AN
INTRODUCTION
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATICAL
BOTANY.
by
JAMES EDWARD SMITH, M.D. F.R.S.
PRESIDENT OF THE LINNiEAN SOCIETY.
" CONSIDER THE HUES OF THE FIELD, HOW THEY GROW."
FIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND ENGLISH EDITION ;
WITH NOTES,
By JACOB BIGELOW, M.D.
BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY BRADFORD AND READ,
No. 58 Cornhill.
1814.
DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, TO WIT :
District Clerk's Office.
BE it remembered, Tint on the third day of February, A. D. 1814, and in the thirty.
righth year of the Independence of the United States of America, BRADFORD .«nd
READ, of the said district, have deposired in this office the title of a book, the right
whereof they claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit:
" An INTRODUCTION to Physiological and Systematical BOTANY. By JAMES
EDWARD SMITH, M.D. F.R.S &c. &c. President of the Linnsan Society. "Con-
sider the lilies of the field how they grow." First American, from the secoi d English
edition; with Notes, by JACOB BIGELOW, M.D"
In conformity to the acr of the congress of the United States, entitled, " An act for the
encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of imps, charts, and books, to the
authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned j" and also
to an act, entitled, " An act supplementary to an act, entitled, an act for the encour-
agement of learning, by securing the copies of nr»p». charts, and books, to the authors
and proprietors of such copies, during rhe times therein nvntioned ; and extending ihe
benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other
prints."
W1LL.AMS.SHAW. {"ff&SZlSS?'
PRIN1ED BY MBNIOE& FHa. CIS,
NO. 4, CORNHILL.
ADVERTISEMENT
TO
THE AMERICAN EDITION.
A he present edition has been undertaken from the
desire of introducing in this country an elementary work,
which possesses high reputation, and is now in general
use in Great Britain. It very happily unites the requi-
sites for an Introduction to Botany, being professedly
constructed on an intelligible and popular plan, and pro-
ceeding from a man, whose eminent advantages and ex-
tensive learning have given authority to his name, and
placed him at the head of the science in his own coun-
try.
In preparing for the press an American edition, some
additions have been thought necessary to adapt the
JVITHBSAV;"? TOTl EXCHANGE
N:L.M.
iv ADVERTISEMENT
work to its present time and place of publication.
These have been attended to, as far as the short time of
preparation would admit. It will be observed, that the
author, for his examples and illustrations, has principally
cited English and foreign plants, contained in the
English,and Exotic Botany, and the Botanical Magazine.
To the greater portion of students in this country a
majority of these plants, as well as their figures, are
inaccessible. In order to obviate the inconvenience
arising from this source, care has been taken to dis-
tinguish most of those, which are native in this coun-
try, and, as far as possible, to facilitate a reference
to them by the insertion of their common names.
(Xher examples taken from American plants have also
been subjoined, where additional illustrations seemed
advisable. A number of physiological improvements
and speculations, principally of later date than the Lon-
don edition, will be found briefly detailed in the notes
accompanying this. Where occasional deficiencies have
been found in the definitions, the vacancy has been
filled up ; as will be seen under the words calyx, petiole,
&c. A table of contents has been added, and, for the
benefit of those who do not possess a glossary of botan-
ical terms, the general index has been increased to twice
its original size. Under these circumstances, it .
ADVERTISEMENT. v
trusted, the present edition will not be unacceptable
to the public, particularly to students attending the bo-
tanical lectures in this place, for whose use it was
originally undertaken. As the additions have been
made in a compendious manner, and are chiefly of the
mechanical kind, the editor flatters himself, they will be
ascribed to a desire of rendering the work more conve-
nient and useful ; and not to any motives of vanity, of
which he is wholly unconscious, at seeing his name
on the title page.
JBOSTQJY, FEBRUARY, 1814.
The Notes added to this edition are included in
brackets [ ].
TO
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE AND RIGHT REVEREND
SHUTE,
LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM.
MY LORD,
THE circumstances which induce me to solicit your
Lordship's protection for the following pages are such,
that I trust they will ensure pardon for myself, and
more indulgence for my performance than, I might ex-
pect, even from your Lordship's usual goodness to-
wards me.
The contents of these pages were, in a very unfinish-
ed state, honoured with the approbation and encourage-
ment of an excellent and lamented lady, to whom they
were destined to be offered in their present less unwor-
thy condition. I should have been proud to have shel-
tered them under her patronage, because I have always
found the most intelligent critics the most indulgent.
Their general tendency at least, as calculated to render
an interesting and useful science accessible, and in eve-
viii DEDICATION.
ry point eligible, to the more accomplished and refined
of her own sex, could not fail to have been approved by
her, who knew and exemplified so well the value and
importance of such pursuits, and their inestimable effects
upon the mind. These hopes, which my late honoured
friend and patroness had, with her usual benignity, en-
couraged, are now most unhappily defeated, and I have
no resource but in your Lordship, who is no stranger to
my pretensions, nor to my sentiments, and in whom I
have not now for the first time to seek an able and en-
lightened patron. I remain,
with the profoundest respect,
my Lord,
your Lordship's most obliged
and obedient servant,
J. E. SMITH.
Norwich,
Nov. 15, 1807.
CONTENTS.
Page
Advertisement to the American edition . . 3
Author's dedication ........ 7
Preface............ 9
Chapter I. Distinction between Animals,
Vegetablesf and Fossils—On the vital prin-
ciple essential to the two former .... SI
Chapter II. Definition of Natural History,
and particularly Botany—Of the general
texture of Plants........ 87
Chapter III. Of the Cuticle or Epider-
mis .............31
Chapter IV. Of the Cellular Integument 36
X contents.
Page
Chapter V. Of the Bud...... 38
Chapter VI. Of the Wood .....41
Chapter VIL Of the Medulla or Pith . 46
Chapter VIII. Of the Sap-Vessels, and
course of the Sap ; with Mr. Knight's
theory of vegetation........ 49
Chapter IX. Of the Sap, and Insensible
Perspiration.......... 63
Chapter X. Of the Secreted Fluids of
Plants. Grafting. Heat of the vegetable
body.............68
Chapter XI. The process of vegetation.
Use of the Cotyledons.......87
Chapter XII. Of the Root, and its various
kinds............ 94
Chapter XII. Different kinds of Stems and
Stalks of Plants ........105
Chapter XIV. Of Buds......119
Chapter XV. Of Leaves, their situations,
insertions, surfaces, and various forms . 124
Chapter XVI. Of the functions of Leaves 153
CONTENTS. 4i
Page
Chapter XVII. Of the several kinds of
Fulcra, or Appendages to a Plant . . . 178
Chapter XVIII. Of the Inflorescence, or
Mode of Flowering, and its various forms 187
Chapter XIX. Of the Flower and Fruit 194
Chapter XX. Of the peculiar functions of
the Stamens and Pistils, with the experi-
ments and observations of Linnceus and
others on that subject.......246
Chapter XXI. Of the Diseases of Plants
particularly as illustrative of their Vital
Principle . ,.........265
Chapter XXII. Of the Systematical Ar-
rangement of Plants. Natural and Arti-
ficial Methods. Genera, Species, and va-
rieties. Nomenclature ...... 273
Chapter XXIII. Explanation of the Lin-
ncean and Artificial System .... 302
Chapter XXIV. Illustrations of the Lin-
ncean Classes and Orders.....316
Explanation of the Plates......389
Index of Remarkable Plants, or those of
*»» CONTENTS.
Page
which any particular mention, or any change
in their classification is made.....297
Index of the Explanations and Illustrations
of Technical Terms, $c......403
PREFACE.
After the many elementary works on Botany which
have appeared in various languages, any new attempt of
the same kind may, at first sight, seem unnecessary.
But when we consider the rapid progress of the science
within a few years, in the acquisition and determination
of new plants, and especially the discoveries and im-
provements in vegetable physiology : when we reflect
on the views with which those fundamental works of
Linnzeus, the basis of all following ones, were composed,
and to whom they were addressed, we must be aware
of their unfitness for purposes of general and popular
utility, and that something else is wanting. If we ex-
amine the mass of introductory books on botany in this
light, we shall find them in some cases too elaborate and
intricate, in others too obscure and imperfect: they are
also deficient in that very pleasing and instructive part
of botany the anatomy and physiology of plants. There
are indeed works, such as Rose's Elements of Botany,
and Darwin's Phytologia, with which no such faults
can be found. The rbrmer is a compendium of Lin-
nzean learning, the latter a store of ingenious philosophy;
10 PREFACE.
but they were designed for philosophers, and are not
calculated for every reader. Linnaeus and his scholars
have generally written in Latin. They address them-
selves to physiciai:*, to anatomists, to philosophers, little
thinking that their science would ever be the amusing
pursuit of the young, the elegant and the refined, or
they would have treated the subject differently. It
appears to me, therefore, that an introductory publica-
tion is still desirable in this country, on an original plan,
easy, comprehensive, and fit for general use, and such
were the reasons which first prompted me to the under-
taking.
When, however, I had proceeded a considerable way
in its execution, I found that such a work might not
only serve to teach the first outlines of the science, but
that it might prove a vehicle for many observations,
criticisms, and communications, scarcely to be brought
together on any other plan ; nor did it appear any objec-
tion to the general use of the book, that, besides its
primary intention, it might be capable of leading into
the depths of botanical philosophy, whether physiolo-
gical, systematical, or critical, any student who should
be desirous of proceeding so far. A volume of this
size can indeed be but elementary on subjects so exten-
sive ; but if it be clear and intelKgible as far as it goes,
serving to indicate the scope of the science of botany,
PREFACE. li
and how any of its branches may be cultivated further,
my purpose is answered. The subject has naturally
led me to a particular criticism of the Linnaean system
of arrangements, which the public, it seems, has expect-
ed from me. Without wasting any words on those
speculative and fanciful changes, which the most ignor-
ant may easily make, in an artificial system ; and with-
out entering into controversy with the very few compe-
tent writers who have proposed any alterations ; I have
simply stated the result of my own practical observations,
wishing by the light of experience to correct and to
confirm what has been found useful, rather than rashly
to overthrow what perhaps cannot on the whole be im-
proved.
As the discriminating characters of the Linnaean sys?
tem are founded in nature and fact, and depend upon
parts essential to every species of plant when in perfec-
tion ; and as the application of them to practice is, above
all other systems, easy and intelligible; I conceive noth-
ing more useful can be done than to perfect, upon its
own principles, any parts of this system that experience
may show to have been originally defective. This is
all I presume to do. Speculative alterations in an arti-
ficial system are endless, and scarcely answer any more
useful purpose than changing the order of letters in an
alphabet. The philosophy of botanical arrangement, or
12 PREFACE.
the study of the natural affinities of plants, is quite an-
other matter. But it would be as idle, while wc pursue
this last-mentioned subject, so deep and so intricate that
its most able cultivators are only learners, to lay aside
the continual use of the Linnaean system, as it would be
for philologists and logicians to slight the convenience,
and indeed necessity, of the alphabet, and to substitute
the Chinese character in its stead. If the following
pages be found to elucidate and to confirm this compar-
ison, I wish the student to keep it ever in view.
The illustration of the Linnaean system of classifica-
tion, though essential to my purpose, is however but a
small part of my aim. To explain and apply to practice
those beautiful principles of method, arrangement and
discrimination, which render botany not merely an
amusement, a motive for taking air and exercise, or an
assistance to many other arts and sciences ; but a school
for the mental powers, an alluring incitement for the
young mind to try its growing strength, and a confirma-
tion of the most enlightened understanding in some of
its subhmest most important truths. That every path
tending to ends so desirable may be accessible, I have
not confined myself to systematical subjects, wide and
various as they are, but I have introduced the anatomy
and physiology of plants to the botanical student, wish-
ing to combine all these several objects ; so £tr at least
PREFACE. 15
that those who do not cultivate them all, may be sensible
of the value of each in itself, and that no disgraceful ri-
valship or contempt, the offspring of ignorance, may be
felt by the pursuers of any to the prejudice of the rest.
I have treated of physiological and anatomical subjects
in the first place, because a true knowledge of the struc-
ture and parts of plants seems necessary to the right
understanding of botanical arrangement ; and I trust
the most superficial reader will here find enough for
that purpose, even though he should not be led to pur-
sue these subjects further by himself. I have every-
where aimed at familiar illustrations and examples, refer-
ring, as much as possible, to plants of easy acquisition.
In the explanation of botanical terms and characters, I
have, besides furnishing a new set of plates with referen-
ces to the body of the work, always cited a plant for my
purpose by its scientific name, with a reference to some
good and sufficient figure. For this end I have generally
used either my own works English and Exotic Botany,
all the plates of which, as well as of the present volume,
are the performance of the same excellent botanist as
well as artist; or Curtis's Magazine, much of which
also was drawn by Mr. Sowerby. I have chosen these
as the most comprehensive and popular books, quoting
others only when these failed me, or when I had some
particular end in view. If this treatise should be adopted
** PREFACE.
for general use in schools or families, the teacher at least
will probably be furnished with those works, and will
accommodate their contents to the use of the pupils. I
am aware of the want of a systematical English descrip-
tion of British plants, on the principles of this Introduc-
tion ; but that deficiency I hope as soon as possible to
6upply. In the mean while Dr. Withering's work may
serve the desired purpose, attention being paid only to
his original descriptions, or to those quoted from Eng-
lish writers. His index will atone for the changes I
cannot approve in his system. Wherever my book may
be found deficient in the explanation of his or any other
terms, as I profess to retain only what are necessary, or
in some shape useful, the Language of Botany, by Pro-
fessor Martyn, will prove extremely serviceable.
Having thus explained the use and intention of the
present work, perhaps a few remarks on the recommen-
dations of the study of Botany, besides what have already
been suggested, may not here be misplaced.
I shall not labour to prove how delightful and instruc-
tive it is to
« Look through Nature up to Nature's God."
Neither, surely, need I demonstrate, that if any judi-
cious or improved use is to be made of the natural bodies
around us, it must be expected from those who discrim-
inate their kinds and study their properties. Of the
PREFACE. 15
benefits of natural science in the improvement of many
arts, no one doubts. Our food, our physic, our luxuries
are improved by it. By the inquiries of the curious new
acquisitions are made in remote countries, and our re-
sources of various kinds are augmented. The skill of
Linnaeus by the most simple observation, founded how-
ever on scientific principles, taught his countrymen to
destroy an insect, the Cantharis navalis, which had cost
the Swedish government many thousand pounds a year
by its ravages on the timber of one dockyard only.
After its metamorphoses, and the season when the fly
laid its eggs, were known, all its ravages were stopped
by immersing the timber in water during that period.
The same great observer, by his botanical knowledge,
detected the cause of a dreadful disease among the horn-
ed cattle of the north of Lapland, which had previously
been thought equally unaccountable and irremediable,
and of which he has given an exquisite account in his
Lapland tour, as well as under Cicuta virosa, Engl. Bot.
t. 479, in his Flora Lapponica. One man in our days,
by his scientific skill alone, had given the bread-fruit to
the West-Indies, and his country justly honours his
character and pursuits. All this is acknowledged.
We are no longer in the infancy of science, in which its
utility, not having been proved, might be doubted, nor
is it for this that I contend. I would recommend bota-
16 PREFACE.
ny for its own sake. I have often alluded to its benefits
as a mental exercise, nor can any study exceed it in
raising curiosity, gratifying a taste for beauty and inge-
nuity of contrivance, or sharpening the powers of dis-
crimination. What then can be better adapted for
young persons ? The chief use of a great part of our
education is no other than what I have just mentioned.
The languages and the mathematics, however valuable
in themselves when acquired, are even more so as they
train the youthful mind to thought and observation. In
Sweden, Natural History is the study of the schools, by
which men rise to preferment; and there are no people
with more acute or better regulated minds than the
Swedes.
To those whose minds and understandings are already
formed, this study may be recommended, indepen-
dently of all other considerations, as a rich source of
innocent pleasure. Some people are ever inquiring
" what is the use" of any particular plant, by which
they mean " what food or physic, or what materials for
the painter or dyer does it afford ?" They look on a
beautiful flowery meadow with admiration, only in pro-
portion as it affords nauseous drugs or salves. Of hers
consider a botanist with respect only as he may be able
to teach them some profitable improvement in tanning,
or dyeing, by which they may quickly grow rich, and
PREFACE. 17
be then perhaps no longer of any use to mankind or to
themselves. They would permit their children to study
botany, only because it might possibly lead to profes-
sorships, or other lucrative preferment.
These views are not blameable, but they are not the
sole end of human existence. Is it not desirable to call
the soul from the feverish agitation of worldly pursuits,
to the contemplation of Divine Wisdom in the beautiful
ceconomy of Nature ? Is it not a privilege to walk with
God in the garden of creation, and hold converse with
his providence ? If such elevated feelings do not lead
to the study of Nature, it cannot far be pursued without
rewarding the student by exciting them.
Rousseau, a great judge of the human heart and ob-
server of human manners, has remarked, that " when
science is transplanted from the mountains and woods
into cities and worldly society, it loses its genuine
charms, and becomes a source of envy, jealousy and
rivalship." This is still more true if it be cultivated
as a mere source of emolument. But the man who
loves botany for its own sake knows no such feelings,
nor is he dependent for happiness on situations or scenes
that favour their growth. He would find himself nei-
ther solitary nor desolate, had he no other companion
than a "mountain daisy," that "modestcrimson-tipped
18 PREFACE.
flower," so sweetly sung by one of Nature's own poets.
The humblest weed or moss will ever afford him some-
thing to examine or to illustrate, and a great deal to ad-
mire. Introduce him to the magnificence of a tropical
forest, the enamelled meadows of the Alps, or the won-
ders of New Holland, and his thoughts will not dwell
much upon riches or literary honours, things that
" Play round the head, but come not near the heart."
One idea is indeed worthy to mix in the pure con-
templation of Nature, the anticipation of the pleasure
we may have to bestow on kindred minds with our own,
in sharing with them our discoveries and our acquisi-
tions. This is truly an object worthy of a good man,
the pleasure of communicating virtuous disinterested
pleasure to those who have the same tastes with our-
selves ; or of guiding young ingenuous minds to wor-
thy pursuits, and facilitating their acquisition of what
we have alreadyr obtained. If honours and respectful
consideration reward such motives, they flow from a
pure source. The giver and the receiver are alike in-
vulnerable, as well as inaccessible, to " envy, jealousy
or rivalship," and may pardon their attacks without an
effort.
The natural history of animals, in many respects even
more interesting than botany to man as an animated
being, and more striking in some of the phaenomena
PREFACE. 19
which it displays, is in other points less pleasing to a
tender and delicate mind. In botany all is elegance
and delight. No painful, disgusting, unhealthy experi-
ments or inquiries are to be made. Its pleasures spring
up under our feet, and, as we pursue them, reward us
with health and serene satisfaction. None but the most
foolish or depraved could derive any thing from it but
what is beautiful, or pollute its lovely scenery with una-
miable or unhallowed images. Those who do so, either
from corrupt taste or malicious design, can be compared
only to the fiend entering into the garden of Eden.
Let us turn from this odious picture to the contem-
plation of Nature, ever new, ever abundant in inex-
haustible variety. Whether we scrutinize the damp
recesses of woods in the wintry months, when the
numerous tribes of mosses are displaying their minute,
but highly interesting structure ; whether we walk
forth in the early spring, when the ruby tips of the haw-
thorn-bush give the first sign of its approaching vegeta-
tion, or a little after, when the violet welcomes us with
its snjent, and the primrose with its beauty ; whether
we contemplate in succession all the profuse flowery
treasures of the summer, or the more hidden secrets of
Nature at the season when fruits and seeds are forming ;
the most familiar objects, like old friends, will always
afford us something to study and to admire in their
20 PREFACE.
characters, while new discoveries will awaken a train ol
new ideas. The yellow blossoms of the morning, that
fold up their delicate leaves as the day advances ; others
that court and sustain the full blaze of noon ; and the
pale night-scented tribe, which expand, and diffuse their
very sweet fragrance, towards evening, will all please in
their turn. Though spring is the season of hope and
noveltyr, to a naturalist more especially, yet the wise
provisions and abundant resources of Nature, in the
close of the year, will yield an observing mind no less
pleasure, than the rich variety of her autumnal tints
affords to the admirers of her external charms. The
more we study the works of the Creator, the more wis-
dom, beauty and harmony become manifest, even to our
limited apprehensions ; and while we admire, it is im-
possible not to adore.
" Soft roll your incense, herbs, and fruits, and flowers,
In mingled clouds, to Him, whose sun exalts,
Whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints !"
*
INTRODUCTION
TO
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATICAL
BOTANY.
CHAPTER I.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS, VEGETABLES, AND FOS-
SILS.—ON THE VITAL PRINCIPLE ESSENTIAL TO THE TWrO
FORMER.
J. hose who with a philosophical eye have contempla-
ted the productions of Nature, have all, by common
consent, divided them into three great classes, called the
Animal, the Vegetable, and the Mineral or Fossil King-
doms. These terms are still in general use, and the
most superficial observer must be struck with their
propriety. The application of them seems at first sight
perfectly easy, and in general it is so. Difficulties
occur to those only who look very deeply into the
subject.
Animals have an organized structure which regularly
unfolds itself, and is nourished and supported by air
and food ; they consequently possess life, and are sub-
ject to death ; they are moreover endowed with sensa-
tion, and with spontaneous, as well as voluntary, motion.
DISTINCTIONS BETW'.'.EV ANIMALS
Vegetables are organized, supported by air and food-,
endowed with life and subject to death as well as ani-
mals. They have in some instances spontaneous,
though we know not that they have voluntary, motion.
They are sensible to the action of nourishment, air, and
light, and either thrive or languish according to the
wholesome or hurtful application of these stimulants.
This is evident to all who have ever seen a plant growing
in a climate, soil, or situation, not suitable to it. Those
who have ever gathered a rose, know but too well how
soon it withers ; and the familiar application of its fate
to that of human life and beauty is not more striking to
the imagination than philosophically and literally true.
The sensitive plant is a more astonishing example of
the capability of vegetables to be acted upon as living
bodies. Other instances of the same kind we shall
hereafter have occasion to mention.
The spontaneous movements of plants are almost as
readily to be observed as their living principle. The
general direction of their branches, and especially of the
upper surface of their leaves, though repeatedly disturb-
ed, to the light ; the unfolding and closing of their
flowers at stated times, or according to favourable or
unfavourable circumstances, with some still more curi-
ous particulars to be explained in the sequel of this
work, are actions undoubtedly depending on their vital
principle, and are performed with the greater facility in
proportion as that principle is in its greatest vigour.
Hence arises a question whether Vegetables are endowed
with sensation. As they possess life, irritability and
motion, spontaneously directing their organs to what is
AND VEGETABLES.
natural and beneficial to them, and flourishing according
to their success in satisfying their wants, may not the
exercise of their vital functions be attended with some
degree of sensation, however low, and some consequent
share of happiness ? Such a supposition accords with all
the best ideas we can form of the Divine Creator ; nor
could the consequent uneasiness which plants must suf-
fer, no doubt in a very low degree likewise, from the
depredations of animals, bear any comparison with their
enjoyment on the whole. However this may be, the
want of sensation is most certainly not to be proved
with regard to Vegetables, and therefore of no use as a
practical means of distinguishing them, in doubtful
cases, from Animals.
Some Philosophers* have made a locomotive power
peculiarly characteristic of Animals, not being aware of
the true nature of those half-animated beings called
Corals and Corallines, which are fixed, as immoveably
as any plants, to the bottom of the sea, while indeed
many living vegetables swim around them, unattached
to the soil, and nourished by the water in which they
float.f Some have characterized Animals as nourished
by their internal, and Vegetables by their external sur-
face, the latter having no such thing as an internal
stomach. This is ingenious and tolerably correct; but
the proofs of it must fail with respect to those minute
and simply-constructed animals the Polypes, and the
lower tribes of Worms, whose feelers, put forth into
the water, seem scarcely different from roots seeking
* Jungius, Boerhaave, Ludwig and many others.
t Dr. Alston, formerly professor of botany at Edinburgh.
MINERAL KINGDOM.
their food in the earth, and some of which may be
turned inside out, like a glove, without any disturbance
of their ordinary functions. The most satisfactory re-
mark I have for a long time met with on this difficult
subject is that of M. Mirbel, in his Traite d'Anatomie
ct de Physiologie Veg tales,* a work I shall often have
occasion to quote. He observes, vol. I. p. 19, " that
plants alone have a power of deriving nourishment,
though not indeed exclusively, from inorganic matter,
mere earths, salts or airs, substances certainly incapable
of serving as food for any animals, the latter only feeding
on what is or has been organized matter, either of a
vegetable or animal nature. So that it should seem to
be the office of vegetable life alone to transform dead
matter into organized living bodies." This idea ap-
pears to me so just, that I have in vain sought for any
exception to it.
Let us however descend from these philosophical
speculations to purposes of practical utility. It is suffi-
cient for the young student of Natural History to know,
that in every case in which he can be in doubt whether
he has found a plant or one of the lower orders of ani-
mals, the simple experiment of burning will decide the
question. The smell of a burnt bone, coralline, or
other animal substance, is so peculiar that it can never
be mistaken, nor does any known vegetable give out
the same odour.(l)
* Published at Paris two or three years since, in 2 vols. 8vo.
(1) [It has been remarked that some vegetable products, such
as the gluten of wheat, caoutchonc, and the juice of the papaw
tree ; give out in burning nearly the same peculiar odour which
is afforded by animal matter."]
ON THE VITAL PRINCIPLE.
25
The Mineral Kingdom can never be confounded with
the other two. Fossils are masses of mere dead unor-
ganized matter, subject to the laws of chemistry alone ;
growing indeed, or increasing by the mechanical addi-
tion of extraneous substances, or by the laws of chem-
ical attraction, but not fed by nourishment taken into an
organized structure. Their curious crystallization bears
some resemblance to organization, but performs none
of its functions, nor is any thing like a vital principle to
be found in this department of Nature.
If it be asked what is this vital principle, so essential
to animals and vegetables, but of which fossils are desti-
tute, we must own our complete ignorance. We know
it, as we know its Omnipotent Author, by its effects.
Perhaps in the fossil kingdom heat may be equivalent
to a vital principle ; but heat is not the vital principle
of organized bodies, though probably a consequence of
that principle.
Living bodies of animals and plants produce heat;
and this phaenomenon has not, I think, been entirely
explained on any chemical principles, though in fossils
the production of heat is in most cases tolerably well
accounted for. In animals it seems to have t le closest
possible connexion with the vital energy. But the ef-
fects of this vital energy are still more stupendous in the
operations constantly going on in every organized body,
from our own elaborate frame to the humblest moss or
fungus. Those different fluids, so fine and transparent,
separated from each other by membranes as fine, which
compose the eye, all retain their proper situations
D
U6
ON THE VITAL 1'IUNCIPLE.
(though each fluid individually is perpetually removed
and renewed) for sixty, eighty, or a hundred years, or
more, while life remains. So do the infinitely small
vessels of an almost invisible insect, the fine and pellu-
cid tubes of a plant, all hold their destined fluids, con-
veying or changing them according to fixed laws, but
never permitting them to run into confusion, so long as
the vital principle animates their va; ious forms. But
no sooner does death happen, than, without any alteration
of structure, any apparent change in their material con-
figuration, all is reversed. The eye loses its form and
brightness ; its membranes let go their contents, which
mix in confusion, and thenceforth yield to the laws of
chemistry alone. Just so it happens, sooner or later, to
the other parts of the animal as well as vegetable frame.
Chemical changes, putrefaction and destruction, imme-
diately follow the total privation of life, the importance
of which becomes instantly evident when it is no more.
I humbly conceive therefore, that if the human under-
standing can in any case flatter itself with obtaining, in
the natural world, a glimpse of the immediate agency of
the Deity, it is in the contemplation of this vital principle,
which seems independent of material organization, and
an impulse of his own divine energy.
