, these slices were next dried in stoves till they acquired a bony hardness, and a deep brown colour....Pork, POR POR 315 treated in this manner, if packed in casks, may be preserved for up- wards of a whole year ; and, when soaked in luke-warm water, be- comes plump, and has a rosy ap- pearance. It likewise possesses a grateful flavour under the various forms of cookery, and is relished by the most delicate palate. Beside the usual manner of cur- ing pork with bay-salt, some house- wives add juniper-berries, pepper, Nitre, and other antiseptic sub- stances. The salt last mentioned, when used in small proportions, is peculiarly calculated to resist pu- trefaction......See Pickle. PORTER, a well-known malt- liquor, which differs from ale and beer, in consequence of its being brewed with malt that has been highly dried. As porter constitutes the princi- pal beverage of all ranks of people in this metropolis, particularly of the labouring classes : and as it is too frequently adulterated with de- leterious drugs, and has lately been advanced in price; we think it useful to communicate the follow- ing recipe of the ingredients (ex- tracted from Mr. Child's late Treatise, entitled Every Man his own Brewer): according to which, every industrious family, where room and other conveniences fa- vour the attempt, may prepare their own porter at a more reason- able rate than it is now sold, and without apprehending any adulter- ation. One peck of malt A quarter of a pound of liquorice- root Spanish juice Essentia bin a Colour Half a pound of treacle A quarter of a pound of hops Capsicum and ginger The expence of fuel These articles, when managed conformably to the directions given in the article Brewing, will pro- duce six gallons of good Porter, which, at Is. 6d. per gallon, would cost 9s. [sterling] ; so that one half of the expence is saved by- making it at home. The advantjges then arising are obvious ; for, independently of its being a great object of economy, a more palatable liquor will result from the undertaking ; and, being prepared in the house, it will afford additional pleasure, nay, often con- tribute to the prevention of a most detestable habit, that of tippling in ale-house8....The proportions above stated are calculated only for small families, or such as cannot conve- niently spare a room, or procure a proper apparatus for brewing: hence, by augmenting the ingre- dients, as circumstances may re- quire, any quantity of pure and wholesome beer will be obtained. For the information of those, who may be totally unacquainted with the process of brewing porter, we shall add a short explanation of the manner in which the essentia bina and the colour are prepared. In order to procure the first of these ingredients, a quarter of a pound of moist sugar should be boiled in an iron vessel, till it attain to the consistence of a thick, black syrup, which is remarkably bitter.....The colour is produced hy boiling a similar quantity of moist sugar, till it acquire a taste between sweet and bitter: it imparts the fine mel- low tint, that is so much admired in good porter. In preparing these two ingredients, however, it will be 316 POS POT necessary to employ a small por- tion of pure, or of lime-water, " to bring it to a proper temper;" be- cause they will otherwise grow hard and dry, if suffered to stand till they become cold. The essence and colour, are added to the first wort, with which they are boiled, and constitute the basis of porter. This preparation forms an agree- able and salutary beverage to most cony'-tutions ; and, if it be mild, possessesgently laxative properties: ....when bottled, and kept for some time, it acquires a high flavour, and is much esteemed, especially, after having made a sea-voyage. A similar effect will result from sending such liquor to a consider- able distance by land-carriage. The bottles ought to be carefully wash- ed, and drained, till they become perfectly dry. After being filled with the liquor, they are suffered to stand for 24 hours, before they are corked, so that the porter may part with seme portion of its fixed air, to prevent the bottles from cracking. At the end of that time, they should be closed with sound corks, which ought to be driven in, as closely as possible, and to a depth from 1^ to 2 inches, in order to exclude the air. In regard to the relative salubrity of Porter, and other Malt-liquors, we have already expressed our opi- nion, in vol. i. art. Beer. POST, a stake, or piece of tim- ber, which is fixed in the ground. Posts are used both for the pur- poses of building, and of fencing ; but, as the strength of the fabric, or of the fence, depends greatly on their nature or solidity, various expedients have been adopted, with a view to season, or prevent them from rotting. Among these, burn- ing of the lower or subterraneous part, has been recommended as an excellent preservative ; besmear- ing them with tar, pitch, he. has likewise been found very servicea- ble ; but the most effectual method is that employed m the county of Durham. It consists in indenting, or puncturing the stake at right angles, to the heart or pith, by means of an instrument, some- what resembling the caulking-dront of ship-carpenters ; and which is furnished with one, two, or three rows of leeth. The wood ought previously to be well seasoned, warmed, and, lastly, coated with pitch or coal-tar ; which will pe- netrate as far as its centre. By this operation, the strength and dura- bility of timber will by no means be diminished ; on the contrary, it will thus be better enabled to with- stand the injuries of the weather. POT-ASH, denotes an alkaline salt, or, with more propriety, a compound of different salts, ob- tained by reducing large quantities of wood to ashes: this process is termed, by chemists, incineration. The ashes are next boiled in wa- ter, so as to form a strong ley, which, after being strained, is eva- porated in an iron vessel ahnost to dryness ; the matter, which re- mains at the bottom, is then put into a crucible, liquefied over an intense heat, and poured out on iron plates, where it speedily cools, and assumes the form of solid pot- ash. Such is the method generally practised in making this alkaline salt ; but ingenious chemists have contrived various modes of prepar- ing it, with a view to prevent the exportation of the large sums an- nually paid to Russia, America, Sweden, and other northern coun- tries. Hence, we shall stats only POT the method followed by Dr. Pek- cival, for procuring pot-ash from the putrid water which runs from dung-hills; as being entitled to particular attention. His process is very simple : it consists in eva- porating the fluid part, and in cal- cining the impure salt, till the foul or extraneous ingredients are al- most entirely dissipated by the fire. From 24 wine-pipes of such liquor, Dr. P. obtained ninecwt. and 40lbs. of saleable pot-ash, which was valu- ed at 21b. 2s. per cwt.; the expence of the whole process amounted to 41. 9s. The salt, thus procured, has a greyish-white appearance ; and is, when broken, of a hard, spongy texture : it is slightly af- fected by moist air ; but, if it be kept in a dry apartment, near the fire, a powder is formed on its sur- face. Lastly, this species of pot- ash contains, according to Dr. P.'s chemical analysis, such a propor- tion of pure alkali, as amounts to one-third part of its weight; while that imported from Russia, yields only one-eighth. In the year 1796, a patent was granted to Mr. Koakesley, for bis method of making British pot- ash; for the supply of all manu- factures, in which the foreign salt or any alkaline matter is useful. The ingredients employed, consist of English, Welch, Irish, or Scotch kelp; foreign barilla ; and the salts obtained from soap-boilers' waste, whether by evaporation, or by cal- cination. The materials are pul- verized, and thrown into a furnace of a peculiar construction, where they are, by intense heat, melted into a liquid, which is discharged through a channel into pots..... When cold, the mass assumes the appearance of foreign pot-ash. Barilla is said to furnish the best POT 317 pot-ash, which is imported from Spain. It may -Aso be advantage* ously prepared from kelp, salt, or glass-wort, fern, sea-wrack, and a variety of plants that are found' both on the sea-coast, and in the interior parts of Britain. This al- kaline salt is employed in various manufactures, particularly in those of glass and soap ; likewise by dy- ers,'in the scouring of cloths, he. [Pot-ash differs very much both in colour, and consistence, and is often blended with various substan- ces by the manufacturer. The different proportions of the con- stituent materials of the alkali it- self, and their different degrees of attractive force, constitute many modifications ofthe salt, independ- ently of actual impurity. On the authority of an experi- enced manufacturer, the editor is enabled to state, that honey-comb pot-ash is not good. It is also said, that when it has an acid flavour, and imparts a sourness to the or- gans of taste, the quality is faulty. Great care is necessary in at- tending the fire : which should be brisk and steady, but not violent nor too long continued. " As it is of importance some- times to know what proportion of real alkali a given weight of pot- ash or pearl-ash contains, it may be proper to point out how this in- formation may be acquired. The strength of the alkali is in pr^por. tion to the quantity of an acin re- quired to saturate it. Thus if an ounce of one kind of pot-ash re- quires, for saturation, a given quan- tity of sulphuric acid; and an ounce, of another kind requires twice that quantity, the latter is twice as strong as the former. In-order however to obtain a sufficiently ac- curate standard of comparison, it S18 POT POT will be necessary to employ, con- stantly, an acidofthe same strength. This may be effected, though not with absolute uniformity, yet suf- ficient, for ordinary purposes, by diluting the common oil of vitriol of commerce, to the same degree. For example, let the standard of acid consist of one part of sulphu- ric acid, and five of water. The strength of an alkali will be learn- ed, by observing what quantity of this acid a given quantity of alkali requires for saturation. For this purpose put half an oz. ofthe alkali, or any other definite weight, into a jar with a few ounces of water, and filtre the solution ; weigh the dilute acid employed, before adding it to the alkali; then pour it in gradual- ly ; till the effervescence ceases, and till the colour of litmus paper which has been reddened with vine- gar, ceases to be restored to blue. When this happens, the point of saturation will be attained. Weigh the bottle to ascertain how much acid has been added ; and the loss of weight will indicate the strength ofthe alkali." Henry's Epitome of Chemistry. Pot-ash is of extensive use in medicine, and particularly service- able in complaints of the stomach and intestines, attended or produc- ed by acids. Its acrimony must be sheathed however, by being unit- ed with some mucilage.] POT-ASH-CAKE, a kind of biscuit, much used in the state of New-York ; and which is baked in the following manner: Take two pounds of wheaten flour, and half a pound of butter : to these must be added half a pound of 6ugar, that has previously been combined with a pint of milk ; and a large tea-spoonful of salt of tartar, crys- tals of soda, or any other pure pot- ash, which has likewise been dis- solved in a small quantity of water. The whole is to be carefully mix- ed, and kneaded together : when properly rolled, it may be formed into cakes, which ought to be ex- posed to a brisk heat of an oven ; as their lightness depends much on the expedition with which they are baked. Pot-ash-cake is equally nutriti- ous and wholesome : being speedi- ly prepared, it deserves to be adopt- ed, especially where yeast cannot be easily procured. POTATOE, the Common, or Solanum Tuberosum, L. a valuable root, originally a native of Ameri- ca, whence it was introduced into Ireland; and subsequently into Britain, about the commencement of the 17th century. There are numerous varieties of the potatoe, which are cultivated both for culinary purposes, and for the feeding of cattle. The most remarkable of these are : the Com- mon Kidney ; the Red American Kidney ; the Aylesbury White ; and the Altringham Early White ; which are chiefly reared for the table ; as the Ox-noble (for the most part in Nottinghamshire) ; Surinam ; Irish Purple ; Howard or Clustered ; and Red Potatoes, are for fodder. The common mode of planting potatoes is, by setting the small roots entire ; or, by cutting the larger ones to pieces, and reserv- ing one eye or bud to each : it ap- pears, however, that the rind may be employed with equal advantage; as crops have thus been produced, which fully equalled those obtain- ed from seeds, sets, shoots, or by any other method. These plants will flourish in any tolerable soil; but they thrive most POT luxuriantly in light sandy loams, that are neither too moist nor too dry. Such lands oughUo be deep- ly ploughed, two or three times ; and, shortly before the ground is stirred for the last time in the spring, it will be necessary to spread a considerable quantity of rotten dung on the surface, which should be ploughed early in March, provided the weather be open ; but, if it be frosty, this operation must be delayed till the end of that month, or the beginning of April. After the last ploughing, the ground ought to be levelled ; the furrows drawn at the distance of three feet apart ; and at the depth of about seven or eight inches. In the centre of this furrow are to be set the rind, eyes, cutting, &c.; and then covered in with the earth. A short time before the young plants appear, it will be advisable to pass a harrow over the whole, in order to eradicate weeds, to break the clods, and to remove every obstacle to their vegetation. Farther, as the potatoes increase, it will be proper to mould, or earth them up twice; a process, by which their growth will be greatly promoted. [Experiments have been made in Lancashire( where potatoes equal to any in the world are raised,) to ascertain the best mode of cutting the sets. A whole potatoe does not always succeed ; but a large cutting has been found better than a small one ; and that it is best to cut off the sprout or nose end, and also the umbilical or tail end ofthe potatoe, rejecting both, and taking the middle entire, for the set..... The worst method is cutting the potatoe down to the middle. The following communication •n the subject of the culture of this POT 319 root is taken from the Transaction* of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society. 1 Letterfrom JosephBarrell esq. to the corresponding secretary of the Massachusetts Agricul- tural Society. ' Pleasant-Hill, Jan. 1, 1803. ' In the spring of the last year, I found in the ground a large Irish apple potatoe which had lain there all the winter. This potatoe con- tained twelve eyes, which I care- fully separated and planted in four hills in my garden, three eyes in each hill. I dunged the hill well with horse dung that had rotted in the hot bed the last season ; from these four hills I gathered two hun- dred and thirty-two potatoes ; two hundred and ten of them were fit for the pot, and one hundred ofthe largest weighed thirty-four pounds ....the core of this potatoe, without either skin or eye I cut into six pieces, and planted in one hill: from this I gathered twenty two potatoes, all very small, none big- ger than a large cranberry ; so that the whole produce was two hundred and fifty-four. It is re- markable, all the potatoes that were from the core, were of the true Irish apple kind, and all that were from the eyes, were of a kind very much like the English whites. ' It should be remarked, that the Irish apple potatoe is not a great bearer, and that the past season was not favorable to potatoes. '■Mem. The whole produce of this potatoe, I have preserved, and mean, the next season, to give it a fair trial, and notice the produce of the whole. ' I have, for several years, made experiments on potatoes (seme of 320 POT TOT which I communicated to the so- ciety) and from them I am fully convinced, that small potatoes are as good for seed as large, that three in a hill are better than a lar- ger quantity, that cut potatoes are better than whole, and that eyes are best of all. ' The past season I planted my potatoe fields chiefly with eyes, and had, in some parts a prodigi- ous increase ; and in the field throughout, full as large a crop as any of my neighbors,although they planted from eight to ten bushels on an acre ; and I planted a short half bushel on an acre, and if I had cut the eyes carefully, 1 am sure there would not have been a peck to an acre. In this method there will bean immense saving of more than nineteen twentieths of the seed, which is well. worth the at- tention of every farmer who dares to differ from the practice of his father. My overseer, wanting faith in this method, planted a single large potatoe with many eyes in a hill, and it produced only thirty four potatoes of all sizes. ' I am, Sec. ' JOSEPH BARRELL." The following remarks appeared in a daily print on the above. From the Palladium. Messrs. Editors, ' Sometime since I saw in your paper a letter of Joseph Barkkll, esquire, respecting the culture of potatoes, which reminded me of an experiment of a similar nature I made several years ago at the east- ward. I carried from Boston a quantity of potatoes for planting, fearing I could not procure them there at that season, which was i\'rny, which proved to Lc the case on my arrival. The people in the township where I took up my re- sidence being mostly poor, and anxious.to have some of my seed potatoes, prevailed on me to cut what I planted, and let them have a part to plant in the same way, which I did, and it took only a quarter of the potatoes to plant the piece of land which I intended my whole stock of seed for. However, to be certain whether cut or whole seed would be most productive, I planted in the same field of rich new ground, one very large pota- toe whole, and gave it a double portion of *manure. (I felt partial to whole seed.) My potatoe flour- ished above all the rest ofthe field, but to my astonishment at har- vest, it produced only about two quarts, and not a potatoe a quarter so large as the original ; while some of the neighbouring hills yielded a peck and few of them less than a lien's egg. This proved the cutting was best, and I practised it ever alter. A Friend to Agriculture."] Besides the depredations of worms, grubs, and various other insects, to which potatoes are sub- ject in common with other vege- tables, there is a disease termed the curl, that peculiarly affects these roots ; and for which inge- nious agriculturists have endea- voured to account by various con- jectures....By some it is consider- ed as a species of blight, but it is more generally attributed to one or more of the following causes : .... 1. Frost, either before, or after the sets, 8cc. have been planted. 2. The planting of such sets, from *My manure was green rock weed. POT large or unripe potatoes. 3. From not placing them at a sufficient depth, or from putting them in ex- hausted lands. 4. By the first shoots of the sets having been broken off previously to planting ; in consequence of which, the se- minal plant is incapacitated from sending forth other shoots suffici- ently vigorous to expand. 5. To a white grub, that preys upon the roots. 6. To the propagation of shoots, sets, eyes, &c constantly from the same variety, and on the same land, so that the potatoes degenerate, and at length yield in- different crops. In the 8th volume of the Trans- actions of the Society for the en- couragement of Arts, he. we meet with an interesting communica- tion on the curl, by Mr. W. Hol- lins, who divides the disease into three different stages, viz. 1. The Half Curl, in which the leaves of the plants are somewhat long, and slightly curled : they produce however, tolerable crops, if the summer be not too dry ; otherwise the potatoes will be small and watery. 2. The Full curl: in this stage the plants seldom exceed the height of six or seven inches ; speedily attain to maturity, and decay. The potatoes are, in general, less than a nutmeg ; of a dusky-red colour ; and are extremely unwholesome as an article of food. 3. Corrupted Potatoes, the ve- getative* power of which is almost destroyed, never appear above the surface of the ground. The seed will be found at Michaelmas in a state, apparently as fresh as when it was first set; a few small pota- toes, perhaps, growing from the parent root. VOL. IV. POT 321 This accurate observer attributes the curl first, to late setting in rich soil, succeeded by a hot, dry summer ; in consequenceof which, the flower of the plant falls off; the seed is exhausted in feeding the plant; and few potatoes ap- pear. Should moist weather occur in autumn, the plants, after being earthed, will blow a second time, and a plentiful crop of potatoes will be produced. These are, in his opinion, perfectly wholesome as food; but, being generated from the stalk of the plant after the seed has been exhausted, their vegetative power is defective, and the plants that proceed from them will necessarily be curled. The second cause of this dis- ease, Mr. Hollins attributes to the forcing of potatoes, by setting them in too rich a soil. His pre- ventive method consists in plant- ing them early, in ridges about one yard apart, having previously spread a little manure in the trench...They are to be set in a triangular form, five or six incnes distant, and covered with soil to an equal depth : thus they will be protected from the heat of the sun, in case the weather be too dry, while they remain sufficiently apart for receiving the full benefit of the air. When the plants have attained the height of six or seven inches, he directs them not to be earthed up, but to be occasionally weeded....By this simple method, roots will be formed in due season, and grow gradually ; and, as the stalk will decay at the proper time, the sap will be left in the potatoe, and become a seed, possessing a perfect power of vegetation ; so that the plants raised from it will be wholly exempt from the curl. T t 322 POT POT [From the authorities collected by the British Board of Agricul- ture, on the subject of potatoes, it appears, that the curl is very apt to appear in potatoes, planted in ground which has been ma- nured with lime, wood-ashes, or coal ashes; and that it never ap- pears in those raised in mossy land. The Lancashire planters even send their favourite potatoes to the mossy grounds torecover,af- ter they have caught the distem- per. This is an invaluable fact, for the owners of mossy land, of which the farmers near Elizabeth- town, and New-Brunswick, New- Jersey, should profit.] There prevails another opinion respecting this disease, namely, that it is contagious ; but such no- tion has been ably combated in the 2d vol. of Communications to the Board of Agriculture ; where it is observed, that whatever tends to render a crop poor and weakly, is very apt to produce the curl: hence, the disease probably origi- nates entirely, or in a great mea- sure, from the following causes : 1. Land, altogether unfit for pota- toes. 2. Imperfect culture. 3. Small roots ; or too small a pro- portion of strong roots. 4. Sets, taken from roots that have sprout- ed early, and the germs of which have been rubbed off. 5. Too small, as well as too large a quan- tity of dung. 6. Too deep, or too shallow planting. 7. Every external impediment that may injure new plants. 8. Too stiff ground, or such as has been press- ed down too closely on the sets. 9. An unfavourable state of the weather, while the crop is young. ....The result of the writer's in- quiries briefly is, that, if the curl be not a disease, but merely an in- cidental debility, it may be pre- vented by diligent attention to all those circumstances ; which, ac- cording to experience, are essen- tial to the cultivation of potatoes. It is difficult to decide, amid this difference of opinion among prac- tical agriculturists ; but, as these roots materially contribute to the comfort of mankind, we have dis- cussed the subject at some length ; and shall now concisely state those remedies which have been -suc- cessfully adopted. These are, steeping the sets for two hours, in a brine made of Whitsters' ashes ; changing the seed, raising new kinds from the seed, or apple ofthe plant; or renewing the same sorts again from the same seed : and, lastly, salt is said to be an excel- lent preventive against the depre- dations of the grub. Beside the curl, potatoes are liable to two other disorders, viz. the scab, which consists of excre- scences that arise in very dry sea- sons ; and the canker, which is oc- casioned by small cavities, that ap- pear in wet weather. These de- fects have been conjectured to be in some measure the cause of the curl; and they increase, .according to the length of time the potatoes remain in the earth, after the roots have attained to maturity. [In a communication to the Bri- tish Board of Agriculture, Dr. De Salis, states, on the authority of an intelligent person in his service, who farmed with his father in Ireland ; " that potatoes whether in their parent bed, or in the pit in which they are preserved, after being dug up, by being uncovered, ' take the wind,' and become un- wholesome food to man," such po- tatoes however answer for seed, and for feeding hogs ; they are of POT POT 323 a different colour from those that lie deeper. Mr. David Urie of Edinburgh, states in the report of the Bri- tish Board of Agriculture p. ] 66, that he had heard farmers say, there were two kinds of eyes in almost every potatoe: the one prolific, the other not. The form- er was sunk deep in the potatoe, and produced a strong vigorous •shoot, which in favourable circum- stances, had a fair chance to have a good crop. The latter did not sink so deep, and always, had a little swelling or protuberance in the middle; from which protu- berance a few weak shoots sprung forth, that even in favourable cir- cumstances, had but a scanty crop in comparison with the other. Mr. Urie, has his doubts about the correctness of the observation, but justly observes, that " in agri- culture every remark, whether true or false, that is made by farmers should be attended to ;" and on this principle the editor communi- cates the hint.] Manure for Potatoes.....Lord Dundonald says, "that longdung is always to be preferred as manure in the culture of potatoes ; for, dung completely rotted, frequently causes this crop to be watery and worm-eaten. Many farmers only apply coarse straw cr litter, whence it might be imagined, that the be- nefit arising from such an applica- tion, must be more dependant on the straw mechanically keeping the ground open or loose, than in contributing, by any part of its own substance, to th« growth ofthe po- tatoes, which cannot well be sup- posed ; as the straw, in digging up the potatoes, is generally found in an undccayed state. It is highly probable that the atmospheric air contained in the interstics of the soil, thus made by the straw, may suffer a degree of separation, or decomposition in its imprisoned state, by which the pure air may combine with the straw, and in- flammable or vegetable matter in the soil; while the azote or phlo- gisticated air will contribute to the growth of the plants." In the sandy soil of New-Jersey, long dung is used with excellent effect in raising potatoes and asparagus, and from the reasonable explana- tion of Lord D. may be used with similar advantage in other soils.] The proper time for digging up potatoes, is in the dry weather of autumn, when the leaves and stems begin to decay. If they are cultivated on a small scale, this work is performed by means of a three pronged fork, furnished with flat tines : but, when raised in fields, the roots are turned up by a plough, the coulter of which is taken out, to prevent them from being cut. After those, which ap- pear on the surface, are collected, a pair of drags is passed over the whole; in order to separate and expose such as may adhere to the clods. [In the report on the agriculture of the county of. Hereford, drawn up for the British Board of Agricul- ture, is a description of an excel- lent implement, invented by Mr. Ykldall, for taking up potatoes, having four prongs on barbs of iron with a fang, in the form of a double mould board plough, drawn by three horses or four oxen. It enters the ground, under the bed of potatoes, and throws the whole to the surface. A plate may also be seen in the publication of the Board of Agriculture, on potatoes.] The potatoe is one of the mo&t 324 POT POT valuable roots for culinary uses : when boiled, it forms a principal article of food, and serves partly as a substitute for bread. Mixed with wheaten flour, fermented with yeast, and properly baked, it makes a wholesome and nutritious loaf: the most economical method of preparinggthese roots, we have already stated, (vol. i. p. 371.) Potatoes are likewise serviceable in fattening hogs ; but, if the latter be designed for bacon or hams, it will be advisable to mix gradually four bushels of ground pease, with an equal quantity of the boiled roots; which portion will, it is af- firmed, fatten an animal of twelve stone....In a boiled state, they may also be given to poultry with simi- lar effect. [In a very interesting paper on the culture of potatoes, which is inserted in the 16th volume of the Trans, of the Soc. of Arts, (1798) by Mr. Harper, we find the fol- lowing facts: "That when either beasts or pigs have been fed with flour and pota- toes, after a time, they will abate in their eating ; when if all the hull or bran be taken out of the flour, they will both make up better, and in nearly one half the time that they would, if the bran was left in. 2. There is great profit in feed- ing geese, turkeys, and fowls of every sort, with potatoes and meal mixed; they will fatten in nearly one half the time that they will with any kind of corn, or even meal by itself. The potatoes must l*e bruised fine, while they are hot, and the meal added, when the mess is about to be given to them. Potatoes answer for farm-horses, equally well as for feeding cat- tle." Mr. Bokdlet, ia his excellent Notes on Husbandry, 2ded. p. 184 to 194, has incontestibly proved the superiority of potatoes as food for beasts, over Indian corn, both in respect to cheapness, and the quality of nourishment afforded by both artic'es. Mr. Somerville says, that the fattening of hogs by potatoes, is much hastened, by mixing a small quantity of any astringent substance among the potatoes, especially if they shew the least tendency to purging. A little alum, or Arme- nian bole, may be used. Report of the Board of Agriculture on Po- tatoes, p. 143. From the experience of Mr. Bartley, (secretary to the Bath Agricultural Society), which he has detailed in a late pamphlet, it ap- pears, that sheep are very fond of potatoes, and that they thrive ra- pidly upon them." Boiling cer- tainly increases their nutritious quality; this advantage may be easily obtained, and at a cheap rate, by employing the boiler of Mr. T. Kirk, which shall be de- scribed under the head Water.] Formerly, a kind of brandy was distilled from these roots ; but the Legislature has wisely prohibited such practices.....Besides, a fine size may be prepared from pota- toes, which will answer all the purposes of that in common use, particularly for whitening cielings and walls. With this intention, any quantity of newly-made po- tatoe-starch should be boiled into a paste; a sufficient portion of which ought to be mixed with the whiteing, after the latter has been diluted with water. The coat thus prepared is much clearer; retains its whiteness longer; and is less liable to crack or scale, than such POT POT 325 as is mixed with animal glue.... There is another economical way of employing the water expressed from potatoes in the processes of making starch or size. This liquor is useful for washing linen, whe- ther plain or coloured, silk hand- kerchiefs, stoekings, he. without the aid of any ley or soap: it is said to improve rather than to di- minish the tint, while it restores their original brightness, and im- parts a degree of stiffness to silk stuffs, which cannot be obtained by the common method of cleaning them. It deserves, however, to be remarked, that no discoloured or otherwise damaged roots must be used for this purpose....Bakers in Germany, farther, convert the pulp of potatoes into yeast, by adding a small proportion (about the 8 th or 10th part) of the latter, together with two drams bf calcined and pulverized crabs'-claws or oyster- shells, and a similar quantity of burnt hartshorn, to every pailful of the preparation. This compound is asserted to increase the bulk of the paste, and consequently of the bread ; but double the measure of it is required to serve as a com- plete substitute for barm...See also Cheese, vol. ii. Farther, the stalks of these roots, when cut in small pieces, afford a grateful food to cattle : the haulm has also been convertedinto paper; but it is more generally, and, we conceive, more profitably, employ- ed for stable-litter; or, when straw is scarce, instead of thatch for cot- tages.....Lastly, even the potatoe- apples may be usefully employed in domestic economy. In the New Swedish Journal of Agriculture for 1796, it is directed, that such ap- ples should be collected while in a green and hard state ; then well rinsed in cold water, and put for 48 hours into a strong filtrated brine. Next, they are to be placed for six or eight hours in a colan- der or drain, when they ought to be boiled in good vinegar, with the addition of some spice, till they acquire a certain degree of trans- parency, without becoming too soft. Thus prepared, they will afford a more palatable and less hurtful pickle than either olives or cucumbers. Potatoes being of such extensive utility, variousexpedients have been contrived with a view to preserve them. The most common me- thod is, that of piling them up after they have become dry, in heaps resembling the roof of a barn ; covering them closely with straw, in snch a manner as to meet in a point at the top ; and then slightly spreading them over with mould, which is beaten down with a spade. Some husbandmen make holes in the sides and top of the earth, in order that the air, arising from the natural heat of the roots, may evaporate; and, as soon as the steam ceases, the cavities are filled up, to prevent the effects of frost or rain. Another mode con- sists in depositing them in pits, and covering them with dry straw, or with the haulm of the roots ; by which management, if their sur- face be perfectly dry at the time they are put in, potatoes may long be preserved in a sound state. [In Pennsylvania, potatoes are commonly kept in the vault, under the bank leading to the threshing floor of the barn; and from the equable temperature of the heat therein, they are preserved very well, neither freezing nor vegetat- 326 POT POT ing. When necessary, the Sus- sex county plan, mentioned in the Report of the Board of Agricul- ture may be adopted. Holes are dug in the side of a hill six yards wide, ten feet deep, and of an in- determinate length ; carts from the field unload at top, and they are taken out at the bottom which opens to the slope ofthe hill,where a wall is built with a door. When full, a stack of stubble or straw is built over the hole, vv ide and large enough for security against all frosts. In this manner, the efflu- via ofthe roots rising through the stubble, does not occasion their rotting from heat.] A continental writer of doubtful authority informs us, that such roots may be easily preserved from the effects of the severest frost, by placing a vessel filled with cold water immediately over them : the fluid should be in proportion to the quantity of the vegetables ; and, if frozen, it ought to be removed every morning and evening; when a new supply must be instantly procured.....The same author ob- serves, that frost-bitten potatoes may be rendered equally, nay, more useful than those in a fresh state. This paradoxical proposi- tion he supports by the following directions :....Select all the roots thus injured; place them in a dry and warm place till the frost be expelled; then remove the peels, cut them in slices, and place them on wicker frames till they are per- fectly dry. Thus they acquire a dark hue, lose three-fourths of their bulk, and retain only the in- spissated sap, which becomes very hard and incorruptible, so that it may advantageously be used on long voyages. When reduced to pow- der, and boiled with broth, milk. or water, with the addition of vine* gar and a few aromatic herbs,those frozen fruits are said to afford a very palatable and nutritive food. From the 2d vol. of the Reports of the Society fur increasing the. Comforts, lAc. of the Poor, we shall extract an interesting paper on the preservation of potatoes, by Mr. Millington.....According to his statement, three pounds of potatoes were peeled, rasped, and put in a coarse cloth between two boards, in a napkin-press, till they were compressed into a very thin cake, that was placed on a shelf to dry. The roots yielded, on expression, about one quart of juice ; which, being mixed with an equal quan- tity of cold water, deposited in the course of an hour, upwards of one dram of white flour or starch, in every respect fit for making fine pastry....Mr. M. presented in 1799 to the above-mentioned Society, a cake, which had been thus prepar- ed in the year 1797. In bulk, it occupied only one-sixth part of the original roots ; and lost about two- thirds in weight by the process; but he observes, that such cake, when dressed by steam, or other- wise, will afford nearly the same quantity and weight, as three pounds and a half of potatoes, pro- perly boiled...Some roots, that had been thoroughly frozen, have been managed in a similar manner; and the cake was perfectly sweet; whereas others of the same parcel, that were left impressed, in a few days became rotten. Mr. Millington's second me- thod of preserving these roots, is as follows: Five pounds of potatoes were properly cleaned and pounded in a mortar, without being previous- ly peeled; and then pressed in a small wine-press into a thick cake; POT the whole being completed in the manner above described. This cake also was sweet and whole- some, but did not possess the clear whiteness of the former ; nor does it appear that such as were pre- pared according to the last process, will remain sweet for the same length of time as those consisting of peeled potatoes.....At all events, this contrivance deserves to be far- ther pursued and improved ; for, independently of the immediate advantages that will result from supplying mariners with vegeta- bles, it is an object of the greatest importance, when considered as a mean of preserving so useful, though perishable, an article for years; and of laying up a store in plentiful seasons, against the time of scarcity. Another mode of keeping pota- toes, was lately and successfully tried, by the Bath and West of England Society ; and which cer- tainly is less complex than that before described. It consists sim- ply in slicing potatoes, without taking off the rind or skin, and afterwards drying them in an oven or kiln. The roots thus prepared will remain sweet for almost any length of time : the Society sent some to Jamaica in a barrel; which had been four years from Britain, and, on their return, were found not to be intheleast degree affected. [The propriety of this method of preserving potatoes, would seem to be confirmed, by the following communication, taken from the London Commercial and Agricul- tural Magazine ; the communica- tion is signed " A West-India sea captain," and dated " Liverpool, March 2 i, iao»." POT 327 " I have made some efforts of late years, towards improving and extending the common methods of preserving stores on board ship: and the result of a few of them I take the liberty of sending to you, for the use of your publication, if esteemed worthy of notice. " Finding the potatoe the most useful of all vegetables, I have had recourse to every possible means of preserving it. I have found this root most effectually preserv- ed by slicing and gently baking it. After this process, it will keep sweet for years. And in this state it is very serviceable to eat as bread, to boil for various purposes, or to be ground into flour, which may be mixed with wheaten flour, for many salutary and profitable uses. I have a hand- mill on purpose to grind these po- tatoe slices, and likewise to grind biscuits. I have always been care- ful in selecting a dry mealy pota- toe for this use, particularly that species distinguished by the name of champions. I always order the peel of the potatoes to be scraped off, and the eyes clearly taken out (in the same manner as every ju- dicious cook prepares this root for the table) priorto their beinp: sliced, and dried or baked ; and this will remove that strong flavour and smell of the potatoe, which would othervv ise prevail in the flour. Due care should, in this case, likewise be taken in the selection of dry and seasoned casks for the reception of this food ; especially if intended to be kept for a long voyage; and to ensure a certainty of continuance of dryness, I have generally packed this preparation in, what is almost the driest thing in nature, the husks 328 POT POU of oats,or what is called meal-seeds, which may be procured in abun- dance in any of the northern parts of this country, or wherever oat- meal is made." M. Baume of France, has in- vented a very convenient machine for the purpose of grinding pota- toes to make starch, or to obtain flour from them ; a plate of which may be seen in the Repertory of Arts, or in the volume on potatoes, published by the British Board of Agriculture. To those who wish to pursue the grinding potatoes as a business, the machine will be found highly advantageous. For domestic purposes, a large grater will be sufficient. POTATOE (Sweet)....CowW- vulus Batata, L. A well known esculent root in the United States. Mr. Joseph Cooper of New-Jer- sey, whose improvements in agri- culture have been frequently men- tioned in the course of the present work, a few years since, introduced the following excellent mode of raising this nutritious vegetable. He plants his seed potatoes in a hot-bed, and cuts off the sprouts, and plants them in their destined spots in the field. Three or four sprouts are placed in one hill. The advantages of this method are, that the potatoes are raised at a more early period than in the old way, much seed is saved, and the great trouble of weeding avoided; for the sprouts grow so fast, that they suf- focate all rising plants in their im- mediate vicinity. Sweet Potatoes, especially those with red skins, yield a considera- ble quantity of farinaceous matter, which forms a fine nutritious jelly when mixed with water. Bow en's patent Sago, is this powder, which was for a long time prepared by the above person, at Savannah, in Georgia, chiefly for the British army. The process was similar to that which is well known in Eu- rope, for procuring the flour of the common potatoe, viz. grating the clean roots, washing the mass through brass sieves of different sizes, and collecting the flour at the bottom ofthe vessel which receives the fluid; finally, drying it in pans either in the sun, or by a fire.] POULTICE, an external appli- cation employed for promoting the suppuration of tumors, or abating painful inflammation; and which is sometimes also called a Cataplasm. Poultices are generally prepared of bread and milk, to which are added oil, lard, or other unctuous matter, to prevent their adhesion to the parts inflamed. In large hospitals, the consumption of these articles for such purpose being very considerable, while the bread and milk are liable to become sour in warm weather, the following ingredients have, by Mr.T.PAYXE, surgeon, been proposed as substi- tutes :...Take, of the finest pollard, three parts; of genuine linseed flour, one part; both by measure; and, of boiling water, four parts: mix these ingredients with a spoon or a broad knife ; and they will, in general, form a poultice of a proper consistence, without requir- ing oil, lard,or other emollient oint- ment: though,if the inflammation be considerable, a small quantity of oil may be added, to prevent adhesion. POULTRY, a term including every kind of domestic fowls which are reared about yards, such as cocks, hens, ducks, turkeys, Sec. Poultry constitutes part of every farmer's stock, but the rearing"of PRE PRE 329 it is, in this country, seldom pro- ductive of any pecuniary advan- tage ; for, though fowls are consi- dered chiefly as an article of luxury, and sold at high prices in the market, they never repay the value of the coin which they have con- sumed, especially if such grain must be purchased. Where profit is the object of the husbandman's labours, no poultry should be ad- mitted into the vicinity of barns ; unless for the purpose of picking up scattered grain: though, in ge- neral, it cannot be denied, that they acquire their fat substance from the corn left in the straw, by negligent.threshing...For the most economical methods of rearing fowl, the reader will consult the articles Cock, Hen, Duck, Goose, Turkey, &c.....See also Chafer. PREGNANCY, a certain state of the animal body, which requires no farther explanation. The first duty of persons, in that prosperous condition is, a constant and redoubled attention to all the surrounding and occasional causes which may be productive of injuri- ous effects on their constitution. Thus, prudent mothers will greatly contribute to the future health and welfare of their children, by avoid- ing every violent and depicssing passion ; living regularly in all respects ; and especially by taking proper or moderate exercise in the open uir. These few hints cannot with too great earnestness be im- pressed on the female mind ; as every comfort, or misery, connect- ed with family life, will, in a great measure, depend on the conduct pursued during that important cri- sis. Hence persons, thus situated, •tight to be extremely vigilant over VOL. IV. the vagrant effusions of fancy, and not suffer themselves to be misled by the frequent,thoughmomcntary impulse of an excited imagination: the happy consequences of such a system would be felt by future ge- nerations ; because every neglect, of which they are guilty at this period, cannot fail to be productive of physical and moral detriment to those who are the dearest pledges of their existence. Nor should they indulge beyond the bounds of reason, in the eating of. any strange dish, or drinking particular liquors, to which they are not ac- customed ; as desires of this nature must be ascribed to an unnatural appeli'.:-. It is an indisputable truth, that in the present improving state of society, we possess no distinct treatise on a subject of the high- est importance to the prosperity of mankind ; namely, a popular work on pregnancy, in which scientific rules are delivered with such a de- gree of lilicacy as to convey plain instructions, in a correct and pleas- ing manner. Until this great de- sideratum be fulfilled, we are in- clined to repeat the just com- plaints of Socrates against nis cotempora ies, that they cultivat- ed the art of rearing good horses, but reelected that of educating their ciiil Jen. [PRENANTHES AUTUM- NAI.IS. Dr. Witts' snake root, or rptl svake'-i master. A native hctorophv lh:s plant, and of consi- derable beauty ; growing from four to five feet high, with an erect stem, branching towards the top. The flowers are in corymbs or clusters, of a sky blue colour. This plant abounds in a viscid U w 33© PRE milky juice, of a very bitter taste, and has obtained some credit as a remedy for the cure of the bite of a rattle snake : but no satis- factory testimony has been pub- lished of its title to so impor- tant a claim.] PRESERVATION, in domes- tic economy, is the art of preserv- ing animal and vegetable substan- ces, with the least trouble and ex- pence. In the articles Bacon, Beef, Butter, Cheese, Flesh-meat, Pickle, Sec. we have already pointed out various new and ef- fectual contrivances for preventing the corruption of animal food : and though we likewise treat, in the progress of the alphabet, on the most useful vegetable bodies, and introduce the best methods of pre- serving them in a fresh state, yet we cannot neglect this opportunity of communicating to our readers a general fact of the utmost import- ance to the maritime interest of this country. A philanthropic Livonian cler- gyman, Mr. Eisen, in the year 1772, published a few sheets in the German language, of which the following is the substance :.... After numberless experiments made with a view to ascertain the relative moisture contained in different plants, this excellent man has clearly convinced the world, by actual proofs laid before the late Frederick the Great, of Prus- sia, that " vegetables may be pre- served in their natural state, so as to retain their juices, their co- lour, taste, and alimentary pro- perties) for a series of years, by a proper method of drying and packing them."....As we propose to describe this simple process, un- der the article Vegetables, let PRI it suffice to observe, that eight tons, or 32,000 pounds of fresh herbs and roots, may thus be con- centrated iato the compass of 16 cwt. or the twentieth part of their bulk, so that a single horse may remove with ease, what otherwise would have required the united efforts of twenty. Prick-timber. See Spindle- tree. • Prick-wood. See Wild Cor- nel-tree. Prim. See Privet. PRIMROSE, or Primula, L. a genus of plants comprising 19 species ; four of which are indi- genous : the following are the principal: 1. The vulgaris, or Common Primrose, is perennial, grows in woods, hedges, thickets, and on heaths; it flowers in the months of April and May....The blossoms of this species form an ingredient in pectoral teas ; and the young leaves may be eaten in the spring among other culinary herbs...Bees visit the odoriferous flowers, which are also said to impart briskness to wines. The roots, immersed in a cask of beer, or ale, render it much stronger......LiNN.aus as- serts, that silk-worms may be fed with its leaves....Sheep and goats eat this plant; but cows do not relish it, and it is wholly refused by horses and hogs. 2. The veris. See Cowslip. 3. The Polyanthus, a beauti- ful exotic species, which is culti- vased in gardens, on account of its fragrance. It is one of the earliest spring flowers, and numerous va- rieties have been raised by garden- ers ; some of which are so great- ly admired, as to be sold at one guinea per root. These are pro- pagated from seed, which ought PRI PRI 331 to be sown in December, in boxes of light rich earth, and slightly covered. When the young plants appear, they must be sheltered from the heat of the meridian sun ; and, if the spring be dry, it will be requisite to water, and keep them in the shade....In the month of May, they may be re- removed into rich shady borders, that have previously been manur- ed with neats'-dung, where they are to be set at the distance of four inches, till they have taken root. Here they must be carefuly ly weeded ; and towards the end of August, they should be finally transplanted into borders of rich, light earth, in rows of six inches apart, and occasionally watered. At an early period of the succeed- ing spring, the plants will flower; and, if intended to be preserved, it will be necessary to remove them, when their time of blowing is past, into another border of si- milar soil; where, being weeded, and sheltered during the winter, they will produce strong and beautiful flowers in the following spring. PRINT, an impression taken from a copper-plate. As prints are more durable than paintings, and form a valuable part of the furniture of almost every house, we shall subjoin a method of cleaning and bleaching them, in case they become stain- ed by accident, or otherwise soil- ed. It was invented by Signior Fabbroni, an Italian chemist, who published it in Brugnatelli's Annali de Chimica....He directs a strong glass bottle to be half-filled with a mixture of one-fourth part of red lead, and three-fourths of spirit of salt, and to be closely se- cured by a glass stopper. The vessel is then to stand in a cool shady place, till a certain degree of heat, which is spontaneously produced, indicates the forming of new combinations. The minium loses a considerable portion of its oxygen, which unites with the li- quor, and communicates to it a rich gold colour, together with the smell of oxygenated muriatic-acid (bleaching liquor) ; and a small quantity of lead is held in solution, which does not however, lessen its effects. In order to employ the liquid, thus prepared, a border of white wax should first be formed, about two inches in height, upon a large pane of glass : on this, the prints must be laid, in a ley made either of fresh urine, or water mixed with a little ox-gall, for the space of three or four days; at the expi- ration of which time the liquor must be supplied with warm wa- ter, that ought to be changed eve- ry third or fourth hour, till it is poured off perfectly clear. Should any resinous matter remain on the prints, they must be moistened with a little alkohol. The moisture must next be drained ; and the print, being again placed on the plate of glass, ought to be covered with the oxygenated muriatic-acid liquor. Another pane is then to be placed on the lower one, to prevent any dangerous con- sequences arising from the perni- cious vapour of the acid. In the course of one or two hours, the most discoloured prints will be re- stored to their original beauty. Lastly, after pouring off the acids, the prints must be washed two or three times in pure water, and dried in the sun. [PRINOS. A genus of shrubs, comprehending two species, both 332 PRI PRI of which are natives of the United ^tules, viz. Prinos (ihtber. and P. Verticillatus. The last mentioned species only shall be noticed. This tree is commonly called black alder, or Virginia winter-ber- ry. It grows in moist places, ge- nerally sending up several slender stalks, to the height of ten feet.... The inner bark of this tree, applied as a. poultice, is much used for promoting suppuration in tumors; and, a decoction of it for preventing the progress of mortification in wounds, fractures, and ulcers..... Joined with the bark of the root of the Leriodendron (poplar), or sasa- fras-root, formed a XAXrionable and successful remedy in the country, for the intermittent fever. The virtues of this medicine, certainly deserve attention from physicians.] PRINTING, the art of taking impressions from figures or charac- ters, on p:'par, linen, silk, he..... It is divided into three distinct branches ; namely, 1. From cop- per-plates, for pictures, which is denominated rolling-press printing. 2. From blocks, on which birds, flowers, and other representations are cut, for printing linen, cotton, or similar articles ; and which is known under the name of calico- printing. C-. From moveable let- ters, for multiplying books, and which has received the appellation of letter-press printing. The branch last mentioned, is undoubtedly the most curious and valuable ; as to its general disse- mination, may be chiefly attributed the progress of learning ; the numberless discoveries and im- provements in the arts and scien- ces, together with a variety of other valuable contrivances in do- mestic life, that must otherwise have been confined to the know- ledge of a few individuals, if not totally lo^t to mankind. Hence, several cities have contended for the honour of its first introduction; but the claim is confined princi- pally to Haarlem,in Holland(where it was invented by Laurence Coster), and to Mentz, in Ger- many (where Faust andGuTTEN- berg were the first printers): to each of these it may in some mea- sure be ascribed ; the printing with separate wooden types being first practised at Haarlem in 1430 ; as that with metal types (which were first cut, and afterwards cast) was discovered at Mentz, in the year 1444 or 1445. From Holland, the art of print- ing was introduced into England, about the middle of the 15th cen- tury : it was first carried on at Oxford; whence it has been dif- fused to every quarter ofthe island, and is now brought near to the acme of perfection....A more mi- nute account of the history of this valuable art, will be found in Mr. Ames's History of Printing (3 vols. 4to. 3/. 13*. 6rf. 2d edit.) ; and in Messrs. Bowyer's and Nichols's Origin of Printing (8vo. 2d edit. 5s. boards. In the year 1795, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. conferred a bounty of 40 guineas on Mr. Ridley, for his invention of a Printing-press, on a new con- struction; but, as a description of its mechanism would be intelligible only to printers, the reader is re- ferred to the 13th vol. of the So- ciety's " Transactions;" where it is accurately described, and illus- trated with an engraving. [Printing, (CalXico). This bu- siness has been particularly carri- ed on by Mr. Huston, for some years at Kensington, and lately, PRI PRI 333 and more extensively by Mr. Stewart, at Germantown, and by Mi-.Thoburn, at Derby in Dela- ware county.....It is pleasing to know, that the prints of these ma- nufactures meet with a ready sale, notwithstanding all the disadvan- tages arising from European im- portations, and the want of pro- tecting duties, and in the face of the constant cry of the silly or in- terested, that we are too young to manufacture ; that labour is too dear! The editor is happy in being able to lay before his readers, an ample set of instructions for the business of callico-printing, with which he has been favoured by Thomas Cooper, Esq. of North- umberland ; whose excellent re- marks on various topics,have great- ly added to the value of the pre- sent work. Goods intended for printing, are usually sent bleached ; if they are not quite white enough, boil them for two or three hours, in an alka- line ley, allowing about two pounds of ashes to each piece of velvet, fustian, or calico. Then dash them well, or wash them well out in hot-water. It will then be necessary to sour them in an acid, of 1 part strong oil of vitriol to two hundred parts of wa- ter ; immerse them in this acid for about twelve hours; dash them extremely well, or else rinse them for a sufficient time in hot water. If the ashes remaining in the piece after bleaching, are not perfectly neutralized by the acid, they will act as mordants for the colours, and the white part will never come clear : if the acid is not well work- ed out, the piece will be rotted in the storing. Of the different modes of printing. These are, 1. Chemical colours; 2. Raised colours ; 3. Pencil co- lours ; and 4. Paste work. 1. Chemical colours, are such, as when applied to the piece by the blocks, require no farther process, than that of being passed through a decoction of dung, and then through hot water. 2. Raised colours are two-fold. In the first, a compostion is paint- ed on the cloth, to serve as a basis, or mordant, as it is called, for some decoction of colouring substance to strike upon, through which decoc- tion, the piece is to be passed. In the second case, a corrosive com- position being applied to the cloth, that it requires to be again passed through a saline composition, to neutralize and precipitate the co- lour. 3. Pencil colours are chemical colours, applied with a brush or stick after the piece has been print- ed with raised colours, and finish- ed off; they are so applied, because they would be injured by the rais- ing of the other colours. They are laid on with a pencil or brush instead of a block, because the piece has been so much stretched and altered by printing and raising the other colours, that a block would not fit well in, with the pat- tern. 4. Paste work, is where an ad- hesive composition is laid upon the piece in those places, intended to be white, so that when the piece is dyed, the colour may strike up- on those places only which are not covered with the paste. This last is separated by steeping in a weak acid, and then washing in warm- water. 334 P R I PRI CHEMicALCoLouRs...In the fol- lowing receipt, one part, means, one part by weight; wherein also by 1 lb. of water, is understood, one English pint. Black....Vinegar, 64 parts; pow- dered blue galls, 16 parts; green copperas, 3 parts ; boil the whole forty minutes: when cold, add abouti a pint of nitrated iron, Mud, water 8 parts; powdered galls, I of a part; madder £; green copperas \ ; ground logwood -\ ; Spirit of Salt -i; dilute according to the required colour. Emperor's Eye.....Green coppe- ras one part, powdered galls one part, or sumach li parts ; put them in a bag, and boil them in eight parts of water for ten mi- nutes. Stone....Vinegar 6 parts, chemi- cal black 2 parts, boil them gent- ly for a few minutes. Drab... Water, tar acid and decoc- tions of sumach, of each I part; green copperas i of a part; sal- ammoniac ^ of a part, dissolve all together. Salmon....Water 24 parts, mad- der 3 parts, sumach 3 parts, alum 3 parts, boil them for one fourth of an hour. Purple....Sour ale 8 parts, log- wood 2 parts, alum \ a part, boil them for an hour, and add \ part of solution of tin in nitrous acid. Red....Powdered galls ^ part, brazil-wood 2 parts, stale beer 12 parts; boil them and add j part powdered alum ; strain the whole, and add \ part of nitrous solution of tin. Olive....Decoction of quercitron bark 8 parts, green copperas^ part, blue copperas \ part ; then dissolve them.....The following is a better receipt: yrong liquor from French ber- ries, with some weld in it, and about a tea-cup full of saturated solution of iron in aqua fortis, to three ^dlons ofthe liquor, thicken with line flour. Yellow.....Infuse two parts of quercitron bark in eight parts of water, for 12 hours. Then heat it, but do not let it boil; add eight parts more of water, and two parts more of the bark, and warm it again for about ~ of an hour ; add ■£g part of powdered galls ; stir it well, and let it rest \ an hour. Strain it, and to each part of the decoction thus strained, add ^ part of nitrated copper, after which stir it well, and let it settle for 12 hours. Green....To the above mixture, add | part of logwood at the same time the galls are put in. Blue.....Vinegar 8 parts, log- wood 1 part, blue copperas ipart, boil these together, and then add ^ part of verdigrease dissolved in 8 parts of water. Saxon Blue....Spanish indigo ve- ry well ground 1 part, flour of sul- phur 1 part, very strong colourless oil of vitriol 8 parts. Let these stand together in some glazed earthen vessel, for at least two days: then add 32 parts of hot- water in which about one part of bran has been steeped : stir the whole well. Saxon Green....To the preceding mixture add 8 parts of strong fus- tic liquor, and ^ part of red or- piment. All the preceding colours are to be mixed with gum liquor, accord- ing to the thickness of the colour, so as to make them work easily. Raised Colours with Mac- T>E\i....F/ack...Iron liquor 16 parts, logwood 3 parts, boil them toge- ther one hour : then add 2 part* PRI PRI 335 of powdered galls, and \ part of green copperas. Bring them to a boil in half an hour, and then add 7 part of nitrated iron. Strain the whole while hot and thicken with 5 parts of gum (tnat is 2^1b. to the gallon). Red.....WTater 116parts, alum S8 parts, sugar of lead 56 parts, ver- digrease, 3-| parts, stir them well from time to time, until the whole is dissolved. Mix seperately in a brass pan &\ parts of chalk, and 2,1, parts of red arsenic : boil them in 56 parts of water for ten mi- nutes ; then add this mixture to the former, stirring the whole well to- gether. When cold, mix with gum to the proper thickness. The following is a better receipt. Make a decoction of good brasil, (Braziletlo, or nicaragua are not so good.) Precipitate the colour- ing matter in the form of a cake, with a very dilute solution of good tin in spirits of salt. Collect all the sediment after it has gradually subsided. When this sediment is almost dry, dilute it with a weak solution of tin in marine acid, (spi- rit of salt,) thicken with flour or gum, and use it; the room must not be too warm. Pale-red....Water 2 parts, alum |, white arsenic ■£, pearl ashes ^s, chalk -Jg, boil and mix with gum. A paler red may be mixed, by di- luting the former. Pink-red....Decoction of Brazil- wood 8 parts, alum two parts, pearl-ash -i part. Let them fer- ment, and decant the clear liquor and thicken it for use. Dark Brown Rcd,...Tothe first receipt for red, add iron liquor in the proportion of one part of the latter to three parts of the former. Lay lock Purple. ...Iron liquor 8 parts, creme of tartar ■$■, salt-petre I part, corrosive sublimate -±% part; thicken with gum. Common Purple....Salt-petre 1 part, creme tartar 2 parts, pearl- ashes | part, iron liquor 12 parts. Light Purple....The above di- luted with i more of water. Dark Purple....Tv/o parts iron liquor, -Jg- sugar of lead, 2 parts of water. Blossom....Eight parts iron li- quor, \ salt-petre, dissolve these hot, and add! part printing or red colour.1! Pompadour....Black and red li- quor equal parts, thickened with gum, dissolved in urine. Chocolate....Iron liquor, 2 parts, light purple liquor 2 parts, red co- lour 2 parts. Puce....Eight1 parts red colour, 2 parts iron liquor, water 2 parts. French Grey....Hot iron liquor 8 parts, sal ammoniac 8 parts, wa- ter 64 parts. Stone....Salt-petre 1 part, sugar of lead jj part, green copperas \ part, water 16 parts. Stone....Salt-peter 1 part, sugar of lead j part, green copperas^ part, Water 16 pints. When the pieces are printed, they must be dried in a hot stove, then passed through a decoction of cow-dung, which should be hot, but not boiling. Velverets must be thus rinsed through, about 40 times; Jeanets, Sec. about 20..... The instant after they are thus dunged, they must be washed in the dash-wheel, or they will be spoiled. When well dashed, put them into a copper of cold water, with 21b. of Madder, and l-21b. of 336 PRI sumach to each piece of velveret, and 1 -21b. Madder and l-21b. su- mach to a Jeannet. The sumach is not necessary to all colours, and it would spoil purples. Bring the liquor to a brisk scald, (boiling in- jures the colour of the madder). Rinse your pieces in this decoc- tion, till the colour is deep enough. Stream and wash your pieces well: then put them into a copper of warm water, with 1-4 hoop of bran to a piece ; keep them in at a brisk scald for half an hour: stream them, and again put them into the bran copper for 1-4 hour more. If not white enough, lay them down on the grass for a few days. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS. In making the dung liquor, put about a strike (or bushel) and half, for 8 pieces of calico, or 5 of vel- veret, which may be renewed for the next 8 (or 5) with a piggin- full more. The coppers should be from 3 ft. 6, to 5 ft. over, and should have a nozzle and plug (not a cock) to let out the waste liquor. No more than 8 pieces of calico should, on any account, be rinsed at a time, even 10, occasions a hazard of bad work. The cow-dung prevents the colours from spreading, and fixes them. The cow-dung should be well washed out by streaming thro' a pit about four feet wide, and long at pleasure, supplied with a stream of water ; or else the pieces should be dashed in a dash-wheel. The quantity of time employed on an average (including chintz patterns) to get a piece of goods into the market, from the green state,is two months, of which, one is occupied PRI by the bleaching, and one by the printing. The pieces being maddered, (in which process bleach grounds will take about 5lb. madder) washed, laid down on the grass, and washed again, are calendered. Such as require it are then pencilled, after which, they are dunged, unless for pencil blues, and greens, which do not require it. They are then laid down, washed, dried, and calen- dered for market. To assist the drying, they use plane-tree squeez- ers or calenders, at which one man delivers and another receives four pieces at a time: the squeezers are set so, as that no water will be wrung out of the pieces when squeezed. The squeezers however, will burst all other pieces but cali- coes. The pieces hung up to dry, are taken down somewhat damp. For pencilling,quercitron bark is used often instead of weld. Patterns are procured (in Eng- land) from two sorts of people..... 1st. Those who go about selling patterns (some of which cost 10*.' 6d. a-piece); and 2dly, From the block-cutters, who will not only cut a given pattern for hire, but also furnish patterns ready cut. On these, and the cutters, you em- ploy yourself, you must depend for the choice of patterns, as they are generally well informed of the taste of the market. It is abso- lutely necessary, however, to em- ploy cutters yourself in any case, to repair the blocks, damaged by accident or careless cleaning. If, however, you disposeof your goods by commission, your broker is ano- ther source of procuring patterns, as the pattern-cutters always apply to the commission-brokers. As many dyers as are wanted to raise the colours, so many men PRI PRI 337 are wanted to take the goods from them to wash, lay down to bleach, wash again, squeeze, dry, &c. A printing shop should be nine yards wide, for a double row of tables, and five yards for a single row. Establishment for 12 tables, exclu- sive of dry-houses, ground, dash- wheels and bleachery. \2 Tables. 72 Blocks (not less). 40 Tubs and sieves. S Coppers, 4 or 5 feet over. Winces, brushes, £tc Drugs, exclusive of madder. Madder. Cloth. A printing shop and stove in it. A stove for drying. A calender, Squeezers, block-wood, and cutting- tools for the cutter, Drug-room,forbark, weld, madder, sumach, sacch. sat. alum, he. A dyo-house for maddering, A man and tear-boy to each table, '2 Dyers and two boys, 2 Bleachers and two boys. C0L0URST0BE RAISED INW0ULDS. Z?/ac;(-....Aligar 3 gals. Galls 7 1 -21b. Logwood 1 lb.: boil them moderately for an hour, and to every gallon of the clear liquor, add, when cold, 1 quart of nitrated lion. After printing, let the colour lie on three days. Yellow....m. alum. 1 1-211). sugar of lead. 2 1 -2 oz. verdigrease. 7 oz. whitening, dissolve in I gal- lon of water. N. B. Fustic is nearly as fast as weld, but both fustic and weld stain VOL. IV. the ground, quercitron bark some- what less, yellow berries less. Light Olive..A\h. alum. 1 1 -21b. sacc. sat. 6 oz. verdig. 6 quarts iron liquor, to be prepared cold. Middle or Yellow Olive....! l-21b. alum. 31b. sugarof lead. 6 oz. verd. 9 quarts iron liquor. 3 quarts water, to be prepared cold, and the ingredients stirred for 3 days. Dark Olive....\ lb. alum. l-21b. sacc. sat. 2 oz. verdigrease, 1 gallon iron liquor. Mud....2\h. galls, 1 pint water. 3 gallons iron liquor. Another Mud....8 quarts water. 8 ditto iron liquor. 4lb. copperas. 6 oz. verdigrease. Stone..Anints vinegar, and 1 pint black colour. To raise the above colours, stove and dung them as directed for madder colours. For a velveret take 1-2 bundle of welds ; for a jeanet somewhat less : boil the welds in your cop- per for half an hour; take them out and put your piece in the de- coction, keeping it at a brisk scald, but not boiling ; wince as usual till the colours are deep enough. Put a pound of galls or sumach into your bran, and if the blacks are not good enough, add move. Bran as directed for madder. COLOURS TO BE RAISED IN WOULDS AND MADDER. Black, Stone, and Mud.....The same as for woulds or madder. Orange...Mb. sugar of lead. 7 oz. verdg. 14lb. gum. 4 gallons water. X x 338 PRI When dissolved, neutralize with 6 oz. chalk. Dung, and raise your piece with half a bundle welds, and then wash it, and put in a fresh copper with 2 l-21b. madder, scald for half an hour and bran as usual. COLOURS TO BE RAISED IN WELD AND LOGWOOD. Black, stone, aud Mud....As be- fore. Green...A gal. lime-water. 6 oz. verdig. 