[ 27 ]
CHAPTER II.
DEFINITION OF NATURAL HISTORY, AND PMiTICULAllLY
BOTANY—OF THE GENERAL TEXTURE OF PLANTS.
Natural History properly signifies that study by which
we learn to distinguish from one another the natural
bodies, whether Animal, Vegetable or Mineral, around
us ; to discover as much as possible their nature and
properties, and especially their natural dependence on
each other in the general scale of beings. In a more
extensive sense it may be said to teach their secondary
properties, or the various uses to which they have been,
or may be, converted, in the service of mankind or of
other animals ; inasmuch as an acquaintance with their
natural qualities is our only sure guide to a knowledge
of their artificial uses. But as this definition would in-
clude many arts and sciences, each of them sufficient to
occupy any common mind, as Agriculture, Dietetics,
Medicine, and many others, it is sufficient for a philo-
sophical naturalist to be acquainted with the general
principles upon which such arts and sciences are founded.
That part of Natural History which concerns plants is
called Botany, from iw>», the Greek word for a herb
or grass. It may be divided into three branches ; 1st,
The physiology of plants, or a knowledge of the struc-
ture and functions of their different parts ; 2dly, The
systematical arrangement and denomination of their
several kinds; and 3dly, Their (Economical or medical
properties. All these objects should be kept in view
by an intelligent botanist. The two first are of essential
^8 GENERAL TEXTURE OF PLANTS.
service to each other, and the last is only to be pursued,
with any certainty, by such as are versed in the other
two. The present publication is intended to explain
the fundamental principles of them all, with as much
practical illustration as may be necessary for those who
wish to become well acquainted with this delightful sci-
ence. Botany has one advantage over many other use-
ful and necessary studies, that even its first beginnings
are pleasing and profitable, though pursued to ever so
small an extent ; the objects with which it is conversant
are in themselves charming, and they become doubly so
to those who contemplate them with the additional sense,
as it were, which science gives ; the pursuit of these
objects is an exercise no less healthful to the body, than
the observation of their laws and characters is to the
mind.
In studying the functions of the Vegetable frame, we
must constantly remember that it is not merely a collec-
tion of tubes or vessels holding different fluids, but that
it is endowed with life, and consequently able not only
to imbibe particular fluids, but to alter their nature ac-
cording to certain laws, that is, to form peculiar secre-
tions. This is the exclusive property of a living being.
Animals secrete milk and fat from food which has no
resemblance to those substances ; so Vegetables secrete
gum, sugar, and various resinous substances from the
uniform juices of the earth, or perhaps from mere water
and air. The most different and discordant fluids, sepa-
rated only by the finest film or membrane, are, as we
have already observed, kept perfectly distinct, while life
remains ; but no sooner does the vital principle depart,
GENERAL TEXTURE OF PLANTS.
than secretion, as well as the due preservation of what
has been secreted, are both at an end, and the principle
of dissolution reigns absolute.
Before we can examine the physiology of vegetables,
it is necessary to acquire some idea of their structure.
Much light has been thrown upon the general texture
of Vegetables by the microscopic figures of Grew, Mul-
pighi and others, repeated by Dr. Thornton in his Illus-
tration of the Linnaean System, but more especially by
the recent observations and highly magnified dissections
of M. Mirbel. See his Table of Vegetable Anatomy in
the work already mentioned. From preceding writers
we had learned the general tubular or vascular structure
of the vegetable body, and the existence of some peculiar
spirally-coated vessels in many plants. On these slen-
der foundations physiologists have, at their pleasure,
constructed various theories, relative to the motion of
the sap, respiration and other functions, presumed to be
analogous to those of animals. The anatomical observa-
tions of Mirbel go further than those of Grew, &c. and it
is necessary to give a short account of his discoveries.
He finds, by the help of the highest magnifying pow-
ers, that the vegetable body is a continued mass of tubes
and cells ; the former extended indefinitely, the latter
frequently and regularly interrupted by transverse par-
titions. These partitions being ranged alternately in the
corresponding cells, and each cell increasing somewhat
in diameter after its first formation, except where re-
strained by the transverse partitions, seems to account
30 • GENERAL TEXTURE OF PLANTS.
for their hexagonal figure.* See Tab. I. f. a. lhc
membranous sides of all these cells and tubes are very
thin, more or less transparent, often porous, variously
perforated or torn. Of the tubes, some are without any
lateral perforations, / b, at least for a considerable ex-
tent ; others pierced with holes ranged in a close spiral
line, f.c; in others several of these holes run together,
as it were, into interrupted spiral clefts, f d ; and in
some those clefts are continued, so that the whole tube,
more or less, is cut into a spiral line, f e ; which, in
some young branches and tender leaves, will unroll to a
great extent, when they are gently torn asunder. The
cellular texture especially is extended to every part of
the vegetable body, even into the thin skin, called the
cuticle, which covers every external part, and into the
fine hairs or down which, in some instances, clothe the
cuticle itself.
Before we offer any thing upon the supposed func-
tions of these different organs, we shall take a general
view of the Vegetable body, beginning at the external
part and proceeding inwards.
* In microscopic figures they are generally drawn like circles
intersecting each other.
[ 31 ]
CHAPTER III.
OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS.
Every part of a living plant is covered with a skin or
membrane called the cuticle, which same denomination
has been given by anatomists to the scarf skin that cov-
ers the animal body, protecting it from the injuries of
the air, and allowing of due absorption and perspiration
through its pores.
There is the most striking analogy between the animal
and the vegetable cuticle. In the former, it varies in
thickness from the exquisitely delicate film which covers
the eye, to the hard skin of the hand or foot, or the far
coarser covering of a Tortoise or Rhinoceros; in the
latter it is equally delicate on the parts of a flower, and
scarcely less hard on the leaves of the Pearly Aloe, or
coarse on the trunk of a Plane tree. In the numerous
layers of this membrane continually peeling off from
the Birch, we see a resemblance to the scales which
separate from the shell of a Tortoise. By maceration,
boiling, or putrefaction, this part is separable from the
plant as well as from the animal, being, if not absolutely
incorruptible, much less prone to decomposition than
the parts it covers.(2) The vital principle, as far as we
can judge, seems to be extinct in it.
(2) [The durability of the epidermis may every year be ob-
served in our woods, where cylinders of birch bark are found in
a state of perfect preservation, long after the wood within them
has decayed.]
"-: OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS.
The cuticle admits of the passage of fluids from within
as well as from without, but in a due and definite pro-
portion in every plant: consequently it must be porous ;
and the microscope shows, what reason would teach us
to expect, that its pores are different in different kinds of
plants. In very succulent plants, as Aloes, a leaf of
which being cut off will lie for many weeks in the sun
without drying entirely, and yet when partly dry will
become plump again in a few hours if plunged into
water, the cuticle must be very curiously construct-
ed, so as to admit of ready absorption, and very tardy
perspiration. Such plants are accordingly designed to
inhabit hot sandy countries, where they are long expos-
ed to a burning sun, with very rare supplies of rain.
This part allows also of the passage of air, as is prov-
ed by experiments on the functions of leaves. Li.^ht
probably acts through it, as the cuticle is a colourless
membrane. We know the effects of light to be very
important in the vegetable ceconomy.
But though this fine membrane admits extraneous
substances, so as to have their due effect upon the veg-
etable constitution, according to fixed laws, it no less
powerfully excludes all that would be injurious to the
plant, either in kind or proportion. Against heat or
cold it proves, in general, but a* feeble defence ; but
when clothed with hair or wool, it becomes a very
powerful one. Against the undue action of the atmos-
phere it is so important a guard, that, when any tender
growing part is deprived of it, the greatest mischiefs
ensue. It forms in the Vegetable^ as well as the Ani-
OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS. 33
mal, a fine but essential barrier between life and de-
struction.
Some have imagined that the cuticle gave form to the
vegetable body, because it sometimes being over tight
causes contractions on the stem of a tree, as in the
plum or cherry, and because it is found to be cracked
wherever an unnatural excrescence is produced on the
bark. No doubt the cuticle is formed so as to accom-
modate itself only to the natural growth of the plant,
not to any monstrosities, and those lumps cause it to
burst ; just as it happens to ripe fruits in very wet sea-
sons. Their cuticle is constructed suitably to their
usual size or plumpness, but not to any immoderate
increase from too great absorption of wet. If the cuti-
cle be removed from any part, no swelling follows, as
it would if this membrane only kept the tree in shape.
The extension of the cuticle is astonishing, if we
consider that it is formed, as Grew well observes, on
the tenderest embryo, and only extended during the
growth of the plant, and that it appears not to have any
connexion with the vascular or living part of the vege-
table body. But though so accommodating in those
parts where it is wanted, on the old trunks of most trees
it cracks in every direction, and in many is entirely
obliterated, the old dead layers of their bark performing
all the requisite offices of a cuticle.
M. Mirbel indeed, though he admits the importance
of this part in the several ways above mentioned, con-
tends that it is not a distinct organ like the cuticle of
animals, but merely formed of the cellular parts of the
plant dilated and multiplied, and changed by their new
F.
34
OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS.
situation. This is very true ; but upon the same prin-
ciple the human cuticle can scarcely be called a distinct
organ. Its texture is continually scaling off externally,
and it is supplied with new layers from within. Just so
does the cuticle of the Birch peel off in scales, separa-
ble, almost without end, into smaller ones.
Examples of different kinds of cuticle may be seen
in the following plants.
On the Currant tree it is smooth, and scales off in
large entire flakes, both from the young branches and
old stem. The same may be observed in the Elder.
The fruit of the Peach and the leaf of the Mullein
have a cuticle covered with dense and rather harsh wool,
such as is found on many Mexican plants, and on more
Cretan ones. The latter we know grow in open places
under a burning sun.
The leaf of the White Willow is clothed with a fine
silky or satiny cuticle.
The cuticle of the Betony, and of many other plants,
is extended into rigid hairs or bristles, which in the
Nettle are perforated and contain a venomous fluid.
On the fruit of the Plum, and on many leaves, we
find a blueish dry powder covering the cuticle, which
is a resinous exudation, and it is difficult to wet the
surface of these plants. Rain trickles over them in
large drops.
In the Cork tree, the common Maple, and even the
Dutch Elm, the cuticle is covered with a fungous bub-
stance most extraordinary in its nature, though familiar
to us as cork.
OF THE CUTICLE OR EPIDERMIS.
In grasses and some other plants the ingenious Mr.
Davy has found a flinty substance in the cuticle.
What seems to be the cuticle on the trunk of the
Plane, the Fir, and a kind of Willow called Salixtrian-
dra, rather consists of scales of bark, which having per-
fot med their functions and become dead matter, are re-
jected by the increasing bark beneath them ;(3) and this
accords with M. Mirbel's idea of the cuticle. The old
layers of bark in the Chestnut, Oak, and many other
trees, though not cast off, are of the same nature ; and
these under the microscope exhibit the same cellular
texture as the real cuticle.
(3) [Hence the white appearance exhibited at certain seasons
of the year by the trunk and branches of the Button wood tree
(Platanus occidentalis.)]
[ 36 ]
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE CELLULAR INTEGUMENT.
Immediately under the Cuticle we find a succulent
cellular substance, for the most part of a green colour,
at least in the leaves and branches, which is called by
Du Hamel the Enveloppe cellulaire, and by Mirbel the
Tissu herbace. This is in general the seat of colour,
and in that respect analogous to the rete mucosum, or
pulpy substance situated under the human cuticle,
which is pale in the European, and black in the Negro;
but we must carry the analogy no further, for these two
parts perform no functions in common. Du Hamel
supposed this pulp to form the cuticle ; but this is im-
probable, as his experiments show, when that membrane
is removed, that the Cellular Integument exfoliates, at
least in trees, or is thrown off in consequence of the
injury it has sustained, and a new cuticle, covering a
new layer of the same succulent matter, is formed under
the old one. Annual stems or branches have not the
same power, any more than leaves.
But little attention has been paid to this organ till
lately, though it is very universal, even, as Mirbel ob-
serves, in Mosses and Ferns, The same writer remarks
that " leaves consist almost entirely of a plate of this
" substance, covered on each side by the cuticle. The
u stems and branches of both annual and perennial plants
" are invested with it ; but in woody parts it is dried
?< up and reproduced continually, such parts only having
OF THE CELLULAR INTEGUMENT. 37
" that reproductive power. The old layers remain, are
" pushed outward by the new ones, and form at length
" the rugged dry dead covering of the old trunks of
" trees."
When we come to consider the curious functions of
leaves, we shall find this part to be of the very first im-
portance. In it the principal changes operated upon
the juices of plants by light and air, and the consequent
elaboration of all their peculiar secretions, take place.
C 38 ]
CHAPTER V.
OF THE BAUK.
Under the Cellular Integument we find the Bark, con-
sisting of but one layer in plants or branches only one
year old, and often not distinguishable from the wood.
In the older branches and trunks of trees, it consists of
as many layers as they are years old, the innermost be-
ing called the liber ; and it is in this layer only that the
essential vital functions.are carried on for the time being,
after which it is pushed outwards with the Cellular In-
tegument, and becomes like that a lifeless crust. These
older layers, however, are for some time reservoirs of
the peculiar secreted juices of the plant, which perhaps
they may help to perfect.
In some roots the bark, though only of annual dura-
tion, is very thick ; as in the Carrot, the red part of
which is all bark. In the Parsnep, though not distinctly
coloured^ it is no less evident. In the Turnip it is
much thinner, though equally distinct from the wood or
body of the root.
The Bark contains a great number of woody fibres,
running for the most part longitudinally, which give it
tenacity, and in which it differs very essentially from the
parts already described. These woody fibres when
separated by maceration exhibit in general a kind of
net-work, and in many instances great regularity and
beauty of structure. In a family of plants to which
the Mezereon belongs, the fibres of the inner bark have
a beautiful white shining appearance like silk. In one of
this tribe, a native of Jamaica, and called Luce Bark,
OF THE B\RK.
39
that part mav be separated by lateral extension into an
elegant kind of lace.
In the old bark of the Fir tribe, on the contrary, noth-
ing of this kind is discernible. The bark of the Cluster
Pine, Pinus Pinaster, some inches in thickness, is sepa-
rable into thin porous layers, each of them the production
of one season, which do really seem to be, according to
M. Mirbel's theory, hardened and dried Cellular Integ-
ument ; but they are rather perhaps that vascular part of
the Bark which once contained the secreted fluid, or
turpentine, so abundant in this tree.
The bark of Oak trees twenty or thirty years old, if
cut and long exposed to the weather, separates into
many fine thin layers, of a similar, though less delicate,
texture to the Lace Bark of Jamaica. All these layers,
in a living state, are closely connected with each other by
the cellular texture which pervades the vegetable body in
general, as well as by transverse vessels necessary for the
performance of several functions hereafter to be mentioned.
In the bark the peculiar virtues or qualities of partic-
ular plants chiefly reside, and more especially in several
of its internal layers nearest to the wood. Here we find
in appropriate vessels the resin of the Fir and Juniper,
the astringent principle of the O ik and Willow, on
which their tanning property depends, the fine and valu-
able bitter of the Peruvian Bark, and the exquisitely ar-
omatic oil of the Cinnamon. The same secretions do
indeed, more or less, pervade the wood and other parts
of these plants, but usually in a less concentrated foi m.
When a portion of the bark of a tree is removed, the
remainder has a power of extending itself laterally,
though very gradually, till the wound is cioaed. This
40 OF THE BARK.
is accomplished by each new layer, added to the bark
internally, spreading a little beyond the edge of the pre-
ceding layer. The operation of closing the wound goes
on the more slowly, as the wood underneath, from ex-
posure to the air, has become dead, and frequently rot-
ten, proving an incumbrance, which though the living
principle cannot in this instance free itself from, it has
no power of turning to any good account. If, however,
this dead wood be carefully removed, and the wound
protected from the injuries of the atmosphere, the new
bark is found to spread much more rapidly ; and as ev-
ery new layer of bark forms, as will be proved in the
next chapter, a new layer of wood, the whole cavity,
whatever it may be, is in process of time filled up.
This operation of Nature was turned to great advan-
tage by the late Mr. Forsyth of Kensington gardens,
the history of whose experiments is before the public.
Under his management many timber trees, become en-
tirely hollow, were filled with new wood, and made to
produce fresh and vigorous branches; and pear-trees
planted in the>time of King William, and become so de-
cayed and knotty as to bear no fruit worth gathering,
were by gradual paring away of the old wood and bark,
and the application of a composition judiciously con-
trived to stick close and keep out air and wet, restored
to such health and strength as to cover the garden walls
with new branches bearing a profusion of fine fruit.
These experiments have passed under my own actual
observation, and I am happy to bear testimony to the
merits of a real lover of useful science, and one of the
most honest and disinterested men I ever knew.
[ 41 ]
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE WOOD.
When the bark is removed, we come to the substance
of the wood, which makes the principal bulk of the
trunk or branch of a tree or shrub. When cut across,
it is found to consist of numerous concentric layers,
very distinct in the Fir, and other European trees in
general. Each of these circular layers is externally
most hard and solid. They differ however among
themselves in this respect, as well as in their breadth on
the whole. It often happens that all the layers are
broadest towards one side of the tree, so that their com-
mon centre is thrown very much out of the actual cen-
tre of the trunk.
The wood owes its strength and tenacity to innumer-
able woody fibres, and consists of various vessels run-
ning for the most part longitudinally ; some having a
spiral coat, others not. Of these vessels, some in their
youngest state convey the sap from the root to the ex-
tremities of the branches and leaves ; others contain the
various peculiar or secreted juices ; others perhaps con-
tain air. The whole are joined together by the cellular
substance already described.
Linnaeus and most writers believe that one of the
abovementioned circular layers of wood is formed every
year, the hard external part being caused by the cold of
winter ; consequently, that the exact age of a sound
tree when felled may be known by counting these rings.
F
4J
OF THE WOOD.
It has even been asserted that the date of peculiarly
severe winters may be found in the harder more con-
densed rings formed at those periods ; and moreover,
that the north side of a tree may always be know by the
narrowness and density of the rings on that side. , All
this is controverted by Mirbel, chiefly on the authority
of Du Hamel, who nevertheless scarcely says enough
to invalidate the ancient opinion on the whole. It is
very true that there may be occasional interruptions in
the formation of the wood from cold or fickle seasons,
and that in some trees the thin intermediate layers,
hardly discernible in general, which unite to form the
principal or annual ones, may, from such fluctuation of
seasons, become more distinct than is natural to them.
Such intermediate layers are even found more numerous
in some trees of the same species and age than in
others. But as there is always a most material differ-
ence between summer and winter, so I believe will there
always be a clear distinction between the annual rings
of such trees as show them at all. Trees of hot coun-
tries indeed, as Mahogany, and evergreens in general,
have them but indistinctly marked ; yet even in these
they are to be seen. With regard to their greater com-
pactness on the north side of a tree, Du Hamel justly
explodes this idea. In fact, there is most wood formed,
and consequently these circles are broadest, on the side
most favorable to vegetation, and where there are most
branches and leaves. This in a solitary tree is generally
towards the south ; but h is easy to perceive the occa-
sional variations which must arise from local exposure,
soil, moisture, and other causes.
OF THE WOOD.
4J
In some trees, a number of the outermost rings differ
greatly in colour from the innermost, and are called by
workmen the sap. In the Laburnum the former are
yellow, the latter brown. In the Oak and many other
trees a similar difference, though less striking, is percep-
tible, and in most the external rin^s are much less firm,
compact, and durable than the rest, retaining more vital
principle, and more of the peculiar juices of the plant.
Such rings are all comprehended by Du Hamel under
the name of Aubier, alburnum ; and he rightly observes
that this difference often extends to a greater number of
rings on one side of a tree than on another. It seems
that the more vigour there is in a tree, or side of a tree,
the sooner is its alburnum made perfect wood. By this
term, however, is properly understood only the layer of
new unhardened wood of the present year. When the
word alburnum is used in the following pages, it applies
to this part only.
Physiologists have long differed and do still differ
about the origin of the wood. Malpighi and Grew
thought it was formed by the bark, and the best obser-
vations have confirmed their opinion. Hales supposed
the wood added a new layer to itself externally every
year. Linnaeus had a peculiar notion, that a new layer
of wood was secreted annually from the pith, and added
internally to the former ones. Truth obliges us to con-
fess that the latter theory is most devoid of any kind of
proof or probability.
Du Hamel, by many experiments, proved the wood
to be secreted or deposited from the innermost part of
the bark or liber. He introduced plates of tinfoil under
44
OF THE WOOD.
the barks of growing trees, carefully binding up their
wounds, and, after some years, on cutting them across,
he found the layers of new wood on the outside of the
tin. His original specimens I have examined in the
public museum at Paris.
Dr. Hope, the late worthy Professor of Botany at
Edinburgh, instituted an experiment, if possible more
decisive, upon a branch of Willow three or four years
old. The bark was carefully cut through longitudinally
on one side for the length of several inches, so that it
might be slipped aside from the wood in the form of a
hollow cvlinder, the two ends beinsr undisturbed. The
edges of the bark were then united as carefully as possi-
ble, the wood covered from the air, and the whole bound
up to secure it from external injury. After a few years,
the branch was cut through transversely. * The cylinder
of bark was found lined with layers of new wood, whose
number added to those in the wood from which it had
been stripped, made up the number of rings in the
branch above and below the experiment. For an ac-
count of this experiment I am indebted to Dr. Thomas
Hope, the present Chemical Professor at Edinburgh.
Du Hamel engrafted a portion of the bark of a Peach-
tree upon a Plum. After some time he found a layer
of new wood under the engrafted bark, white like that
of the Peach, and evidently different from the red wood
of the Plum. Moreover, in this and other experiments
made with the same intention, he found the layers of
new wood always connected with the bark, and not
united to the old wood. See his Physique des Arbrcs,
vol. 2. 29, &c. It deserves also to be mentioned, that
by performing this experiment of engrafting a portion of
OF THE WOOD.
45
bark at different periods through the spring and sum-
mer, the same accurate observer found a great difference
in the thickness of the layer of new wood produced
under it, which was always less in proportion as the
operation was performed later in the season.
That the bark or liber produces wood seems therefore
proved beyond dispute, but some experiments persuad-
ed Du Hamel that in certain circumstances the wood
was capable of producing a new bark. This never hap-
pened in any case but when the whole trunk of a tree
was stripped of its bark. A Cherry-tree treated in this
manner exuded from the whole surface of its wood in
little points a gelatinous matter, which gradually ex-
tended over the whole and became a new bark, under
which a layer of new wood was speedily formed. Hence
Mirbel concludes, vol. 1. 176, that the alburnum and
the wood are really the origin of the new layers of wood,
by producing first this gelatinous substance, or matter
of organization, which he and Du Hamel call cambium,
and which Mirbel supposes to produce the liber or
young bark, and at the same time, by a peculiai arrange-
ment of the vascular parts, the alburnum or new wood.
His opinion is strengthened by the observation of a
tribe of plants to be explained hereafter, Palms, Grasses,
&c. in which there is no real bark, and in which he
finds that the woody fibres do actually produce the cam-
bium. Dr. Hope's experiment will scarcely invalidate
this opinion, because it may be said the cambium had
already in that case formed the liber.
This matter will be better understood when we come
to speak of Mr. Knight's experiments on the course of
the sap.
[ 46 ]
CHAPTER VII.
OF THE MEDULLA OK PITH.
The centre or heart of the vegetable body, within the
wood, contains the Medulla or Pith. This, in parts
most endued with life, as roots, and young growing
stems or branches, is a tolerably firm juicy substance,
of an uniform texture, and commonly a pale green or
yellowish colour. Such is its appearance in the young
shoots of Elder in the spring ; but in the very same
branches, fully grown, the pith becomes dry, snow-
white, highly cellular, and extremely light, capable of
being compressed to almost nothing. So it appears
likewise in the common Red or White Currant, and
numerous other plants. In many annual stems the pith,
abundant and very juicy while they are growing, be-
comes little more than a web, lining the hollow of the
complete stem, as in some Thistles. Many grasses and
umbelliferous plants, as Conium maculatum or Hemlock,
have always hollow stems, lined only with a thin smooth
coating of pith, exquisitely delicate and brilliant in its-
appearance.
Concerning the nature and functions of this part va-
rious opinions have been held.
Du Hamel considered it as merely aellular substance,
connected with what is diffused through the whole
plant, combining its various parts, but not performing
any remarkable office in the vegetable (economy.
Linnaeus, on the contrary, thought it the seat of life
and source of vegetation ; that its vigour was the main
OF THE MEDULLA OR PITH.
47
cause of the propulsion of the branches, and that the
seeds were more especially formed from it. This lat-
ter hypothesis is not better founded than his idea, already
mentioned, of the pith adding new layers internally to
the wood. In fact the pith is soon obliterated in the
trunks of many trees, which nevertheless keep increas-
ing, for a long series of years, by layers of wood added
every year from the bark, even after the heart of the tree
is become hollow from decay.
Some considerations have led me to hold a medium
opinion between these two extremes. There is, in cer-
tain respects, an analogy between the medulla of plants
and the nervous system of animals. It is no less assid-
uously protected than the spinal marrow or principal
nerve. It is branched off and diffused through the
plant, as nerves are through the animal. Hence it is
not absurd to presume that it may, in like manner, give
life and vigour to the whole, though by no means, any
more than nerves, the organ or source of nourishment.
It is certainly most vigorous and abundant in young and
growing branches, and must be supposed to be subser-
vient, in some way or other, to their increase. Mr.
Lindsay of Jamaica, in a paper read long ago to the
Royal Society, but not published, thought he demon-
strated the medulla in the leaf-stalk of the Mimosa pu-
dica, or Sensitive Plant, to'be the seat of irritability, nor
can I see any thing to invalidate this opinion.
Mr. Knight, in the Philosophical Transactions for
180.,/?. 548, supposes the medulla may be a reservoir
of moisture, to supply the leaves whenever an excess of
perspiration renders such assistance necessary, and he
48
OF. THK MEDULLA OR PITH\
has actually traced a direct communication by vessels
between it and the leaf. " Plants," says that ingenious
writer, " seem to require some such reservoir ; for their
young leaves are excessively tender, and they perspire
much, and cannot, like animals, fly to the shade and the
brook."
This idea of Mr. Knight's may derive considerable
support from the consideration of bulbous-rooted grass-
es. The Common Catstail, Phleum pratense, Engl.
Bot. t. 1076, when growing in pastures that are uni-
formlyr moist, has a fibrous root, but in dry situations,
or such as are only occasionally wet, it acquires a bul-
bous one, whose inner substance is moist and fleshy,
like the pith of yroung branches of trees. This is evi-
dently a provision of Nature to guard the plant against
too sudden a privation of moisture from the soil.
But, on the other hand, all the moisture in the me-
dulla of a whole branch is, in some cases, too little to
supply one hour's perspiration of a single leaf. Neither
can I find that the moisture of the medulla varies, let
the leaves be ever so flaccid. I cannot but incline
therefore to the opinion that the medulla is rather a re-
servoir of vital energy, even in these bulbous grasses.
Mr. Knight has shown that the part in question may
be removed without any great injury to a branch, or at
least without immediate injury, but I have had no op-
portunity of making any experiments on this particular
subject.
[ 49 ]
CHAPTER VIIT.
OF THE SAP-VESSELS, AND COURSE OF THE SAP ; WITH MR.
KNIGHT'S THEORY OF VEGETATION.
Much contrariety of opinion has existed among phys-
iologists concerning the vascular system of plants, and
the nature of the propulsion of the sap through their
stems and branches. Indeed it is a subject upon which,
till lately, very erroneous ideas have prevailed.