4 oz. alum. 2 oz. sugar of lead. 1-2 oz. best ground indigo dissolved in a table spoonful of strong oil of vitriol, and neutralized with chalk. Add all together, and neutralize with whiting. Raise as for welds, adding 21b. of logwood. COLOUR TO BE RAISED WITH AN ASTRINGENT ONLY. Boil 2 gallons of iron liquor in an iron pan, and thicken it gradu- ally with 31b. of flour ; put it in an earthen mug to cool,and when cold take off the top skin, and it is fit for use. To raise the above, dung as before, and boil in a decoction of 1 lb. logwood and 1 lb. sumach wash and bran, and if the ground is not clear, boil it in soap and water. COLOURS TO BE RAISED IN LIME- WATER AND POT-ASII. 2?/acA'....Aligar 3 gallons. Galls PRI 7 1 -21b. boil and then add 4 or 6 oz. copperas to each gallon. Mud...A gallon of water. 1 1-4 lb. blue galls. 1 l-2lb. Brazil wood. 4 oz. copperas....this last to be added when the other ingredients are well boiled. Dilute or other- wise, according to the pattern. Stone...A quart chemical black, without the nitrated iron ; and 1 quart water. Fawn...A pint chemical black, 5 pints pale red. Gold....Dissolve 9lb. copperas in 6 gallons of iron liquor, thicken with 31b. of gum, or 3 l-2lb. of flour per gallon. Buff....6 gallons of iron liquor boiled, to which add 2 gallons of gum water. Violet...A gallon fresh cold log- wood liquor. 21b. alum. 1 lb. sacch. sat. and 4 oz. salt-petre dissolved in part of the liquor....add 1 pint boiled iron liquor, and then 2 oz. pearl-ash. N. B. This colour raised in madder, gives a crimson red....in welds, a full green olive. After printing your pieces run them through a cold solution of 6 or 71b. of pot-ash, and then through another, with about 71b. of quick- lime—then wash them well. COLOURS TO BE RAISED IN LIME, COPPERAS, AND POT-ASH. China Blue....Grind together in gum water, equal quantities of in- digo and copperas extremely fine, add 2 quarts gum water...print the piece....then pass it through lime water in the proportion of £lb. of lime to each gallon of water. Then for 15 minutes, through a solution of copperas in the proportion of PRI PRI 339 lib. copperas to each gallon. Then through a solution of pot-ash in the proportion of pot-ash sufficient to make the solution bear an egg; wince it for 20 minutes. Then plunge it immediately in cold wa- ter, and wash it well. Should you want to discharge the colour, boil it in caustic alkali......Any other raised colour may be printed after the blue is raised. PENCIL COLOURS. Blue....To 20 quarts of hot wa- ter in a copper pan, add 20 oz. of sifted quick lime, and 10 oz. flora indigo,ground extremely fine: boil slowly for 20 minutes, stirring it all the time : vvhen cold, add 8 oz. red arsenic, boil it again 10 minutes longer, and then add 2 quarts of gum water. G'rm/....four oz. fustic, one oz. of green vitriol one quart of water ....boil them, and thicken with starch: then add as much as you wish of pencil blue. Yellow...A-2 anoz. turmeric in 1-2 a pint spirits of wine....add to it 1-4 oz. of saffron dissolved in 1 quart of water, (more or less) as you wish. Orange......1 lb. annatto, l-4lb. pearl-ash, 5 quarts water.....boil them together and pour off the clear liquor for use. Chemical Green (common work) ....Logwood, French-berry-liquor, and a little verdigrease. Abetter Green...Indigo,copperas and gum water ground together... I.Ud. indigo to 21b, copperas. If you calcine the copperas and put a little sugar of lead in it, it deepens the colour. Mordant for 1 gallon Turkey red. Alum, 3 l-21b. sac. satv.rni, 21b. sal prunell. 4 oz. corr. sublimate 1-2 an oz. a little whiting. There is another method of making chemical colours, but they do not stand the air, though they wash : and ft is very dangerous to the cloth, if not well attended. Chemical Purple....Proceed with logwood in the same way. Chemical Yellow......With weld, or quercitron, in the same way. Chemical Olive...\]se the preced- ing, with a solution of iron in sp. salt, added....or use the receipt be- fore given. Green....The yellow upon an in- digo blue. Blue ...The common indigo blue, DYEING. Drab....Fustic, sumach and cop- peras, with alum in the copperas. 0/zw....Fustic, logwood and blue vitriol, with or without, copperas, according to the shade. This will make a greenish olive. For a brown or red olive, sumach and copperas. Mud.....Alum and copperas..... sumach. Bloom.....Logwood and sumaHh, with copperas and alum : or tin in spirits of salt. Purple.....Logwood (and if not a blue purple, Brazilletto) and tin in spirit of salt. Chocolate and Brown...Fustic and copperas, and then logwood and blue vitriol, or if a bright chocolaie is wanted, Brazill and tin. Buffs and Nankeens......Annatto and fustic. Fast Buffs....Tinned iron plates in aqua fortis, and raised in lime, 340 PRI PRI Yellow....*.Fustic or weld with alum or verdigrease. KGreen......Fustic, logwood and blue vitriol. Crimson.m....Brazil and tin in spirit of salt. Garnet......Add logwood to the above. 6'car/rt....Annetto and saffiovver. -S/ccA....Steep oiler-bark and iron together for about a twelve month, and then run the pieces 10 or 15 times through. Dressing and rub- bing them between. Blue....Indigo in lime with cop- peras and yellow orpiment. Red....Madder and alum....then Brazil and alum. Turkey AVc/....Boil the cotton in soap and water weak, alum it twice, gall it twice, run it through sheep- dung, madder it twice, revive it for a slight solution of soap and water. In common dyeing, 6 pieces per man per week, on the average..... 2 men to a copper.....coppers, 3 feet diameter....fires on the outside like the steam-engine fire.....stove of 3 stories; one of 32 feet square on the ground plan, with 2 twenty inch stoves, will be enough for an establishment of 15 men...Damper in the' upper story....Scour with winses.....half a dozen casks, and some earthen cocks necessary. ELEACHING GREY CALICOES. The cuive should hold about 240 : these will require for the first bouking, 70lb. pot-ash. WTash them well, and let them lay out two days. Second bouking 40 lb. pot-ash ....wash, let them lay out 3 days. Third bouking SOlb. pearl-ash, wash, let them lay out one day. Clearing, 15lb. pearl-ash, wash, let them lay out till white. Between the first, second and third bouking, there should be a scouring with vitriolic acid and wa- ter, ofthe strength of vinegar. The dephlogisticated acids we used to make thus. In cylindrical machines 4 feet by 5 feet, the staves 2 1-2 incheh thick, the gudgeons 1 inch thick, we used when they were nearly filled with water to add 75lb. salt, 40lb. oil of vitriol, and 25lb. red-lead.... turned it three or four times, and used it next day. This would bleach 60 muslinets after they had been bouked twice, soured twice, and cleaned once. 6 grey calicoes were weighed, and they weighed 431b. 6 ditto, bleached, 391b. Muslinets grey, weigh about 11 lb....bleached, about 9 l-21b. Half-yard velverets, grey, un- dressed, wreigh 161b. but when dressed, 11 lb. and when bleached about 91b.] PRIVET, Prim, or Print ; Li- gustrum vulgare, L.; an indige- nous shrub, growing on rocks in the most exposed situations to- wards the WTestern Sea, and flow- ering in the months of June and July. The Privet may be easily pro- pagated by seed, layers, or by cut- tings: being a hardy plant of quick growth, it is usefully employed in making hedges. It attains the height of from ten to fifteen feet; is adorned with oblong leaves, and bears black berries containing a v iolet pulp, which ripens in Octo- ber. Its juice, when mixed with a solution of any acid salt, affords a black ; with Glauber's salt, and spirit of sal ammoniac, a red ; with urine, a purplish ; and, with vitriol PRI PRO 311 of iron, agreen colour. On steep- ing these berries in a solution of salt of tartar, they yield a fine blue juice, the shade of which may be rendered still brighter by adding quick-lime. Weissmann, the au- thor of the " Franconian Collec- tions" (in German, vol. i. p. 312), conjectures that the incomparably black ink of Tragus, was prepared from these berries, combined with oil of vitriol. With .the addition of alum, this fruit is said to impart to wool and silk a good and dura- ble green colour; but, for this pur- pose, the berries should be gather- ed as soon as they are ripe. The purple colour upon cards is like- wise prepared from their juice..... The kernels contained in these berries, produce by expression an excellent oil. The wood serves both as fuel, and for the smaller objects of turnery, but especially for pegs, as it is uncommonly firm. The branches of this shrub are useful for wicker-work, as well as for the finer kinds of baskets, on account of their great flexi hi lty..... As this shrub is much frequented by the Spanish fly, we conceive it might with advantage be cultivated in the southern counties of Britain, for the purpose of collecting that valuable insect. Oxen, goats, and sheep, eat the plant; but it is re- fused by horses. PRIVIES are certain places of retirement, which require no far- ther definition. As they frequent- ly emit an odour alike inconveni- ent and unwholesome, either from neglect in cleansing them, or from the low situation of the houses to which they may be annexed, such fetor may be destroyed by throw- ing into them a mixture of lime- water and a ley of ashes, or of soap-suds : thus, the most offen- sive exhalations may be effectual- ly removed, at a trifling expence. By a similar process, vessels may be kept in the apartments of the sick, where night-chairs cannot be easily procured, without emitting the least offensive smell: for if 5 or 6lbs. of quick-lime, a small quantity of ashes, and two buckets of water, be thrown into a tub, adapted for the purpose by a pro- per lid, such composition will ef- fectually prevent any fetid effluvia; and the feculent matter, thus neu- tralized, becomes an excellent ma- nure. See also Close-stool. [POBANG, an instrument for the purpose of forcing substances into the stomach, which stick in the gullet. It consists of a piece of spunge, tied to one extremity of a round smooth piece of whale- bone, to the other end of which, a portion of twine from the spunge is connected, to prevent the acci- dental passage of the spunge into the stomach, in case it should be- come loose. The spunge must be dipped in oil before using it, and then pushed beyond the ob- structed part. Such an instru- ment might be used with success, when cattle swallow whole pota- toes or apples, which they often do, and cause their death thereby.] PRONG-HOE, an implement of husbandry, employed for the hoeing or breaking of ground near, or among the roots of plants. It consists of two hooked points, six or seven inches in length ; and, when stricken into the ground, will stir, and turn it to the same depth as a plough ; thus answering both intentions, that ef opening the land, and of cutting up weeds..... The prong-hoe is a very useful 342 P RO PRO instrument, especially in the horse- hoeing husbandry, when the hoe- plough can only come within two or three inches of the rows of ve- getables ; as the land may thus be raised and stirred to the very stalk of the plant. PRONUNCIATION, a term denoting the manner of articulat- ing or sounding the words of a language. Pronunciation is the most diffi- cult, and at the same time the most defective part in grammar, the writer having frequently no deter- minate expression, by which he can convey a distinct idea of par- ticular sounds : hence it becomes necessary to substitute a precari- ous and even vicious term. These remarks are peculiarly applicable to the English language, where the same word is often both a noun and a verb; for instance, " to present a nosegay ; and, to accept of the present :" the real difference being distinguished only by the accent....To remedy such inconveniencies, it has been pro- posed to establish a standard of pronunciation, by means of certain visible marks ; and different essays have been published on the sub- ject. The best work of this na- ture, as a guide to young persons, and more especially to foreigners, appears to be, Mr. John Wal- ker's Pronouncing Dictionary, (4to. 2d edit. 1/. 5s.) ; by a dili- gent study of which, the reader may be enabled to form his pro- nunciation in the most appropri- ate manner. The author of this classical book, being a gentleman cf considerable literary attain- ments, possesses the additional merit of a teacher, who, through a long series of years, has formed many of our best public speakers: nav, we are convinced, that the happy talent of imparting judici- cious precepts with a melodious, distinct, and manly enunciation, has seldom been more conspicu- ous. PROPAGATION, in general, signifies the act of multiplying the kind or species ; but, in this place, we propose to treat only of vegeta- ble nature. Beside the usual modes adopted by gardeners and agriculturists, of propagating trees, shrubs,&cc. there are two other methods of multiply- iag plants, in a manner .equally novel and surprizing. 1. Planting the leaves, was acci- dentally discovered by J. F. Hen- ry, a German, who died at Augs- burg, in 1726. He reared many large trees,by setting healthy leaves in flower-pots containing sifted garden-mould, so that one third of the leaf was covered with earth. Over these pots, he suspended vessels filled with water, which gradually dropped upon the small plantation beneath : thus, the young stems began to strike root and grow like those reared from kernels.....Henry was born at Stuttgard, in 1647, where at an early period of his life he made this useful discovery, which was first described by Mandirola, an Italian monk, who published a treatise " On Flower-gardens and Orangeries." in 1679. 2. By covering horizontal sprigs, or branches with 7720s.v....This inge- nious method of multiplying plants was lately announced by J. C. Wendland, an eminent gardener in Germany, who described it for the benefit ofthe public, nearly in the following words :...Such shrubs as cannot conveniently be propa.- ga'ed by seeds, sets, or by layers, PRU P R U 343 may be easily multiplied, especi- ally if they have young branches near their roots. For this purpose, the earth around the stem ought to be previously loosened, elevat- ed, and made nearly level with the lowermost sprouts : these should next be laid on the ground hori- zontally (without cutting or break- ing them); then fastened with small wooden hooks ; covered with moss ; and frequently water- ed, so that the latter may closely attach itself round the branches. The operation may be performed either in the spring, or autumn : if in the former season, the moss should never be suffered to be- come dry ; if in the latter, it must be covered with straw, to protect the layers from the effects of frost. When the moisture has softened the rind of the sprouts, young roots will strike through the moss into the soil, and numerous plants may thus be obtained in the course of one summer, sufficiently vigo- rous to be removed to the nursery, No biennial parent-branches, how- ever, need be employed ; as these will produce new saplings only in the second year. Prunes. See Article Plum- tree. PRUNING, in gardening and the culture of forests, denotes the lopping off exuberent or diseased branches, with a view to render trees more fruitful ; to make them grow higher, and with greater re- gularity ; or to produce larger and better-tasted fruit. The greatest care is requisite in the management of wall-fruit-trees, especially during the spring, when their growth is most rapid : all su- perfluous branches must be closely cut off with a sharp bill, in order that the wound may speedily he..!. Those, however, which are intend' ed to bear fruit in the succeeding year, ought on no account to be shortened during their growth; for such operation would cause two lateral shoots to spring from the eyes beneath the part where they were cut off: and the course of the sap would be diverted : hence it becomes necessary to remove these shoots; as they will other- wise prove highly detrimental to the tree. Farther, Mr. Bucknall directs all useless buds to be rubbed off, immediately after they appear, and not to be extirpated by the knife; because new buds will shoot forth with increased vigour: others must be pinched, where new shoots are required to supply the vacancies of the wall. By this treatment, fruit-trees may be so managed, as to render the opera- tion of pruning unnecesary during the winter. With respect to standards, it will be advisable to shorten their branches only, when they are ei- ther too luxurious, or, by growing irregularly, divert the current of the sap, and consequently weaken the whole. In such case, the more vigorous sprouts ought to be close- ly cut down, in order to strength- en the other parts : but these am- putations should not be performed on stone-fruit trees ; which are very liable to become affected with the Gum, and thus, in a short time, to perish. It will, therefore, be necessary in the latter instance, to pinch the straggling shoots ear- ly in the spring....But all decay- ing or apparently dead branches, whether belonging to wall or other fruit-trees, ought to be = pruned closely to the stem ; because, by attracting noxious particles from 544 P R U PRU the air, and admitting too great a pruning fruit-trees, is of the first degree of moisture into the tree, consequence ; as we seldom meet such useless parts contaminate the with an orchard which, in this rc- balsamic virtues of the sap, and spect, has been judiciously ma- thus eventually cause the. destruc- naged. To ensure success, there is tion of the tree, by affording a required not only the eye of an ac- nest in which insects will deposit curate observer, but also a com- their eggs....Lastly, all branches plete knowledge of the various that intersect each other, and thus kinds of fruit-bearing trees, there occasion a confusion in the crown peculiar nature, and habits ; be- of the tree, ought likewise to be cause almost every sort must be carefully removed ; and, as vigor- treated in a different manner..... ous young shoots often spring from Many of these commonly produce old arms near the trunk, and grow their fruit on the shoots of the pre- up into the head, they must be ceding year, such as peaches, nec- annually exterminated; lest they tarines, &c. others again, on should fill the tree with too much branches which have attained the wood. age of 3, 5, 15, or 20 years; for In regard to the proper period instance, pears, plums, cherries, for commencing this operation on he. For the proper nursing and fruit-trees, especially in orchards, training of all these trees, it will j^Ir. Bucknall is of opinion, that be indispensably requisite to at- pruning should be first practised in tend to this circumstance, that a the nursery, and regularly conti- sufficient portion of fertile wood be nued to the " extremity of old left in every part: at the same age." Thus, it will be advisable time, it would be prejudicial to to take off only a small quantity of the growth and health of a tree, wood at one time ; and by em- to leave too many useless branches, ploying his medication (See Can- which only tend to exhaust their ker), the wounds will heal with- nutritive powers, and eventually to out causing any more blemishes accelerate their decay. in the tree than those to which it On the whole, it deserves to be was subject, at the time when the noticed, that peaches, nectarines, branch was separated. If such apricots, cherries, and plums, will tree, however, be very old, and thrive more vigorously, when they much incumbered with useless are pruned with a sparing hand ; wood, it will be proper to cut off as otherwise, they are apt to bleed all decayed, rotten, or blighted profusely, or to part with such a branches, previously to the opera- quantity of gum, as will often lion ; and to rub them with the prove fatal: hence, the safest me- preparation above alluded to, with thod is, to remove only the super- a view to exclude the cold winds r- fluous sprigs as soon as they ap- ....lastly, Mr. B. observes, that pear, and not to cut off those new the rest may be left ; to the dis- shoots, which may be required cretion of each person, who will to fill up vacant spaces on the soon see how much is necessary ; wall. By such management, the self-conviction bcingthebestschool trees above alluded to, may be pre- for improvement." served in a prosperous condition ; The proper aye, and season, for and they will grow with greater PRU regularity, and less trouble, than by the common method of clipping them promiscuously. Apple and pear-trcesought to be treated, during the summer, in a similar manner ; but in the win- ter, they require a different pro- cess. For, as peaches and necta- rines bear their fruits mostly on the annual branches, these must be lopped according to the degree of strength observed in the indivi- dual tree ; so that they may be left in a state sufficiently vigorous to produce new shoots in the suc- ceeding year: on the contrary, pear, apple, plum, and cherry- trees, yielding their fruits on the young sprigs that proceed from boughs of several years growth, they should not be pruned; because branches which naturally abound with these sprouts, would thus in- crease the wood, but never afford a proportionate addition of fruit.... And, as it frequently happens that the flower-buds appear first on the extremity of the last year's sprig, such cutting ofthe branches would deprive the tree of its future blos- soms. With respect to the pruning of high or lofty trees, we shall briefly observe, that their branches ought not to be curtailed or removed, * unless they grow too luxuriently and irregularly on one side of the stem, so as to deprive the collate- ral boughs ofthe necessary supply of sap; on account of which, other parts of the tree would remain de- ficient ; or its roots might be too much weakened : in this case, it will be advisable to lop a branch to such extent, as may be deemed re- quisite for the production of lateral boughs, in order to supply the open or naked sides. These observa- tions, however, apply only to apple VOL. IV. PRU 345 and pear-trees, which shoot forth their blossoms from the branchy wood, after it has attained the age of several years : on the contrary, most kinds of stone fruit would, after much pruning, part with their gum, and speedily perish. [The following excellent direc- tion respecting pruning trees, have been published before : andthourli the substance of them is given in the course of this work, yet the manner in which they arc here presented to the reader, will be of advantage, as they cannot be too strongly inforeed. " Any time in the month of March is a proper season to prune your trees : mind nothing about the moon, for she concerns herself little about you or your trees and the sign is always in the right place when it makes you industrious.... There is no part of a farm which yields so great profit with so lit- tle labour as the well cultivated or- chard. Young trees require to be pru- ned every year as much as the old. You should never suffer a sucker to remain near the root, from one year to another, nor by any means upon the body or trunk, which you do not intend shall be permanent. In pruning old trees, and those which have gotten their growth, ob- serve the following rules : Cut away no limb nearthe trunk, nor indeed at any distance troni it, which is too large at the place of incision to heal or to close over again, this may be determined by the thriftiness of the tree, as well as by the size. If by neglect you have suffered a limb to stand, till it has attained its growth, it must stand, otherwise by extirpating it, (unless defended bv Forsyth's Y Y 346 PRU composition,) you give the tree its death wound by opening an avenue to the air and water, which induce rottenness, and in course of time the limb or trunk becomes hollow, frequently to the roots. For this reason, no sprout should be suffered to remain in or near the body of the sapling, which is not designed shall stand when it has attained its full growth. The long life of different orchards, soil and situation being equal, will depend more on the above management, than on any other circumstance. In trimming an orchard, great patience and industry are required, which will be amply rewarded at the harvest. You must not only remove all the dead and dry branch- es, but extirpate every unnecessary twig and sucker, from each branch, to its very extremity. The more of this labour that is performed if performed with judg- ment, the more thrifty will the tree become, and the fruit will not only be increased in quantity, but much improved in quality. When the tops of the branches of your apple trees begin to die, (which will be much retarded by the above treatment) they ought immediately to be regenerated, by giving what is called a new top : This is done by cutting off a few feet of their extremities, over the whole tree, (except cherries, ac- cording to Forsyth,) so as to leave it in a proper form ; if the trunk is yet tolerably sound, the new branches will grow thriftily, and bear luxuriantly, and if you wish to vary your fruit, the sprouts after one year's growth, and most frequently the same year, will be fit for inoculating, which succeeds equally well in the old as in the young trees, and with which eve- PUD ry farmer ought to be acquaint- ed."] If forrest trees have attained a large size, it will be most advisable not to prune them, unless it be ab- solutely requisite ; and, even in such case, very few large branches ought to be taken off. Small shoots must be lopped closely, smoothly, and in an oblique direction ; but extensive arms should be cut offat the distance of three or four inches from the stem. The branches of crooked trees must be separated at the curve, sloping upwards; and one of the most vigorous branches trained, for the purpose of raising a new stem : if, on the contrary, the tree be top-heavy, it will be ne- cessary to thin the boughs that proceed from the main branches. And, if the former continue to grow out of the sides, and the top be un- able to support its own weight, such boughs as have appeared in the spring, ought to be closely pruned immediately after Mid- summer. PUDDING, a well-known dish, frequently found at the tables of our English readers. The most wholesome dishes of this nature, are doubtless those made of bread, milk, and eggs ; and which are known under the name of bread-puddings. Next to these, are such as are prepared by mixing a small proportion of suet, or oth- er animal fat, with flour, eggs, and milk. The whole must be care- fully incorporated, and boiled three hours or longer, according to its size, before it is carried to the ta- ble. A palatable dish may be obtain- ed, by boiling half a pound of pota- toes till they become soft, when they must be mashed, and rubbed through a sieve. Half a pound of. PUF PUL 347 melted fresh butter is then to be combined with a similar quantity of sugar; and all the ingredients are to be mixed up with six eggs, and a little brandy. The whole is now to be poured into a cloth, and boiled for half an hour, when it may be served with some melted butter, sweetened wifh sugar; to which a small portion of wine may be added. The cheapest preparations of this nature, however, are rice-pud- dings : let a quarter of a pound of rice, and double that quantity of raisins, be tied loosely in a cloth, and boiled for two hours ; at the expiration of which time, it may be put in a dish, and carried to the table. Or, the rice may be boiled in a cloth for one hour, vvhen a quar- ter of a pound of butter is to be stir- red in, and the pudding sweeten- ed to the taste : it should then be boiled for another hour, after which it will be fit for immediate use. [Under the article Diet, seve- ral receipts were given, for the pre- paration of wholesome and nutri- tious dishes ; to those may be ad- ded the following, for a cottage- pudding, which the editor can re- commend to either rich or poor, as highly palatable. " To three pounds of dry mealy potatoes peeled and mashed, add one pint of milk, three fresh eggs, 1 oz. (or two large spoonsful) of brown sugar, mix all well together, and bake quickly.] PUFF-BALL, or Lycoperdon, L. a genus of fungous plants, consist- ing of many species, 25 of which are indigenous : the principal part of these are the following : 1. Theequinum, or Eojjestrian Puff-ball, growing on the horns of cattle and sheep, but more com- monly on the hoofs of horses which have been long exposed to, and softened by, the weather. 2. The proteus, Common Puff- ball ; Bunt; Irog-cheese ; or Puckefist ; growing in pastures, and on road-sides; flowering in the month of August. When burnt, it emits narcotic fumes, on which account it is occasionally employed to take a hive, without destroying the bees. This spe- cies, as well as the Orange-colour- ed Puff-ball (Lycoperdon auranlia- cum) issomelimesused asastyptic. All these plants, while young, are of a roundish figure, and pos- sess a soft fleshy substance, simi- lar to that of mushrooms; but, when attaining to maturity, they become hollow, and are filled with an extremely subtle powder, that is very destructive to the eyes ; cases having occurred of persons, who were, by coming in contact with it, deprived of their sight for a consi- derable time, and also affected with violent pain,and inflammation. PULSE, in animal economy, a term denoting the alternate dilata- tion and contraction ofthe heart and arteries, in consequence of which the blood,being ejected from the left ventricle of that organ, is impelled into the arteries, so that it may circulate throughout the bo- dy : this incessant motion, or throb- bing of the vessels, is distinctly perceptible by the finger. The various circumstances by which a natural pulse is liable to be affected, are, by Dr. Falconer, classed under the following heads : 1. Such as arise from bodily organ- ization, namely, sex, tempera- ment, and stature ; 2. Such as pro- ceed from the difference in the time of life ; 3. Time of day ; 4. State of the system respecting rest or activity, viz.sleep, exercise, and 348 P U L PUL mental agitation ; 5. State of the body with regard to temperature; (5. Effects of food and abstinence : to these may be added the season of the year, the greater or less pressure of the atmosphere, and a variety of other circumstances, too numerous to be detailed..... Thus, the pulse in general beats more quickly in men, especially those of a bilious habit, than in women. In lean persons, whose vessels are large, it is much stron- ger than in the corpulent or phleg- matic. Farther, the pulse is more forci- ble in adults than in children ; but, in the aged, it is slow and hard.... When the atmosphere is close, and productive of rain, as well as dur- ing Sedentary occupations, the pulse is languid, and perspiration is di- minished. In the month of May, it is quick, and sometimes even violent: as the summer advances, the rapidity of circulation, though remaining nearly uniform, is con- siderably reduced in strength ; so that in autumn it is slow, soft, and , w^uk; but, on the approach of winter, the pulse becomes hard and strong. The most powerful agents, how- ever, on the human pulse, are the passions and affections of the mind: thus, under the influence of terror, it. is unequal, small, and contract- ed ; under that of joy, it becomes frequent and large ; dining anger, it is hard, and beats quickly ; and lastly, in persons pursuing intense study, it is unusually languid. According to our experience, the standard of anaMral pulsein adults, in a voce state of health, appears to be 72 in men, and 66 in wo- men ; though Dr. Falconer fixes it. in general, at 75 in a minute, audits extreme acceleration at 125. Thus, we observekfrom the compu- tation exhibited in the table, that, for a person whose natural pulse is 75, the beginning of fever is put down at 96 ; hectic fever at 108 ; and inflammatory fever at 120.... According to this proportion, in one whose natural pulse is 60, the first of these stages should be about 77 ; the second, 86; the third, 96. On the other hand, a natural pulse of 80, would require them to be about 102, 115, and 128. Independently of other symp- toms, neither the frequency of the pulse, nor its peculiar modification, appears to be of so much conse- quence in diseases, as is generally imagined. Formerly, the urine was chiefly consulted ; but, in mo- dern times, the quacks have usurp- ed that criterion ; and physicians of great practice seem to pay par- ticular attention to the pulse ; as their time is equally short and va- luable. See Physician. PULSE, in botany, a term ap- plicable to all grains or seeds that are gathered with the hand ; being opposed to corn, he. which are reaped or mown. It is more par- ticularly employed to denote the seed of leguminous vegetables, such as pease,beans,lentils, vetches, &c; respecting the culture of which. the reader will find an account under those respective articles. All pulse contains a large por- tion of fixed air, and also of crude indigestable particles : if eaten too frequently, or in immoderate quan- tities, leguminous vegetables are apt to produce flatulency and cos- tiveness : for, as such earthy par- ticles cannot assimilate with the human fluids, they often remain in the body indigested, for a con- siderable length of time, to the consequent injury of the alimen- 3Y* «*- //ftir Rotundifolia, for the same pur- pose.] Q. QUA QUACKERY, or Empiricism, a term of extensive signification ; as it relates to all those who pre- tend to medical knowledge and skill in the exercise of the heal- ing art; though they act upon mere principles of slavish imita- tion, and the shallow inference drawn from single instances. If the object with which medi- cines are administered be duly weighed; and the numerous dis- eases to which the human frame is exposed, be seriously considered ; it must excite the greatest asto- nishment, that no steps are taken to suppress those insidious pre- tenders, who, like ephemeral in- sects preying on the cankered tree, exercise their predatory arts on the purse and constitution of man- kind ; and, that so sordid a practice should not only be tolerated, but even indirectly countenanced by the highest authority, in an en- lightened country. It will probably be objected, that abuses so gross and palpable, are connived at only, on account of the revenue they produce to the Treasury ; but, is it compatible with sound policy, justice, and humanity, to supply any deficiency ofthe State, at the expence of all that is most dear to VOL. IV. QUA man.....his health ? Beside, how often must the moral law be wounded, for the sake of this pub- lic sacrifice ?....Would any person whose time-piece has received an injury ; or whose cattle are at- tacked with the distemper; or whose dwelling threatens to tum- ble down, ever think of employing a vagrant in preference to either a professed watch-maker, farrier, or builder ? and yet, these consi- derations are but trivial, when compared to the inestimable value of health ! Such impostors gene- rally assume a pompous and mys- terious manner ; they deal in du- plicity of speech and action ; al- ways engage to cure, while they represent every case as highly dangerous, in order to enhance their own importance ; in short, they are equally afraid, and inca- pable, of giving a reasonable ex- planation, or candid opinion : let these harpies of the deluded mul- titude fairly state their successful experiments, not supported by perjury ; and compare them with the number of unfortunate victim's whose credulity led them to a pre- mature grave. Many instances of this melancholy description have come within our knowledge ; and Z z 354 QUA QUA we doubt not but every medical practitioner has cases to produce, where, in consequence of taking quack medicine, his patients were afflicted with inflammation of the bowels ; obstructions of the liver, or intestines ; and not seldom, with incurable consumption. Humani- ty can only drop the silent tear of sympathy over the deluded suf- ferers, while the government alone has the power to suppress and pu- nish these pests of society, and to exercise the same degree of rigor- ous justice as is shewn to the highway robber and assasin ; whose crimes, though apparently more heinous, are less destructive in their influence on society. QUAIL, the Common, or Te- trao coturnix, L. Quails resem- ble the partridge in shape, though they are not half of its size:.... they construct no nest, but a few dry leaves or stalks scraped to- gether, or sometimes a small ca- vity in the ground serves for their habitation. Here, the female de- posits six or seven, and, according to Funxe, from fifteen to twenty, whitish eggs, marked with irregu- lar rust-coloured spots; and pro- duces but one brood in the year. The quail is a cleanly bird, ne- ver resorting to dirty or wet places; its food is similar to that of par- tridges. Numbers ofthe formerare taken by means of a net and the call, from the month of April till August: the proper times for this sport, are, at sun-rising, at nine o'clock in the morning, at three in the afternoon, and at sun-set; be- cause these are the natural peri- ods of their calling. The notes ofthe cock and hen-quail are very differ- ent ; and it is remarkable, that the proportion of males, much exceeds that of female birds in these species. The flesh of quails is consider- ed a great dainty, being more juicy and tender than that of par- tridges ; but, as quails feed on the seeds of darnel, hellebore, and other poisonous plants, the eating of such birds has sometimes been attended with injurious effects. An absurd practice prevails in Italy and China, where quails are train- ed for fighting, in a manner simi- lar to that of cocks in England. QUAKING-GRASS, or Briza, L. a genus of plants, consisting of seven species, three of which are indigenous; and the principal of these is the media, Common Quak- ing-grass, Middle Quake-grass, Cow-quakes, or Ladies-hair: it grows in fields and pastures, and flowers in the month of May or June....This species is eaten by cows, sheep and goats. It makes tolerably good hay ; and, as it thrives on poor, wet lands, where other grasses will not vegetate, it deserves to be cultivated in marshy situations ; though its stalk seldom exceeds twelve inches in height. Quarantine. See Lazaretto. QUARTER-EVIL, a disorder which chiefly affects calves, and other young cattle : in Stafford- shire, it is termed the irons; in Leicestershire, black-legs ; and in Shropshire, it is called stricken. This malady generally commen- ces with a lameness in one of the legs, attended with a high de- gree of inflammation ; which soon extends to the body, and its princi- pal parts: these become extreme- ly hard, tense, and appear much distended with wind. Sometimes the tension and inflammatory symptoms first appear in the bo- dy, the dewlap, or the lower part of the rump ; but, in all cases, a total stagnation of the blood and QU A QUI 355 mortification of the part ensue, in consequence of which the animal dies in a few hours. Although the quarter-evil is not supposed to be contagious, yet it generally spreads in the same herd; five, six, or seven, out of ten, upon an average, usually fall victims to this dreadful disorder. In the 14th volume of Annals of Agriculture, the following recipe is inserted by R. Proctor Ander- son, Esq. who states it to be an effectual preventive of the quar- ter-evil, if duly administered :..... Take Rue, Lavender-cotton, Com- mon Southern-wood, (Artemisia Abrotanum), a few heads of Gar- lic, and a little Savin, cut very small; add to these ingredients, Flour of Sulphur, Diapente (vol. iii.), Elecampane-Powder, half an ounce of each. Boil the whole in urine; then remove it from the fire, and let it stand till milk-warm. After taking about one quart of blood from each calf, drench the animal with two common bullocks- hornfuls of liquor, prepared as above directed, adding to each a table-spoonful of Barbadoes tar ; a little of which he might be induced to lick, by smearing it over his nose,loins, and ribs ; an expedient which will promote his recovery. [The above farrago is retained, in consequence of the positive manner in which the prescriber speaks of its efficacy, but judging from the inert quality of some of the ingredients, and knowing how little many of them are calculated to remove the violent inflamma- tion, which is said to attend the complaint, the editor would be ve- ry unwilling to try the remedy: he would rather prefer either to bleed the animal, and largely, or not at all, and if possible, in the affected leg or thigh, and to give smart pur- gatives of oil and brine.] QUASSIA, or Quassia, L. a ge- nus of trees, consisting of three species the principal of which is the amara, or Bitter-Quassia ; a native of the West Indies and of South America. The root, wood, and bark of this tree, are all employed in me- dicine; but the latter, having a great degree of bitterness, is more efficacious....Quassia possesses no peculiar odour; but its taste is ex- tremely bitter. It is an excellent tonic, antiseptic, and febrifuge: being one ofthe least heating drugs, it has been found very serviceable in exciting appetite for food ; ex- pelling flatulency ; assisting di- gestion ; and particularly in re- moving costiveness, when produc- ed by weakness of the intestines, such as is consequent to sedentary occupations. Dr. Lfttsom pre- scribed it with advantage, in cases of debility after febrile affections; in dyspepsy arising from intoxica- tion, and in diarrhoeas ; but he di- rected it with the greatest success, when combined with some absor- bent, in the hysteric atony of fe- males. It may be given either in infusion, or in pills composed of the watery extract: the former preparation, however, is generally preferred, in the proportion of three or four drams of the wood, to twelve ounces of water ; and which is to be taken in doses of one or two table spoonfuls, frequently re- peated. QUICKEN-TREE, Mountain- Ash, or Roan-tkee, Sorbus aucu- paria, L. (Pyrus aucuparia of Dr. Smith), an indigenous shrub grow- ing in woods and hedges ; in moun- tainous and boggy situations ; prin- cipally in Wales, Scotland, and 356 QUI QUI the northern parts of England : it flowers in the month of May. The mountain-ash may be rear- ed either as a shurb, or as a large tree, according to the soil in which it is planted : it flourishes best on the sides of hills, in sheltered situ- ations, and in fertile lands, where it attains a considerable size. It forms part of many ornamental plantations, on account ofthe beau- ty of its growth, flowers, and foli- age, and particularly of its red berries ; which, being produced in great abundance, afford a charm- ing appearance from the end of autumn, till they are devoured by the birds, mice, he. in the winter. The wood is soft, tough, and dura- ble, being advantageously convert- ed into tables, spokes for wheels, chairs, he.: the roots are like- wise very firm, and are formed into spoons, handles for knives, and similar utensils. The berries of the mountain- ash, though generally devoured by black-birds and thrushes, n.-v -"'ith more advantage be given to cattle, sheep, and especially to poultry, all of which animals eat them ea- gerly. When infused in water, this fruit makes an acid liquor, re- sembling perry, that constitutes a principal beverage of the lower or- ders of the Welch people. In the island of Jura, the juice ofthe ber- ries is employed as an acid for punch : on distillation, they yield a considerable portion of ardent spirit, which possesses a fine fla- vour ; but, for this purpose, they ought to be previously frozen : we conceive, however, that these ber- ries, when dried and pulverized, might, in times of scarcity, be more beneficially converted into a wholesome bread ; though Beck- MANN informs us, that 12lbs. of such fruit yield three quarts of brandy. In tanning, the branches, leaves, and unripe fruit of this tree, have all been usefully employed, both by Gleditsch and Bautsch. [The American species of Sorbus, is different from the Eu- ropean species. The fruit and com- pound leaves are smaller, and smooth; they are however very handsomely shaped, and disposed. The cymes of fruit are much lar- ger than the European species, the berries of a fine scarlet colour, and when ripe, make a fine appearance in the autumn, while they conti- nue on the tree, but are soon de- voured by birds. The wood answers very well for hoops, being pliant, tough, and durable. It is called moose-wood in the western country, (where it abounds) from the circumstanceof the moose deer feeding on the bark and twigs. Wm. Bartram.] Quick-in-hand. See Balsamine. Quick-lime. See Lime. Quickset. See Hawthorn ; Fence ; and Hedge. Quicksilver. See Mercury. QUILLS, are large feathers plucked from the end ofthe wings of geese, crows, he. They are termed first, seconds, and thirds, from the order in which they grow in the wing : the two last, however, are principally employed for writ- ing, on account of the larger size of their barrels. As the utility and value of quills, in the manufacture of pens, great- ly depend on their firmness and elasticity, different expedients have been contrived, with a view to di- vest them of their natural softness. The most simple of these, consists in thrusting the barrel into hot sand or ashes for a few moments ; after which it is pressed almost flat, by QUI QUI 357 means of a pen-knife, and then rendered round between the fin- gers, by the assistance of a piece of leather, or wollen cloth ; with which their external roughness may be easily removed by friction. If, however, a considerable num- ber of quills is to be hardened, it will be advisable to set a vessel, containing a little water and alum, over the fire ; as soon as the li- quor begins to boil, the barrels only must be immersed for a mi- nute, after which they may be sus- pended to dry. Good pens con- stitute an article of indispensable necessity in all departments of trade, commerce, literature, he. Hence, it becomes an useful, if not important object, to be able to cut them according to the most approved rules. The reader, who is desirous of information on this head, will find some pertinent hints in Mr. Wilkes's small tract, enti- tled, The Art of Making Pens scien- tifically, he. (small 8vo. is. Cros- by andLetterman) ; in which plain directions are given to that effect, together with appropriate instruc- tions for the management' of the quill, pen-knife, hone, strop, and other articles, connected with the art ofpen-making. QUINCE-TREE, the Pyrus Cydonia of LinnjEus, but which is considered by Miller, and other botanists, as a distinct genus of fruit-trees, under the name of Cydonia; and consists, according to them, of three exotic species, namely : 1. The oblonga, or Oblong-Quince, the fruit of which is pear-shaped, and lengthened ai the base. 2. The maliforma, or Apple- Quince, having oval leaves, which are cfa woolly texture on the low- er side. 3. The Lusitanica,or Portuguese Quince, that has obverse, oval leaves, somewhat woolly on the upper side. All these species are cultivated in Britain ; though the most valu- able is the Portuguese Quince ; the pulp of which, on being stewed or baked, assumes a fine purple co- lour, and becomes less austere than that of the others. It is propaga- ted by layers, suckers, or cuttings ; but the last method only is calcu- lated to produce the greatest abun- dance of delicious fruit. The cut- tings ought, therefore, to be plant- ed early in autumn ; and, if the weather be dry, it will be advisa- ble to water them frequently, in order to facilitate their striking root. In the second year, they should be removed into the nursery ; and set, at the distance of one foot from each other, in rows three feet apart. In the course of two or three years, they may be trans- planted to the place of their ulti- mate destination, and which should always be contiguous to some ri- ver, or the soil at least ought to be moist ; as they will thus pro- duce a greater quantity of large fruit, than if they had been set "in dry situations ; though such as are obtained in the latter, possess a finer flavour. Quince-trees require very little pruning : the most important part of their mrmagement consists in clearing their stems from suckers ; and in cutting oft" such branches as interfere with each other. AH luxuriant shoots, that strike up- wards from the middle of the tree, must be lopped, lest the head be too much crowded with wood, which might prevent the growth of the fruit. Quince-trees are also highly esteemed, as stocks, on 358 QUI QU I which pears may with great ad- vantage be grafted, or budded..... This operation greatly improves ihe taste and flavour of these pears, which arrive at maturity in the summer and autumn ; but it is by no means proper for winter-fruit, which is thus rendered hard and stony. In the colder climates of Europe, Quinces are not eatable in a raw state : nevertheless, they possess antiseptic properties, when dressed, and contain a considera- ble portion of acid and mucilagi- nous juice. Though their pulp be somewhat difficult of digestion, they seldom disagree with the weakest stomach. The liquor ex- pressed from them, has frequently been given in small quantities, with great success in nausea, vo- miting, and similar complaints..... This fruit is generally boiled and eaten with sugar, in which form it may also be usefully employed in cases of dysentery. One quart of the juice of Quinces mixed with one pound of sugar, and ferment- ed, afford a delicious wine : on adding to the same quantity, one pint ofthe best French brandy, and four ounces of sugar, a celebrated liqueur is prepared on the Conti- nent, and which is greatly prized as a cordial and stomachic, when taken in the small quantity of two or three spoonfuls, before break- fast. By boiling the kernels of quinces in water, a mucilage is extracted, which is often used in medicine as a proper substitute for that of gum-arabic. QUINSY, or Sore-Throat, is an inflammation of the internal parts of the mouth, throat, and wind- pipe, attended with fever. As this frequent affection is di- vided into several species, each of which requires a particular treat- ment, it will be necessary to state the symptoms, by which they may be distinguished from each other. The first is the comjnon sore- throat, where the glands, or ton- sils, situated at the posterior part of the mouth, appear swollen, red, and painful; the deglutition and re- spiration are difficult ; it occurs in the spring and autumn, when the air is moist, and chiefly attacks the middle-aged, and those of plethoric habits. The event is generally favourable, either by resolution, or suppuration. The second is an inflammation of the throat, at the posterior part of which a redness, though no swelling, is discernable ; the pain is more violent than in the former; deglutition more difficult; respira- tion is, however, easier, but ac- companied with cough and hoarse- ness. It likewise terminates in a few days, and in general, without danger. The third, or malignant sore- throat, affects the tonsils and throat with swelling, redness, and mu- cous crusts of a whiteish or ash- colour, which cover the ulcers : it is attended with a putrid fever, the greater or less violence of which determines the degree of appre- hension for the life of the patient. This malady originates in a con- tagion of the air, similar to the small-pox, and other epidemic dis- eases. The fourth is an inflammation of the windpipe, when the breath- ing is difficult ; the inspirations are loud ; the voice is hoarse with a cough, but scarcely any visible swelling in the throat; deglutition easy ; and the fever is extremely violent. This disorder frequently QUI attacks children, from the time of weaning till the twelfth year of their age, with this peculiar cir- cumstance, that the inside of the windpipe is lined with a substance, which is apt to obstruct the passage of the air, and thus often proves fatal by sudden suffocation, unless timely relief be procured....See Croup....A favourable issue, how- ever, may be expected, if an ex- pectoration of a yellow matter streaked with blood, or even a swelling on the side of the neck appear ; which last symptom indi- cates, that the disease will termin- ate externally. The two first species require a cooling diet, and diluent drink ; such as barley-water with currant- jelly, linseed tea with honey, &c. A large blister applied to the chest, or between the shoulders; and gargles of sage-tea, honey and vi- negar, aided by bathing the feet in warm water, will generally be suf- ficient to procure relief. But, if the swelling continue to increase, leeches should be applied to the outside of the neck ; and recourse must be had to other means, in order to promote a suppuration : this may be effected by fumigating the throat through a funnel placed over a vessel of hot-water, into which should be thrown some camphor reduced to a coarse pow- der. After the disease is removed, care should be taken to avoid a re- lapse, by keeping the neck warm ; though too anxious measures, and cravats too heating, would doubtless lead to the opposite ex- treme. The cure of the ulcerated sore- throat, depending chiefly on the nature of the fever with which it is attended, requires the aid of a pro- QUI 359 fossional man : we shall, therefore, here only point out the regimen to be observed during it course. The diet ought • to consist of sago, ta- pioca, panada with a proper quan- tity of wine, ripe sub-acid fruit, such as prunes, currants, raspber- ry-jelly, See. Negus, perry, cyder, Sec. may be allowed for drink ; but the patient should always pre- viously use the gargle above di- rected. His posture in bed ought to be such, that the discharge from the mouth may be facilitated, and the greatest attention must be paid to clean linen and pure air. In the fourth species of quinsy, blood-letting is the principal re- medy : hence, from three to six leeches should be immediately ap- plied to each side ofthe neck, and a blister to the front; at the same time administering a brisk emetic, to dislodge the membrane which is forming ; and by the removal of which, the inflammation often speedily disappears. In this com- plaint, the patient should be suf- fered to sleep as little as possible ; for no circumstance has a stronger tendency to aggravate the disease. At all events, medical advice ought not to be neglected. Quitch-gras^. See Dog's- grass. QUITTOR-BONE, in farriery, a malignant tumor which is attend- ed with great pain, inflammation, and a considerable swelling around its basis. It is generally occasion- ed by long-neglected Punctures (which see), or such as have re- sisted the usual remedies employed in that affection of horse's feet. The method of cure commonly practised in the quittor-bene, con- sists in perforating the tumor with numerous holes, by means Of a hot 360 QUI QUI iron, pointed in a pyramidal form ; after which, small pieces of arse- nic, or corrosive sublimate, are in- troduced into the cavities, where they consume, and at length se- parate, a mass of mortified flesh, termed by farriers, the core. This practice however, is extremely dangerous, and does not always ef- fect a cure, so that it becomes ne- cessary to repeat it a second, and even a third time, to the conse- quent injury of the animal. The most eligible method, therefore, will be a speedy operation ; for which purpose, a ligature must first be tied round the fetlock, in order to prevent too great a loss of blood , and then the tumor may be extirpated with a sharp crook- ed knife. The wound is now to be dres- sed with warm digestive or emol- lient Poultices (see Horse-me- dicines, volume 3d.) and, when a proper suppuration is effected, the scabby parts may be sprinkled with the following escharotic, namely : Take three ounces of lime, that is reduced to powder on exposure to the air, and one ounce of Armenian bole ; let them be pulverized in a mortar, and passed through the sieve. Next, it will be advisable to cover the orifice with a pledget of dry lint; and, when the surface is nearly equal to the skin, the powder alone will be suf- ficient. Lastly, if the quittor-bone be attended with very acute pain, it will be advisable to resort to the remedies usually employed in in- flammatory cases ; in order to pre- vent the humour from flowing to the wounded limb. The animal ought, therefore, to be bled ; and a draught, consisting of two ounces of nitre, and a similar quantity of 6ommon treacle, dissolved in one quart of water, should be given to him every morning and evening. If the horse, however, be affected with griping pains, or other inter- nal uneasiness, the quantity of wa- ter may be increased ; or the same portion of nitre may be allowed him in a mash of bran, twice every day, till the inflammatory symp- toms disappear. R. RAB RABBIT, the Common, or Le- pus cuniculus, L. a well-known animal resemblinga hare ; though it is smaller, has shorter hind-legs, and its ears are thinly covered with hair : it was originally introduced into Britain from Spain. Rabbits abound in this country ; in a wild state, their fur is of a brown colour ; but, when domes- ticated, they are generally black, white, or pied ; and their eyes are transparently red. These animals are reared either in warrens or in hutches; in the former state, they are permitted to roam at liberty, where they burrow and breed. The best places for such purpose are sandy hills, or those which consist of a loose soil; but it will be necessary to inclose them either with a stone or sod- wall ; and at the same time to bore horizontal cavities for the passage of these quadrupeds, till they have formed their own burrows :....the most proper shrub to be planted in such situations, is the juniper-tree, the leaves of which are eagerly eaten by rabbits, and impart to their flesh a delicate, spicy flavour. As warrens are infested with kites, pole-cats, eagles, and other free- booters, it will be advisable to set vol. iv. RAB traps on the stumps or tops of old trees, or on artificial hillocks of a conical form; in order to catch these depredators, as they usually alight on such places. If rabbits are designed to be reared in a tame state, the hutches must be kept constantly clean ; as, otherwise, these creatures will be frequently attacked with diseases. The males, or bucks, should be parted from the does, or females, till the latter kindle; at which time "one of the former may be allowed to six or eight of the lat- ter ; and a sufficient quantity of fresh hay should be provided, for the construction of a bed, or nest. The females begin to breed, when about six months old ; being very prolific, they bring forth, seven times in the year, from four to eight conies at a litter, after a gestation of thirty days ; and, in the course of six weeks, the young rabbits are able to seek for their own food. The provision of these animals ought to consist of grass cabbages, carrots, endive, clover- hay, and similar vegetables, which should be given them frequently, in a fresh, though not wet state ; and, as soon as the young conies begin to disagree after being wean- 3 A 362 RAB RAD ed, it will be necessary to separate them. Rabbits are chiefly subject to two disorders, which, if they be not timely attended to, generally prove fatal: 1. The rot, which is occasioned by feeding them with too large a proportion of green ve- getables, or with such as were ga- thered before the dew or rain was evaporated. It may, however, be prevented by strict attention to their food, and especially by mix- ing a certain portion of clover, or other hay, with green or moist plants. 2. A species of madness, which may be ascertained by their restlessness ; as these animals roll themselves on the floor of their hutches in an uncouth manner, and hop about in odd postures. Such distemper generally arises from rank feeding, and may be cured by keeping them low, and giving them tare, or spear-thistles, the Carduus lanceolatus, L. The usual modes of catching wild rabbits are, by what is called purse-nets, and by ferrets; though they are sometime coursed with small greyhounds, or with spaniels trained up to the sport. Another method consists in smoking them out of their burrows, by burning sulphur and orpiment at the en- trance. The deleterious fumes of these articles compel the animals to rush into the. net spread for their reception ; but, as their flesh may thus be rendered unwhole- some, and a long time must elapse before other rabbits can be induced to enter the holes, such fetid in- gredients ought never to be em- ployed. The rabbit is one of the most useful quadrupeds reared by man- kind : i's flesh is tender, and nu- tritious, and consequently well cal- culated for the food of convales- cents ; but they ought to be killed by a large wound in the neck, so that the blood may be speedily discharged ; an operation which renders their flesh whiterand more delicate....Their fur constitutes a principal article in hat-manufacto- ries ; and such part as is unfit for this purpose, may with advantage be employed in the stuffing of beds and bolsters, being little inferior to feathers. Rack. See Arrack. RADISH, or Raphanus, L. a genus of plants comprehending eight species, of which the follow- ing are the principal: 1. The Raphanistrum, White- flowered or Jointed Char- lock, or Wild Radish, an indi- genous annual plant, which abounds in corn-fields, and flowers in the months of June and July. It is eaten by horses, but refused by cows. This species is a trouble- some weed, and should be care- fully extirpated, before it runs to seed: it vegetates with great luxu- riance, during wet seasons, amongst barley ; and has, in Sweden, oc- casioned violent convulsive affec- tions in those who ate bread made of that grain. 2. The sativus, Common, or Garden Radish, is an exotic species, originally from China, and which is cultivated for the table. There are several varieties of it, known under the names of the small-topped, deep-red, pale-red, or salmon, and the long-topped striped Radishes ; all of which are annual plants; but the small-top- ped is generally preferred in the vicinity of London, on account of the little room which it occupies in the ground. All these varieties are propagat- RAG RAG 363 %d from seed, which is sown at va- rious times, from Christmas till May, to ensure a succession of ra- dishes for the table; because they attain to perfection in the course of three months. The earlier crops ought to be sown in warm bo#ers, sheltered from the severity of the winter; but, for the later ones, a moist soil, and an open situation, should be selected. Radishes are esteemed aperient, attenuating, and anti-scorbutic:.... when eaten in moderate quantities, they are in a certain measure salu- brious to persons of strong habits ; but are, in general, apt to produce a considerable degree of flatulency in those, whose stomachs are re- laxed. The small-topped salad- radishes are greatly superior to the large root: as they are more easy of digestion, and tend to improve the appetite. No radishes, how- ever, ought to be eaten when old, or after having been kept for some time ; as they are then utterly in- digestible, and render the breath extremely offensive. Radish, the Horse. See Horse- radish. Rags. See Manure. RAG-STONE, a genus of sili- ceous fossils, discovered in various parts of Britain. It is of a greyish colour; contains a large propor- tion of particles resembling talc ; and splits easily into thin scales. It effervesces with acids; and, though very soft, emits fire, when stricken against steel. This mi- neral is employed by artificers for j,he purpose of giving a fine edge to knives, chissels, and other tools, which have previously been sharp- ened upon stones of a coarser tex- ture. RAGWORT, the Common, Groundsel, Seggram, or St. James' Wort ; Senecio Jacobaea, L. a native perennial plant, grow- ing in meadows, pastures, and on road-sides; and flowering from July to August. Where this troublesome weed abounds, it is with great difficulty extirpated. The best method hi- therto discovered, appears to be either that of plucking it up by the roots, after the ground has been moistened with showers ; or ford- ing it closely with sheep in the win- ter season ; so that the heavy rains may contribute to its destruction. If the former plan be adopted, it is recommended to pile up the plants thus pulled andcleansed from earth ; to burn them ; and scatter the ashes on the ground ; or, if this cannot be conveniently done, to leave them to rot on, and ma- nure the soil; as the rankness and stench of this weed prove it to be possessed of saline and fertilizing properties. Farther, it is said to be more pernicious in meadow, than in pasture land; for, in the latter it only tends to exhaust the soil; while, in the former, it com- municates to good hay a disagree- able effluvia, and deprives it of its sweet flavour. If gathered before the flowers expand, and employed in a fresh state, the ragwort imparts to wool a fine green, though not perma- nent colour. But, if woollen cloth be previously boiled in alum-wateF, and then in a decoction of these flowers, a beautiful deep yellow shade will be produced. Dam- bourney states,that, by adecoction of the flowers and stalks while in blossom, the wool previously steep- ed in a solution of bismuth, ac- quired a very permanent olive- brown colour, displaying a beauti- ful golden shade.....When young, 364 R A I R AI horses and cow s eat this weed ; but, after attaining its full size, when the stems are a yard high, it is refused by every species of cattle. RAILS, are pieces of timber, placed on stair-cases, and also on balusters, both as a support, and to prevent accidents. They also de- note those pieces of wood which are fixed within pales, in order to strengthen fences. In April, 1782, a patent was granted to Mr. Francis Under- wood, for his invention of making and ornamenting every kind of railing, balustrades, or balusters, and pannels for stair-cases, galle- ries, balconies, Sec. both in private houses, and in churches, or other public buildings. His privilege is now expired ; but, as a detail ofthe principles on which he proceeded, would be intelligible only to archi- tects, the curious reader will con- sult the seventh volume of the Re- pertory of Arts and Manufactures, where a full specification is in- serted. RAIN, a well-known meteor, which descends from the clouds in drops of water. Various conjectures have been formed by natural philosophers, to account for the origin of rain : it appears, however, to be universal- ly allowed, that such phenomenon is produced from the moisture or water which is absorbed from the surface of the globe by the heat of the sun, and conveyed into the atmosphere, whence it is again precipitated upon the earth; though the specific cause is by no means clearly determined.... According to chemical principles, the air itself is a solvent of water, and thus contri- butes to the formation of rain in the clouds, when they are saturated with aqueous humours. Now, as soon as two such volumes of con- densed vapour meet each other in the atmosphere, in different tem- peratures, the necessary conse- quence will be precipitation ; in a manner similar to that from the vaulted* ceiling or window of a cold room, when first heated. Rain irrigates and softens the earth, thus adapting it to the nou- rishment of plants....By falling on lofty mountains, and other elevat- ed situations, this meteor carries down numerous loose particles of earth into the contiguous vallies, • < which are thereby not only ame- liorated, or rendered more fertile; j but the air is also purified from noxious exhalations,, which are re- turned to the ground whence they were absorbed ; a natural process that remarkably contributes to en- rich the soil. Lastly, it moderates the temperature of the air, and af- fords a supply of water to foun- tains, brooks, rivers, he. But, though gentle showers be in many respects beneficial to man- kind, yet vehement rains coming { down in torrents occasion great injury ; as they are often attended with violent inundations, which wash or carry off t\e finer parti- cles into rivers, and thus impo- verish the land. To remedy, in some degree, this inconvenience, it has been recommended to plant along their banks, orchards, or groves of trees, that produce escu- lent fruit; for, according to prac- tical observers, such trees bear greater abundance in wet, than in dry seasons. As, however, all kinds of grain are liable to be ma- terially damaged by storms of rain, especially after being cut, j some agriculturists have; advised J the erection of barns at convenient 1 R AI RAM 365 distances, on large farms; where corn, he. may be speedily housed, preserved, and much time, as well as labour, saved in the carriage : but, as these buildings would be exposed to the depredations of dis- honest persons, it has farther been recommended to build, contiguous- ly to such barns, cottages to be in- habited by the labourers employed on the farm ; by which expedient the grain will be effectually se- cured, both from the injuries of the weather, and from the attacks of midnight plunderers. RAISINS, are grapes which have been suffered to remain on the vine, till they have attained to maturity ; when they are either dried in an oven, or the fruit be- ing tied together in clusters, and dipped in a ley of wood-ashes, con- taining a small portion of sweet-oil, is then dried by exposure to the sun, without being separated from the branches :....the latter method appears to be preferable. The best fruits of this description, are those known under the name of sun, and jar-raisins; both of which are dried in the sun ; being imported from the southern coun- tries of Europe, and also from the Asiatic provinces of Turkey. They form a principal article of the des- sert; and, when properly managed, yield an agreeable wine. For this purpose, let one cwt. of raisins be deprived of their stalks, chopped, and put into a wide, but not too deep vessel. Two-thirds, or four- teen gallons of water, are now to be added, and the whole suffered to stand for fifteen days, being care- fully stirred once every day. At the end of that period, the raisins must be strained, pressed, and the liquor obtained from them, poured into another vessel. The remain- ing third part, or seven gallons of water, should next be added to the fruit, thus pressed, and likewise stand for the space of one week. The liquor is then again to be strained, andthe two runnings are to be poured into a barrel, capable of containing twenty-one gallons, to- gether with a quart of brandy. In order to colour the wine, three quarters of a pound of refined sugar musf be set on fire, and burnt into a little of the liquor, which ought to be added to the whole ; and, as soon as the fermentation ceases, the barrel may be closed, and suf- fered to stand till its contents arc ready for bottling.....Raisin-wine is an agreeable, cooling liquor; but, if it be too often used, or in too large quantities, it is apt to occasion fla- tulency. With respect to their properties, raisins are too frequently relished as an article of food, to be considered as a medicine. They are very nu- tritive, and have been recommend- ed in nephritic complaints (See Kidnies) ; but if eaten immode- rately, they contribute to the de- cay of the teeth, and occasion pain- ful colics. Raisins are likewise used in pectoral decoctions, and similar medicinal preparations ; for which purposes the stones ought to be carefully taken out; and also in ail cases, where their astringency is not required. RAM, the male of a sheep. As we propose to treat of the proper management of Sheep, in that article, we shall at present only state the general marks that should characterize the appearance of a good ram, which is intended for the purpose of breeding. Such an ani- mal ought to be large and well- proportioned ; his head should be thick and strong, with a broad 366 RAM RAP front; the eyes and nose black; the neck thick ; the body long and tall; and the tail of considerable length. Rams are capable of propagating at the age of eighteen months: and, as the fine quality of the wool depends greatly upon the judgment of the breeder, it has been recom- mended to take the advice of some experienced clothier, or wool-sta- pler ; who, being accustomed to investigate wool, will be able to decide with the greatest accuracy, and also with a view to the breeder's real profit. The coat must like- wise be minutely examined, lest it be stitchy-haired; for, in such case, the wool will be so materially da- maged in the course of two years, that the loss cannot be recovered, without changing the whole flock, in the space of twelve or fourteen years. Beauty of shape, and fineness of wool, however, are not the only distinguishing marks : it will, far- ther be necessary to reject the ani- mal, in case he have not a close thick coat along his back, and in which there is plenty of yolk ; as otherwise it may be assumed for certain, that he is not in perfect health. With respect to the purchasing of rams, circumspect breeders ad- vise to procure them a short time before they are shorn, and from the farmer's, grazier's, or owner's house; because the animals may then be seen in their natural state, without the possibility of any fraud or im- position by the vender: besides, the depth or length of the staple may then be easily ascertained. It is, however, by no means agreed as to the proper age for purchasing rams ; and many practical writers are of opinion, that crossing the breed is attended with little advan- tage : hence, they do not approve of selecting them from distant places. If the farm consist of down-land, it will, on their princi- ples, be advisable to purchase ani- mals bred on a similar soil; if it be inclosed, they should be bought off such land as is not commonable; but, in all cases, it will be proper to obtain them from an inferior soil; for they will then thrive in the new possessor's keeping; whereas, if a contrary plan be pur- sued, the rams will diminish in fat- ness, and become less healthy. [R ANSTEAD. See Flax (toad). RANUNCULUS. A genus of plants comprehending several spe- cies, some of which are natives of the United States. 1. The R. sceleratus, or celery- leaved crow-foot, is a very acrid plant. Bruised and applied to the skin, it will blister in a few hours. 2. The R. bulbosus, or butter- cups, was noticed under the head Crow-foot, as a troublesome weed, of which possesses the same pro- perties.] RAPE, or Coleseed, Brassica Napus, L.j a valuable indigenous plant, of the uses of which we have already given a concise account, vol. i.p. 466:....we shall, therefore, add a few particulars relative to its culture, he. to render our state-: ment more complete. This plant is cultivated princi- pally for the purpose of expressing the oil from its seed, by which it is also propagated :....the best kind of the latter should be large and blacky it ought to be sown in the month of June (in the proportion of 2 lbs. per acre, broad-cast), with the two fore-fingers and thumb, to prevent it from shooting up in patches : it may likewise be drilled, at the dis- RAP tance of 12 or 14 inches apart..... Sometimes rape and turnips are sown together; but such practice is not economical; as the two crops mutually injure each other. Rape yields most abundantly af- ter beans, turnips, or cabbages; the soil being previously ploughed twice, north and south, for the bet- ter reception ofthe solar heat; and, if transplanted, such plants will vegetate with uncommon luxuri- ance, so as amply to repay the ad- ditional expence. For this purpose, Mr. Hazard (Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, he. vol. iv.) recommends one rood to be sown in the middle of June, and to remove the young plants towards the middle of Au- gust, into ridges two feet apart, and at the distance of sixteen inches from each other. As soon as they have taken root, and begin to shoot up, it will be necessary to manage them by the horse or hand-hoe ; and to draw the earth around their stems. A rood of land, thus sown, will, according to his experience, produce asufficientnumber of plants for the stocking of ten acres; and in the following spring the leaves may be fed off with sheep; be- cause new ones will immediately succeed. But, as these tender plants are much infested by slugs, which devour them with avidity, it will be advisable to scatter over tliem a mixture of slaked lime and wood-ashes, in the proportion of 10 bushels of the former to 15 of the latter, per acre. Rape-seed attains to maturity from July to September; and, as it is easily shed, the plants are gene- rally cut with sickles ; laid on the ground to dry ; and the seed is rubbed out on a large cloth spread RAP 36T in the middle of the field, whence it is conveyed to the mill. The oil which these seeds yield by expres- sion, is employed for various use- ful purposes in domestic life, and particularly for burning in lamps ; but, as it is apt to become rancid, M. Thenard has published the following practical method of puri- fying it. He directs \% or 2 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid to be added to 100 parts of oil, and the whole to be perfectly incorpo- rated by agitation: the fluid im- mediately becomes turbid, assum- ing a dark-green cast; and, in the course of three quarters of an hour, the colouring particles begin to collect in lumps. The agitation must now cease : and double the weight of oil of vitriol, diluted with pure water, should be added: ...in order to mingle these different ingredients, the stirring ought to be renewed for the space of half an hour; after which the whole may be left to settle for seven or eight days. At the end of that time, the oil will be found on the surface ; on being gently drawn off, and filtered through cotton or wool, it will be almost entirely di- vested of colour, smell, and taste ; so that it will burn clear, without any interruption. The refuse of rape, after expressr ing the oil, is known by the name of rape-cake ; the economical uses of which we have already stated, vol. i. p. 466....The whole plant is of great service in feeding cattle ; and, after the seed is threshed, the straw and chaff, on being burnt, afford ashes equally valuable as the best pot-ashes. Lastly, if rape-straw be strong, it may be advantageously employed for inclosing fences in farm-yards ; 368 R A S H A T and, with still greater profit, for littering straw-yards, cow-sheds, or other receptacles for stall-fed cattle. Rash-berries. See Great Bil- berry. RASPBERRY, the Common, Bramble, Framboise Hind-Ber- ry, or Raspis ; Rubus Ieleaus, L. an indigenous plant growing in damp woods and hedges ; in thick- ets, and gravelly places near rivu- lets : it flowers in the months of May and June. The fruit of this shrub, in a natural state, is fragrant, sub-acid, cooling, and very grate- ful : when used as an ingredient in sweet-meats, or fermented with sugar, and converted into wine, or vinegar, its flavour is greatly im- proved. The white berries are sweeter than the red, but they are generally more contaminated by insects. When eaten in any quan- tity, and occasionally held in the mouth, this fruit is said to dissolve tartarous concretions formed on the teeth ; though, for such purpose, it is supposed to be inferior to Straw- berries. The young and fresh leaves of the Common Raspberry are eagerly eaten by kids. By cultivating this shrub for es- paliers, the size and flavour of its fruit is susceptible of great im- provement. Bechstein, there- fore, prefers the rearing of it from seed, which affords finer berries than may be obtained, either by setting divided roots, or cuttings. With such intention, we can, from experience, state the following ex- otic species, as being eminently adapted to the purpose : 1. The Rubus occidentalis, L. or Virginian Raspberry-bush, with a prickly stem : its fruit is white, black, sometimes dark-red, uncommonly delicious, but smaller than that of the indigenous spe- cies : it thrives in the open air of our climate. 2. The Rubus odoratus, L. or Sweet-scented Raspberry, with a plain stalk, bearing many rose- coloured flowers, and numerous palmated leaves. It attains the height of eight feet, and forms a spreading shrub, with close foliage. Its bright-red berries are of a pe- culiajflat shape, and have an agree- able sub-acid, vinous taste. 3. The Rubus articus, or Nor- thern Raspberry, a native of the damp regions of Sweden, Russia, and Canada. The berry of this remarkable shrub is dark-red : it excels in taste and flavour all the indigenous fruit of Europe. From its rich, saccharins, juice, the na- tives of those countries prepare a most delicious wine : the berries are also preserved in sugar, or dri- ed, and in that state exported to distant climates. RAT, or Mus, L. a genus of quadrupeds, comprising 60 spe- cies, of which the following are the principal: I. The decumanus, Brown or Water Rat, which is a native of the East Indies. These creatures are so fierce and intrepid, that they will even resist, and bite their pur- suers, inflicting dangerous wounds, which are attended with great in- flammation, and not easily healed. 2. The rattus, Black or Com- mon Rat, is a native of Europe, and Asia. On account of the extensive da- mage occasioned by both these predatory species, various methods of extripating them are practised, with greater or less success. Dogs, cats, ferrets, and weazels, are their natural enemies ; and,though 'juch RAT useful animals destroy great num- bers, yet the killing or taking of rats furnishes employment to ma- ny skilful men, who pursue differ- ent ways of catching them ; and who are known under the name of Ratcatchers. Rats are often caught in traps baited with burnt leather, or toast- ed cheese ; but a more efficacious method of destroying them, con- sists in mixing a quart of oatmeal with six drops of oil of rhodium, one grain of musk, and two or three fruits of the nux vomica finely pul- verized ; and forming the whole into pellets, which must be placed near their holes. This recipe was first published in the Letters of the Bath Society, where it is ob- served, that the rats ate eagerly at first, and that great numbers were killed ; but, after a short time, they declined to devour it. Hence, a more alluring substitute was re- commended, Iwmely, three parts oatmeal, and one of staves-acre, made into a paste with honey, which should be divided into small pieces, and laid at the entrance of their avenues. Another composition has been made of wheaten flour, sugar, and water, kneaded into a paste, and scented with a few drops of oil of caraway-seeds : small portions are to be exposed at stated times near their holes, till the animals, lulled into security, collect in considera- ble numbers. It will then be ad- visable to incorporate a sufficient quantity of arsenic, finely levigat- ed, with the paste, and thus to ren- der it a fatal poison for mice and rats. Toward the close of the year 1800. Mr. Cundell obtained a patent for anew compound invent- ed by him, with a view to destroy VOL. iv. RAT 369 rats. He directs eight ounces of calomel to be mixed with fourteen ounces of dried and pulverized solanum (night-shade); fifty-six pounds of oatmeal: six pounds of molasses, and a sufficient quantity of oil of rhodium, to communicate a fragrant smell: the whole is to be formed into a mass with sweet oil. Besides these remedies, there are many other contrivances for exterminating rats: and, as the subject is of considerable impor- tance to every house-keeper, we shall subjoin an account of several other means, which have been found remarkably successful. Mr. Charles Taylor, Secre- tary to the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, life, directs one or two table-spoonfuls of dry oat- meal to be uniformly, but thinly, spread on a tile or plate, in order that the quantity taken away may be more easily ascertained. The rats, if not interrupted, will regu- larly feed there ; and they must be supplied for two or three successive days with fresh meal, when three drops of oil of aniseed are to be mixed with a double portion of oat- meal ; and the composition depo- sited at the usual place, for a simi- lar period of time. On the fourth day, one half only of the usual quantity must be given ofthe scent- ed preparation, and on the suc- ceeding night, the following mix- ture must be placed at the hole : Let four ounces of dry oatmeal, perfumed with six drops of the oil of aniseed, be thoroughly incorpo- rated with half an ounce of carbo- nated barytes (aerated heavy spar of Derbyshire), which has been previously pulverized, and sifted through fine cambric or muslin. This compound must be spread on 3B 370 RAT RAT the tile or slate, and exposed as usual ; all the doors, orother com- munications, being shut for the sp&ce of 24 hours, that the vermin may eat it undisturbed by any cats, dogs, or other animals ; and also to prevent the possibility of any accident happening to the latter.... In the course of a few hours, after the rats have eaten the composi- tion, they will be seen frequently to reel about, as if they were intoxi- cated, or paralytic; though, at length, they return to their haunts, and perish. Mr. Taylor observes that, as they are very cunning, the mixture ought to be left for 48 hours, in case a small portion only be eaten ; after which time the re- mainder should be burnt. ' Mr. Funke, in his valuable Na- tural History, calculated for Ger- man Schools, communicates the following curious method of expel- ling, or rather dispersing, rats from .dwelling-houses :.....Take one or more of these predatory creatures caught alive in a trap, and immerse them to the neck in a mixture con- sisting of equal quantities of tar and train oil: thus anointed, set the animals at liberty. The offen- sive smell of this preparation com- pells them to traverse all the holes of their companions with the most distressing anxiety ; in conse- quence of which they collectively disappear...... Another expedient practised in Germany, is that of confining alive rat in a cage,and feeding it exclusively with living mice or rats. Having been for some time accustomed to such food, the captive animal is, after .a short fasting, suffered to return to its former habitation, where it is said to persecute, and indiscri- minately devour its own speci.s. M. Gaschitz, one ofthe most esteemed German writers on eco- nomy, states the following to be an effectual remedy for destroying not only moles and mice, but also rata infesting orchards, and injuring the roots of fruit-trees :....Boil a num- ber of fresh walnuts divested of their external green rind, for an hour and half in water ; to which a large handful of hemlock leaves has previously been added. As all these vermin are extremely fond of such nuts, place one of the latter thus prepared within the cavity of every mole-hill. Those which partake of this envenomed fruit, must inevitably perish. The same author advises gardeners to plant a single clove of garlic near every tree ; in consequence of which simple practice,neithermice nor rats will approach it. He ob- serves, that the strong odour of this bulbous root is probably offen- sive to their organs of breathing ; and, whatever be #ie cause, he pledges himself for the success of the experiment. In Sweden, the green branches of the Bird-Cherry (Prunus Pa- dus, L.) are successfully employed for the dispersion of rats, moles, and bugs, when placed in the cor- ners of granaries, stables, dwel- ling-houses, and mole-hills ; but it will be necessary to re-place the dry sprigs, once a week, or fort- night, with fresh branches. Among other remedies, we re- commend that commonly employ- ed on the Continent, where a sponge is fried with salt-butter in a pan ; then compressed between two plates ; and cut into small pieces, which are scattered about the holes frequented by rats and mice. This preparation is devour- ed with avidity ; it excites thirst in the animals, which should be RAT gratified, by exposing shallow ves- sels containing water. On drinking this fluid, after having swallow- ed the bunit sponge, it distends their stomach, and proves a fatal repast. M. v. d. Horst, a landed pro- prietor in Germany, has lately an- nounced in one of the public jour- nals, that a peacock kept in a poul- try-yard, or about the premises of a dwelling-house infested with rats and mice, is an excellent scarecrow against such free-booters : nay, he remarks, that even a cock of an early spring-brood, has so shrill and penetrating a voice, as to an- swer the same purpose. With re- gard to the former bird, he ap- peals to his own experience, which has furnished him with satisfacto- ry proofs of success. Lastly, as most of the methods before suggested, are either trou- blesome and precarious, or only partial means of exterminating the object of our research, we shall conclude with a more general and summary process of entrapping rats, so as to deliver not only our own habitations, but those of our neighbours, from the incursions of such mischievous quadrupeds. For the discovery ofthe following com- plete remedy, we are indebted to G. W. Miller, an ingenious apo- thecary of Wernigerode, in Ger- many : he candidly acknowledges to have derived the first hint for such purpose, many years since, from a book written by a celebrat- ed economist; in short, it will be found the most expeditious and ef- fectual mode that can be pursued. A capacious cask of moderate height must previously be procur- ed, and put in the vicinity of pla- ces infested with rats. During the first week, this vessel is employed RAT 371 only to allure the rats to visit the solid top of the cask, by means of hoards or planks arranged in a sloping direction to the floor, which are every day strewed with oat- meal, or any other food equally grateful to their palate ; and the principal part of which is exposed on the surface. After having thus been lulled into security, and ac- customed to find a regular supply for their meals, a skin of parch- ment is substituted for the wooden top of the cask, and the former is cut, for several inches, with trans- verse incisions through the centre, so as to yield on the smallest pres- sure. At the same time, a few gallons of water, to the depth of five or six inches, are poured into the empty cask. In the middle of this element, a brick or stone is placed, so as to project one or two inches above the fluid ; and that one rat may find on the former, a place of refuge. These prepara- tory measures being taken, the boards as well as the top of the cask should now be furnished with proper, bait, in order to induce them to repeat their visits. No sooner does one of these marauders plunge through the section of the parchment into the vessel, than it retreats to the brick or stone, and commences its lamentations for re- lief. Nor are its whining notes ut- tered in vain : others soon follow, and share the same fate : when a dreadful conflict begins among them, to decide the possession of the dry asylum. Battles follow in rapid succession, attended with such loud and noisy shrieks, that all the rats in the neighbourhood hasten to the fatal spot, where they experience similar disasters. Thus, hundreds may be caught by a stratagem, which might be great- 372 RAT ly facilitated by exposing a living rat taken in a trap, or purchased from a professional rat-catcher.... Nay, if it be true, that a whole inhabitable island on the western coast of Scotland be infested with these destructive vermin, we are of opinion, that they could thus be speedily exterminated; and that the carcases of such animals as have hitherto been considered as useless, might he advantageously employed for the purposes of ma- nuring the barren soil of those in- hospitable regions. A patent was lately granted to Mr. Bosquet, for his method of preventing the nuisance, and per- nicious effects of rats, on ship- board, Sec. This important object is to be attained, by filling up the vacant spaces between the planks, lining and timber of ships, with hot or melted pitch, tempered with a little tar, to render it less brit- tle, and more tenacious : at the same time, to increase its adhe- sion and durability, the patentee directs, cork-shavings, charcoal- dust, and ox or other animal hair, to be incorporated with the com- position. By such contrivance, all rats will not only be effectually re- pelled, and consequently the des- tructive effects of these vermin living, breeding, dying, and rot- ting between the ship's timber, be avoided, but the safety of the ves- sel will also be ensured: for, in case a plank should start, he as- serts that no water can penetrate through the composition. The following preparation has also recently been recommended for expelling rats: it consists in mixing the expressed juice of the stalk or leaves ofthe Deadly Night- shade with wheaten flour, or oat- meal : the paste must be cut in RAT small pieces which are to be placed in the holes or tracks frequented by these depredators; and, though they will eat such nauseous food, yet its odour is to them so ex- tremely offensive, that they will speedily quit the premises. [Rats may be effectually pre- vented from burrowing under the foundation of houses, by making an offset of stone or brick about two feet in breadth, and eighteen inches below the surface; and by carrying up a perpendicular wall from the edge of this offset, to with- in a few inches of the ground. The adoption of the same plan in- side, will prevent the burrowing of these animals in cellars. For* rats always burrow close to a wallj and finding their perpendicular course impeded, they take a hori- zontal direction, as far as the off- set continues, when they are again stopped by the outside wall. Thus baffled, they ascend and go off. Those persons who have suffered in their granaries, ice-houses, and in the cellars of their dwelling- houses, by the depredations of rats, will probably deem this one of the most valuable articles in the present work.] RAT-TAILS, in farriery, denote certain excrescences that gradually extend from the pastern to the middle of a horse's shanks; and which are thus denominated, from the resemblance they bear to the tail of a rat. These warts some- times appear moist; at others, dry: in the former case, they may be treated in a manner similar to that recommended under the article Grease ; but, if the part affected be hard and dry, recourse should be had to the following ointment: Take of crude mercury one ounce; Venice turpentine half an ounce; RAT RAT 373 mix them together in a mortar, till the globules of the quicksilver disappear; then gradually add two ounces of melted hog's lard. This unguent must be applied to the excrescences; and, if it should not effectually soften them, and re- move the protuberances, another preparation may be used with ad- vantage : Let four ounces of black soap, and two ounces of quick- lime, be incorporated with a suffi- cient quantity of vinegar, to form an ointment. Should the warts still remain hard, it will be necessary to pare them carefully with a sharp knife; and to dress the wound with tur- pentine, tar, and honey ; to which may occasionally be added a little verdigrease, or white vitriol. RATAFIA, a species of liqueur prepared by imparting to ardent spirit the flavour of various kinds of fruit, especially that of cherries: there are different sorts of this com- pound, known under the names of common, red, and dry ratafia. Common ratafia is obtained by infusing 2 oz. of nutmegs, 2-| lbs. of bitter almonds, 2 lbs. of Lisbon sugar, and 2-| grains of amber- grease in ten quarts of clear proof spirit. It will be proper to bruise the nutmegs and almonds; and also to triturate the ambergrease with the sugar in a mortar, before they are added to the other ingre- dients ; and, when the whole has digested for a sufficient time, it may be filtered through a bag, and kept for use in close vessels. Red Ratafia:.....Take 24 lbs. of black-heart cherries, 4 lbs. of the common black cherries, 3 lbs. of raspberries, and the same quantity of strawberries, which must be deprived of their stalks, and then bruised. In this state, they are to remain for the space of 12 hours; when the juice should be express- ed, and a quarter of a pound of su- gar be added to each pint. As soon as the latter is completely dis- solved, the whole ought to be fil- tered, and mixed with three quarts of clear proof spirit. Next, one ounce of cinnamon, two drams of mace, and half a dram of cloves are to be bruised, and poured into an alembic, together with two pints of spirits, and one pint of water :....one quart of spicy spirit should be drawn off with a brisk fire, and be added to the liquor: when the whole has properly sub- sided, it may be decanted for use. Dry, or sharp Ratafia :....Take 30 lbs. of cherries, a similar quan- tity of gooseberries, 7 lbs. of mul- berries, and 10 lbs. of raspberries. These fruits must be cleaned, pick- ed, and bruised ; after which they should be suffered to stand for 12 hours. The juice is then to be ex- pressed, and combined with three ounces of sugar to each pint.... When the latter is dissolved, the liquor must be filtered, and four pints of pure proof spirit mixed with every five pints of the former, together with the same quantity of spicy-spirit, as directed for Red Ratafia. The chief use of this expensive liquor is, for imparting an agreea- ble flavour to puddings, pies, Sec. ; though, we fear, too many avail themselves of such pretext, and thus become habitual votaries to dram-drinking; than which, no- thing is fraught with more mis- chievous effects, especially to fe- males....See Brandy and Gin. 374 R A Z RE A Snake-root. See Rattle. Ray-grass. See Darnel, the Red. RAZOR, an instrument em- ployed for the purpose of remov- ing the hair from the human beard or head. As shaving is to many persons a painful operation, cutlers have ap- plied all their skill and ingenuity, to remedy such inconvenience.... Hence strops, and washes, or soaps of a peculiar nature, have been contrived, with a view to facilitate that process ; and some artists have so far succeeded, as to pro- duce excellent instruments : the best, however, we believe, are those manufactured by Mr. Sa- vigny, of Kingstreet, Covent- garden ; who has brought his Pa- tent Razors to the highest degree of perfection, of which they are perhaps susceptible. Much, however, depends upon the manner in which the razor is managed. The hone, therefore, ought first to be wiped perfectly clean, after which a few drops of sweet oil must be poured on it. The operator should next place his thumb and fore-finger side- ways, on the part of the lieeL, in order to take firm hold both of the blade and of its handle : one side of the razor is next to be laid flat across the hone, in such a manner that its shoulder (or the part con- tiguous to the heel), may touch the nearest part of tiie stone. The razor is now drawn towards the person, somewhat circularly, and with a slight pressure, till he ar- rives at the point. When such side has been thus passed for a few times, the opposite one is to be conducted in a similar manner, till the edge uniformly assumes a wiry appearance. Lastly, both sides are to be moved a few times across the hone, from the heel to the point; in order that a perfect regularity may be produced in every part of the edge. The razor, being thus honed, must now be drawn obliquely from the point to the heel, across a strop, that is perfectly flat; and which is furnished with two lea- thers on the smoothing side : after this operation, it is fit for imme- diate use....It deserves, however, to be mentioned, that those boast- ed powders, or unctuous prepara- tions for giving a fine edge to ra- zors, consist merely of crocus mar- tis, or the red calx of vitriol, which is spread on the strop, by mixing it with a little oil or tallow. Those of our readers, whose faces smart from the use of indif- ferent razors, or who may wish for farther instructions relative to their management, will meet with some pertinent hints on this sub- ject, in Mr. Kingsbury's Trea- tise on Razors, he. (8vo. 1*. 6d. 1707) ; in which it is fully and per- spicuously discussed. See Cut- lery. READING,is the art of deliver- ing written language, with preci- sion, energy, and a proper adapta- tion of voice. This art is one ofthe most pleas- ir •; in domestic or civilized life; yet there are few, comparatively speaking, who possess, or endea- vour to acquire it, so as to be en- abled to read fluently. There are numerous precepts that relate to this useful art; but we cannot specify and illustrate them, here, by proper examples. Those of our readers, who are stu- dious of improvement, will meet with excellent instructions in Mr. Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution, RE A (8vo. 7s) ; and especially in Mr. Walker's Elements of Elocution, (2 vols. Svo. 12s.) ; in which pro- per rules are given, in clear and perspicuous language, and enforc- ed by extracts from the best Eng- lish writers. Re-animation : See Anima. tion, Cold, Sec. REAPING, the operation of cutting corn, whether by the sic- kle, or by the scythe. The most common practice of reaping is with sickles ; though, where the scythe can be conveni- ently employed, it is certainly pre- ferable, on account of its being less fatiguing, and far more expediti- ous. We -are aware of the objec- tions made by farmers against the latter instrument, namely, that it shakes the ear, and consequently numerous grains must be lost ; and that considerable quantities are wasted, by the exposed state in which the corn is left, after be- ing cut down. It is farther urged, that mowing is not only injurious to the health of the labourer, but also mixes noxious weeds among the grain ; which when sown the succeeding year, often complete- ly stifle the growth of the rising- crop. On the other hand, it may be maintained that, if a good scythe be judiciously managed by a skil- ful mower, the corn will both be cut more regularly, and fall to the ground with less concussion than if a sickle were employed. Thus, if the labourer work in the man- ner directed in the article Mow- ing, the objection arising from the unhealthincss of the practice will be completely obviated. On the whole, we are of opinion, that reaping is far more troublesome ; and, as the reapers must be con- RED 375 tinually bending forward, more prejudicial to their health than *».owing. To facilitate the latter operation, therefore, we propose to give in its proper place, an account of the best Scythes, that may be most advantageously substituted for sickles. RECEIPT, in Commerce, is an acquittance or discharge in writ- ing ; the purport of which is, that the party has received a certain sum of money, either in full for the whole of a debt, in part, or on account. [A friend communicates the fol- lowing : '• all receipt-books ought to have a left hand margin, to in- troduce the initial of the surname of the payees, and at the end of every receipt-book, an alphabet of the names with their dates should be made, for the more ready reference to answer any de- mands which might unjustly be made upon the account discharg- ed."] RED. In the 2d vol. of the New Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, he. of Berlin, we meet with a communication by M. Mar- graaff, containing an account of an excellent red paint. Its com- ponent parts are Dutch madder, and alum ; which, being mixed with a small portion of the oil of poppies, afford a colour of exqui- site beauty and lustre, far superior to the red obtained from cochineal, or any other vegetable substitute ; while it is considerably cheaper; though, he observes, the quantity of dist'uled water used in the pro- cess, increases the expence of the preparation. RED-INK, is a coloured liquor employed for the ruling of account- bocks, and other mercantile pur- poses. It is prepared by infusing 376 RED RED 4 ounces of the raspings of Brazil- wood, and 2 drams of pulverized alum, in equal quantities, namely, a pint of rain-water and vinegar, for two or three days; at the expi- ration of which time, the infusion is boiled over a moderate fire, till the third part of the fluid be evapo- rated. It is then suffered to stand for three or four days, when it is filtered through blotting-paper,and preserved for use, in close vessels. There is no occasion for adding any gum-arabic,which only tends tosus- pend impurities, while it changes the ink to a pale purple shade..... Another mode of making red-ink, consists in triturating the whites of four eggs, and a tea-spoonful of pounded lump-sugar,with a similar quantity of spirit of wine, till they acquire an uniform consistence. Vermilion is then to be incorpo- rated in such a proportion as will produce a red colour of suflicient strength. The liquor must be kept in a well-closed vessel, and agitated every time before it is used. [Another......Take three pints of vinegar, four ounces of ground Brazil-wood, simmer over a slow fire for half an hour, then add four ounces of alum, and one ounce of gum-arabic bruised, and when fully dissolved, strain through a cloth; bottle, and keep it corked. REDEMPTIONER......In the present instance,by aredemptioner, is meant a foreigner, who, not be- ing able to pay for a passage to the United States, is indented for a certain time, to any one who will pay the passage-money. The United States annually re- ceive large importations of Euro- pean redemfttioners. For many years, the Germans were preferred, on account of their economical ha- bits, sobriety, and laborious dispo- sition. But many serious disap- pointments have lately taken place, in consequence of the importations of some cargoes composed of the refuse inhabitants of Hamburg, Amsterdam and Rotterdam, who robbed their masters, and eloped shortly after they were taken home. Similar disappointments may be avoided in general, by inquiring the place of residence of the individu- als it may be wished to purchase; and by chusing only those who come from the country, unless well recommended. The importation of the worth- less vagabonds of the commercial cities of Germany, and the Bata- vian republic, may become a seri- ous evil in the United States, and should be immediately attended to. The American consuls ofthe above ports, would perform a duty they owe their country, by informing the governor of the state to which a passenger-vessel is about to sail, of the general character of the passengers; and whether they were residents of the town or country. The passes or permits which all are obliged to take, previously to their shipment, will readily furnish this information ; and a complete list of the individuals might be transmitted, which, by being depo- sited with an alderman of the city, would serve to direct purchasers in a choice. Such a measure would serve as a check upon unprincipled persons who import indiscrimin- ately, all who offer for a passage; and at the same time speedily se- cure the honest countryman a master.] Red-Lead....See Lead. REDDLE, Raddle, or Rud- dlk, a species of marie, found in REE REN 377 various parts of Britain, particu- larly in the counties of Stafford and Derby. This mineral is of a deep-red colour; and, on being handled, stains the fingers. It consists of clay and oxyd of iron : falls to powder in water; and when heated in the fire, becomes black. Reddle is used in the manufac- ture of colours ; in the marking of sheep; and, we understand, has lately been employed in Stafford- shire, with great advantage, as a manure. REED, or Arundo, L. a genus of plants, comprising 10 species; five being natives of Britain ; of which the following are the principal, namely : 1. The arenaria (Calamagrostis armaria of Dr. Withering) or Sea-Reed....See Matweed. 2. The phragmites, or Com- bJon-Reed, grows in rivers, lakes, ditches, and fenny or marshy situ- ations, to the height of seven or eight feet: it is perennial, and flowers in the month of July..... This species is employed for cover- ing cottages and barns ; for which purpose it is superior to every other indigenous vegetable, being incom- parably more neat and durable. By previously soaking the reeds in strong alum-water, such a roof may be rendered fire-proof. They are also manufactured into screens, for sheltering young plants from the cold winds ; and may be use- fully employed for cane-bottomed chairs. Farther, the Common Reed makes excellent weaver's combs, and is generally nailed across the frame of wood-work, to serve as the foundation for plastered walls, pillars, &c....From the dried roots of this plant, a very nutritive flour iu easily obtained, which may be VOL. IV. converted into wholesome and pa- latable bread. Its panicles are used, in Sweden, to impart a green co- lour to wool. 3. The epigeois, (calamagrostis epigeios of Withering) or Wood Reed, is perennial, grows in shady ditches, and moist situations, where it flowers in July.....This herb abounds particularly in the Isle of Ely, and is called by the inhabitants of the fens, Maiden-Hair :.....it is manufactured into hassocks, or thick mats, for churcheo. 4. The calamagrostis (lanceo- lata of Dr. Withering) Small or Hedge-Reed, is likewise pe- rennial ; grows in moist shady hedges, and meadows ; where it flowers in the month of July. This species is remarkable for its beau- ty, and is an ornament to ditch- banks and hedges: it is rejected by cattle. Prof. Pallas observes, that the panicles of the small reed, before the flower expands, impart a beautiful bright-green colour to wool, vvhen boiled,' with the addi- tion of alum. [REFINING, Citizen Darcet, (nephew),in the Journalde Phisique, year 9, gives a description of anew process of refining gold, which he has successfully practised; atrans- lation of this paper is inserted in Nicholson's Philosophical Jour- nal, 8vo. vol. 5. p. 70. Those con- cerned in the business, will find their advantage in attending to the paper.] Regimen, of Invalids: See Debility. RENNET, or Runnet, proper- ly denotes the coagulated milky substance which is found in the stomachs of calves that have re- ceived no other nourishment than the maternal milk. It is however, generally applied to signify the sto- 3 C 578 RES RES mach itself, which possesses equal properties. The rennet commonly employ- ed, consists of the inner membrane of a calf's stomach, which is clean- ed, salted and suspended in paper bags. Previously to its use, the rait is extracted by washing the rennet, which is soaked in a little water during the night; and, in the morning, the infusion is poured into the milk, with a view to coa- gulate this fluid. As the prepa- ration now stated, greatly contri- butes to the superior quality of English cheese, the proper ma- nagement of u ought to be con- ducted with the strictest attention to cleanliness : the reader will therefore, find a receipt for making an excellent rennet, in the article Cheese, vol. 2d. It sometimes happens, however, that no rennet, sufficiently good for curdling milk, can be procured : hence various plants have been ad- vantageously substituted,and found to answer the same purpose. The principal of these are the flowers of the Cheese rennet, or Yellow Ladies Bed-straw (Galium verum L.) used in England ; and the Car- doon (Cynara cardunculus L.) in Spain. A strong infusion is made ofthe down ofthe latter vegetable in the evening ; and, on the suc- ceeding morning, half a pint is poured among fourteen gallons of new milk, which is thus effectually coagulated, and in consequence produces a delicious cheese. [Under the article Cheese,par- ticular stress was laid upon the importance of attention to the pre- paration of this article; and it may be added, that according to Dr. A i kin, " the principal late improvement in cheese making in Cheshire is in the mode of infusing all the maw skins at once, and satu- rating the strained liquor with salt. See Aikin's description ofthe coun- try round Manchester, p. 47.] RESERVOIR, a place artifi- cially constructed for the collection and retention of water, in order that it may be conveyed to distant places, by means of pipes. Reservoirs are at present chiefly employed for the supply of foun- tains, jets d'eau, and similar vo- lumes of water. Although such contrivances heighten the pictures- que scenery of plantations, yet we conceive that they might be ren- dered productive of greater advan- . tage to agriculturists, by forming them in certain situations, for the reception of flood-waters and the prevention of many accidents, that happen in consequence of land- floods. Where the soil is natural- ly porous, and the strata, lying be- neath, are so open as to absorb the rain-water during its descent, no floods will easily occur ; because the fissures or pores operate as re- gulators for conducting the streams; and the discharge becomes so equal, that the humidity remains nearly in the same state throughout the year. In clay, and similar reten- tive lands, however, a very small portion of water is absorbed, and such large quantities speedily glide off the surface, so that either ex- treme scarcity or superfluity is the necessary result. With a view to remedy these inconveniencies in such soils, it has been proposed to form reservoirs of any depth, and and breadth, that may be best adapted to the purpose; and, as during the heat of summer, the water would be absorbed to the depth of ei^ht or nine inches, this RHE R H E 379 diminution of its volume may be obviated,by raising the topso many inches higher than might other- wise be found expedient. Farther, such reservoirs may communicate, by means of subterraneous pipes or channels, with some rivulet or brook, that in summer is nearly dry, but which in the winter is swoln into torrents. In conse- quence [of these hydraulic mea- sures, a regular supply of water will be obtained at all seasons, for the irrigation of fields or meadows; and also for turning mills, or other machinery, where a certain veloci- ty is required ; so that the exten- sive damage frequently occasioned by sudden floods, will thus be ef- fectually prevented. REST-HARROW, the Thor- ny, Cammock, Petty-Whin, or Ground-FuIize ; Ononis spinosa, L. (the arvensis of Dr. Smith) an indigenous perennial plant; grow- ing on barren pastures, hedge- banks, and paths ; it flowers in the month of July.....The young shoots of this plant may be boiled and eaten among culinary vegeta- bles. Dr. Withering remarks, that a decoction of the roots has been recommended in cases of the stone and jaundice....Cows and goats eat the Rest-harrow ; though sheep do not relish it, and it is re- fused bv horses and hogs. RHEUMATISM, a painful dis- ease which principally affects the muscular parts, and larger joints of the body, in the direction of the muscles ; such as the shoulder, hip, knees, &c...If attended with fever, it is called the acute rheu- matism ; but, in the contrary case, the chror.ic: in the former, the pain generally shifts from one joint to another ; in the latter, it remains in most cases fixed to a particular part. After the disor- der has tortured the patient for some time, the joint is commonly swoln, red, and extremely painful to the touch. As it is often difficult to distin- guish rheumatism from gow, it should be remarked, that, in the former, the stomach is less affect- ed ; that the disease is more con- fined to the larger joints; that it occurs at an earlier stage of life ; and that it is not hereditary. In young persons, the upper and in- ternal parts above the midriff", but in the aged, those belovj the dia- phram, are more frequently liable to be attacked....It is termed ac- cording to the seat of the malady : thus it is called lumbago, when seizing the loins ; and iscliias, or sciatica, when it rages in the hi'<. Rheumatisms prevail in cold cli- mates, and mostly in spring and autumn ; though they may appear at any season, in consequence'of sudden alternations of heat and cold. We shall briefly enumerate the leading causes, from which they arise, namely : suppressed per- spiration, by moist, cold air. espe- cially at night ; damp clothes ; partial heat or cold ; suppression of chronic eruptions ; inhalation of metallic vapours ; violent pas- sions ; and often too, after reco- vering frpm other disorders, such as fevers, fluxes, Sec in which case it is generally chronic. Cure....U the disease be attend ed with fever, every thing must be avoided, that may tend to irritate the system, or increase the vio- lence ofthe circulation. The acute rheumatism being an inflamma- tory affection, the advice cf the 530 R H E RHO profession becomes indispensable; in order to determine upon the propriety or necessity of blood-let- ting, and whether this operation is to be repeated : beside which, it requires total abstinence from ani- mal food ; fermented and spiritu- ous liquors ; the use of a mild ve- getable ,or milk-diet; together with copious draughts of bland, diluting beverage. To void the debilitat- ing effects of too frequent vene- section, in cases of excruciating pain, especially when attended with swelling and redness, re- course may be had to leeches ap- plied to the part, or to cupping. The principal relief is next to be expected from gentle sudorifics, when the perspiiation should be promoted by lukewarm drink. If the disorder be transferred from the external to internal parts, blis- ters must be appplied to the spot, which was previously affected : all other local applications, except warmth, are in such cases impro- per. After the complaint is re- moved, the patient should avoid all sudden changes of tempera- ture, and at the same time apply friction to the parts formerly dis- eased....During the whole afflic- tion, it will be proper to preserve regularity of the bowels, by taking rhubarb, .manna, flowers of sul- phur, and similar laxatives, in small doses. The chronic rheumatism is fre- quently consequent on trie acute, when the latter has been misma- naged : hence it will be advisable to resort to such external and in- ternal remedies, as may restore vigour to the parts, and promote the necessary c vjcuations, especi- ally a proper state of perspiration. Gentle sudorit'xs, such as infu- sions of clderflowers, white-wine whev, and ipecacuanha in small doses, have often procured relief; but the more active medicines, for instance, the oil of turpentine, guaiacum, and antimonials, must be cautiously prescribed. With the same intention, we shall ob- serve, that the extract ofthe Large Blue Wolf's-bane (Aconitum Na- pellus, L.) has been found uncom- monly efficacious in restoring per- spiration, and dispersing the swell- ing ; but, like other narcotics re- commended for this purpose, it requires great circumspection. As costiveness frequently re- tards the cure, it ought to be re- lieved by the mildest laxatives. The diet should, in general, be nourishing; and generous wine, moderately taken, will greatly con- duce to recovery. The external means are, warmth by flannel worn next the painful part; frictions, vapour-baths, electricity, exercise, and the volatile liniment; but the other oils and unctuous prepara- tions must be avoided; as they are apt to check perspiration, and thus to protract the disorder.... Lastly, blisters, and cataplasms of mustard, horse-radish, leaven ap- plied to the suffering parts, or to their vicinity, have often proved beneficial. The Lumbago, Sciatica, he. be- ing a species of the same disease, require a similar treatment ; though the rheumatism of the hip may, in general, be successfully removed by a blister six inches long, and four broad, applied to the outside of the leg, immediate- ly under the knee, and kept in a state of suppuration, till the pain ceases. RHODIUM, an odoriferous es- RHU RHU 381 sential oil, obtained from the wood of a species of the Aspalathus, or African Broom; and which has received its name from the Island of Rhodes, whence it is said to be imported. Oil of Rhodium was formerly in great repute as an astringent and corroborant ; but, at present, it is chiefly employed in perfuming po- matums ; an ingredient in rat-pow- ders composed of poisonous sub- stances ; as these noxious vermin are uncommonly partial to the agreeable scent of the drug. [RHODODENDRON, a genus of plants comprehending two spe- cies, natives of the United States. The R. maximum, or Pennsylvania mountain Laurel, is a highly poi- sonous shrub. R. aromaticum, of W. Bartram, (the R. p.unctatum of Wildenow) was discovered by the former upon the Chero- kee mountain in N. Carolina.] RHUBARB, or Rheum, L. a genus of exotic plants, comprising seven species, of which the follow- ing are the principal: 1. The rhaponticum, or Common Rhubarb, a native of Thrace and Syria, which has long been culti- vated in British gardens for the footstalks of the leaves, that are frequently used in pies and tarts. The root of this species is some- times mistaken for the officinal rhubarb, from which it differs ma- terially ; as the surface of the for- mer is of a dusky colour, its tex- ture, is more porous or spongy and it possesses greater astringen- cy than the latter, but is less pur- gative, requiring two or three drams, instead of fifteen or twenty grains ofthe powder, for one dose. 2. The palmatum, Palmated, True or Officinal, Rhubarb, is a native of China and the East In- dies, whence its culture has been introduced into Europe. It pro- duces a thick fleshy root, externally yellowish-brown, but internally of a bright-yellow colour, streaked with red veins ; and it endures the severity of our climate. The officinal rhubarb is raised from seed, which should be sown early in April, in light, sandy soils that have been previously plough- ed to a considerable depth, and manured with a compost, consist- ing of one part of rotten dung, one part of sifted coal-ashes, and two parts of slaked lime, thoroughly incorporated with a proper quan- tity of mud, or mire taken from a mill-pond. This species is also propagated, by planting buds or eyes in land thus prepared ; which method is far superior to that be- fore described ; as a whole year is not only gained in the growth, but the plant is less liable to be in- jured by the depredations of ver- min ; and, in the course of four or five years, the crowns of the rhubarb will produce tolerably good- roots ; which, however, are neither so large nor so plentiful as those obtained from seed. When the plants appear above ground, they will only require to be kept clear from all weeds ; and, if the roots be covered with litter, or the earth be drawn around them, in the winter, they will vegetate with renewed vigour in the spring. Should they grow too closely to- gether, it will be necessary to thin them, at the distance of five, or six feet; and, at the er.piration of four years, the roots may be taken up for use ; though their medicinJ properties are supposed to increase, if they be suffered to remain in • ',82 RHU RHU the earth for seven, eight, ten, or even twelve years. [Mr. Thomas Jones, of Lon- don, who has cultivated the pal- mated or medicinal rhubarb very largely in England, gives the fol- lowing directions on the subject. 1. The situation is not mate- rial, provided it be not too much shaded on the south or west..... The indispensable points are depth and good soil. A gentle declivity is most proper. 2. If the ground be in green- sward, suffer a season or two to elapse, that the turf may be entire- ly decayed, and that the destructive wire worm which infests old grass- land, may be destroyed. Sow ear- ly in the spring, and if the seeds do not vegetate in three weeks, re- peat the sowings. The broad cast mode is preferable to drills. 3. Prepare beds of fine mould, 18 inches deep: in these, put in the plants when they have attained the heights of four or five inches, and have thrown out as many leaves. They must be eight in- ches asunder. The first season is the most critical, and much care is necessary. If the weather be hot, the nursery must be shaded, and at all events continually wa- tered ; for water, though hurtful to old plants, is now of the first consequence. Wet weather is the most proper to plant. In a month, the roots may be transplanted, or they may remain in the nursery beds till the ensuing spring : if the summer be favourable, and in the meantime the land intended for the plantation, is properly pre- pared, it should be completed, without further delay. After trenching the ground three feet deep, when not on a declivity, sow it with carrot-seed of the largest sort; and at different periods thro' the summer, with a transplanter or circular spade, remove the rhu- barb plants and place them four feet apart, in the midst ofthe car- rots ; destroy those which might obstruct the growth ofthe other ; their foliage will preserve the plants from the rays of the sun, till their own have acquired a sufficient growth. After this, keep the plan- tation clean, and the trenches open. Each trench is to commu- nicate with a ditch, to convey the water from springs or rains a- way. Mr. Jones is of opinion that those parts of the root are of the finest quality, that are farthes removed from seed ; and, but for want of offselts, he should abandon his present, in favour of this mode of cultivation. The other however is more certain, and the produce much more considerable. When the seed stalks are cut off, (which ought to be done upon the with- ering of the radical leaves,) cover the plants with mould, in the form of a hillock. When the buds have bloomed, a cavity is formed in the centre of the plant, surrounded by the rest, into which the rain, if permitted, will make a lodgment, and destroy the part. For this reason, every spring and autumn examine the plant.....the young ones will discover their situation, for either the leaves will wither as fast as they are produced, or their growth will be stunted; the state of the olderplants can only be dis- covered by pressing a finger to the centre ofthe crown ; the least un- soundness will soon be perceptible. In both cases, the plants must be removed, and their places suppli- • RHU RHU 383 cd. Mr. J. places his plants four feet apart. The Rev. James Stilling- flekt of Hotham, Yorkshire who, was also rewarded by the Society of Arts, with their premium, for his successful cultivation of rhubarb; ......directs the seed to be sown on a sandy-loam, having a south- east aspect, but the young plants must be sheltered from the noon day sun, till they have obtained a good degree of strength. It will conduce to their strength and growth, to raise thebed some-what above the alleys, that the plants may be kept dry. Much dung dis- poses to canker ; a good free soil, suits best. He prefers taking the roots up, at the winter solstice, as they dry better and shrink less, than at other times. The roots lose four fifths in drying; which process is accomplished in half a year, when the roots are cut into pieces and hung up in a common kite! en; the skin being previously pared thin. The large pieces are quartered, that they may dry. Rhubarb must not be taken up, until six or seven years old. In thih point all cultivators agree. There can be no doubt that the climate of the United States is perfectly congenial to the growth of rhubarb, and considering the great value ofthe medicine, its cul- tivation ought to be attempted.] The proper time for taking up the roots, in England, is from the middle ofthe summer to January ; though they are sometimes dug out of the ground early in the spring; or in autumn, when the leaves are decayed. They are first washed clean, and the small fibres and ex- ternal rind being pared or cut off, they are divided into pieces about one ounce in weight. In warm weather, they should be dried in the shade; but, if the season be cold or wet, it will be advisable to evaporate their moisture gradually in a hot-house, or an oven of a mo- derate heat; because, if dried too speedily, they will contract into wrinkles, and, if too slowly, they become mouldy, and unfit for use. Lastly, a hole is perforated in the middle, and the roots are suspended on packthread to dry, so that none of the pieces come in contact with each other. The rhubarb, hitherto employed in medicine, is imported from Turkey, Russia, China, and the East-Indie::. The first sort is brought in roundish pieces, perfo- rated in the centre; and which are externally of a yellow colour; but, on being cut, they appear varie- gated with bright-reddish streaks. The Chinese drug is imported in long pieces, which are harder and more compact than the Turkey Rhubarb ; the former, possessing a weaker aromatic flavour, is less esteemed ; though, being more as- tringent, it is, for some purposes at least, equal to the latter. Rhubarb is justly prized as a mild cathartic, and may be safely administered to children, invalids, and delicate women, in doses of from 10 to 20 grains, though, in irritable, hysterical, and phthisi- cal habits, it is apt to occasion gripes, and to aggravate febrile symptoms : hence it ought never to be given in the first stage of dysentery, when this invaluable remedy, by premature use, may occasion the most violent pain and inflammation of the bowels; but, after the fever is suppressed, and the disease becomes a chronic tii- 384 RHLT RHU arrhcea, small doses of rhubarb will be attended with the best effects. As, however, this medicinal root has a tendency to occasion obstruc- tions of the intestines, it will, in most cases, be proper to combine it with cooling salts, in order to prevent costiveness : thus, 6 grains of the former, and one dram of either Glauber's salt, or cream of tartar, in a combined state, may be taken with advantage in the evening, and a similar dose in the morning. In short, rhubarb is the only purgative we possess, that is at the same time mildly astringent, diuretic, and does not relax the first passages. Being an article of such impor- tance in medicine, large quantities of this root are annually imported, to the amount of 200,000/.; which sum might easily be saved to the nation :.....various attempts have, therefore, been successfully made to introduce its culture into Bri- tain. With this intention, the pa- triotic Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, he, have, for several years, distributed premiums for the cultivation and curing of the largest quantity of rhubarb. The successful candidates, were Sir William Fordyce, on whom they conferred a gold medal in 1784 ; Mr. Thomas Jones, whom they rewarded with a similar pre- mium in 1793, and with the far- ther sums of 30 guineas, in 1798, and 1800; Mr.FfAYWARD,'on whom they conferred their gold medal in 1794 ; Islv. Ball, to whom they adjudged a similar reward in the same year, and a second in 1795 ; Mr. Robert DATis,and the Rev. James Stillincfleet, on vriiom tXcy severally bestowed gold me- dals in 1796 and 1797, for their respective exertions in cultivating and curing the true rhubarb. Their methods of management corres- pond, with a few exceptions, to that above stated ; and it appears from authentic accounts, that suf- ficient quantities of this valuable drug may be reared in Britain ; and that the English root has proved to be fully equal to the best sort obtained from Turkey and China. Beside the utility of the roots, the seeds of such plants as are raised in England, possess a consi- derable portion of the medicinal properties of the former: its leaves impart an agreeable acidity to soups, similar to that of sorrel: a strong infusion in white wine, of pieces of the roots, that were not sufficiently thick for drying, has been given with great success in the dysente- ries sometimes incident to cattle. A marmalade is likewise prepared from the fresh stem, by stripping off the bark, and boiling the pulp with an equal quantity of honey or sugar. This, we understand, sffords a mild and pleasant laxa- tive, especially for children, to whom it is highly salubrious.... Lastly, Prof. Pallas informs us, that M. Sievers, an apothecary, has discovered a resinous elastic gum, which, in the month of Au- gust, exuded from the leaves and flower-stalks of the Siberianr hu- barb, on wounding them with a knife ; and which bore perfect re- semblance to the Caoutchouc, or India rubber....By a decoction of this root in alum-water, the Kirg- his impart a beautiful orange co- lour to their leather and wool: a similar tint may be given to cloth ; and, on adding green vitriol, a fine olive shade will be the result. RHU RHU 385 It has farther been conjectured, that, with a solution of tin, or bis- muth, rhubarb would afford a beau- tiful red dye. [RHUS, an extensive genus of plants, which are found in almost every quarter of the globe. In the United States, we find seven spe- cies, viz. R. Typhinum, R. Copal- linum, R. Glabrum, R. Canadense, R. Toxicodendron, R. Vernix, and R. Radicans. The three last species, are most numerous in tfie southern parts of the United States. 1. R. Typhinum, or Stag's-horn Sumach, is a native of Virginia and Pennsylvania, rising to the height of twelve or fifteen feet, with a trunk of six or eight inches in diameter, and producing flowers ofan herbaceous colour,whichmake a fine appearance in autumn. 2. R. Copallinum, Lenliscus- leaved sumach, grows to the height of six feet in a slaty, gravelly soil. The berries are very acid. The flowers are produced in loose, compoqnd panicles, cf an herba- ceous colour, and are succeeded by reddish seeds, sprinkled with greyish pounce, of an agreeable acid taste. 3. R. Glabrum, smooth Pennsyl- vania sumach, common, or up- land sumach, grows abundantly in Pennsylvania, rising to the height of eight or ten feet. The leaves are feathered, sawed, lanced, and naked on both sides, and change to a beautiful red in autumn: it flowers in July. The seeds are arranged like the flowers, in large conical thymes ; afe red, and co- vered with a white powder, of an agreeable acid taste. From Dr. IIohsefield's accurate experi- vol. tv. ments,* it appears that the leaves are more valuable as a black dye, than the berries, (though the lat- ter are commonly used) and a va- luable substitute for nut-galls, either in dyeing, or in making ink. 4. R. Canadense, grows in Ca- nada ; its peculiarities have not been examined. 5. R. Toxicodendron, poison oak, a low shrubby stalk. Leaves trifo- liate, with pretty long footstalks, lobes entire smooth, and somewhat heart shaped. The flowers come out from the side of the stalks, in loose panicles, are small and of an herbaceous colour. The berries are round, channelled and smooth, of a yellowish grey colour vvhen ripe. Horses eat the leaves with impu- nity. Dr. Alderson, of Hull, highly recommends from one to four grains of this species, three or four times a day, in paralitic af- fections. 6. R. Vernix, varnish tree, poison oak, swamp sumach, white su- mach, is the largest of our native species of Rhus; grows in swamps, and makes a fine appearance. Dr. Horsefield is convinced, with Thunberg and others, that this is the true varnish tree of the Ja- panese ; he found that the greatest quantity of juice was obtained from incisions made in the tree about the middle of May. 7. R. Radicans, poison vine, poison creeper, has a slender as- cending stem, and frequently climbs up to the top of our tallest trees. The flowers are produced * Inaug. Diss, on Rhus Veniix, R.Ra- ilkans, and R. Glabrum, Phil. 1797- 3 D 386 RIB RIB along the whole course of the twelve on each side the twelve yer- smaller branches; they are small, tebrx of the back, or the spinal are of a light yellow colour, and column. They are divided into have a delightful odour. seven true, which are uppermost, The two last, viz. R. Vernix, and five spurious, or false ribs, and R. Radicans, are highly poi- which are softer and shorter; only sonous, and are particularly active the first of the latter being joined in warm weather; after a meal; to the extremity of the breast and when the part touching the bone, while the gristly ends of the leaves is moist with sweat. rest are combined with each other, The R. Vernix is more violent and thus leave a greater space for than the other species, and affects, the dilatation of the stomach and 1. By its effluvium; 2. By its smoke bowels. It is farther remarkable, when burning; 3. By contact; 4. that the cartilages throughout the By steams of a decoction of the ribs, are harder in the female than plant. The poison induces an in- in the male subject, obviously with llammatory eruption in the skin, the view of enabling the former to attended by pain, swelling, itching, support more easily the weight and fever. The eruption some- of their breasts;....that the last times ends in suppuration, and ul- of the false ribs is perceptibly ceration. The above symptoms shorter than the rest, and is not are apt to return periodically, for joined, to them, but in some per- the course of even ten years. sons to the oblique descending The remedies are blood-letting muscle ;....that Nature has provi- when the symptoms are violent, dently not constructed the ribs smart purging, especially by sea- like the other solid, articulated water ; by cold water, or ice, or a bones ; in order to admit of such a a solution of corrosive sublimate in degree of expansion in the thorax in water applied to the parts ; or a or chest as is requisite to perform wash of spirits of sal-ammoniac di\u- the important process of breath- led with water, or of lead water. ing. Hence, if in an easy inspi- Dr. Du Fresnoy, in his Trea- ration the cavity of the thorax is tine on the Rhus Radicans, Paris, raised l-8th of an inch, and the 1788, relates the successful use of midriff descends only l-£- inches, it the extract of the plant in a case will afford room for 52 cubic in- of palsy, which was ascribed to the ches of air to enter; so that, in suppressionof an herpetic eruption, an ordinary inspiration, the lungs Other cases of palsy were also are distended with 70, and some- cured. The dose wa.-i two grains times 100, inches of atmospheric at first, and then gradually in- air. Lastly, the ribs serve to de- creased. The above facts are fend the vital organs, and to im- clrielly taken from Dr. Horse- part adhesion to the muscles. fifld's excellent dissertation.] The principal casualties incident Rik-grass. See Ribwort Plan- to the ribs, am fractures, and lux- tain. utions. The former may be easily LIBS (Costa), in the human ascertained, on pressure with the frame, are certain long bones of a fingers. The symptoms are sel- seuntircular figure. There are doni accompanied with aggravat- twuity-four in number, namJy, ing ciicumstanccs, and the patient RIC R I C 387 speedily recovers. If, however, the fracture be compound, or the bone depressed on the lungs, a very acute pain will be felt; breathing become difficult; and be attended with cough, sometimes with blood- spitting ; while a full and quick pulse will indicate the presence of fever. In such cases, it will al- ways be proper immediately to ap- ply for surgical assistance, and perhaps to lose a few ounces of blood. If one end of the rib be elevated, it ought to be reduced by moderate compression; and abroad leather belt should constantly be worn tightly "around, for several weeks. Should any part of the rib be forced inwards, it must be care- fully raised by the surgeon; and, if any air or extravasated blood be collected in the cavity of the chest, these fluids are to be timely and cautiously extracted. Luxations of the ribs seldom oc- cur. The symptoms correspond with those attending fractures, ex- cepting that the pain is more acute at the articulation, which part alone will yield on pressure. In this case, the patient's body should be slowly bent over a cask, or a similar round vessel, in order to expand the ribs, and thus to re- duce the luxated bone; as no ban- dages will afford any relief. In all accidents of this nature, however, the patient ought to be kept on low and cooling diet; to avoid. whatever may tend to irritate or disturb his mind, lest inflamma- tion might ensue; and, if the cough be troublesome, it will be advisa- ble to employ opiates (especially by means of unguents externally) with a view to allav its virulence. BICE, or Oryza, a genus of phnls consisting, according to Linnets, of only one species, viz. the sativa, or Common Rice ; though later botanists enumerate three or four species, each of which is divided into two varieties. It is a native of Ethiopia, and the East Indies, where it is cultivated to a considerable extent; as it con- stitutes the chief food of the inha- bitants. They divide it into six kinds, which, however, may be re- duced to the folld\ving two varie- ties, namely, 1. Mountain-rice, that grows on dry, elevated soils, ma- nured with ashes; but, as the crops often fail, it is of a higher price than the next sort, and little known in Europe ; though its grains are finer, whiter, more palatable, and may be longer preserved. Lately, this variety has with success been cultivated in Tuscany. 2. Marsh- rice, which is the usual kind sown in low, swampy districts, that may be easily inundated by means of sluices. Of this productive grain, large quantities are annually im- ported into Britain, and other parts of Europe ; where it is highly es- teemed for puddings and other cu- linary preparations. [For the following directions re- specting the water culture of Rice, the Editor is indebted to a friend, for whom it was written some years since, by one of the most success- ful cultivators of that article, in the state of South-Carolina. Begin to plant about the 25th March, trench shallow and wide, and scatter the seed in the vow ; make 72 or 75 rows in a task, and sow two bushels to an arce. 1st. Hoe about the end of April, or beginning of May, when the rice is in the fourth leaf; then flood, and clear the field of trash. If the planting be late, and you are likely to be in grass, flood before hoeing ; but hoeing first is pre- 388 RIC RIC ferable. The best depth to flood is three or four inches. It" is a good mark to see the tops of the rice just out ofthe water : the deep places are not to be regarded ; the rice will grow through in three or four days. Observe to make a notch on the frame ofthe trunk, when the water is at a proper •depth : if the rains raise the wa- ter above the notch, or it leaks out, add, or let off accordingly. This is done by putting a small stick in the door ofthe trunk, about an inch in diameter : if scum or from ap; ear in eight or ten days, freshen Jre wcter, take off the trunk .leers, run off the water with one tlb. em; take in the next food: then regulate as before. Keep the w afer ca ...nout fifteen or seventeen day-i, according to the state of the weather ; that is if a hot sun, fif- teen cbvs, if cool and cloudy, seventeen days, counting from the day the field is flooded : then leak off with a small stick for two days, then run off the whole, and keep the field dry. In four or five days after, hoe the second time, stir the ground whether clean or not, and comb up the fallen rice with the fingers. Keep dry and hoe through the field. Iloe the third time and pick clean. This will be about the beginning of July. Then flood as you hoe. Let the water be the same depth as before. If any grass has escaped, it must be picked in the water after it shoots out. Thisis called the fourth hoeing, but the hoe is never us- ed except for some high places or to clean the dams. If the rice is flaggy and likely to lodge, flood deep to support it, and keep it on untili fit to ha .