That the whole vegetable body is an assemblage of
tubes and vessels is evident to the most careless observ-
er ; and those who are conversant with the microscope,
and books relating to it, have frequent opportunities of
observing how curiously these vessels are arranged, and
how different species of plants, especially trees, differ
from each other in the structure and disposition of them.
Such observations, however, if pursued no further, lead
but a little way towards a knowledge of the wonderful
physiology of vegetables.
In our 2d chapter, mention is made of the general
cellular and vascular texture of plants ; we must now
be a little more particular in our inquiries.
That plants contain various substances, as sugar,
gum, acids, odoriferous fluids and others, to which their
various flavours and qualities are owing, is familiar to
every one ; and a little reflection will satisfy us that such
substances must each be lodged in proper cells and ves-
sels to be kept distinct from each other. They are ex-
tracted, or secreted, from the common juice of the plant,
and called its peculiar or secreted fluids. Various ex-
5tt
OF THE SAP-VESSELS
periments and observations, to be hereafter enlarged up-
on, prove also that air exists in the vegetable body, and
must likewise be contained in appropriate vessels. Be-
sides these, we know that plants are nourished and invi-
gorated by water, which they readily absorb, and which
is quicklyr conveyed through their stalks and leaves, no
doubt by tubes or vessels on purpose. Finally, it is ob-
servable that all plants, as far as any experiment has
been made, contain a common fluid, which at certain
seasons of the year is to be obtained in great quantity,
as from vine branches by wounding them in the spring
before the leaves appear, and this is properly called the
sap. It is really the blood of the plant, by which its
whole body is nourished, and from which the peculiar
secretions are made.
The great difficulty has been to ascertain the vessels
in which the sap runs. Two of the most distinguished
inquirers into the subject, Malpighi and Grew, believed
the woody fibres, which make so large a part of the
vegetable body, and give it consistence and strength, to
be the sap-vessels, analogous to the blood-vessels of
animals, and their opinion was adopted by Du Hamel.
In support of this theory it was justly observed that these
fibres are very numerous and strong, running longitudi-
nally, often situated with great uniformity (an argument
for their great importance,) and found in all parts of a
plant, although in some they are so delicate as to be
scarcely discernible. But philosophers sought in vain
for anv perforation, any thing like a tubular structure,
in the woody fibres to countenance this hypothesis, for
they are divisible almost without end, like the muscular
OF THE SAP-VESSELS.
5a
fibre. This difficulty was overlooked, because of the
necessity of believing the existence of sap-vessels some-
where ; for it is evident that the nutrimental fluids of a
plant must be carried with force towards certain parts
and in certain directions, and that this can be accom-
plished by regular vessels only, not, as Tournefort sup-
posed, by capillary attraction through a simple spongy
or cottony substance.
I received the first hint of what I now believe to be
the true sap-vessels from the 2d section of Dr. Darwin's
Phytologia, where it is suggested that what have been
taken for air-vessels are really absorbents destined to
nourish the plant, or, in other words, sap-vessels. The
same idea has been adopted, confirmed by experiments,
and carried to much greater perfection by Mr. Knight,
whose papers in the Philosophical Transactions for 1801,
1804 and 1805 throw the most brilliant light upon it,
and, I think, established no less than an entirely new
theory of vegetation, by which the real use and func-
tions of the principal organs of plants are now for the
first time satisfactorily explained.
In a young branch of a tree or shrub, or in the stem
of an herbaceous plant, are found, ranged round the
centre or pith, a number of longitudinal tubes or vessels,
of a much more firm texture than the adjacent parts,
and when examined minutely, these vessels often appear
to be constructed with a spiral coat. This may be seen
in the young twigs and leaf stalks of Elder, Syringa,
and many other shrubs, as well as in numerous herba-
ceous plants, as the Peony, and more especially many
of the Lily tribe. If a branch ^or stalk of any of these
5J
OF THE SAP-VESSELS
plants be partly cut through or gently broken, and its
divided portions slowly drawn asunder, the spiral coats
of their vessels will unroll, exhibiting a curious specta-
cle even to the naked eye. In other cases, though the
spiral structure exists, its convolutions are scarcely se-
parable at all, or so indeterminate as to be only marked
by an interrupted line of perforations or slits, as shown
by M. Mirbel. Indeed the very same branches which
exhibit these spiral vessels when young, show no signs
of them at a more advanced period of growth, when
their parts are become more woody, firm, and rigid.
No such spiral-coated vessels have been detected in the
bark at any period of its growth.
Malpighi asserts that these vessels are always found
to contain air only, no other fluid ; while Grew reports
that he sometimes met with a quantity of moisture in
them. Both judged them to be air-vessels, or, as it
were, the hing* of plants, communicating, as these phi-
losophers presumed, with certain vessels of the leaves
and flowers, of an oval or globular form, but destitute
of a spiral coat. These latter do really contain air, but
it rather appears from experiment that they have no di-
rect communication with the former. Thus the tubes
in question have always been called air-vessels, till Dar-
win suggested their real nature and use.* He is per-
haps too decisive when he asserts that none of them are
air-vessels because they exist in the root, which is not
exposed to the atmosphere. We know that air acts
upon the plant under ground, because seeds will not
* Du Hamel, indeed, once suspected that they contained
« highly rarefied sap," but did not pursue the idea.
DR. DARWIN'S EXPERIMENTS.
53
vegetate in earth under the exhausted receiver of an air-
pump. Phil. Trans. JVo. 23. I do not however mean
to contend that any of these spiral vessels are air-vessels,
nor do I see reason to believe that plants have any sys-
tem of longitudinal air-vessels at all, though they must
be presumed to abound in such as are transverse or hor-
izontal.
Dr. Darwin and Mr. Knight have, by the most sim-
ple and satisfactory experiment, proved these spiral
vessels to be the channel through which the sap is con-
veyed. The former placed leafy twigs of a common
Fig-tree about an inch deep in a decoction of madder,
and others in one of logwood. After some hours, on
cutting the branches across, the coloured liquors were
found to have ascended into each branch by these vessels,
which exhibited a circle of red dots round the pith, sur-
rounded by an external circle of vessels containing the
white milky juice, or secreted fluid, so remarkable in
the fig-tree. Mr. Knight, in a similar manner, inserted
the lower ends of some cuttings of the Apple-tree and
Horse-chesnut into an infusion of the skins of a verv
black grape in water, an excellent liquor for the pur-
pose. The result was similar. But Mr. Knight pur-
sued his observations much further than Dr. Darwin
had done ; for he traced the coloured liquid even into
the leaves, " but it had neither coloured the bark nor
the sap between it and the wood ; and the medulla was
not affected, or at most was very slightly tinged at its
edges.1' Phil. Trans, for 1801,/?. 335.
The result of all Mr. Knight's experiments and re-
marks seems to be, that the fluids destined to nourish a
MR. KNIGHT'S EXPERIMENTS.
punt, being absorbed by the root and become sap, are
carried up into the leaves by these vessels, called by him
central vessels, from their situation near the pith. A
particular set of them, appropriated to each leaf, branches
off, a [c\v inches below the leaf to which they belong,
from the main eh mncls that pass along the alburnum,
and ex'end from the fibres of the root to the extremity
of each annual shoot of the plant. As they approach the
leaf to which they arc destined, the central vessels be-
come more numerous, or subdivided. " To these ves-"
sels," says Mr. Knight, " the spiral tubes are every
where appendages."/*. 336. By this expression, and
by a passage in the following page,* 337, this writer
might seem to consider the spiral line, which forms the
cous of these vessels, as itself a pervious tube, or else
that he was speaking of other tubes with a spiral coat,
companions of the sap-vessels ; but the plate which ac-
companies his dissertation, and the perspicuous mode in
which he treats the subject throughout, prevent our
mistaking him on the last point. In order to conceive
how the sap can be so powerfully conveyed as it is
through the vessels in which it flows, from the root of a
tall tree to its highest branches, we must take into con
sideration the action of heat. We all know that this is
necessary to the growth and health of plants ; and that it
requires to be nicely adjusted in degree, in order to suit
-'The whole of the fluid, which passes from the wood to
PROPULSION OF THE SAP.
55
the constitutions of different tribes of plants destined for
different parts of the globe. It cannot but act as a stim-
ulus to the living principle, and is one of the most pow-
erful agents of Nature upon the vegetable as well as
animal constitution. Besides this, however, various
mechanical causes may be supposed to have their effect;
as the frequently spiral or screw-like form of the vessels,
in some of which, when separated from the plant, Mal-
pighi tells us he once saw a very beautiful undulating
motion that appeared spontaneous. This indeed has
not been seen by any other person, nor can it be sup-
posed that parts so delicate can, in general, be removed
from their natural situation, without the destruction of
that fine irritability on which such a motion must de-
pend. We may also take into consideration the agitation
of the vegetable body by winds, which is known by
experience to be so wholesome to it,* and must serve
powerfully to propel the fluids of lofty trees ; the pas-
sage, and evolution perhaps, of air in other parts or ves-
sels surrounding and compressing these ; and lastly the
action, so ingeniously supposed by Mr. Knight, of those
thin shining plates called the silver grain, visible in oak
wood, which passing upon the sap-vessels, and being
apparently susceptible of quick changes from variations
in heat or other causes, may have a powerful effect.
" Their restless temper," says Mr. Knigh:, " after the
tree has ceased to live, inclines me to believe that they
are not made to be idle whilst it continues alive." Phil.
* See Mr. Knight's experiments in confirmation of this in the
Phil. Trans, for 180 J, fi. 208.
56 \CTI0X OF THE SILVER (iUAlN.
Trans, for 1801,/;. 344. These plates are presumed
by the author just quoted to be peculiarly useful in as-
sisting the ascent of the sap through the alburnum of
the trunk or chief branches, where indeed the spiral
coats of the vessels are either wanting, or less clastic
than in the leaf-stalks and summits of the more tender
shoots.
However its conveyance may be accomplished, it is
certain that the sap does reach the parts above mention-
ed, and there can surely be now as little doubt of the
vessels in which it runs. That these vessels have been
thought to contain air only, is well accounted for byr Dr.
Darwin, on the principle of their not collapsing when
emptied of their sap ; which is owing to their rigidity,
and the elastic nature of their coats. When a portion
of a stem or branch is cut off, the sap soon exhales from
it, or rather is pushed out by the action of the vessels
themselves : hence they are found empty ; and for the
same reason the arteries of animals were formerlv
thought to contain air only. When the sap-vessels
have parted with their natural contents, air and even
quicksilver will readily pass through them, as is shown
by various experiments. Arguments in support of any
theory must be very cautiously deduced from such ex-
periments, or from any other observations not made on
vegetables in their most natural state and condition ; and,
above all, that great agent the vital principle must always
be kept in view, in preference to mere mechanical con-
siderations.
These to which I give the common name of sap-
vessels, comprehending the common tubes of the albur-
COURSE OF THE SAP.
57
num, and the central vessels, of Mr. Knight, may be
considered as analogous to the arteries of animals ; or
rather they are the stomach, lacteals and arteries all in
one, for I conceive it to be a great error in Dr. Darwin
to call by this name the vessels which contain the pecu-
liar secretions of the plant.* These sap-vessels, no
doubt, absorb the nutritious fluids afforded by the soil,
in which possibly, as they pass through the root, some
change analogous to digestion may take place ; for there
is evidently a great difference, in many cases, between
the fluids of the root; at least the secreted ones, and
those of the rest of the plant ; and this leads us to pre-
sume that some considerable alteration may be wrought
in the sap in its course through that important organ.
The stem, which it next enters, is by no means an es-
sential part, for we see many plants whose leaves and
flowers grow directly from the root.
Part of the sap is conveyed into the flowers and fruit,
where various fine and essential secretions are made
from it, of which we shall speak hereafter. By far the
greater portion of the sap is carried into the leaves, of
the great importance and -utility of which to the plant
itself Mr. Knight's theory is the only one that gives us
any adequate or satisfactory notion. In those organs
the sap is exposed to the action of light, air and mois-
ture, three powerful agents, by which it is enabled to
form various secretions, at the same time that much su-
perfluous matter passes off by perspiration. These
secretions not only give peculiar flavours and qualities
H
* Phytologia, sect. 2.
ji>
LOl'RSE OF THE SAP.
to the leaf itself, but are returned by another set of ves-
sels, as Mi-. Knight has demonstrated, into the new layer
of bark, which they nourish and bring to perfection,
and which they enable in its turn to secrete mattei for a
new layer of alburnum the ensuing year. It is presum-
ed that one set of the returning vessels of trees may
probably be more particularly destined to this latter
office, and another to the secretion of peculiar fluids in
the bark. See Phil. Trans, for 1801,/;. 337. In the
bark principally, if I mistake not, the peculiar secretions
of the plant are perfected, as gum, resin, &c. each un-
doubtedly in an appropriate set of vessels. From what
has just been said of the office of leaves, we readily per-
ceive why all the part of a branch above a leaf or leaf-
bud dies when cut, as each portion receives nourish-
ment, and the means of increase, from the leaf above it.
By the above view of the vegetable ceconomy, it ap-
pears that the vascular system of plants is strictly annual.
This, of course, is admitted in herbaceous plants, the
existence of whose stems, and often of the whole indi-
vidual, is limited to one season ; but it is no less true
with regard to trees. (4) The layer of alburnum on the
(4) [The effect of girdling trees, as practised in new settle-
ments in the United States, is readily explained on the theory of
Mr. Knight. In this operation a circle of bark and also of the
alburnum or outer wood is removed from around the trunk. A
check is thus put both to the ascent and descent of the sap, and
the tree dies in consequence sooner or later. Sometimes how-
ever the sap ascends through a trunk which has been girdled,
and the tree puts out leaves in the ensuing summer. This fact
is not explained by the principles here I tid down, but agrees with
.\ subsequent paper of Mr. Knight {Phil. Trans. 1808) in which
COURSE OF THE SAP. 5.9
one hand is added to the wood, and the liber, or inner
layer of the bark, is on the other annexed to the layers
he concludes that the cellular substance gives passage to the
sap. Though the conclusions of this paper can hardly be ad-
mitted in their full extent, it is nevertheless probable that the
cellular substance of the trunk may exert a vicarious office and
afford a temporary passage to the sap when its proper vessels
are interrupted.
If a ring of bark only is removed, the sap may continue to as-
cend with freedom, but is obstructed in its descent. This ope-
ration may be performed with perfect safety to the tree, provid-
ed the ring taken out is sufficiently narrow, so that the space
may be filled up with new bark from above, during the same
season. In trees which form new bark readily upon the surface
©f the alburnum, as in the instance page 45, the whole trunk
may be stripped with impunity, .and sometimes with advantage
to the future health and productivenessof the tree. It is how-
ever often necessary that the trunk should be artificially covered
during the reproduction of the bark. Du Hamel mentions trees
in perfect health 15 or 18 years after having been thus depriv-
ed of their bark.
Some improvements in the cultivation of fruits have been
founded upon the intersection of the bark. Buffon removed a
girdle of bark. 3 inches in width, from the trunks of some fruit
trees, and found that they produced blossoms and fruit 3 weeks
sooner than the other trees in their neighbourhood. Mr Wil-
liams in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, states that
grapes came to maturity much earlier, were larger, and better
flavoured, when a small circle of bark, one or two eighths of an
inch in width, was removed from around the alburnum of the
fruitful branches, while the fruit was in its young state. This
method is annually practised in the vicinity of Boston by differ-
ent individuals with the best success. The explanation depends
on the theory of Mr. Knight, the sap being interrupted in its de-
scent, and confined to the branches above the incision, so that ?.
greater quantity of it goes to nourish the fruit.1
60 GROWTH OF MONOCOTVLEUONES,
formed in the preceding seasons, and neither have any
share in the process of vegetation for the year ensuing.
Still, as they continue for a long time to be living bodies,
and help to perfect, if not to form, secretions, they must
receive some portion of nourishment from those more
active parts which have taken up their late functions.
There is a tribe of plants called monocotyledones,
having only one lobe to the seed,* whose growth re-
quires particular mention. To these belongs the natu-
ral order of Palms, which being the most lofty, and, in
some instances, the most long-lived of plants, have justly
acquired the name of trees. Yet, paradoxical as it may
seem, they are rather perennial herbaceous plants, hav-
ing nothing in common with the growth of trees in
general. Their nature has been learnedly explained by
M. Desfontaines, a celebrated French botanist, and by
M. Mirbel in his Traite d'Anatomie et de Physiologic
Vegetates, vol. 1. p. 209, and Linnaeus has long ago
made remarks to the same purpose. The Palms are
formed of successive circular crowns of leaves, which
spring directly from the root. These leaves and their
footstalks are furnished with bundles of large sap-vessels
and returning vessels, like tjie leaves of our trees.
When one circle of them has performed its office, an-
other is formed within it, which being confined below,
necessarily rises a little above the former. Thus suc-
cessive circles grow one above the other, by which the
vertical increase of the plant is almost without end.
Each circle of leaves is independent of its predecessor,
and has its own clusters of vessels, so that there can be
* Or rather no true cotyledon at all.
OF REVERSED PLANTS.
61
no aggregation of woody circles ; and yet in some of
this tribe the spurious kind of stem, formed in the man-
ner just described, when cut across shows something of
a circular arrangement of fibres, arising from the origi-
nal disposition of the leaves. The common orange lily,
Lilium bulbiferum, Curt. Mag. t. 36, and white lily,
L. candidum, t. 278, which belong to the same natural
family called monocotyledones, serve to elucidate this
subject. Their stems, though of only annual duration,
are formed nearly on the same principle as that of a Palm,
and are really congeries of leaves rising one above an-
other, and united by their bases into an apparent stem'.
In these the spiral coats of the sap-vessels are very easily-
discernible.
To conclude this subject of the propulsion of the sap,
it is necessary to say a few words on the power which
the vessels of plants are reported to possess of convey -
ing their appropriate fluids equally well in either direc-
tion ; or, in other words, that it is indifferent whether
a cutting of any kind be planted with its upper or lower
end in the ground. On this subject also Mr. Knight
has afforded us new information, by observing that, in
cuttings so treated, the returning vessels retain so much
of their original nature as to deposit new wood above
the leaf-buds ; that is, in the part of the cutting which,
if planted in its natural position, would have been below
them. It appears, however, that the sap-vessels must
absorb and transmit their sap in a direction contrary to
what is natural ; and it is highly probable, that, after
some revolving seasons, new returning vessels would be
formed in that part of the stem which is now below the
62 OF UEVEKSED PLANTS.
buds. I presume there can be no doubt that succes-
sive new branches would deposit their wood in the
usual position. It is nevertheless by no means common
for such inverted cuttings to succeed at all. An ex-
periment to a similar purpose is recorded by Dr. Hales,
Vegetable Staticks, p. 132, t. 11, of engrafting together
three trees standing in a row, and then cutting off the
communication between the central one and the earth, so
that it became suspended in the air, and was nourished
merely through its lateral branches. The same exper-
iment was successfully practised by the late Dr. Hope
at Edinburgh upon three Willows, and in the years
1781, 2, and 3; I repeatedly witnessed their health and
vigour. It was observed that the central tree was sev-
eral days later in coming into leaf than its supporters,
but I know not that any other difference was to be per-
ceived between them. The tree which wanted the sup-
port of the ground was, some years after, blown down,
so that we have now no opportunity of examining the
course of its vessels, or the mode in which successive
layers of wood were deposited in its branches ; but the
experiment is easily repeated.
In the weeping variety of the Common Ash, now so
frequent in gardens, the branches are completely inver-
ted as to position, yet the returning fluids appear to run
exactly in their natural direction, depositing new wood,
as they are situated above the buds or leaves ; and if the
end of any branch be cut, all beyond (or below) the next
bud dies ; so that in this case gravitation, to which Mr.
Knight attributes considerable power over the returning
fluids, Phil Trans, for 1804, does not counteract the
ordinary course of nature.
C 63 ]
CHAPTER IX.
V
OF THE SAP, AND INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION.
The sap of trees, as has been mentioned in the last
ohapter, may be obtained by wounding a stem or branch
in spring, just before the buds open, or in the end of au-
tumn, though less copiously, after a slight frost ; yet
not during the frost. In the Palm-trees of hot coun-
tries, it is said to flow from a wound at any time of the
year. It has always been observed to flow from the
young wood or alburnum of our trees, not from the bark ;
which agrees with Mr. Knight's theory.
A common branch of the Vine cut through will yield
about a pint of this fluid in the course of twenty-four
hours. The Birch, Betula alba, affords plenty of sap ;
some other trees yield but a small quantity. It flows
equally upward and downward from a wound, at least
proportionably to the quantity of stem or branch in eith-
er direction to supply it. Some authors have asserted
that in the heat of the day it flows most from the lower
part of a wound, and in the cool of the evening from the
upper; hence they concluded it was ascending during
the first period, and descending in the latter. If the
fact be true some other solution must be sought ; nor
would it be difficult to invent a theory upon this subject:
but we rather prefer the investigation of truth on more
solid foundations.
This great motion, called the flowing, of the sap,
which is to be detected principally in the spring, and
slightly in the autumn, is thereiore totally distinct from
64
OF THE SAP,
that constant propulsion of it going on in every growing
plant, about which so much has been said in the pre-
ceding chapter, and which is proved by taking an entire
herb of any kind that has been gathered and suffered
to begin to fade, and immersing its root in water. By
absorption through the sap-vessels it presently revives,
for those vessels require a constant supply from the
root.
This flowing of the sap has been thought to demon-
strate a circulation, because, there being no leaves to car-
ry it off by perspiration, it is evident that, if it were at
these periods running up the sap-vessels with such ve-
locity, it must run down again by other channels. As
soon as the leaves expand, its motion is no longer to be
detected. The effusion of sap from plants, when cut or
wounded, is, during the greater part of the year, compar-
atively very small. Their secreted fluids run much
more abundantly.
I conceive therefore that this flowing is nothing more
than a facility in the sap to run, owing to the peculiar
irritability of the vegetable body at the times above men-
tioned ; and that it runs only when a wound is made,
being naturally at rest till the leaves open, and admit of
its proper and regular conveyance. Accordingly, lig-
atures made at this period, which show so plainly the
course of the blood in an animal body, have never been
found to throw any light upon the vegetable circulation.
This great facility in the sap to run is the first step to-
wards the revival of vegetation from the torpor of win-
ter ; and its exciting cause is heat, most unquestionably
by the action of the latter on the vital principle, and
ANn INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION.
65
scarcely by any mechanical operation, or expansive pow-
er upon the fluids. The effect of heat is in proportion
to the degree of cold to which the plant has been accus-
tomed. In forced plants the irritability, or, to use the
words of a late ingenious author*", who has applied this
principle very happily to the elucidation of the animal
ceconomy, excitability, is exhausted, as Mr. Knight
well remarks, and they require a stronger stimulus to
grow with vigour. See//. 91. Hence vegetation goqp
on better in the increasing heat of spring than in the de-
creasing heat of autumn. And here I cannot but offer,
by way of illustration, a remark on the theory advanced
by La Cepede, the able continuator of Buffon, relative
to serpents. That ingenious writer mentions, very tru-
ly, that these reptiles awake from their torpid state in
the spring, while a much less degree of heat exists in
the atmosphere than is perceptible in the autumn, when,
seemingly from the increasing cold, they become be-
numbed ; and he explains it by supposing a greater de-
gree of electricity in the air at the former season. Dr.
Brown's hypothesis, of their irritability being as it were
accumulated during winter, offers a much better solution,
either with respect to the animal or vegetable constitu-
tion. For the same reason, it is necessary to apply
warmth very slowly and carefully to persons frozen, or
even chilled only, by a more than usual degree of cold,
which renders them more susceptible of heat, and a tem-
perate diet and very moderate stimulants are most safe
* Dr. John Brown, formerly of Edinburgh. See the 14th
Section of Dr. Darwin's Phytologia on this subject.
I
66 OF THE 9 VP,
and useful to the unexhausted Constitutions of children.
The same principle accounts for the occasional flowing
of the sap in autumn after a slight frost. Such a prema-
ture cold increases the sensibility of the plant to any
warmth that may follow, and produces, in a degree, the
same state of its constitution as exists after the longer
and severer cold of winter. Let me be allowed a fur-
ther illustration from the animal kingdom. Every body
qpnversant with labouring cattle must have observed
how much sooner they are exhausted by the warm days
of autumn, when the nights are cold, than in much hot-
ter weather in summer, and this is surely from the same
cause as the autumnal flowing of the vegetable sap.(5)
The sap, or lymph, of most plants when collected in
the spring as above mentioned, appears to the sight and
taste little else than water, but it soon undergoes fermen-
tation and putrefaction. Even that of the Vine is
scarcely acid, though it can hardly be obtained without
(5) [In addition to the above explanation of the flowing
of the sap, we may subjoin one which has been suggested, but
not enlarged on, by Mr. Knight. In the spring of the year the
sap begins to ascend from the root sometime before the expan-
sion of the buds. As at this time there are no leaves, flowers,
8cc. on which the sap may be expended, the trunk becomes
overcharged with it, and will readily bleed if wounded. After
the leaves are developed, and the growth of the new layer of
wood has commenced, all the sap from the trunk is required to
afford the material for the new growth, and to supply the pro-
digious expenditure by perspiration from the leaves. At this
period no sap flows from incisions in the trunk. In autumn after
a frost has taken place, the functions of the leaves are suddenly
checked, the sap is again restricted to the trunk, the vessels are
again overcharged with fluid, and will bleed agaiu if divided.}
ANn INSENSIBLE PERSPIRATION.
67
some of the secreted juices, which in that plant are ex-
tremely acid and astringent. The sap of the Sugar
Maple, Acer saccharinum, has no taste, though according
to Du Hamel every 2001b. of it will afford 101b. of
sugar. Probably, as he remarks, it is not collected
without an admixture of secreted fluids.
As soon as the leaves expand, insensible perspiration
takes place very copiously, chiefly from those organs,
but also in some degree from the bark of the young stem
or branches. The liquor perspired becomes sensible
to us by being collected from a branch introduced into
any sufficiently capacious glass vessel, and proves, for
the most part, a clear watery liquor like the sap, and
subject to similar chemical changes. It is observed to
be uniform in all plants, or nearly so, as well as the sap,
except where odorous secretions transude along with it.
Still there must be a very essential difference between
the original sap of any plant and its perspiration, the lat-
ter no longer retaining the rudiments of those fine secre-
tions which are elaborated from the former ; but that
difference eludes our senses as well as our chemistry.
The perspiration of some plants is prodigiously great.
The large Annual Sunflower, Helianthus annuus, Ger-
arde Emac. 751. f. 1, according to Dr. Hales, perspires
about 17 times as fast as the ordinary insensible perspi-
ration of the human skin. But of all plants upon record
I think the Cornelian Cherry, Cornus mascula, is most
excessive in this respect. The quantity of fluid which
evaporates from its leaves in the course of 24 hours, is
said to be nearly equal to twice the weight of the whole
shrub. Du Hamel Phys. des Arbres, v. 1. 145.
[ 68 ] •
CHAPTER X.
OF THE SECRETEO FLUIDS OF PLANTS. GRAFTING. HEAT
OF THE VEGETABLE BODY.
The sap in its passage through the leaves and bark
becomes quite a new fluid, possessing the peculiar fla-
vour and qualities of the plant, and not only yielding
woody matter for the increase of the vegetable body, but
furnishing various secreted substances, more or less nu-
merous and different among themselves. These ac-
cordingly are chiefly found in the bark ; and the vessels
containing them often prove upon dissection very large
and conspicuous, as the turpentine-cells of the Fir tribe.
In herbaceous plants, whose stems are only of annual
duration, the perennial roots frequently contain these
fluids in the most perfect state, nor are they, in such,
confined to the bark, but deposited throughout the sub-
stance or wood of the root, as in Rhubarb, Rheum pal-
amatum, Linn. fil. Fasc. t. 4, and Gentian, Gentian
lutea and purpurea, Gerr emac. 482, f. 1, 2. In the
wood of the Fir indeed copious depositions of turpen-
tine are made, and in that of every tree more or less of a
gummy, resinous, or saccharine matter is found. Such
must be formed by branches of those returning vessels
that deposit the new alburnum. These juices appear to
be matured, or brought to greater perfection, in layers
of wood or bark that have no longer any principal share
in the circulation of the sap.
The most distinct secretions of vegetables require to
be enumerated under several different heads.
SECRETED FLUIDS-
6J
Gum or mucilage, a viscid substance of little flavour
or smell, soluble in water, is very general. When su-
perabundant it exudes from many trees in the form of
large drops or lumps, as in Plum, Cherry, and Peach-
trees, and different species of Mimosa or Sensitive plants,
one of which yields the Gum Arabic, others the Gum
Senegal, &c.(6)
Resin is a substance soluble in spirits, and much
more various in different plants than the preceding, as
the Turpentine of the Fir and Juniper, the Red Gum of
New South Wales, produced by one or more species
of Eucalyptus, Bot. of N. Boll. t. 13, and the fragrant
Yellow Gum of the same country, see White's Voyage,
235, which exudes spontaneously from the Xanthorrhcea
Hastxle. Most vegetable exudations partake of a nature
between these two, being partly soluble in water, partly
in spirits, and are therefore called Gum-resins. The
milky juice of the Fig, Spurge, &c, which Dr. Darwin
has shown, and which every body may see, to be quite
distinct from the sap, is, like animal milk, an emulsion,
or combination of a watery fluid with oil or resin. Ac-
cordingly, when suffered to evaporate in the air, such
fluids become resins or gum-resins, as the Gum Eu-
phorbium. In the Celandine, Chelidonium majus, Engl.
(6) [Mucilage is found in great quantities in the root of Al-
thea officinalis, or Marsh Mallow, in the inner bark of Slippery
Elm (Ulmuafulva), in the pith of Sassafras, in the leaves of
different Mallows, Violets, &c. on the seeds of Quinces and
Flax.]
70
RESINOUS SECRETIONS
Bot. t. 1581, and some plants allied to it, the emulsion
is orange-coloured.(7)
The more refined and volatile secretions of a resinous
nature are called Essential Oils, and are often highly
aromatic and odoriferous. One of the most exquisite
of these is afforded by the Cinnamon bark. They exist
in the highest perfection in the perfumed effluvia o^
flowers, some of which, capable of combination, with
spirituous fluids, are obtainable by distillation, as that
of the Lavender and Rose ; while the essential oil of
the Jasmine is best procured by immersing the flowers
in expressed oil which imbibes and retains their fra*
grance. Such Expressed or Gross Oils, as they are
called, to distinguish them from essential oils obtained
by distillation, are chiefly found in the seeds of plants.
In the pulp of the Oiive indeed they occur in the form
of an emulsion, mixed with watery and bitter fluids, from
which the oil easily separates by its superior lightness.
These expressed oils are not soluble in spirits or water,
(7) rThe resinous juice, known in the northern states by the
name of Fir balsam, is a spontaneous exudation from the Pinus
Balsamra, retained in little sacs or vesicles upon the bark.
Turpentine is obtained in great quantities from the North
American Pines, particularly Pinus Palustris, by incisions or
excavations in the trunk. When Turpentine is distilled, the Oil
of Turpentine comes over, and Resin remains behind. Tar is
obtained from the resinous trees by a slow combustion of their
wood.
Wax is a vegetable product. It exists on the surface of
leaves, and probably in the pollen of flowers. It is obtained in
large quantities from the berries of Myrica Ccrifrra, Bayberry
bush, or Wax Myrtle ; by boiling the berries in water until the
■wax melts and floats upon the surface.]
BITTER SECRETION. 71
though by certain intermediate substances they may be
rendered capable of uniting with both.
The Bitter secretion of many plants does not seem
exactly to accord with any of the foregoing. Some
facts would seem to prove it of a resinous nature, but it
is often perfectly soluble in water. Remarkable instan-
ces of this secretion are in the Cinchona officinalis or
Peruvian bark, Lambert Cinchona, t. 1, a"nd every spe-
cies, more or less, of Gentian.(8)
Acid secretions are well known to be very general in
plants. Formerly one uniform vegetable or acetous
acid was supposed common to all plants ; but the refine-
ments of modern chemistry have detected in some a
peculiar kind, as the Oxalic acid, obtained from Oxalis
or Wood Sorrel, and several others. The astringent
principle should seem to be a sort of acid, of which
there are many different forms or kinds, and among
them the tanning principle of the Oak, Willow, &c.(9)
(8) [The Gentiana sa/ionaria and Gentiana Crinita are two
of our most beautiful autumnal plants. The root of the first is
decidedly bitter.
The roots of Goldthread (Helleborus trifolius), of Hydras-
tis Canadensis, and Zanihorhiza Afiiifolia contain the bitter prin-
ciple in great abundance. See Professor Barton's Materia
Medica of the United States."]
(9) [Among the North-American Oaks, most esteemed for
tanning, are the Quercus alba, or White Oak, the Quercus vir-
ens, or Live Oak of the southern states, Quercus tinctoria, or
Black Oak, Quercus falcata, or Spanish Oak, and Quercus firi*
mus monticola, or Rock Chesnut Oak. For the investigation of
this important genus, as well as for their other la&ours, we are
72 ACID AND ALKALINE SECRETIONS.
On the other hand, two kinds of Alkali are furnished
by vegetables, of which the most general is the Vegeta-
ble Alkali, properly so called, known by the name of
Salt of Tartar, or Salt of Wormwood, or more correctly
by the Arabic term Kali. The Fossil Alkali, or Soda,
is most remarkable in certain succulent plants that grow
near the sea, belonging to the genera Chenopodium, Sal-
sola, &c. When these plants are cultivated in a com-
mon soil, they secrete Soda as copiously, provided their
health be good, as in their natural maritime places of
growth.
Sugar, more or less pure, is very generally found in
plants. It is not only the seasoning of most eatable
fruits, but abounds in various roots, as the Carrot, Beet
and Parsnip, and in many plants of the grass or cane
kind besides the famous Sugar Cane Saccharum offici-
narum. There is great reason to suppose Sugar
not so properly an original secretion, as the result of a
chemical change in secretions already formed, either of
an acid or mucilaginous nature, or possibly a mixture
of both. In ripening fruits this change is most striking,
and takes place very speedily, seeming to be greatly
promoted by heat and light. By the action of frost, as
Dr. Darwin observes, a different change is wrought in
the mucilage of the vegetable body, and it becomes
starch.
A fine red liquor is afforded by some plants, as the
Bloody Dock or Rumex sanguineus, Engl. Bot. t. 1533,
the Red Cabbage and Red Beet, which appears only to
deeply indebted to those two distinguished botanists, the elder
and younger Michaux.]
VARIETIES OF SECRETIONS.
mark a variety in all these plants, and not to constitute
a specific difference. It is however perpetuated by seed.
It is curious to observe, not only the various secre-
tions of different plants, or families of plants, by which
they differ from each other in taste, smell, qualities and
medical virtues, but also their great number, and stxik
ing difference, frequently in the same plant. Of this
the Peach-tree offers a familiar example. The gum of
this tree is mild and mucilaginous. The bark, leaves,
and flowers abound with a bitter secretion of a purgative
and rather dangerous quality, than which nothing can be
more distinct from the gum. The fruit is replete, not
only with acid, mucilage and sugar, but with its own-
peculiar aromatic and highly volatile secretion, elabo-
rated within itself, on which its fine flavour depends.
How far are we still from understanding the whole anat-
omy of the vegetable body, which can create and keep
separate such distinct and discordant substances !
Nothing is more astonishing than the secretion of
flinty earth by plants, which, though never suspected till
within a few years, appears to me well ascertained. A
substance is found in the hollow stem of the Bamboo,
(Arundo Bambos of Linnaeus, JVastos of Theophrastos,)
called Tabaxir or Tabasheer, which is supposed in the
East Indies (probably because it is rare and difficult of
acquisition, like the imaginary stone in the head of a
toad) to be endowed with extraordinary virtues. Some
of it, brought to England, underwent a chemical exam-
ination, and proved, as nearly as possible, pure flint.
See Dr. Rusbeii's and Mr. Macie's papers on the sub-
K
;'4
FLINTY SECRETION.
ject in the Phil. Trans, for 1790 and 1791. It is even
found occasionally in the Bamboo cultivated in our hot-
houses. But we need not search exotic plants for flinty
earth. I hive already, in speaking of the Cuticle, chap-
ter 3d, alluded to the discoveiies of Mr. Davy, Professor
of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, on this subject.
That able chemist has detected pure flint in the cuticle
of various plants of the family of Grasses, in the Cane
(a kind of P..lm) md in the R nigh Horsetail, Equisetum
hyemale, Engl. Bot. t. 915. (10) In the latter it is very
copious, and so disposed as to make a natural file, which
renders this plant useful in various manufactures, for
even brass cannot resist its action. Common Wheat
straw, when burnt, is found to contain a portion of flinty
earth in the form of a most exquisite powder, and this
accounts for the utility of burnt straw in giving the last
polish to marble. H >w great is the contrast between
this production, if it be a secretion, of the tender vege-
table frame, and those exhalations which constitute the
perfume of flowers ! O le is among the most permanent
substances in Niture, an ingredient in the primeval
mountains of the globe ; the other the invisible untan-
gible breath of a moment !
The odour of plants is unquestionably of a resinous
nature, a volatile essential oil and several phenomena
attending it well deserve our attentive consideration.
Its general nature is evinced by its ready union with
spirits or oil, not with water ; yet the moisture of the
atmosphere seems, in many instances, powerfully to fa-
(10) [Used in this country under the name of Scouring Rush.]
GBOUR OF PLANTS.
75
vour its diffusion. This I apprehend to arise more from
the favourable action of such moisture upon the health
and vigour of the plant itself, thus occasionally promot-
ing its odorous secretions, than from the fitness of the
atmosphere, so circumstanced, to convey them. Both
causes however may operate. A number of flowers
which have no scent in the course of the day, smell pow-
erfully in an evening, whether the air be moist or dry, or
whether they happen to be exposed to it or not. This
is the property of some which Linnaeus has elegantly
called fores tristes, melancholy flowers, belonging to
various tribes as discordant as possible, agreeing only
in their nocturnal fragrance, which is peculiar, very sim-
ilar and exquisitely delicious in all of them, and in the
pale yellowish, greenish, or brownish tint of their flow-
ers. Among these are Mesembryanthemum noctiforum,
Dill. Elth. t. 206, Pelargonium triste, Cornut.
Canad. 110, and several species akin to it, Hesperis
tristis, Curt. Mag. t. 730, Cheiranthus tristis, t. 729,
Daphne pontica, Andrews's Repos. t. 73, Crassula
odoratissima, t. 26, and many others*. A few more,
greatly resembling these in the green hue of their blos-
soms, exhale, in the evening chiefly, a most powerful
* These flowers afford the Poet a new image, which is in-
troduced into the following imitation of Martial, and offered here
solely for its novelty :
Go mingle Arabia's gums
With the spices all India yields.
Go crop each young flower as it blooms.
Go ransack the gardens and fields.
Let
7d SMELL OF NEW HAY.
lemon-like scent, as Epidendrum ens folium, Sm. Spkil.
t. 24, and Chloranthus inconsp'cuus, Phil. Trun&. for
1787, t. 14, great favourites of the Chinese, who seem
peculiarly fond of this scent. Tiiere art other instances
of odorous and aromatic secretions, similar among them-
selves, produced by very different plants, as Camphor.
The sweet smell of new hay is found not only in An-
thoxanthum odoratum, Engl. Bot. t. 647, and some
other grasses, but in Woodruff or Asperula odorata, t.
755, Melilot or Trifolium officinale, t. 1340, and all
the varieties, by some deemed species, of Orchis
m litaris, t. 16 and t. 1873, plants widely different from
each other in botanical characters, as well as in colour
and every particular except smell. Their odour has
one peculiarity, that it is not at all perceptible while the
plants are growing, nor till they begin to dry. It pro-
ceeds from their whole herbage, and should seem to es-
cape from the orifices of its containing cells, only when
Let Paestum's all-flowery groves
Their roses profusely bestow.
Go catch the light zephyr that roves
Where the wild thyme and marjoram grow.
Let every pale night-scented flower,
S id emblem of passion forlorn,
Resign its appropriate hour,
To enhance the rich breath of the morn.
All that art or that nature can find,
Not half so delightful would prove,
Nor their sweets all together combined,
Half so sweet as the breath of my love
BITIt.Il-ALMOND FLAVOUR.
77
the surrounding vessels, by growing less turgid, with-
draw their pressure from such orifices. When this
scent of new hay is vehement, it becomes the flavour of
bitter almonds. The taste of syrup of capillaire, given
by an infusion of Orange flowers, is found in the her-
bage of Gaultheria procumbens\\\) Andr. Repos. 1.116,
and Spiraea Ulmaria, Engl. Bot. t. 960, two very differ-
ent plants.
Some of the above examples show an evident analogy
between the smell and colours of flowers, nor are they all
that might be pointed out. A variety of the Chrysan-
themum indicum with orange-coloured flowers has been
lately procured from China by Lady Amelia Hume.
These faintly agree in scent, as they do in colour, with
the Wall-flower, Cherianthus Cheiri ; whereas the com-
mon purple variety of the same Chrysanthemum has a
totally different and much stronger odour.
There is, of course, still more analogy between the
smell of .plants in general and their impression on the
palate, insomuch that we are frequently unable to dis-
criminate between the two. The taste is commonly
more permanent than the smell, but now and then less
so. The root of the Arum maculatum, Engl. Bot. t.
1298, for instance, has, when fresh, a most acrid taste
and irritating quality, totally lost by drying, when the
root becomes simply farinaceous,tasteless and inert;(12)
so that well might learned physicians contrive the
(11) [Partridge berry of the United States.]
(12"* [The same properties occur in the Arum trifihyllum, or
Indian Turnip, common throughout the United States.]
r".R
COLOURS OF PLANTS.
u Compound Powder of Arum," to excuse the continu-
ance of its use in medicine, unless they had always pre-
scribed the recent plant.—Many curious remarks are to
be found in Grew relative to the tastes of plants, and
their different modes of affecting our organs. Anatomy
of Plants, p. 279—292.
To all the foregoing secretions of vegetables may be
added those on which their various colours depend.
We can but imperfectly account for the green so uni-
versal in their herbage, but we may gratefully ack-
nowledge the beneficence of the Creator in clothing the
earth with a colour the most pleasing and the least fa-
tiguing to our eyes. We may be dazzled with the
brilliancy of a flower-garden, but we repose at leisure
on the verdure of a grove or meadow. Of all greens
the most delicate and beautiful perhaps is displayed by
several umbelliferous plants under our hedges in the
spring.
Some of Nature's richest tints and most elegant com-
binations of colour are reserved for the petals of flowers,
the most transient of created beings ; and even during
the short existence of the parts they decorate, the co-
lours themselves are often undergoing remarkable varia-
tions. In the pretty little weed called Scorpion-grass,
Myosotis scorpioides, Engl. Bot. t. 480, and several of
its natural order, the flower-buds are of the most deli-
cate rose-colour, which turns to a bright blue as they
open. Many yellow flowers under the influence of
light become white. Numbers of red, purple or blue
ones are liable, from some unknown cause in the plant
to which they belong, to vary to white. Such varieties
COLOURS OF PLANTS.
<9
are sometimes propagated by seed, and are almost inva-
riably permanent if the plants be propagated by roots,
cuttings or grafting. Plants of an acid or astringent
nature often become very red in their foliage by the ac-
tion of light, as in Rumex, Polygonum, Epilobium and
Berber)s ; and it is remarkable that American plants
in general, as well as such European ones as are par-
ticularly related to them, are distinguished for assuming
various rich tints in their foliage of red, yellow, white
or even blue, at the decline of the year, witness the
Guelder-rose, the Cornel, the Vine, the Sumach, the
Azalea pontica, Curt. Mag. t. 433, and others. Fruits
for the most part incline to a red colour, apparently
from the acid they contain. I have been assured by a
first-rate chemist that the colouring principle of the
Raspberry is a fine blue, turned red by the acid in the
fruit. The juices of some Fungi, as Boletus bovmus
and Agaricus deliciosus, Sowerb. Fungi, t. 202, change
almost instantaneously on exposure to the air, from yel-
low to dark blue or green.
These are a few hints only on a subject which opens
a wide field of inquiry, and which, in professedly chem-
ical works, is carried to a greater length than I have
thought necessary in a physiological one. See Thom-
son's Chemistry, v. 4, and Wildenow's Principles of
Botany, 229. We must ever keep in mind, as we ex-
plore it, that our anatomical instruments are not more
inadequate to dissect the organs of a scarcely distin-
guishable insect, than our experiments are to investigate
the fine chemistry of Nature, over which the living prin.
cjple presides.
so
USES OF THE
Before we take leave of the secreted fluids of vegeta-
bles, a few more remarks upon their direct utility to the
plants themselves may not be superfluous. Malpighi
first suggested that these secretions might nourish the
plant, and our latest inquiries confirm the suggestion.
Du Hamel compares them to the blood of animals, and
so does Darwin. But the analogy seems more plain
between the sap, as being nearly uniform in all plants,
and the animal blood, as in that particular they accord,
while the secreted fluids are so very various. Mr.
Knight's theory confirms this analogy, at the same time
that it establishes the opinion of Malpighi. The sap
returning from the leaf, where it has been acted upon by
the air and light, forming new wood, is clearly the cause
of the increase of the vegetable body. But it is not so
clear how the resinous, gummy or other secretions, laid
aside, as it were, in vessels, out of the great line of cir-
culation, can directly minister to the growth of the tree.
I conceive they m ty be in this respect analogous to ani-
mal fat, a reservoir of nourishment whenever its ordina-
ry supplies are interrupted, as in the winter, or in seasons
of great drought, or of unusual cold. In such circum-
stances the mucilaginous or saccharine secretions espe-
cially, perhaps the most general of all, may be absorbed
into the vegetable constitution ; just as fat is into the
animal one, during the existence of any disease that in-
terrupts the ordinary supplies of food, or interferes with
its due appropriation. It is well known that such ani-
mals as sheep through the winter, grow fat in the autumn
and awake very lean in the spring. Perhaps the more
recent layers of wood in a Plum- or Cherrv-tree, if they
SECRETEO FLUIDS. 8X
Could be accurately examined, might be found to con-
tain a greater proportion of mucilage at the end of au-
tumn than in the early spring< If these substances do
not nourish the plant, they seem to be of no use to it,
whatever secondary purposes they may answer in the
schemes of Providence. The direct end, with respect
to the plant, of the finer secreted fluids of its fruit can
very well be perceived, as tempting the appetite of an-
imals, and occasioning, through their means, the disper-
sion of the seeds ; and the perfume of flowers may at-
tract insects, and so promote the fertilization of the seed,
as will be explained hereafter.
After what has been said, we need not waste much
time in considering the hypothesis, advanced by some
philosophers, that the sap-vessels are veins and the re-
turning vessels arteries. This is so far correct, that, as
the chyle prepared by the digestive organs, poured into
the veins and mixed with the blood, is, through the me-
dium of the heart, sent into the lungs to be acted upon
by the air ; so the nutrimental juices of plants, taken up
from the earth, which has been called their stomach, are
carried by the sap-vessels into the leaves, for similar
purposes already mentioned. The improved sap, like
the vivid arterial blood, then proceeds to nourish and
invigorate the whole frame. I very much doubt, how-
ever, if those who suggested the above hypothesis
could have given so satisfactory an explanation of it.
That the secretions of plants are wonderfully constant
appears from the operation of grafting. This consists
in uniting the branches of two or more separate trees, as
H-2 CR\FTING.
Dr. Hope's Willows, see p. 62, and a whole row of
Lime-trees in the garden of New College, Oxford,
whose branches thus make a network. This is called
grafting by approach. A more common practice, called
budding, or inoculating, is to insert a bud of one tree,
accompanied by a portion of its bark, into the bark of
another, and the tree which is thus engrafted upon is
called the stock. By this mode different kinds of fruits,
as apples, pears, plums, &c, each of which is only a
variety accidentally raised from seed, but no further
perpetuated in the same manner, are multiplied, buds
of the kind wanted to be propagated being engrafted on
so many stocks of a wTild nature. - The mechanical part
of this practice is detailed in Du Hamel, Miller, and
most gardening books. It is of primary importance
that the liber, or young bark, of the bud, and that of the
stock, should be accurately united by their edges. The
air and wet must of course be excluded.
It is requisite for the success of this operation that
the plants should be nearly akin. Thus the Chionan-
thus virginica, Fringe-tree, succeeds well on the Com-
mon Ash, Fraxinus excelsior, by which means it is
propagated in our gardens. Varieties of the same spe-
cies succeed best of all ; but Apples and Pears, two dif-
ferent species of the same genus, may be grafted on one
stock. The story of a Bi ick Rose being produced by
grafting a common rose, it is not worth inquiring which,
on a black currant stock, is, as far as I can learn, with-
out any foundation, and is indeed at the first sight absurd.
I have known the experiment tried to no purpose. The
rose vulgarly reported to be so produced is merely a
HEAT OF VEGETABLES.
8,3
dark Double Velvet Rose, a variety, as we presume of
Rosa centifolia. Another report of the same kind has
been raised concerning the Maltese Oranges, whose red
juice has been attributed to their being budded on a
Pomegranate stock, of which I have never been able to
obtain the smallest confirmation.
Heat can scarcely be denominated a secretion, and yet
is undoubtedly a production, of the vegetable as well
as animal body, though in a much lower degree in the
former than the latter. The heat of plants is evinced
by the more speedy melting of snow when in contact
with their leaves or stems, compared with what is lodg-
ed upon dead substances, provided the preceding frost
has been sufficiently permanent to cool those substances
thoroughly. Mr. Hunter appears to have detected this
heat by a thermometer applied in frosty weather to the
internal parts of vegetables newly opened. It is evident
that a certain appropriate portion of heat is a necessary
stimulus to the constitution of every plant, without
which its living principle is destroyed. (13) Most
tropical plants are as effectually killed by a freezing de-
gree of cold, as by a boiling heat, and have nearly the
(13) [The tendency of plants is to preserve an uniform tem-
perature, and to resist both heat and cold. Fruits and leaves,
situated in the sun, preserve themselves cool, while surrounding
objects are heated. Sonnerat discovered in the island of Lucon
a rivulet, the water of which was so hot, that a thermometer im-
mersed in it rose to l7o° Fahr. Swallows when flying seven
feet high over it dropped down motionless. Notwithstanding
the heat, he observed on its banks two species of Asfialathus,
and the Vitex ag-ius castus, which with their roots swept the
water. In the island of Tanna, Messrs. Forsters found the
&4
FORCING OF PLANTS.
same appearance ; which is exemplified every autumn
in the Garden Nasturtium, Tropceolum majus. The
vegetables of cold climates, on the contrary, support a
much greater degree of cold without injury, at least
while in a torpid state ; for when their buds begin to
expand they become vastly more sensible, as is but too
frequently experienced in the fickle spring of our
climate. Nor is this owing, as vulgarly supposed,
• merely to the greater power of the cold to penetrate
through their opening buds. It must penetrate equally
through them in the course of long and severe winter
frosts, which are never known to injure them. The
extremely pernicious effects therefore of cold on open-
, ing buds can only be attributed to the increased suscep-
tibility of the vital principle, after it has been revived by
the warmth of spring.
The vegetation of most plants may be accelerated by
artificial heat, which is called forcing them, and others
may, by the same means, be kept in tolerable health,
ground near a volcano as hot as 210°, and at the same time cov-
ered with flowers. See Willdenow's Principles of Botany.
In a similar manner the plants of high latitudes are capable of
withstanding intense and long continued cold. Acerbi, in his
travels in Sweden and Lapland, found Pines, Firs, and Birches
from Tornea almost to the North Cape. Mackenzie, in latitude
about 69, near the Frozen ocean, found the ground in July cover-
ed with short grass and flowers, though the earth was not thaw-
ed above four inches from the surface, beneath which was a solid
body of ice. In the island of Spitzbergen, there grow not less
than thirty species of plants. In these climates, vegetation is
exceedingly rapid during the few months which permit it-]
HEAT OF THE ARUM.
85
under a colder sky than is natural to them. But many
alpine plants, naturally buried for months under a deep
snow, are not only extremely impatient of sharp frosts,
but will not bear the least portion of artificial heat. The
pretty Primula marginata, Curt. Mag. t. 191, if
brought into a room with a fire when beginning to blos-
som, never opens another bud \ while the American
Cowslip, Dodecatheon Meadia, t. 12, one of the most
hardy of plants with respect to cold, bears forcing ad-
mirably well.
Mr. Knight very satisfactorily shows, Phil. Tfians.
for 1801, 343, that plants acquire habits with regard to
heat which prove their vitality, and that a forced Peach-
tree will in the following season expand its buds pre-
maturely in the open air, so as to expose them to inev-
itable destruction. See p. 65. A thousand parallel
instances may be observed, by the sagacious gardener,
of plants retaining the habits of their native climates,
which very often proves one of the greatest impediments
to their successful cultivation.
The most remarkable account that has fallen in my
way concerning the production of heat in plants, is that
given by Lamarck in his Flore Frangoise, v. 3. 538, of
the common Arum maculatum, Engl. Bot. t. 1298,
(the white-veined variety,) the flower of which, at a cer-
tain period of its growth, he asserts to be, for a few hours,
" so hot as to seem burning." The learned M. Sene-
bier of Geneva, examining into this fact, discovered
that the heat began when the sheath was about to open,
and the cylindrical body within just peeping forth : and
that it was perceptible from about three or four o'clock
*6 HEAT OF THE ARUM.
in the afternoon till eleven or twelve at night. Its great-
est degree was seven of Reaumur's scale above the heat
of the air, which at the time of his observation was about
fourteen or fifteen of that thermometer. Such is the ac-
count with which I have been favoured by Dr. Bostock
of Liverpool, from a letter of M. Stnebiei *, dated Nov.
28, 1796, to M. De la Rive. I have not hitherto been
successful in observing the phenomenon in question,
which however is well vvor h\ of attention, and may
probably not be confined to this species of Arum.
• It is now published in his Physiologie Vegetate, v. 3. 314,
where nevertheless this ingenious philosopher has declared his
opmion to be rather against the existence of a spontaneous heat
in vegek-bies, and he explains even the above striking phenom-
enon upon chemical principles, which seem to me very inadequate.
I «7 J
CHAPTER XT.
THE PUOCESS OF VEGETATION. USE OF THE COTYLEDONS.
When a seed is committed to the ground, it swells by
the moisture which its vessels soon absorb, and which,
in conjunction with some degree of heat, stimulates its
vital principle. Atmospherical air is also necessary to
incipient vegetation, for seeds in general will not grow
under water, except those of aquatic plants, nor under
an exhausted receiver; and modern chemists have de-
termined oxygen gas, which is always an ingredient in
our atmosphere, to be absorbed by seeds in vegetation.