-vest. For a particular account of the introduction of rice into South- Carolina, and of the modes of clean- ing it, the reader is referred to « Drayton's view of S. Carolina. Charlestown, 1803. Mr. Bordley informs us that he raised rice many years since, in the dry sandy soil of Annapolis ; and even " in a clay loam or up- land in Tall ot, Maryland, the pro- duce whereof was good in quality and quantity." The experiment might be tried in N. Jersey, in sheltered situations with greater prospect of success. The time of sowing is early in the spring af- ter frost. A friend concerned in rice plant- ing in South-Carolina, was in Am- sterdam in 1784, and examined all the various specimens of rice to be found in that great emporium of commerce, lie saw the rice of eve- ry country, in which it is cultivated, except that of Brazil, and was gratified by finding that the Ameri- can rice was superior in size and whiteness to all he had an oppor- tunity of seeing.] Rice is, in the opinion of Dr. Cullen, preferable to all other grain, both for its abundant pro- duce, and the large portion of nu- triment it affords. Hence, differ- ent methods have been devised, of cooking or dressing it in the most economical manner. Thus, if a quarter of a pound of rice be tied loosely in a cloth capable of hold- ing five times that quantity, and then slowly boiled, it will produce above a pound of solid food; which, eaten with sugar, or boiled milk, forms a very palatable dish. And, if an egg, together with a quarter of a pint of milk, a small quanti- ty of sugar, and grated nut-meg, be added, it will afford a more RIC RIC 389 agreeable pudding than those pre- pared either of wheaten flour, or bread. One of the best prepara- tions of this grain, however, espe- cially for invalids, is its mucilage or jelly ; which may be obtained by boiling two ounces of fine rice- flour, with a quarter of a pound of lump sugar, in a pint of water, till it become an uniform gelatinous "mass: on being strained through a cloth, and suffered to cool, it con- stitutes a salubrious and nourish- ing food. Rice also forms an excellent in- gredient in preparing Bread; and, as we have already given a con- cise account (vol. i.) of the me- thods in which it may be advanta- geously used, we shall now sub- join two receipts, by way of sup- plement. For this purpose, it is directed in the first vol. of the Reports of the Society for increas- ing the Comforts of the Poor, to boil a quarter of a pound of rice till it become perfectly soft; vvhen it should be drained on the back of a sieve. In a cold state, it is to be mixed with three quarters of a pound of flour, a tea-cupful of yeast, a similar portion of milk, and a small table-spoonful of salt. This composition should be suffered to stand for three hours, at the expi- ration of which it must be kneaded, and rolled in a little flour, so as to render the outside sufficiently dry to be put into the oven. In an hour and a quarter it will be baked, and produce 1 lb. 14 oz. of good white bread ; which, however, ought not to be eaten till it has been kept 48 hours. In a late volume of the Jour- nal eles Sciences, des Letters, et des Arts, v\k? meet with an essay on making bread from rice alone...... The first step directed to be taken, is the reduction of the rice into flour, by grinding it in a mill; though if such machine cannot be procured, it may be effected in the following manner: Let a certain quantity of water be heated in a saucepan, or other vessel; when it nearly boils, the rice must be thrown into it, and the whole taken off the fire, closely covered, and the grain suffered to macerate for twelve hours. The water is then to be poured off; and, when the rice is drained, and completely dried, it must be pulverised (it is not stated by what means) and passed through a very fine sieve. The grain being thus converted into flour, a suflicient quantity is to be put into the kneading-trough: at the same time, a little rice should be separately boiled in water, till a thick and glutinous decoction be obtained. While this liquor is still lukewarm, it ought to be poured on the rice-flour, and both should be well kneaded together, with a pro- per quantity of leaven, or of yeast, and also with a small portion of flour; in order to impart to the whole a greater degree of consis- tence. Next, the dough is to be covered with warm cloths ; and, when it is sufficiently risen (the oven having been heated during that interval), it should be poured into a tin stew-pan, furnished with a long handle, and covered with a sheet of paper, or with a cabba^. - leaf. The pan is then pushed for- ward into that part of the oven where it is intended to be baked, and expeditiously inverted. A pro- per degree of heat will prevent the paste from spreading, and cause if to retain the form of the vessel. In this manner, pure rice-bread may be made; which, when drawn out of the oven, is said to acquire a 390 RIC RIC fine yellow colour, similar to that of pastry glazed with the yolks of eggs. It is very wholesome and agreeable, but loses its good taste, if it be suffered to become stafo. With respect to the properties of rice, we shall only observe, that it is uncommonly nutritive, and may with great benefit be taken in di- arrhoeas, dysenteries, and similar disorders. In some persons it is apt to produce flatulency and cos- tiveness ; hence it will, in geneivil, be advisable to eat this grain with the addition of a little cinnamon, caraway, or similar spices, to pre- vent these effects ; especially in those whose digestion is slow, or who are naturally of phlegmatic habits. RICKETS, a disease peculiar to infants from the age of 9 months, to the third year ; and which sel- dom continues till they attain to puberty. Its principal symptoms are, a large head, a prominent fore- head, a relaxed skin, and swelling ofthe belly. The joints acquire an unnatural size ; the bones, espe- cially those of the legs and arms, become curved ; and the cartilages ofthe ribs being deprived of their elasticity, are unable to support the chest ; in consequence of which, it projects and grows deformed. In the progress of this malady, the hcllv is extremely tumid and hard to the touch, particularly on the right side ; the teeth become black and carious ; and the general ema- ciation is such as to leave the pa- tient almost inanimate, havi g power only to move the neck and head. The proximate cause of the dis- order is now understood to be a de- ficiency of the phosfihar of limf, or animal gluten in the bones: hence the latter are deprived of that ne- cessary strength and solidity, in consequence ofthe prevailing debi- lity in the vessels, so that the for- mer, instead of being conveyed to the bones, is deposited in other parts of the body. Thus, we find particles of lime often evacuated by the urine, or sometimes lodged in the genitals....See also Bones. Among the pre-disposing causes, we shall briefly mention, the ne-' gleet of proper exercise, or what may be called bad nursing; fre- quent exposure to damp or mephi- tic air in close habitations ; an im- proper system of living, with res- pect to food and drink; for instance, watery and mealy substances, par- ticularly viscid pap, pastry, fish, salt-meat, and other articles, too difficult of digestion. Sometimes, however, it arises from the vitiated habits of parents ; or is consequent on other diseases, such as small- pox, measles, he. Although the rickets do not, in general, prove fatal, when timely attended to, yet this affection is not unfrequently followed by a curva- ture, and even a decay ofthe bones, particularly those ofthe arms, legs, spine, Sec. In the cure of this malady, mild, opening, and strengthening medi- cines have been found useful: of the former, we recommend small doses of ipecacuanha, to act as a gentle emetic ; rhubarb and man- na, with the addition of nutmeg, or fennel-seed. Among the safest astringents, are quassia, Peruvian bark, and calcined zinc, in very small proportions, to be frequently repeated f but the cold bath, fresh air, and moderate exercise, are eminently beneficial. Iron filings, though considered a specific cure for this complaint, should be pre- scribed only by the facultv. RIC RIC 391 In the western isles of Scotland, the rickets are effectually cured by an oil, extracted from the liver of the skate-fish : with this intention, the wrists and ancles are rubbed with such oil in the evening, so that a fever of several hours dura- tion is immediately excited. On the following evenings, the same operation is repeated^as long as the unction of those parts produces si- mil.: i effects. When no febrile action can be induced by the fric- tion of the wrists and ancles alone, they are then rubbed together with the knees and elbows ; in conse- quence of which a new fever en- sues; and this practice is conti- nued accordingly. Then, the spine and loins are to undergo the ope- ration, together with the former parts, to re-produce the symptoms of fever ; and, vvhen these likewise are no longer susceptible, a flannel shirt, dipped in the oil, is put up- on the body of the patient ; by which expedient a fever more vio- lent than from any of the preced- ing applications is roused, and this general covering is worn next the skin, till the cure is completed ; an event which generally takes place within a short time. We have stat- ed this heroic remedy, on the au- thority of Dr. Duncan, sen. of Edinburgh ; who has inserted it in the 17tli volume of his Medical Commentaries : but we apprehend, that kw English parents will be inclined to submit their infants to this febrile stimulation ; though we entertain no doubt of its effica- cy, provided it be eeually safe. RICKETS, in Sherf.?.\ disorder which occurs chiefly in the county of Huntingdon, whither it is by some farmers supposed to have U-cn introduced from Holland. fhis malady is one of the most fatal that can happen in a flock ; for, as its causes have never been clearly ascertained, all the reme- dies hitherto employed for its re- moval, have uniformly failed of success. The first symptom that indicates the presence of the rickets is, a speciesofgiddiness,in consequence of which the sheep appears unusu- ally wild and ferocious ; starting up suddenly, and running to a con- siderable distance on the approach of any person, asif it were pursued by d<)L;s. In the second period, the chief characteristic is a violent and in- flammatory itching in the skin; the animal rubs itself furiously against trees, hedges, and the like, so as to pull of the wool, and even to tear away the flesh : no critical discharge, or cutaneous eruption takes place, and every circumstance indicates the most violent fever. The last stage of this malady, is the progress towards dissolution, which at length follows ; and the animal, after having reeled about, lain down, and occasionally eaten a little, falls a victim to a general consumption. The rickets appear in thesprinr; and are hereditary : thus, after re- maining latent for one or two ge- nerations, they break forth with increased violence. And as they appear suddenly, the utmost pre- caution ofthe most judicious p-.a- ziers cannot detect the malady ; so that no other choice remains, but immedXuely toceasebreedingfrom the infected stock. Having already observed, that the cause ofthe rickets is unknowr, it is to be apprehended that tbe aversion evinced by breeders, to make proper inquiries, will r r - bably contribute towards per;:j- 392 RID RIN tuatingthis veil of ignorance. Ne- vertheless, we deemed it useful to state the symptoms that indicate the disease: such of our readers as may wish more fullyto irvesti- gate this subject, may consult Mr. Comber's practical esssay, enti- tled Real Improvements in Agricul- ture, he. (8vo. U. 6d. 1772), in which it is amply discussed ; and an account is given of the steps that have been taken to ascertain the cause and seat of the rickets in sheep. RIDGES, in agriculture, are long but narrow tracts of vising soil, that intervene between two furrows. Ploughing in ridges, is chiefly practised on wet lands ; in order that the water may discharge it- self into the furrows, and be thence conveyed by means of drains, or ditches, into some brook or rivulet, If the soil be deep, such ridges should be narrow ; but, in shallow situations, they should be made broader ; and, as the best or rich- est mould is collected in the tops, or crowns, it will be advisable to manure the sides; which, being necessarily rendered poor, would otherwise produce indifferent crops. Thus, the ground will be- come nearly of equal fertility, so long as the ameliorating properties of the dung or compost remain. Great attention, however, is re- quisite, in forming ridges where the land is on a considerable declivity ; for if they be too steep, a heavy shower of rain would produce ir- reparable mischief. To obviate such accidents, they should, if practicable, be directed both north and south, so as to be on a gentle slope ; and thus gradually to carry off the water. By such method, crops (the seed of which has been sown on the east and west sides) will be alike exposed to the enli- vening rays of the sun, and conse- quently about the same time attain to maturity. See also Furrow and Ploughing. RIDING, in general, signifies the act of being carried along in any vehicle, or on the back of an animal. Riding is'one of the most useful species of exercise, particularly to convalescents and in.aXJs ; as it tends to clear the intestinal canal, to remove obstructions, to promote digestion, and to facilitate the dis- charge of crude matters. The most healthy mode of riding, is that on horse-back; but, if a person be weak and exhausted, it will be more advisable to employ a car- riage. In all cases, however, the agitation ought to be moderate, one window in the coach being left open, so that respiration may not be impeded or confined. The most suitable time for this exercise, in the summer, will be the morning, previously to par- taking of any food ; or about the middle of the day in the spring, autumn, or winter; but it should never exceed the space of one hour, or an hour and a half. Thus, the invigorating influence of the air will beneficially operate on the human system, and greatly con- tribute to the establishment of health. RING-BONE, in farriery, de- notes a hard swelling on the low- er end of the pastern, generally extending half way round the forepart of the horse's leg : it is thus termed, from its resemblance to a ring. This malady frequently arises RIN R I V 393 from strains, and similar accidents; though, when affecting the hind- pastern, it is often occasioned by forcing young horses too early on their haunches. When the tume- fied part is distinctly perceivable round the pastern, without affect- ing the coffin-joint, it is easily cured. But, if it originate from some strain or defect in this joint; or from a callosity seated under the round ligament that covers it; the cure is generally difficult, and sometimes impracticable; because the disorder is apt to degenerate into a Quittor-bone, and even- tually to form an ulcer upon the hoof. Ring-bones occurring in colts and young horses, frequently dis- appear, without the aid of any ap- plication ; and, while the substance remains tolerably sound blistering will, in general, prove a sufficient remedy. But, if the swelling be of long continuance, and has be- come hard, it may then require both blistering and firing. In or- der to perform this-operation with success, the iron employed, should be thinner than that commonly used for such purpose, -and the lines or razes, must not be made above one quarter of an inch a- part, crossing each other oblique- ly. A mild blister, extending over the cauterized parts, should next be applied ; and, after having pro- duced the desired effect, it will be requisite only to cover them with the common defensive plaster, which will in most cases com- plete the cure. RING-WORM, or Tetter, (Herpes miliaris), an eruption on the face, which consists of nume- rous small pustules, that rise close- vol. iv. ly in contact with each other; appearing generally in a circular form, and being attended with painful itching. These pustules never suppurate, and cannot be easily cured ; often breaking out at certain periods of the year, even after they have been apparently removed. The usual application, in this affection, is the common black or writing-ink ; but frequent friction, or embrocation of the eruption with mushroom catvup, has sometimes been at- tended with success. The follow- ing preparation has likewise been recommended.; though we have had no experience of its effects : Take the roots of wild or garden sorrel; let them be washed per- fectly clean, bruised in a stone mortar, and steeped in strong white-wine vinegar, for two or three day«. At the end of that time, the liquor will be fit for use, and the ring-worm should be rub* bed with it three or four times in the course of the day, and every night, previously to retiring to rest; the roots being left in the vinegar as long as any of this liquid re- mains. RIVER, a current or stream of fresh water, which flows in a bed or channel, from its spring or source, and empties itself into the sea. Rivers form one of the chief or- naments ofthe globe ; while they serve not only to carry off super- fluous rains and springs ; but, from the great" numbers and varieties of fish they contain, likewise afford a grateful food to mankind. They also greatly tend to fertilize the soils through which they flow ; and the Mud, that subsides at the 3E 394 R O A RO A bottom, as well as the weeds which vegetate on their banks, form a ^valuable fertilizing Manure. River-water is much softer, and better adapted to economical pur- poses, than that obtained from springs. River-water, however, is more pure and salubrious, after having passed through gravelly or sandy soils, than If it flow over muddy or clayey beds ; or glide through forests, or populous villages and towns, where it becomes impreg- nated with numerous impure ve- getable and animal substances. In this turbid state, it is improper for domestic uses, and especially un- fit for culinary supply ; but, if it be suffered to subside, and be af- terwards boiled and filtered, such water will become sufficiently clear and potable...See also Alum, Filtration, and Water. ROAD, an open way, or public thoroughfare, which forms a com- munication between two distant places. Roads being frequently disfigur- ed, and otherwise injured by the deep ruts which are necessarily made by the continual passing and re-passing of narrow wheel-car- riages ; various machines have been contrived, with a view to fa- cilitate the repairing of highways, and to fill up such excavations.... From these, we shall first commu- nicate the Road-Harrow, invented by Mr. Harriott, to whom the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. in 1789, voted a reward of ten guineas....As this machine may not only be employed with great advantage, by the surveyors of public roads, but will also be found very serviceable in repairing and improving the private ways, or avenues, belonging to manors, we have annexed the following repre- sentation : The model, from which this cut has been executed, is on the scale of two inches to one foot; so that the head ofthe harrow is three feet wide from one side of the bar to the other, externally. These bars are four inches square ; five feet long ; and, to prevent them from being split, they are contrived lengthwise, instead of being in a tranverse direction. The mould- boards are four feet two inches in RO A R O A 395 length, ten inches in depth, and two in thickness : they extend 11 inches beyond the bars, in order that the stones (which are brought to the surface by the teeth of the harrow) may be drawn into a smaller compass. These mould- boards are, farther, shod with an iron-bar, and lined with a plate of the same metal, to the height ofthe spot where they are marked black, in the cut above annexed; and such parts of this delineation, as are represented of a deeper colour, distinguish the iron from the wood- work. The teeth are one foot in length from the inferior side ofthe bars to their points, which ought to be steeled: they are l^inch square, and are fixed by means of strong nuts and screws, with collars both on the upper and lower side of such bars. Mr. Harriot's road-harrow is drawn by two horses abreast: the outside animal is led by a boy on that quarter: while the other horse walks in a proper path, and a man keeps the harrow steady by the handles ; consequently they take one inside and one outside quar- ter in their progress, and the re- maining two quarters in their re- turn. By this excellent machine, a man, boy, and two horses may, with ease repair three miles in length, in one day; harrowing down the quarters, and drawing the stones together, which are dropped into the ruts, by means of the mould-boards, in a more ef- fectual manner than if they were stubbed in by a man. Lastly, the work is performed not only more expeditiously, but also at one-tenth part ofthe expence incurred, when the roads are repaired by manual labour. In the 8th volume ofthe Reper- tory of Arts, he. we meet with an account of a contrivance for pre- venting the wheels of carriages from making ruts in roads, by Robert Beatson, Esq. This object is effected by fixing between the other wheels a protector, or small roller, or broad wheel: the circumference of its upper part should be about 1* inch beneath the axle-tree, while the lower one ought to be of a similar distance from the ground. Such rollermust be secured to the axle-tree, so as to be able to support the whole weight of the carriage, in case the principal wheels descend into any deep ruts. The size of the pro- tector varies according to the pro- portions of these wheels; but Mr. B. observes, that two feet in dia- meter will be sufficient for single carts; and that double carriages, or waggons, will require it to be rather larger and broader. By thus elevating the roller a little distance above the lower surface of the wheels, the latter will, on good roads, support the weight of the load ; and, if the middle or horse-path be firm, they cannot sink into old, or form any new, ruts ; because the protector will roll in the middle, and thus afford an easier draught to the cattle. The additional weight of the ma- chine, if it be properly construct- ed, Mr. Beatson conceives, will be inconsiderable ; when compar- ed with the utility of such contri- vance, and the great reduction in the expence both of making and of repairing roads. A more com- prehensive account of this inven- tion, the reader will find in the work above cited, where it is far- ther illustrated with an engraved figure. 396 R O A RO A Roan-tree. SeeQuicr.r.x-TKEE. [ROASTER. Havinggivensomc account of the improvements of C. Rumford, in cooking, under the headKiTCHEN,andalso,detailed his very useful directions with regard to the management and economy of fire in closed fire-places, we shall now furnish the reader with an account of his contrivances for roasting meat, which promise to be a great convenience. The di- rections are given at great length, in the 3d vol. ofthe Count's Essays. " No process of cookery is more troublesome, or attended with a greater waste of fuel, than roasting meat before an open fire. Having had occasion to fit up a large kitchen, for the military academy at Munich, I was led to consider this subject with some attention, and I availed my- self of the opportunity which then offered, to make a number of ex- periments, from which I was ena- bled to construct a machine for roasting, which upon trial, was found to answer so well, that I thought it deserving of being made known to the public; accordingly, I caused two roasters to be con- structed in London, one at the house then occupied by the Board of Agriculture, and the other at the Foundling Hospital, and a third was put up, in Dublin, at the house of the Dublin Society. All these were found to answer, and they were often imitated. Meat roast- ed by this new process, is more delicate, more juicy, and higher flavoured, than vvhen roasted on a spit before an open fire. Many roasters have been put up in the houses of persons of the highest rank ; others in the kitchens of ar- tificers, of public schools, taverns, and other houses of public resort, and the use of them has been found to be economical, and ad- vantageous in all respects. The body of the roaster, is a hollow cylinder of sheet iron, which, for a roaster of a moderate size, may be made about 18 inches in diame- ter, and 24 inches long; closed at oneend,and set in an horizontal po- sition in amass of brick work,in such a manner that the flame of a small fire, made in a closed fire-place directly under it, may play all round it, and heat it equally and expeditiously. The open end of this cylinder, which should be even with the front of the brick-work in which it is set, is closed either with a double door of sheet-iron, or with a door of sheet-iron, co- vered on the outside with a pan- nel of wood ; and in the cylinder, there is an horizontal shelf, made of a flat plate of sheet iron, sup- ported on ledges rivitted to the in- side of the cylinder, on each side of it. This shell is situated about three inches below the center, or level of the axis of the the roaster, and serves as a support for a drip- ping pan, in which, or rather over which, the meat to be roasted, is placed. This dripping-pan, is made of sheet-iron, and is about two inches deep, 16 inches wide above, 15^ inches in width below, and 22 inches long ; and is placed on four short feet; or what is better, on two long sliders, bent upwards at their extremities, and fastened to the ends ofthe dripping-pan; form- ing, together with the dripping-pan, a kind of sledge ; the bottom of the pan being raised by these means, about an inch above the horizontal shelf on which it is supported. In order that the pan, on being push- ed into, or drawn out of the roaster, RO A R O A 397 may be made to preserve its direc- slipping about from side to side.... tion, two straight grooves are made The front ends of these grooves in the shelf on which it is sup- are seen in figure I, as are also the ported, which, receiving the sliders front ends of the sliders ofthe ofthe dripping-pan, prevent it from dripping-pan, and one of its handles. Figure I. In the dripping-pan, a gridiron is placed, the two bars of which are on a level with the sides or brim of the dripping-pan, and on this gridiron the meat to be roasted is laid; care being taken, that there be always a sufficient quantity of water in the dripping-pan, to cover the whole of its bottom to the height of at least half or three quarters of an inch, for the pur- pose of receiving the drippings of the meat. Mr. Frost, of Norwich, places a second shallow pan, made of tin, and standing on four short feet, into the first, and then places the gridiron which is to support the meat, in this second dripping-pan. As the water in the first keeps the second cool, there is no necessity for putting water into this ; and the drippings of the meat, may, with- out danger fall into it. When Yorkshire puddings, or potatoes. are cooked under roasting meat, this arrangement will be found very convenient. 398 R O A ROA The second dripping-pan must not touch the first, except by the ends of its feet; the bottom of the second must also be clear of the bottom of the first. The lengths and widths of the two pans above, or at their brims, may be equal, and the brim of the second may stand half an inch above the level of the brim of the first. The hori- zontal level of the upper surface ofthe gridiron, should not be lower than the level of the brim of the second dripping-pan; and the meat should be so placed on the gridiron, that the drippings from it cannot fail to fall into the pan, and never upon the hot bottom, or sides of the roaster. To carry off the steam which arises from the water in the drip- ping-pan, and that which escapes from the meat in roasting, there is a steam tube belonging to the roaster, which is situated at the upper part of the roaster, com- monly a little on one side, and near the front of it, to which tube there is a damper so contrived as to be easily regulated without opening the door of the roaster. This steam-tube is distinctly seen in figure I, and the end of the handle by which its damper is moved, may be seen in Fig. 2. Figure II, RO A R O A 399 The heat of the Roasteris regu- lated at pleasure, by means of the register in the ash-pit door of its fire place, Fig. 2. and by the damper in the canal, by which the smoke goes off into the chimney ; This damper is not represented. The dryness in the roaster is regulated by the damper of the steam-tube, and also by means of the blow pipes, represented in fi- gures, 1, 2 and 3. These blow pipes, which lie im- mediately under the roaster, are two tubes of cast-iron, about 2A in- ches in diameter, and 23 inches long, or about one inch shorter than the roaster ; which tubes, by means of elbows at their farther ends, are firmly fixed to the bottom ofthe roaster, and communicate with the inside of it. The higher ends of these tubes come through the brick work, and and are seen in front of the roaster, being even with its face. These blow pipes have stoppers, by which they are ac- curately closed; but when the meat is to be browned, these stop- pers are removed, or drawn out a little, and the damper in the steam- tube of the roaster being at the same time opened, a strong cur- rent of hot air presses in through the tubes into the roaster, and through the roaster into and thro' the steam tube, carrying and driv- ing away all the moist air and va- pour out of the roaster. The hot wind blowing over the meat, caus- es that appearance and taste, which are peculiar to meat well roasted. Directions for roasters. 1. The fire place must be made very small, 2. Provision must be made for cleaning the flues vvhen obstructed by soot. For a roaster 18 inches wide, and 21 inches long, the fire-place should be 7 inches wide, and 9 inches long ; and the side walls of the fire-place should be quite ver- ticle to the height of 6 or 7 inches. The quantity of fuel requisite is incredibly small. A fire place of the above dimensions will contain coals enough to heat the roaster, and many more than will be neces- sary for keeping it hot when heat- ed. The soot flues, may be 4 or 5 inches square, in thetrrtek-work, to introduce a brushlike a bottle brush with a long handle ; which open- ings may be closed with stoppers or fit pieces of brick or stone, and the joinings made good with a lit- tle clay. The stoppers may have a small iron ring or handle. In the figures 2 8c 3 a simple contrivance may be seen, for the purpose of removing the soot which is apt to collect about the top of a roaster. By means of an oblong square frame constructed of sheet iron, and fastened to the top of the roaster by rivetts, a door way is opened into the void space left for the flame and smoke between the outside of the roaster, and the hol- low arch or vault in which it is placed; and by introducing a brush with a flexible handle through this door way, the soot adhering to the outside of the top of the roaster, and to the surface ofthe brick work surrounding it, may be detached and made to fall back into the fire place, whence it may be removed with a shovel. There should always be a pas- sage, or throat of a certain length between the mouth or door of* a closed fire-place, and the fire-place properly Called, or the cavity oc- cupied'by the burning fuel. Where fire-places are of large dimensions, it is very useful to keep this throat constantly filled with coal, which not burning, serves to defend the 400. R O A RO A door from the heat of the fire ; and being well warmed inflames quickly. In constructing closed fire places, for roasters, boilers, ovens, ixc I have found it to be a good rule to make the distance between the fire place door, and the hither end of the bars of the grate equal to the width of the fire-place, measured just above the bins. In fire-places of a moderate size, where double doors are used, it will suffice, if the distance from the hinder side of the inner door, to the hither end of the bars, be made equal to the width of a brick, or 41 inches : but if the door be single, it is necessary that the length of the passage from the door, into the place occupied by the burning fuel, should be at least six or seven inches. Fig. 2....Is a front view of a roaster, set in brick- work : and the following cut re- presents a vertical section of a roaster. The hollow spaces re- presented in Fig. 3, are express- Figure III. RO A R O A 401 ed by strong vertical lines, viz. the ash-pit A, the fire place B. The space between the outside of the roaster, and the arch of brick- work which surrounds it, C The broad canal at the farther end of the roaster, by which the smoke descends, D. And the place E, where it turns, in order to pass upwards into the chimney by the perpendicular canal,F...The brick- work is expressed by fainter lines drawn in the same direction. Figure IV. The farther end of the roaster, must be so fixed in the brick-work, that no part of the smoke can find its way from the fire place B, di- rectly into the canal D, otherwise it will not pass up by the sides of of the roaster, to the top of it. At the top of the roaster, at its far- ther end, an opening must of course be left for the smoke to pass into the descending canal, D. ....The necessity for causing the smoke to descend, has already been mentioned. VOL. IV. If the place where the roaster is set, is not deep enough to allow of the descending canal D, and the canal F, by which the smoke ascends and passes into the chim- ney, to be situated at the farther end of the roaster, both these ca- nals may, without inconvenience, be placed on one side of the roast- er : when this is done, the smoke must be permitted, to pass up be- hind the farther end of the roaster, as well as by the sides of it. By taking away a large flat 3 F 402 R O A RO A stone, or a twelve inch tile, placed edgways, a passage from A to E, may be opened occasionally, in or- der to clean out the canals, D and F, and remove the soot. The steam tube (which is seen in this figure) must open into a seperate canal,(not expressed in the figure,) which must be constructed for the sole purpose of carrying off the steam into the chimney, or into the open air. The steam tube must be laid on a descent, to con- vey off the condensed vapour. Some care will be necessary in forming the vault which is to .co- ver the roaster above. Its form should be regular, in order that it may be every where at the same distance from the roaster ; and its concave surface, should be as even and smooth as possible, in order that there may be the fewer cavi- ties, for the lodgment of soot..... The distance between the outside of the roaster, and the concave surface of the vault, may be about two inches ; and the same dis- tance may be preserved below, between the brick-work and the sides of the roaster. In Fig. 2. the outline of the fire place, and of the cavity, in which the roaster is set, is indicated by a dotted line. Directions for the Management of a Roaster. 1. Keep the roaster clean. 2. Prevent the meat from touch- ing the sides, and the gravy from spilling. When grease-spots ap- pear, the inside ofthe roaster must be washed, first with soap and water, then with pure water, to take away the soap, and wiped very dry. 3. The fire must be moderate ; about one third more time is re- quired, than to roast in the usual way. 4. The blow-pipes must be closed, from the time the meat goes in, till within 12 or 15 mi- nutes of its being sufficiently done, that is, till it is to be browned; which is effected in the following way: the fire is made to burn bright and clear for a few minutes, till the blow-pipes begin to redden; (which may be seen by withdraw- ing their stoppers for a moment, and looking into them) when the damper of the steam-tube of the roaster being opened, and the stop- pers of the blow-pipes drawn out, a certain quantity of air is permit- ted to pass through the heated blow-pipes, into and through the roaster. The quantity of air ne- cessary to be admitted, must de- pend upon the trim of the roaster, which will soon be discovered by the cook. The damper of the steam-tube must be kept so much opened, that the steam from the meat and water, may not be seen coming out ofthe roaster, through the crevices of the door. In brightening the fire, fresh coal9 must not be put in, but a small faggot of dry wood, or a little bun- dle of dry wood, split into small pieces. Indeed, wood is a prefer- able fuel to coals, for roasters....*. When the door of the roaster is to be opened, the steam-tubes and blow-pipes, must be first opened about a quarter of a minute, to drive away the steam. To keep meat warm, when done, before it is sent to table ; close the RO A R O A 403 register of the ash-pit door, open the fire-place door, and damper in the chimney ; take out the fire, or cover it with cold ashes, and lastly, open the* dampers in the steam- tube and blow-pipes. When the heat is moderated sufficiently, the blow-pipes and the damper in the steam-tube may be nearly closed; and if there bedangerof the cooling being carried too far, the fire-place door may be shut. The door may be made a little dishing, to prevent its warping, and should never shut into grooves, but close tight, by causing the flat sur- face of the inside of the door to lie against, and touch in all parts, the front edge of the door-frame; which front edge must of course be made perfectly level, and as smooth as possible. If the front end ofthe clylinder of sheet-iron, which forms the body of the roaster, be turned out- wards over a very stout iron wire, (about one third of an inch in di- ameter, for instance) this will strengthen the roaster very much, and render it easier to make the end of the roaster level, to receive this flat surface of its door; it can most easily be made level, by plac- ing the cylinder in a vertical or upright position, with its open end downwards, on a flat anvil, and hammering the wire above-men- tionsd, till its front edge, which reposes on the anvil, is quite level. In order that the roaster may close well, its hinges should be made to project outwards beyond the sides of the roaster; and it should be fastened, not by a com- mon latch, but by two turn-buckles, situated just opposite to the two hinges. The distance at which the two hinges (and consequently the two turn-buckles), should be placed from each other, should be equal to half the diameter of the roaster. The hooks for the hinges, and also the support for the two turn- buckles, should be situated at the projecting ends of strong iron straps, fastened at one of their ends, to the outside of the roaster, by means of rivetting nails. The manner in which these turn-buckles are constructed, and the manner in which they are fastened to the roaster, may be seen by examining Fig. 4. where they are represented. The door may be constructed of a single sheet of iron, and covered on the outside with a pannel of wood, not a board ;....or it may be constructed of two sheets of iron, placed parallel to each other, at the distance of about an inch, and so fastened together that the air between them may be confined.... The manner in which the pannel-* door may be made will be evident from an examination of the follow. ing figure, which represents a front view of the door of a cylindrical roaster, eighteen inches in diame- ter, covered with a square wooden pannel. 404 R O A R O A Figure V. This pannel consists of a square inches wide, and one inch thick, frame tenanted, and fastened toge- fastened with one pin only at each ther at each of its four corners of their joinings at the corners, and with a single pin; and filled up in these pins being situated in the the middle with a square board centre of those joinings, if upon or pannel, which is confined in its the frame, in the middle of each place, by being made to enter into of the four pieces which compose deep grooves or channels, in the it, a square be drawn in such a insides of the pieces which form manner that the corners of this the frame. The circular iron door square may coincide with the cen- to which this pannel is fixed, can- tres of the four pins which hold the not be seen in the figure, being frame together, as neither heat nor covered and concealed from view dryness makes any considerable by the wood, but its size and posi- alteration in the length ofthe fibres tion are marked out by a dotted of wood, it is evident that the circle ; and the heads of ten rivetts shrinking of the four pieces which are seen, by which the wooden compose this fi -me, cannot alter pannel is fastened to the iron door, the dimensions of this square, or These rivetts are made to hold the in any way change its position. If, wood fast to the iron, by means of therefore,care be taken in fastening small circular plates of sheet iron, the pannel to the iron door, to place which are distinctly represented in the rivetting-nails in the lines which the figure. form the four sides of this square, The frame ofthe pannel consists the shrinking of the wood will Of four pieces of common deal, four occasion no strain on the iron, i RO A R O A 405 door, nor have any tendency what- ever to change its form; and with regard to the centre piece of the pannel, if it be fastened to the iron door by two rivetts, situated in the direction of the fibres of the wood, in a line dividing this piece into two equal parts, its shrinking will be attended with no kind of inconvenience. Care must be taken to make this pannel enter so deeply into the grooves in its frame, that when it has shrunk as much as possible, its width shall not be so much reduced as to cause it to come quite out of the grooves..... This piece may be made about one-third of an inch thick ; and the grooves which receive it may be made of the same width, and about three quarters of an inch thick. Cartridge-paper soaked in alum- water, is to be interposed between the iron door and wooden pannel, to prevent the wood being set on fire from the heat of the iron : and each of the two rivets which pass through the centre piece of wood in the door, must also pass through a small block of wood, about an inch thick, which will give these rivets a proper bearing, without any strain on the iron door. The hinges are to be rivetted to the outside surface of the circular iron door, and let into the wood. The turn-buckles must be made to press against the outside or front of the wooden frame. Ofthe Blow-pipes. They should be of cast-iron, with flanches, and keyed on the inside of the roaster; and their joinings with the bottom of the roaster must be made tight with some cement that will stand fire. A small quantity of iron-wire put into the tubes, will increase their effect. The stoppers must close well; one of these stoppers is seen in Fig. 4. and in that figure, part of the iron strap is seen which sup- ports the front ends of the two blow-pipes, and confines them in their places....This strap will not appear when the roaster is set. Ofthe Steam-tube. It should be situated any-where in the upper part of the roaster. The simplest damper is a circular plate of iron, a very little less in diameter than the tube, in which it moves on an axis, perpendicular to the axis of the tube. This axis being prolonged, comes forward through the brick-work. See Fig. 1, 2, 4. Ofthe Dripping-pan. It should be hammered out of one piece of sheet-iron ; and a little shorter than the roaster; room must be left between the farther end of it, and the farther end of the roaster, for the hot air from the blow-pipes, to pass up into the up- per part of the roaster. It should have two falling handles, one at each end, with stops to hold them fast. To defend the bottom of the roaster from excessive heat, it oc- curred to me to use a shallow iron pan turned upside down, with a row of holes from side lo side at the farther end of it; and this in- 406 R O A RO A vention was found to answer very oven, with its door shut. The front weU. end, which constitutes the body of the oven, instead of being turned —•— over a stout wire, is turned out- wards, and rivetted to a flat piece roasting ovens. of thick sheet-iron, which in this figure is distinguished by vertical The following figure represents lines, and which I shall call the a front view of a cylindrical roasting- front of the oven. The door of the oven is distin- guished by horizontal lines....The general form of the front of the oven is circular; but it has two projections on opposite sides of it, to one of which the hinges of the door, and to the other the turn- buckles for fastening it when clo- sed, are fastened. It has another projection above, which serves as a frame to the door-way, through which a brush is occasionally in. troduced for the purpose of clean- ing the flues. On one side of this projection there is a small hole, which is distinguished by the let- ter a, through which the handle or projecting axis of the circular re- gister of the vent tube, (which is not seen), passes. In the body of the oven, at the distance of half its semi-diameter C.//://�:�B RO A R O A 407 below its centre or axis, there is admitting cold air into it, occasion- an horizontal shelf, which is fixed ally. This is done by means of a in its place, not by resting on ledges, register, situated at the lower part but by its hither end being turned of the vertical front of the roast- down, and firmly rivetted to the ver- er, a little below the bottom of the tical plate of iron, which I call the door. This register is seen in the front of the oven. This shelf, which above figure. should be double, to prevent the The following figure represents heat from passing through it from a vertical section of the oven below, must not reach quite to the through its axis, shows the double farther end ofthe oven; there must door of the roaster shut, and the be an opening left, about one two dripping pans, one within the inch in width, between the end of other, standing on the shelf just it, and the farther end ofthe oven, described, which is supposed to be through which opening the air laying on a gridiron placed in the heated below the shelf, will make second dripping pan. The regis- its way into the upper part of the ter of the air chamber, below the oven. shelf, is represented open ; and a The hollow space below the part of the steam tube is shown, shelf, is intended to serve in place through which the steam and va- of the blow-pipes of a roaster; and pour are driven out of the oven, by this office it will perform tolerably the blast of hot air from the air well, provided means are used for chamber. t 408 R O A ROC The cylinder constituting the bottom of the oven is two feet long, and is supposed to be of cast- iron. It is cast with a flanch, which projects outwards, about one inch at the opening of the cylinder, by means of which flanch it is at- tached, by rivets, to the front of the oven, which, as I have already observed, must be made of strong sheet, iron, near one eighth of an inch in thickness. The shelf, dripping pan, and double door might easily be made of cast-iron ; and in case the shelf to save trouble of rivetting in ma- king it double may be covered by an inverted shallow pan of cast- iron, and in the bottom of this pan, there- may be cast two shallow grooves, both in the direction ofthe length of the pan, and about an inch from the sides, in which grooves, two parallel projections, at a pro- per distance from each other, cast to the bottom of the lower pan, may pass. These projections pas- sing freely in the grooves which re- ceive them, will serve to keep the dripping pan steady in its proper direction, when it is pushed into or drawn out of the oven. To increase the effects of the air chamber when this oven is used for roasting meat, a certain quan- tity of iron wire, in loose coils, or of iron turnings, may be put into the air chamber. The door of the oven, which is represented in the lastfigure, above, should be about 19 inches in diame- ter within, or in the clear. In this figure, the internal edge or corner ofthe hither end ofthe oven is in- dicated by a dotted line, and the po- sition of the shelf is pointed out by an horizontal line. In fastening the vertical platd which forms the front of the oven^ to the projecting flanch at the hith- er end of the oven, care must be taken to beat down the heads of the rivetting nails in front, other- wise they will prevent the door of the oven from closing it with that nicety which is requisite. In setting this roasting oven, the whole of the thickness of the ver- tical front, should be made to pro- ject forward before the brick-work. The fire-place, doors, ash-pit, re- gister-door, damper in the chim- ney, he. should be in all respects similar to those used for roasters ; and the flues should likewise be constructed in the same manner. I have been more particular in my description of this roastingoven, because I think it bids fair to be- come a most useful implement of cookery. As an oven, it certainly has one advantage over all ovens, constructed on the common prin- ciples, which must give it a deci- ded superiority ; by means ofthe air chamber and the steam tube, it may be kept clear of all ill-scent- ed and noxious fumes, without the admission of cold air.] Rob. See Elder ; Rouin-Red-Breast. See Red- breast. Rock-Salt. See Salt. ROCKET, or Brassica Eruca, L. an exotic species of the cab- bage, which was formerly cultiva- ted to a considerable extent in gar- dens. It is divided into two vari- eties, known under the names of the Wild and Garden Rocket. This plant is propagated from seed, which is sown early in the spring: it flowers in the month of June. When used as a principal ingredi- ROL ent in summer salads, it is, on ac- count of its pungency, always eat- en together with endive, purslane, or similar cooling vegetables. With respect to its medicinal properties, the rocket is aperient, and expels flatulency. Its seeds are remarkably acrid, resembling mustard in flavour; for which spice they have often been used as a substitute. According to Brad- ley, it is an useful vermifuge ; and, when boiled, and applied ex- ternally, is said to remove spots from the face. Boh mer informs us, that both the seeds and flow- ers of this herb may, in times of scarcity, be converted into bread. ROE, in ichthyology, denotes the eggs or spawn of fish. The roes of male fishes are usu- ally denominated soft roes, ormelts; as those of females are known un- der the names of hard roes, or spawn. Both vary in size, accord- ing to the fish from which they are obtained. Those of cod, for instance, when pickled, are greatly esteemed at the tables of the luxu- rious. Such rancid food, however, ought not to be eaten by the inv a- lid, the convalescent, or otherwise debilitated ; as, on account of its crude nature, and peculiar acri- mony, it is very apt to cause indi- gestion, with all its numerous evils. But, if the epicure cannot abstain from dishes of this description, he ought to enjoy them with great moderation ; to make use of bis- cuits instead of new bread (as is usually eaten at his table), and thus, in some degree at least, to correct the oily quality of the roe. ....See alse Caviar. ROLLER, a well-known imple- ment of agriculture, the cylinder of which consists either of stone, wood, or iron. VOL. IV. R O O 409 The principal design of rolling land, is to render loose soils more compact ; by which means the earth adheres closely to the roots of plants, and their growth is con- siderably promoted. The season for performing this operation, va- ries according to the nature of the soil, and of the vegetables to be raised. Thus, it is an object of considerable importance, to roll wheatin the months of Octoberand November, and from January till April, especially if the ground be loose; because the winter-rains frequently press the soil down, and thus leave the roots uncover- ed ; and the autumnal rolling will prevent the ill effects of frost, [in thowing up the plants out of the ground] as the spring - rolling will obviate those arising from droughts. Farther, it will be neces- sary to pass the machine over land sown with barley, directly after the seed is scattered. Oats, also, particularly on light soils, should be thus treated immedi- ately after sowing ; but, in clay- lands, the operation ought to be deferred till the grain appear above ground- Lastly, all grasses may with advantage be rolled once, early in the spring ; and, if i* be practicable, a second and even a third time, after irrigation; because the earth will thereby no. only be rendered more firm around the roots, but this management will also facilitate the future mowing. ....See Pasturage. ROOM, a chamber, parlour, or other apartment of a house. The principal object to be at- tained in the arrangement of rooms, is doubtless, conveniency, and their adaptation to health : hence the rectangular square, seems to be best calculated for 3 G 410 R O O this purpose ; though a cube is not only the most agreeable, but also the most economical, figure. In large houses, however, the parti- cular shape is of less consequence than the height of a room, which should be at the least 10 or 12 feet from the floor ; as otherwise it may form a spacious, but cannot be considered a proportionate, or healthy apartment. The elevation of rooms greatly depends on their figure. If they be constructed in a regular square, their height should, on architectu- ral principles, not exceed 5-6ths, of the sides, nor be less than 4-5ths; but, in oblong chambers, it may be equal to their breadth. ....A square room of a large size, is so far inconvenient, as the chairs, tables, &c. are too remote from the hand, so that they must be ranged along the sides of the room, when unemployed. Utili- ty, therefore, requires a commo- dious apartment, to be a parallelo- gram ; a figure well adapted for the admission of light....Thus, to avoid cross-lights, all the windows ought to be introduced through one wall; for if the opposite wall (as would be the case in oblong rooms) be at such a distance as not to receive sufficient light, the chamber will necessarily be ob- scure. Hence we may conclude, that utility and beauty, in the con- struction of substantial dwelling- houses, are with difficulty combin- ed, nay often incompatible. [The cielings of rooms intended for public speaking, ought to be flat; because, when they have one or more cchos, which arise from cupolas, alcoves, vaulted ciel- ings, he. the repetition of one or more sounds come to the ear at the srame time, that another direct RO O sound reaches it, which not only spoiles the former, but very fre- quently forms a discord.] A patent was granted in Decem- ber, 1783, to Mr. Joseph Green, for a method of communicating warmth to rooms, and buildings, by means of heated air, supposed to be much purer than any that was hitherto been contrived.....For this purpose, the patentee employs a boiler, made of iron, copper, &c within which is fixed one or more hollow vessels, or worms. The former vessel may be placed in any chamber, behind a stove o» grate, so as to partake of a com- mon fire ; its size may be regu- lated by the extent of the apart- ment, or other place intended to be warmed; the steam is conduct- ed in pipes, disposed in the most convenient manner, to the different rooms or other parts of the build- ing. But, as this patent is not yet expired, the curious reader is re- ferred to the 1st vol. of the Reper- tory of Arts, &c. where the whole process is minutely described..... See also Air. ROOT, in botany, denotes that part of a plant, which imbibes the nutritious juices from the earth, and conveys them to the stem, leaves, blossoms, and fruit. Botanists have divided roots into three classes, according to their shape or figure, their situation in the ground, and their duration. I. With respect to figure, roots are either simple; spindle- shaped, as in the carrot ; bitten off, as in the devil's-bit scabius; bul- bous (See Bulb, vol. i. p. 435), tuberous, as in the potatoe ; bead- ed ; bfanched ; hair-like ; jointed ; scaly ; pendant; toothed ; fascicu- lated, or bundled. II. The roots, which are de- ROO ROP 411 nominated from their situation, are either perpendicular ; horizon- tal ; oblique ; creeping; zig-zag, or inflected; or such as put forth suckers. III. With regard to their du- ration, roots are either annual, that is, they flower and decay in one year ; biennial, when they con- tinue to vegetate two years ; and perennial roots, are such as flourish for several, or at least more than two, years. These essential parts of plants greatly contribute to the comfort, and to the benefit of mankind ; as many of them not only afford wholesome and nutritious food, but are of considerable utility in medi- cine. Several roots also impart colours, which are employed both in arts and in manufactures ; and are, in general, more durable than those obtained from the plants. Thus, the expressed juice of the common radish, when combined with tobacco-pipe clay and a lit- tle alum, yields a blue of consi- derable permanency and bright- ness. Notwithstanding their tinging properties, however, the generali- ty of roots is etiolated, or perfectly white, in consequence of their se- clusion from the light. This phe- nomenon, in the opinion of Dr. Darwin,'arises from the libera- tion or evolution of their superflu- ous oxygen, which unites with the colouring matter, and converts the latter into a colourless acid ; ex- cepting in such roots as contain too large a proportion of the dye- ing substance, for instance, in the madder; the roots of which, ex- ternally, are red, while the inter- nal nart is yellow......See also Licn-r. Root of Scarcity. See Man- gel-Wurzel. ROOT-STEAMER, an useful machine,employed in America, for steaming potatoes, carrots, and other roots, with the view of feed- ing cattle : and which, for the sim- plicity of its contrivance, and the facility with which vegetables may thus be prepared, deserves lo be more generally known in Britain. We have therefore subjoined the following representation: The apparatus here delineated, consists of a brick-stove, in which a pot or kettle is fixed : over this boiler is placed a hogshead or cask, the top of which is open (we be- lieve it might with more advantage be covered with a coarse cloth) ; while the bottom is drilled with numerous holes, about one inch in diameter ; so that the steam may freely pass through the roots. In this vessel, the potatoes, he. after being washed, are deposited ; and when sufficiently steamed, they af- ford a more invigorating and fat- tening food to cattle, than in a raw state. ROPE, a continuation of seve- ral twists or strings of hemp, com- bined by means of a wheel, and in 4hat state employed in various 412 R O P ROP branches of naval, military, and civil architecture, as well as in rural and domestic economy. Ropes may be manufactured of all vegetable substances that are sufficiently fibrous, tenacious, and pliant. Thus, the stems of aloes, the fibrous covering of cocoa-nuts, bamboos,and the leaves ofthe com- mon Spanish nut-grass (Lygeum spartum, L.), are, in the East-In- dies, advantageously converted into ropes. The barks of the Linden- tree, Willow, Bramble, he. are employed for the same purpose in Europe but the most durable and flexable materials hitherto disco- vered, are flax and hemp, the lat- ter of which is preferred for all cordage employed for raising great weights. From the multifarious purposes to which ropes are subservienttheir manufacture is an object of consi- derable importance : our limits, however, permit us only to men- tion such patents as have been ob- tained fov making or working them to the greatest advantage, and which have not already been stat- ed, under the article Cor:1. In March, 17"3, a patent was granted to Mr. John Daniel Bel- four, for a new invented machine in the manufacture of ropes and cordage. The object of this con- trivance, is the improvement ofthe common method, by making every yarn bear an equal proportion of the strain or weight: for this pur- pose, each yarn is wound on a se- parate reel, which is so construct- ed as not to yield, or part with the former, till it is unwound in its ro- tation, with a view to contribute its proportionate assistance in form- ing the strand.... As the construc- tion of this machine is interesting chiefly to rope-makers, we forbear to describe it, and refer the inqui- sitive reader to the 2d vol. of the Repertory of Arts, he. where a full specification is given, and il- lustrated with an engraving. In November, 1798, another pa- tent was obtained by Mr. John Curr ; for a method of manufac- turing flat ropes, to be used in drawing coals, water, ike. from any mine or pit. Such ropes may be made, by connecting two or more cords or small ropes side- whe, by sewing or interweaving them with thread, or cordage made of hemp, flax or other ma- terials ; or with brass or iron wire ; so as to prevent them from separating, and to form a broad rope. The patentee observes, that this sewing or stiching may be ef- fected in different ways ; and that his machine will be found emi- nently useful, and expeditious; but, as a mere description will not convey an adequate idea of its me- chanism, the reader will consult the 10th volume of the work above quoted ; in which it is fully de- scribed, and exemplified by a plate. A method of making ropes more durable, than may be effected on the usual plan, has lately been discovered at Wurtemberg. It consists simply in combining the threads in a parallel direction; and experiments have demon- strated, that such a rope woven of 504 threads worked together, wiM support 13 cwt. without breaking. This contexture being there,3-L6th inches in diameter, and 111 feet in length, did not exceed 191bs. in weight; while a common ropt ROS R O S 413 of similar dimensions weighed 314 lbs. ROSE, St. Anthony's Fixe, or Erysipelas, is an inflammation and swelling of the skin, which disappear upon pressure, but sud- denly return ; being attended with an ardent fever, the principal symptoms of which are drowsi- ness, and sometimes delirium. It frequently attacks the face, though other parts are not exempt from its influence. This eruptive disorder is very apt to change its place on the hu- man body. In its progress, the redness extends over the contigu- ous parts, and usually vanishes from those previously affected.— The inflammation, however, does not produce any remission of the fever, which, in some instances, even increases during the progres- sive eruption; and, in general, continues for eight or ten days.... When the inflammatory symptoms have prevailed for some time, ve- sicles of various sizes, containing a thin yellowish liquor, are usually observed to arise on different parts. Though the surface of the skin, thus blistered, sometimes assumes a livid hue, this circumstance is by no means alarming. On the contrary, the sound surface of the skin, scales off towards the end of the disease. If no delirium, or other affection of the brain inter- vene, the event is generally fa- vourable; but persons, who have once been attacked with the Rose, are liable to frequent returns, es- pecially in the spring and autumn. Causes:...Violentpassions; irre- gular secretion of the bile; sup- pression of habitual evacuations, such as piles and bleedings; ex- ternal injuries ; acrid and coarse food, difficult of digestion, he. Hence, we recommend to per- sons who are pre-disposed to this affection, a rigid abstinence from fatand viscid provisions, particular- ly pickled, dried, and high-season- ed dishes: they should adopt a cooling, light, and vegetable diet, their beverage consisting of a mild white wine ; the good effects of which will be greatly promoted by moderate exercise, and taking one or two drams of cream of tartar in a glass of water, every night, on retiring to rest. Cure :....The principal attention must be directed to the inflamma- tory stage of the disorder. It will, therefore, be indispensably neces- sary to refrain from all animal food, spirituous liquors, &c....In the be- gining of the com pi f in t, copious decoctions of dried elder-flowers, with a few grains of nitre dissolved in the liquor, will be of great ser- vice ; beside which, the, bowels ought to be opened by mild, cool- ing laxatives. If, in the progress ofthe disease, a foul stomach should be observed, without excessive fe- brile heat, an emeitc may be ta- ken with advantage...Blood-letting must not be attempted without due precaution ; as it will be proper only in cases w'.:ere the brain is affected by the fever. But, if the disease be attended with general debility, bark and wine must be immediately and freely adminis- tered. Should, nevertheless, symp- toms of mortifiiauion appear, the treatment, stated under the article Gangrene,will be generally found effectual, in checkingits progress. Having, on many occasions, wit- nessed the bad effects of moist or 414 R O S ROS unctuous applications, in the true Rose (tho' Kirkland and others have indiscriminately recommend- ed them), we cannot omit this op- portunity of cautioning the reader against such practices. Accord- ing to our experience, dry and warmed wheaten flour, often strew- ed on the parts affected, or thin linen bags, stuffed with equal parts of oatmeal and chamomile flow- ers, together with a few drams of coarsely pounded camphor, have uniformly been attended with the desired effect. These external re- medies contribute to relieve the tension, and inflammatory state of the skin, while they allay irri- tation, and, in a manner absorb the exhaling noxious matter; whereas, lotions and unguents of every des- cription, only aggravate the disor- der, by clogging the pores, and exciting a degree of re-action; which cannot fail to be hurtful, especially when accompanied with the slightest friction, either of the fingers, or even a piece of cloth. ROSE, or Rosa, L. a genus of shrubs, consisting of 25, but, ac- cording to some botanists, of 90, species, of which the following are the principal, though the first five only are indigenous, namely: 1. The canina. See Dog-rose. 2. The spinosissima, v. pimpi- ncllifolia, Burnet Rose, Pimper- nel, or Scotch Rose, grows on heaths, in thickets, hedges, and the borders of fields, in sandy si- tuations: it flowers in the month of June or July....This species, on account of its low growth, and the singular beauty of its diminutive leaves, w hich resemble the Upland Burnet, deserves to be cultivated in every garden. Its ripe fruit is eaten by children, arid has a grate- ful, sub-acid taste. The juice, if diluted with water, dyes silk and muslin of a peach-colour; and, with the addition of alum, it im- parts a deep violet; but it has very little effect either on wood or on linen....See also Tea. 3. The arvensis, White-flow- ered Dog-rose, or Corn Rose, is found in hedges and heaths, par- ticularly in the west of Yorkshire. It grows to the height of five or six feet, and has whitish blossoms, armed with prickles bowed down- wards : the former appear in July, and are succeeded by red berries; the beauty and fragrance of which have introduced it into our gardens. 4. The villosa, or Apple-rose, * grows six or eight feet high, in mountainous hedges and shady places, being very common in the north of England. Its large sin- gle red flowers blow in the month of June, and are succeeded by round prickly heps. In a cultivat- ed state, this species often attains the height of ten feet, and its fruit the size of crabs: hence it de- serves a place in every large gar- den, both for the singular beauty and also for the utility of its ber- • ries ; wfiich has an agreeable acid pulp, that forms a proper ingredi- ent in sweet-meats. 5. The rubiginosa, Sweet-Bri- ar, or Eglantine, abounds in hedges, where it is often five or six feet high : its small red flow- ers appear in the month of June and July. There are numerous varieties of this species, the prin- cipal of which are known under the names of Common Single- flowered, Semi-double flowered, Blush-double flowered, and Yellow- flowered Roses. The Sweet Briar is generally cultivated in gardens, ROS chiefly in the borders of walks, and contiguously to dwelling-houses; where its fragrant leaves diffuse a grateful odour. 6. The Gallica, or French Rose, an exotic species, which is com- monly raised in Britain, on ac- count of its beautiful red flowers. It has almost endless varieties, the enumeration of which would swell this article to a disproportionate length. We . shall therefore only state the following, viz. the Com- mon Red Rose, with large, spread- ing, half double, deep-red flowers. The Rosa mundi, or Rose of the World, which has large expanding semi-double red flowers, beauti- fully variegated/with white streaks. The York and Lancaster Rose grows to the height of from six to eight feet; and has elegantly strip- ed white and red flowers. The Monthly Rose is from four to six feet high,with green prickly shoots producing numerous party-colour- ed flowers from May to August, and a second time, if the season be mild, from September or October to December. 7. The centifoUa, Hundred- leaved or Damasx Rose, is justly termed the Queen of Flowers, and has long been an ornament to British gardens, both for its ele- gance and fragrance. There are several varieties, known under the names of the Province, Royal, Common Dutch Hundred-leaved, Blush Hundred-leaved Roses, &c. The damask rose yields, on dis- tillation, a small portion of buty- rous oil, tqgether with a water, whichpossessesthe odour and taste ofthe roses, and are greatly esteem- ed for the agreeable flavour they impart to culinary preparations, and also to cordials. They are atrongly recommended by H'off- ROS 415 man, as being singularly efficaci- ous in exciting the strength, in- vigorating the spirits, and mitigat- ing pain. Beside these properties, a decoction of its leaves, after being distilled, has a mildly purgative quality ; and which, on mixing it with sugar, forms an agreeable laxative syrup, and may with ad- vantage be given to children, [Moss Roses are deservedly much admired, and may be easily propagatad, by inclosing a branch in a flower pot previously divided, filling it with materials for a hot bed, and tyeing it together rouad the branch. The roots will strike in the garden pot, and after some months, may be cut off, and plant- ed in the ground, and thus produce a new tree. The pot must be sup- ported by stakes while inclosing the branch. To cure Roses for preservation... Pick Damask Roses early in the morning, pull off the petals, strew some common salt on the bottom of the vessel, on which sprinkle some .roses, add more salt, then another layer of roses, and so on till the roses are all packed..... About one quart of salt will suffice for two pounds of roses. When thus preserved, and well packed in a tight vessel, roses may be pre- served for years. The white rose is not worth preserving.] All the species of roses are har- dy, deciduous shrubs, and thrive in any soil or situation ; though they flourish best in moist open lands. They are easily propagated by suckers and layers ; which, when planted, require only occasional pruning of their dead and super- fluous branches, as well as the re- moval of their suckers, erery au- tumn. Ottar, or Essence of Roses 416 ROS ROS is a valuable perfume, obtained from these flowers by distillation ; it may be prepared in the following manner: Let a quantity of fresh roses be put into a still, with their flower-cups entire, together with one-thiid of their weight of pure water. The mass is now to be mixed with the hand, and a gentle fire kindled beneath. When the water becomes hot, all the inter- stices must be well luted, and cold water placed on the refrigeratory at the top. As soon as the distill- ed watercomes over,the heat should be praduafly diminished, till a suf- ficient qui.i tity of thefirst runnings be drawn off. Fresh water is then to be added, which should be equal in weignt to the flowers, when the latter were first submitted to the stril ; and the same process repeat-N ed, till a due proportion of second runnings be procured. The distilled water must next be poured into shallow earthen, or tin vessels, and exposed to the air till the suc- ceeding morning, when the ottar or essence will appear congealed on the surface. The latter is now to be carefully skimmed, poured into phials, and the w ater, strain- ed from the lees, should be em- ployed for fresh distillation; the dregs however, ought to be pre- served, as they contain an equal degree of perfume with the es- sence. Such is the process followed in India, where this costly drug is fre- quently adulterated, by distilling the raspings of sandal-wood with the flowers; but the fraud may be easily detected by the smell, and also by the fluidity of the oil of sandal ; which will not congeal on exposure to the air. The true ottar of roses is sold in the East In- dies at the exorbitant price of twenty guineas, and upwards, per ounce. It is doubtless the most elegant perfume in vegetable na- ture ; as a single drop imparts its fragrance throughout the room or dwelling, and suppresses other less agreeable odours. Lastly, there is a conserve, syrup, and vinegar of roses prepared in the shops ; though the first two only are gener- ally sold. ROSE-BAY, or Nerium, L. a genus of exotic plants, consisting of five species, the most remarka- ble of which are the following, viz. 1. The Oleander, or South Sea Rose, a beautiful shrub, cultivated hi gardens on account of its fine purple flowers ; it is propagated by planting layers in rich, moist situa- tions. We 'Cannot, however, re- commend its culture; as the whole plant, is poisonous, and especially the roots. Its juice, if inadvertently swallowed, excites so great an in- flammation as immediately to pre- vent deglutition ; while it operates most powerfully as an emetic and purgative. Farther, the odour of the flowers, if they be handled or kept in close apartments, is attend- ed with injurious effects ; as it gra- dually excites numbness and acute pain in the head. The proper an- tidotes are copious draughts of vi- negar, and other vegetable acids. 2. The anti-dysentericum, a na- tive of Ceylon, which is not culti- vated. The bark of its root, when grated and infused in water, is said to be of great service in the dysen* tery. 3. The tinctorium, or Dyer's Rose-bay, is a native of Madras, in the East Indies. It has beauti- ful blue flowers; and a decoction of the leaves, together w ith the ad- dition of lime, produces a very fine indigo. ROS ROT 417 ROSEMARY, or Rosmarinus officinalis, L. an exotic plant, con- sisting of two varieties: 1. The angustifolia, or Narrow- leaved Rosemary ; and, 2. The latifolia, or Broad-leaved Rosemary. Both these species are natives Ofthe warmer climates of Europe, where they flourish on dry rocky soils, contiguous to the sea; and are also cultivated, on account of their medicinal properties, in the gardens of Britain ; the climate of which they endure, provided they be planted on poor, dry, and gravelly lands. They may be propagated either by cuttings, or by slips. Rosemary possesses a fragrant odour, together with a pungent and somewhat bitter taste, resembling that of lavender. The leaves and young tops are the strongest; and from both, as well as the flowers, an essential oil is prepared ; or, when distilled with spirit of wine, they afford the celebrated Hungary water. These liquid medicines are esteemed excellent cephalics in nervous and hysterical affections ; and have been found eminently serviceable in apoplexies, palsies, and vertigoes; in which cases they are sparingly applied to the tem- ples and forehead. According to some writers, they also afford con- siderable relief to persons troubled with a fetid-breath, when employ- ed in gargarisms and dentifrices, diluted with old or long kept spirit of scurvy-grass; while they are supposed to improve the organs of sight. ROSE-WORT, the Yellow, or Rose-root, Rhodiola communis v. rosea, L. an indigenous plant, which grows on rocks, and in mountain- ous situations: it flowers in the VOL. IV. months of June and July......The perennial root of this herb is white, juicy, and possesses the fragrance of roses in so remarkable a de- gree, as to perfume the atmosphere, especially in Lapland. Its rosy odour is preserved in a dry state : hence it may be usefully employed for distilled waters. The Green- landers eat the fresh root among culinary vegetables; but, when cultivated in a garden, its odorife- rous properties are greatly dimi- nished....The plant is relished by goats and sheep, but rejected by cows and hogs. ROT, a very fatal disorder, which exclusively affects sheep. It is known by the dullness of the ani- mal's eyes; the livid hue of the gums ; foulness of the teeth ; the ill scent of the breath ; and the fa- cility with which the wool, and, in the last stage, the horns may be pulled out, or separated from their roots. Various causes have been as- signed for the origin of this mala- dy ; but the prevailing opinion ap- pears to be, that it arises from the feeding of sheep in too moist or wet lands: though it is certain, that the dry limed land in Derbyshire will produce the rot, as well as watery meadows and stagnant marshes. The anonymous author of the Farmer's Calendar, conjec- tures that it is occasioned by a pe- culiar species of dropsy, incident to deer, rabbits, and sheep, which, however, originates from supera- bundant moisture. An ingenious correspondent, in the first vol. of the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, at- tributes it to the Fleukworms that breed in the livers of sheep, whi- ther they are conveyed through the nostrils, while the animals are 3 H 418 ROT ROT grazing. Lastly, Dr. Darwin suspects the rot to proceed from the inactivity of the absorbent ves- sels of the livers in sheep, so that the bile becomes too thin or diluted, especially in moist seasons. Such diversity of opinion is not easily reconciled ; but, as the gene- ral pre-dii/losing causes obviously consist in too moist food, or damp and wet situations, it follows that moisture may be considered as the principal source of the rot. The remedies contrived for the prevention and cure of this distem- per, are as various as the conjec- tures, respecting its origin Mil- ler recommends parsley, as be- ing eminently serviceable.....Mr. Price (in the vol. of the Letters and Papers, he. above quoted) re- commends every farmer to remove his sheep, in wet and warm sea- sons, from such lands as are liable to occasion the rot; but, if this be impracticable, he prescribes a spoonful of common salt for each, together with a similar quantity of flour, in a pint of water, once or twice in the week, by way of pre- ventive : and, if the disorder be in an incipient state, a similar close administered four or five succes- sive mornings, will, in his opinion, probably effect a cure ; as the ad- dition of the flour and water not only abates the pungency of the salt, but also disposes it to mix more gradually,though at the same time more efficaciously, with the chyle. Dr. Darwin, however, thinks the salt would be more ser- viceable, if it were combined into a ball with about sixty grains of iron filings, by means of flour, and introduced into the sheep's throat every morning, for one week. The following remedy we state on the authority of the Gentleman's Mugczii", vol. 36, for 1766 :....Put a handful of rue into a pail of water, over-night ; and, in the morning, add such a proportion of salt as will make a brine sufficient- ly strong to support an egg. Half a pint of this liquor must be swal- lowed by each sheep, three times, in the course of six days ; that is, every 48 hours one dose. In October, 1794, a patent was granted to Mr. Thomas Fleet, for a medicine which is affirmed to prevent the rot in sheep, and also to check the farther progress ofthe disease in animalr. already infect- ed ; so as to render them capable of being fattened on the same her- bage which produced the distem- per. His restorative consists of turpentine, Armenian bole, turme- ric, mercury, salt, sulphur, opium, alkanet-root, bark, camphor, anti- mony and distilled water. These ingredients are to be prepared "ac- cording to chemical, and com- pounded according to medical art." ....Although the patentee has not deemed proper to inform the pub- lic of the proportions employed in compounding these multifarious ingredients, yet it deserves to be remarked, that in such a mass of different drugs,the principal effects will be produced by a few, while the others are added only with a view to disguise those, which are more efficacious. Flence we be- lieve, that a few grains of muriated quicksilver, combined with cam- phor, and opium, if judiciously ad- ministered, would answer a simi- lar purpose ; but in order to con- vince those readers who wish to purchase Mr. Fleet's preparation, that we are not prejudiced against Quack or Patent Medicines for Cuttle, it may be useful to add, that the " Restorative for the Rot ROW RUB 419 in Sheep," is prepared by W. H. Thomas, surgeon, Basingstoke, Hants; and, we understand, is sold by him, as well as by W. Moore and Co. No. 80, Fleet- street, London, at 5.v. 6d. per bottle, with printeddirections for its use. ROTTEN-STONE, a fossil ob- tained from the mines of Derby- shire : which is of an ash-brown colour, moderately hard, and stains the fingers. It does not effervesce with aqua-fortis; but breaks easily in the mouth, or in water.....This mineral is used by lapidaries and other mechanics, for grinding, po- lishing, and sometimes for cutting stones. ROWEL, in farriery, signifies a kind of issue, artificially formed in horses, with a view to drain super- fluous humours. Rowels are introduced into the abdomen, the inside of the thighs, the breast, and outside ofthe shoul- ders and hips of a horse. The ope- ration is performed by an incision through the skin, about 3-3ths of an inch in length, then separating it from the flesh with the finger, or passing an ivory folder around the orifice: next, a thin piece of leather, of a circular shape, about the size of a silver crown-piece, should be provided, and a large round hole made in its centre. Be- fore the leather is introduced be- tween the skin and muscles, it must be partially covered with lint or tow, and immersed in some di- gestive ointment: a pledget of tow is likewise dipped in a similar un- guent, and carefully put into the orifice, so as completely to exclude atmospheric air. The parts around it soon swell; a copious discharge of yellow serum or water follows; and, in two or three days, at the farthest, the matter will appear thick, gross, and white, when the rowel is said to suppurate. Although these issues are doubt- less of great service in some cases, yet, like many other operations in- judiciously practisedon horses, they sometimes injure their constitu- tion ; and, instead of suppurating, become gangrenous. Rowels are eminently useful in carrying off rheums or defluxions from the eyes ; in great swellings of the glands, about the throat and jaws, which sometimes threaten suffocation. In the vertigo or stag- gers, apoplexy, and in large tumors arising suddenly on the legs, heels, he. when attended with a discharge of thin ichorous matter ; as well as in a variety of other disorders,the application of this remedy should be determined by the Veterinary Surgeon....See Setons. RUBY, a genus of precious stones, which display a variety of shades, and are divided into four classes : namely, 1. The deep-red ruby, is found in various parts of the East-Indies and also in Brazil. 2. The spinell, the shade of which resembles that of a bright corn-poppy flower: it is dug out ofthe mines of Hungary, Bohemia, Silesia, and South America. 3. The balass, or pale-red ruby, inclining to a violet, is supposed to be the mother of the different spe- cies of these gems. It is imported principally from Brazil, though a few are sometimes brought from the East-Indies. 4. The rubicell is of a reddish- yellow, and is likewise obtained from the Brazils....There is a va- riety of this gem found, in consi- derable numbers, on the sea-shore, near Ely, in the county of Fife ; also near Portsoy, Banffshire, and 420 RUE at Inverary, Argyleshire, in Scot- land. Rubies are held in great esteem, on account of their lustre, and the beauty of their water : hence they are sold at high prices, and often counterfeited by Brazilian topazes, which are gradually heated in a crucible previously filled with ashes, till they become red-hot. Rubies, when imported, are sub- ject to no restrictions of entry, re- gistry, he. as they pay no duty whatever. RUE, or ruta, L. a genus of ex- otic plants, comprising seven spe- cies, the principal of which is the graveolens, or Common broad- leaved Garden Rue. It flowers in the month of June. This plant is, for its medicinal properties, often cultivated in gar- dens. It has a strong odour, and a bitterish pungent taste. The leaves are very acrid; and, when in full vigour, are apt to raise blis- ters on handling, or applying them to the skin. Boerhaave recom- mends them as powerful stimu- lants, attenuants, and detergents: hence they are reputed to be of great service to persons of cold, phlegmatic habits; as they quicken the circulation ; dissolve viscid or tenacious juices ; remove obstruc- tions ; and promote the fluid secre- tions. "f What medicine," says he, " can be more efficacious for pro- moting sweat and perspiration ; for the cure of the hysteric passion, of epilepsies ; and for expelling poi- son ?"....Nevertheless, the rue has lately been seldom prescribed, pro- bably because many absurd and superstitious notions prevail res- pecting this herb, in domestic life. RUE, the Meadow, or Thalic- trum, L. a genus of plants, com- prising twenty-three species, four RUF of which only are indigenous : the principal of these, is the fiavum, Common Meadow-rue, Spurious Rhubarb, or Rue-weed : it is pe- rennial, grows in moist meadows, pastures, and on the banks of ii- vers; where it flowers in the month ofJune. The root, branches, and leaves of this plant, impart to wool a yel- low colour ; which, on adding sal- ammoniac, assumes a pale shade; and, on dropping oil of tartar into the decoction, acquires an orange colour ; but, in order to give it lustre, the cloth should be immers- ed in alum-water; and the tint it- self may be fixed, by dissolving cream of tartar in the last liquor. A cataplasm prepared ofthe leaves, is said to have afforded relief in the Sciatica; See Rheumatism....... From the yellow flowers, bees ex- tract a large portion of honey...... Cows, horses, goats, and sheep, eat the Meadow-rue; but it is disliked by bogs. RUFF, or Tringa fiugnax, L. a bird of passage, frequenting the fens of Lincolnshire, and various other parts of Britain, early in the spring ; and disappearing about Michaelmas. Towards the latter end of March, or early in April, Ruffs, for a short time, visit.Martin Mere, in Lanca- shire ; where they are taken in clap-nets, to the number of 40 or 50 dozen in a season; and fattened for the table : the food common- ly employed, is bread and milk, hemp-seed, boiled wheat, and su- gar : thus, in about a fortnight they become extremely fat; and are generally sold at 2s. and 2s. 6d. each. Being of an irascible dispo- sition, it is erroneously supposed these birds must be fed inrdark places ; lest, on the admission of RUP R U P 421 light, they should destroy each other by combat. Ruffs are dressed for the table, with their intestines, like snipes; and, when killed at the critical time, are by epicures considered the most delicious of morsels. RUM, a spiritous liquor which is distilled from sugar-canes. The best state in which rum can be imported or preserved, is that of rectified spirit; as it may thus be conveyed in one half of its usual compass, and afterwards reduced to the proper degree of proof strength, by means of spring-wa- ter. It would, likewise, in this state be better calculated for punch, both on account of its finer flavour, and because the strength of the mixture may be then more uni- formly regulated. Farther, frau- dulent persons would now be pre- vented from adulterating it with malt spirits, and also from dulcify- ing or sweetening it with oil of vi- triol, and similar pernicious drugs. Such stimulating liquors are in no case absolutely salubrious, and ought to be resorted to only as me- dicines.....See Arrack, Brandy, and Gin. Running-Thrush. SeeFRUSH. Runnet. See Rennet. RUPTURE, or a partial protru- sion of an intestine, is one of those complaints which has lately become so general, especially among the labouring classes, as to induce be- nevolent persons in the British me- tropolis to institute a society for the relief of the unfortunate poor afflicted with this malady, under the direction of Mr. Turnbull. The places in which ruptures generally appear, are the groin, scrotum, upper and anterior part of the thigh, the navel, and be- tween the abdominal muscles. The tumor most frequently consists of a portion either of the intestinal canal, or of the omentum (known by the name oi'caul) or sometimes even of both; though instances have occurred of the liver, sto- mach, spleen, bladder, &c. having formeil the contents. From the na- ture and situation of parts, the dif- ferent species are distinguished and named: thus, a rupture is call- ed ingunal, when situated in the groin; but, when proceeding down to the scrotum, which is often the case, it receives the appellation of scrotal; when occurring on the thigh, it is termed femoral; and, when the navel is the part affect- ed, umbilical. The size of the sac varies according to the stage of the disorder : at the beginning it appears small, but by degrees in- creases. Symptoms:.....An clastic white swelling, attended with pain, which becomes more violent on every ex- ertion; nausea; vomiting; and ob- struction of the bowels. When the tumor is produced by a por- tion of the gut, without containing any feces, the surface will be found smooth or equal; and, if compress- ed, quickly resumes its former size on removing the finger. On the contrary, when hard feces are con- tained in an intestinal rupture of long standing, they will be obvious from considerable inequalities..... Should a portion, both of intestine and caul, be included in the sac, it will then be unequal and soft; but, if arising from the caul alone, there will be no obstruction of the bowels. The inguinal rupture begins in the groin, and gradually descends into the scrotum, or into the labia vaginx. The femoral hernia occurs more frequently in women; and is 422 RUP RUP often mistaken for the former: hence it is necessary to observe, that the tumor in the latter is deeper ; and that the ring of the abdominal muscles, which in this case lies above the swelling, in that of the inguinal kind, entirely sur- roundp the diseased part. The event of this malady depends on the nature of the substance in- cluded. If the protruded parts be not timely reduced, the most fatal consequences, such as stricture, in- flammation, and mortification, may be apprehended ; though the por- tion of intestine, thus strangulated, be inconsiderable ; but, if the caul alone be propelled, it is seldom at- tended with danger ; because this membrane is not of such import- ance in the animal economy as the viscera and intestines. Causes:....As ruptures uniformly take place in consequence of local debility, it follows, that whatever may have such effect, will also oc- casion a protrusion of parts from their natural situation; for instance, all violent bodily exercise, singing, cryingdiftingheavy burthens, quick and sudden motions, leaping, fall- ing, he. every forcible compression of the abdominal viscera by too narrow garments, such as stays, or waistbands. Hence soldiers, singers, dancers, porters, and wo- menof difficult parturition, are very subject to this malady.....In chil- dren, it often proceeds from crying, obstruction of the bowels, flatu- lence, and the neglect of nurses. It has also been remarked, that the inhabitantsofthose countries where oil forms a considerable article of diet, are exceedingly liable to rup- tures. Cure ......The first object should be to reduce the protruded parts, before a strangulation takes place. For this purpose, the patient must be laid on his back; the head being low, and the breech elevated by pillows. [Ice must then be appli- ed to the part, which will tend to contract its size, and thereby pro- mote its reduction. The bowels must also be opened by ody injec- tions, and purgatives administer- ed.] After having persevered in these applications for some time, attempts should be made to reduce the tumor by gentle pressure; and, if this prove ineffectual, greater force must be used, yet so that the operator, while he presses with the palm of his hand, may re-conduct the projecting part with his fingers, through the same aperture through which it had been protruded close- ly following its natural direction. Thus, if the hernia be in the groin or scrotum, the pressure must be made obliquely upwards and out- wards ; in femoral cases, it should be performed directly upwards; and umbilical ruptures are reposed by compressing them backwards. The greatest benefit has been derived from the application of vi- triolic aether to the swelling, so as to evaporate this volatile liquor by gradually dropping it on the part affected. If the patient be of a plethoric habit, copious bleeding becomes necessary; as it occasions relaxation, and prevents inflamma- tion. In order to preserve the part in its natural situation, and to pre- vent a relapse, after it has been re- duced, a sufficient degree of pres- sure must be applied to the rup- tured spot; an object which will be most effectually attained hy aspring truss. This instrument is manu- factured in a superior manner by Mr. Bishop, of Walnut-street, Philadelphia. The reduction of umbilical rup- RUS tures, if timely undertaken, is mostly effected by the application of a bandage. If, however, the treatment before stated, should not be attended with success, but the pain and other symptoms increase, recourse ought immediately to be had to a skilful surgeon ; as pro- crastination may render the mala- dy incurable. RUPTUR E-W O R T, the Smooth, or Heniariaglabra, L. an indigenous perennial plant, which grows in gravelly soils, and flowers in the months of July and August. ....This herb is, according to Dr. Withering, both saline and as- tringent ; its expressed juice re- moves specks from the eyes ; and, when taken internally, it is like- wise said to increase the secretions by the kidnies....BAUTSCH has em- ployed it in tanning.....Cows and horses eat the plant; and, though rejected by hogs and goats, it is much relished by sheep. RUSH, or Jwicus, L. a genus of plants, comprising 36 species, of which, according to Dr. Wi- thering 17, but in the opinion of Dr. Smith 19, are indigenous : of these, the following are the prin- cipal; viz. I. The squarrosus. See Moss- rush. 2. The conglomerate, Round- headed, or Cluster-flowered Rush, grows in moist meadows and heaths, where it flowers in the month of July or August. It is employed by the lower classes to form rush-lights, for which pur- pose it is peeled in autumn on three sides, and dipped in melted tallow. The soil producing this plant, ge- nerally contains a stratum of peat. 3. The effusus, Common or Soft Rush, or Sewes, thrives in wet RUS 423 meadows and pastures; flowers from June to August....It is eaten by horses and goats ; is also used for rush-lights, like the preceding species ; and sometimes manufac- tured into slight baskets. The common rush is cut about Mid- summer, in the vicinity of Farn- ham, and dried in the same man- ner as hay ; after which it is form- ed into a kind of mow, and shel- tered till the succeeding spring, when on account of its toughness it is usefully employed for bands, or ties, in fastening hops to the poles....In a fresh state, it is farther converted into brooms, or besoms, for blacksmiths, and other artisans working in metals. All the species of Rush grow in wet situations, and have therefore been sown on the banks of canals, in order to consolidate the earth. But as they frequently abound on lands, that would otherwise be pro- ductive, different means have been adopted, with a view to extirpate them. This purpose has been at- tained by ploughing one furrow, and harrowing in a considerable quantity of dung; after which a crop of oats is taken. Another method consists in pulling them out by the roots in July, and expos- ing them for two or three weeks till tolerably dry. They are then gradually burnt, and their ashes spread on the land, thus affording an excellent manure...But, in order to prevent their future growth, the ground ought to be drained ; and, if any rushes appear, they must be annually eradicated, and the soil properly rolled. RUSH, the Flowering, or Water Gladiole, Butomus um- bellatus, L. a native perennial plant, growing in slow streams and mud- 424 It U S RUS dy ditches; flowering in the month of June or July....This beautiful berb is a great ornament to the banks of our rivers and marshy ditches: it is refused by every species of cattle. From its strong leaves, the Dutch manufacture a kind of carpets and tapestry that are highly prized ; and Bohmer observes, that they may also be converted into baskets, for packing fruit and other commodities. RUSH, the Hare's-tail, or Single-headed Cotton-grass, Eriophorum vaginatum, L. a pe- rennial plant, found in marshy heaths, on bogs and moors ; prin- cipally in the northern counties of Britain....The whole plant, previ- ously to its flowering in June, is eaten with great avidity by sheep ; and it is asserted by shepherds, that these animals will, after being reduced by hunger, recover more speedily, and thrive much better on the hare's-tail rush, than on turnips. In a ripe state, however, it is chiefly used for rush-lights : the wool, or down growing on this plant, though short and brittle, may be applied to similar purposes with those of the Cotton-grass. RUSH-GRASS, the Prickly, or Long-rooted, Shoenus Ma- riscus, L. a native plant, which grows in marshes, ponds, and bogs, where it flowers in the months of July and August....This species is injurious to cows. It frequently abounds in pools to such a degree, as to form float- ing islands by its interwoven roots: the stalks attain from two to six feet in height, and are princi- pally employed as a substitute for straw in thatching houses ; for which purpose they are better adapted. RUST, denotes the calces, or vulgarly the flowers of metals, which are generally produced by exposure to moist air, or in damp situations ; though the former may also be obtained artificially, by corroding or dissolving metals* in a proper Menstruum (which see) ; and in which case it is term- ed a magistery. Having already pointed out. [See Article Iron.] A few general methods of preserving iron from rust, we shall, at present, only add a receipt by which the latter may be removed. It consists in com* bining a certain proportion of quick-lime with mutton fat, into balls, which must be rubbed on the utensil, till it has entirely ob- literated the rust: after this coat. ing has remained for a few days on the metal, it is removed with coarse flannel or other rags ; when anothercomposition,made of equal parts of charcoal, red calx of vitri- ol, and drying oil, is applied by continued friction, till the surface be restored to its pristine bright- ness. RUST, or Rubigo, in vegeta- ble economy, is a disorder affect- ing certain plants. It consists of a feruginous powder scattered be- neath the leaves, principally of the Ladies-mantle, Stone-bramble, and Ragwort, especially if these ve- getables grow in a burnt woody soili Dr. Darwin conjectures the rust to be a fungus, similar to the mildew, which resembles certain kinds of liverwort, and grows be- neath the leaves of plants that are previously diseased, He conceives that it may be prevented, or de- stroyed, by exposing such vegeta- bles to greater light and ventila- tion, in the manner already de- scribed. . Ruta-baga. See Turnip. RYE RYE 425 RYE, or Secale, L. a genus of exotic plants, comprising five spe- cies, one of which only is raised in Britain, namely, the Cerealc, or Common Rye. It was suppos- ed by Linnjeus to be a native of the Isle of Candia, whence it is said to have been introduced into Britain ; but it is doubtless a north- ern plant, as it thrives and flou- rishes most luxuriantly in cold cli- mates. The common rye is divided into two varieties, viz. the Spring, White, or Silvery Rye ; and the Winter, or Black Rye. Both are propagated from seed in the pro- portion of 2 or 2J Winchester bushels per acre, generally on poor, dry lime-stone, or sandy soils, where wheat does not thrive ; and, if it be sown on such lands two or three successive years, it will at the end of that period ri- pen a month earlier than such as has, for a long series of years, been raised from strong cold ground. The proper season for committ- ing the seed to the earth, depends greatly on the nature of the rye: that for spring or white grain, is from February to March ; as that for the black or winter rye, is from the middle of September to the latter end of October, in South Britain. Both these varieties, how- ever, are advantageously sown to- gether with wheat, at the rate of one peck of rye with one bushel of wheat: the seed of the former is also harrowed in among a thin crop of turnips, and both are fed off with sheep. Formerly, considerable quanti- ties of rye-meal were converted ir.to bread ; sometimes being- kneaded alone, and occasionally with a small portion of wheaten VOL. IV. flour. It is, however, seldom used at present in this country, on account of its being subject (espe- cially during hot summers that succeed a wet spring) to a disease, known in France under the name of ergot; but which is called in England, horned rye, spur, or horn- seed. The grain thus affected grows out into large horns, con- taining a mixture of black and white farinaceous powder ; and is said to appear as if it were pierc- ed by insects, which are conjec- tured to cause the disease. By the use of such damaged grain, the poorer classes of people, both in France and England, have oft- en been afflicted with fatal disor- ders, accompanied with extreme debility and gungrene, or mortifi- cation of the extremities. Horned rye is equally fatal to brutes ; sheep, dogs, swine, deer ; nay, geese, ducks, and other poultry, that were fed with it, by way of experiment, became violently con- vulsed, and died in great agonies. So deleterious, indeed, are its ef- fects, that it has even destroyed the flies which settled upon it. But though rye, when diseased, be thus prejudicial to men and ani- mals, yet in a sound state it is an excellent grain for bread - flour, and often yields abundant crops. It may also be advantageously fed off early in the spring by sheep, and somewhat later with horses and cows ; or, it may be mown and given to the latter in the sta- bles....The straw of this grain is excellent for thatching, and is also used by brick-makers, collar-ma- nufacturers, and for packing. Far- ther, we are informed by Mr. Marshall, that in the county of York the farmers always sow a small quantity of rye with their 2 I 426 RYE RYE wheat, which they believe is thus preserved from the injurious dis- ease, known under the name of Mildew. Lastly, every kind of poultry have such an antipathy to this grain, that they avoid the place where it vegetates : hence it has been advantageously sown in head- ridges, around farm-houses, and yards, as a kind of protection to other grain. With respect to its physical pro- perties, we shall only remark, that pure and sound rye, though less nutritive than wheat in a similar condition, affords good bread ; which, to persons of a sedentary life, is attended with the beneficial effect of preventing costiveness, or obstipation of the bowels. Rye, the Wild. See Barley, the Wall. Rye-grass. See Darnel, the Red. s. SAD SAD SADDLE, a kind of stuffed seat, fastened to the back of a horse, for the convenience of the rider. Saddles are divided into various kinds, according to the purposes for which they are designed ; such as hunting-saddles for the chace ; sidc-sadellcs for females, he. Nu- merous accidents, however, hap- pening, either from the spirited and turbulent disposition of horses, or the inability of riders to keep their seat in a proper and Steady manner, ingenious artists have contrived means of prevent- ing such misfortunes. Among these, we shall mention Mr. Edw. Jones' Woman's Saddle-tree, with a spring head; for the in- vention of which he obtained a patent, in May 1794. He con- structs the near side head, or horn of the saddle-tree, so as to drop down by means of a steel, iron, or other spring ; and, vvhen the ri- der wishes to dismount, by push- ing the head or horn from her, it will instantly fall, so that she may alight without danger, in case the horse should take fright, or run away : thus, her clothes will ne- ver be entanged in the horn, and all farther inconvenience arising from the common mode of con- structing saddles, will be effectu- ally avoided. Such spring may also be weakened, or strengthen- ed, according to the ability of the rider, by means of certain screws; which, being turned or admitted into the upper part of the near 5AF S A F 427 point, prevent the head from fall- ing, contrary to her inclination or pleasure. In May 1801, a patent was granted to Mr. Walter Ingliss, for a method of making saddles, on a new and improved plan, by which the rider is enabled to per- form longer journits on a rough- trotting horse, with greater ease than on any other saddle hitherto constructed ; and also for contriv- ing the stirrup-bars in such a man- ner, that if a rider happen to fall from, or be thrown off his horse, he will, in consequence, be imme- diately disengaged. This inven- tion consists in giving elasticity to the ^eat of the saddle, by introduc- ing a spring into the long straining web; and in attaching the stirrup- bar to the saddle, by means of a bolt connected with the rider, in such a manner, that, on falling off, or being thrown, he draws the bolt or fastening, and the stirrup is parted from the saddle. For a minute account of this patent, the reader will consult the 15th vol. of the Repertory of Arts, he. where a full specification is given, and illustrated with an engraving. SAFFLOWER, or Bastard- Saffron, Carthamus, L, a genus of exotic plants, comprising ten species, the principal of which is the tinctorius, Common or Dyer's Safflower. It is a native of Egyq-t, and the warmer climates of Asia ; is cultivated to a considerable ex- tent in various parts of Europe, and particularly in the Levant; whence considerable quantities are annually imported into Bri- tain. The Safflower is propagated by the seed, early in the spring, sow- ing it separately in drills, at the distance of two feet and a half from each other. In the course of a month, the young plants will ap- pear, and at the expiration of a si- milar period, it will be necessary to hoe the ground, leaving them six inches apart. A second hoe- ing will likewise be proper, when the plants should be thinned to the distance at which they are intend- ed to remain. If the soil be stir- red a third time, no farther atten- tion will be required, till the flow- ers appear: the small blossoms, which form the compound flow- ers, ought to be cut in succession? as they attain to maturity : and then gradually dried in a kiln, of a moderate heat. In order to pro- cure seed for a future crop, some of the plants should be left, till they are perfectly ripe ; but Beck- man advises not to choose any of the sickly plants for such pur- pose ; as they will re-produce ve- ry small floweis. He farther ob- serves, that the Safflower growing in Germany, might be fully equal to that imported from Turkey, if similar pains were taken in drying and preparing the flowers, previ- ously in salt-water, as well as in choosing the proper soil. In the latter respect, agricultural writers are not agreed; for, in rich land, the plant seldom flowers till late in autumn ; while,* in a poor dry ground, it is in bloom at an earli- er period; but the flowers are smaller, and yield a less portion of colouring matter. Onthe whole, a moderately dry and well-manur- ed soil, appears to be best adapted' to its culture, especially if it be sown early in February ; as the young plants are not liable to be injured by the vernal frosts....The dry leaves of this vegetable are, in the winter, eagerly eaten by sheep and goats. 428 S A F S AF The flowers and seeds of the bastard saffron were formerly often used medically ; but, at pre- sent, they are nearly exploded, and the former are principally em- ployed for dyeing linen, woollen, silks, and especially cotton, which absorbs the tinging particles more easily, and retains the volatile hue of the safflower much longer, than any other stuff". This plant pro- duces a variety of shades, from a bright-yellow to a deep-red, ac- cordingly as it is treated with the addition of alum, pot-ash, cream of tartar, lemon-juice, or oil of vitriol, in due proportions. [The following process for dye- ing red, with safflower, was suc- cessfully tried by professor Beck- man. He says " I boiled a piece of cotton several times in olive oil, then washed it thoroughly in cold water, and afterwards dried it. After this, I mixed water impreg- nated with the yellow colouring matter ofthe carthamus, or a yel- low infusion of the carthamus, with pounded galls and alum. I then took cloth which had been premacerated in oil, and dipped it in this solution, after it had boiled a little, and found that the cloth, when wrung, was of a yellow co- lour. Having dried the cloth, I dipped it in the cold alkaline li- quor of the carthamus, and then immersed it in lemon juice ; and this being frequently repeated, the cloth appeared of a beautiful and full red. Cloth which had not been steeped in oil, but which in other respects had been exposed to the like process, was of the same colour, but a little paler ; and for that reason, I recommend this mode of dyeing to those who do not choose to employ o.l." See Tilloch?, P. Mag. vol. xi.] SAFFRON, or Crocus L. a ge- nus of plants consisting of seven species, two of which are indi- genous : namely, 1. The sativus v. officinalis, Common, or Autumnal Saf- fron, thrives in meadows and pas- tures ; flowers in August and Sep- tember. It is cultivated by plant- ing out the roots in July, at the distance of five inches apart, and two inches deep, in a good, dry soil, that has previously been well ploughed, and manured with rot- ten dung. In the beginning of September, the. ground ought to be hoed, and the weeds carefully eradicated ; as the growth of the saffron would otherwise be impeded. A short time after, the flowers will appear for several weeks ; and they should be gathered, that is, the stigmata or fleshy summits of the pistils picked off, every morning in suc- cession, before they are fully blown. Next, these tender fila- ments are to be gradually dried in a kiln, and preserved for use....A field of saffron will continue to be productive for three or four years, yielding progressively more nu- merous and larger flowers, as well as an increase of bulbous roots; which, after that period, may be advantageously transplanted to ano- ther situation. Saffron is remarkably fragrant, and is highly esteemed ; as it exhi- lerates the spirits, when taken in small doses; but, if used in too large portions, it produces immo- derate mirth, and all the conse- quences resulting from the abuse of spirituous liquors. It imparts a beautiful colour to water, wine, or spirits, to which it com nunieates its virtues. This drug was formerly cont'- SAG SAG 429 dered an excellent remedy in hys- teric depressions, originating from spasms, or from obstructions of the usual evacuations ; but in mo- dern practice, it is seldom employ- ed, though it forms an ingredient in several medicinal preparations. The best saffron is that raised in England, which may be known by the breadth of its blades : it ought to be of a deep red or orange co- lour ; fresh and tough, though neither too dry nor too moist; and of a strong, but pleasant aromatic odour. It deserves to be more generally known, that mercenary dealers often adulterate this valua- ble spice with safflower, or with the fibrils of dried beef: the for- mer practice, which is more com- mon and less troublesome, cannot be easily detected; but the latter species of fraud may be ascertain- ed by infusing a few threads of suspected saffron in a wine glass- ful of simple water ; and if, after standing 24 hours, the liquor ac- quire only a pale-yellow tint, in- stead of a bright-red hue, it may be concluded that it is not genu- ine. 2. The vernus, Spring or Gar- den Crocus, is found in mea- dows, chiefly in the county of Not- tingham ; it flowers in the month of March. This species is propa- gated by seeds in gardens, for the beauty of its flowers, which form a principal ornament in vernal nosegays. Saffron, the Meadow. See Meadow-Saffron. SAGE, or Salvia, L, a genus of plants comprising GO species ; of which the following are the prin- cipal, viz. 1. The Pratensis ; and, 2. The Verbenaca. See Clary. S. The Officinalis, or Common Large Sage, is a native of the southern parts of Europe, and cul- tivated in British gardens, for cul- inary purposes. There are seve- ral varieties of this species, name- ly, the common green sage, the wormwood sage, the green and red sage, both with variegated leaves; and a peculiar kind with red or blackish leaves ; the last of which is most commonly cultivated, to- gether with the wormwood-sage. Their flowers furnish bees with honey and wax; the whole plant is exceedingly grateful to sheep, and imparts a delicate flavour to the flesh of these animals. 4. The tomentosa,or Balsamine Sage, which is preferred to all the other species for herb-tea. All the different kinds of sage may be propagated by seeds ; but, as some of these useful plants do not attain to perfection in this country, the more eligible method of raising them, is generally by slips. In a medicinal view, sage mo- derately warms and strengthens the alimentary canal: hence, in cold phlegmatic habits, it excites appetite, and may be of service to persons labouring under nervous debility. The best method of tak- ing it, is by an infusion of the dry leaves used as common tea ; or a tincture, or extract, made with rec- tified spirit, and given in proper doses. These preparations con- tain the whole virtues of the sage, while the distilled water and es- sential oil possesses only the warmth and aromatic quality,with- out any of its bitterness or astrin- gency. Watery infusions of the leaves, with the addition of lemon juice, form an useful drink in fe- brile disorders, and are very grate- ful to the palate. 450 S A I S AI SAG*0, is the medullary sub- stance obtained from a species of the Palm-tree {Cycas circinalis, L.) a native of the Molucca and other islands of the East Indies. It is used as bread by the natives, who macerate it in water, and form it ino cakes. The grains of Sago sold in the shops, are prepared in a manner similar to those of Tapioca (see Cassava) : they furnish a iicurishing and agreeable jelly with water, milk, or broth ; but they should be previously cleaned ; and, to dissolve them completely, the first decoction should be strained, and afterwards boiled a second time, for about half an hour. With a view to render it more agreeable, a small portion of lemon-juice, su- gar, and wine, may be added. In this state, it forms an excellent dish as a restorative, particularly for the consumptive, convalescent, and those whose digestion is weak or impaired ; but the coarser parts, which remain after straining the liquor, should not be eaten ; as they are too flatulent for the sto- mach of invalids, and afford lit- tle nutriment. In phthisical cases, a decoction of sago in milk, will be the most proper; for wine and broth can be allowed only to pa- tients who are free from febrile symptoms. SAIL-CLOTH, a strong tex- ture, made of hemp, for the pur- pose of supplying ships with sails. Although considerable quantities of this valuable article are annu- ally manufactured in Britain, yet as they are not only inadequate to the demand for the navy, but being subject to the mildew, are conse- quently less durable than the sail- cloth imported from North Ame- rica, we shall state the following expedient, adapted in that country, by which the cloth may be greatly improved. It simply consists in moistening the warp, in the loom, with a decoction or gelatinous sub- stance prepared from the refuse of neat's-feet (after the oil is express- ed), which is boiled in water, till it is converted into a kind of glue. The weavers of this article, in Bri- tain, employ a paste made of flour and water, which necessarily ren- ders the cloth brittle ; whereas, by using the animal peparation above mentioned, the sail-cloth will not only be rendered more durable, but the expence may be lessened, and an article, that is at present thrown away, may thus be usefully em- ployed. SAINTFOIN, the Common, or Cock's-head, Hedysarum Onobry- chis, L. a native perennial plant, which grows in meadows and pas- tures, on chalky soils, where it flowers in the months of June and July. There are several varieties, known under the names of White- flowered, Blue-flowered, Purple-. flowered, Striped-flowered, and Long-leaved Hoary Saintfoin. This plant thrives most luxu- riantly on dry and chalky lands, in high and exposed situations, so that its culture would chiefly bene- fit the northern parts of Britain ; for it requires no rich land, but a clayey and gravelly bottom. It is propagatedfrom seed ; the best of which has a bright husk ; the ker- nel being plump, externally of a grey or blueish cast, but when cut, internally of a fresh greenish co- lour. The proper season for sowing the Cock's-head, is in the month of March ; the quantity of seed varies, from one to four, and evert eight bushels per acre, broad-cast; though the most economical me- SAI thod is that of drilling it in rows two feet asunder ; by which half a bushel is sufficient to stock an acre. This vegetable is, however, occa- sionally sown together with clover, or with barley, in the proportion of from one to three bushels per acre, to which 5lbs. of trefoil are gener- ally added ; as, the latter prevents the growth of weeds, till the saint- foin has taken deep root. This species of clover is one of the most promising plants, which might be cultivated in Britain; and it is much to be regretted, that its introduction should be almost totally neglected by so many te- nants ( r proprietors of poor, shal- low, and stony soils; as it will produce, on their worst lands, at least one ton of hay, together with a considerable after-growth for graz- ing cattle. Saintfoin, indeed, will yield abundant crops for ten or fifteen years, at the expiration of which, it will afford an excellent pasture for sheep, during several succeeding years; and, if the soil be rich, it will produce two crops annually ; except, however, in the first two or three years, when the growth seldom exceeds one load, or half a crop per acre: but no cattle should be suffered to graze on it, for the first winter; as their feet will injure it: nor should any sheep be fed on it during the second summer, because they are apt to bite the crowns or tops of the roots, the growth of which would thus be immediately check- ed. At the expiration of seven or eight years, it will be proper to manure the soil with dung; and, if it be sandy, with marie. Should the first season for mowing prove wet, the saintfoin must be left for seed; it ought not, however, to SAL 431 be cut before it is in full bloom; as the quality of the hay would thus be materially injured ; but, if it be given to cattle, while green, it will produce a second crop in the same year. Whether it be consumed in a fresh or dry state, it is equally useful for feeding cat- tle, and is said to fatten sheep more speedily than any other vege- table. It is farther believed to increase the quantity and improve the quality of milk in cows, the cream of which becomes not only richer, but the butter acquires a better colour, and more delicious flavour. Lastly, saintfoin is an un- commonly strengthening proven- der for horses, which, when fed with it, require no oats. [Sec vol. 3d. p. 200.] Sal-ammoniac See Ammoniac SALEP, a nutritious preparation obtained from two species of the Okchis. Different methods have been proposed and adopted, with a view to procure this nourishing sub- stance ; but the most simple is that of Mr. Moult, already described [article Orchis.] We shall, there- fore, only observe, that Salep might thus be prepared and sold at the low price of eight or ten pence per pound; and, as it is supposed to contain the largest portion of ve- getable nutriment in the smallest compass, its powder has been re- commended to form part of the provisions of every ship. Farther, salep possesses the valuable pro- perty of concealing the saline taste of sea-water, and retarding the acetous fermentation of milk. Hence Dr. Percival is of opi- nion, that it may be advantage- ously used in milk-porridge, espe- cially in large towns, where that fluid is generally acescent, in con- 432 SAL sequence of the cows being fed with sour grains, and similar acid food. Beside the particular cases (sta- ted under the article Orchis), in which this preparation is very useful, on account of its mucila- ginous and restorative properties; salep is likewise of essential ser- vice in the sea-scurvy, as it ob- tunds the acrimony of the fluids, while it easily assimilates into a mild and salubrious chyle. Lastly, if administered in considerable portions, it is, according to Dr. Percival, an " admirable demul- cent" in symptomatic fevers, which are occasioned by the absorption of pus or matter from ulcers in the lungs, from wounds, or after amputations ; as it is eminently adapted to resist the dissolution of the crasis, or due mixture of the blood in the human body, and which generally takes place in such cases. SALIVA, a term applied to the fluid, with which the mouth and tongue are continually moist- ened : it is secreted by the salival glands. This humour is thin and trans- parent ; it cannot be reduced to a concrete form by fire, and is almost totally divested both of taste and smell. It is supplied from the glands by mastication ; and, being intimately blended with the ali- ment, essentially contributes to its digestion; serving also to improve the taste of food; to mix with, dissolve, decompose the nutritive matter into its principles ; and to moderate thirst. The saliva of hungry persons, and of such as indulge in violent passion isextremely acrid, penetrating, and profusely discharged. But, if this fluid be evacuated too copiously, SAL for instance, by those who indulge in smoking tobacco,it excites thirst, and occasions loss of appetite, indi- gestion, and at length atrophy with all its attendant evils. On the other hand, if it be swallowed together with the oil deposited on the tongue from the fumes of that narcotic herb, its effects are alike pernicious. Nor is it advisable to absorb the saliva in sick-rooms, or places where malignant disorders prevail ; because the contagious miasma might thus be introduced into the body, as well as by actual contact....See also Contagion, and Infection. SALLOW, or Withen, Salix capreata, L. is an indigenous spe- cies of the willow, which, though it will vegetate in damp situations, requires a drier ground than any other of that genus. In a good soil, it attains the height of thirty feet...The tender shoots and suck- ers of this tree are, on account of their flexible nature, useful for baskets and wicker-work.......In Sweden, the young rind is not only employed with advantage by tan- ners, but also by dyers, for striking a deep black on linen-yarn, in com- bination with alder-bark. The former has likewise been profitably converted intoPAPER, to which we refer. Sallow-thorn. See Buck- thorn, the Sea. SALMON, or Salmo, L. a ge- nus of fish comprising 29 species, of which the following are the prin- cipal, viz. 1. The fario. See Trout. 2. The alpinus. See Charr. 3. The eperlanus. See Smblt. 4. The solar, or Common Sal- mon, inhabits the British seas and rivers, where it is caught in great numbers, the largest weighingfrom SAL 30 to 401b. though sometimes up- wards of 70. These fish form, in several countries, a considerable branch of commerce, and are cured in various ways, by salting, pick- ling, and drying. The salmon frequents both salt and fresh waters, quitting the for- mer in the spring, for the purpose of depositing its spawn in the gra- velly beds, remote from the mouths of rivers. Towards autumn, they again resort to the ocean. Salmon is a very general and favourite article of food, and is used at the table, either fresh, cured, or smoked; in which last state, however, it is exceedingly unwholesome. The flesh of sal- mon, while fresh, is tender, flaky, and nutritive ; but, being rather oily, it is difficult of digestion. In the spawning season, its flavour and tint are much impaired: when boiled or salted, it acquires a fine red colour. Those of a moderate size and middle age, are in the greatest perfection, both with res- pect to their taste and salubrity.... Salmon-trout are chiefly distin- guished from the common fish of that name, by their soft and gela- tinous nature SALT is one ofthe component parts of animal, vegetable, and mi- neral bodies. It may be distin- guished from other matters, such as earths, by its solubility in less than 200 times its weight of boil- ing water ; by affecting the organs of taste ; and being capable of crys- tallization, either by itself, or in combination with several earths or alkalies. Salts are divided into two prin- cipal classes, namely, acid and al- kaline ; from the mutual combina- tion of both, there is formed a third VOL. IV. SAL 433 kind, known under the name of neutral salts. 1. Acid salts, possess a sour taste, and change the blue colour of vegetable pigments into red. They are divided, according to the three kingdoms of Nature, into vegetable, animal, and mineral; but, having already given an out*- line of the distinction (vol. i. p. 11, 12), we must refer the reader to the principal acid salts, under their alphabetical heads. II. Alkaline Salts. See Alka- lies, Barilla, Pearl-ash,Pot- ash, and Soda. III. Neutral Salts, are such as are obtained from a combination of acids and alkalies. The principal and most useful of this class is, the Common or Sea- salt. It differs from all other neu- tral substances of this nature, in its taste being purely saline, and oc- casioning thirst after it has been swallowed. The primitive figure of its crystals is that of a cube ; but, on evaporating a solution of salt, the smaller cubic particles as- sume the secondary form of hollow squares. When the crystals are perfectly pure, they are not affect- ed by moist air ; and in this state, 100 parts contain, according to Bergman, j2 of muriatic acid, or spirit of salt; 42 of soda, or mine- ral alkali; and (i of water of crys- tallization: though we believe, with tin en, that the proportion of the fluid part is greater, and that of the two first ingredients somewhat smaller. Nature furnishes us with this neutral salt, either in a solid state, in mines ; or dissolved in the sea : or in saline springs. If it be obtained from the bow- els of the earth, it is called Rock- salt ; and is generally very hard, 3 K 434 SAL SAL and transparent, though it is some- times opaque, white, and some- times of red, green, blue, or other shades. The purest of this kind is colourless; the other species are purified by solution in water, and by re-crystallization, before they can be employed for culinary pur- poses. The principal mines of Rock-salt are in the vicinity of Cracow, in Poland, and at North- wich, in the county of Chester. The salt, however, which is thus easily procured, and in very large masses, by no means affords a sufficient supply : hence numer- ous persons are employed in ex- tracting it from sea-water, or from saline springs. The former yields only from one-50th to one-30th part of its weight, but the latter produce the greatest quantities; and we are informed by Dr. Brown- ing (Art of Making Common Salt, ^c. 8vo.), that the celebrated sa- line springs of Northwich, Nant- wich, and Droitwich, in Cheshire (whence Great-Britain is princi- pally supplied), contain more than one-sixth part of good salt. Common salt is obtained from these natural solutions by two dif- ferent methods: First, the saline fluid is speedily evaporated, till the salt begin to concrete, and settle in the form of grains at the bottom of the pans ; after which it is put into proper vessels for draining the brine ; and, when the process is completed, it is called bay-salt. By the second method, the evaporation is slow and gradual ; so that it is continued only till a saline crust is formed on the surface of the liquor, which soon shoots into crystalline cubes. [The manufacture of salt in the United States, is of more impor- tance than is generally imagined. The editors of the Medical Repo- sitory of New-York, (Hexade 2d. vol. i. p« 83,) have shewn by a statement, that, though the salt- springs in New-York, in Ohio, in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and in other places, furnish the interior country with large quantities of salt, still it is a fact, that by far the greater proportion of the salt con- sumed in the United States is brought from abroad. It appears, that from the first of October, 1800, to the 30th of September, 1801, 3,282,063 bushels of salt were imported, and of this quantity, 1,269,398 bushels were imported from England. This salt, which chiefly comes from Liverpool, and the Mersey, is both weak and im- pure ; as sea-water, brine-springs, and rock-salt, generally abound with various other earthy and sa- line ingredients, such as lime, mag- nesia, epsom-salt, gypsum, glau- ber's salt, he. all of which injure the quality of salt, and disqualify it for preserving animal flesh.] In the first volume ofthe Trans- actions ofthe Royal Society of Edin- burgh, we meet with a memoir, by the Earl of Dundonald, contain- ing an account of a new expedient of purifying sea-salt. He observes that the common salt is mixed with various substances, which in a great measure render it unfit for the important purpose of preserv- ing food ; and which appear from' his experiments to be nauseous, bitter, and cathartic salts, with earthy bases. And as the mode of purifying salt by dissolution in water, and precipitation of the earthy matters with fossil alkali, is not only too tedious, but also too expensive for common use,. SAL SAL 435 Lord D. proceeds on the fact, that hot water, when saturated with sea- salt will still dissolve some portion of bitter salts. [He therefore directs the following process to purify this useful article....." Take a vessel of a conical figure, with a hole in the small end of it, put it near the fire with the bottom uppermost; fix it in such a manner, that it may be moderately heated by a stove or flue going round it; fill it with salt; take a twentieth part of the salt contained in the vessel, dis- solve it in its proper proportion of water, in an iron pan, let it boil, and pour it, when hot, upon the surface of the salt in the conical vessel. The hot and fully saturat- ed solution will dissolve no more sea-salt, but will, as it descends, and filtrates through the salt in the vessel, dissolve the magnesia sa- lita, and magnesia vitriolata, which will drop out at the aperture in the small end of the vessel. After the liquor has ceased to drop, take out one twentieth part more of the salt contained in the vessel, and proceed as aforesaid. Repeat the same process with salt out of the vessel until what remains be as pure as required. Three washings in this manner will render home made salt purer than bay. Each ope- ration renders the salt 4£ times purer than it was before. " Its purity, leaving out the small fractional parts in each mul- tiplication, will increase in the fol- lowing progression s First operation, . . 4-5 2. do. . . 20 do. . 91 4. do. . .410 do. . . 1845 " The superior quality of salt thus freed from the bitter nauseous salts, is no less obvious to the taste, than its effects are in salt- ing or preserving fish, meat, and butter, which I have satisfied my- self of, by a variety of experi- ments." At Dennis in the county of Barn- stable, Massachusetts,commonsalt is crystalized from the water ofthe ocean, without culinary heat or boiling, in considerable quantities. The amount is stated at twenty thousand bushels a year of domes- tic sea-salt. This is estimated at one fifth of the quantity consumed in the Cape Cod fishery, annually, which is reckoned to be one hun- dred thousand bushels. It is stated to be excellent in purity, whiteness and weight. It resembles the first quality of Isle of May salt, and is as heavy as eighty pounds the bushel. Great improvements have been made in cheapening the erec- tion of the works and in abridging the performance of labour. At the same place Glauber's salt is prepared in great quantities, to the amount it is believed of fifty tons per annum. It may be made there equal to any in the world, and abundant enough for the whole home market arid the West India islands. It is expected that both epsona salt and magnesia will be prepared from the bittern, as soon as the manufacture is a little further ad- vanced, and the artists shall have had further time to gain practical skill by experience.] Various other, though more complicated attempts, have lately been made by private individuals, to expedite and improve the pre- 436 SAL SAL paration of salt, as well as to de- tive. It deserves, however to be compose it with a view to extract remarked, that its useful properties the soda: among these wc shall arc greatly changed in a state of mention only the following pa- intimate combination with animal tents : namely, Mr. George Hod- matters : thus, salt-butter and salt- son's, obtained in August, 1792, meat, or fish, are less wholesome for his new method of separating than those substances when eaten fossil alkali from common salt; in a fresh state, with a due pro- and also of separating the same tion of that domestic spice; nay, substance from kelp ; his second if used too frequently, the former patent, granted in February, 1797, often lay the foundation of tedious for an improved mode of effecting maladies, such as leprosy, scurvy, the same object; and likewise of and other cutaneous eruptions..... extracting the mineral alkali from Lastly, salt is sometimes adminis- the muriatic acid, contained in tered with a view to restrain the rock-salt, common salt, brine, he. operation of emetics, or to carry Mr. James Manley's patent, them off by stool; and likewise as dated July, 1801, for various im- a stimulus in clysters. provements in the process of ma- A new species of neutral salt nufacturing salt. As, however, has lately been discoveredinFrance, these different processes would not an account of which we have ab- be generally interesting, and could stracted from M. Chaussier's be understood only by the aid of Memoir, inserted in the 37th No. engravings, the inquisitive reader of the " Recueil Periodique," a will consult the 2d, 10th, and 15th Medical Journal published at Paris. volumes of the Repertory of Arts, This new salt is the sulphurated he. hydro-sulphur of soda, and is form- Uses: The value of salt for culi- ed spontaneously in manufactories nary purposes is well known : it is where the sulphate of soda, or likewise of peculiar service in pre- Glauber's Salt (which see) is serving the health of cattle (see decomposed, by being melted in a vol. ii.), and particularly in pre- reverberatory furnace, with a cer- venting that most fatal disorder in 'tain portion of iron filings, and car- sheep, the rot (see that article), bon of charcoal. Our limits will Besides, salt is an excellent ma- not permit us to state the whole of kiire ; as it is equally destructive this process; we shall therefore to weeds and vermin : the most only observe-, that the sulphurated accurate proportion appears to be hydro-sulphur of soda is found in sixteen bushels per acre; but, if the leys which remain, after the that quantity be exceeded, or doub- carbonate of soda has been obtain- led, it will produce effects-dianie- ed by ebullition. Such leys being trically opposite to those intended, suffered to stand for some time, a and completely check vegetation, crystallization takes place in the With respect to its medicinal residuum ; andthe crystals appear properties, common salt, when of a dusky yellow colour, being taken in small quantities, promotes sometimes soiled, or tinged with a the appetite and digestion ; but, if black powder, adhering to their given in large doses, for instar.ee, surface : these are next thrown in- half an ounce, it operates as a laxa- to a proper quantity of wder; and, SAL SAL 437 when almost dissolved, the fluid is strained and deposited in a cool place, when the saline matter will again be crystalized. Thus puri- fied, the salt forms large transpa- rent crystals, having a fresh taste, which speedily becomes somewhat bitter : it retains its form and pro- perties on exposure to the air, nei- ther deliquescing, nor crumbling into powder. M. Chaussier has successfully administered this neutral salt in cases of inveterate herpetic affec- tions, which were not accompani- ed with fever or inflammation :.... he observes, that it may also be prescribed in certain intestinal dis- eases, occasioned by metastases, or the repulsion of a psoric and scor- butic virus.....The doses must at first be small, and gradually in- creased; while the efficacy ofthe drug may be promoted by diluents, or such drinks as are best calcu- lated to alleviate the situation of the patient. Salting Meat. See Beef ; Brine; Flesh-Meat; Pickle, Pork, he. SALTPETRE, or Nitre, a con- crete saline matter, the nature and properties of which have already been stated, vol. iii. p. 195..... Without entering into the parti- culars relative to the most econo- mical method of manufacturing this useful salt, we shall briefly point out the requisites to its ge- neration : 1. Animal and vegeta- ble matters intimately blended and exposed to a moderate tempera- ture ; -. Such a degree of mois- ture, especially with urine in which nettles, thistles, artichokes, and similar plants have been boil- ed, as will promote corruption, without inducing actual putrefac- tion : 3. The earth employed ought to be of a loose and porous texture ; for instance, the clay of old mud-walls, or a due admixture of chalk, quick-lime, Sec. 4. A sufficient length of time, namely, from six to twelve months, and up- wards ; as, otherwise, a very small quantity of nitre will be obtained by crystallizing the ley made of the salt petre-rot, or the earth after it has been exposed to the influ- ence of the atmosphere in triangu- lar beds, under proper sheds..... The manner of extracting such earth is exceedingly simple and easy, by means of tubs with nume- rous holes at the bottom, lined with straw, over which the mould is placed in alternate strata , with a little pot-ash either strewed be- tween them, or dissolved in the boiling water, which is gradually poured over the solid materials : there is nothing farther required, than proper wooden pails with transverse sticks, in which the li- quor, after evaporating it to a pro- per consistence, is poured and suf- fered to stand for several days, slightly covered, till the crystals are formed. The remaining fluid, or mother-ley, is again to be boiled, and poured over a new portion of the earth taken from an old nitre- bed, so that none of it may be wasted. Such is the process that; is generally followed in the most profitable saltpetre-works of Ger- many. Though nitre affords one of the most extensively useful articles in the arts and manufactures (see Aojja-fortis), as well as in me- dicine, yet this powerful salt, when inadvertently taken in loo large quantities, is one of the most fatal poisons. There are several attest- ed cases on record, in which from half to a whole ounce of saltpetre 438 SAL SAL has occasioned violent vomiting, convulsions, swelling, and other painful symptoms in persons who, by mistake, had swallowed it in a dissolved state, instead of Glau- ber's, or similar salts. The most proper antidotes, in such distress- ing iJtuations, will be a scruple or half a dram of ipecacuanha with a tea-cupful of sweet-oil, and a large quantity of warm water to be drunk after it, to promote its operation as an emetic. Where this remedy cannot be procured on the spur of the occasion, it will be necessary to make use of copious and frequent draughts of mucilaginous decoc- tions of marsh mallows, pearl-bar- ley, salep, or arrow-root powder, sago, tapioca, Sec. after which a gentle opiate will afford the de- sired relief. In all instances of this nature, however, it will be advisa- ble immediately to resort to medi- cal advice. SALTWORT, or Glasswort, Salsola, L. a genus of plants com- prising nine species, of which two are indigenous : namely, 1. The kali, Prickly Salt- wort, or Kelpwort, grows fre- quently on sandy sea-shores, and flowers in the months of July and August. 2. The fruticom, Shrubby Saltwort, or Shrub Stone- Crop, thrives likewise on sandy sea-shores, and flowers in the month of August. Both these species are used for making the salt known under the name of kali, considerable quanti- ties of which are employed in the manufacture of glass. 'Fhe pro- cess is as follows : A trench being dug near the sea, laths are placed across it, on which the herb is laid in heaps ; a fire is then kindled be- low, and the liquor extracted from the plants, drops to the bottom, where it ultimately acquires a thick consistence, when it becomes kali; which is partly of a black, and partly ash-colour ; very sharp and corrosive : being of a strong saline taste. When thoroughlyi harden- ed, it resembles solid stone, and in this state is fit for use. See Kelp. SALTWORT, the Jointed, or Salicornia, L. a genus of plants, comprising nine species ; one of which only, according to Dr. Wi- thering, but, in the opinion of Dr. Smith, two, are natives of Britain, viz. \.Theherbacea, JointedGlass- wort, Sea-grass, or Marh Sam- phire, is very common on sea- shores, and flowers in the months of August and September. 2. The fruticosa, or Shrubby Samphire, grows likewise on sea- shores and the sides of roads, where it flowers from August to September. The ashes of both these species yield fossil alkali, which is in great request for manufacturing soap and glass. It is chiefly prepared on the Mediterranean coast, and is called soda ; the best of which is imported from Spain, under the name of barilla. When young and green, this vegetable, steeped in vinegar, with the due portion of salt, affords a pickle very little in- ferior to samphire. The whole plant has a saline taste, and is de- voured with avidity by all kinds of cattle, being a very wholesome food, especially for sheep. SALTWORT, the Black, or Sea-Milkwort, Gluu.v maritimai L. a native perennial plant, which grows in salt-marshes, and flowers in the months of June and July.... This saline plant is often used as a pickle, and may likewise be ea*en SAN as salad, or cooked among other vegetables. It is also much relish- ed by cows ; and Bechstein ob- serves, that it uncommonly in- creases their milk ; on which ac- count it merits to be cultivated in congenial soils. SAMPHIRE, the Rock, or Sea Samphire, Crithmum maritimum, L. a perennial plant, growing on the British Sea-coasts, among gravel and rocks, where it flowers in the month of August. This ve- getable is much relished as a pic- kle, and likewise employed as a pot-Herb. Dr. Withering in- forms us, that sheep and cows eat it with avidity, and have, in conse- quence, been observed to grow ex- ceedingly fat. SAND, a genus of fossils, con- sisting of small grains of siliceous stones, which are insoluble both in water and acids; being transpa- rent, and vitrifiable by intense heat. They are mixed with vari- ous matters, whence they acquire different colours ; and are divided into white, red, yellow, brown, blackish, and green sands. This fossil is of extensive utility in the manufacture of glass ; a fine* white sand, found in the vicinity of Lynn, Norfolk, being employed for making white glass ; and a coarse greanish sand for the com- mon green or bottle glass. It is likewise an excellent manure for clayey land, in the proportion of from 40 to 50 loads per acre, and also for moorish soils, at the rate of 160 loads, The best for such purpose, is that known under the name of sea-sand, the good effects of which will be more evident, in proportion to its distance from high-water mark ; next in quality, is that washed down by the rain on gravelly soils ; but the worst sands SAN 439 are those which are dry and light, because they are liable to be drift- ed or blown about by every gust of wind. [Sea sand is much used at Long- Branch, and Shrewsbury, in Mon- mouth county, New-Jersey, as a manure.] Lastly, it was suggested a few years since by Dr. Struve, that rape, linseed, or other oils, might be divested of their colour, and also of any ill smell or rancidity, by simply agitating them in water mixed with sand ; a large propor- tion of the former being employed and changed for a purer fluid, as often as it becomes turbid. Dr. S. observes, that he employed this method with success on a small quantity of oil in a phial. We understand, however, that similar experiments have been made in Britain, but which did not suc- ceed. Hence we are inclined to attribute such failure to a different, or impure, kind of sand used for that purpose ; and therefore advise those who wish to avail themselves of this hint, previously to wash and dry the sand; next to submit it to the fire in a crucible; and, while red-hot, to pour it into pure water: by repeating this simple process two or three times, a very soft, friable sand will be obtained, and which may be farther im- proved by triturating it in a glass mortar, together with water; af- terwards washing, then suffering it to subside in a closed vessel; de- canting the fluid, and again drying it. Thus prepared, we venture to promise a successful result. SAND-EEL, or Ammoelytes to- bianus, L. a fish, resembling an eel, but seldom exceeding one foot in length. It abounds on the sandy shores of Britain during- the sum- 440 SAN SAN mer months, where it conceals it- self, after the tide has retired, at the depth of twelve inches in the sand. In some places, this fish is frequently dug out, and in others it is drawn up by means of a par- ticular hook contrived for that purpose. The sand-eel is usually employ- ed by way of bait, for taking other fish; though it is sometimes car- ried to the table, being reputed to be very ilelicate eating. SAND-PIPER, or Tringa, L. a genus of birds, comprising 45 spe- cies, 18 of which are natives of Britain: the principal of which are, I. Thefiugnax. See Ruff. 2. The eilpina, or Dun ling Sand-piper, whose back, head, and upper part of the neck are of an iron colour, marked with large black spots ; the lower part is white, with short dusky streaks ; in size, it is somewhat larger than the lark. These birds are found on the British shores, but princi- pally on the coast of Yorkshire ; where they are taken in great numbers, and much esteemed at the tables of the luxurious. SAND-STONE, a genus of fos- sils found in various parts of Bri- tain, and which is divided into four species, namely: 1. Calcareous Sand-stones, which consist of carbonate of lime and marie, with a considerable portion of sand intermixed with its par- ticles. Their surface is rough, generally grey, though they are sometimes found of a yellowish or brown cast....This species is occa- sionally burued for lime. 2 Aluminous Sand-stones are those, the basis of which is alu- mina, or pure clay. They are of a close and compact texture, which is finer or coarser according to the size of the sand forming their constituent parts. This spe- cies is usually grey, yellow, or brown, and is chiefly manufactured into rnill-stones, filtering-stones, or coarse whet-stones. 