An experiment is recorded in the Philosophical Trans-
actions, No. 23, of sowing Lettuce-seed in two separ-
ate pots, one of which was placed in the common air,
the other in the vacuum of an air-pump. In the form-
er the young plants rose to the height of two inches, or
more, in a week's time ; in the other none appeared,
till after the pot had been removed for a similar period
into the air again. Seeds buried in the ground to a
greater depth than is natural to them do not vegetate,
but they often retain their power of vegetation for an
unlimited period. Earth taken from a considerable
depth will, when exposed to the air, be soon covered
with young plants, especially of Thistles, or of the Cress
or Mustard kind, though no seeds have been allowed
to have access to it. If the ground in old established
botanic gardens be dug much deeper than ordinary, it
frequently happens that species which have been long
88
PROCESS OF VEGETABLES.
lost are recovered, from their seeds being latent in the
soil, as I have been assured by Mr. Fairbairn of Chelsea
garden, and others.( 14)
The integuments of the seed, having fulfilled their
destined office of protection, burst and decay. The
young root is the first part of the infant plant that comes
forth, and by an unerring law of Nature, it is sent down-
wards, to seek out nourishment as well as to fix the plant
to the ground. In sea-weeds, Fuci, Ulvae, and Confer-
va, it seems merely to answer the latter purpose. In
the Dodder, Cuscuta, a parasitical plant, the original
root lasts only till the stems have established themselves
on some vegetable, on whose juices they feed by means
of other roots or fibres, and then withers away.
The descent of the root, and the ascent of the leaf-bud
in a contrary direction, are ingeniously explained by Dr.
Darwin, Phytologia, Sect. 9. 3, on the principle of the
former being stimulated by moisture, and the latter by
air, whence each elongates itself where it is most exci-
ted. This is perhaps more satisfactory than any me-
chanical hypothesis. In whatever position seeds happen
to lie in the earth, the root makes more or less of a
curve in order to shoot downwards. Mr. Hunter sowed
a number of seeds in a basket of earth placed on an axis,
by which their position was a little altered every day.
After the basket had thus made two or three circumvol-
utions, the young roots were found to have formed as
many turns in attempting to attain their natural perpen-
(14) [Exotic plants are often found growing where the ballast
•f vessels has been thrown, and their seeds exposed to the air.~]
PROCESS OF VEGETABLES.
89
dicular direction. Mr. Knight has ascertained, Phil.
Trans, for 1806, that a strong centrifugal force applied
to vegetating seeds will considerably divert the root from
this direction outwards, while the stem seems to have a
centripetal inclination.(15)
The young root, if it grew in a soil which afforded no
inequality of resistance, would probably in every case be
perfectly straight, like the radical fibres of bulbous roots
in water ; but as scarcely any soil is so perfectly homo-
geneous, the root acquires an uneven or zigzag figure.
It is elongated chiefly at its extremity*, and has always,
at that part especially, more or less of a conical or taper-
ing figure.
When the young root has made some progress, the
two lobes, commonly of a hemispherical figure, which
compose the chief bulk of the seed, swell and expand,
and are raised out of the ground by the ascending stem.
(15) [In this experiment a number of seeds of the Garden
Bean were confined on the surface of a vertical wheel, which
was made to revolve rapidly by a stream of water that like-
wise moistened the seeds. When germination took place, the
radicles tended uniformly toward the circumference and the
plumules towards the centre. When the wheel was placed hor-
izontally, the radicles and plumules pursued an oblique direc-
tion, intermediate between that of the centrifugal and gravitating
forces. Mr. Knight accounts mechanically for the direction of
the young plant, upon the principle of gravitation, the radicle
being elongated by parts successively added to its apex or point,
the plumule by the extension of parts already formed.]
* As may be seen by marking the fibres of Hyacinth roots in
water, or the roots of Peas made to vegetate in wet cotton wosl.
M
90
OF THE COTYLEnONS.
These are called the Cotyledons, f 4. Between them
is seated the Embryo or germ of the plant, called by
Linnaeus Corculum or little heart, in allusion to the heart
of the walnut. Mr. Knight denominates it the germen,
but that term is appropriated to a very different part,
the rudiment of the fruit. The expanding Embryo, re-
sembling a little feather, has been for that reason named
by Linnaeus Plumula ; it soon becomes a tuft of young
leaves, with which the young stem, if theie be any, as-
cends. Till the leaves unfold, and sometimes after, the
cotyledons, assuming their green colo ir, perform their
functions ; then the latter generally wither. This may
be seen in the Radish, Lupine, Garden Bean, and vari-
ous umbelliferous plants, in all which the expanded coty-
ledons are remarkably different from the true leaves.
Such is the general course of vegetation in plants fur-
nished with two coty ledons, or dicotyledones ; but I
have already mentioned a very distinct tribe called mo-
nocotyledones ; see p. 60. These are the Grass and
Corn tribe, Palms, the ! eautiful Orchis family, and
many others. In these the body of the seed does not
ascend out of the ground, and they are rather to be con-
sidered as having no cotyledon at all. See Mr. Salis-
bury's paper in the Transactions of the Linnean Socie-
ty, v. 7, on the germination of the Orchis tribe. We
reserve more particular remarks on this subject till we
examine the structure of seeds.
Some plants are reckoned by Linnaeus to have many
cotyledons, as the Fir and Cypress. But the germina-
tion of these differs in no respect from that of the gene-
rality of dicotyledones. Mr. Lambert, in his splendid
OF THE COTYLEDONS. 91
history of the genus Pinus, has illustrated this peculiarity
of structure in the Swiss P. Cembra ; see our tab. 1,
fig. 2. In the Dombeya, or Norfolk Island Pine, the co-
tyledons are very dictinctly four : stefig. 3.
The preservation of the vital principle in seeds is
one of those wonders of Nature which pass unregarded,
from being every day under our notice. Some lose
their vegetative power by being kept out of the ground
ever so little a while after they are ripe, and in order to
succeed must sow themselves in their own way, and at
their own time. Others may be sent round the world
through every vicissitude of climate, or buried for ages
deep in the ground, till favourable circumstances cause
them to vegetate. Great degrees of heat, short of boil-
ing, do not impair the vegetative power of seeds, nor do
we know any degree of cold that has such an effect.
Those who convey seeds from distant countries, should
be instructed to keep them dry ; for if they receive any
damp sufficient to cause an attempt at vegetation, they
necessarily die, because the process cannot, as they are
situated, go on. If, therefore, they are not exposed to
so great an artificial heat as might change the nature of
their oily juices, they can scarcely, according to the ex-
perience of Mr. Salisbury, be kept in too warm a place.
By the preservation of many seeds so long under ground,
it seems that long-continued moisture is not in itself fatal
to their living powers ; neither does it cause their pre-
mature germination, unless accompanied by some action
of the air,
ft is usual with gardeners to keep Melon and Cucum-
' ber seeds for a few years, in order that the future plants
92 OF THE COTYLEDONS.
may grow less luxuriantly, and be more abundant in
blossoms and fruit. Dr. Darwin accounts for this from
the damage which the cotyledons may receive from
keeping, by which their power of nourishing the infant
plant, at its first germination, is lessened, and it be-
comes stunted and dwarfish through its whole duration.
Dr. Thomson of Edinburgh, in his System of Chem-
istry, vol. 4, 374, has published a very satisfactory ex-
planation of one part of the functions of the cotyledons.
Several philosophers have discovered that very soon after
the seed begins to imbibe moisture, it gives out a quan-
tity of carbonic acid gas, even though no oxygen gas be
present. In this case the process stops here, and no
germination takes place. But if oxygen gas be present,
it is gradually absorbed in the same proportion. At the
same time the farina of the cotyledons becomes sweet,
being converted into sugar. u Hence it is evident,"
says this intelligent writer, " that the farina is changed
into sugar, by diminishing its carbon, and of course by
augmenting the proportion of its hydrogen and oxygen.*
This is precisely the process of malting, during which it
is well known that there is a considerable heat evolved.
We may conclude from this, that during the germina-
tion of seeds in the earth, there is also an evolution of
a considerable portion of heat. This indeed might
have been expected, as it usually happens when oxygen
gas is absorbed. So far seems to be the work of che-
mistry alone ; at least we have no right to conclude that
* This is also the opinion of M. de Saussure, Recherchen
Phimiquea sur la Vegetation, p. 16.
OF THE COTYLEDONS.
93
any other agent interferes ; since hay, when it happens
to imbibe moisture, exhibits nearly the same proces-
ses."
I conceive the evolution of this heat may powerfully
further the progress of vegetation by stimulating the vi-
tal principle of the embryo, till its leaves unfold and as-
sume their functions. It is necessary to observe, that
the above process equally takes place, whether the farin-
aceous particles be lodged in the bulk of the cotyledons
themselves, or compose a separate body, called by au-
thors the albumen, as in grasses and corn;
[ 54 ]
CHAPTER XT.
OF THE ROOT, AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS,
We begin the description of the completely formed
vegetable by its Root, as being the basis of all the rest,
as well as the first part produced from the seed. Its
Use in general is two-fold ; to fix the plant to a com-
modious situation, and to derive nourishment for its
support. This part is therefore commonly plunged
deeply into the ground, having, as we have already
shown, a natural tendency to grow downwards. In
some cases however, when plants grow on the stems or
branches of others, as the Dodder or Cuscuta, several
Ferns, and a portion of the Orchis tribe, the root is
closely attached to the bark, from which it draws nour-
ishment, by the under side only, the upper being bare.
The Root consists of two parts, Caudex the body of
the Root, and Radicula the fibre. The latter only is es-
sential, being the part which imbibes nourishment.
Roots are either of annual, biennial or perennial dura-
tion. The first belong to plants which live only one
year, or rather one summer, as'Barley ; the second to
such as are produced one season, and, living through
the ensuing winter, produce flowers and fruit the follow-
ing summer, as Wheat ; and the third to those which
live and blossom through many succeeding seasons to an
indefinite period, as trees, and many herbaceous plants.
The term biennial is applied to any plant that is produ-
ced one year and flowers another, provided it flowers
«F THE ROOT.
55
feut once, whether that event takes place the second
year, as usual, or whether, from unfavoui able circum-
stances, it may happen to be deferred to any future
time. This is often the case with the Lavatera aborea,
Tree Mallow, Engl. Bot. t. 1841, and some other
plants, especially when growing out of their natural soil
or station. Linnaeus justly observes that however har-
dy with respect to cold such plants may prove before
they blossom, they perish at the first approach of the
succeeding winter, nor can any artificial heat preserve
them. This is, no doubt, to be attributed to the ex-
haustion of their vital energy by flowering. Several
plants of hot climates, naturally perennial and even
shrubby, become annual in our gardens, as the Tropao-
lum, Garden Nasturtium.
In the Turnip, and sometimes the Carrot, Parsnep,
&c, the Caudcx or body of the root is above-ground
and bare, becoming as it were a stem. Linnaeus indeed
calls the stems of trees " roots above-ground ;" but
this seems paradoxical and scarcely correct. Perhaps it
would be more ace.irate to say the caudex is a subter-
raneous stem ; but we rather presume it has functions
distinct from the stem, analogous, as has been hinted p.
75, to digestion, at least in those plants whose stems are
annual though their roots are perennial.
The fibres of the root, particularly those extremities of
them which imbibe nourishment from the earth, are in
every case strictly annual. During the winter, or torpid
season of the year, the powers of roots lie dormant,
which season therefore is proper for their transplanta-
tion. After they have begun to throw out new fibres..
96
OF THE ROOT,
it is more or less dangerous, or even fatal, to remove
them. Very young annual plants, as they form new
fibres with great facility, survive transplantation tolera-
bly well, provided they receive abundant supplies of wa-
ter by the leaves till the root has recovered itself.
Botanists distinguish several different kinds of roots,
which are necessary to be known, not only for botanical
purposes, but as being of great importance in agricul-
ture and gardening. The generality of roots may be
arranged under the following heads.
1. Radix fibrosa, fig. 5. A Fibrous Root. The most
simple in its nature of all, consisting only of fibres,
either branched or undivided, which convey nourish-
ment direcdy to the basis of.the stem or leaves.
Many grasses, as Poa annua, Engl. Bot. t. 1141, and
the greater part of annual herbs, have this kind of root.
The radical fibres of grasses that grow in loose sand
are remarkably downy, possibly for the purpose of
fixing them more securely to so slippery a support, or
to multiply the surface or points of absorption in so
meagre a source of nutriment. The fibres of some
parasitical plants already alluded to, particularly of
the beautiful genus Epidendrum, are peculiarly thick
and fleshy, not only for the purpose of imbibing the
more nourishment, but also to bind them so strongly
to the branches of trees, as to defy the force of winds
upon their large and rigid leaves.
2. Radix repens, f 6. A Creeping Root, as in Mint,
Mentha. A kind of subterraneous stem, creeping,
AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS. 97
and branching off horizontally, and throwing out
fibres as it goes. This kind of root is extremely te-
nacious of life, for any portion of it will grow. Hence
weeds furnished with it are among the most trouble-
some, as the different sorts of Couch-grass, Triticum
repens, Engl. Bot. t. 909, Hblcus mollis, t. 1170, &c;
while, on the other hand, many sea-side grasses, hav-
ing such a root, prove of the most important service
in binding down loose blowing sand, and so resisting
the encroachments of the ocean. These are princi-
pally Carex arenaria, Engl. Bot. t. 928, Arundo are-
naria, t. 520, and Elymus arenarius, t. 1672.
3. Radix fusiformis, f. 7. A Spindle-shaped or Ta-
pering Root. Of this the Carrot, Parsnep and Rad-
ish are familiar examples. Such a root is formed, on
the principle of a wedge, for penetrating perpendicu-
larly into the ground. It is common in biennial
plants, but not peculiar to them. The caudex, which
is the spindle shaped part, abounds with the proper
secreted juices of the plant, and throws out numerous
fibres or radicles, which are in fact the real roots, as
they alone imbibe nourishment.
4. Radix pr. 84.
Scandens, climbing ; either with spiral tendrils for its
support, as the Vine, Vit'/s, the various species of
Passion-flower, Passifora, casrulea, Curt. Mag. t. 28
alata, t. 66, &.c. and Bryonia dioica, Red-berried Bry-
ony, Engl. Bot. t. 439 ; or by adhesive fibres, as in
the preceding parapraph.
Volubilis, twining round other plants by its own spiral
form, either from left to right, / 20, supposing the
observer in the centre, (or in other words, according
to the apparent motion of the sun,) as the Black Bry-
ony, Tamus communis, Engl. Bot. t. 91, the Honey-
suckles, Lonicera Caprifolium, t. 799, and Pericly*
menum, t, 800, and Polygolum Convolvulus, (23) t.
941 ; or from right to left,/ 21, contrary to the sun,
as the Great Bindweed, Convolvulussepium,(24) t. 313,
the French Bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, Ger. em. 1212,
fig. 1, &c.—Figures of plants being sometimes re-
versed by the engraver, in that case give a wrong rep-
resentation of the circumstance in question, witness
Lonicera Periclymenum in Curtis's Flora Londinen-
sis, fasc. 1. t. 15, and many instances might be
pointed out of its not being attended to at all.
Flagelliformis, long and pliant, like the Common Jas-
mine, Jasminum officinale, Curt. Mag. t. 31, or
Blue Box-thorn, Lycium barbarum.
(23) [Native.] (24) [Native.l
Iu3
OF THK DIFFERENT
Sarmentosus, trailing. A creeping stem, barren of
flowers, thrown out from the root for the purpose of
increase, is called sarmentum or flagellum, a runner,
/ 22, as in the Strawberry, Fragaria vesca, Engl.
Bot. t. 1524. When leafy it is generally denomin-
ated stolo, a sucker or scyon, as in Bugle, Ajuga rep-
tans, t. 489, and Viola odorata, the Sweet Violet, t.
619. When the stolo has taken root, it sometimes
flowers the first year, see Curt. Lond. fasc. 1. t. 63,
but generally not till the following season.
Rectus, straight, as in Lilium, the different species of
garden Lily.
Strictus, expreses only a more absolute degree of
straightness.
Laxus or Diffusus, loosely spreading, has a contrary
meaning, as in Bunias Cakile, Sea Rocket, Engl.
Bot. t. 231, and Sedum acre, Biting Stone-crop, t,
839,
Flexuosus, zigzag, forming angles alternately from right
to left and from left to right, as in Smilax aspera,
Ger. em. 859, and many of that genus, also Statice
reticulata, Matted Sea Lavender, Engl. Bot. t. 328.
In a less degree it is not unfrequent. See Atriplex
pedunculata, t. 232.
Alterne ramosus, alternately branched, as Polygonum
minus, t. 1043, Dianthus deltoides, t. 61, &c.
Distwhus, two-tanked, when the branches spread in two
horizontal directions, as in the Silver Fir, Pinuspicea,
Duhamel, Arb. v. 1. t. 1. (25)
(25) [Also in the Hemlock tree, Pinus Canadensis.']
KINDS OF STEMS.
109
Brachiatus, brachiate, or four-ranked, when they spread
in four directions, crossing each other alternately in
pairs ; a very common mode of growth in shrubs that
have opposite leaves, as the Common Lilac, Syringa
vulgaris.
Ramosissimus, much branched, is applied to a stem re-
peatedly subdivided into a great many branches with-
out order, as that of an Apple- or Pear-tree, or Goose-
berrybush.
Prolifer, proliferous, shooting out new branches from
the summits of the former ones*, as in the Scotch
Fir, Pinus sylvestris, Lambert1 s Pinus, t. 1. and Ly-
copodium annotinum, Engl. Bot. t. 1727. This is
obsolete, and seldom used.
Determinate ramosus, f 23, abruptly branched, when
each branch, after terminating in flowers, produces a
number of fresh shoots in a circular order from just
below the origin of those flowers. This term occurs
frequently in the later publications of Linnaeus, par-
ticularly the second Mantissa, but I know not that he
has any where explained its meaning. It is exempli-
fied in Azalea nudiflora, (26) Curt. Mag. t. 180, Erica
Tetralix, Engl. Bot. t. 1014, many Cape Heaths,
and other shrubs of the same Natural Order. (27)
* Linn. Phil. Bot. sect. 82. 28.
(26) [Native.]
(27) \Verticillatus, a verticillate stem gives off its branches at
regular intervals in whorls, like rays from a centre, as in the
White Pine, Pinus strobus.
Divaricatus, a divaricate stem, sends its branches obliquely
downward, so as to form an obtuse angle with the stem above,
and an acute angle below.]
HO
OF THE DIFFEREN I
Articulatus, jointed, as in Samphire, Salicornia annua,
Engl. Bot. t. 415, and more remarkably in the In-
dian Figs, Cactus Tuna, &c.
In shape the stem is
Teres, / 32, round, as in Trollius europxus, Engl. Bot.
t. 28, and Hydrangea Hortensis, S?n. Ic. Pict. t. 12.
Anceps, two-edged, as Sisyrinchium striatum, Sm. Ic.
Pict. t. 9. S. gramineum, (28) Curt. Mag. t. 464,
and some of the genus Lathyrus.
Trigonus, or Triangularis, triangular or three-edged, as
Cactus triangularis, Plukenet, t. 29. / 3.
Triqueter, three-sided, is applied to a stem with 3 flat
sides.
Tetragonus, or Quadrangularist square, as Lamium al-
bum, White Dead-nettle, Engl. Bot. t. 768, and a
multitnde of other plants.
Pentagonus, or Quinquangularis, fivesided, as Aspara-
gus horridus, Cavanilles Ic. t. 136, where however
the character is not well expressed.
When the number of angles is either variable, or
more than five, it is usual merely to describe the stem
as angulosus, angular, except where the precise num-
ber makes a specific difference, as in the genus Cac-
tus.
Alatus, / 36, winged, when the angles are extended
into flat leafy borders, as Passiflora alata, Curt. Mag.
t. 66, Lathyrus latifolius, Engl. Bot. r\*1108, and
many others of the Pea kind, besides several Thistles,
(28) f Niuivc.]
KINDS OE STEMS.
Ill
as Carduus acanthoides, t. 073, palustris, t. 974, and
Centaurea solstitialis, t. 243.(29)
The Surface of the Stem is
Glaber, smooth, opposed to all kinds of hairiness or
pubescence, as in Petty Spurge, Euphorbia Peplus,
Engl. Bot. t. 959, and numerous plants besides.
Lcevis, smooth and even, opposed to all roughness and
inequality whatever, as in the last example, and also
Euonymus europceus, t. 362.
JVitidus, polished, smooth and shining, as Chcerophyllum
sylvestre, t. 752.
Viscidus, viscid, covered with a clammy juice, as Lych-
nis Viscaria, t. 788.
Verrucosus, warty, like Euonymus verrucosus, Jacq. Fl.
Austriaca, t. 49, and Malpighia volubilis, Curt. Mag.
t. 809.
Papilbsus, papillose, covered with soft tubercles, as the
Ice plant, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. Dill.
Elth. t. 180.
Scaber, rough to the touch from any little rigid inequal-
ities, opposed to lcevis, as Caucalis Anthriscus, Engl.
Bot. t. 987, Centaurea nigra, t. 278, and Stellaria
Iwlostea, t. 511.
Hispidus, bristly, as Borage, Borago officinalis, t. 36,
and Chara hispida, t. 463.
Hirtus, or Pilosus, hairy, as Salvia pratensis, t. 153, and
Cerastium alpinum, t. 472.
(29) [Also the Spear Thistle, Carduus ovCnicus lanceolatus, and
Cotton Thistle, Ono/iordon Aca7ithium.~\
112 OF THE SURFACE OF THE STEM.
Tomentosus, downy, as Geranium rotundifolium, t. 157,
very soft to the touch.
Villosus, shaggy, as Cineraria integrifolia, t. 152.
Lanatus, woolly, as Verbascum pulverulentum, t. 487,
V. Thapsus, (30) t. 549, and Santolina maritima, t.
141.
Incanus, hoary, as Wormwood, Artemisia Absinthium, t.
1230, and Atriplex portulacoides, t. 261, in the for-
mer case from close silky hairs, in the latter from a
kind of scaly mealiness.
Glaucus, clothed with fine sea-green mealiness which
easily rubs off, as Chlora perfoliata, t. 60, and Pul-
monaria maritima, t. 368.(31)
Striatus, striated, marked with fine parallel lines, as
Oenanthe fistulosa, t. 363.
Sulcatus, furrowed, with deeper lines, as Smyrnium
Olusatrum, t. 230.
Maculatus, spotted, as Hemlock, Conium maculatum, t.
1191. (32)
The spines and prickles of the stem will be explained
hereafter.
Internally the stem is either solidus, solid, as that of
Inula crithmoides, t. 68, and numerous others ; or ca-
vus, hollow, as in Cineraria palustris, t. 151, as well as
Hemlock, and many umbelliferous plants besides. (33)
(30) [Common Mullein.]
(31) [Likewise Rubus occidentalis, the common Black
Raspberry.]
(32) [Native.] .
(33) [Some botanists use the terms solidus, solid; iwenw,pithy*
and fstulosus, fistulous or hollow.]
OF STEMS.
Hi
Plants destitute of a stem are called acaules, stemless,
as JVeottia acaulis, Exot. Bot. t. 105, and Carduus
acaulis, Engl. Bot. t. 161. Such plants, when they be-
long to a genus or family generally furnished with
stems, as in these instances and Carlina acaulis, Camer.
Epit. 428, are liable from occasional luxuriance to ac-
quire some degree of stem, but seldom otherwise. Pin-
guicula, Engl. Bot. t. 70 and 145, is a genus invariably
stemless, while Primula, t. 4, 5, 6 and 513, is much less
truly so. The term acaulis however must never be too
rigidly understood, for logical precision is rarely appli-
cable to natural productions.
Caulis fasciculatus, a clustered stem, is a disease or
accident, in which several branches or stems are
united longitudinally into a flat broad figure,
crowded with leaves or flowers at the extremity.
It occurs in the Ash, several species of Daphne,
Ranunculus, Antirrhinum, &c. In a kind oiPisum,
called the Top-knot Pea, it is a permanent variety
propagated by seed.
2. Culmus. A Straw or Culm, is the peculiar Stem
of the Grasses, Rushes, and plants nearly allied to
them. It bears both leaves and flowers, and its na-
ture is more easily understood than defined. Many
botanists have thought this term superfluous.
The Culm is occasionally
Enodis, without joints, as in our common Rushes,
Juncus conglomerates, Engl. Bot. t. 835, and effiu-
sus, t. 836 ; (34)
(34) [Bulrush in the New England states. This name is al-
so applied to Scirfius lacustris, a much larger plant.]
V
114
OF THE STALK.
Articulatus, jointed, as in Agrostis alba, t. 1189, Aira
canescens, t. 1190, Avena strigosa, t. 1266, and
most other grasses ;
Geniculatus, bent like the knee, as Alopecurus genicu-
lars, t. 1250.
It is either solid or hollow, round or triangular,
rough or smooth, sometimes hairy or downy, scarcely
woolly. I know of no instance of sueh a scaly culm as
Linnaeus has figured in his Philosophia Botanica, t. 4.f
111, nor can I conceive what he had in view.
3. Scapus. A Stalk, springs from the Root, and
bears the flowers and fruit, but not the leaves. Pri-
mula vulgaris, the Primrose, Engl. Bot. t. 4, and P.
veris, the Cowslip, t. 5, are examples of it. In the
former the stalk is simple and single-flowered; in the
latter subdivided and many flowered. It is either
naked, as in A"arcissus, Engl. Bot. t. 17, or scaty, as
in Tussilago Farfara, t. 429. In others of this last
genus, t. 430 and 431, the scales become leafy, and
render the Scapus a proper Caulis.(35)
The Stalk is spiral in Cyclamen, Engl. Bot. t. 548»
and Valisneria spiralis, a wonderful plant, whose history
will be detailed hereafter.
Linnaeus believed* that a plantcould not be increased
by its Scapus, which in general is correct, but we have
(35) [Plants furnished with the stalk, or, as it is more fre-
quently rendered, scafie ; come under the head of Acaules, or
stemless plants, p. 112. Thus the Daffodil, Dandelion, and many
of the Violets are stemless plants.]
' MSS. in Phil. Bot. 40.
OF THE FLOWER-STALK. 115
already recorded an exception, p. 101, in Lachenalia tri-
color. The same great author has observed* that " a
Scapus is only a species of Pedunculus." The term
might therefore be spared, were it not found very com-
modious in constructing neat specific definitions of
plants. If abolished, Pedunculus radicalis, a radical
flower-stalk, should be substituted in its room.
4. Pendunculus, the Flower-stalk, springs from the
stem, and bears the flowers and fruit, not the leaves.
Pedicellus, a partial flower-stalk, is the ultimate subdi-
vision of a general one, as in the Cowslip, and Sax-
ifraga umbrosa, Engl. Bot. t. 663.
The Flower-stalk is
Caulinus, cauline, when it grows immediately out of
the main stem, especially of a tree, as in Averrhoa
Billimbi, Rumph Amboin, v. 1. t. 36, the Indian
substitute for our green gooseberries.
Rameus, growing out of a main branch, as in Averr-
hoa Carambola, ibid. t. 35, and Eugenia hialaccen-
sis, Exot. Bot. t. 61.
Axillaris, axillary, growing either from the bosom of
a leaf, that is, between it and the stem, as Anchusa
sempervirens, Engl. Bot. t. 45, and Campanula
Trachelium, t. 12 ; or between a branch and the
stem, as Ruppia maritima, t. 136.(36)
Oppositifolius, opposite to a leaf, as Geranium pyreniac-
um, t. 405, G. molle, t. 778, and Sium angustifolium,
t. 139.
* MSS. in Phil. Bot. 40.
(36) [Native.]
116
OF THE FLOWER-STALK.
Internodis, proceeding from the intermediate part of a
branch between two leaves, as in Ehretia internodis,
L^Heritier Stirp. t. 24, Solanum carolinense, Dill.
Hort. Elth. t. 259, and indicum, t. 260 ; but this
mode of insertion is rare.
Gemmaceus, growing out of a leaf-bud, as the Barber-
ry, Berberis vulgaris, Engl. Bot. t. 49.(37)
Terminalis, terminal, when it terminates a stem or
branch, as Tuhpa sylvestris, t 63, and Centaurea Sca-
biosa, t. 56.
Lateralis, lateral, when situated on the side of a stem
or branch, as Erica vagans, t. 3.