3. Siliceous Sand-stones are com- posed of grains of sand, that are cemented together with silica or flint, or with some substance, the basis of which is formed by the last mentioned fossil. They are considerably harder than any of the other species. 4. F'erruginous Sand-stones con- sist of large, loose particles of sand, which are cemented together by means of the rust of iron ; be- ing soft, and usually found of a dark red, yellow, or brown colour. Sand-stones are of great-utility for buildings designed to resist the combined effects of air, fire, and water. Some of these fossils are soft while in the quarry , but be- come hard on exposure to the air. Those of a friable nature are ge- nerally employed, being best adapted to this purpose; because the hard kinds are apt to burst in rhe fire : the latter, however, will admit of being polished, and may be advantageously used for whet- stones. SANDWORT, or Armaria, L. a genus of plants, comprising 43 species, 7 of which, according to Dr. Withering, but with Dr. Smith 10, are indigenous: the principal of these is the marina,ov Sea-spurrey Sandwort, which is perennial, grows in salt-marshes and on the sea-coast, where it flowers from May till October..... This succulent vegetable bears great resemblance to samphire, and considerable quantities of it are actually pickled, and sold for that plant. SAN SAN 441 SANDAL, or Sanders the Red, Plerocarpus sanlalinus, L. a tree which is a native of the East Indies, whence its wood is im- ported into Britain, in the form of large billets. The best kind is ex- ternally of a dull-red, or nearly blackish colour, internally brown- red; being of a compact texture, and possessing neither a peculiar smell, nor taste. Red sanders is chiefly employed as a colouring drug, in the com- pound tincture of lavender ; for there is scarcely any other oil to which it communicates its tinge. When reduced to a fine powder, it is more effectual for dyeing, than if it be merely cut into small pieces; but the powder of red sanders commonly sold in the shops, is often moistened with acids, and adulterated with other substances.....Bohmer observes, that wool dyed of this wood be- comes hard ; and that the colour may be rendered much darker, by -the addition of common salt and sal-ammoniac dissolved in the ley :....the Dutch are supposed to macerate this tinging substance in urine, for a similar purpose. Sandal-wood communicates a deep red to rectified spirit, but imparts no tinge to water....Gi.of- i roy and others have remarked, that the Brazil woods are some- times substituted for red sanders ; a fraud which may be easily as- certained, by immersing a small portion of the former in water, with which its colour readily com- bines. SANDARACH, a gummy-re- inous substance, exuding from an exotic species of the juniper-tree. It is imported in the form of small pieces or tears resembling pease, which are transparent; of a pale- VOL. IV. yellowish colour; very brittle and inflammable ; possessing a pun- gent aromatic taste, and emitting a fragrant odour when burnt. Considerable quantities of this gum are consumed by varnish- makers, who dissolve it in the oils of turpentine, or linseed, or in spirit of wine, and thus prepare a kind of varnish, known under the name of vernix, which is used by cabinet-makers and painters. Gum- sandarach is also pulverized and passed through a fine sieve ; in which slate it is called pounce; and, when rubbed on paper, from which writing has been erased, it prevents the ink from spreading, when new characters are substitut- ed.....This drug is subject, on im- portation, to the duty of 7s. 8-^d. per cwt. SANDERS, the Yellow, or White, Santalum album, L. a na- tive of the East-Indies, whence its wood is imported. It io of a pale- yellowish colour, a pleasant smell, has a bitterish aromatic taste, ac- companied with an agreeable pun- gency. From this el.gant wood, the Chinese of distinction obtnin their coffins, which are said to resist the effects of the air and moisture, for a long series of years. They also reduce it to powder, and, with the addition of vvjater, convert it into a paste, which is applied to their bodies, furniture, he. probably with a view to serve as a substitute for the more expensive odoriferous oils : the powder is also employed for incense in their idolatrous tem- ples......In Europe, however, it is chiefly prized by cabinet-makers for the purpose of veneering. This fragrant vegetable is, at present, very seldom used in me- dicine. When digested in pure 3 L 442 S A N SAP spirit, it produces a rich yellow tincture ; from which, on distilla- tion, the spirit arises without any remarkable flavour. Such prepa- ration is, by Hoffman, considered as a medicine possessing similar virtues with ambergris; and he re- commends it as an excellent res- torative in great or general debi- lity......By distilling it with water, yellow sanders-wood produces a fragrant essential oil ; which, on becoming cold, congeals and ac- quires the consistence of a balsam. [See article Dyeing.] SANDIVER, or Salt-of- Glass, is a species of whitish salt, that is separated from the surface of glass, while in a state of fusion. It is of a pungent, corrosive taste, and is employed by farriers for the purpose of cleansing horses' eyes. This substance is said to be de- tergent, and is, therefore, occa* sionally applied to the human skin, for removing foul spots: it is also sometimes used as desiccative in ulcers, shingles, and similar com- plaints ; nay, it is even strongly re- commended as a tooth-powder; though we believe it to be a very improper and hazardous dentrifice; [SANGUINARIA CANADEN- SIS, called commonly Puccoon, blood-wort, red-root, Indian-paint, turmeric. The root is from one-fourth to half an inch in diameter, from three to four inches long, sending forth numerous stringy fibres, 2 or three inches long : a coloured liquor is thrown out when the root is broken. The stalk is six or eight inches long, and of the thickness of a quill. The leaves are cordate and lobate. There is but one leaf to a stalk; on each lobe, one large fibre of a light yellow colour, may be seen running from the stalk, and many smaller ones branching from it in all directions. Flowers in April. This plant abounds in our woods. The powdered root, in dosesof 15 or 20 grains, is powerfully emetic..... Eight grains is a mild dose, and is but little inferior to ipecacuanha. It contains a large proportion of gum, some resin, and extractive matter. The first and last are the most active parts. The juice of the root dyes a fine orange colour, and is much used by the Indians. The murio sulpliateoi tin, as a mor- dant produces a handsome colour, sufficiently permanent on cotton and linen. The sulphate of alu- mine, or alumine alone, are also tolerable good mordants for silk and flannel. The leaves and seeds of the plant are powerful and diffusible stimuli ; promote sweat, and are given in Maryland with that view to horses to promote the shedding of their coats. A tincture of the root is used to prevent the inter- mittent fever ; and a decoction of the roots to cure the dysentery. In one case, it operated powerfully upon the uterus and produced abor- tion, hence it might be useful in female obstructions. The above account is taken from Dr. Dow- ney's Inaug. Dissert, on San- guinaria, Philadelphia, 1803.] Sanicle, the Yorkshire. See Bltter-wort. SAP, in botany, denotes the juice of plants, which is prepared by the moisture absorbed by their roots and leaves-, whence it is cir- culated throughout every part, so as to constitute their nourishment. The sap of vegetables has been compared to the chyle of animals: according to Dr. Darvvix, the for- mer consists of sugar, water, and SAR S A U 443 mucilage, togetherwithothertrans- parent solutions; for instance, those of phosphorus, carbon, and calca- reous earth. The sap, when first absorbed by the roots, is thin and watery; but, during its progress, it acquires more consistence; and, when it arrives at the leaves, it is assimilated to the nature of the plant. The circulation of this juice has generally been supposed to be per- formed in an uniform manner : it appears, however, from the expe- riments of Mr. Fairchild, a late eminent gardener, that it has an irregular motion, directly contrary to its primary course ; a discovery which is of considerable impor- tance in horticulture. This agree- able and salubrious art may thus not only be improved, but also great advantage may be derived from the general application of this princi- ple ; as barren trees may now be rendered fruitful, and old or decay- ing ones restored to their original vigour....See Juice. Sapflow. See Flux. SARSAPARILLA, or Smilax Sarsaparilla, L. is a native of the West-Indies, whence its medicinal root is obtained. This drug has a glutinous, some- what bitter, and agreeable taste, but is totally devoid of smell. It is highly esteemed on account of its demulcent and farinaceous qua- lities, and has been successfully administered, in the different forms of decoction, extract, and powder, in cases of carious and ill-disposed cancers, or other sores. It is taken in doses of half an ounce of the root boiled in half a pint of water, till the third part be evaporated : or half a dram ofthe extract; in either of these forms, it acts by the skin as well ashy the urinary passages, and is a mild, though inert reme- dy ; on which account it is gene- rally combined with the sassafras, guaiacum, liquorice, and otLr sHibstances, in a decoction of the woods. SASSAFRAS, is the wood, bark and root of the Sassafras tree, or Laurus Sassafras, L. a native of America, the properties of which we have already described, vol. i. p. 211. It is imported in lonu; straight pieces, which are of a very light and porous texture ; emitting a fragrant odour; and having an aromatic sub-acrid, though sweet- ish taste. The strongest parts are the bark and small twigs. Sassafras is a warm, aperient, and strengthening medicine; it has often been successfully given in the forms of infusion and decoction, for improving the tone of the stomach and bowels, in persons whose hu- mours were in a vitiated state...... Hoffman has frequently prescrib- ed a scruple of the extract of sassa- fras', with great benefit, in hypo- chondriacal spasms, and also at the decline of intermittent fevers....... Infusions of this drug are sold in the streets ofthe metropolis, under the name of Saloop. S AT YRION, or Lizard-flow- er, Satyrium hircinum, L. a na- tive perennial plant, growing in chalky meadows and pastures; flowering in the months of June and July.......Its leaves are very large, and the whole plant has a rank, disagreeable odour: never- theless, it is eagerly eaten by cat- tle, and is said, in a remarkable degree, to increase the milk of cows. [SAUR-KRAUT. This prepa- ration was mentioned before under the head Ckout. The following directions for making it, are given 444 S A U S A V by Dr. Wii.lich. In Pennsylva- nia it is a very fashionable dish among the Germans, and .when prepared with neatness, is highly palatable, especially when eaten with salt pork.] The soundest and moot solid cabbages are selected, cut very small, put into a barrel in layers, about a hand high,overeach of which is strewed a handful of salt and ca- raway seeds : in this manner, the layers are closely rammed down, one upon another, till the barrel is full, vyhen a loose cover is put over it and pressed down with a heavy weight. After standing for some time, the mass begins to ferment; and as soon as it subsides, the head is fitted into the barrel, which is then finally closed, and its con- tents preserved for use. After be- ing once opened, the kraut must be carefully compressed with a loose cover, and fresh salt and wa- ter every time substituted for that which is become foul, floats on the top, and should be removed. As this preparation has been found of considerable efficacy as an antis- corbutic, in long sea voyages, par- ticularly those round the world, performed by the late Capt. Cook, it deserves to be more generally known in this country : and though its flavour is far from being agree- able to those who taste it for the first time, yet we are convinced from experience, that it will soon be relished, even by delicate ladies, whose reason is superior to preju- dice or custom. We could not recommend, a more antiseptic and wholesome dish, especially if it be managed with care and strict at- tention to cleanliness. SAUS-\GF, a well-known pre- paration of food, consisting of beef, pork, or veal, cut in small pieces ; seasoned with pepper, sa"-, or other spice ; and then closely stuffed into skins obtained from the intestines of animals. The most esteemed sausages are those made at Bologna, Venice, and other parts of Italy, whence considerable quantities are annual- ly exported to various countries in Europe. They are made of raw pork beaten to a pulp in a mortar, together with garlic, pepper, and other spices ; which, being inti- mately blended, are filled in the same manner as the common sau- sages, excepting that the larger intestines are preferably employed by the Italians. This species of food affords very substantial nutriment, in whatever form it may be dressed :....sausar ges should not however, be eaten by persons of weak or relaxed habits ; as a vigorous stomach is required to digest them. The most unwholesome preparations of this kind are blood-sausages, more generally known under the names of hog and black puddings. These are composed of bacon and the blood of the same animal, toge- ther with Ihyme, sage, and other vegetable spices, to correct in some measure their rancidity. Such in- congruous mixtures, however, is at all times difficult of digestion ; and,if the sausages have been smok- ed, the bacon necessarily becomes still more acrid, while the blood is concreted : in this state, the whole forms a most pernici- ous compound, which ought ne- ver to be eaten, even by persons who possess the most active pow- ers of assimilation. SAVIN, or Junipcrus Sabina, L. an exotic evergreen shrub, which has small, rather prickly leaves, and produces blue berries, S A V SAW 44S only after it has arrived at a consi- derable age. Its stem attains the height of seven feet, and is apt to grow in a reclining posture : the wood is internally of a beautiful reddish shade, resembling that of mahogany. The savin is of slow growth, but may be easily propagated by lay- ers, by cuttings, or by the berries : if the latter can be procured, they should be sown in beds of com- mon light earth, and in the spring or autumn, the young plants are to be set out in nursery-rows, two feet asunder. In October, No- vember, or early in April follow- ing, they must be carefully trans- planted to the place of their desti- muio'i. The leaves of savin possess a bitter, acrid taste ; and their smell is so powerful and disagreeable; that it expels moths and similar vermin. When distilled with water, tiiese leaves yield an uncommonly large proportion of essential oil. With respect to its medicinal properties, savin is warm, stimu- lant, and aperient, being well cal- culated for promoting sweat, urine, and all the glandular secretions.... Hence a conserve made of its tops and leaves has afforded permanent relief in obstinate gouty and rheu- matic cases, if taken for several months, nay, for a whole year, in small doses of a tea-spoonful or two, every morning and evening : few parients, however, will sub- mit to swallow this nauseous drug; though it requires only a certain degree of resolution at the com- mencement...The oil distilled from this shrub is one of the most vio- lent emmenagogues, and ought therefore to be used with the great- est caution in obstructions of the uterus, or other vi ;cera proceeding from laxity or weakness. No drug- gist should sell this preparation to strangers. An essential oil and' watery ex- tract of the savin are also kept in the shops. SAVORY, or Saturcia, L. a genus of exotic plants, consisting of nine species,of which the following are the principal, namely : 1. The hortensis, or Summer Savory, an annual herb, propa- gated from seed, which ought to be sown early in August on beds of light earth :....if the plants are in- tended to remain in the same si- tuation, the seed should be sparing- ly scattered ; but, if they are de- signed to be transplanted, it may be sown more closely. 2. The montana, or Winter Sa- vory, is a perennial vegetable, like- wise obtained from seed, which re- quires only a poor dry soil, where the plants will continue for many years, uninjured by the severest winters. As, however, the shoots will not be well furnished with leaves, when several years old, it will be proper to raise an annual stock of young plants. Both, the summer and winter savory have long been cultivated in the British gardens, for culinary, and medicinal purposes. Their warm aromatic, and pungent leaves, are much esteemed in sa- lads : formerly, they were em- ployed medicinally, with a view to attenuate viscid humours, to dis- pel flatulency, and to increase the appetite....According to Prou Bradley, this herb, when dry and put into a bed, possesses the remarkable property of expelling fleas. SAW-DUST, is* the coarse powder remaining after any wood or timber has been separated or 446 SAW SAW cut asunder with a saw. It is fre- quently employed as a substitute for sand, and strewed on the floors of public and other buildings, fre- quented by numerous persons. This dust likewise affords good fuel for heating ovens, in which bread and other substances are to be baked....We understand, from gardeners, that if the fresh dust, obtained after sawing oak-timber, be scattered on gravel-walks in February, or at an early period in March, it effectually prevents the growth of weeds : and if it be per- fectly rotten, together with blood and quick-lime, it proves an excel- lent manure. The saw-dust of fir and pine- trees contains a very large propor- tion of resinous and saponaceous matter; so tlmt it has been use- fully employed by the country- people cf Sweden and Norway, as a substitute for soap, in wash- ing coarse linen. [SAW-MILL......Mr. Moses Coat.es, of Chester County, Penn- sylvania, has obtained a patent from the United States, for an im- provement in saw-mills, for accel- lerating the sawing of timber into boards and scantling. It would be impossible, without a plate, to give an intelligible description of the machinery, neither would it beef advantage to the reader consi- dering, that the right of erecting it, must first be purchased from the patentee, who will furnish the necessary instructions ; we shall therefore only say here on the au- thority ofthe inventor; that a log 20 inches diameter, and 14 feet long, was sawed into inch boards, and the gate shut down, without being moved or acted upon by any- other mean:-, than that supplied by the water, acting upc;i the me- chanism ofthe mill; and the whole time employed in moving the log back, and the saw entering afte* each successive run, did not ex- ceed half a minute.] SAW-WORT, or ScwAa, L. a genus of plants, comprising 18 species ; two of which only, act cording to Dr. Smith, are indige- nous ; namely: 1. The tinctoria, or Common Saw-wort, is perennial; grows in woods and on pastures, where it flowers in the month of July...This plant is employed by dyers, to im- part a yellow colour; but, being inferior to the Dyers-weed, its use is chiefly confined to the coars- er woolen cloths, and as an ingre- dient in other dyeing drugs....In combination with indigo, the Com- mon Saw-wort strikes a perma- nent green colour. Its leaves rea- dily yield a brownish-yellow de- docticn. which, on diluting it with water, changes to a brighter tinge; and, by adding a solution of pure pot-ash, acquires a darker shade: but, on dropping into it a little of the spirit of sal-ammoniac,becomes reddish-brown ; which may again be rendered of a golden tint, by the addition of pure water. On the whole, Pokner observes, that alum and gypsum appear to be best calculated for extracting a fine yellow colour from this plant; which the Germans industriously cultivate....Goats eat the species, but horses do not relish it; and it is totally refused by sheep, hogs, and cows. 2. The arvensis, Corn Saw- wort, or Way-tiiistlf, thrives in coin-fields and on road-sides : it flowers in the month of July ; and is often a very troublesome weed. ....When burnt, the ashes of this plant yield a very pure vegetable SAX S C A 447 alkali, or pot ash; on which ac- count it deserves to be propagated in the vicinity of glass-houses and soap manufactories...Neither cows, horses, nor swine eat this vegeta- ble ; but it is relished by goats: its young and tender tops are occa- sionally devoured by horses..... While young, the Way-thistle is eagerly consumed by sheep: when bruised and mixed with bran, this weed affords excellent food for every species of cattle. Its seeds are enveloped in large downy crowns ; which, according to Be- chsteii;, may be advantageously combined with wool, and thus con- verted into blankets and coarse cloth ; nor are they less useful for stuffing pillows, bolsters, and matresses. [Serratulus Spicela, is a native plant of the .United States, and a very useful diuretic ; it is called lobelia, by the people of the west- ern counties in this f^ate.] SAXIFRAGE, the Common, or White, Saxifraga granulata, L. an indigenous plant, growing on dry meadows and pastures, where it flowers in the month of April or May. Its perennral root consists of several small bulbs, which are externally of a reddish colour, and from which arise long hairy foot-stalks, that are furnish- ed with downy, kidney-shaped leaves.....The stems are thick, hairy towards the bottom, some- what branched, and from 12 to 24 inches in height, having a few small leaves, which sit closely to the stalk. The flowers grow in small clusters, and ore furnished with five white petals, that inclose ten stamina and two styles : the seeds are very numerous, small, and black. According to Lixx^vs, this plant possesses an acrid, pungent taste, which, however, is not con- firmed by the accounts of later bo- tanists : on the contrary, the grains, or tubercles forming the root, and also the leaves, are equally devoid of any sensible quality. The Common White Saxifrage was formerly in great request, for its supposed efficacy in curing ne- phritic and gravelly complaints: at present, it is totally disregard- ed ; and we should neither have given a coloured engraving, nor described the specific characters of this plant, if it were not uni- formly discovered in soils, beneath which a bed of Gravel will be found, at no considerable depth. Hence it affords a certain guide, by which surveyors and landed proprietors may be directed in digging for that useful fossil, espe- cially in places where other stones cannot be easily procured, for re- pairing public roads. SAxiFRAGK,the common,Great, and Dwarf Burnet. See Anise. SCAB, or Shab, a disorder pe- culiar to sheep : it is attended with an intense itching and scabby erup- tions on the skin, occasioned by an impure state of the blood ; and be- ing most prevalent in wet land, or during rainy seasons. As this dis- ease is generally believed to be in- fectious, the animals under its in- fluence ought to be carefully sepa- rated from the flock. Various remedies have been de- vised for the cure of the scab : the most common is that of washing the part with a decoction of strong tobacco in water, to which is ad- ded a small portion of oil of tur- pentine. Another application con- sists in rubbing the sheep with tobacco-water, sulphur, and alum 448 S C A boiled together, if the eruption extend over the whole animal ; but, if it be only partial, a mix- ture of tar and grease will be suf- ficient. In an inveterate scab, the anony- mous author of the " Farmer's Ca- lender" recommends sulphur and bay-salt, or purging salts, to be given internally, and the distem- pered beast to be dressed with a strong mercurial ointment mixed with Mel uEgi/ptiacum (for the pre- paration of which, see vol. iii. p. 121); or to be washed with a la- ther of black soap, or sublimate- water, lime-water, and oil of tur- pentine. The treatment, stated un- der the article Fly-struck, is likewise said to be efficacious in this malady. The following preparation is stated in the " Cardiganshire Land- lord's Advice to his Tenants," as be- ing effectual in removing the scab, namely : Take one pound of tobac- co, six quarts of beef brine, six penny-worths (or about one ounce) of white arsenic, and one pint of oil-of turpentine. These ingredi- ents are to be mixed with a small portion of tar, and boiled : previ- ously to the use of this liniment, it will be necessary to break every scab, and the sheep must be well rubbed, so that the liquid may tho- roughly penetrate. In some places, the animals af- fected with the scab, are usually washed with human urine: but such treatment is pernicious ; for, if the disorder be only partial, it will in the course of two or three days spread as far as the sheep may have been wetted. There are v arious other expedi- ents suggested for the cure of this eruption ; but we believe the Xol- SC A lowing to be one of the mo3t effi- cacious : it was communicated by Sir Joseph Banks, Bart, to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. in 17SJ. He directs of pure quick-silver 1 lb.; of Venice turpentine and common oil of tur- pentine half a pound each; and of hog's-lard four pounds, to be tritu- rated in a mortar, till the mercury be completely incorporated with the ingredients. The method of using this oint- ment is as follows : The head of the sheep must first be rubbed; after which a furrow is to be drawn with the finger, from the region between the ears, along the back to the point of the tail, so as to divide the wool, till the skin be ex- posed to the touch. Next, the fin- ger, being slightly dipped in the preparation, should be drawn along the skin. Similar lines should far- ther be opened down the shoulders and thighs, as far as the wool ex- tends ; and, if lhe animal be con- siderably infected, two other fur- rows are directed to be traced, pa- rallel to that on the back, and one should likewise be drawn down- wards, on each side between the fore and hind legs. After this application, the sheep may be turned among the flock, without any danger ofthe infection being communicated; because, in a few days, the blotches will dry up; the itching will cease; and the animals be completely cured ; nor have any instances occurred, in which such unction has been in the least injurious.....Sir J. Banks, however observes, that the exter- nal remedy ought not to be delay- ed to a later period than Michael- mas. SCABIOUS, or Scabiosa, L. a SC A S C A 449 ■genus of plants comprising forty- two species, three of which are indigenous and perennial, namely: 1. The succisa, or Devil's-bit Scabious, grows in fields and pas- tures, where it flowers from June till August. According to Lin- NjEUS, the dried leaves of this plant are employed to impart to wool a yellow or green colour; the latter of which, however, is more com- pletely extracted from the blos- soms, and may be communicated even to linen. A decoction of this herb is likewise of service, when applied, by way of fomentation, to the hoofs of horses injured by nails. Cattle derive nourishing food from this vegetable. 2. The ait'ensis, or Field Sca- bious, grows in similar places, and flowers in the month of July or August. This herb, is according to Dr. Withering, slightly as- tringent, bitter, and saponaceous; it is eaten by sheep and goats, but neitherrelishedby horses nor cows. From the Field Scabious, a green dye is likewise obtained for wool; and its reddish blue flowers are fondly visited by bees. 3. The columbaria, or Small Scabious, grows on dry hilly pas- tures, and blows from June to Sep- tember. The blueish-lilac flowers of this species are also very grate- ful to bees ; and the whole plant is eaten by horses, goats, and es- pecially by sheep. SCALDS, a term applied to burns, occasioned by boiling wa- in-, or any other corrosive mineral acids improvidently applied to the skin. Different modes of treatment have been adopted, in order to mi- tigate the pain which gene:ally at- tends such accidents. Thus, fro- VOL. IV. qucnt effusion of water, or im- mersion of the scalded part in that fluid, has been found very service- able ; nay, even the application of ice has occasionally been produc- tive of great benefit, when the skin was not broken, but in the contrary case, an emollient poul- tice should be immediately applied, and the treatment be similar to that of a fresh wound. If, however, the former method be proper, in such case it ought to be continued till the patient shivers from the xx>ld ; after which the scald must be continually moistened with lime-water ; and a liniment of this liquid and sweet-oil, beaten toge- ther, must be spread over the sore. By this management, the most ex- tensive scalds are speedily healed: it may likewise be pursued, where any part has become chafed, in consequence of hard ridiag. Vi- negar, both in a warm and cold state, has also been successfully applied to scakled parts ; and, lat- terly, the oil of turpentine, with such effect, that the pain was fre- quently removed in an hour, and blisters were effectually prevent- ed. In either case, we conceive, the skin ought to be sound. SCALD-HEAD, or Tinea ca- pitis, a disease chiefly incident to chiklren, born of scrophulous pa- rents : it is infectious only by con- tact, and appears to be seated in the roots of the hair, which pro- trudenumerous small vesicles emit- ting an ichorous humour, and at length degenerating into ulcers that form a dry scab, or hard crust, sometimes half, or a whole inch in thickness, spreading gradually over the whole head. Causes....Thh malignant erup- tion often arises from uncleanli- 3M -;jO s c a SC A ness, improper or coarse food; but more frequently from the conta- minated humours of wet nurses. Cure.....The principal attention should be directed to the removal of the diseased parts, either by shaving or cutting off the hair, or by applying an adhesive plaster, made of equal parts of bees-wax, pitch, and mutton-suet. After re- moving this detergent application, it will be necessary to wash the head with sub-tepid soap-water; to plunge and clease the whole body in a lukewarm bath, frequent- ly ; and, in every respect to ob- serve a very moderate and whole- some diet: hence salt-meat, pick- les, bacon, pork, and even fish, will be improper. At the same time, the bowels should be regu- lated by the mildest laxatives; such as a few grains of rhubarb, with a dram of cream of tartar. Numer- ous and whimsical remedies have been employed in this complaint, with various degrees of success; but we shall state only such as may be resorted to with safety.... Of this description is the Sharp Dock (Rumex acutus, L.) which may with advantage be used in de- coctions, both externally (with the addition of soap converted into a lather) and internally as a diet- drink ; for a concentrated extract of this medicinal plant, if taken in doses of one or two tea-spoonfuls mixed with honey or treacle, not only operates by the urinary pas- sages, but also promotes evacua- tions by stool. The leaves of the Common Colts-foot (Tu^nilugoFar- fara, L.), either alone, or in com- bination with the Sharp Dock, may be given with equal benefit.....It would disgrace the healing art, to relate the various and absurd remedies that hMve str;:;u^usly been recommanded by medical writers, for the cure of the scald- head : hence we shall observe, that the most melancholy effects have often followed the use of repellent plasters and ointments, such as loss of sight, deafness, palsy, emacia- tion, or malignant eruptions and ulcers in other parts of the body. If the treatment before suggest- ed, prove unavailing, it may be concluded that the disease proceeds from an hereditary taint, and re- quires more active remedies ; for instance, mercurials, for the pre- scription of which, a professional man ought to be consulted....In young infants, however, it is fre- quently cured by changing the nurse, or weaning the child, and re- moving it from a moist or marshy, to a dry and airy situation ; be- cause moisture, in our opinion, is oneof the causes predisposing chil- dren to this malady. Should the itching of the head become very troublesome, it may generally be allayed by gently rubbing the spot with equal parts of sweet-almond- oil, and the juice expressed from the leaves of the Common Bur- dock, previously simmered toge- ther over a moderate fire, till they become intimately blended into a soapy liniment, on adding a few grains of pearl-ash. [See articles Kalmia, Melia.] SC AMMONY, a concrete gum- my-resinous juice obtained from the roots of the Convolvulus Scam- mania, or Syrian Bindweed, an ex- otic plant, growing in Asiatic Tur- key. The best Scammony is im- ported from Aleppo, in light, spongy, friable masses, of a shining blackish ash-colour. It possesses a faint, unpleasant smell, and a bit- terish, pungent taste. In its medicinal effects, Scam.- SC A S C A 451 inony is an efficacious, but violent purgative ; but, if triturated with sugar, almonds, or gum-arabic, it becomes sufficiently mild, and safe in its operation. It may also be dissolved in a strong decoction of liquorice, then decanted ; in which form it is not disagreeable to the palate, and proves a gentle laxa- tive. The common dose of Scam- mony is from three to twelve grains.....If accidentally too large a portion of this drastic medicine 6hould have been swallowed, the most effectual antidotes will be copious draughts of mucilaginous preparations, or an immediate eme- tic. [The true Scammony plant was found in Sussex county, (N. J.) last yearbyafriend,vvhocoinmunicated the fact to the editor.] SCARLET FEVER, is a con- tagious inflammatory disease, at- tended with a bright-red efflores- cence of the skin, which appears on the third or fourth day, with a slight swelling of the face : the redness gradually spreads, but va- nishes after three or four days, when the scarf-skin generally peels off in branny scales. Though a sore throat in most cases occurs, it is by no means a necessary symp- tom. The proximate cause of this ma- lady, appears to be an unknown contagious matter propagated by the atmosphere ; though the body may be predisposed to receive the infection, from sudden changes of cold and heat, rainy weather, and indigestion. Cure ;...In this formidable disor- der, which often terminates fatally in three or four day s,emetics should be early and repeatedly adminis- tered ; as such evacuations, ac- cording to Dr. Wii-herixc, and our own experience, are the re- medy suggested by Nature ; after which diuretics, such as vinegar and honey, with a few grains of nitre, will be of essential benefit. Great care, however, is necessary to avoid whatever may induce a looseness of the bowels, which is seldom salutary in this complaint. A gargle consisting of equal parts of lime-water and vinegar, or bar- ley-water and honey acidulated with vitriolic acid, will be very use- ful in reducing the inflammation and swelling in the throat. The diet must be light and diluting, while the patient ought to abstain from all animal food ; but he may take frequent draughts of thin gruel, barley-water, and the like, with currant-jelly. His body should be kept moderately warm in bed ; and the room fumigated with vine- gar and camphor, placed in a pro- per vessel over a burning lamp, in order to purify the air. When the fever and eruption cease, a dose or two of mild aperient medicines, may be given with safety and ad- vantage. Should the legs be remarkably swollen, after the other symptoms have subsided, a decoction of the Seneka root with vinegar and ho- ney (at the same time bathing the lower extremeties, or the whole body, in warm water) will afford the greatest relief. But, if the in- flammation in the throat threaten suffocation, or be attended with violent fever, medical advice should be instantly procured ; as the pro- gress of this epidemic is uncom- monly rapid, and often mortal. [This is a common disease in the United States, and frequently very mortal. In addition to the above remarks, the reader is refer* red to Dr. Rush's works, for an 452 SCI SC I nble account of the disease, and the most successful method of cure.] Sciatica. See Rheumatism. SCIRRHUS is a hard, unequal tumor, which occasionally appears in different viscera, such as the liver and womb, but more fre- quently in the glandular parts, for instance, the breasts, arm-pits, and about the neck. It mostly arises in consequence of inflammation, though it may also occur sponta- neously, in persons of a heavy, phlegmatic, or scrophulous habit. A scirrhus may likewise be gradu- ally induced by passions, especially those of a depressing nature ; by gross food ; the abuse of acids ; external violence ; sudden cold ; suppressed evacuations, and vari- ous other causes. The deeree of danger, attending scirrhous indurations, varies ac- cording to the nature of the dis- eased part, and state of the disor- der ; though an internal tumor is always more dangerous and diffi- cult to be removed, than one situ- ated externally ; as the former may be productive of great injury to the animal frame, by compressing the adjacent parts, whence palsy, Colic, &c. are the concomitant evils. As long, however, as the swelling remains in an indolent state, no immediate danger need be apprehended; but, when it once becomes painful, or ulcerat- ed, there will be just reason to fear that it may change into a Cancer. Treatment:...AS. the patient be "in other respects healthy, and the tu- mor but recently formed, its dis- persion may be effected by the in- ternal use of resolvents ; for in- stance, the miidest preparations of mercury (calomel), and antimonial wine, with the decoction of the woods: externally the warm gums, in plasters, such as sagapenum and ammoniac ; or the volatile lini- ment, or even a solution of sal- ammoniac in vinegar, have often been productive of good effects; but, if the patient be advanced in years, or the swelling painful, great caution becomes necessary ; lest, by any improper application, the disorder assume a cancerous taint. Various other more potent reme« dies, such as the hemlock and fox- glove, have been recommended, with a view to effect a resolution ; but they have numerous instances failed of success. In desperate cases, therefore, where medicines proves fruitless, the tumor must be timely extirpated by the knife, pro- vided that the situation ofthe parts admit of an operation, and a free discharge. But, if neither of these objects can be attained, it will be advisable to promote the formation of an abscess, as the only means of removing the complaint. If. the liver be thus diseased, it may be ascertained by the follow- ing symptoms: tumor and hard- ness on the right side about the short ribs ; pain, particularly when lying on the opposite side ; ema- ciation of the upper parts, and dropsical swelling of the lower ex- tremities. In this case, the bowels should be regularly opened by the mildest laxatives; while the pati- ent's diet ought to be bland and nourishing. The nitric acid, in the proportion of one dram per day, diluted with three or four pints of water, with the addition of some yyrup of marsh-mallows, to be used as the common bever- age, has lately been prescribed SCO SCR 453 with great advantage; but of which we have not had sufficient experience. Hence we would give the preference to the acetated kali, or regenerated tartar of the shops, to be taken in doses of 2 or 3 drams per day, dissolved in water; being a medicine from which the greatest benefit has often been de- rived. With respect to the analysis of a new remedy against scirrhus and cancer (mentioned in the first vol.) we understand, that though the ad- ministration of this pretended spe- cific was, in several cases, appa- rently attended with good effects, yet there is no attested instance, in which it has completed a cure : on the contrary, the patients who credulously resorted to this pro- fessional empiric, are said to have uniformly been disappointed in their expectations, so that we may save ourselves the trouble of ana- lyzing a nostrum which its sup- posed inventor (though he has of- fered to submit it to the test of chemical inquiry), carefully carries about in his pocket, and adminis- ters to the patient in his presence. SCORZONlsRA,the Common, or Hcorzonera Hispanica, L. an ex- otic plant, which has long been raised in British gardens for culi- nary purposes, and especially as an ingredient in soups, on account of its palatable and nourishing roots. It is propagated by seeds: the plants should be carefully thinned, and cleared from all weeds; for, otherwise, they will never attain any considerable size. The root of the scorzonera ought, before it is boiled, to be de- prived of its black rind, and im- mersed in sold water for half an hour: thus, its flatulent effects will be greatly prevented, and it will also become less bitter. [To raise this^rplant. In the spring dig the earth one foot deep ; open trenches four orfivc inches in depth, into which put about one and half inches of wpll broken and rotten manure ; cover this in part with the earth taken from the trenches, leaving enough to cover the seeds about one inch. The trenches must be dug at the dis- tance of nine or ten inches from one another : and the seeds planted three or four inches a part. The roots must not be gathered until the year after the seed has been sown. They last from three to four years, according to the qua- lity ofthe earth, and the care be- stowed on them. Mawe says, the roots will at- tain perfection in autumn, and con- tinue good all winter 'till spring follovvir,\e. He directs the seed to be sown in April, and not before : to plant the roots five or six inches apart.] Scotch-fir. See Fir-tree. Scrambling - rocket. See Mustard, the Hedge. SCRATCHES, a distemper in the heels of horses. Under the article Grxase, we have already stated the method which is generally pursued in the treatment of this disorder: we shall therefore only observe, by way of supplement, that if the scratches prove obstinate, and the sores be deep, the following heal- ing ointment may with advantage be applied : Take of Venice tur- pentine 4 oz. quicksilver 1 oz. in- corporate them properly, and then add honey and mutton-suet,of each 2 ounces ; anoint the diseased parts once or twice a day ; and, if the 454 SCR SCR animal be of a full or gross habit, bleeding and purging,togetherwith proper alterations, must be resort- ed to ; in order to correct a vitiat- ed state of the blood. Should, however, any cavities be formed in the horse's heels, they must first be laid open ; as it is absolut- ly necessary to apply the dressing to the bottom, in order to effect a radical cure. [SCREW, Mr. Voight, chief coiner in the mint of the United States, has invented an engine for turning screws of any givendiame- ter, and of any number of threads, to an inch. This invention was first designed for cutting fusees for watcher,, so as uniformly to ad- just them to the length of the main-spring...a thing hitherto very difficult in practice, and without which it is impossible a watch can keep regular time. By the aid of this machine a person of common mechanical abilities, and without any knowledge of mathematics, may adjust the fusee to the spring Avith the greatest exactness.....or turn metalic cylinders and cones of any length or diameter, to a ma- thematical certainty. We understand that Mr.Voight, from patriotic principles, has no intention of obtaining a patent, but toleaveitopentohisfellowcitizens.] Scrogs. See Sloe-tree. Scrooby-grass. See Scurvy- grass, the Common. SCRQPHULA, or Evil, is a swelling of the conglobate glands, particularly about the neck and ears ; though sometimes extend- ing to the arm-pit and the groin. In its progress, the joints and bones are liable to be affected. Scrophulous tumors may be dis- tinguished from scirrhous, by their soft and moveable state, they sometimes disappear in one part, and rise again in another. This complaint, however, is not confin- ed to the external parts, but occa- sionally attacks the lungs, mesen- tery and other organs ; in which cases a swelling of the upper lip will indicate the concealed evil.... Children afflicted with this malady are generally of a florid complex- ion ; they have a soft skin and tumefied abdomen : such indivi- duals attain to a maturity of un- derstanding superior to others of the same age. In some countries, the disease isendemial: thus, it is uncommonly prevalent in Britain, Holland, Switzerland, and Carin. thia. Scrophula often frustrates the efforts ofthe healing art; though it seldom proves fatal, while it is confined to the external glands; but, if it extend its influence to the pulmonary organs, it frequently produces tubercles, and eventually consumption. When the joints are diseased, it occasions tumors, stiff- ness of the limb* ulcers, decay of the bones, and often emaciation of the body, till death closes the fatal scene. Causes : Whatever tends to pro- duce a viscid lymph, and to de- bilitate the constitution in general, such as coarse and acid diet, espe- cially pastry ; moist air ; damp ha- bitations ; colds ; want of exercise; impure water; and the vitiated milk of nurses ; all may engender the evil. Farther, when the scro- phulous taint is once introduced into the constitution, it generally appears after the small-pox, mea- sles, and even in consequence of external injuries. Whether this disorder be hereditary and conta- gious, is a point on which the opi- nions aie diviUed; but whether it SC R S C U 453 may, or may not, be communicated by contract, prudence would dic- tate, that healthy children should not be suffered to sleep with scro- phulous persons. Cure ......A great variety of re- medies has been devised for re- moving scrophula: the principal difficulty in extirpating this ma- lady, however, arises from the cir- cumstance, that it may remain con- cealed for a long time, and thus become deeply rooted in the con- stitution, before its effects are evi- dent. Hence, we shall confine our account to such remedies as have generally been attended with salu- tary effects. In order to resolve the viscid lymph, and to strengthen the sys- tem, the use of Peruvian bark, in the state of powder, combined with hemlock, forms an excellent reme- dy ; but the proper closes ought to be regulated by a medical practi- tioner. Sea-water and sea-bathing, as well as moderate exercise, es- pecially in a warm, serene atmos- phere, are alike conducive to re- covery. During this course, the bowels should be gently and regu- larly opened ; the diet ought to be light, consisting of nutritive food, easily digestible ; and the sleep must also be moderate, not exceed- ing seven or eight hours in adults, and nine or ten hours, in children. Frictions will be serviceable, by promoting the circulation of the fluids, and tending to strengthen the solids. Hemlock-plasters ap- plied to the tumors, and burnt sponge combined with small por- tions of black pepper, taken before breakfast, have frequently been of service in reducing them, especi- ally if assisted by sea-bathing..... Mercurials and antimcnials are powerful, though precarious, re- medies ; and if the former be em- ployed in consequence of medical advice, they shoul^never be given in such quantities as to induce sali- vation, which would doubtless ag- gravate the disorder. Milk-whey, with the dead nettles, has also • occasionally been found useful; but we forbear to mention the ab- surd sympatheticremedies former- ly resorted to, for the cure of the evil; as these superstitious prac- tices are, at present, in vogue only among the vulgar. If, however, none of the me- dicines before enumerated, have the effect of dispersing the swel- lings ; on the contrary, if a suppu- ration of the tumors be likely to ensue, they should never be open- ed, till the tumid indurations are softened ; or, it will be more safe and advisable lo suffer them spon- taniously to break, without any ap- plication of emollient, or other poultices ; as the subsequent heal- ing of the ulcers will thus be great- ly promoted. The nitric acid has, lately, been extolled as an efficacious remedy against hard indolent swellings, and particularly those of a scrcphu- lous nature : in the latter cases, it is given according the age of the patient, in closes of from 20 to 60, and even 80 drops, in water sweet- ened with honey ; and which must be taken in the course of 24 hours. Should it occasion nausea, and injure the enamel of the teeth, these inconveniences may be re- medied by diminishing the num- ber of drops, and adding more sugar or honey. In some instances, this acid has proved beneficial; but it requires more time, posi- tively to ascertain its effects. SCULL, is a conjunction of bones, eight in number, surround- 456 S C U SCU ed by a membrane called the peri- cranium, and forming a cavity for the brain ; which is thus complete- ly inclosed and defended:...In an infantile state, the scull is of so delicate a texture, as to admit of • being moulded into almost any form ; a circumstance, on which the shape of the heads of different nations chiefly depends ; but, in an adult state, they acquire so con- crete a form, as to represent one solid bone, and are afterwards more easily broken than separat- ed....The edges or margins of the bones are distinguished by certain lia.es, called sutures. The principal injuries, to which the scull is exposed, proceed from external violence; for instance, blows and falls, by which the bones may hefractureel. The dan- ger attending such accidents, va- ries according to the more or less complicated nature of the fracture, and the relative health of the pa- tient: for, if his constitution be de- bilitated, or the humours be viti- ated, the most trivial contusion of the head may prove fatal. The symptoms by- which a frac- ture of the scull may be ascertain- ed, are as follows : the points ofthe bones may sometimes be felt; the patient is afflicted with giddiness, drowsiness, stupefaction, loss of sight; and, when the concussion h.is been violent, blood is discharg- ed from the eyes, nose, and ears ; which last circumstance generally denotes a compression of the brain. If, however, several of these ap- pearances concur, and the diseased part cannot be distinguished, the head should be deliberately, but firmly pressed in every direction ; thus, the patient will, in most in- stances, point out the seat of the injury, bv his own sensations of pain or uneasiness, when the frac- tured part is touched. As these dangerous cases re- quire the application of the trepan, without delay, we shall only state a few particulars relative to the dietetic treatment, after the opera- tion is performed. The patient ought to be kept in the most qui- escent state : his bowels must be regulated by gentle aperients, such as are the most agreeable to the taste and stomach, in order to avoid vomiting ; the footl should consist of the lightest and most digestible vegetables ; while he must cau- tiously abstain from all fermented and spirituous liquors, and drink barley-water, or other diluents, in which a few grains of nitre have been dissolved. A small scar generally remains after the wound is healed ; but, if a considerable part of the integu- ments have been lacerated, or de- stroyed, the bone will be covered only by a thin skin, over which the convalescent ought to wear a round plate of tin or silver, adapt- ed to the purpose, and lined with flannel, to protect it from external injury. SCULL-CAP, the Common, or Blue, or Hooded Willow-herd, Scutellaria galericulata, L. a native perennial plant, g-.ov.ing on the banks of rivers, and the borders of ponds ; flowering in the month of July or August....Its square stem attains the height of two feet: the herb is eaten by cows, sheep and goats ; but is refused by horses and hogs....CARTHEU£ER, a Ger- man writer, informs us, that the whole of this astringent vegetable may be employed for dyeing black, with the addition of green vitriol. SCURVY, or Scorbutus, denotes a putrescent, or rather dissolvent SCU S C U 457 slate of the blood. This term is often misapplied to a variety of ei-uptive complaints, which have no specific names. The scurvy has been divided into several species, an investigation of which would be foreign to our pur- pose ; especially as the land-scurvy only differs from the sea-scurvy, by being less severe. Symptoms :...Debility ; dejection of spirits ; bleeding and decay of the gums; fetid breath; spots of various colours, but mostly of a livid hue, on the thighs, legs, and particularly at the roots of the hair. In the progress of this malady, blood issues from different parts of the body, and ulcers are formed, which emit only an ichorous hu- mour, and are with difficulty healed. The patient is now subject to great pain and fainting, on the least mo- tion ; or, when exposed to the fresh air, his feet swell ; breathing is impeded : and at length diarrhoea, dropsy, or fainting, terminates his sufferings. Causes ......Low, and damp habi- tations ; an inactive life ; suppress- ed or excessive evacuations ; im- pure air; inattention to cleanliness; depressing passions ; coarse, un- wholesome, salted, and smoked food, when taken for a considera- ble time, and without a proper share of vegetables ; foul water; want of malt liquor.....to the in- fluence of all which causes, seafar- ing persons are peculiarly subject, as well as the inhabitants of northern climates. Cure:.....It is evident from the preceding statement, that the prin- cipal relief must be afforded by a diet and regimen exactly opposite to the cause. Thus, if the scurvy originated from low, damp, or con- fined air, the patient must be re- vol. IV. moved to an open, dry, and warmer situation : if it arose from inacti- vity, a sedentary life, or depressing passions, recourse should be had to exercise in the open air ; and he should endeavour to divert his mind by cheerful company and pleasing amusements. Suppressed evacuations must be restored with precaution, and by mild aperients, the most eligible of which are, ta- marinds, prunes, cream of tartar, and rhubarb......When the scurvy proceeds chiefly from the long-con- tinued use of salted provisions, it will be necessary to take medici- nally, large portions of the juice of lemons, oranges, limes, tamarinds; water-cresses, brook-lime, scurvy- grass, and fresh vegetables of every description ; but, where the latter cannot be procured, pickled or pre- served cabbages, cucumbers, oni- ons, gooseberries, and other fruits, as well as horse-radish and mus- tard, may be employed with equal advantage. At first, however, the patient ought to eat or drink the remedies above specified with great moderation; in order to avoid a diarrhoea or flux. For common beverage, good cyder, perry, whey, 6pruce-beer, or a simple decoction of the spruce-fir (of which last, two pints are to be drunk every day) will prove highly beneficial: with the same intention, Bishop Berkley recommends tar-water. .....One of the most efficacious an- ti-scorbutics, however, is Saur Kraut, which alone hasoften check- ed the progress of scurvy, under the most alarming appearances.... See also Wort. Considerable benefit has, in se- veral instances, been derived from a decoction of the Water Dock (Rumex aquaticus, L.) by boiling one pound of the root in six pints 3 N 458 S C U SCY of water, and adding an ounce or two of crystal* of tartar, till one- third part of the liquor be evaporat- ed ; of which, from half to a whole pint, is to be drunk every day. If, during this vegetable course, the body should be costive, and the skin dry, the mild aperients before mentioned, and warm bathing with aromatic plants, may be resorted to with advantage; though the lat- ter must be omitted, when there is any apprehension of hemorrhages. ...The mouth should be rinsed with a decoction of the Peruvian bark, to which a small portion of tincture of myrrh may be added: farther, lint dipped into a simple decoction of the bark, and applied to the ul- cers, will be found very useful. Lastly, if the limbs be swollen, or the joints stiff*, it will be advisable to foment them with warm vine- gar ; or to bathe the parts affected in tepid water. SCURVY-GRASS, or Coch. learia, L. a genus of plants com- prising eight species, five of which are indigenous: and the principal of these are: 1. The Armoracia. See Horse- radish. 2. The officinalis, Common ScURVY-GRASS,Ol* ScRUBY-GRASSJ growing on sea-shores, and in mountainous situations, where it flowers in the months of April and May...When cultivated in gardens, this maritime plant retains its properties, without any sensible change. It possesses a considera- ble degree of acrimony, which re- sides in a very subtle essential oil: and, as an anti-scorbutic, its effects are sufficiently ascertained. In the pituitous asthma, and chronic rheu- matism, the scury-grass is a pow- erful remedy. It is likewise a pun- gent stimulating medicine, which may be advantageously employed for promoting the fluid secretions. .....A distilled water, and a con- serve, are prepared from its leaves; and the expressed juice is pre- scribed with that of oranges, among other anti-scorbutics....It may also be used as a salad...Cows cat this plant, but it is refused by horses, goats, and sheep. 3. The Anglica, English Scuh. vy-grass, or Spoonwort, grows on sea-shores, in muddy soils, or salt-marshes, and flowers in the month of May....This species pos- sesses similar properties with the preceding, but in an inferior degree. 4. The Coronopus, Common Wort-cress, or Swine's-cress, thrives in corn-fields, on rubbish, and road-sides; blows from June till August....It is a palatable salad- herb, on which account the Ger- mans cultivate it in gardens. These different species of scur- vy-grass may be propagated by seeds, which are to be sown in July, in a moist soil; because, if committed to the ground in the spring, they seldom prosper :...... when the young plants appear, they should be thinned, so as to leave them at the distance of about six inches apart. Those of a pro- per size may then be transplanted; and, in the succeeding spring, they will be fit for use : the remaining plants may be left for seed, which will attain to maturity in the month of June. Scurv^ -grass,the Scottish. See Bindweed, the Sea. SCYTHE, or Sithe, an imple- ment of husbandry employed for the purpose of cutting grass, and also for the mowing of corn. The well-known Hainault, or F'rench Scythe, for reaping whear, has of late years met with many SEA SEA 459 advocates in Britain. It consists, the land ; in consequence of which, according to the description given valuable tracts will, in the course by Dr. Templeman, of a short of time, be completely inundated: blade, being about one-third ofthe hence it has been deemed neces- length of those commonly used in sary to resort to embankments, or England; with a wooden handle artificial dams, in order to repel to be held in the right hand, hav- the inroads of this element; and ing a bend and a broad rounded with a view to facilitate such na- piece at the upper end, for the tional object the Society for the support of the arm. Farther, an Encouragement of Arts, he. have iron hook is fixed to a staff, four offered liberal premiums. Among feet in length, made of oak or ash, the successful candidates, was Mr. to be used with the left hand, with John Harriott, of Rochford, a mortise near the end, for the Kent, who effectually secured 142 conveniency of the husbandman's acres of land from the sea, by carryingthe scythe on his shoulder, means of banks ; and on whom, On the handle of the scythe, and in 1785, they conferred their gold staff of the hook, afabout half a medal. In 1787, they bestowed yard from the bottom, are placed their silver medal on the Rev. leather loops for the fingers, to Henry Bate Dudley, for em- keep the two grasps at proper dis- banking, draining,and freeing from tances from the ground. the encroachments of the German [A representation ofthe Silesian Ocean, between 3 and 400 acres of scythe and cradle, is given by Dr. land, that was formerly a stagnant Willich ; it has a straight handle marsh; but which, in consequence and four teeth, parallel to the of his exertions, was rendered blade. The American tool it is worth 20s. per acre, on a lease for well known, has five teeth ; and twenty-one years. In the year the handle is somewhat crooked, 1800, the Society adjudged their which tends greatly to diminish the gold medal to the same gentleman, labour in using it, and to keep the for his farther endeavours in that grain upon the long teeth, until the laudable pursuit. The tract, thus reaper throws it off. The heads obtained, amounts to 206 acres ; of the grain are all laid one way. and is defended from the ocean by The teeth are made of ash; that an embankment of earth only, and wood being tough, and yet yielding which extends nearly one mile in gently to pressure.] length. It was commenced on a SEA, strictly speaking, signi- base of 32 feet, and carried up to fies a large body of water, which the height of seven foct, for the is connected with the ocean, and more easy ascent and descent of partly encompassed by land ; such the waves ; a plane of five feet be- are the Baltic, and Mediterranean ing left on the top, and the land- Seas : though the term sea is, also, side of the embankment made as frequently employed to denote the nearly perpendicular as the security immense fluid mass that surrounds of the base would permit. This the globe. land is divided into four extensive It appears from actual observa- marshes, by means of twelve-feet tion, that the sea, in some parts of ditches ; and all superfluous niois- the world, daily encroaches upon ture is removed by numerous small 460 SEA SEA drains or rills, that are cut in dif- ferent parts of the tract....Consis- tently with our limits, we cannot descend to particulars on this in- teresting subject; but, as nume- rous practical hints may be derived from the account of the different expedients ingeniously adopted, the inquisitive reader will consult the 4th, 6th, 14th, and 18th vols, of the Transactions of the Society be- fore mentioned ; where he will meet with a clear and explicit nar- rative. SEA-AIR, denotes that part of the atmosphere, which is incum- bent on the sea. Experience evinces, that this air is salubrious, and singularly bene- ficial in the cure of particular dis- eases : hence, a voyage has often been successfully undertaken by consumptive patients, and such as were afflicted with asthmas, spit- ting of blood, and dropsies ; espe- cially if directed to a warmer coun- try. These excursions have, like- wise, been found very serviceable during the sickly season that an- nually prevails in the West-Indies, and other hot climates. Dr. Lind (Essay on the Diseases incident to Europeans in Hot Climates, 8vo. 1768) has therefore judiciously- proposed a " floating factory," or infirmary ship, to be stationed at a small distance from the shore, as being an effectual mean of preserv- ing numerous lives. He observes, that there are certain fevers, which require an immediate change of air ; as, otherwise, the most pow- erful and appropriate medicines will prove ineffectual ; and, if a patient were removed to such ves- sel, as soon a3 the symptoms of the disease appear, he is of opinion, that the latter will not only be milder, out the cure will be facili- tated ; and the recovery of the pa- tient more completely ensured. In consequence of this preservative measure, the constitution will be gradually inured to the climate ; and thus be rendered less suscep. tible of injurious impressions, ei- ther from the atmosphere, or the exhalations of the soil. Sea-anemone, or Sea-nettles. See Animal Flower. Sea-Cale. See Kale, the Sea. Sea-Caebage ; orSea-Colewort. See Cabbage, the Common. Sea-Cushion ; or Sea-Gilliflow- er. See Thrift, the Common. Sea-Grass. See Saltwort, the Jointed. Sea-Holly. See Eryngo. Sea-Lavender. See Laven- der-thrift. Sea-Parsley. See Scottish Lovage. Sea-Parsnip. See Samphire, the Prickly. SEA-SICKNESS, a convulsive affection of the stomach, attended with great nausea and vomiting: it is occasioned by the irregular motion of the vessel. The sea-sickness generally at- tacks persons unaccustomed to voyages on the ocean, particularly if they embark in a small vessel, which is not deeply laden. On the other hand, passengers in very large ships are less violently affect- ed; as the waves make only a slight impression on the latter. People advanced in years, and also children (especially, if they be of a dark complexion) are less liable to this complaint than those who are in the prime of life, and pos- sess a fair skin. Its duration is very unequal; in general, only for one or two days ; though it some- times continues for weeks, or months, and even during the whole SEA SEA 461 voyage: in which latter case, it induces head-ach ; fever ; intense thirst; a quick pulse ; and a total inability to retain either solid or liquid food on the stomach ;.....af- fections, that are always very dif- ficult to remove. But, though sea-sickness be thus irksome and distressing to the pa- tient during its continuance, it has often proved highly beneficial in numerous diseases, particularly in asthmatic and pulmonary cases: very few instances, indeed, have occurred, in which fatal conse- quences have resulted from this temporary complaint. Among the numerous remedies devised, with a view to alleviate this, debilitating indispostion, one or two draughts of sea-water have been found very serviceable ; for, though extremely disgusting, that fluid will clear the first passages, if they be foul or oppressed, and thus afford effectual relief, when the nausea and sickness which it neces- sarily occasions, have abated. The frequent application of xther to the temples and nostrils, together with a tea-spoonful of that liquor, diluted in a glass of water, and oc- casionally taken, has likewise been attended with good effects. In order to mitigate, and if pos- sible, to prevent the violence of that complaint, it has farther been recommended, never to embark, immediately after meals; and, when on ship-board, to partake very moderately of food, which ought to consist of bread and fresh meat (at least as long as this article can be procured), to be eaten in a cold state, with the addition of mustard, or pepper. [Avoid all sweet, savoury, or fat food.] The drink should, likewise, be sparing- ly, but frequently taken, and ought to consist of lemonade; tart wines mixed with Seltzer water, and fer- mented with pounded sugar ; or other liquors containing a large portion of fixed air. Passengers at sea should wear flannel shirts and drawers, toge- ther with trowsers and other warm clothing ; because these simple ex- pedients have frequently prevented sickness, vomiting, and the nu- merous symptoms accompanying such convulsive efforts. They ought likewise to swallow, occa- sionally, a few drops of the spirit of vitriolic .ether, commonly called the dulcified spirit of vitriol, either on lump sugar, or mixed with peppermint-water; and, if they be troubled with a slight diarrhoea, it will be proper to administer a few grains of rhubarb; or (which is preferable, if it can be effected) a clyster, consisting of Venice soap, dissolved in salt-water. Farther, they should, as long as possible, remain on deck, even during rainy and stormy weather; because the breeze arising from the sea, is fur more salubrious than the confined and stagnant air of the cabin. No passengers, however, ought to watch the motion of the waves, particularly when the element is violently agitated by tempests; nor should they indulge in sloth or in- activity, but take proper and fre- quent exercise, such as working at the pump, he., for indolence only tends to aggravate the disorder.... Lastly whatever may disturb or enervate the mind, such as read- ing, intense study, or meditation on gloomy subjects, must be pur- posely avoided, and no opportu- nity neglected, of participating in innocent mirth, and mental relaxa- tion. 462 SEA SEA [In addition to the above direc- tions, for the relief of the distress- ing sensation, the following direc- tions may be attended to. 1. When nausea comes on, and cannot be subdued, the sufferer should place himself in an hori- zontal position, shut his eyes, and be perfectly still, and in the in- tervals of vomiting, take small draughts of sea-water, or in prefer- ence, an infusion of chamomile and ginger. The editor has been told by a sufferer with this complaint, that preserved ginger occasionally tak- en, is highly refreshing. Dr. Ed. Miller advises opiates, with great propriety, and says, he was told that spiced wine is a com- mon remedy on board of the pack- et boats, plying between the Bri- tish ports and the adjacent conti- nent. A writer in the 7th volume of the Monthly Magazine (London,) says " the first and greatest pre- ventive of sea-sickness, is, the ac- quiring the habit of being able to walk and stand upright without reeling to and fro ; for it is, in my opinion, and I speak from ex- perience in my own person,that the continual reeling motion of the body is the real cause of sea-sick- ness." For an excellent paper on the subject of the sea-sickness, by Dr. Miller, the reader is referred to the N. York Medical Repository, vol. 4. p. 34."] SEA-SLUDGE, orSALT-cLOD, is the surface, or that part of a saline marsh, which is deposited by the high tides. It is much richer, and less intermixed with sand, than the land which is more regularly overflowed. Sea-sludge is an excellent ma- nure ; and though it be attainable only in a few situations, yet it de- serves to be more generally em- ployed. The best sludge is com- pletely covered with grass: it is cut out of the marshes, to the depth of a spade, and, during the summer, is carted upon the land ; on the surface of which it is spread, and suffered to remain in small clods, till it has become tho- roughly mellowed by the winter frosts. It is then pulverized, by passing a harrow over the soil, af- ter which it is ploughed-in with a thin furrow, for spring corn. The proportion of this manure necessary for an acre, varies in different places, according to the nature of the ground ; but, in ge- neral, it will be advisable to spread as much as will form a coat, or stratum, about an inch and a half or two inches in thickness. In some part of Lancashire and Cheshire, sea-sludge is occasion- ally employed as a substitute for marie, to which it is greatly supe- rior, both on account of its ameli- orating properties, and the longer duration of its effects ; instances having occurred, in which land, manured with such mire to the depth of two inches, has retained its fertility thirty years. SEA-WATER,denotesthe salt- water of the ocean. The salts Which this fluid con- tains, are, 1. Common marine, or culii.ary salt, compounded of fossil alkali, or Soda, and marine acid ; 2. Salited magnesia, or a saline substance formed by the combina- tion of marine acid with magne- sian earth ; 3. A small portion of Selenite, or gypsum....The quan- tity of saline matter obtained from the water of the British seas, is estimated by Nkwmann, to b* SEA about one ounce in each pint..... See also the article Salt, p. 14. Sea-water is of great utility for various purposes. It affords an excellent manure, either sprinkled on land, by means of the machine described in the article Kitchen- Garden ; or, when it is mixed with putrescible matters, formed into a compost, and distributed over the soil. In a medicinal view, Dr. Russel Dissertation concern- ing the Use of Sea- Water in Dis- eases of the Glands, he. 8vo.) states the following cases, in which this fluid may be drunk with ad- vantage, namely, in all glandular obstructions, as well as in swell- ings of the neck, and other parts ; in all cutaneous diseases; in re- cent obstructions of the liver and kidnies (provided the stone in the latter be not large) ; in broncho- cele, or tumors in the wind-pipe ; and, lastly, for the prevention of the bilious colics, to which mari- ners are frequently subject. As many persons, afflicted with the complaints before mentioned, have not an opportunity of resort- ing to the sea-side, for the benefit of the water, different expedients have been devised, to preserve this fluid from putrefaction. For such purpose. Mr. Henry made a va- riety of experiments, which are related in the first vol. of the " Memoirs of the Literary and Phi- losophical Society of Manchester:" ...the result of these, however, ex- ceeding our limits, we shall merely observe that, from his first attempt, two scruples of quick-lime appear to be sufficient for preserving one quart of sea-water. To purify the sea-water from its saline ingredients, so as to render it fresh, is an object ofthe greatest importance to navigators ;' for vu- SEA 463 rious accidents may happen, by which the stock of this necessary article on ship-board may be spiit, or become corrupted....In the year 1734, Mr. Appleby discovered a process, which for a short time was adopted in the Navy. It consisted in distilling sea-water with a cer- tain quantity of lapis infernalis (which has since been discovered by Dr. Butler to be simply the rough salt of tarter), and calcined bones, or rather quick-lime ; but such method was soon disused, on account of the difficulty with which it was attended, and the disagreeable taste it imparted to the water. Dr. B. therefore pro- posed, as a substitute for Mr. Ap- pleby's ingredients, the distilla- tion of sea-water with soap leys, in the proportion of one quart of the latter to 15 of the former; which he asserts (in his Safe, Ea- sy, and Expeditious Method of pro- curing any quantity of Fresh Water at Sea, he. 8vo. 1755), will pro- duce 12 gallons of fresh water; but the objections before stated have also been applied to this pro- cess....Dr. Hales recommended pulverized chalk ; which, howe- ver, is said to be too expensive, and does not improve the taste of the saline fluid. Sea-water may be easily divest- ed of its salt taste, by distilling it with wood-ashes, particularly with those obtained from the beech-tree. The same desirable object mav be effected, by filtering the fluid through sea-weed ; and we con- ceive, that other marine vegeta- bles might be employed with eqiu.1 advantage. Bui the most simple apparatus is that invented by Dr. Irving, for which he received a reward, of 5000/. By this contri- vance, all stills, still-heac's, he. ue 464 SEA rendered unnecessary ; because the common boiler or kettle be- longing to a ship, will serve as an effectual substitute : with this ought to be connected, a plain tube made of plate-iron or sheet- tin, that may be easily procured on board. As soon as the sea- water is poured into such vessel, the tube must be fitted to the lid or cover, round which a piece of wet linen may be applied, to adapt it the better to the mouth of the new still. When the water boils, the vapour should be suffered to pass freely for a minute, in order to clear the tube, which is then to be constantly moistened, by pas- sing a mop dipped in the sea along its upper surface. The dis- tillation should be continued till three-fourths of the water be drawn off, when the brine ought to be taken out: thus, any quantity of pure water may be obtained, with- out the aid of any ingredients.... The utility of this expedient is ob- vious ; and we trust that it is, or sit least will be, generally adopted on board of every ship that is bound to a distant port. Sea-weed. See Manure. SEA-WRACK, or Fucus, L. a genus of vegetables, comprehend- ing 145 species, 85 of which grow on the British coasts : of these we shall state the following as the prin- cipal : 1. The serrulus, or Serrated Sea-wrack, is perennial, growing to the height of about two feet, and varying from a green to a yellowish or olive colour....It is employed by the Dutch for covering or packing lobsters and crabs, that are to be conveyed to a considerable dis- tance ; because it keeps them alive much longer than any other species of this plant; nor docs SEA it easily ferment, or become pu- trid. 2. The vesiculosus, Common Sea-wrack, or Sea-waure, is perennial, and grows to the height of one foot; producing its fructi- fied parts in the months of July and August....It is an excellent manure; for being strongly im- pregnated with saline particles, these are gradually imparted to the ground on which the plant is spread, and thus fertilize it in a remarkable degree. Indeed, if land be properly dressed with this maritime vegetable, it is asserted, that its efficacy will continue un- exhausted, for seven or eight years ; an advantage which dung does not possess, as it requires to be renewed every second or third year. Besides its utility as a manure, the Sea-waure serves in Jura, Skye, and other Hebride islands, as a winter food for cattle, which regularly frequent the shores for it after the title has ebbed. The inhabitants of these isles, also, dry their cheese without using any salt, by covering it with the ashes of this plant; which abound with saline particles to such a degree, that they produce one half of their weight in fixed alkaline salts. Farther, we are informed by Linn;eus, that the inhabitants of Gothland boil the Common Sea- wrack together with a little coarse meal, by which they prepare a kind of wash for their hogs ; and that the poorer classes, in Scania, not on}y thatch their cottages with it, but also employ it as fuel. The most profitable use of this plant, however, is that of making kelp, or pot-ash, which affords em- ployment to many industrious fa- milies. So lucrative and highly SEA SEA 465 •steemed is this plant, that the natives ofthe Western Isles have even rolled large masses of stone and rock into the sea; with a view to promote and extend its growth. With respect to its medicinal properties, also, the Sea-waure de- serves particular notice...Dr. Rus- sel (in his work quoted in the last article) recommends the sapo- naceous liquor found in the vesi- cles or bladders, that abound be- neath the leaves of this plant, as a powerful resolvent in dispersing scrophulous and scorbutic tumors of the glands. He directs the pa- tient to rub such swellings with these bladders, having previously bruised them in his hand, till the part be thoroughly penetrated with the mucus ; after which they are to be washed with sea-water. Another method of employing the common sea-wrack, is by infusing 2Ibs. of the vesicles above men- tioned (which ought to be gather- ed in July, vvhen they abound with viscid juice) in a glass vessel con- taining one quart of sea-water, for the space of fifteen days ; at the expiration of which, the liquor will acquire the consistence of honey. It is next to be strained through a linen cloth ; the tumors must be daily rubbed, and then cleansed in the manner already directed. By this treatment, he observes, not only scorbutic and scrophulous indurations, but even scirrhous swellings in the breasts of females, have been successfully discussed. Lastly, by calcining this vegetable in the open air, Dr. Russkl obtained a very black sa- line powder, by him called vegeta- ble ttthiops; and which has been highly extolled both as a resolvent, and also as a dentrifice, for cor- vol. IV. recting the scorbutic laxity of the gums, and removing all foul mat- ters from the teeth. 3. The palmatus (Ulva palmata of Dr. Withering), Palmated Ska-wrack, Dills, Dulls, Dul- lesh, or Dulse, abounds on the coasts of Scotland, on those of the contiguous islands, and on the shores of Northumberland. Its substance is membranous, pellu- cid, and thin ; of a greenish or reddish colour : its height varies from five to six, and sometimes to twelve inches....This species, after being soaked in fresh water, is eaten either boiled or dried; in which latter state, it acquires a flavour, somewhat resembling that of violets ; and according to Bech- stein, the sweetness of sugar: yet, unless it be dried inclose ves- sels, no saccharine but saline par- ticles will appear on its surface ; because the former are dissipated in the open air; a remark for which we are indebted to Olaf- fen, the Icelandic traveller....The dulse is sold in a dry state, in the streets of Dublin ; and Dr. Rut- ty observes, that it is supposed to sweeten the breath, and to destroy worms....In the Isle of Skye, this plant is occasionally boiled in vva- ler, with a little butter, and admi- nistered in fevers, with a view to promote perspiration ; though in this form, it is often attended with purgative effects. 4. The ciliatus (laciniatus of Dr. Withering), or Fringed Sea- wrack, abounds on rocks and stones, on the British coast; where it grows from four to five inches high ; consists of a membranous, pellucid substance , and is of a red colour. It is eaten both in Britain and Ireland, like the preceding species. 30 466 SEA 5. The pinnatifidus, Indented, or Jagged Sea-wrack, or Pep- per-dilse, is also met with abund- antly on the rocks of Britain, which are covered with the tides. It at- tains two or three inches in height; and is of a yellowish-olive colour, frequently tinged with a reddish hue. It is likewise eaten both in Scotland and Ireland. 6. The esculentus, Esculent Sea-wreck, Bladder-locks, or Tangle, is common on the rocks contiguous to the shores of Cum- berland and Scotland; where it grows from five to ten yards in length, and one foot wide, being of an olive or green colour. This species furnishes a grateful food for cattle; and its stalk, when boiled, affords a culinary dish in Scotland, as well as in some parts of England: the proper season for gathering this vegetable is the month of September, in which it is found in the greatest perfection. The Esculent Sea-wrack has, far- ther, been recommended for re- storing the natural appetite in the disorder, termed pica, or longing. 7. The saccharinus, Sweet Sea- wrack, or Sea Belt, abounds on the sea-shores. Its stem is from 2 to 12 inches in height, of an oval form, a leathery consistence, and of a tawney-green colour. If it be washed in the spring, and suspended to dry, a sweet saccha- rine matter will exude from its ex- tremeties; though not in such quantity as from the Palmated Sea-wrack. The Sea-belt is eaten, both when taken fresh out of the sea, and also boiled as a pot-herb. SEALING-WAX, is a compo- sition of gum-lac, melted and in- corporated with resins, and after- wards coloured with some pigment, SEA such as vermillion, verditcr, ivory- black, he. There are two kinds of Sealing- wax, generally used ; the one is hard, for the sealing of letters, and similar purposes ; the other soft, for receiving the impressions of seals of office to charters, patents, and other written documents. In order to prepare the best hard red sealing-wax, take two parts of shell-lac, with one of resin, and one of vermillion; let these ingredients be reduced to a fine powder; melt them over a moderate fire; and, when they are thoroughly incorpo- rated, form the composition into sticks. Seed-lac may be substi- tuted for the shell-lac, and instead of resin, boiled Venice turpentine may be employed. A coarser kind of such sealing wax may be ma- nufactured by mixing equal parts of resin, and of shell-lac (or ver- million and red-lead, in the pro- portion of one part ofthe former, to two ofthe latter) ; then proceeding in the manner above directed. But, where large quantities of this wax are consumed, both the vermillion and shell-lac are generally omitted) so that it may be obtained at a much cheaper rate. Black sealing-wax is composed of gum-lac, or shell-lac, melted with one-half or one-third of its weight of levigated ivory-black.... To prevent the composition from becoming too brittle, Venice tur- pentine, in the proportion of two- thirds of the above ingredients, is usually added; as it likewise con- tributes to improve the beauty of the manufacture. These substan- ces being melted, and properly stirred over a slow fire, the liquid is next poured upon an iron plate, or stone, previously oiled; and, SEE SEE 467 while soft, it must be rolled into ■ticks; which are then exposed to heat, till they acquire a glossy sur- face. Uncoloured soft sealing-wax is commonly prepared of bees-wax, 1 lb.; of turpentine, 3 oz.; and of olive oil, I oz.: these ingredients are carefully boiled in a proper vessel for some time ; till the com- pound become fit to be formed into rolls, or cakes, for use. And, in order to impart to it the requisite colour, one ounce or more of either of the pigments above mentioned may be added, stirring the mass till the whole be duly combined. Seaves. See Rush the Com- mon. SEED is the embryo contained in the fruit of vegetables ; or, ac- cording to Linn^us, a deciduous part of a plant, comprising the ru- diments of a new terraqueous pro- duction. As all the various vegetables, fruits, &c. used in rural and do- mestic economy, are raised from seeds, the most eminent naturalists have bestowed particular attention on the subject of selecting, preserv- ing, and sowing them. We shall therefore concisely state the result of the most successful experiments, under these respective heads. I. The Selection of seeds de- pends principally on a proper choice of grains and kernels, as well as roots from the most vigorous ve- getables, growing under our own inspection: for, though it be con- jectured, that the constant cultiva- tion of a particular plant from the same seed, and on the same soil, will at length cause it to degene- rate, yet numerous well-attested instances have occurred, in which the contrary effects have been evi- dent. The most healthy stalks or stems should, therefore, be select- ed for bearing seeds ; and such as attain to maturity at the earliest period in the season, ought to be preferred, especially if they grow at a distance from weakly plants of the same species ; lest the fe- cundating farina of the latter be blown upon the stigmata ofthe for- mer, and an inferior kind, or suc- cession, be produced. The proper time for gathering seeds, is the period of their perfect maturity, which may be ascertain- ed by the dryness of the stem ; be- cause, when the latter begins to decay, it becomes " bleached by the oxygen of the atmosphere," and no farther nourishment can then be conveyed to the ripe seed. The harvest should now be com- menced without delay ; and nume- rous hands be employed in thresh- ing and housing it, lest any shower should fall, and thus a considera- ble portion be scattered on the ground. II. Various expedients have been devised, for the presehvation of seeds : the most simple consists in secluding them from light and heat in the bowels of the earth ; where they will retain their vegetative power for several years. Thus, Dr. Darwin mentions instances of mustard-seed producing a crop, on digging up soil, where it had remained in a state of rest for many years, and, " a*s was believed, even for ages." In the same manner, the best cucumbers and melons are raised from seeds, which are at leastthree or four years old; though some gardeners do not employ them, till they have been kept ten or twelve years. Where seeds of a perishable na- ture are to be carried to, or brought from, distant places, it has been, 468 SEE found useful to cover them with a thin coating of a mixture of pitch, resin, and bees-wax; which com- position is termed mummy. Acorns and other seeds, thus managed, have appeared on importation, as fresh as if they had been newly gathered. Dr. Dakwin conjec- tures, that they might be safely preserved by covering them with soft sugar ; and his supposition has been confirmed by the experiment of Mr. Snedye (recorded in the 16th volume of the " Transactions of the Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts," he.), who observed, that such as were packed in su- gar, or among raisins, not only appeared healthy, but grew readi- ly, while many others would not vegetate. Lastly, Dr. D. farther thinks it probable that, if seeds were surrounded with newly burnt charcoal, or which has not been long exposed to the air, and then reduced to powder, they might be successfully kept in a fresh state, either during long voyages, or in domestic granaries. III. The proper time for sow- ing seeds, entirely depends on the nature of the plants to be raised: and as we state such seasons, vvhen treating of the respective vegeta- bles, in the order of the alphabet, we shall here only mention the opi- nion of Dr. Darwin, that the most advantageous method of dissemi- nating native plants, is by suffer- ing them to drop on the surface of the soil, as they fall from the pa- rent stock ; being covered only by their deciduous leaves. But, when these germs of vegetation are im- ported f*om distant climates, such as will ripen in the same year, ought to be sown at an early period in the spring, and slightly covered SEG with mould, in order to shelter them from birds and insects. Others, on the contrary, which do not completely germinate in one year, should be committed to the ground in the beginningof autumn, at the depth of an inch and a half; both for protecting them from th« frost, and from the depredations of birds. As these precautions, how- ever, are not always a certain pre- servative, practical gardeners hav« recommended the steeping of va- luable seeds in a strong solution of the liver of sulphur, for three or four hours, or such time as will be sufficient to penetrate the skin, or husk: by this simple expedient, all vermin will be effectually prevent- ed from devouring the seed. SEG, or Carax, L. a genus of perennial plants, comprehending 117 species, 45 of which are indi- genous : the most remarkable of these are: 1. The arenaria, or Sea Seg, which commonlythrives in theloost and moveable sands on the shores, and flowers in the month of June. Its creeping roots contain a large proportion of farinaceous particles; from which, in times of scarcity, wholesome bread has been prepar- ed : early in the spring, they are said to possess medicinal proper- ties, not inferior to those of the Sarsaparilla. 2. The vulpina, or Great Sec, abounds in marshes, and on the banks of rivers : it flowers in May or June. Although this is a perni- cious weed in meadows, yet the whole herb may be usefully em- ployed as a substitute for straw, in packing goods liable to be injured by carriage; for drying up swamps or morasses ; for the erection of clams ; and the sward for fuel, in- SEM SEN 469 stead of peat: its seeds are like- wise of service in feeding aquatic birds. 3. The acuta, or Slender- spiked Seg, grows at the sides of rivers, ponds, and ditches, as like- wise in meadows ; it flowers to- wards the end of April or May. This species is divided into two varieties, namely, the nigra, or Black Seg, and the rubra, or Red Seg, from the respective colours of their flowers. Both are very noxious weeds, as they not only Stifle the growth of other grasses, but also afford food to insects, which are detrimental to the health of cattle. The only economical purpose to which the Slender- cpiked Seg may be rendered sub- servient, is that of being mixed, and cut, together with straw for feeding horses in the winter. Srggkam. See Ragwort, the Common. SELF-HEAL, the Common, or Prunella vulgaris, L. a native pe- rennial plant, growing in meadows and pastures; bearing purplish flowers in the month of August.... It possesses an austere taste ; and, though exploded from the list of healing plants, it may be eaten as salad, while young, and also boiled like spinach. Cattle, in general, relish this herb ; and bees collect honey from iis flowers. SEMOLINA, a nutritious pre- paration, consisting of granulated wheat. In 1780, a patent was granted to Mr. Jacob Levy, for a method of making Semolina, which hitherto was imported from Poland, where it is called Cracow-Groats. It con- sists in grinding wheat, in an ap- propriate mill ; after which the flour is separated from the mid- dlings : the latter are then dressed four different times in a bolting- mill, and sifted through parchment seives, till they are perfectly clear- ed from all bran and poll aid. Semolina forms awholescme and light food for invalids and conva- lescents, being preferable to sago ; as it perfectly dissolves in water, while the foreign drug undergoes only a partial solution : thus, con- siderable sums might be saved to the nation, which at present are annually paid for the importation of Sago. SENEGA, a gum obtained from the Mimosa nilotica, L. and which greatly resembles that of arabic ; possesses similar properties, while it is much cheaper ; and is import- ed from Senegal, and the coast of Guinea, in loose cr single drops, generally of the size of an egg i their surface appears wrinkled, and less bright thantheinnersubstance. It is destitute of sfnell, and has lit- tle or no taste. Large quantities of Gum Senega are annually consumed by dyers and artificers; but this drug is now seldom usee as a medicine.... In Africa, it coiinitUtes a principal ingredient in native dishes, being previously dissolved in milk; though the solution, taken alone, is likewise a favourite repast of the negroes. SENNA, or Cassia senna, L. an exotic shrub cultivated in Persia, Syria, and Arabia, whence its dried leaves are imported. They are of a yellowish-green colour, have a faint, though not unpleasant smell; and a sub-acrid, bitterish, nause- ous taste. There is a spurious sort of this drug obtained from Tripoli, and other places ; hut the fraud may be eavly detected ; as the lat- ter is of a fresh green colour, with- out any yellow shade. 470 S E R SER Senna is an useful purgative, operating mildly, though effectual- ly ; ar,d at the same time promot- ing the secretion of urine. Its ill flavourmay be corrected, by slight- ly boiliig the leaves in water ; and, being aot to occasion gripings, it should ie conjoined with any pro- per aromatic tincture, or distilled water ; cried lemon or orange peel; fennel oraniseeds :....to increase its effects on the bowels, manna, rhu- barb, tamarinds, figs, or prunes, are genenlly added. In a state of powder, tie dose of senna is from a scruple to a dram ; but, when taken in decoction, from one to three or four drams are required. Septfoil. See Tormentil, the Common. SERPENT,an appellation given to an order of reptiles comprising among other kinds, the Viper and Snake. Consistently with our plan, we cannot enter into any disquisition respecting the real or supposed fascinating powers of the reptile race ; we shall therefore state the remedies to be employed, in case a person should be unfortunately stung, or bitten. Such disaster is indicated by acute pain in the wound, accompanied with swell- ing, which is at first red, though it afterwards assumes alivid hue,and extends to the contiguous parts ; by uncommon faintness ; a quick, low, and interrupted pulse ; great nausea, attended with convulsive and bilious vomitings; cold sweats, and sometimes by pains in the region of the navel. A sanious liquor, in most instances, exudes from the spot affected, round which arise small pustules : the patient's skin acquires, in the course of an hour, a yellow colour, resembling that usually observed in the jaun- dice. These are the symptoms generally occurring in Europe; but, in hot climates, and if the ve» nomous creature be of a large size, the distressing scene is often closed by death. Numerous remedies have been recommended for the cure of wounds inflicted by serpents. Dr. Mead advises the poisonous mat- ter to be extracted by means of a cupping-glass, or (which is prefer- able, if it can be effected) by the mouth; in which the persons suck- ing the parts should hold a little warm olive oil, to prevent the lips and tongue from being inflamed ; though he observes, that the suc- tion ought on no account to be de- ferred for want of oil; as a delay of a few minutes might be pro- ductive of the most fatal conse- quence. Where this operation, however, cannot be performed, Dr. M. proposes the application of a red-hot iron, or of alkaline salts to the wound; because, if the venom- ous matter be not absorbed and conveyed into circulation, these cauteries will destroy or change its nature. Lastly, in order to coun- teract the effects of such portion of the virus as may have been receiv- ed into the system, he directs an emetic of ipecacuanha immediate- ly to be taken ; the operation of which must be assisted by the libe- ral use of oil and warm water..... The patient should now be placed in a warm bed, and a profuse sweat be promoted by means of cordials, which will carry of the remaining or latent effects of the poison. The Abbe Fontana proposed a ligature to be expeditiously appli- ed : such bandage, indeed, if pro- perly tied between the wounded part and the heart, will doubtless SER S E R 471 prevent the poison from operating fatally; but, as it is calculated to produce gangrene, we conceive ex- cision by the knife is in all res- pects preferable. Beside these preventive and cu- rative measures, the use of the volatile ammonia has been attend- ed with uncommon success, both in Europe and India: [See arti- cles Alkali, Ammonia] though Fontana found it less effectual in his experiments on the poison of the viper. Dr. Wright, therefore, directs 40 drops of the caustic vo- latile alkali, or of Eau-de-luce, to be taken in any liquid, as soon as possible after the accident; the dose being repeated every five mi- nutes, while the parts are contin- ually washed with the same pre- paration. Farther, calcined harts- horn, and oil of olives, externally applied, have produced beneficial effects; as also has a liniment, con- sisting of vinegar and butter, both when taken by the mouth, and rubbed on the wounded part. [In the United States, numerous vegetable remedies have been ce- lebrated at various times, as cures for the bite of the rattle-snake, all of which tl%e reader will find enu- merated in a Memoir on this sub- ject, by Dr. Barton, in the 3d vol. of the Trans, of the Amer. Phil. Soc....Sec also Aya Pana. In the 4th vol. of the transactions of the same Society, may be found ano- ther by the same author, on the fascinating power of serpents, the possession of which wonderful power is fully disproved. Dr. John Brickell of Savan- nah, having lately found that " lit- mus paper was reddened by water, into which he had previously put the teeth and appendages of a large rattle-snake, was induced to try the virtues of alkalies in the curs of the effects of the bites of ve- nomous snakes; and within the course of the last summer, experi- enced the most decided benefit from the use of the remedy in the case of a negro who was bitten by a mokasin snake in the foot, while cutting rice. Sweet-oil, broad leaved plantane, hoarhound,/wrraa7i< thes alba, (autumnalis) were all given without effect, and the pain and swelling were making rapid progress up the limb to the bo- dy. Dr. B. ordered one or two tea spoonsful of an alkaline solution every 15 minutes, and the bitten part to be kept moist with the so- lution. The first dose produced an immediate good effect; the sto- mach of the man " felt on fire," and he was indulged in his request to have it oftener than had been prescribed, and seemed to wonder what had worked such a miracle, (as it was termed), as to stop the progress of the swelling and pain, and remove both from the sto- mach and bowels in so short a time. The glands of the groin were swelled, and felt like a bag of hickory-nuts, and the thigh, leg, and foot, were still greatly swelled and in excessive pain. The use of the tartar was continued exter- nally and internally, and the swel- led thigh and inguinal glands were moistened and gently rubbed with' the alkaline solution, and when it was expended, he made use of some ley of wood ashes. The bit- ten part was washed with water, in which a fresh burnt oyster-shell was infused for want of a caustic alkali. The medicines were con- tinued all night, and in the morn- ing, the swelling and pain had en 472 S E R tirely left the glands ofthe groin, and was much diminished in the thigh, foot, and leg. The pain continued in the bitten part some- time after, owing as Dr. B. sus- pected, to one of the snake's teeth being lodged in the wound, as on examining the animal, he found only one large tooth in its upper jaw, and he believes the teeth are naturally in pairs ; an incision was ;heiefore ordered to be made on the top, and under part of the foot, and also a large poultice on it to facilitate the exit of the tooth. The above account was trans- mitted to the editor by Dr. B. and affords sufficient grounds for a re- petition of the same mode of treat- ment. Should it however be found to fail, the treatment maybe pursu- ed which has been recommended to prevent the effects of the bite of a mad animal, see vol. i. p. 285..... Symptoms of a locked jaw, have sometimes followed the bite of a rattlesnake, for the relief of which, bleeding has been succesfully pre- scribed.] SERRADILLA, or Common Btrd's-foot (see vol. i. p. 281), a valuable plant, which thrives much better than saintfoin, or any other grass, on poor sandy soils: it is propagated by drilling the seed in rows, two feet asunder; but may he transplanted in the same man- ner as cabbages. This vegetable "affords a grateful food to cattle of .every description : it has not, in- deed, been hitherto extensively cul- tivated, excepting by Langford Millington, Esq. at Rushford, Norfolk; whose spirited experi- ments are recorded in the 27th vol. of Aiamis of Agriculture ; but, as it promises to be productive of the greatest benefit to agricultu- rists, on the poorest lands, we trust SER that it will in future be generally introduced into such a situation. SERVICE-TREE, or Sorbus, L. a genus of native trees, consisting of three species, namely: 1. The aucuparia. See Quicken- tree. 2. The domcstica, (Pyrus domes- tica of Dr. Smith) or True Ser- vice-tree, grows in mountainous forests, principally in Cornwall, Staffordshire, and in the county of Worcester. It flowers in the month of April or May. The fruit of thia species being mealy and austere, like that of the Medlar, is a power- ful astringent, and of considerable service in alvine fluxes, especially in dysenteries: hence we learn from Bechstein, that the soldiers in the Prussian army, who were attacked with that epidemic In 1792, and to whom the rob, or even the berries, were given in sufficient quantities, uniformly recovered, while others died of the disorder. Nor is this fruit less useful for making cyder, and distilling bran- dy. Its wood is remarkably hard, and therefore valuable to turners for screws or cog-wheels ; and to mathematical instrument-makers, for rulers, g&uging-sJU£ks, &c. 3. The hybrida (Pyrus hybrida of Dr. Smith), Bastard Moun- tain Ash, or Bastard Service, is found principally on mountains, where it flowers in the month of May. This tree forms a singular variety of the two preceding spe- cies, and consequently partakes of their united properties. Its wood, however, is softer than that of the true Service-tree ; and, though af- fording good fuel, its charcoal is greatly inferior to that obtained from the latter :....its berries are sweeter, and preferably eaten by birds. S E T SET 473 The Service-tree is cultivated in Britain, principally as an ornament for diversifying extensive planta- tions ; as it grows to the height of 40 feet. It is propagated by sow- ing the seed, a short time after the fruit is ripe, in pots, which must be sheltered during the winter; and when the spring advances, it will be proper to plunge them in hot-beds, and to water them fre- quently, during dry weather. To-' wards the middle of October, the young plants may be removed to a warm spot of light soil, and placed one foot apart from each other, in rows two feet asunder. Here they should remain for three or four years ; at the expiration of which, they ought to be transplanted to the place appropriated to their growth. Service-tree, the Wild. See Hawthorn. Serum. Sec Blood. Setter-wort. See Helle- bore, the Fetid. SETO.X, in surgery, a kind of issue,or artificial ulcer, produced by passing the seton-needle through any of the larger muscles, and in- troducing a cord made of cotton or silk thread ; in order to effect the discharge of superfluous, or mor- bid, matter. Instead of describing the parti- culars, relative to this chirurgical operation, we shall merely observe, that sctons occasionally prove use- ful remedies; especially where the body abounds with humours :..... hence they are frequently made in the back of the neck, for diseases of the eyes ; or between two ofthe ribs, in affections of the chest..... As, however, a seton occasions a great degree of pain and irritation, it is not applicable to weakly and delicate persons, with whom the VOL. IV. common issues generally agree. Nevertheless, either of these re- medies are attended with similar effects; and the former, in parti- cular, has been strongly recom- mended in ulcerations of the lungs and chest; nay, the late Mr. Pott was the first who successfully em- ployed this expedient in various cases of hydrocele. - SETONS, in farriery, are oc- casionally applied to various parts of a horse's body, for the purpose of discharging matter from deep seated tumors or abscesses. Setons are introduced by means of long, thin needles, dart-shaped at the point, and armed with a suitable cord. The size of the in- strument, as well as the thread, depends on that of the part affect- ed....When matter is perceived to fluctuate in the tumor, the seton- needle, armed with a proper cord, is to be introduced at the upper part of the abscess ; and the point conducted through it so as to be brought out in an opposite direc- tion. In some instances, it will be advisable to perforate the sound muscular flesh, and thus to form a depending orifice, for the more easy discharge of the matter: in either case the cord should be pre- viously dipped in some digestive ointment, and secured at both ends with a thread. Instead, however, of tying the cord together, some farriers preferably apply a small button of wood, 01 similar sub- stance, to each end. Thus, when shifted, the thread may be drawn upwards and downwards ; though, if its ends be conjoined, it forms a circle, and may always be removed towards the lower orifice. When the matter in the abscess appears to be wholly discharged the cord may then be drawn out, and the 3 P 474 S H A SH A wound be allowed to close. But, where the additional sore, thus occasioned, shews no disposition spontaneously to heal, it must be treated like a common Ulcer. Shaddock. See Orange. SHAGREEN, or Chagreen, is a kind of rough leather, pre- pared from the skin of the spotted Shark. *For this purpose, the skin of the fish is first stripped, then extended on a table, and covered with bruised mustard-seed; it is thus exposed to the weather, for several days, and afterwards tanned. The best shagreen is imported from Constantinople. It is of a brownish cast, and very hard; but, when immersed in water, it be- comes soft, and pliable ; and may be dyed of any colour. Shagreen is often counterfeited, by preparing morocco leather in the same manner as the skin ofthe fish above mentioned : such fraud may, however, be easily detected by the surface of the spurious ma- nufacture peeling or scaling off, while that of the genuine article remains perfectly sound...Shagreen is employed principally in the ma- nufacture of cases for mathemati- cal instruments, watches, Sec. tho' it is sometimes used for covering books. SHALE is ablack, slaty substance, or a species of clay concreted into a stony consistence, and impregnated with a considerable quantity of bituminous matter. It is of vari- ous degrees of hardness, but does not emit sparks when stricken against steel; and, on being heat- ed, it exhales a strong smell. Large strata of this mineral are dug out in Derbyshire, as well as in those counties which contain fossil coal. On calcination, an acid is evolved, that combines with the argillaceous particles, and forms Alum. The shale is next im- mersed in water, in consequence of which, the alum thus obtained is dissolved ; and, after undergoing various processes, is formed into the masses usually met with in the shops....It is computed by Doctor Watson (Chemical Essays, vol. ii.) that 120 tons of the calcined shale will produce one ton of alum. Shallot. See Eschallot. SHARK, or Squalus, L. a genus of fish, comprehending 32 species, of which the following are the most remarkable : 1. The Canicula, Spotted Shark, or Dog-fish, inhabits almost every sea, and grows to the length of 4 feet: it attains a considerable age, is extremely voracious, and chiefly subsists on fishes. The skin of this species is beautifully spotted, like that of a leopard ; when strip- ped off, it is manufactured into Shagreen, and is likewise em- ployed in a dry state, for polishing wood, and for other purposes. 2. The maximus, BaskingShark, or Sun-fish, abounds in the Irish Channel, and on the Western Coast of Scotland. It is of a prodigious size, measuring sometimes 27 feet and upwards in length : it has been observed to derive great pleasure from basking on the surface of the ocean, during the heat of the day. Its liver is valuable, on ac- count of the great quantity of oil which it contains : those of the larger kind yielding, upon an aver- age, 8 barrels each. The catch- ing ofthe basking shark, and melt- ing down its liver, afford employ- ment to many industrious families: ....the oil thus procured, is not only pure, sweet, and fit for lamps, but is also much used externally for SH A SHE 475 relieving bruises, burns, and rheu- with a proper brush. The part of rnatic pains. the skin, from which the hair is 3. The Carcharias, Great White to be cleared, should then be gen- Shark, or Requin, is the most for- tly stretched with the fingers ofthe midable and destructive enemy of left hand, while the razor is ap- the mariner. It sometimes infests plied in a flat position, and with a the British seas, but generally those considerable degree of pressure of hot climates, where it grows to forwards: being at the same time the length of 30 feet, and weighs drawn obliquely downwards. from 3 to 4000 lb. According to After the operation, the face Funke, however, its weight occa- ought to be washed with cold wa- sionally amounts to 10,000 lbs. and ter, and the instrument wiped per- the fish measures ten feet in cir- fectly dry, either on a cloth or soft cumferenee. An entire horse has leather. For the proper manage- been found in the stomach of this ment of Razors, previously to monster. And as it is probable, shaving, the reader will consult from the large teeth (glossopetrx) thatarticlein its alphabetical series. sometimes dug out of the earth, [A very curious and useful pa- that the requin, in former ages, per on the art of shaving, by Mr. must have been a still more bulky Nicholson, may be found in the creature, naturalists have conjee- first vol. of the Phil. Journal, 8vo. tured that such a fish, and not a edited by that author.] whale, swallowed Jonah. The SHEEP, or Ovis, a genus of Great White Shark is particularly quadrupeds consisting, according dangerous to swimmers, who have to LinnjEus, of three species; often lost one or more of their though later naturalists admit only limbs, and not unfrequently been one, and consider the others as va- devourec] entire. This fish is prin- rieties. The principal is the aries, cipally valued for its oil; as its flesh, or common ram and ewe. Their though eaten in Norway and Ice- bodies are covered with lomr, land, is extremely rank and coarse, whitish, slender interwoven hair, Shave-grass.SeeHoRSE-TAiL, which is termed wool; and, when the Rough. shorn, the fleece :...they have eight SHAVING is the act of re- fore-teeth in the lower jaw; and moving the hair from the beard, the heads of the males or rams, by means of a razor. are furnished with concave horns, This operation greatly contri- remarkably wrinkled and curved. butes to cleanliness; and though, In a wild state, the sheep is from peculiar circumstances, a lively, robust, and able to support person be prevented from perform- fatigue ; but, when domesticated ; ing it regularly, yet the chin ought and fed in pastures, it becomes to be shaved every second clay, or timid, and resorts in the hour of at least twice in the week, both to danger to the shepherd and his avoid the slovenly appearance, and dog, for protection. the uncomfortable sensation, which Ewes generally breed at the age such neglect necessarily occasions, of 18 months; though the most For this purpose, the face ought to experienced breeders never suffer be previously washed with tepid them to increase their species, tiil water, and a thick lather laid on, they are at least two years old; 476 S H E S H E and, as these animals are of con- Midsummer; though some breed- siderable value, great attention is ers defer it till-the middle of July: bestowed on their management at because they suppose that an addi- this period, tional half-pound weight in every The first object therefore is, fleece may be obtained, by the in- whether the breeder has sufficient creased perspiration of the animal. grass to maintain the ewes and An early shearing, however, is pre- their lambs in the spring ; or, ferable ; for the new wool will thus whether he has a stock of turnips not only gain time to get a-head, adequate to their support, till the but the animals are also secured pasture affords them food. The from the attacks of the fly; where- next consideration is the choice of as, by delaying the operation, they ewes, in which case the same cha- become a more easy prey to the racteristic marks should be ob- maggot; in consequence of which, served, as have already been stated they pine away, and lose all their under the article Ram :.....another flesh. But, previously to shearing, circumstance of great importance, the sheep ought to be washed, and is that of attending to the breed; kept for a few days in a clean riek- because no certain degree of ex- yard, or in a dry pasture, whence cellency can be attained in any they should be taken out separate- species of cattle, unless the female ly ; after they arc shorn, it has possess an equal degree of blood been recommended to wash them with the male. with sea-water ; or, where this Ewes bring forth one, two, and cannot be procured, with a brine sometimes three lambs, after ages- made of common salt and soft tat'ion of twenty weeks; so that water; as such practice is calcu- the most advantageous period may, lated to prevent the various dis- in general, be easily ascertained, eases, incident to these useful The best time of yeaning is the creatures. month of April ; unless the owner Farther, it is usual to mark sheep have very forward turnips or grass, when divested of their wool, with or the animals he field-sheep.... At- some colouring matter; in order to ter the lambs are dropped, they distinguish those belonging to dif- must be managed in the manner ferent proprietors. The fossil already stated in vol. iii. p. 429. known under the name of reddle, ....If, however, the males are de- or ruddle, is generally employed signed for wethers, the necessary for this purpose. Dr. Lewis, with operation should be performed the same intention, directs finely early, except when they are un- levigated charcoal (or preferably usually weak ; in which case it lamp-black), to be mixed with tal- will be advisable to defer it, till they low, over a moderate fire, in a acquire sufficient strength : on proportion sufficient to produce a weaning the lamb-, their dams deep black colour, and a proper maybe milked two or three times, consistence. To render this corn- in order to relieve their udders. pound more durable, he observes, The most proper time for shear- that one-fourth, sixth, or eighth ing sheep, is towards the middle of part of tar may be melted together Mav, or at the farthest, about with the tallow; the whole of SHE which, however, will be readily discharged from the wool, by wash- ing it in soap-water....We under- stand, that Sir Joseph Banks has, likewise, contrived a compound metal, from which the wool re- ceives no damage. With respect to the feeding and fattening of sheep, the most useful grasses and other vegetables have already been stated in the articles Cattle, Grass, Meadow, Sec.: hence our attention will now be di- rected to the nourishment derived from turnips, which experience has evinced to be one of the most lucrative methods. Some farmers turn the sheep into a field promis- cuously, suffering them lo eat the roots at pleasure ; but this prac- tice is by no means economical. Others divide the land by hurdles, and inclose the animals in such a space as they are able to clear in one day ; advancing progressively till all the turnips are consumed. Another mode consists in digging or pulling up a sufficient quantity of turnips, and then admitting the sheep into the inclosure. The most advantageous expedient, therefore, is that of exposing these roots on the surface of the soil, and removing the sheep to a fresh place every clay ; and if a small quantity of pease (not exceeding two or three bushels per diem for 150 wethers) be allowed, the ani- mals will eat both the turnips and their leaves, from which they will obtain additional nutriment, and grow uncommonly fat. Farther, this management will be attended with beneficial effects on the soil; so that a piece of land, contiguous to the turnip-field,may be manured without the expence of conveying dung by carriage. And, as the ground on which turnips are gene- S H E 477 rally cultivated, is too moist for sheep in autumn or winter, it would not only be poached by the opposite old method, but the roots would also be trodden in ; and, from their great moisture, the ani- mals become liable to be seized with the rot. Sheep are subject to various dis- eases, in common with gther cat- tle, such as that of being hoven (see vol. 2. p. 50), Etc.; but there are several disorders peculiar to the former ; and which, it will- be useful to state, together with the most approved remedies : namely, 1. The Fly-struck, which see. 2. The Rubs or Rubbers, may be known by the restlessness ofthe animals, which rub themselves in every attitude ; their skins being perfectly clean, without any trace or scab : when dead, their flesh assumes a greenish cast, but does not possess a bad taste. Sheep fed in fine meadows are more liable to be thus affected, than such as are pastured on poor soils : the disease generally terminates at the end of three or four months. No cause has yet been assigned for the Rubs; the malady having hitherto appear- ed chiefly in the county of Nor- folk. Mr. Young, however, in- forms us, that it originates from a whitish - yellow worm which set- tles in the brain ; being about an inch and a half in length, and of the thickness of a common goose- quill. He observes, that, at pre- sent, there is no prospect of cure ; but, if the generation of this in- sect could be discovered, the dis- order may possibly be prevented. 3. The Rot ; and, 4. The Scab ; to which we re- fer. 478 SHE [In some cases of Rot, camphor, has effected a cure. The dose may be a piece the size of a nut- meg, twice a day or oftener.] 5. Red-water; see which: Lamb, p. 425. 6. The Dunt is occasioned by a vesicular collection of water in the head ; and for which no cure has hitherto been devised. 7. The Fly or Maggot, is an insect that breeds in the skin of sheep. If the animal be attacked before shearing, it becomes sickly and indisposed ; its wool, not yield- ing a sufficient quantity of yolk, affords a warm nest for the recep- tion of the eggs, which are speedily hatched. The maggots immedi- ately feed on the flesh ofthe sjheup ; and, if they be not timely destroy- ed by the application of tar, the vermin1 will multiply so rapidly, as to destroy the animal in a short time. 8. Giddiness is conjectured to proceed from a worm, which insi- nuates itself under the horns, and causes the sheep to stagger,or reel: it may be cured by perforating those parts. Such distemper is also said to be induced by weak- ness, in consequence of poor keep: hence, relief may be afforded by removing the animal to better pas- ture, and allowing it a sufficiency of dry nourishing food. 9. The Hunger - reft generally arises from poverty of winter pro- vender, and may be ascertained by the leanness of the animals. The proper cure is an immediate change of fodder. 10. The Tick is a small, flat, brownish insect, that infest sheep ; and, if it be not speedily destroyed, is very detrimental both to the flesh and wool: it has six legs, and a flat proboscis with three notches SHE on each side ; by means of which it insinuates itself into the pelt or skin. Soon after the insect has thus settled, its legs drop off, and a scab is formed on the surface; from which a small portion of icho- rous matter is discharged. The scabby crust increases with the growth of the tick ; which, when arrived at its full size, nearly re- sembles that of a middling horse- bean ; and other insects are gene- rated, to the great injury of the flock. In order to remove these troublesome vermin, it has been recommended to mix an ounce of corrosive sublimate, a quarter of a pound of bay-salt, and one ounce of cream of tartar (the last two articles being previously pulver- ized and sifted), with two quarts of soft water. The wool must be separated, and the diseased spots washed with this liniment two or three times, or oftener, if it be found necessary ; till the insects be effectually destroyed. [The Rev. Dr. Peters of Lon- don, who formerly resided in the United States, patriotically pub- lished the following remedy, for ticks, in the news-papers, last year, for the benefit of the American farmer. The remedy is to be ap- plied in October. " Tlie mode of making the unction to destroy ticks on Sheep, viz...Take one gallon of tar, put it into an iron kettle, over a slow fire, until rendered liquid ; then having eight pounds of salt butter melted in another kettle, pour it gently into the tar-kettle, stirring them well together, leaving the salt of the butter at the bottom, then in- crease the fire, aBd make the tar and butter boil together, stiring them all the time ; after boiling, pour it into any dish to cool. The SHE SHE 479 next morning the unction will be of a proper thickness, and fit for use. The next day after washing the sheep, they are sheared, and no ticks will appear until the wool becomes long in October, and in- commoded by summer damps and ill health which are removed by a new salving. To salve a sheep; the shepherd parts the wool with his fingers on the backbone from the head to the end of the tail, then with two fin- gers rubs the unction plentifully on the skin or flesh; so that the ointment may spread by heat of the body, two or three inches down each side from the ridge bone. The shepherd then parts the wool as before, two or three inches from the ridge-bone, and rubs the unction as before in such abun- dance, as it will spread two or three inches downwards, then con- tinues the same method all around the sheep. The shepherd will salve a score of sheep in one day ; and the unction will kill and de- stroy all ticks, cure and prevent the scab, soften and supple the skin, promote the growth and in- crease the quantity of wool. The sheep being freed of ticks will be quiet, comfortable and healthy, whether fat or lean, and whether with a large fleece on, or shorn. The expense and trouble is too small to be mentioned, when com- pared to the profit, advantage, and humanity ofthe action."] 11. The White Scour is an un- common looseness, occasioned by feeding sheep on putrescent vege- tables ; and particularly on the shells of turnips, which have been suffered to lie on the ground for sometime, after the animals have eaten or scooped out the substance of the root. As soon as this ma- lady appears, it has been directed to pulverize and sift half a pound of dry bay-salt, which is first to be gradually mixed with a pint of old verjuice, and then with half a pint of common gin. The diseased qua- drupeds must be separated from the rest of tlie flock, and three large spoonfuls be given to each ; the dose being repeated on the second or third succeeding day, according to the exigency of the case. 12. The Staggers ; 13. The Foot-halt ; 14. The Foot-rot ; 15. The Pelt-rot; 16. The Gall; 17. The Rickets; 18, The Flux ; for which respective disorders the reader is referred to the alphabet. 19. The Sheep-fagg, or Hippo- bosca ovirtu, is an insect well known lo shepherds. Its beak, consisting of two valves, is cylin- drical, obtuse, and pendent; and the feet have several claws. These depredators live among the wool: they materially prevent sheep from thriving, in consequence of the severity with which they bite, and the blood they extract from the tortured animals ; but, on account of the hard shell, or cover sur- rounding them, they are with dif- ficulty destroyed.....The remedy suggested by Sir Joseph Banks for curing the Rot (which see), may also be safely applied to the extermination of the Shetp-fagg ; as thus the quality of the wool will not be in the least impaired. 20. Obstructions in the lacteal ducts of the udders of ewes, after the lambs are yeaned. The whole udder is covered with hard tu- mors or knobs, which, in a short time become inflamed; and, if .480 SHE SHE the parts affected be not speedily relieved, a mortification will take place in the course of 24 hours; and the animal must consequently perish. As soon, therefore, as the tumors appear, it will be proper to clip off the wool closely to the skin, and to open the principal milk vessels with a razor, or simi- lar sharp instrument; the morbid matter should then be expressed, and a little fresh butter applied to the wound. The ewe, thus af- fected, must be seperated from the flock ; and, though perhaps losing the use of one teat, she may be suffered to suckle her lamb ; but, if both teats be diseased, the latter must be reared by hand, and the dam fattened for sale. [Mr. Livingston, in the Trans- actions of the Agricultural Society, New-York, observes that the legs of sheep are furnished* with a duct, terminating in the fissure of the ho«f; from which, when the ani- mal is in health, there is secreted a white fluid, but when sickly, these ducts are slopped by the hardening of the fluid. He has in some instances found, that the sheep were relieved, merely by pressing out the hardened matter with the finger, from the orifice of the duct in each foot, and thinks that it may in some cases, be pro- per to place their feet in warm wa- ter, or to use a probe or hard brush, for cleansing this passage."] , Sheep are farther liable to be bitter., torn, or worried, from the carelessness, or impatience of the shepherd; or, from his dogs not being sufficiently broken, as well as from the dogs of other persons ; in consequence of which, the wool is often injured, and its value greatly reduced. Such accidents, however, may be prevented by pro- per care and attention. Lastly, to preserve the health of sheep, it will be advisable that every farmer, or breeder, daily in- spect his flock, and take particular care, that their tails be kept per- fectly clean : nor should they be folded two successive nights on the same spot; being more tender and obnoxious todisease than other quadrupeds. No animal is more useful than the sheep, which supplies man with food and clothing, while it furnishes numerous poor families with constant employment, in the various branches of the woollen manufacture. Its milk is very nu- tritious, and its flesh is a grateful and wholesome food (see Mutton); farther, the principal parts of the skin are advantageously converted into parchment; and the clippings, or shreds, are boiled into Glue ; a substance which is indispensable to carpenters, joiners, and cabinet- makers. The horns are formed into buttons, and various other ar- ticles of conveniency : the trotters afford, on expression, an oil which is usefully employed in several branches of the arts ; and, when boiled, or baked, they furnish a nourishing repast. Lastly, their Dung is a valuable manure ; and even their bones, when reduced to ashes, constitute a principle ingre- dient in the compositions for arti- ficial stones, for ornamental chim- ney-pieces, cornices, &c. On account of these numerous useful purposes, the sheep has de- servedly become an object of na- tional consideration : it will, there- fore, not be uninteresting to give a concise view of the different breeds, at present existing in B;i- SHE SHE 481 tain, and which is selected from tions on Live Stock, 8vo. 2d edition, Mr. Culley's practical Observa- Robinsons, 1795. Average Years weight of old when fleece killed. per lb. 1 Dishley ~\ r 8 2 2 Lincolnshire f 3 Tees-Water j long wool < 11 9 3 2 4 Dartmore Natts J I 9 2-1- 5 Exmoor ditto 6 H 6 Dorsetshire fine short wool H H 7 Herefordshire very fine short wool 2 H 8 South-Down ditto 2* 2 2 9 Norfolk fine short wool 2 H 10 Heath coarse long wool I1 H 11 Hardwick short wool 2 H 12 Chevoit fine short wool 3 4J [AVERAGE TRICES OF HAflVE BRITISH WOOL. LONG WOOL. Lincoln Leicester 205. 21s. per tod of 281b. 6d. ditto, SHORT WOOL. or or 8|perlb. H Norfolk South-Down Hereford, tri nded 48«. 6d. per tod of 281b.. 1*. 2s. lOtf.perlb 5d.] To these different breeds must be added, 1. The improved Glou- cester, or the Cotswold Sheep, en- larged by the old Leicester Cross ; producing full-sized and well-fla- voured mutton: and, 2. The Staf- fordshire Cannock-heath Sheep, which resembles those ofthe South Down. Both these breeds are said to be susceptible of great im- provement by crossing, and have been highly recommended to the attention of breeders. Beside the native kinds, or va- VOL. IV. rieties, of this valuable animal, we cannot in this place omit to men- tion the Spanish Sheep, which have within a few years been imported into Britain, with a view to im- prove the English breeds. Numer- ous experiments were consequent- ly instituted, under the immedi- ate superintendance of Lord Som- erville, and the Board of Agri- culture ; which have been attend- ed with the most desirable success. Nay, that patriotic nobleman late- ly performed a journey into Spain, 462 SHE SHE with the sole design of collecting a number of the finest Spanish sheep : and thence imported twelve rams. From his acknow- ledged skill in the symmetry of this valuable animal, we trust that they will be a real acquisition to the nation. [The improvement of American wool, has for some years past been viewed by the editor, as a concern of national importance, and he has taken some pains to make himself acquainted with the best means to effect so valuable an object. Europe is indebted to the Uni- ted States, for cotton of the finest quality, and of the longest staple, in the world. If the prediction of this fact had been made fifteen years ago, or even the suggestion hinted, that we should at the pre- sent day, supply the deficiency of cotton, at the British market, and that our production would even obtain a preference from the ma- nufacturers of Manchester; it would have been deemed equally wild and improbable as the asser- tion now made, may be thought, that nothing but our own indolence will prevent the article of wool, being i>n 20 years, as much an American staple, as cotton, tobacco or wheat. The following directions will be found useful, by those who are in- clined to improve the breed of sheep, for wool. They are taken chiefly from Dr. Anderson, and other late practical writers. 1. Fineness of pile and softness of texture, are the peculiarities chiefly wanted. 2. When two or more sheep are found in a flock, which are entirely equal in these respects, that one which has the fewest hairs through the fleece, ought to be preferred, for although these hairs may be sepcrated, as the natives of Shet- land experience, by letting the wool rise entirely from the skin, without being shorn, yet in large flocks that practice would be very inconvenient. . 3. If fineness of pile and purity are equal,that sheep which has the closest pile, or thickest fleece, should be preferred. 4. If fineness, purity, and close- ness of pile, be equal, prefer that which has the greatest uniformity in the texture ofthe whole fleece. 5. All the above named particu- lars being equal, the general shape and figure of the animal ought to influence the choice. A round com- pact body, a full and deep chest, straight back, straight firm legs, (neither very long, nor too short;) and a strong hardy figure, upon the whole, with a lively mild look- ing eye ; are the particulars re- specting shape, that should be pre- ferred : but this circumstance should be a subordinate consi- deration to those already enumer- ated. 6. All other circumstances being equal, that sheep which is in the best condition at the time, if their pasture has been nearly equal, should be preferred. 7. If two sheep are equal in all the foregoing respects, that which is of the larger size, may be pre- ferred. 8. Ewes should be chosen as nearly as can be found, of the same quality with the ram. It is only after the best breeds are once obtained pure, that experiments should be tried, to see what will be the effect of crossing with others. 9. In every case, the colour ought to be particularly adverted to, ami though there may be excep- SHE SHE 483 lions, it will be found, that a pure white breed, is, upon the whole, best calculated for general use, as white wool admits of being dyed of all coloifrs with greater facility than any other. If, however, any one incline lo try to improve a particular colour, it mav be a very proper subject for experiment..... But, in every case of this sort, the ram and ewes selected, ought to be exactly of the same kind, and should be carefully put apart by themselves, till such a quantity of this wool could be obtained, as might Berve, to ascertain what were its peculiar qualities, and its intrinsic value. In no case should any sheep be selected to breed from, that are spotted in any way, for this peculiarity can never be be- neficial to the rearer. Those who have not adverted to the effects produced by selecting proper breeds of sheep, for breed- ing from, but who have been ac- customed to let their sheep run promiscuously, and breed together without any selection, can have no idea of the surprising effect that an attention continued for a few years, would have, on improving the wool, the shape, and the gene- ral hardiness of* their whole flock; and will therefore be inclined to look upon these directions as un- necessary refinements:.....but the farmer may rely, that these obser- vations are the result of experience, and not of speculative reasoning ; and that, if any of them shall make trial of selecting a few sheep, and of secluding them during the rut- ting season, from all others, they will themselves be astonished at the effects, and they would be ve- ry agreeably surprised, to find, that they might be able to obtain from 6 to 12 cents per pound more, for their wool, than their neighbour who was not careful. It deserves also to be mentioned as an import- ant and well substantiated fact, that the sheep which carry the finest wool, if carefully selected, are in general equally hardy, and as easi- ly fed, and carry fleeces of equal weight, with other sheep, yielding the coarsest wool. A small size in sheep, is no way connected with the quality of the wool : the finest woolled Spa- nish sheep, is a large well bodied hardy animal, and the Thibet sheep which carry the finest wool in the world is still of a larger size. Fine wool, therefore, may be obtained without diminishing the size ofthe carcase of the sheep in the small- est degree, and also without dimi- nishing the weight of the fleece, or losing any other peculiarity thai could render any particular breed desirable. This wouid, no doubt, require pains, and a careful selec- tion of the best breeds, wherever they could be found, and an atten- tive and cautious procedure, but no one can easily imagine, how much can be done by atten- tion in this respect. Mr. Bake- well, the famous breeder at Dish- ley, Leicestershire, in England, be- gan with a few good sheep; and yet by a course of good manage- ment, brought his sheep, to a de- gree of perfection hardly credible by American farmers. ' Dr. An- derson continued his experiments but three years, and yet even hi that time, he had some wool that measnrecl foil half a yard h: length, which was equally fine with the best Spanich wool, and much softer than to the touch, if such were the effects of only three 484 SHE SHE years attention, in a situation that did not admit of an accurate seclu- sion of different breeds at the rut- ting season, what might be ex- pected from a course of experi- ments conducted on a more enlarg- ed principle, in a place where an entire seclusion of breeds could be easily affected, continued for half a century ? No one can pretend to say to what perfection we might arrive. Experiments made by various persons have clearly proved, that the permanent qualities of any breed of sheep can only be affected by a change in the parent stock, and that of course, if a new good breed be introduced into the country, it will infallibly be debas- ed by intermixing with the native breed, unless a careful, and en- tire seclusion oi them shall'be made at the rutting season. Let the farmer, therefore, who is disposed to improve his wool, examine his present stock, and pick out all those of the finest fleeces, and part with the rest. Let him add lo this stock, all those of equal fineness, which he may meet with among the droves ; if he should find any sheep with a wool of a finer quality, let him buy these also, and if convenient, they may be kept, or let him part with his former stock, and keep his last purchase, and set them apart for the experiment. By persevering in this way, cur farmers may be enabled, in time, to rear, not only as- fine wed as is obtained from any other country, but may also be able to conjoin with it every other valuable peculiarity, such as closeness of fleece, a good mould of carcase, hardiness, a capabili- ty of being easily fattened, large- ness of size, and every other va- luable quality, adapted to every pe- culiarity of situation of our coun- try ; or they may be enabled to as- certain the value of any particular breed of sheep, that might be sus- pected to possess particular excel- lencies, so as to enable those who are concerned, to speak with cer- tainty of the particular value of each, and the circumstances in which one kind could be kept with greater profit than another. One caution must be suggested, which our own observation proves, tobe highly necessary, with respect to the introduction of strange cattle among other cattle on farms : and that is, the danger of disease. It is not necessary that the strange cattle should be actually sick to produce this sad effect; for, in the year 1796, the editor saw a drove of cattle from North Carolina, which though apparently in good health, yet left their marks in every town, or neighbourhood in which they stopped, between Anderson's fer- ry, above Lancaster (where he first saw them) ; down to the mea- dows adjacent to the health-office, on State Island,- where the editor then resided.....See vol. ii. p. 51. The same thing may happen to sheep. When, therefore, any ad- dition is to be .made to the old stock, the strangers should be gra- dually introduced, carefully watch- ed, and a separation of the diseas- ed from the healthy ought to take place, the first moment indisposi- tion appears in the 'locks. The varieties of sheep are great. Some are distinguished for fine- ness of wool, and for flavour of flesh ; others for short wool, bare bellies, and for bringing very early lambs; others for smallness of size, and superior fineness of wool; others, as Mr. Bakew lll's breed, SHE SHE 485 for small bones, fineness of flesh, lightness of offal, disposition to quietness, and consequently, to mature and fatten with less food, than other sheep of equal weight; and again, some for carrying long coarse wool, and their fat outside, and some for carrying it within, and having the lean marbLd with Ll; and although our American sheep, have hitherto been almost universally permitted to have an unrestrained intercourse with one another, yet it is highly probable, that in some districts, sheep may be found possessing one or more ofthe above peculiarities, and when they do appear, endeavoursoughtto be made to keep the breed pure, orcautiously to cross it with others, that may possess some other va- luable peculiarity. It is by a pro- per admixture of two breeds, with a judicious selection offhe best varie- ties thrown out from them, that can insure a breeder success : to ob- tain which requires great attention, not only to know the best sheep, and of what descent when living, but in seeing them cut up after they are dead: for when the im- provement of the carcase is the object, we should breed from the descendants of such only, as " cut up well," for one injudicious cross may cost many years to repair the injury it may occasion, and the life of man is too short to allow of many such errors. Having obtained a good breed of sheep, the next object of the far- mer should be, to preserve it pure and unmixed....For this purpose, the most certain plan would be to keep no other breed upon his farm, for experience proves that during the rutting-season, no fences the farmer can rear, are suflicient to keep them separate. They there- fore mix and degenerate, in spite of every effort that can be made to prevent it. it has been generally supposed, that to prevent the degeneracy of any particular breed, it is necessa- ry to breed from males and females not related to each other : but this is now found to be as great a mistake, as the prejudice respect- ing the necessity of changing seed, which has been so fully dis- proved, by Mr. Joseph Cooper of New-Jersey. Good animals and good seed, will always preserve their original excellence under the same circumstances, and experience has fully proved, that any one breed may be kept perfectly uncontaminated for any length of time, with all its distinctive peculiarities entire, merely by preventing an intermix- ture. It was by a careful attention to this principle, that the late Mr. BAKEWELLobtained such an ascen- dency over every other man in England, for the various breeds of his animals. The food of sheep has a very considerable influence upon the flesh and fleece. They are parti- cularly fond of Festuca ovina (or sheep's fescue-grass), of Achillea Millefolium or yarrow, of Plantago lanceolata (or rib-grass, narrow- leaved plantain), and of Mellilotus officinalis, (or common meliiot)..... Salt pasture is also highly benefi- cial in heightning the flavour of the flesh, and increasing the fine- ness of the wool. The sheep of the Shetland isl- ands, notwithstanding the incle- mency of the weather, produce wool of the finest qualiiv. We also know, that the sheep from Cape-May, Shrewsbury, and the high lands of Ncversink, in N. Jer- sey, produce the finest mutton and 486 SHE SHE wool, of any brought to our mar- ket- Salt is essentially necessary to sheep, and should be freely given. In Spain they allow.one pound and a half a-season to each animal. It is given to them upon flat stones, placed about 20 feet from one another. This practice should never be neglected. The citizens resident in the lime-stone districts of the country, should turn their attention to the raising of sheep : as they will be saved the expence of salt, which may be an object where a large flock is kept. In Fngland, no one attentive to the preservation of the quality of wool, ever puts a ewe to a ram be- fore the second or third year of her age. This practice ought to be carefully followed in the United States, for obvious reasons. The strength ofthe animal by that time, is perfect, its character, dispositibn and peculiarities are fully evolved, and of course will be capable of more completely transmittinglhem to its offspring, than by becoming a parent at a more early period, and before its constitution is fully formed, and before its native good qualities are rendered apparent. It is of great importance to the beauty of the animal, that nothing interrupt its growth during the first year. By experiments in England, it appears that the first cross, of a new breed, gives to the lamb half of the ram's blood, or 50 per cent, The second gives 75 do. The third 87£ do. The fourth 931 do. At which period it is said, that if the ewes have been judiciously selected, the difference of wool between the original stock, and the mixed breed, is scarcely to be discerned. Lord Somerville says,that "In addition to a most admirable sys- tematic management of the flocks of sheep in Spain, the superiority of the wool may depend upon three circumstances. 