Solitarius, solitary, either single on a plant, as in Rubus
Chamcemorus, t. 716, or only one in the same place,
as in Antirrhinum spurium, t. 691, and many com-
mon plants.
Aggregati Pedunculi, clustered flower-stalks, when sev-
eral grow together, as in Verbascum nigrum, t. 59.
Sparsi, scattered, dispersed irregularly over the plant
or branches, as Linum perenne, t. 40, and Ranuncu-
lus sceleratus, t. 681.(38)
l/niflori, biflori, triflori, &c. bearing one, two, three, or
more flowers, of which examples are needless.
Multifori, many-flowered, as Daphne Laureola, t. 119.
When there is no Flower-stalk, the flowers are said
to be Sessiles, sessile, as in Centaurea Calcitrapa,
t. 125, and the Dodders, t. 55 and 378.
The subject of inflorescence, or particular modes of
flowering, will be explained in a future chapter.
(37) [Native.] (38) [Native.]
OF THE FLOWER-STALK.
117
;>. Petiolus. The Footstalk, or Leafstalk. This
term is applied exclusively to the stalk of a leaf, which
is either simple, as in Ranunculus parviflorus, Engl.
Bot. t. 120, Slum angustifolium, t. 139, and all sim-
ple leaves ; or compound, as Coriandrum sativum, t.
67, and Fumaria claviculata, t. 103. In the latter
the footstalks end in tendrils, and are called Petioli
cirriferi.(39)
This part is commonly channelled on the upper side.
Sometimes it is greatly dilated and concave at the base,
as in Angelica sylvestris, t. 1128.
The Footstalk bears the Flower-stalk in Turnera
ulmifolia, Linn. Hort. Cliff, t. 10. Menyanthes indica,
Curt. Mag. t. 658, and perhaps Epimedium alpinum,
Engl. Bot. t. 438.
6. Frons. A frond. In this the stem, leaf and
fructification are united, or, in other words, the flow-
ers and fruit are produced from the leaf itself, as
in the Fern tribe, Scolopendrium vulgare, Engl. Bot.
t. 1150, Polypodium vulgare, t. 1149, Aspidium, t.
(39) [The Petiole or leaf stalk may be
Teres, round, as in the common Hollyhock.
Semiteres, half round, as in the yellow Water Lily, Xym-
fih&a advena.
Comfiressus, flattened, as in the Lombardy Poplar, Populus
dilatata, also P. grandidentata, and others.
Alatus, winged, or furnished on each side with a leafy appen-
dage, as in the Orange tree, also in Rhus Cojiallinum, called
Copal, Dwarf, or White Sumach.
Cirrhifer, bearing tendrils, as in the Fumaria above, and the
common Pea.
Scandens, climbing, performing the office of a tendril, as in the
C7'J /'.' a lis Virginiana.~\
118
OF THE FROND.
1458—1461, Osmunda regalis, t. 209, &c.(40) It
is also applied to the Lichin tribe, and others, in which
the whole plant is either a crustaceous or a leafy sub-
stance, from which the fructification immediately pro-
ceeds. Linnaeus considered Palm-trees as fronds, so
far correctly as that they have not the proper stem of
a tree, see p. 59; but they are rather perhaps herbs
whose stalks bear the fructification. It must however
be observed that the deposition of wood in ferns,
takes place exactly as in palms.
The term frond is now used in the class Crypto-
gamia only.
7. Stipes, Stipe*, is the stem of a frond, which in
ferns is commonly scaly. See the plates cited in
the last section. The term is likewise applied to the
stalk of a Fungus, as the Common Mushroom, Aga-
ricus campestris, Sowerby's Fungi, t. 305.
(40) [Many Ferns, of the three last mentioned genera, are
found in the United States.]
* Martyn, Language of Botany.
( 119 J
CHAPTER XIV.
OF BUDS.
Gemma, a Bud, contains the rudiments of a plant, or
of part of a plant, for a while in a latent state, till the time
of the year and other circumstances favour their evolu-
tion. In the bud therefore the vital principle is dor-
mant, and its excitability is accumulated. The closest
analogy exists between buds and bulbs ; and indeed the
Dentaria bulbifera, Engl. Bot. t 309, Lilium bulbifer-
um, Jacq. Fl. Austr. t. 226, and Gerarde emac. 193,
with other similar plants, as mentioned p. 100, almost
prove their identity.
Buds of trees or shrubs, destined for cold countries,
are formed in the course of the summer in the bosoms
of their leaves, and are generally solitary ; but in the
Blue-berried Honeysuckle, Lonicera ccerulea, Jacq. FL
Austr. append, t. 17, they grow one under another for
three successive seasons,/^ 24. The buds of the Plane-
tree, Platanus, Du Hamel Arb. v. 2. 171, are concealed
in the footstalk, which must be removed before they
can be seen, and which they force off by their increase ;
so that no plant can have more truly and necessarily de-
ciduous leaves than the Plane. Shrubs in general have
no buds, neither have the trees of hot climates. Lin-
naeus once thought the presence of buds might distin-
guish a tree from a shrub, but he was soon convinced of
there being no real limits between them.
120 OF THE BUD.
of the
The situation of buds is necessarily like that
leaves, alternate, opposite, &c. Trees with opposite
leaves have three buds, those with alternate ones a sol-
itary bud, at the top of each branch. Du Hamel.
Buds are various in their forms, but very uniform in
the same species or even genus. They consist of scales
closely enveloping each other, and enfolding the embryo
plant or branch. Externally they have often an addi-
tional guard, of gum, resin or woolliness, against wet
and cold. The Horse Chesnut, JEsculus Hippocastanum,
now so common with us, though, as I have learnt from
Mr. Hawkins*, a native of Mount Pindus in Arcadia,
is a fine example of large and wellformed buds, f 25 ;
and some of the American Walnuts are still more re-
markable.
It has been already remarked, p. 84, that buds resist
cold only till they begin to grow : hence, according to
the nature and earliness of their buds, plants differ in
their powers of bearing a severe or variable climate.
Grew is elaborate on the forms of buds, and the ar-
rangement of the spots apparent within them when cut
transversely, which indicate the number and situation of
their vessels. It was the character of this excellent
man to observe every thing, without reference to any
theory, and his book is a storehouse of facts relating to
vegetation. Loefling, a favourite pupil of Linnaeus,
wrote, under the eye of his great teacher, an essay on
this subject, published in the Amcenitates Academics, v.
* See a note on this subject, which Mr. R. P. Knight has
honoured with a plaae in the second edition of his poem on
Landscape.
OF BUDS.
121
2, in which the various forms of buds, and the different
disposition of the leaves within them, are illustrated by
numerous examples. The Abbe de Ramatuelle had
taken up this subject with great zeal at Paris, about
twenty years ago, but the result of his inquiries has not
reached me.
Dr. Darwin, Phytologia, sect. 9, has many acute ob-
servations on the physiology of buds, but he appears to
draw the analogy too closely between them and the em-
bryo of a seed, or the chick in the egg. By buds indeed,
as we well know, plants are propagated, and in that
sense each bud is a separate being, or a young plant in
itself; but such propagation is only the extension of
an individual, and not a reproduction of the species as
by seed. Accordingly, all plants increased by buds,
cuttings, layers or roots, retain precisely the peculiar
qualities of the individual to which they owe their origin.
If those qualities differ from what are common to the
species, sufficiently to constitute what is called a varie-
ty, that variety is perpetuated through all the progeny
thus obtained. This fact is exemplified in a thousand
instances, none more notorious than the different kinds
of Apples, all which are varieties of the common Crab,
Pyrus Malus, Engl. Bot. t. 179 ; and I cannot but as-
sent to Mr. Knight's opinion, that each individual thus
propagated has only a determinate existence, in some
cases longer, in others shorter ; from which cause many
valuable varieties of apples and pears, known in former
times, are now worn out, and others are dwindling away
before our eves. New varieties of Cape Geraniums,
132
OF BUDS.
raised from seed in our greenhouses, are of still shorter
duration, and can be preserved by cuttings for a few
successive seasons only ; yet several of these stand in*
our botanic works, with all the importance of real spe-
cies. Gardeners know how many of the most hardy
perennial herbs require to be frequently renewed from
seed to exist in full vigour ; and though others appear,
to our confined experience, unlimited in that respect,
we have many reasons to believe they are not so. Pro-
pagation by seeds is therefore the only true reproduc-
tion of plants, by which each species remains distinct,
and all variations are effaced ; for though new varieties
may arise among a great number of seedling plants, it
does not appear that such varieties owe .their peculiari-
ties to any that may have existed in the parent plants.
How propagation by seed is accomplished will be ex-
plained in a future chapter, as well as the causes of some
varieties produced by that means.
Mr. Knight,- in the Philosophical Transactions for
1805, has shown that buds originate from the alburnum,
as might indeed be expected. The trunks and branch-
es of trees, and the knobs of genuine tuberous roots, like
the potatoe, are studded with them ; in which respect,
as Professor Willdenow judiciously observes, Princi-
ples of Botany, p. 15, such roots essentially differ from
bulbous ones, which last are themselves simple buds,
and produce their shoots, as well as their offsets, either
from the centre or from the base.
The contents of buds are different, even in different
species of the same genus, as Willows. The buds of
some produce leaves only, others flowers; while in oth-
OF BUDS. 123
er species the same bud bears both leaves and flowers.
Different causes, depending on the soil or situation,
seem in one case to generate leaf-buds, in another flower-
buds. Thus the Solandra grandifora, Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 6. 99. t. 6, a Jamaica shrub, was for a number
of years cultivated in the English stoves, and propaga-
ted extensively by cuttings, each plant growing many
feet in length every season, from abundance of moisture
and nourishment, without showing any signs of fructifi-
cation. At length a pot of the Solandra was accidentally
left without water in the dry stove at Kew ; and in con-
sequence of this unintentional neglect, the luxuriant
growth of its branches was greatly checked, and a flower
came forth at the extremity of each. By a similar mode
of treatment the same effect has since frequently been
produced. Several plants, especially with bulbous roots,
which blossom abundantly in their native soils, have
hitherto defied all the art of our gardeners to produce
this desirable effect; yet future experience may possibly
place it within our reach by some very simple means.
In general, whatever checks the luxuriant production of
leaf-buds, favours the formation of flowers and seeds.
That variety, or perhaps species, of the Orange Lily,
Lilium bulbiferum, which is most prolific in buds, sel-
dom forms seeds, or even those organs of the flower
necessary to their perfection. So likewise the seeds of
Mints, a tribe of plants which increase excessively by
roots, have hardly been detected by any botanist ; and
it is asserted by Doody in Ray's Synopsis, that when
the elegant little Ornithopus perpusillus, Engl. Bot. t.
369, does not produce pods, it propagates itself by the
grains or tubercles of its root, though in general the
root is annual.
[ 124 J
CHAPTER XV.
OP LEAVES, THEIR SITUATIONS, INSERTIONS, SURFACES, AND
VARIOUS FORMS.
Folium, the Leaf, is a very general, but not universal,
organ of vegetables, of an expanded form, presenting a
much greater surface to the atmosphere than all the
other parts of the plant together. Jts colour is almost
universally green, its internal substance pulpy and vas-
cular, sometimes very succulent, and its upper and un-
der surfaces commonly differ in hue, as well as in kind
or degree of roughness.
Leaves are eminently ornamental to plants from their
pleasing colour, and the infinite variety as well as ele-
gance of their forms. Their many ceconomical uses to
mankind, and the importance they hold in the scale of
nature as furnishing food to the brute creation, are sub-
jects foreign to our present purpose, and need not here
be insisted upon. Their essential importance to the
plant which bears them, and the curious functions by
which they contribute to its health and increase, will
presently be detailed at length. We shall first explain
their different situations, insertions, forms, and surfaces,
which are of the greatest possible use in systematical
botany.
The leaves are wanting in many plants, called for
that reason plants aphyllce, as Salicornia, (41) Engl.
Bot. t. 415, and 1691, Stapelia variegata, Curt. Mag.
(41) [Samphire or Glasswort.]
SITUATION AND POSITION OF LEAVES.
125
t. 26, glanduliflora, Exot. Bot. t. 71, and all the species
of that genus. In such cases the surface of the stem
must perform all their necessary functions.
1. With respect to Situation and Position,
Folia radicalia, radical leaves, are such as spring from
the root, like those of the Cowslip, Engl. Bot. t. 5,
and Anemone Pulsatilla, t. 51.
Caulina, stem-leaves, grow on the stem as in Paris
quadrifolia, t. 7, Polemonium cceruleum, t. 14, &c.
Ramea, branch-leaves, sometimes differ from those of
the main stem, and then require to be distinguished
from them, as Melampyrum arvense, t. 53.
Alterna, f 21, alternate leaves, stand solitarily on the
stem or branches, spreading in different directions,
as those of Borage, t. 36, and innumerable other
plants.
Sparsa,f. 19, scattered irregularly, as in Genista tincto-
ria, t. 44, Lilium chalcedonicum, Curt. Mag. t. 30,
and bulbiferum, t. 36.
Opposita, opposite to each other, as Saxifraga oppositi-
folia, Engl. Bot. t. 9, Ballota nigra, t. 46, &c.
Conferta, clustered, or crowded together, as those of
Trientalis europcea, t. 15.(42)
Bina, only two upon a plant or stem, as in the Snow-
drop, Galanthus nivalis, t. 19, Scilla bifolia, t. 24,
and Convallaria majalis, t. 1035.(43)
Terna, three together, as Verbena triphylla, Curt. Mag.
(42) [Chickweed wintergreen.]
(43) [Lily of the valley.]
1:6 SITUATION AND POSITION OF LRAVKS.
t. 367. The plants of Chili and Peru stem particu-
larly disposed to this arrangement of their leaves.
Quaterna, quina, he. when 4, 5, or more are so situat-
ed, as in various species of Heath, Erica.
Verticillata, whorled, is used to express several leaves
growing in a circle round the stem, without a refer-
ence to their precise number, as in Asperula cynan-
chica, Engl. Bot. t. 33, and odorata, t. 755, which
with the genus Galium, and some others, are for this
reason called stellate, star-leaved plants, Whorled
leaves are also found in Hippuris vulgaris, t. 763, and
many besides.(44)
Fasciculata, f 26, tufted, as in the Larch, Pinus, Larix,
Lamb, Pin. t. 35, the Cedar, and some others of that
genus.
Imbricata, f 27, imbricated, like tiles upon a house, as
in the common Ling, Erica vulgaris, Engl. Bot. t.
1013, and Euphorbia paralia, t. 195.
Decussata,f 28, decussated, in pairs alternately crossing
each other, as Veronica decussata, Curt. Mag. t. 242,
and Melaleuca thymifolia, Exot. Bot. t. 36.
Disticha,f. 29, two-ranked,'spreading in two directions,
and yet not regularly opposite at their insertion, as
Pinus canadensis, Lamb.Pin. t. 32, and the Yew, Tax-
us baccata, Engl. Bot. t. 746,
Secunda, f. 30, unilateral, or leaning all towards one
side, as Convallaria multiflora, t. 279.(45)
(44) [Examples of whorled leaves are found in the Lilies,;
Lilium Canaden&e and Philadelfihicum.^
(45) [Many flowered Solomon's seal.]
SITUATION AND POSITION OF LEAVES. 12.?
Adpressa, close-pressed to the stem, as Xeranthemum
sesamoides, Curt. Mag. t. 425.
Verticalta, perpendicular, both sides at right angles
with the horizon, as Lactuca Scariola, Engl. Bot.
t. 268.
Erecta, upright, forming a very acute angle with the
stem, as Juncus articulatus, t. 238.
Patentia, spreading, forming a moderately acute an-
gle with the stem or branch, as Atriplex portulaco-
• ides, t. 261.
Horizontalia, horizontal, or patentissima, spreading in
the greatest possible degree, as Gentiana campestris,
t. 237.
Reclinata, inclining downward, as Leonurus Cardiaca,
t. 286.(46)
Recurva, or reflexa, curved backward, as Erica retor-
ta, Curt. Mag. t. 362.
Incurva, or inflexa, curved inward, as Erica empetri-
folia, t. 447.
Obliqua, twisted, so that one part of each leaf is verti-
cal, the other horizontal, as Fritillaria obliqua, t.
857, and some of the large Protece.
Resupinata, reversed, when the upper surface is turn-
ed downward, as Pharus latifolius, Browne's Jamai-
ca, t. 38. Linn. Mss., and Alstrcemeria pelegrina,
Curt. Mag. t. 139.
Depressa, radical leaves pressed close to the ground,
as Plantago media, Engl. Bot. t. 1559, and P.
Coronopus, t. 892. The same term applied to
(46) [Common Motherwort.^
128
INSERTION OF LEAVES.
stem-leaves, expresses their shape only, as being
vertically flattened, in opposition to compressa.
Xatantia, floating, on the surface of the water, as
Nymphcea lutea, t. 159, and alba, t. 160, (47) and
Potamogeton natans, (48) and many water plants.
Demersa, immersa, or submersa, plunged under wa-
ter, as Potamogeton perfoliatum, t. 168, Hottonia
palustris, (49) t. 364, Lobelia Dortmanna, t. 140,
and the lower leaves of Ranunculus aquatilis, t. 101,
while its upper -are folia natantia.
Emersa, raised above the water, as the upper leaves,
accompanying the flowers, of Myriophyllum verti-
cilatum, t. 218, (50) while its lower ones are de-
mersa.
2. By Insertion is meant the mode in which one part
of a plant is connected with another.
Folia petiolata, leaves on footstalks, are such as are
furnished with that organ, whether long or short,
simple or compound, as Verbascum nigrum, Engl.
Bot. t. 59, Thalictrum minus, t. 11, alpinum, t.
262, &c.
Peltata, f 31, peltate, when the footstalk is inserted
into the middle of the leaf, like the arm of a man
holding a shield, as in the Common Nasturtium,
Tropceolum majus, Curt. Mag. t. 23, Drosera pel-
(47) [So the American Water Lilies, Nymfihaa ad-vena and od-
orata.~\ (48) [Pondweed.]
(49) [Water Feather, or Water Violet. Native, as also the
next,]
(50) [Whorled Water Milfoil.]
INSERTION OF LEAVES.
129
tata, Exot. Bot. t. 41, Cotyledon Umbilicus, Engl.
Bot. t. 325, Hydrocotyle vulgaris, (51) t. 751,
and the noble Cyamus Nelumbo, Exot. Bot. t. 31,
32.
Sessilia, sessile, are such as spring immediately from
the stem, branch or root, without any footstalk, as in
Anchusa sempervirens, Engl. Bot. t. 45, and Pingui-
cula vulgaris, t. 70. (52)
Amplexicaulia, f 32, clasping the stem with their base,
as the upper leaves of Glaucium luteum, t. 8, Gentia-
na campestris, t. 237, and Humea elegans, Exot. Bot.
t. 1. (53)
Connata,f. 17, connate, united at their base, as Chlora
perfoliata, Engl. Bot. t. 60, whose leaves are conna-
to-perfolktta.
Perfoliata, f. 33, perfoliate, when the stem runs through
the leaf, as Bupleurum rotundifolium, t. 99, and the
Uvularia, Exot. Bot. t. 49, 50, 51.(54)
Vaginantia, f. 34, sheathing the stem or each other, as
in most grasses ; see Phleum Alpinum, Engl. Bot. t.
(51) [Penny wort.]
(52) [Sessile leaves are very common, as in many of the ge-
nus Solidago, Golden Rod ; &c]
(53) [Clasping leaves are exemplified in many of the Star-
worts or Asters, as in Aster Nov« Anglice and amfilexicaulis.~\
(54) [The veins or nerves of a leaf will generally determine
whether it be a single, perfoliate leaf, as in Uvularia fierfoliata ;
or double and connate, as oecurs in different degrees in the up-
per leaves of the Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera semfiervivens,
in Fever Wort, Triosteum fierfoliatum, and in Rudbeckia Amfilex-
ifolia, where the connexion is slight.]
R
130
FY)K.MS OF LEAVES.
519, and Arundo arenaria, t. 520. The same char-
acter is found in many of the Orchis tribe, as Satyri-
um albidum, t, 505.
Equitantia, f. 35, equitant, disposed in two opposite
rows and clasping each other by their compressed
base, as in Narthecium ossifragum, t. 535, and the
genus Iris ; also TVitsenia corymbosa, Exot. Bot. tm
68, and Dilatris corymbosa, t. 16.
Dccurrentia, f 36, decurrent, running down the stem or
branch in a leafy border or wing, as Onopordum Acan-
thium, (55) Engl. Bot. t. 977, Carduus tenuiflorus, t.
412, and many other Thistles, also the Great Mullein,
Verbascum Thapsus, t. 549, and Comfrey, Symphy-
tum officinale, t. 817.
Florifera,f. 37, flower-bearing, when flowers grow out
of the disk or margin of any leaf, as in Ruscus aculea-
tus, I. 560, Xylophylla latifolia, and X.falcata, Andr.
Repos. t. 331. This is equivalent to a frond in the
class Cryptogamia ; see p. 117.
3. With regard to form, Leaves are either simplicia,
simple, like those of Grasses, Orchises, Lilies, and
many other plants, as Ballota nigra, Engl. Bot. t. 46,
and Berberis vulgaris, t. 49 ; or composita, com-
pound, as in most Umbelliferous plants, Parsley,
Hemlock, &c. ; also Roses, Engl. Bot. t. 990—992.
In compound leaves, the footstalk is either simple, as in
the instances last quoted, and Sium angustifolium, t.
139 ; or compound, as those of Selinum palustre, t.
229, and Thalictrum majus, t. 611.—In simple
(55) [Cotton Thistle.]
SORMS OF LEAVES.
131
leaves the footstalk, if present, must of course be
simple, while in compound ones it must always be
present, though not always subdivided.
Simple Leaves are either integra, undivided, as those of
Grasses and Orchises ; or lobata, lobed, like the
Vine, the Thistle, most kinds of Cranesbill, as Gera-
nium pratense, Engl. Bot. t. 404, &.c.
Leaves are frequently undivided and lobed on the same
plant, as the Hop, Engl. Bot. t. 427.(55.)
4. The following are the most remarkable forms of
Simple Leaves, considering their outline only.
Orbiculatum, f. 38, a circular or orbjeular leaf, whose
length and breadth are equal, and the circumference
an even circular line. Precise examples of this are
scarcely to be found. Some species of Piper ap-
proach it, and the leaf of Hedysarum styracifolium is
perfectly orbicular, except a notch at the base.
Subrotundum,f. 39, roundish, as Pyrola, (56) EngL
Bot. t. 146, 158 and 213, and many other plants.
Ovatum,f. 40, ovate, of the shape of an egg cut length-
wise, the base being rounded and broader than the
extremity, a very common form of leaves, as Urtica
pilulifera, t. 148, and Vinca major, t. 514.
Obovatum, f. 41, obovate, of the same figure with the
broader end uppermost, as those of the Primrose, t.
4, and the Daisy, t. 424.(57) Linnaeus at first used
the words obverse ovatum.
(55) [This is the case in the Sassafras tree, Laurus sassafras.^
(56) [The Pyrola rotundifolia, or Winter green, is very com
»non in the United States.]
(57) [And the leaves of Clethra AlnisoliaJ]
132
FORMS OF LEAVES.
Ellipticum,f. 42, or ovale, elliptical or oval, of a similar
form to the foregoing, but of equal breadth at each
end, as in the Lily of the Valley, and other Convalla*
ri
Emarginatum, f. 72, emarginate, or nicked, having a
small acute notch at the summit, as the Bladder Sen-
na, Colutea arborescens, Curt. Mag. #.81.
Obtusum,f. 39, blunt, terminating in a segment of a
circle, as the Primrose, Engl. Bot. t. 4, Snowdrop, t.
19, Hypericum quadrangulum, t. 370, and Linum
catharticum, t. 382.
Acutum,f 51> sharp, ending in an acute angle, which
is common to a great variety of plants, as Ladies'
Slipper, t. 1, Campanula Trachelium t. 12, and Lin-
um angustifolium, t. 381.
Acuminatum, f 73, pointed, having a taper or awishap-
ed point, as Arundo Phragmites, t. 401, and Scirpus
maritimus, t. 542.(70)
Obtusum cum acumine,f. 74, blunt with a small point,
as Statice Limonium, t. 102.(71)
Mucronatum or Cuspidatum,f 75, sharppointed, tipped
with a rigid spine, as in the Thistles, t. 107, t. 386,
&c, Ruscus aculeatus, t. 560, and Melaleuca nodosa,
Exot. Bot. t. 35.
Cirrosum, f 76, cirrose, tipped with a tendril, as in
Gloriosa superba, Andr. Repos. t. 129.
6. The different Margins of Leaves are characterized
as follows.
Folium integerrimum,f 39, an entire leaf, as in the Or-
chis and Lily tribe, as well as Polygala vulgaris,
Engl. Bot. t. 76, Daphne Laureola, t. 119, &c.
(70) [Common Reed, and Sea Club Rush ; both natives.]
r~l] Marsh Rosemary.
S
■i'38 MARGINS OF LEAVES.
This term is opposed to all kinds of teeth, notches,
or incisions. It regards solely the margin of a leaf;
whereas integrum, p. 131, respects its whole shape,
and has nothing to do with the margin. English
writers who translate the one entire, and the other
very entire, are therefore incorrect.
Spinosum,f. 77, spinous, beset with prickles, as Car-
duus lanceolatus, t. 107, and Eryngium campestre, t.
57. The veins are spinous in Solanum Pyracantha,
Exot. Bot. t. 64, &g.
Inerme.f. 71, unarmed, is opposed to spinous.
Cdiatum, f. 78, fringed, bordered with soft parallel
hairs, as Galium cruciatum, Engl. Bot. t. 143.
Cartilagineum, cartilaginous, hard and horny, as Saxi-
fraga callosa, Dicks. Dr. PI. n. 63.
Dentatum,f 79, toothed, beset with projecting, hori-
zontal, rather distant teeth of its own substance, as
Atriplex laciniata, Engl. Bot. t. 165, Hypochxris
maculata, t. 225, and the lower leaves of Centaurea
Cyanus, t. 277 ; also Nymphcea Lotus, Curt. Mag.
t. 797.(71)
Serratum,f. 80, serrated, when the teeth are sharp, and
resembie those of a saw, pointing towards the extrem-
ity of the leaf. Examples of this are frequent, as
Urlica, (72) #.18 and 1236, Rosa, t. 992, &c, Coma-
rum pa lustre,{13) t.172, and Seneciopaludosus, #.650;
also Dilleniq indica, Exot. Bot. t. 2. Some leaves
are doubly serrated, duplicato-serrata, having a se-
ries of smaller serratures intermixed with the larger,
(71) [And Arrow wood, Viburnum dentatum.^
(72) [Nettle.] f73) [Marsh Cinquefoil, native.]
MARGINS OF LEAVES
139
as Mespilus grandiflora, t. 18, and Campanula Tra-
chelium, Engl. Bot. t. 12.
Serrulatum, f. 63, minutely serrated, is rised when the
teeth are very fine,- as in Polygonum amphibium, f.
436, and Empleurum serrulatum, Exot. Bot. t. 63.
Crenatum, f 8\, notched, or crenate, when the teeth
are rounded, and not directed towards either end of
the leaf, as in Ground-Ivy, Glechonia hedetacea, t.
853, Chrysosplenium, t. 54 and -:90, and Sibthorpia
curopoza, t. 649. In Saxifraga Geum, t. 1561, the
leaves are sharply crenate. In the two British spe-
cies of Salvia, t. 153 and 154, the radical leaves are
doubly crenate, f 82.
Erosum, f. 83, jagged, irregularly cut or notched, es-
pecially when otherwise divided besides, as in Sefie-
cio squalidus, t. 600.
Repandum, f. 84, wavy, bordered with numerous mi-
nute angles, and small segments of circles aiternatelv,
as Menyanthesnympheeoides, t. 217, and Inula dysen-
terica, t. 1115-
Glandulosum, glandular, as Hypericum mOfifanum, t,
371 and the Bay-leaved Willow, Salix pentandra.
Revolutvm, revolute, when the maigin is turned or rol-
led backwards, as Andromeda polifolia, t. 713, and
Tetratheda glandulosa, Exot. Bot. t. 21.
Linnaeus seems originally to have applied this term
to the rolling of the whole leaf backwards, as in Soli-
dago Virgaurea, Engl. Bot. t. 301, meaning to use
the expression margme revolutum when the margin
was intended ; but this latter case being extremely
frequent and the other very rare, he fell into the prac*
^ce of using revolutum simply for the margin.
uu
SURFACE OF LEAVE?
Involutum, involute, the reverse of the preceding, as iu
Pinguicula, t. 70 and 145.
Conduplicatum, folded, when the margins are brought
together in a parallel direction, as in Roscoea purpurea,
Exot. Bot. t. 108.
7. Terms expressive of different kinds of surface, apply-
ing equally to the leaf and to the stem, have been al-
ready explained, //.111. To these may be added the
following, chiefly appropriated to leaves.
Punctatum, dotted ; either superficially as in Rhododen-
drum punctatum, Andr. Repos. t. 36, and Melaleuca
linarifolia, Exot. Bot. t. 56 ; or through the sub-
stance, as in Hypericum perforatum, (74) Engl. Bot.
t. 295, and the whole natural order to which the Or-
ange and Lemon belong.
Rugosum, rugged, when the veins are tighter than the
surface between them, causing the latter to swell in-
to little inequalities, as in various species of Sage,
Salvia. See Flora Graca ; also Teucrium Scorodo-
nia, Engl. Bot. t. 1543.
Bullatum, blistery, is only a greater degree of the last,
as in the Garden Cabbage, Brassica oleracea.
Plicatum,f. 85, plaited, when the disk of the leaf, es-
pecially towards the margin, is acutely folded up and
down, as in Mallows, and Alchemilla vulgaris, Engl.
Bot. t. 597, where, however, the character is but ob-
scurely expressed.
Undulatum,f. 86, undulated, when the disk near the
margin is waved obtusely up and down, as Reseda
(74) [Common St. John's wort.]
VEINS AND RIBS OF LEAVES.
141
lutea, t. 321, and Ixia crispa (more properly undu-
lata*) Curt. Mag. t. 599.
Crispum, f 87, curled, when the border of the leaf be-
comes more expanded than the disk, so as to grow
elegantly curled and twisted, which Linnaeus consid-
ers as a disease. Malva crispa, Ger. em. 931, is an
example of it, and may probably be a variety of M.
verticillata, Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t. 40.
Concavum, hollow, depressed in the middle, owing to a
tightness in the border, as Cyamus Nelumbo, Exot.
Bot. t. 32.
Venosum, f 88, veiny, when the vessels by which the
leaf is nourished are branched, subdivided, and more
or less prominent, forming a network over either or
both its surfaces, as Cratcegus, or rather Pyrus, tor-
minalis, Engl. Bot. t. 298, and Verbascum Lychnitis,
t. 58.
Nervosum, f. 89, or costatum, ribbed, when they extend
in simple lines from the base to the point, as in Cyp-
ripedium Calceolus, t. 1, the Convallaria, t. 279 and
280, Stratiotes alismoides, Exot. Bot. t. 15, and
Roxburghia viridiflora, t. 57. The greater clusters
of vessels are generally called nervi or costa, nerves
or ribs, and the smaller venee, veins, whether they are
branched and reticulated, or simple and parallel.
Avenium, veinless, and enerve, ribless, are opposed to
the former.
Trinerve, f. 90, three-ribbed, is applied to a leaf that
has three ribs all distinct from the very base, as well
as unconnected with the margin, in the manner of
* Salisb. Hort. :r.
142
VEINS AND RIBS OP LEAVES.
those many-ribbed leaves just cited, as Blakea triner-
vis*, Curt. Mag. t. 451.
Basi trinerve, f. 91, three-ribbed at the base, is when
the base is cut away close to the lateral ribs, as in
Burdock, Arctium Lappa. Engl. Bot. t. 1228, Tussi-
lago, t. 430 and 431, and the Great Annual Sunflow-
er.
Triplinerve, f. 92, triply-ribbed, when a pair of large
ribs branch off from the main one above the base,
which is the case in many species of Sunflower or
Helianthus, Laurus Cinnamomum and Camphora, as
well as Blakea, triplinervis, Aublet Gnian. t. 210.
Coloratum, coloured, expresses any colour in a leaf be-
sides greeny as in Arum bicolor, Curt. Mag. t. 820^
Amaranfhus tricolor, and others of that genus, Jus-
ticiapicta, Hedysarum pictum, Jacq. Ie. Rar. t. 567,
Tradescantia discolor, Sm. Ic. Pict. t. 10, Pulmonu-
ria officinalis, Engl. Bot. t. 118.
Variegatum, variegated, is applied to a sort of variety or
disease, by which leaves become irregularly blotched
with white or yellow, like those of Striped Grass,
Arundo colorata, Fl. Brit. ; as also the Elder, the
Mentha rotund folia, Engl. Bot. t. 446, and the Au-
cuba japonica, which last is not known in our gardens
in its natural green state.
Nudum, naked, implies that a leaf is destitute of all kinds
of clothing or hairiness, as in the genus Orchis. Nu-
dus applied to a stem means that it bears no leaves,
and to a flower that it has no calyx.
* Authors incessantly use the termination trinervius, triner-
via, &c. for the more classical trinervts, trinerve, cnervic-
enerve.
SUBSTANCE, &c. OF LEAVES.
143
S. The following terms express the substance, peculiar
configuration, or any other remaining circumstances
of leaves, not already explained.
Teres, f. 93, cylindrical, as those of Conchium gibbosum,
White's Voyage, t. 22. f. 2 ; see Cavanilles Icones,
t. 533, and 534.
Semicylindraceum, f. 94, semicylindrical, flat on one
side, as Salsola fruticosa, Engl. Bot. t. 635, and
Chenopodium maritimum, t. 633.
Subulatum,f. 95, awlshaped, tapering from a thickish
base to a point, as Salsola Kali, t. 634. (75)
Tubulosum, tubular, hollow within, as Allium Cepa, the
Common Onion. The leaf of Lobelia Dortmanna,
Engl. Bot. t. 140, is very peculiar in consisting of a
double tube,f. 96.
Carnosum, f.98, fleshy, of a thick pulpy substance, as in
all those called succulent plants, Crassula lactea, Exo.
Bot. t. 33, Aloe, Sedum, Mesembryanthemum, &c.
See, Sempervivum tectorum, Engl. Bot. t. 1320.
Gibbum, gibbous, swelling on one side or both^ from
excessive abundance of pulp, as Aloe retusa, Curt,
Mag. t. 455.
Compressum, f 98, compressed, flattened laterally, as
Mesembryanthemum uncinatum, Dill. Elth. t. 198,
and acinaciforme, t. 211.
Depressum, depressed, flattened vertically, as M. lingui-
forme, t. 183—185. See/>. 127.
Canaliculatum, f. 97, channelled, having a longitudinal
furrow, as M. pugioniforme, t. 210, Plantago mari-
(75) [Saltwort/]
144
SUBSTANCE, Sic. OF LEA\ ES
tima, (76) Engl. Bot. t. 175, and Narcissus poeticus,
t. 275.
Carinatum, keeled, when the back is longitudinally
prominent, as Narcissus biflorus, t. 276.
Ensiforme, sword-shaped, is a two-edged leaf, tapering
to a point, slightly convex on both surfaces, neither of
which can properly be called upper or under, as in
most of the genus Iris. (77) See Curt. Mag. t. 671,
t. 9, &c, and Fl. Grac. t.39 and 40.
Anceps, two-edged, is much the same as the last.
Acinaciforme, scimitar-shaped, compressed, with one
thick and straight edge, the other thin and curved, as
Mesembryanthemum acinaciforme above mentioned.
Dolabriforme, f. 98, hatchet-shaped, compressed, with
a very prominent dilated keel, and a cylindrical base,
as M. dolabriforme, Dill. Elth. t. 191, Curt. Mag. t.
32.
These two last terms might well be spared, as they
seem contrived only for the plants in question, and in-
deed are not essentially distinct from each other.
Trigonum,f. 99, three-edged, having three longitudinal
sides and as many angles, like M. deltoides, Dill.
Elth. t. 195, Linn. Phil. Bot. t. l.f. 58. Linnaeus
has erroneously referred to this figure to illustrate his
term deltoides ; misled, as it should seem, by the
name of the plant to which it belongs ; but his defi-
nition is foreign to the purpose, see/>. 133, and alludes
to the outline of a flat leaf.
Triquetrum differs from trigonum only in being used
by Linnaeus for a three-sided awl-shaped leaf, as M.
(76) [Sea Plantain, native.] (77) [Flag, or Flower \le lucc.l
***v
SUBSTANCE, &c. OF LEAVES.
14S
emarginatum, Dill. Elth. t. \97,f. 250, and bicolor-
um, t. 202, also Saxifraga burseriana.
Tetragonum, f. 100, four-edged, having four prominent
angles, as Iris tuberosa, Fl. Grozc. t. 41.
Lingulatum, tongue-shaped, of a thick, oblong, blunt
figure, generally cartilaginous at the edges, as Mesem-
bryanthemum linguiforme, Dendrobium linguiforme,
Exot. Bot. #.11, and several species of Saxifraga, as
& mutata, Curt. Mag. t. 351, S. Cotyledon, &c.
Membranaceum, membranous, of a thin and pliable tex-
ture, as in Aristolochia Sipho, t. 534, Rubus odoratus,
(78) #. 323, Magnolia purpurea, t. 390, &c.
Coriaceum, leathery, thick, tough and somewhat rigid,
as Magnoliagrandiflora,(79) and Hydrangea hortensis,
Sm. Ic. Pict. t. 12, Curt. Mag. t. 438.
Sempervirens, evergreen, permanent through one, two,
or more winters, so that the branches are never strip-
ped, as the Ivy, the Fir, the Cherry Laurel, the Bay,&c.
Deciduum, deciduous, falling off* at the approach of win-
ter, as in most European trees and shrubs.
Alienatum,f. 101, alienated, when the first leaves of a
plant give place to others totally different from them
and from the natural habit of the genus, as in many
Mimosa of New Holland ; see M. verticillata, Curt.
Mag. t. 110, and myrtifolia, t. 302 ,• also Lathyrus
Nissolia, Engl. Bot. t. 112. The germination of this
last plant requires investigatior, for if its first leaves
be pinnated; it is exactly a parallel case with the NeW
Holland Mimosa.
(78) [Flowering Raspberry, native, as also the preceding.]
(79) [Big Laurel of the Southern states.]
T
146
SUBSTANCE, &c. OF LEAVES.
Cucullatum,f. 102, hooded, when the edges meet in
the lower part, and expand in the upper, as those of
the curious genus Sarracenia. Curt. Mag. t. 780
and 849, and S. adunca, Exot. Bot. t. 53.(78)
Appendiculatum, f. 103, furnished with an additional
organ for some particular purpose not essential to a
leaf, as Dionasa muscipula, Curt. Mag. t. 785, cul-
tivated very successfully by Mr. Salisbury, at Bromp-
ton, whose leaves each terminate in a pair of toothed
irritable lobes, that close over and imprison insects;
or Nepenthes distillatoria, Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. t.
59, f 2, the leaf of which bears a covered pitcher,
full of water. Aldrovanda vesiculosa, and our Utricu-
larice, Engl. Bot. t 253, 254, have numerous blad-
ders attached to the leaves, which seem to secrete air,
and float the plants.
Many of the preceding terms applied to leaves are
occasionally combined to express a form between the
two, as ovato-lanceolatum, lanceolate inclining to ovate,
or elliptico-lanceolatum, as in the Privet, Engl. Bot. t.
764. When shape, or any other character, cannot be
precisely defined, sub is prefixed to the term used, as
subrotundum, roundish, subsessile, not quite destitute of
a footstalk, to which is equivalent subpetiolatum, ob-
scurely stalked. By the judicious use of such means,
all necessary precision is attained. It is to be wished
that authors were always uniform and consistent, at least
(78) [A leaf is said to be hooded, whether the edges unite so
as to form a perfect cavity, as in Saracennia, or Fivesaddle flow-
er ; or whether they simply meet without cohering, as in Viola
cucullata.~^
COMPOUNn LEAVES.
147
with themselves, in the application of terms ; but as
Linnaeus, the father of accurate botanical phraseology,
very frequently misapplies his own terms, it is perhaps
scarcely to be avoided. I have observed botanists most
critical in theory, to be altogether deficient in that char-
acteristic phraseology, that power of defining, which
bears the stamp of true genius, and which renders the
works of Linnaeus so luminous in despite of incidental
errors. Perhaps no mind, though ever so intent on the
subject, can retain all the possible terms of description
and their various combinations, for ready use at any giv-
en moment. There are few natural objects to which a varie-
ty of terms are not equally applicable in description, so
that no two writers would exactly agree in their use.
Neither is Nature herself so constant as not perpetually to
elude our most accurate research. Happy is that natur-
alist who can seize at a glance what is most characteris-
tic and permanent, and define all that is essential, with-
out trusting to fallacious, though ever so specious, dis-
tinctions !
9. Folia composita, compound leaves, consist of two or
any greater number olfoliola, leaflets, connected by a
common footstalk.
Folium articuhtum,f 104, a jointed leaf, is when one
leaflet, or pair of leaflets, grows out of the summit of
another, with a sort of joint, as in Fagara tragodes,
Jacq. Amer. t. 14.
Digitatum, f. 22, digitate or fingered, when several
leaflets proceed from the summit of a common foot-
us
COMPOUND LEAVES.
stalk, as Potentilla verna, Engl. Bot. t. 37, reptans,
(79) #. 862, and Alchemilla alpina, t. 244.
Binatum,f. 105, binate, is a fingered leaf consisting of
only two leaflets, as in Zygophyllum, Curt. Mag. t.
372.
Ternatum,f. 106, ternate, consists of three leaflets, as
Fagonia cretica, t. 24-1, and the genus Trifolium
Trefoil. See Engl. Bot. t. 190, &c.
Quinatum, quinate, of five leaflets, as Potentilla alba, t.
1384, reptans, t. 862, &c.
Pinnatum, pinnate, when several leaflets proceed laterally
from one footstalk, and imitate a pinnatifid leaf, p.
135. This is of several kinds.
cum impari,f. 116, with an odd, or terminal, leaflet, as
m Roses, and Elder, also Polemonium cceruleum,
Engl. Bot. t. 14, and Hedysarum Onobrychis, t. 96.
cirrosum,f. 115, with a tendril, when furnished with a
tendril in place of the odd leaflet, as the Pea and Vetch
tribe; Pisum maritimum, t. 1046, Lathyrus palustris,
(80) #. 169, Vicia sativa, t. 334.
abrupte,f 101, abruptly, without either a terminal leaf-
let or a tendril, as Cassia Chamcecrista, (80) Curt.
Mag. t. 107, and the genus Mimosa. See M. pudica,
the Common Sensitive-plant. Tjiis form of leaf is
much more uncommon than the imparipinnatum, and
we have no perfect example of it among British plants.
The nearest approach to it is the genus Orobus,
whose leaves have only the rudiments of a tendril.
A truly wonderful variety of the Oro'sus sylvaticus,
(79) {Cinquefoil} or Fivefmgcr.}
(80) [Both native.]
COMPOUND LEAVES.
140
Engl. Bot. t. 518, with large simple leaves, has been
found in Wales.
opposite, Oppositely, when the leaflets are opposite, or in
pairs, as Saint-foin, #. 96, Roses, Sium angustifolium,
t. 139, &c.
alternatim, alternately, when they are alternate, as Vicia
dumetorum (Cracca sylvaticaj Riv. Pent. Irr. #.51,
and occasionally in our V. Sativa lutea, &c.
interrupt}, f. 107, interruptedly, when the principal leaf-
lets are ranged alternately with an intermediate series
of smaller ones, as Spiraa Filipendula, Engl. Bot. t.
284, S. Ulmaria, t. 960, and Potentilla anserina, t.
861. (81)
articulate, jointedly, with apparent joints in the common
footstalk, as Weinmannia pinnata.
decursive, decurrently, when the leaflets are decurrent,
as Eryngium compestre, Engl. Bot. t. 57, and Poten-
tilla fruticosa, #.88.
lyrato,f 108, in a lyrate manner, having the terminal
leaflet largest, and the rest gradually smaller, as they
approach the base, as Erysimum precox, t. 1129,
and, with intermediate smaller leaflets, Geum rivale,
(82) #. 106 ; also the Common Turnip. Such
leaves are usually denominated lyrate in common with
those properly so called (whose shape is simple, and
not formed of separate leaflets); nor is this from inac-
curacy in botanical writers. The reason is, that
these two kinds of leaves, however distinct in theory,
are of all leaves most liable to run into each other,
even on the same plant, examples of which are fre-
quent in the class Tetradynamia.
(81) [Native.] (82) [Native.]
150
COMPOUND LEAVES.
vcrticillato,f. 109, in a whorled manner, the leaflets cut
into fine divaricated segments, embracing the foot-
stalk, as Sium verticillatum, Fl.Brit. Eng.Bot. #.395.
Auriculatum,f. 110, an auricled leaf, is furnished at its
base with a pair of leaflets, properly distinct, but oc-
casionally liable to be joined with it, as Salvia triloba,
Fl. Grac. t. 17, and Dipsacus pilosus, Engl. Bot. t.
877. Linnaeus in the last example uses the term
appendiculatum, which is correct, but superfluous, and
I have therefore ventured to apply it somewhat differ-
ently,/;. 146.
Conjugatum, f. 105, conjugate, or yoked, consists of
only a pair of pinna or leaflets, and is much the same
as binatum. Instances of it are in the genus Zygo-
phyHum, whose name, equivalent to Yokeleaf, ex-
pressed this very character ; also in Lathyrus sylves-
tris, Engl, Bot. t. 805, and latifolius, t. 1108. Biju-
gum, trijugum, quadrijugum, multrijugum, &c, ex-
press particular numbers of pairs of leaflets, and are
used for that purpose where such discrimination is
requisite for specific characters, as in Mimosa.
The different degrees in which leaves are compounded
are thus distinguished, without any reference to the
mode.
Compositum,f 111, simply compound, as in the above
instances.
Decompositum, f 112*, doubly compound, as Atha-
manta, Libanotis, Engl. Bot. t. 138, JEgopodium, Po-
* Linnaeus, in Phil. Bot. 47, gives an erroneous definition of
this term, which docs not accord with his own use of it. Pro-
fessor Martyn has rightly defined it.
COMPOUND LEAVES. 151
dagraria, t. 940, and Fumaria claviculata, t.
103.
Supradecompositum,f. 113, thrice compound, or more,
as Caucalis Anthriscus, t. 987, C. daucoides t. 197,
and Bunium flexuosum, t. 988. But
Bigeminatum, twice paired, as Mimosa Unguis cati,
Plum. Ic. t. 4 ; and tergeminatum, thrice paired, as
.M. tergemina ; also
Biternatum,f. 112, twice ternate, as Mgopodium, Engl.
Bot. t. 940 ,• triternatum, thrice ternate, as Fumaria
lutea, t. 588 ; and
Bipinnatum, d9ubly pinnate, tripinnatum, triply pinnate,
of which examples have just been given : all apply
to the mode, as well as the degree, in which leaves
are compounded.
Pedatum,f. 114, pedate, is a peculiar kind of leaf, be-
ing ternate, with its lateral leaflets compounded in
their fore part, as Helleborus fatidus, Engl. Bot. t.
613, and H. niger, Curt. Mag. t. 8. (83) There is
an affinity between a pedate leaf and those simple
ones which are three-ribbed at the base, p. 142. See
also the disposition of the lateral veins in Aristolochia
Clematitis, Engl. Bot. t. 398.
In compounding the foregoing terms we must take
care not to express a contradiction. Thus the leaves of
many Mimosa, as the purpurea, Andr. Repos. t. 372,
and sensitiva, are conjugata pinnata, conjugate in the
first instance, pinnate in the next, not covjugato-pinnata,
of an intermediate nature between conjugate and pin-
ts J) [Also Viola fiedata.']
152
COMPOUND LEAVES.
nate, which is impossible. Neither are the leaves of
Mimosa pudica digitato-pinnata, for there is no medium
between the two terms ; but they are digitate, or com-
posed of leaflets proceeding from the top of a common
foot-stalk, and those leaflets are pinnate. On the other
hand ovato-lanceolatum, lanceolate approaching to ovate,
or elliptico-lanceolatum, approaching to elliptic, as in
the Privet, Engl. Bot. t. 764, already mentioned, whose
leaves often assume that shape, are easily understood.
L 153 3
CHAPTER XVI.
OF THE FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES.
The knowledge of the functions of leaves, and their
real use with regard to the .plant, is a curious branch of
vegetable physiology, which made but a slow progress
long after the nature of many other parts had been deep-
ly scrutinized and thoroughly explained.
Caesalpinus (De Plantis, p. 6.) thought leaves merely
a clothing, or a protection against cold and heat. He
conceived that the rays of the sun, being moderated in
passing through them, were prevented from acting too
violently on the fruit and young buds, " Accordingly,'7
says he, " many trees lose their leaves in autumn, when
their fruits are perfected, and their buds hardened, while
such as retain the fruit long, keep also their leaves ; even
till a new crop is produced, and longer, as in the Fir,
the Arbutus, and the Bayr. It is reported that in hot
climates, where there is almost perpetually a burning
sun, scarcely any trees lose their leaves, because they
require them for shade." Caesalpinus goes on to show
that leaves proceed from the bark, with some remarks
on the pith, (in which we may trace the origin of the
Linnean hypothesis of vegetation,) but which are now
superseded by more accurate inquiries.
The above is certainly a very small part of the use of
leaves. Yet the observations of this writer, the father of
botanical philosophy among the moderns, are so far c©r-
r;
154
PERSPIRATION OP LEAVES
rect, that if the leaves of a tree be stripped off, the fruit
comes to nothing, which is exemplified every year in
Gooseberry bushes devoured by caterpillars ; and
though the fruit-trees of warm climates, partly natural-
ized with us, Grapes and Peaches for instance, ripen
their fruit sooner perhaps if partially deprived of their
leaves, yet if that practice be carried too far, the fruit
perishes, as gardeners who tried it soon discovered. The
White Mulberry indeed, cultivated in the south of Eu-
rope for the food of silkworms only, bears wonderfully
the loss of its foliage three or four times a year. How
far the fruit is injured nobody thinks it worth while to
inquire, as it is never eaten, but it certainly does not
fall off prematurely.
That Leaves imbibe and give out moisture has been
long known, this being one of the most obvious facts
belonging to them. Dr. Hales thought they might
probably imbibe air ; but since his time more certain
discoveries have been made concerning this point, as
well as the effect of light upon leaves, which also did
not escape the consideration of that great philosopher.
All these subjects we shall mention in their turn.
That Leaves give out moisture, or are organs of in-
sensible perspiration, is proved by the simple experi-
ment of gathering the leafy branch of a tree, and imme-
diately stopping the wound at its base with mastick, wax,
or any other fit substance, to prevent the effusion of
moisture in that direction. In a very short time the
leaves droop, wither and are dried up. If the same
branch, partly faded, though not dead, be placed in a
very damp cellar, or immersed in water, the leaves re-
PERSPIRATION OF LEAVES.
155
vive, by which their power of absorption is also proved.
Hence the use of a tin box to travelling botanists, for
the purpose of restraining the evaporation of plants, anrl
so preserving them fresh for some days till they can be
examined, as well as of reviving faded plants, if the in-
side of the box be moistened before they are shut up
in it.
Dr. Hales found that a plant of the Great Annual Sun-
flower, Helianthus annuus; lost 1 lb. 14 oz. weight in
the course of twelve hours in a hot dry day. In a dry
night it lost about 3 oz.; in a moist night scarcely any
alteration was observable, but in a rainy night it gained
2 or 3 oz. The surface of the plant compared with
that of its roots was, as nearly as could be calculated, in
the proportion of five to two ; therefore the roots must
have imbibed moisture from the earth of the pot in which
the plant grew, and which was all previously weighed,
in the same proportion of five to two, otherwise the
leaves would have faded. The same experiment was
made on the Vine, the Cabbage, &c, with various re-
sults as to the exact degree of perspiration, but all prov-
ing it to be considerable. Evergreens are found to
perspire much less than other shrubs.
The state of the atmosphere has a great effect on the
rapidity of this perspiration. Practical botanists know
how much sooner plants fade, and haymakers experi-
ence how much faster their work is done, some days
than others, and those days are by no means always the
most sunny. In a hot dry day plants are often exhaust-
ed, so as to droop very much towards evening, especial.
ly in the dry unsheltered bed of a garden. Such as have
156
SENSIBLE
PERSPIRATION.
fleshy roots, indeed, have a singular power of resisting
drought, which has already been explained p. 101. Suc-
culent plants, destined to inhabit sunny rocks, or sandy
deserts, imbibe with the greatest facility, and perspire
very sparingly. Evergreens are not generally very suc-
culent, but their cuticle appears to be constructed like
that of succulent plants, so as to allow of little evapora*
tion. The Cornelian Cherry, wjiose immense perspi-
ration we have recorded, p. 67, has a thin dry leaf, ca-
pable of holding very little moisture.
The nature of the liquor perspired has been already
noticed, p. 67. In hot weather it has been observed by
Hales, Du Hamel and Guettard to partake occasionally
of the peculiar scent of the plant that yields it, but in
general the odorous matter is of too oily a nature to be
combined with it.
The sensible perspiration of plants is of various kinds.
When watery, it can be considered only as a condensa-
tion of their insensible evaporation, perhaps from some
sudden change in the atmosphere. Groves of Poplar
or Willow exhibit this phenomenon, even in England,
in hot calm weather, when drops of clear water trickle
from their leaves like a slight shower of rain. Some-
times it is of a saccharine naturer as De la Hire observ-
ed in Orange trees ; Du Hamel Arb. v. 1. 150. It is
more glutinous in the Tilia or Lime-tree, more resin-
ous in Poplars, as well as in Cistus creticus, from which
last the resin called Labdanum is collected, by beating
the shrub with leather thongs. See Tournefort's Voyage,
29. In the Fraxinella, Dictamus albus, it is a highly
inflammable vapour. Ovid has made an elegant use of
ABSORPTION OP LEAVES.
157
the resinous exudation of Lombardy Poplars, Populus
dilatata, Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 406, which he supposes
to be the tears of Phaeton's sisters, who were transform-
ed into those trees. Such exudations must be consid-
ered as effusions of the peculiar secretions; for it has
been observed that Manna may be scraped from the
leaves of Fraxinus Ornus, Fl. Grac. t. 4, as well as
procured by incision from its stem. They are often
perhaps a sign of unhealthiness in the plant; at least
such appears to be the nature of one kind of honey-dew,
to which the Beech in particular is subject, and which,
in consequence of an unfavourable wind, covers its
leaves in the form of a sweet exudation, similar in fla-
vour to the liquor obtained from its trunk. So likewise
the Hop, according to Linnaeus, Faun. Suec. 305, is af-
fected with the honey-dew, and its flowers rendered
abortive, in consequence of the attacks of the caterpillar
of the Ghost Moth, Phalana Humuli, upon its roots. In
such case the saccharine exudation must decidedly be
of a morbid nature*. That wax is also an exudation
from the leaves of plants, appears from the experiments
recorded by Dr. Thomson in his Chemistry, v. 4. 298,
and it has been long ago asserted that wax may easily
be gathered from the leaves of Rosemary. On this sub-
ject I have not made any experiments to satisfy myself.