1. The use of salt: this prevents the injury aris- ing from an acidity of stomach, a serious disorder, and common to sheep, particularly when stocked on green floaty food, such as tur- nips, vetches, or young clover. The salt is spread on tiles or slates, among which the sheep are driven. On lime-stone soils, none is re- quired. 2. To the practice of rubbing into the wool, red or yel- low earth, in September. It is supposed to mix with, and qualify the perspiration, (which would otherwise give an asperity to the wool,) and to form a coat impene- trable to rain or cold. 3. To their changing their climate with the season, so as to preserve an equal temperature of air*. Spanish flocks are never let out of the fold to feed, until the morning dews have been evaporated. This pre- vents the liver-rot: probably the foot-rot of England is owing to the dews, as this disease never appears before the 25th of August. Spanish sheep are sweated a day or two before shearing, to make the wool part easily from the body, and are carefully housed during the night, or in cold, raw weather, for some days after shearing-. In England, Lord S. iinds, that the sheep with large throats are not good in their skins, and evince * This opinion, however, is not cor- rect, as is proved in the present article. Editor. SHE SHE 48T no aptitude to fatten ; the Ryeland breed is an exception. This last, like the Spanish breed,carries wool of such high value, as to counter- balance the illimpression of throati- ness. Their skins are full as good, and in some instances more dear and rosy, a sure token of vi- gour and consequent disposition to fatten. Dr. Garnett's analysis of the substance rubbed on the wool of the Spanish sheep, proves it to be a kind of Fuller's earth (but not an ochre) of a soapy na- ture. Lord S. says the Spanish rams have a buff tinge in their counte- nance, they may reach 17 lb. a quarter, when tolerably fat. The ewes are not low on their legs, are very fine in bone, and may reach II lb. a quarter." See " A report ofthe system followed during the two last yearsby the Board of Agri- culture, by Lord Somerville," 8. vo. London, 1800. The following excellent ex- tract, is part of a paper presented last year, to the Boston Society of Agriculture, by David Hum- phreys, the late minister of the United States to Portugal, which it is to be regretted, has not been given entire. Mr. H. has laid the foundation for great wealth to this country, by bringing over with him, on his return from Spain, one hundred Merino sheep, which he has let out on the most liberal terms. As a compliment for the meritorious act, the Boston Society has presented Mr. Humphreys with a gold modal. " In Spain, two distinct species of sheep have for ages existed, the one named Merinos, famous for their short and fine wool,peculiarly fit for carding; the other denomi- nated Churros, distinguished for their long and coarse wool, more suitable for combing. The former are so precious, as >o be sought with eagerness by all who wish to meliorate the staple for the woollen manufactory in any country of Europe ; while the latter, though much larger in size, are in so lit- tle estimation as never to be pro- cured for exportation. My state- ments and remarks will be confin- ed to the Merinos. The height ofthe male is about the same as that of the ordinary breed in this country. The head appears rather- bigger and slraighter. The ears are very small. The eyes re- markably bright. The horns curv- ed in a spiral turn. The nock is short.. The chest broad. The members more compact and thick, than those of our former breed of Sheep ; and the carcase is thought to have smaller bones and to be more rounded in {he hinder part. The body, face, and legs, are co- vered with a delicate fleece, which grows amazingly thick, without any mixture or coarser locks of hairs. This fleece is remarked to be much more impregnated than that of any other breed, with an oily substance, apparently exuded in perspiration. This animal is perfectly gentle, but quick, firm, and regular in all his movements. The female is considered gene- rally as having the more charac- teristics of the pure blood, in pro- portion as she approximates to this description....yet the ewes are commonly destitute of horns. " A few well attested facts will serve to shew the value of this race. None of the superfine cloths made in England, France, or Holland, can be fabricated without the mix- ture of a certain portion of this wool..-.Thc price is more than 488 SHE SHE twice as high per pound, as it is for ordinary kind-,. I shall men- tion, in another place, the increas- ed weight of the fleece, when this breed are transferred from Spain to another country, upon the testi- mony of those concerned in their management....That the flesh is not less succulent or well flavour- ed than the best English or Ame- rican mutton, I have had frequent opportunities to decide for myself. It is understood that the Merinos are more ea.tily maintained and fattened than the taller and larger breed, insomuch that there are persons acquainted with both breeds who calculate that 200 of these small boned and short leg- ged sheep may be kept in tolera- bly good condition, where 20 of the other would suffer for want. " To establish a strong pre- sumption in favour ofthe following point, viz. that the race then con- templated to be introduced into the United States, was likely to preserve all those qualities which constituted the original superiori- ty of value, I need only refer to the propagation of a breed from the same stock, with fleeces aug- mented in quantity, and undimi- nished in fineness,in Great Britain, France, Holland,* Switzerland, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. In the most northern climate to which they have been carried, they have supported the cold per- fectly well, and even without suf- fering any injury from having been in some instances buried for a time under the* snow....At the national farm of Rabibouilet, ir» Fiance, they are reported, on good authority, to have not only resist- * These facts are confirmed by Cit. Lasteykie, in his report to the Philom. Sec. at Fuiis....Editor. ed the unfavourable influence of a situation naturally too low and moist, but to have preserved their wool in all its original fineness, and to have increased the weight to an astonishing degree. '• It is fact confirmed by expe- rience beyond contradiction, that the quality of the wool does not depend on the -quality of the pas- tures in Spain, because the same pastures have maintained, from time immemorial, two different breeds, which have never assimi- lated ; one remarkable for the shortness and fineness, the other for the length and coarseness of the wool. It is moreover equally well proved, that the quality does not depend on the journies which the greater part of the Merinos make annually, because there are other flooks of the same race which remain perpetually in the same district, and whose fleeces are of the same consistency pre- cisely as the others. The flocks that do travel,ordo not travel,which are nourished with plentiful food, and taken good care of, by ex- cluding the deformed, sick and weak from becoming breeders, are preserved in all the purity of the original stock....while those in either predicament, migrating or resident, which are subjected to feel the effects of scarcity and negligence, invariably degene- rate, f f Bi'egoanne, an author of un- doubted credit, prove.;, that the annual pengrinations of the Merino sheep, are owing to the scarcity of food, and to the multitudes of sheep, that are kept toge- ther, and not to any ' conviction of the importance cf continuing in the same climate all the year. Cit. Lasteyiue's, fact before quoted, also confirms Mr. Hi .MrniiEv's assertion....Editou. SHE SHE 489 u The vigilance of the Shepherds, in remaining day and night with their charge, in reserving the best formed and finest woolled only for breeding, and in knowing and at- tending to each individual of their flocks, has, doubtless, contributed much to preserve them from de- generating clown to the present day. u This breed, like most of all others, thrives best in uplands and short pastures ; but it is reputed to be so singularly hardy, as to endure rain, snow, and cold as well as any northern race, and to sup- port itself in parched southern climates, by feeding on weeds and vegetables which most others would not taste....Without enter- ing into the detail of enriching the land, on which they graze or are folded, by their manure, especially where a rotation of crops is syste- matically pursued, I should not omit to mention, it has been as- serted, that a moderate sized farm, for example, a hundred acres, skilfully manured, may be made to maintain 100 sheep, and more- over, to produce as much in crops as it would have done had it been employed only in cultivation, and not charged with their nourish- ment. " That rams have been let for the season in England, for from 100 to 1000 guineas each, is a fact sufficiently known, to those who are acquainted with the history of agricultural proceedings in that country ; and it demonstrates con- clusively the wonderful passion that prevails for bettering the breed. The successful experi- ments in France, on the same subject, have been announced in a manner which demands credit. At Rambouillet, a farm originally VOL. IV. appropriated for making improve- ments by the ancient Government, which is represented not to be a very good position, on account of its humidity, a pure Spanish stock has been maintained for many years by the attention and care of the superintendants, not only in a perfectly healthy but gradually improving condition, in such sort that the quality of the wool is as fine as that of the best Merinos actually in Spain, while the quan- tity is considerable more than dou- bled. Where large flocks are kept in the last mentioned country, the sheep do not produce, upon an average, more than from two to three pounds*. The rams at Ram- bouillet, yield from 10 to 12, and the ewes from 5 to 6 each. From this stock, many small flocks, both of the pure and mixed breeds have descended. ^ " Several intelligent authors in Europe, who have treated of the most speedy and efficacious modes of improving wool, have stated, that, where the smallness of the original stock of Merinos pre,. vents so rapid a propagation of the pure race as could be wished, a mixed breed may be produced by Spanish rams, and well chosen ewes of the country, whose de- scendants in the fourth or fifth ge- neration, will yield fleeces nearly or quite as fine as the first quali- ty of those which are produced in Spain." Shearing La »A....\t has been a question, whether the practice of shearing lambs, is prejudicial or useful. By a publication addressed to the Philadelphia Society of Agri- culture, (American Museum, vol. 9, p. 111,) by Dr. Logan, it appears, that he sheared three lambs in August, which had been yeaned 3 R 490 SHE SHE the preceding March, and that the wool, taken the following spring from the same animals, though not so long as that of two others, yeaned at the same time, but not shorn until the spring after, yet the fleeces were much thicker, equally fine, and not the least matted :.... and he is so convinced of the pro- fit and utility of the practice, that he intends to continue it. Mr. John Philips, ofthe township of Pittstown, Luzerne county, Penn- sylvania, has also announced in the Wilksbarre Gazette of August 27, last, that " he sheared from six lambs, fourteen pounds and four ounces of wool ; and that he is convinced by seventeen years ex- perience, of the great advantage in shearing lambs: although the wool will not be so long the next spring, yet it will be much thicker than on those which are not shorn; and the lambs that are shorn will not loose their wool like those that are not shorn. Besides shearing will relieve them from ticks, and they will certainly grow better and make larger sheep." Mr. P. shears his lambs soon after the new moon, in the last of July, or first of Au- gust. The testimony of two American farmers, (and that of others, might be here added) deserves attention ; and yet it may be well to state, that from a report made by Tessier and Huzard, concerning the flock of Spanish sheep at Rambouillet, (the French experimental farm) it appears that some sheep were al- lowed to be two years without being sheared, and their fleeces were found to be twice as heavy, and twice as long as the yearly fleece of those, which had been sheared twice in the same period ; nor did the animals thmeselves appear to be at all incommoded. Mr. Chancellor Livingstok, adds, another reason given him by Mr. Bourgeois, the superintend- ant of the French national farm, for waiting till the second year be- fore shearing, viz. that the ewe« are worth less than the wool they yield, and that the weight of the first fleece at the age of 18 months, is equal to that of the two shear- ings in the old way. The state of Vermont has set a praise worthy example to the other states, by a law passed last year, deducting from the poor man's poll tax the full of its amount, on his proving that he keeps and shears 20 sheep; the law likewise protects the poor man's last ten sheep from attach- ment or execution. The following article is taken from a public print, published somt years since....of its importance the editor has no proof. To take off the wool from a sheefi- skin....« As soon as the skin is ta- ken off, spread it on a horse or cow; and in six or eight hours, the wool will come off better than in any other way. After the wool is off, spread the skin on a pole, and let it hang in the shade, till conveni- ent to send it to a tanner."... Con- necticut Gazette. To preserve the skins with the wool ow....Spread the skin against a fence, or on boards, and wash the inside well with salt and water: then with alum water three times a day : rub it well after each wash- ing with a flat piece of wood, sawed off the end of a small log, to soften the skin....See article Wool.] SHEEP'S-BIT, or Hairy Shkep's-Scabious, Jasione mon- SHI tana, L. an indigenous annual plant, growing in meadows, pas- tures, and heaths, in dry and sandy situations; where it blows in June and July.....Its blue flowers emit a strong, musky odour; and are eagerly visited by bees. The leaves contain a sweetish mucilage ; on which account they afford grateful food to sheep. Shepherd's Needle. See Needle,the Common Shepherd's. SHEPHERD'S PURSE, the Common, or Shepherd's Pouch, Thlaspi Bursa pastoris, L. a native pf ant, growing among rubbish, on road-sides, walls, in corn-fields, and gravelly walks; flowering from March to September....Dr. Wi- thering observes, that this herb evinces the influence of soil and climate on vegetables; as it thrives in almost any place, bears flowers, and perfect seeds, when only two inches high; while, in more favour- able situations, it attains the height of two or three feet. According to Bradley, the dried leaves of the Shepherd's Purse, reduced to powder, and taken in red wine, form an effica- cious remedy in diarrhoeas, and other fluxes, where astringents are indicated....The expressed juice of this plant, operates as a powerful styptic, especially in bleedings from the nose, when introduced into the nostrils. SHINGLES, a disorder of the erysipelatous kind (see Rose), in which numerous pimples of a livid hue, arise in different parts of the trunk, but principally around the waist of the body ; whence it is called shingles, or girdle: the erup- tion terminates in small blisters or pustules. It is seldom attended with fever ; and, even in such case, SHI 491 the febrile symptoms are generally mild. As this complaint requires a similar treatment to that already- stated, under the head of Rose, we shall only add the salutary caution to refrain from all external appli- cations of a repelling nature; be- cause such imprudent remedies, here likewise, cannot fail to pro- duce melancholy effects. [SHIP.....Under this head, may be noticed a very useful contri- vance to save a person who may chance to fall over board at sea, which is described by Lord Hen- niker in the report of the Humane Society of London, for 1802. It is called a man-saver ; and resembles, in some measure, " a Tee totum ;" the floating part is like adrum-head of acapstan, and made either of cork, or hooped like a cask; the pole run through it, serves for the man to hold by, as well as with the flag on the top, a guide for the ship's boat to find it; 492 SHI SH O and the weight at bottom to act as a counterpoise to keep the pole upright. They are no trouble, as they are made fast to the m'rzen chains, and let go, (by cutting the lashing) in one minute, into the sea. Lord II. adds, " if a little bell was fixed in a light iron crutch, upon the top of the pole, instead of the flag, the motion of the waves would keep it constantly ringing ; and on a dark night, would be the best direction, to either the sailor in the water, or the boat to fetch him. I submitted this thought to one of our admirals, who had saved a man that fell off the fore-yard, by one of these things, which was lashed as described above ; and he much approved of the alteration." The following cut will give a good idea of the plan proposed. An account of a contrivance si- milar to the man-saver, was pub- lished in the American prints, and is preserved in Carey's American Museum. It was said to have been seen on board a Maltese ship of war. SHIP-BREAD, or Biscuit...... Under the article i. iscitt, the rea- der will find an abridgement of an excellent paper on biscuit, origi- nally written in French, by the use- ful Parmentikr, to whom we are indebted for numerous papers on economical subjects, and translated at length in 34th vol. of Young's Annals. The following receipt, which is taken from Mr. Bord ley's " Notes on Husbandry," will ena- ble persons on board ship, (unless prevented by stormy weather) to have fresh biscuit at all times..... " Add water to the flour very gra- dually, so as not to drown the flour. Work up the dough until very dry, with hands ; so that when all is done that can be done by hands, towards gathering the ma- terials into a firm mass, it is still dry in parts, and in cracks with flour not taken up. The mass is then to be committed to a brake of heavy beater, with which it is well worked, until it becomes smooth and solid, and the oven heated to bake as quickly as pos- sible without burning"....Common house bread by being baked a se- cond lime, will keep much longer than that which is baked but once. The preservation of bread and biscuit from wevills, on ship board, is a great object. The entire ex- emption from those insects, of a parcel of biscuit put up in a bag which had fallen into a kettle con- taining a solution of salt-petre; while other parcels, stowed in the same place, were greatly eaten, has lately led to the recommenda- tion of immersing the bags in a kettle of salt-petre solution, and drying thembefore beingfilled with biscuit; the experiment is cer- tainly worth repeating. Lining the bread-barrels with lead, and keep- ing them tight, would doubtless answer.] SHOAD-STOXE, a term ap» SHO S H O 493 plied to certain loose masses of a Blacking made agreeably to the fossil, which is generally found at foregoing receipt,foeds the leather, the entrance of mines. and when brushed bright, gives it Shoad-stones serve as useful the colour and appearance of new guides to miners, in digging for leather. It is also best adapted for ores; because, if these minerals cleaning ladies' Morocco shoes: be very ponderous, it may with and, if it be required to make it certainty be concluded that they more shining, more size may be contain antimony, or some other added.] metal. Being principally found in Next to the substance of which Cornwall and Derbyshire, it is pro- shoes are manufactured, the most bable from the large portion of important consideration will be marcasiticparticles in shoad-stones, their size, or shape; which should that Mundic may thence be ad- in all cases be adapted to the foot. vantageously extracted. An easy shoe must, therefore, be SHOE, a well-known article of of a sufficient length, and of a pro- dress, which servesto cover thefeet. portionate breadth. The soles Shoes are generally made of lea- should be thick, and their extre- ther, the texture of which ought mities, round rather than pointed; not only to be sufficiently close, to in order to protect, the toes from exclude moisture, but also pliant, being injured by sharp stones, or or flexible ; so that it may afford other rough substances, that may free scope for the motion of the occur in the streets or roads.... foot: and, as it is an object of Such are the requisites for oblain- material consequence to be pro- ing a convenient shoe ; and, if vided against the sudden changes these be not strictly observed, the ofthe weather, we refer the reader; necessary perspiration of the feet to the [1st vol. p. 34S, and vol. 3d._. will be checked ; warts and corn;, p. 452,] in which he will meet with all their attendant pains, will with the most approved methods arise ; and numerous other mah- of rendering leather water-proof. dies will be induced.....extending [To the receipts given in places their influence to other parts elf above referred to, may be added the body. Beside these serious the following, communicated by consequences,which persons wear- Mr. Johnson, of New-Brunswick, ing narrow or fashionable shoes, Take five parts tallow, seven gradually, though certainly, cxpt- ditto bees-wax, twelve ditto size, rience, they also sufferfrom immc- one ditto brown soap, four ditto diate fatigue and languor, when lamp-black; incorporate the whole walking only to a short distance ; over a fire, (adding the ingredients whereas, by pursuing a contrary one by one, and stirring the mass conduct, the feet are not only more well,) then make it into cakes. easy, but those who wear propij- The size is either glue dissolved shoes, are enabled to undergo the i'n water to a jelly, or else strong longest pedestrian journies, with- jelly made of gum tragacanth in out receiving any material injury water; or a jelly made by boiling from such exertions...See also the glue pieces (bought of tanners) in articte Foot. water, to a proper consistency, and Shoe, in farriery, is an iron strained. plate of various degrees of thick- 494 S H O 5HO ness, designed to protect the feet of horses. The common method of shoeing consists, first, in paring the frog, sole, and binders of the foot: so that, by clumsy management aflow of blood is frequently occasioned : next, a heavy shoe, which is made somewhat concave on the side next the hoof, is then applied nearly red- hot. Farther, to prevent the frog from coming in contact with the ground, the shoe-heels are usually made either very thick, broad, and strong; or large cramps or caulkers are raised upon them. In conse- quence of this treatment, the frog is unnaturally elevated above the ground, and the heels are deprived of the substance which was origi- nally intended to keep the crust sufficiently expanded. Thus, the former are forced together ; and, while the latter is pressed upon the coffin, and the extremities of the nut-bone, the circulation of the blood is impeded; the frog gradu- ally wastes ; at length the whole hoof decays ; and, by such injudi- cious practice, the numerous disor- ders incident to the feet of horses, which are known under the names of FOUNDERED, FRUSH, &C. are generally occasioned. To remedy, or at least to pre- vent, these maladies, Mr. Edward Coleman has invented an artifi- cial frog, for which he obtained a patent in February, 1800. This frog may be made of any tough and hard material ; for instance, leather, horn, or wood ; but iron is preferable. In order to fix and remove such contrivance with ease, the toe of the iron frog extends beneath that of the shoe, and thus pi-events the artificial frog from slipping forwards: next, a steel spring is fitted into an irregular groove in the iron frog, and fixed under the heels of the shoe ; lest the frog should move either back- wards, or in a lateral direction.... Lastly,to ensure greater steadiness to this application, a leather strap is passed through a hole, in the heel of the frog, and then buckled round the hoof. In April, 1796, a patent was granted to Mr. William More- croft, for his invention of an im- proved and expeditious method of manufacturing horse-shoes. His practice consists in cutting the shoes by means of dies, havingpre- viously prepared the iron; in con- sequence of which, the shape of the shoe is not only more perfect, but the horse's foot is supported in a more effectual manner, than by the shoes in common use : thus, in the opinion of the patentee, many diseases to which that part is liable, may in future be prevent- ed. For a detailed account of this contrivance, the reader will con- sult the 6th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," &c.:.....some judicious hints, on the shoeing of that va- luable animal, also occur in Mr. Moorcroft's pamphlet, entitled, " A Cursory Account of the various Methods of Shoeing Horses," 8vo. 1800 ; which will amply repay the trouble of perusal. [Under the article Oxen, the great advantage of shoeing oxen was mentioned, and reference was made to a machine to facilitate the operation, represented in the 26th vol. of the Annals of Agriculture. The subjoined cut will give an ac- curate idea of the apparatus. SHO S H O 495 1, is the top piece of the sliding plank, to sink down and confine the head. 22, are the broad, strong, straps of leather, fastened by links of iron, to prevent the ox from lying down on hi6 belly, which they are apt to do; and the hinder strap is to prevent his drawing back, to the injury of his head and neck. 33, are two stumps strongly fix- ed in the ground, to tie the fore legs to. 4, is an iron that lifts up and down, to confine the roller to which the hinder legs are tied for shoe- ing. 555, are holes (with others cor- responding, not seen in the plate) for the roller to be shifted according to the length of the ox. The machine would also answer for shoeing a refractory horse.] SHOT, a general name given to small and large balls, employed in fire arms, but especially to those of a dtminutivc size. Shot is made either of iron, or of lead: the former metal is chiefly used for cannon-balls ; as the lat- ter is for those of guns, pistols, he. There are different kinds of shot, according to the various purposes for which they are designed. The best for fowling-pieces, is known under the name of Patent milled Shot, and is of various sizes, ac- cording to the species of game that is the immediate object of pursuit. It is made in the following man- ner : Sheets of lead, the thickness of which corresponds with the in- tended size of the shot, are first cut into small cubic pieces : these are next submitted to a large, hol- low, iron cylinder, that is mounted horizontally, so as to be turned by a winch; and, by their friction against the sides of the machine, they are rendered perfectly round and smoolh....See also Granula- tion. SHOULDER, is the joint which connects the arm with the body. The principal affection of this limb is luxation, or dislocation (see vol. i;i. p. 515), when the head of 496 S H O SHO the upper arm-bone is forced from its socket. Such injury may be discovered by the swelling of the part; the inability to raise the arm; and violent pain attending the at- tempt : farther, the dislocated arm will be of a different length from the other ; the head of the bone may be folt to be displaced from its natural situation ; and a vacui- ty be perceived under the anterior part of the shoulder-blade. In treating this complaint, the principal object will be to reduce the dislocated limb, with the great- est possible ease and expedition ; in order to prevent a watery-swell- ing, which is apt to arise in neg- lected cases of long standing. Va- rious means have been devised for restoring the joint to its former position ; such as suspending the patient by thec luxated arm over the step of a laddder, or the top of a door; and which have, in many instances, been attended with suc- cess, by the sudden jerk thus pro- duced : but, by either of these ex- pedients, the soft parts are liable to be lacerated, and the head of the bone to be fractured. A more eligible method, there- fore, is the following : after the patient is seated on a chair, his body must be secured by a strong belt passed around it, and held by assistants. The elbow should be bent, in order to relax the mus- cles. A firm leather bandage, from four to five inches broad, with strong straps, is next to be tied round the arm, immediately above the elbow ; when the arm should be gradually extended by assistants, pulling these straps, v\hile another person withdraws the shoulder-blade. The exten- sion and counter-extension must be regulated by the situation cf the head of the bone. As soon as the latter has passed the margin of the socket, it will be returned to its place by the action of the muscles ; an effect which is indi- cated by a loud crack. If, how- ever, violent inflammatory symp- toms should ensue after the opera- tion, recourse must be had to fo- mentations with Arquebusade or Goulard-water, and the applica- tion of leeches. At all events, the arm ought to be retained for some time in a state of rest, by a pro- per bandage, till it acquire its for- mer vigour; especially if a new dislocation of the joint be appre- hended. To obviate such an ac- cident, blisters, frictions, and sti- mulants, applied to the shoulders, have frequently proved beneficial. SHRUB, in botany, a term de- noting a low tree, of a diminutive size ; or, a plant abounding with branches ; and, instead of one sin- gle trunk, shooting forth several sets or stems from the parent-root. Such are the honey-suckle, holly, furze, he. The most hardy, indigenous shrubs, are the Box, and Ivy, which resist the severest winters,' without receiving the least injury? while many other vegetables de- cay, in consequence of intense frost. Next, in point of hardiness, are the Holly, Juniper, and Furze ; but there are, besides, nu- merous ornamental shrubs, well calculated to diversify, parks, lawns, he.....See the heads, Cut- tings, Layers, Planting. SHRUB, a compound liquor, made of ardent spirits, orange- juice, and sugar. Though we do not profess to be acquainted with the exact propor- tion of the ingredients employed by shrub-drinkers, yet it appears SIG S I L 497 that one pint of the best coniac brandy requires to be diluted with the expressed and filtered juice of four or six China oranges, and half a pound of refined sugar..... Thus, a very palatable, but seduc- tive liquor is produced; the effects of which, if frequently resorted to, cannot fail of undermining the constitution of its votaries....Hav- ing, on former occasions, explained the injurious consequences to be apprehended from the liberal use of Arrack, Brandy, Gin, and Rum, we shall, at present, only remark, that shrub is incomparably more tempting and insinuating, es- pecially to weak females, than any of the simple spirits ; because, in combination with sweet ingredi- ents, this liquor imperceptibly sti- mulates, and gradually impairs the digestive organs, while it de- prives such persons of that share of tottering health, which they vainly hoped to support. [The above observation of Dr. W. is certainly correct: but as occasions often occur, when a glass of pleasant cordial may be properly, nay, usefully taken, the following receipt for shrub, com- municated by Mr. Johnson of N. Brunswick is given. Take of fourth proof rum, three gallons, add thereto the outer rinds of six Sevile or sour oranges, and of six lemons, and let these infuse for one or two clays, then add three gallons of water, five pounds of sugar, and of sweet- orange juice, three quarts ; when well mixed and settled, fine with a gill or half-pint of milk, and rack off for use.] SIGHT, is the exercise of the sense of vision. This faculty is one of the most important enjoyed by organized befogs; as they are VOL. IV. thus enabled to behold the beauties of Nature, and to avoid such ob- jects, as may be productive of in- jury to the animal body. Con- sistently with our limits, we can- not attempt to explain the peculiar structure of the organs of sight; and shall, therefore, briefly ob- serve, that perceptions of the eye are effected by the refraction of the rays of light, through the medium ofthe chrystalline humour; till they are collected into one distinct im- age on the retina, a membrane re- sembling a net; and which repre- sents objects to the mind. Such rays are, during their passage through the cornea, or horny skin, broken and brought into mutual contact; after which they converge at the part containing the viterous or transparent humour; and at which they separate, being again assembled together, and at length collected into as many points as the external figure represents. Such is the manner in which we are enabled to behold objects in general: hence, the necessity of guarding the eyes with equal care against all injuries from without, as well as nocturnal excesses, be- comes evident; for those tender and complicated organs are ex- posed to a variety of disorders, which, if not opportunely prevent- ed or checked in their progress, mayeventually induce total Blind- ness.....Having already enumerat- ed such affections, and pointed out the most appropriate treatment, under the articles Eye, Gutta- Serena, &c. the reader will con- sult them accordingly. SILK-WORM, or Phalxna Bombyx Mori, a native of China, where it propagates itself on the mulberry-tree, the leaves of which serve as its only natural food....: 3 S 498 SIL SI L. From the labours of this valuable insect, we obtain Silk. The worm is hatched from yellowish eggs,the size of which is rather smaller than that of mustard-seed ; and which are laid by a species of white moth, resembling a butterfly. • When the egg is hatched, after being exposed to a warm tempera- ture of from 60 to 70° of Fah- renheit, for a few days, a small black worm bursts forth, which is very eager for food, and ought to be supplied with the most tender mulberry-leaves. These will be greedily eaten for about eight days, at which period the worm is seized with a lethargic sleep, for three days ; when it changes its skin.... The creature now begins to eat i rp J 1 506 S L E SLE flowers, buds, or young stems.... This period of rest is absolutety necessary to vegetables ; their ir- ritability being exhautsed by the light and warmth of the day. The circulation of the sap, also, is less , rapid in their dormant state ; from which circumstance Dr. Darwin conjectures that, as there is less wasted during their inactivity, it is probable that young plants may thrive more rapidly, in the same manner as animals are believed, during their youth, to grow faster when in a state of rest, than in that of exercise. SLEEPING, is that state of the body, in which the animal func- tions are suspended. The proper duration of sleep must be regulated, according to the different constitutions and ages of individuals. Thus, in the first six months of its existence, an in- fant may be allowed to sleep the the greater part of the day ; but, after that period, it will be neces- sary to abridge this indulgence, gradually, with the advance of years. For children, from the age of seven yeais to that of adole- scence, and also for aged persons, eight or nine hours of nightly rest will be required ; but for adults, and those who are not obliged to fatigue themselves with mental or bodily exertions, six or seven hours will be sufficient. The proper hour for retiring to sleep, having already been stated under the article Bed-time, we shall conclude the subject with a few remarks, on the practice oc- casionally observed in the nurs- ery. Children, and even infants, are sometimes prevented from going to sleep, by a variety of circum- stances, which maternal solicitude only can discover : we conceive it, therefore our duty, to caution pa- rents and conscientious nurses, against employing artificial means, and particularly opiates or narco- tic substances, whether externally or internally, ,with a view to lull the child to sleep; as these de- testable remedies tend to stupify the latent faculties, and to weak- en the intellect of such tender con- stitutions. Equally absurd and in- judicious is the practice of terri- fying young people to sl*ep by threats ; or of wheedling them by promises ; for, in the former case, they early acquire sentiments of disgust and hatred, which have the most baneful influence on their subsequent conduct: in the latter, they become selfish ; and, at length, it will be requisite to pay them for sleeping. SLEEP-WALKING, or Som- nambulism, a remarkable disor- der, proceeding from an inflamed or disturbed imagination ; and in which the patient's eyes are wide- ly open ; though he can discern no object: at the same time, he has the power of recollection ; di- rects his walks to some particular spot; and, after arriving at the end of his nocturnal journey, he retires to bed, apparently compos- ed ; and sleeps calmly during the remainder of the night. Dr. Cullen considers this af- fection as an active species of the Nightmare (oneirodynia activa), aiit- c nsequently as originating from til's same source. The cav.ses,however,which have generally been supposed to induce somnambulism, art: a very pletho- ric state of the blood, especially that towards the head ; a disturb- ed imagination, in consequence of horrid dreams ; or particular SLO causes that harrass the fhind dur- ing sleep ; and according to Le- vade, contusions ofthe brain. Cure ......Where plethora is the cause, the first passages ought to be cleared by a powerful cathartic; and some blood should then be taken, either from the arm or from the foot. Electricity, and frequent bathing, have occasionally proved of service ; and it will farther be advisable, to place a vessel of wa- ter, or wet cloths, contiguous to the bed-side, so that the patient, by the sudden stimulus on the soles of his feet, be immediately awakened.....Should these reme- dies fail of success, it has been strongly recommended, by medi- cal writers, to watch the patient, and to chastise him, as often as he is about to renew his noctural rambles ; yet we do not approve of such coercive measures. SLOE-TREE, Black-thorn, or Scroggs, Prunus spinosa, L. an indigenous shrub, growing wild in hedges, and woods ; flowering in the months of March and April. It generally attains the height of from 10 to 12 feet, and spreads its branches from the root ; produc- ing small, round, black - berries in autumn, which possess a very austere taste, till mellowed by frost. Being of very quick and bushy growth, the sloe-tree is well adapt- ed for hedges and other fences ; though it is not calculated for situ- ations where its spreading roots might obstruct the growth of ve- getables planted in its vicinity.... The wood is hard and tough ; on which account it is usefully con- verted into walking-sticks, teeth for rakes, and turnery-ware....Dr. Withering observes that, from the effects which follow the punc- SLO 507 tures made by the thorns of this tree, he has reason to believe, they contain some poisonous matter ; especially if such wounds be in- flicted in autumn......The young and tender leaves, when dried, af- ford, in his opinion, the best sub- stitute for the foreign teas....li bruised, and infused in currant or raisin-wine, sloes impart a beauti- ful red colour, and a pleasant rough, sub-acid taste, resembling that of Port-wine ; a fact too well known to the dealers in that fa- vourite and expensive liquor..... Characters impressed on linen, or woolen cloth, with the juice of the fruit, are said to be perma- nent. On adding green vitriol to this liquid, the shade is not chang- ed ; but, if it be employed for writing on paper, or dyeing linen, and afterwards exposed to the air, an indelible black colour will be the result, and which is superior to that obtained from the best galls. ....The dried berries of the black thorn,dye-linen of a red hue,which, on repeated washing, changes to a durable light-blue......The bark boiled in ley, also yields a red tinge ; and, in order to facilitate the decortication of this shrub, it ought to be effected in the spring: ....a decoction of the root, on ad- ding a solution of bismuth, com- municates a cinnamon shade to wool....The blackish bark is far- ther, useful for preserving cheese from corruption ; a fact attested by Bechstein : the same rind, together with the unripe berries, may be advantageously used in tanning. In a medicinal respect, a hand- ful of the flowers ofthe sloe-tree, either infused in water, or boiled in milk, and strained, affords a draught vvhicli operates as a safe 508 S L U SLU and gentle purgative....According to Dr. Withering, the bark, when reduced to powder, and ad- ministered in doses of two drams each, has cured some species of the ague....An inspissated extract of the same substance forms an excellent astringent, which is fre- quently employed on the Conti- nent, as a substitute for the more expensive, but less efficacious In- dian drugs of this description: and it is highly probable, that such pre- paration might, in many cases, be employed with safety, instead of the Peruvian bark, which is seldom obtained in a genuine state from the shops. The leaves of the sloe - tree, are eaten by horses, sheep, and goats : the bark is relished by hares, deer, and other wild quad- rupeds. Sloe-worm. SccBlind-worm. Sludge. See Sea-sludge. SLUG, or Naked Snail, Li- max, L. a genus of insects, com- prehending eight species; which differ only in colour; being black, white, reddish, ash-coloured, he. These reptiles are destitute of shells, having four feelers placed above the mouth, and which are protruded, or drawn in, at plea- sure ; they move at a very slow pace ; and, from the calmminess of their skin, leave slimy, shining marks, wherever they pass. Slugs infest gardens and'fields, where they do great damage; par- ticularly if the land be stocked with lettuces, cabbages, or turnips. Hence it has been recommended, to strew the ground with lime in the evening, at the rate of fifteen bushels per acre; by which expe- dient they will be completely de- stroyed ; as they advance from their hidingplaces during the night, in quest of food. These vermin may also fce exterminated, by ad- mitting poultry to the ground in- fested with them. But, as many husbandmen have not an opportu- nity of liming their fields or gar- dens ; or of keeping a sufficient stock of geese, fowls, ducks, &c for this purpose, we think it use- ful to observe, that they may be effectually reduced in number, by the simple expedient of collecting them by the hand, when perambu- lating the ground very early in the momingj especially during cloudy and damp weather. The destruc- tion of these vermin may, farther, be facilitated by strewing withered leaves, or the putrescent stalks, of cabbages and turnips, on the sur- face; as they devour the latter with avidity. One of the most expeditious modes, however, of extirpating slugs, is that communicated by Capt.Shank, to theBath and West of England Society ; and which is inserted in the 8th vol. of their Letters and Papers. He directs a sufficient quantity of coal-tar to be poured into a barrel, and to fill the vessel with water, which must be suffered to stand for two or three days; when it will become power- fully impregnated ; and, if poured on the vermin, will kill them in- stantaneously. He farther ob- serves that, if such tar-water be sprinkled on the land, by means of a watering-pot, both before and after sowing, it will infallibly pre- vent their depredations. Slugs, frequently harbour near the foundation of walls, and at the roots of pease, beans, lettuces, Sec. where they commit great depreda- tions. Mr. Forsyth, therefore, directs them to be picked off', and thrown into a vessel containing a little unslacked lime, which will SM A S M A 509 inevitably destroy them : or, the common prejudice of the vulgar, ground infested by these vermin not to shift the linen during the should be watered with a liquid, whole complaint; but this change composed of soap-suds, urine, and cannot be too strongly inculcated a decoction of tobacco. in a disease, where perspiration If slugs be uncommonly numer- and eruption render the covering ous on the surface of the ground, of the skin impure ; though great particularly in dewy mornings, or precaution is required, that every after rain, Mr. F. recommends fine new vestment be perfectly aired. unslacked lime to be scattered over If the patient be an adult, and of a the borders of the gardens, thus plethoric habit, blood-letting may, infested. He prefers, however, the in this stage, be resorted to, with preparation first mentioned ; as it advantage. not only destroys the insects, but In obstruction of the bowels, also prevents their increase, by kill- none but the mildest laxatives can ing their eggs, which are uniform- be given : it would, however, be ly deposited in the earth. more advantageous to regulate the Smallage. See Celery. body by emollient clysters, each SMALL-POX is a contagious being composed of half a pint of eruption, attended with inflamma- whey, a table-spoonful of honey, tory fever. The recovery should two table-spoonfuls of sweet-oil, be chiefly entrusted to Nature, and a small portion of common while every attention must be paid salt; such injections to be repeated, to diet and regimen. Previous to till they produce the desired effect. the appearance of the pustules, the Similar means may be employed patient should be kept in a cool, but with benefit, in cases of convul- dry apartment, well aired, and ab- sions. Where the throat happens stain from all animal food; though to be affected, the most suitable weak broths may be occasionally remedies will be warm fermenta- allowed : on the other hand, he tions applied to the neck, and mus- may eat all vegetables of a cooling tard-poultices to the feet; while and mucilaginous kind ; boiled and the throat should be gargled with roasted fruit; preparations of pearl- vinegar and water.....But, if the barley, sago, cherries, currents, patient be of a weak constitution, mulberries, &c. ; but cheese, pas- or be reduced in strength, recourse try, and confectionary, are very must be had to corroborants, such pernicious. The beverage should as Peruvian bark, taken by the consist of barley-water acidulated mouth, and injected in clysters ; with vinegar or cream of tartar; or sinapisms, and other stimulents to one part of milk, mixed with three be devised by the profession. When parts of water, either to be taken a looseness threatens to increase lukewarm ; but wine, beer, coffee, this state of debility, small closes of and tea, ought to be prohibited..... tincture of rhubarb with spear- Too great indulgence in sleep is mint water, in which gum-arabic also injurious, particularly on fea- is dissolved; and the use of the ther-beds, which always increase bark, will be the remedies here in- the heat and fever; it would be dicated. more advisable to lie on mattresses, After the eruption has taken and be lightly covered.....It is a place, the fever generally subsides- 510 S M A SM A in which case it is advisable to ab- stain frorn all medicines, and ob- serve the diet above pointed out, unless the pustules disappearagain, when blistering-plasters ought to be applied to the calves of the legs without delay, and small doses of camphor taken internally ; or pars- ley-root boiled in milk, frequently eaten, with a view to encourage the eruption : a few drops of lau- danum, given in the morning and evening, have often produced that effect, especially where convulsive symptoms were obvious. If, during the suppurative stage, or what is termed the turn of the disorder, the fever be inconsider- able, the same diet will be proper, as was directed at the commence- ment of the disease ; but, should the febrile symptoms re-appear, or the pustules suddenly sink [or look flat or pale] (acircumstance which always denotes great danger), blis- ters must immediately be applied to the extremities ; the legs be rubbed with flannel ; and the feet bathed in tepid water. [Calomel should also be given in the propor- tion of three grains every three hours, until the mouth be gently touched ; bark, wine, or wine- whey, porter,and nourishing soups must also be given, as the strength of the patient may require.] In this particular situation of the pa- tient, medical advice is indispen- sably necessary, and ought to be speedily procured. When the scurf begins to peel off, a gentle laxative, twice, or three times a week, will, in gene- ral, prevent many of those secon- dary complaints which frequently succeed the small-pox : or, if the eyes be swollen and inflamed, the application of warm bread and milk \fith Goulard-water, and leeches to the temples, will, in most cases, remove this local affection. After the inflammatory symptoms have entirely subsided, the patient may gradually resort to his former diet; observing, however, some precau- tion and moderation in the use of wine, animal food, and other heat- ing substances. [The above directions are re- tained in the present edition, for the guidance of those who may have occasion for them, when not nearjnedical aid; but nothing shall be said upon inoculation ; as it is high time to cease propagat- ing this loathsome^disease, since providence has kindly sent us the Cow-Pock. See Vacine.] SMALT, a species of glass of a dark-blue colour ; and which, on levigating it, assumes a beautiful shade ; resisting the action of air and fire : hence, if it could be ren- dered sufficiently fine, it would prove an excellent substitute for ultramarine. Smalt is prepared, by meltingone part of calcined cobalt, with two of pulverized flint, and one of pot- ash. At the bottom of the cruci- bles, which are employed in ma- nufacturing this compound, there is generally found a regulus of a whitish colour, inclinXig to red, and rather brittle ; this, on being again melted, and becoming cold, sepa- rates into two parts ; namely, that which settles at the bottom, is the true cobalt, and is used to in- crease the quantity of smalt; the other is called Bismuth ; to which we refer. Smalt is employed in various branches of the arts and manufac- tures ; as likewise by clear-starch- ers, in getting up fine linen ; and by whom it is termed powder- blue. SMO SMO 511 SMOKE, a dense, elastic fume, which is exhaled from burning coals, wood, and other substances. Smoke being not only disagree- able to the senses, but also fre- quently detrimental to health ; in- genious men have contrived va- rious means, by which the benefit of fire might be enjoyed, without the inconvenience resulting from such fumigation. Having already stated some of these expedients, under the article Chimney, we shall here add afewother methods, by way of supplement. 1. If the funnel be too short (which is necessarily the case in low buildings, as it would other- wise endanger the roof), it will be advisable to contract the opening of the chimney, so as to compel the incumbent air to pass through or at least very near to the fire.... Thus, the funnel will become warmed : and the confined air be- ing rarefied "by heat, will rise up- wards, and maintain a proper draught at the orifice. 2. Another cause of chimnies smoking, arises from the injudi- cious position of a door. Hence, if the door and chimney happen to be on the same side of the room, and the former should open against the wall, the air will necessarily pass into the chimney, and expel the smoke into the room. This in- convenience will be felt particu- larly on shutting the door; the current being then considerably in- creased, to the great annoyance of those who may be near the fire. Such nuisance may be easily pre- vented, by placing a skreen from. the wall round the fire-place, so as to intercept the air. A more simple method, however, is that of changing the hinges of the door, so that it may open the contrary way ; and thus occasion a current of air to circulate along the oppo- site wall. Lastly, the chimnies of new houses, for want of sufficient ven- tilation, frequently smoke to such a degree, as to render them almost uninhabitable. To remedy this unpleasant molestation, it has been proposed to draw down the upper sash of a window, for the space of an inch. As the frames, however, are generally fixed, especially in old houses, an expedient has been adopted, of cutting a circular hole in a pane of glass, and substituting a round plate of tin, suspended on an axis, and divided into vanes ; which, being severally bent in an oblique direction, are moved by the current of air ; and the ventilator is forced round, in a mannersimi- lar to the sails of a windmill. This contrivance generally answers the end proposed ; but, as the conti- nual noise is very troublesome the following method has been prefer- ably devised. It simply consists in taking out a pane of glass, and suspending it on hinges, so as to be opened and shut at pleasure; or, the pane may be set in a tin frame, and supported by two move- able jointsjon each side, serving the purpose of letting it down, or draw- ing up and shutting it, according to circumstances, having proper hinges at the lower part: thus, by opening such pane to a greater or less distance, the necessary supply of fresh air may be admitted, with- out exposing persons in the room, to the draught. See also Fire- place. SMOKING, in domestic eco- nomy, is a mode of preserving meat, such as hams, bacon, geese, he. by previously salting, and then exposing them to the smoke aris- 512 S M U SMU ing from a wood-fire. For this purpose, the chimney is usually furnished with recesses or lofts ; which communicating with the funnel itself, in a lateral direction, do not admit a large volume of smoke to pervade the articles there suspended ; but, as the latter gra- dually receive the ascending fumes, they become impregnated with them in a more uniform, and ef- fectual manner. A fire from the branches of thejuNTPER-TREE,im- parts to the flesh of animals a very agreeable, pungent flavour. Smoking of Lamps, is a circum- stance frequently disregarded in domestic life : as, however, the fumes ascending from the oil,espe- cially if it be tainted or rancid, are highly pernicious, when inhaled into the lungs of asthmatic or other persons liable to complaints of the chest, we shall communicate the following simple expedient: Let a sponge, three or four inches in diameter, be moistened with pure water, and in that state be suspend- ed by a string or wire exactly over the flame of the lamp, at the dis- tance of a few inches : this sub- stance will absorb all the smoke emitted during the evening, or night ; when it should be rinsed in warm water, and thus again ren- dered fit for use. SMUT, a disease affecting al- most every species of corn, the grains of which become filled with a fetid black powder, instead of containing farinaceous matter. Having already stated in article Barley, the result of several ex- periments, made with a view to pre- vent this pernicious distemper, we shall now communicate such me- thods, as are maintained to have proved efficacious ; thus rendering our accounts as perfect as the na- ture of this work will admit. In the 6th vol. ot Annals of Agri- culture, Mr. Andrews recom- mends the following steep, as being preferable to any other ; having successfully employed it for seve- ral years: Let half a hogshead of strong ley be made, by passing water repeatedly through wood- ashes ; and be put into a copper with half a pound of arsenic. This mixture is next to boil for about five minutes, when the poisonous properties of the arsenic will be so diminished, that birds or fowls may pick up the uncovered grain, after it has been sown, without re- ceiving any injury. The ley should now be poured into a deep vessel, and be suffered to stand till it be- come cold ; when a strong wicker- basket, sufficiently capacious to hold two bushels, is to be set in the liquor, with half a bushel of wheat; which ought to be repeatedly s'tir- red ; the light grains, and dusty particles that may rise to the sur- face, being carefully removed..... The grain is next to be drained, and laid on a brick or clay floor: a sufficient portion of lime should be strewed upon it, in order to pre- pare it for sowing. This quantity of ley, Mr. Andrew's observes, is sufficient for steeping 50 bushels of wheat; and he farther remarks, that only a quarter of a peck of lime will be required for drying four bushels, provided it be mixed the night before it is used. The vitriolic acid, or oil of vi- triol, has lately been employed with success, by an enlightened agricul- turist, J. S. Jennings, Esq. as a preventive of smut. The propor- tions employed for this purpose, were one gallon of the aciti to 30 SNA of water; which form a proper mixture for immersing wheat..... His experiments are of the great- est importance ; and we trust that future trials will fully ascertain the efficacy of this process.......See Wheat. SNAIL, or Helix, L. a genus of testaceous insects, comprising 60 species, of which the following are the most remarkable, viz. 1. The hortensis, or common Garden Snail, abounds in this Country. It is covered with a brown shell, and furnished with two horns, containing its organs of sight, which it protrudes, and draws in, at pleasure. This insect is remarkable for the viscous traces which it leaves behind in its course. 2. The pomatia, or Red Garden Snail, is found in the warmer parts of Europe, whence it has been in- troduced into Britain; but, at pre- sent, it inhabits principally the southern counties. It differs from the Common Snail in its very deep, brown colour, which approaches to red. This species has, lately been employed in the bleeding piles with uncommon success ; fresh in- sects being laid, in a raw state, on the diseased part, every second or third hour. Snails are very mischievous in gardens,particularly to wall-fruit; and, though they are preyed upon by numerous insects, such as worms, &c. which breed both in their intestines and on their backs; yet they are in some places so nu- merous, as to require effectual mea- sures for their extirpation. Hence, it has been recommended to strew the ground with lime and ashes ; but the most certain method of de- stroying them, consists in closing every crevice in walls, as soon as VOL. IV. SNA 513 these vermin appear in damp or cloudy weather ; and afterwards collecting them by the hand. Thus, in the course of two, or, at the farthest, three years, they will be completely exterminated. SNAKE, the Common, or Co- luber natrix, L. a native reptile, which is often found in bushy places, and in banks, near waters. It is from two to three, and in the south of Europe, often ten feet in length : the back is of a dusky co- lour, and the belly is beautifully variegated with black and bluish stripes. It has two rows of small serrated teeth, and is perfectly harmless ; being destitute of the canine teeth, with which vipers and other venomous serpents are furnished. It produces numerous eggs, generally dropping them on dunghills, where they are hatched by the warmth of the sun. The common snake feeds on small insects, frogs, and vegetable substances ; thus being of essential service to mankind ; as it devours considerable numbers of field and harvest-mice. See Serpent. SNAKE-WEED, or Polygo- num, L. a genus of plants compre- hending 33 species, ten of which are natives of Britain : the follow- ing are the principal, namely : 1. The Hydropiper. See Wa- ter-pepper. 2. The Persicaria, or Spotted Snake-weed, abounds in ditches, and watery situations; though it is sometimes found in corn"fields ; where it flowers from the month of July to September. This species is slightly acid and astringent : it is eaten by goats,sheep,and horses but refused by hogs and cows.... Linn^us informs us, that woollen cloth, previously dipped in a solu- tion of alum, acquires a yellow 3 U 514 SNA S'N A colour from a decoction of this plant.....Dambcajrney obtained an olive colour. [See Polygonum.] 3. The Bistorta. See Bistort the Great. 4. The viviparum. See Bistort the Small. 5. The Fagopyrum. See Buck- wheat. 6. The Convolvulus. See Buck- wheat the Climbing. 7. The aviculare, or Knot- grass Snake-weed, is found on road-sides, in paths, streets, and. corn-fields, particularly in a gra- velly soil: it flowers from April to October....This species of grass is eaten by cows, horses, sheep, goats and hogs : its seeds are a grateful food to small birds of every des- cription ; and may likewise be employed for the same purposes as those of Buck-wheat, which see: but sheep, feeding on fhe knot-grass snake-weed, become, according to Bechstein, liable to obstructions, and consequently to putrid diseases. [SNAKE-ROOT, (Virginia,) or Aristchchia Serpentaria; a well known medicinal plant, and a na- tive of the United States exclusive- ly. It has a bitter taste joined with an aromatic acrimony ; high- ly stimulant, and increases the force of the pulse very perceptibly. It is a powerful sudorific, but is im- proper whenever bleeding is requi- site. It is a common remedy in low fevers. Dr. Barton (collec- tion for a Mat. Medica, 2d edit.) says, it was used with great bene- fit in a malignant fever attended with carbuncles, which prevailed in Bristol, on the Delaware, in this state, in 1749 and 1753. It may be given in infusion, or in powder from a few grains, to 20 or 30. It frequently assists the powers ofthe Peruvian bark in cure of agues, and of general weakness. It is usually combined with calamus aromaticus, infused in spirits or water, and forms the common morning dram in agueish situa- tions. As water fully extracts the virtues of these plants, it should be preferred to spirits, to make these daily medicines. Another species of Aristolochia, (A. Sipho) or pipe-vine, is a cu- rious species of Birthwort, and abounds near the town of Pitts- burgh, in Pennsylvania. It is a climbing plant, and will rise to the height of 50 feet, attaching itself. to trees. The flowers are large, and resemble, in figure, a German tobacco-pipe. The root has a pungent aromatic taste, and for certain purposes, is thought pre- ferable to the first mentioned spe- cies.] SNAP-DRAGON, or Antirrhi- num, L. a genus of plants, consist- ing of fifty-three species, eleven of which are indigenous : the follow- ing are the principal : 1. The Elatine, or Sharp-pointed Toad-flax. See Fluellin. 2. The Linaria.See Toad-FLAx. 3. The majus, or Greater Snap-dragon, grows on old walls, especially on the chalk-cliffs near Dover and Gravesend, where it flowers in the months of June and July....This herb was formerly iu great repute among the supersti- tious ; but, at present, an excellent lamp-oil is expressed from its seeds in Germany. 4. The Orontium, Calf's-snout, or Lesser Snap-dragon, thrives in corn and turnip-fields, and bears purplish flowers covered with a yellow down, in the months of SNE July and August.....This narcotic, poisonous plant, ought to be care- fully extirpated. SNEEZE-WORT-YARROW, Bastard Pellitory or Goose- tongue, Achillea Ptarmica, L« a native perennial plant, growing in moist meadows and shady places; flowering in July and August....It is eaten by horses, cows, goats, hogs, and sheep :....the roots have a hot pungent taste ; the leaves, when dried and pulverized, excite sneezing; and its young tops af- ford a sharp, though pleasant, in- gredient in spring salads. SNEEZING, a convulsive mo- tion of the muscles of the breast, which is caused by the irritation of the membrane lining the nose ; by acrid, pungent matters floating in the air ; or by certain drugs.deno- minated sternutatories or errhines ; and in consequence of which, the air is expelled through the nostrils, with a certain loud, hissing report. This muscular agitation arises, either from external or internal stimulants : in the former case, it is occasioned by the odour of snuff, sweet-marjorum, thyme, Sec in- haled through the nostrils: in the latter, it is induced by the acri- mony of the lymph, which moist- ens the nasal membrane. The matter expelled by sneezing, is de- rived primarily from the nose and throat; a mucus being continually exuded into those parts from the pituitary integument; and secon- darily from the breast and lungs. Sneezingmay be advantageously excited by the use of sternutatories, in certain affections of the head, eyes, he. or, when foreign bodies have accidentally been introduced into the nostrils of children : such remedies, however, ought to be resorted to with caution ; as too SNO 515 frequent a repetition of that convul- sive effort, will eventually weaken the sense of smelling, or induce bleedings from the nose. SNIPE, the Common, or Scolo- pax gallinago, L. a bird of passage, of which there are more than forty varieties, mostly breeding in Eu- rope, and subsisting on insects.... Some of these wild-fowl frequent moors, others delight in swampy bushes, and still others in the open fields. They may be easily taken, by placing in their haunts, twigs of birch covered with bird-lime, in various directions: when one of the birds is caught, the sportsman should not be too hasty in remov- ing it; because the creature will feed with the twig beneath its wing, and thus decoy numerous other snipes. SNOW, a meteor, which is formed by the congelation, or freezing, of vapours in the atmos- phere. Snow differs in no other respect from rain, but that it is frozen in its descent to the earth, and falls in collective masses of transparent whiteness : these are known under the name of fiakes....lt has been erroneously believed, that snow possesses more feitilizing proper- ties than rain ; but the real differ- ence has, by Margraaf, been as- certained to be exceedingly small. It serves to defend corn, and all other vegetables, from the severity of winter-frosts ; as it prevents the internal heat of the earth from being evolved through the surface of the land, and consequently ame- liorates the soil. The plants, be- ing thus sheltered, shoot forth in the spring with renewed vigour; and, being cherished by the genial rays of the sun, vegetate with in- creased luxuriance. 516 SNO SN O SNOW-DROP, the Common, or Fair-Maids-of-February, Galanthus nivalis, L. a native pe- rennial plant, growing in orchards, meadows; and the sides of hedg- es; flowering in February and March. The snow-drop presents a beau- tiful little flower, and is chiefly es- teemed on account of its early ap- pearance ; adorning the garden, when the soil is covered with snow : it is divided into three va- rieties, known under the names of single, semi-double, and double, which differ only in the seasons of their flowering. They may be easily propagated in any soil, and will multiply exceedingly by off- sets from the roots. The roots of the snow-drop may be made subservient to an useful domestic purpose: Dr. Darwin thinks that, if they were dug up in the winter, and prepared in a simi- lar manner, they might afford a nutritious powder, resembling that of salep. He observes, that he once boiled a few ; which, on tast- ing them, possessed no unpleasant flavour. He is therefore of opi- nion, that, if prolific seeds could be procured from this plant, it might be advantageously cultivated for the same purposes as the Or- chis ; a conjecture which is corro- borated by the experiments of Gleditsch, who obtained from the roots of the snow-drop an ex- cellent starch. END OF VOLUME FOURTH. PRINTED BY ROBERT CARR, NO. 10, CHURCH-ALLEY. ft7 li The Domestic Encyclopaedia. First American Edition. Volumes 1,2, and 4. Willich, A.F.M. Philadelphia: William Young Birch..., 1803. National Library of Medicine Bethesda, MD CONDITION ON RECEIPT: The quarter paper and blue board bindings were dirty and worn, particularly at the corners and edges. The spines were missing. The front board was detached from Volume 4. The joints and internal hinges were partially broken in all volumes. The sewing was broken in Volume 1; it was weak but intact in the other two. The text blocks were untrimmed. Most of the pages were relatively flexible even though they were dirty, discolored, and slightly acidic. Many pages were discolored and broken along the fold. Some pages had a lew small tears. Some pages were mold damaged. Provenance notations in manuscript ink appeared on the front flyleaves and on one front cover. A bookplate was adhered to the front pastedown of each volume. I TREATMENT PROVIDED: the pH was recorded before and after treatment: before 4.0, after 6.0. The volumes were collated and disbound. , The inks were tested for solubility. The head, tail, and pages were dry cleaned where necessary; the pages were washed and then alkalized (deacidified) with calcium >. hydroxide. Tears were mended and folds guarded with » Japanese kozo paper and wheat starch paste. The volumes were sewn on linen tapes with linen thread. The bindings were repaired by rebacking using handmade paper lined with airplane linen and colored with acrylic £ pigment. 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