With respect to the absorbing power of leaves, the
best observations that have been made are those of Bon-
* I do not mean to dispute the accuracy of Mr. Curtis's excel-
lent paper, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6, written to prove honey-dew
to be the dung of Afihides. I only contend that there are more
than one kind of honey-dew.
158 ABSORPTION OF LEAVES
net, recorded in the beginning of his Recherches sur
VUsage des Feuilles. His aim was, by laying leaves of
various plants upon the top of a jar of water, some with
their upper, and others of the same species with their
under, surfaces applied to the water, to discover in
which situation leaves of each plant continued longest
in health and vigour, and also how far different species
differed from each other in this respect. The results
were in many instances highly curious.
Of fourteen herbaceous plants tried by this philoso-
pher, six lived nearly as long with one surface applied to
the water as with the other ; these were the common
Arum maculatum, the French Bean, the Sun-flower,
Cabbage, Spinach and the Small Mallow. By the last I
presume is meant Malva rotundifolia, Engl. Bot. t.
1092. Six others, Plantain, White Mullein, the Great
Mallow (probably M. sylvestris, t. 671), the Nettle,
Cock's-comb, and Purple leaved Amaranth (probably
Amaranthus hypochondriacus), lived longest with their
upper surface laid upon the water. The Nettle lived
but three weeks with its under surface on the water, and
about two months in a contrary position. The Mullein
scarcely survived five or six days, and the Amaranth
not a week, in the first-mentioned posture, while the
leaves of the former remained in vigour about five
weeks, and of the latter three months, when their upper
surfaces imbibed the water. Marvel of Peru and Balm,
the two remaining plants of the fourteen on which the
experiment was made, had also an evident advantage in
receiving that fluid by their upper surfaces. The leaves
of some of the above species were found to thrive bet-
ABSORPTION OF LEAVES. *•>*
ter when their stalks only were immersed in water, than
when either of their sides was supplied with it, and the
reverse was observable in several others ; but the White
Mullein, the Plantain and the Amaranth survived lon-
ger when they received the water by their stalk than by
their under surface, though not so long as when it was
applied to their upper sides.
Of sixteen trees tried by Bonnet, the Lilac and the
Aspen, Populus tremula, were the only leaves that
seemed to imbibe water equally well by either surface,
whilst all the others evidently succeeded best with their
under sides laid upon the water being in that respect
the reverse of herbaceous plants. Of these the White
Mulberry leaf was the most remarkable, not living more
than five days when supplied by the upper surface,
while such as floated on their backs continued in per-
fection near six months. The Vine, the Poplar (prob-
ably Populus nigra), and the Walnut, were no less re-
markable, for fading almost as soon, when fed by their
upper surface, as when left without any water at all.
Many of the other trees imbibed water as well, or.bet-
ter, by their foot-stalks as by their upper surfaces. Ha-
zel-nut and Rose leaves, when laid with their backs up-
on the water, imbibe sufficiently to nourish other leaves
on the same branch ; so will one leaflet of a French bean
supply its neighbour that does not touch the water.
Those who wish to repeat these experiments should
be careful to choose full-grown healthy leaves, all as
nearly as possible of the same age and vigour. It is
also desirable that the precise species of plant should be
recorded by its scientific name. For want of this,Bonnet,
who despised method and nomenclature, has left us in
160 «F AQUATIC PLANTS.
uncertainty concerning several of the plants he examin-
ed. We ought to have been accurately informed what
species of Poplar differed so remarkably in its power of
absorption from the Aspen, another of the same genus.
We ought likewise to have been told what Sun-flower,
what Nettle, Amaranth and Mallows were examined ;
for want of which information the authority of such ex-
periments is much impaired.
From the foregoing observations we learn the impor-
tance of shading and watering plants newly removed,
cuttings, grafts, &c. and on the other hand the benefit
of heat and air to promote due perspiration and evapora-
tion.
The perspiration of aquatic plants seems to be re-
markably copious. Of these some grow constantly im-
mersed in the water, as most species of Potamogeton,
Pond-weed, Engl. Bot. t. 168, 297, 376, &c. Their
leaves are peculiarly vascular, and dry very quickly in
the air, withering in a very few minutes after exposure
to it. Their absorbing power seems equally great, so
that they appear to be continually, in their natural situa-
tion, imbibing and giving out a quantity of water much
greater than has been observed in land plants. Other
aquatics, as the Nymphaa, Engl. Bot. t. 159, 160,
float with only the upper surface of their leaves exposed
to the air, which surface is so contrived that water will
scarcely remain upon it. These leaves, though extreme-
ly juicy, dry with great rapidity, as does every part of
the plants when gathered. It is probable that they im-
bibe copiously by their under sides, and perspire by the
upper.
SARRACENTA.
161
The oeconomy of the Sarracenia, an American ge-
nus of which we now know four species, and of the East
Indian Nepenthes distillatoria, deserve particular men-
tion. Both grow in bogs, though not absolutely in the
water. The former genus has tubular leaves which
catch the rain like a funnel and retain it; at least such is
the nature of S. purpurea, Curt. Mag. t. 849, whose
margin seems dilated expressly for this purpose, while
the orifice of the tubular part just below is contracted to
restrain evaporation. Linnaeus conceived this plant to
be allied in constitution to Nymphcea, and consequently
to require a more than ordinary supply of water, which
its leaves were calculated to catch and to retain, so as to
enable it to live without being immersed in a river or
pond. But the consideration of some other species ren-
ders this hypothesis very doubtful. S. flava, #.780, and
more especially S. adunca, Exot. Bot. t. 53, are so con-
structed that rain is nearly excluded from the hollow of
their leaves, and yet that part contains water, which
seems to be secreted by the base of each leaf. What
then is the purpose of the unusual contrivance ? An
observation communicated to me two years ago, in the
botanic garden at Liverpool, seems to unravel the mys-
tery. An insect of the Sphex or Ichneumon kind, as far
as I could learn from description, was seen by one of
the gardeners to drag several large flies to the Sarracenia
adunca, and, with some difficulty forcing them under the
lid or cover of its leaf, to deposit them in the tubular
part, which was half filled with water. All the leaves,
on being examined, were found crammed with dead or
drowning flies. The S. purpurea is usually observed
w
162
NEPENTHES.
to be stored with putrefying insects, whose seent is
perceptible as we pass the plant in a garden ; for the
margin of its leaves is beset with inverted hairs, which,
like the wires of a mousetrap, render it very difficult for
any unfortunate fly, that has fallen into the watery tube,
to crawl out again. Probably the air evolved by these
dead flies may be beneficial to vegetation, and, as far as
the plant is concerned, its curious construction may be
designed to entrap them, while the water is provided to
tempt as well as to retain them. The Sphex or Ichneu-
mon, an insect of prey, stores them up unquestionably for
the food of itself or its progeny, probably depositing its
eggs in their carcases, as others of the same tribe lay their
eggs in various caterpillars, which they sometimes bury
afterwards in the ground. Thus a double purpose is
answered; nor is it the least curious circumstance of the
whole, that an European insect should find out an Amer-
ican plant in a hot-house, in order to fulfil that purpose.
If the above explanation of the Sarracenia be admit-
ted, that of the Nepenthes will not be difficult. Each
leaf of this plant terminates in a sort of close-shut tube,
like a tankard, holding an ounce or two of water, cer-
tainly secreted through the footstalk of the leaf, whose
spiral-coated vessels are uncommonly large and nume-
rous. The lid of this tube either opens spontaneously, or
is easily lifted up by insects and small worms, who are
supposed to resort to these leaves in search of a purer
beverage than the surrounding swamps afford. Rum-
phius, who has described and figured the plant, says
" various little worms and insects crawl into the orifice,
and die in the tube, except a certain small squilla or
AIR-VESSELS OF THE LEAVES.
163
shrimp, with a protuberant back, sometimes met with,
which lives there."—I have no doubt that this shrimp
feeds on the other insects and worms, and that the same
purposes are answered in this instance as in the Sarrace-
nia. Probably the leaves of Dionaa muscipula, as well
as of the Drosera, Engl. Bot. t. 867—869, catch in-
sects for a similar reason,
I proceed to consider the effects of Air and Light up-
on vegetables.
Dr. Grew, by the assistance of the microscope, de-
tected a quantity of vesicles full of air in the leaves of
plants, as also the spiral-coated vessels of their stems,
which last he and all other physiologists, till very lately,
considered as air-vessels likewise. Malpighi made the
same observations about the same time ; and as these
two acute and laborious philosophers pursued their in-
quiries without any mutual communication, their discov-
eries strengthen and confirm each other. Their books
have long served as magazines of facts for less original
writers to work with. From their remarks physiolo-
gists have theoretically supposed that leaves imbibed
air, whiph the spiral vessels were believed to convey all
through the plant, in order that it might act on the sap
as it does on the animal blood. The analogy thus un-
derstood was not correct, because air is conveyed no
further than the lungs of animals ; but without this hy-
pothesis no use could be found for the supposed longi-
tudinal air-vessels.
The observations of Dr. Hales come next in order to
those of Grew and Malpighi. By means of the air-pump,
an instrument much in use in his time, Hales obtained
164
AIR-VESSKLS OF THE LEAVES'.
abundance of air from every part of the vegetable
body, as well as from recently extracted sap. Plants
were found to perish very soon in an exhausted receiv-
er. Some of this great mnn's experiments, however,
require to be received with caution. He rightly re-
marked that air wras not only taken in by plants very
copiously along with their food, but also imbibed by
their bark ; see Veg. Staticks, chap. 5. But when,
from observing that it would freely from the bark per-
vade the longitudinal vessels of a branch, he concluded
that Malpighi and Grew were right in their ideas of
longitudinal air-vessels, he was misled by appearances.
We cannot but be aware that, when a branch is gather-
ed, the sap must soon flow out of those spiral-coated
tubes, which are large, elastic, and, no doubt, irritable.
After they are emptied, air may unquestionably pass
through them, especially when the whole weight of the
atmosphere is acting, as in Dr. H ties' experiments with
the air-pump, upon so delicate a fabric as the internal
vascular structure of a plant, forcing its way through
pores or membranes not naturally designed to admit it.
We must also recollect that a plant, cut even for a short
time, begins to lose its vital principle, after which no
just judgment can be formed, by any experiments, con-
cerning the movements of its fluids in life and vigour.
See Chapter 1. These experiments of Dr. Hales there-
fore prove no more than that the vegetable body is per-
vious n various directions ; and perhaps the only point
they correctly establish is, that air is imbibed through
the bark, a part known to be full of air-vessels. But
the seventh chapter of the Vegetable staticks contains
EFFECTS OF AIR ON LEAVES.
165
some remarks much more to our purpose. Dr. Hales
there clearly anticipates by conjecture, what succeeding
philosophers, more enlightened chemists, have ascer-
tained. His words are remarkable :
" We may therefore reasonably conclude, that one
great use of leaves is what has been long suspected by
many, viz. to perform in some measure the same office
for the support of the vegetable life, that the lungs of
animals do, for the support of the animal life ; plants
very probably drawing through their leaves some part of
their nourishment from the air." p. 326. A little further
on he adds, " And may not light also, by freely entering
the expanded surfaces of leaves and flowers, contribute
much to the ennobling the principles of vegetables V
p. 328. (84)
(84) [The surfaces of most leaves contain a large number of
small whitish points, scarcely apparent to the naked eye, but ea-
sily distinguished with a glass. These points were called cor-
tical glands, by Saussure, and cvafiorating fiores, by Hedwig. On
examination, they are found to consist of small fissures, sur-
rounded by areas. According to M. Jurine, a microscopic anat-
omist of Geneva, almost all leaves are penetrated with a great
number of these apertures. Their size varies in different plants.
Thus in the Orchis and Lily kind, they are very large ; in the
Jessamine and Oak, they are very small. Leaves are unequally
provided with them ; some having pores on both surfaces, others
only on one, while some are even destitute of them. These
pores which contain air only, are surrounded by a pair of cells,
which Jurine denominates conjugate utricles, and which contain
a greenish fluid, in common with the other cells of the leaf
Through these pores and utricles, the communication appears to
be kept up between the external air and the juices of the leaf.]
loo
PURIFICATION OF AIR
Next in order of time to those of Hales follow the ex-
periments of Bonnet. We have already detailed his ob-
servations on the power of leaves to imbibe moisture ;
whence it is ascertained that plants are furnished with a
system of cuticular absorbents, which carry fluids into
their sap-vessels, so as to enable them in some degree to
dispense with supplies from the root. With respect to
the effects of air upon leaves, this ingenious philosopher
has not been equally successful. He is recorded as the
discoverer of the.expiration of plants, but it appears from
his work that he merely observed the bubbles of air
which cling to leaves, dead as well as living, and indeed
to any other body, when immersed in water and exposed
to the light of the sun. He found these bubbles disap-
peared in the evening, and returned again when the sun
shone, and he faithfully reports that by their attachment
to the surfaces of leaves, the latter were rendered more
buoyant, and rose in the water; a sure proof that the
air had not previously existed, in the same volume at
least, in the substance of those leaves. Accordingly,
Bonnet concluded that the latter, in imbibing, the sur-
rounding water, left the air which had been contained in
the water, and that this liberated air became visible from
being warmed and rarefied by the sun. This was as
near the truth as Bonnet could come, it not being then
known that light has a poWer of separating air of a pecu-
liar kind, carbonic acid gas, from water. 1 find no indi-
cations in his work of his having had any idea of leaves
absorbing air and giving it out again ; still less of their
affecting any change in its properties.
BY LEAVES. 16{
Dr. Priestley was the first who suggested this last-
mentioned quality in vegetables. He ascertained their
power of absorbing carbonic acid gas, denominated by
him fixed air, and giving out oxygen gas, or pure re-
spirable air. It vvas also his opinion that leaves imbib-
ed the former by their upper, and gave out the latter
by their under surface. He found some aquatic or
marsh plants extremely powerful in this respect, es-
pecially the Willow-herb or Epilobium, and the Confer-
va, a minute branching cotton-like vegetable which
grows in putrid water, and the production of which, in
water become foul from long keeping on ship-board,
Dr. Priestley judged to operate principally in restoring
that fluid to a state fit for use.
Dr. Ingenhousz, pursuing Dr. Priestley's inquiries,
found light to be necessary to -these functions, and that,
in the dark, leaves gave out a bad air. He observed
moreover that fruits and flowers almost invariably gave
out a bad, or carbonic, air, but more especially in the
dark. He probably carries his ideas of the deleterious
effects of this air on animal life, too far ; for no mischief
has ever happened, as far as common experience goes,
to persons sleeping in apple or olive chambers, neither do
the inhabitants of the confined huts inCovent-garden mar-
ket apparently suffer, from living day and night among
heaps of drying herbs. Mischiefs have unquestionably
arisen from flowers in a bed-room, or any other confined
apartment, but that is to be attributed to their perfumed
effluvia. So the bad effects, observed by Jacquin, of Lobe-
lia longiflora on the air of a hot-house, the danger incur-
red by those who sleep under the Manchineel-tree, Hip-
168
EFFECT OF LIGHT UPON PLANTS.
pomane Mancinella, or, as it is commonly believed, under
a Walnut-tree, are probably to be attributed as much to
poisonous secretions as to the air those plants evolve.
Dr. Ingenhousz introduced leaves into glass jars filled
with water, which he inverted in a tub of the same water,
and placed the whole together in the sun-shine. From
their under sides came streams or bubbles of air, which
collected in the inverted bottom of each jar. The air
thus procured proved oxygen gas, more or less pure.
The Nymphaa alba, Engl. Bot. t. 160, affords an ex-
traordinary abundance of it. Dr. Ingenhousz observed
plants to be very various in their mode of emitting these
bubbles, but it was always uniform in the same species.
Air collected from water placed in similar circumstances
without plants, proved not oxygen, but much worse
than common air, viz. carbonic acid gas, which follow-
ing chemists have confirmed, and which we have already
mentioned. Ingenhousz also found the air collected
from plants under water in the dark worse than common
air, especially that from walnut-leaves ; which confirms
the common opinion, above alluded to, respecting this
tree.
Plants purify air very quickly. A vine-leaf in an
ounce phial of carbonic acid gas, that immediately extin-
guished a candle, placed in the sun, without water,
changed it to pure respirable air in an hour and half.
Dr. Priestley found plants to alter even unmixed inflam-
mable air, or hydrogen, especially the Epilobium hirsu-
tum, if I mistake not, and Polygonum Hydropiper.
Succulent plants are found to afford most air, in con-
sequence of the abundance of their Cellular Integument,
EFFECT OF LIGHT UPON PLANTS.
169
or Parenchyma, in which, as I have hinted in the fourth
chapter, the chemical operations of the leaves are per-
formed.
That Light has a very powerful effect upon plants,
has long been known, independent of the remarks of
Hales or Ingenhousz. The green colour of the leaves is
owing to it, insomuch that plants raised in darkness are
of a sickly white. It has even been observed that when
light is admitted to the leaves through different glasses,
each tinged of a different prismatic colour, the plant is
paler in proportion as the glass approaches nearer to vio-
let. The common practice of blanching Celery in gar-
dens, by covering it up from the light, is an experiment
under the eyes of every one. This blanching of plants
is called by the French etiolation, and our chemists
have adopted the term, though I think they err in de-
riving it from Hoile, a star. When blanched plants are
brought into the light, they soon acquire their natural
green colour, and even in the dark they are green, if
exposed to the action of hydrogen gas. Tulip and
Crocus flowers have long ago been observed by Senne-
bier to be coloured even in the dark, apparently be-
cause their colour depends on a different principle from
the green of leaves.
Light acts beneficially upon the upper surface of
leaves, and hurtfully upon the under side ; hence the
former is always turned towards the light, in whatever
situation the plant may happen to be placed. Trees
nailed against a north wall turn their leaves from the
wall, though it be toward* the north, and in direct oppo-
x
179 TURNING OF LEAVES TO THE LIGHT.
sitiou to those on a southern wall over against them,
Plants in a hot-house all present the fronts of their leaves,
and this influences even the posture of the branches to
the side where there is most light, but neither to the
quarter where most air is admitted, nor to the flue in
search of heat. If the branches of a trained fruit-tree
in full leaf be disturbed in their position, the leaves re-
sume their original direction in the course of a day or
two. The brighter the day, the more quickly is this
accomplished. If the experiment be often repeated,
they continue to turn, but more weakly, and are much
injured by the exertion. Black spots appear about the
veins on their under sides, and the cuticle scales off.
Succulent leaves, though so thick and firm as many of
them are, have been observed to be peculiarly sensible
to light, while other plants, as Mallows, according to
Bonnet, arc much less so. The Miseltoe, Viscum al-
bum, Engl. Bot. t. 1470, the two sides of whose leaves
are alike in appearance, and both equally, in general,
presented to the light, are not found to turn upon any
change in the posture of the branch. Neither do up-
right sword-shaped leaves alter their position, because in
them both sides must be presumed to perform the same
functions with respect to light as well as air.
Mr. Calandrini found vine-leaves turned to the light
when separated from the stem and suspended by a
thread. Of this any one may be easily satisfied, provid-
ed the experiment be made with sufficient care and del-
icacy. It is important, as demonstrating the turning to
be accomplished by an impression made on the leaf it-
self, and not upon its footstalk.
TURNING OF FLOWERS TO THE LIGHT. 171
Nor is this effect of light peculiar to leaves alone.
Many flowers are equally sensible to it, especially the
compound radiated ones, as the Daisy, Sun-flower, Mar-
igold, &c. In their forms Nature seems to have i de-
lighted to imitate the radiant luminary to which they are
apparently dedicated, and in the absence of whose beams
many of them do not expand their blossoms at all. The
stately Annual Sun-flower, Helianthus annuus, displays
this phoenomenon more conspicuously on account of its
size, but many of the tribe have greater sensibility to
light. Its stem is compressed in some degree, to facili-
tate the movement of the flower, which, after following
the sun all day, returns after sun-set to the east, by its
natural elasticity, to meet his beams in the morning.
Dr. Hales thought the heat of the sun, by contracting the
stem on one side, occasioned the flower to incline that
way ; but if so, it would scarcely return completely at
night. There can be no doubt, from the observation of
other similar flowers, that the impression is made on
their radiated florets, which act as wings, and seem con-
trived chiefly for that purpose, being frequently destitute
of any other use. A great number of leaves likewise
follow the sun in its course ; a clover-field is a familiar
instance of this.
Of all leaves those of pinnated leguminous plants are
found most affected by light, insomuch that it appears,
in several cases, the sole cause of their expansion, for
when it is withdrawn they fold over each other, or
droop, as if dying ; and this is called by Linnaeus the
Sleep of Plants, who has a dissertation on the subject in
his Amoenitates Academics. The term Sleep may not
It 2
SLEEP OF PLANTS.
really be so hyperbolical as at first sight it seems, for the
cessation of the stimulus of light, and of the consequent
restrained position of the leaves, may be useful to the
vegetable constitution, as real sleep is to the animal.
Another purpose is answered by the nocturnal folding
of some leaves, that they shelter their flowers from the
dew, the advantage of which we shall explain hereafter.
Some pinnated leaves display a more extraordinary
sensibility, not merely to light, but to the touch of any
extraneous body, or to any sudden concussion, as those
of Mimosa sensitiva, and pudica ; Oxalis sensitiva, and
Smithia sensitiva, Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3, #. 13. An im-
pression made even in the most gentle manner, upon one
of their leaflets, is communicated in succession to all of
them, evincing an exquisite irritability, for it is in vain
to attempt any mechanical solution of this phoenomenon.
One of this tribe, Hedysarum gyrans, has a spontaneous
motion in its leaves, independent of any external stimu-
lus, even of light, and only requiring a very warm still
atmosphere to be performed in perfection. Each leaf is
ternate, and the small lateral leaflets are frequently mov-
ing up and down, either equably or by jerks, without
any uniformity or cooperation among themselves. It is
difficult to guess at the purpose which this singular ac-
tion is designed to answer to the plant itself; its effect
on a rational beholder cannot be indifferent.
The chemical actions of light, heat, and the compo-
nent parts of the atmospheric air, upon leaves, and,
where the latter are wanting, on the green stems of
plants, are now, as far as concerns all plants in common,
toleiably well understood. The' observations and ex-
ACTION OF LEAVES OX THE ATMOSPHERE. 175
periments of Priestley and Ingenhousz have been con-
firmed, extended in a variety of ways, or explained on
the principles of improved chemistry, by Dr. Percival
and Mr. Henry in England, Dr. Woodhouse in Ameri-
ca, and M. Sennebier and M. Theodore de Saussure, as
well as various other philosophers, on the continent of
Europe. It is agreed that in the day-time plants imbibe
from the atmosphere carbonic acid gas, (which was for-
merly called fixed air, and is an union of oxygen and
carbon), that they decompose it, absorb the carbon as
matter of nourishment which is added to the sap, and
emit the oxygen. So they absorb the same gas from
water, when it is separated from that fluid by the action
of light. The burning of a candle, or the breathing of
animals, in confined air, produces so much of this gas,
that neither of these operations can go on beyond a cer-
tain time, but the air so contaminated, serves as food for
vegetables, whose leaves, assisted by light, soon restore
the oxygen, or, in other words, purify the air again.
This beautiful discovery, for the main principles of
which we are indebted to the celebrated Dr. Priestley,
shows a mutual dependance of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms on each other, which had never been suspected
before his time. Comparative experiments upon the
lower tribes of these kingdoms have not yet been made,
but they would probably afford us a new test for distin-
guishing them. The air so copiously purified by a Con-
ferva, one of the most inferior in the scale of plants^
may be very extensivelv useful to the innumerable tribes
of animated beings which inhabit the same waters. The
abundant air-bubbles which have long ago given even a
174
CHEMICAL ACTION OF
botanical name to one supposed species, Conferva bullo-
sa, are probably a source of life and health to whole na-
tions of aquatic insects, worms and polypes, whenever
the sun shines.
In the dark, plants give out carbon and absorb oxy-
gen : but the proportion of the latter is small, compared
to what they exhale by day, as must likewise be the pro-
portion of carbon given out ; else the quantity of the lat-
ter added to their substance would be but trifling, es-
pecially in those climates whore the proportion of day to
night is nearly equal, and which, notwithstanding, we
know to be excessively luxuriant in vegetation. Plants
also give out azotic gas : but M. de Saussure is of
opinion that this proceeds from their internal substance ;
and it appears by his experiments to be rather a sign of
disease or approaching decay, than a regular chemical
production of their constitution when in health ; for
Sennebier found the quantity of oxygen emitted was in
proportion to the thickness of the leaf, or quantity of
parenchyma. Yet the parenchyma must be in its orig-
inal organized state, for when bruised its functions are
destroyed.
Possibly such an alternation in the functions of vege-
tables between day and night may afford a necessary
repose to their vital principle, whose share in them we
know to be of primary importance. Whatever may
happen to plants in the dark, there can be no doubt of
their principal business in the ceconomy of nature being
what we have described. The most luminous and com-
pendious view of the whole subject is given by Dr,
Thomson of Edinburgh in the fourth vol. of his Chem-
LEAVES ON THE ATMOSPHERE.
175
istry, which is well worth the attention of those who
wish to enter more deeply into all the various chemical
examinations respecting it than suits our purpose. It is
only necessary to add a short view of Dr. Darwin's hy-
pothesis which Dr. Thomson has not mentioned, proba-
bly on account of its insufficiency. That lively writer
thought the watery perspiration of leaves, acted upon by
light, gave out oxygen for the use of the plant itself,
such oxygen being immediately absorbed by the air-
vessels. This is by no means adequate to ex plain any of
the phcenomena, but rather contradictory to most of
them, and is totally superseded by the observations and
experiments of other writers. (85)
(85) [Some late inquiries, by Mr. Ellis of Edinburgh, go to
prove that vegetating plants at all times, both by day and
night consume oxygen from the atmosphere, and produce car-
bonic acid in its stead. This carbonic acid appears to be the
product of carbon, afforded by the vegetable, and oxygen, con-
tributed by the air. Oxygen is also given out in considerable
quantities, by plants vegetating in the sunshine ; but this pro-
duction, Mr. Ellis considers to be not the result of any vegeta-
tive function, but only a subordinate operation accomplished by
the direct agency of the sun's rays. The disengagement of ox-
ygen by the solar sight, is attended with the production of the
green colour in plants. It takes place only from leaves, and
other parts, which acquire this colour. Flowers, fruits, roots,
See. whether in the sunshine or in the shade, afford nothing but
carbonic acid.
Mr. Ellis believes that the production of oxygen from plants,
is more than balanced by its consumption, and the formation of
carbonic acid ; and thus that growing vegetables deteriorate the
atmosphere, in a degree which greatly surpasses their power to
ameliorate and improve it.]
176
CHEMICAL ACTION OF
There can be no question of the general purpose an-
swered to the vegetable constitution by these functions
of leaves. They confirm Mr. Knight's theory of vege«
tation, who has proved that very little alburnum or new
wood is secreted when light is kept from the leaves.
They also help us to understand how essential oils may
be produced, which are known, as well as sugar, to be
composed of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon in different
proportions. We can now have a general idea how
the nutritious sap, acted upon by all the agents above
mentioned during its stay in the cellular substance of the
leaf, and returned from thence impregnated with them
into the bark, may prove the source of increase, and of
peculiar secretions, in the vegetable frame. That por-
tion of sap sent to the flower and fruit undergoes no less
remarkable changes, for purposes to which those curi-
ous organs are devoted ; nor is it returned from thence,
as from the leaves, to answer any further end. The
existence of those organs is still more temporary, and
more absolutely limited to their own purposes, than
even that of the leaves, from whose secretions theirs are
very distinct.
But when we attempt to consider how the particular
secretions of different species and tribes of plants are
formed ; how the same soil, the same atmosphere,
should in a leaf of the vine or sorrel produce a whole-
some acid, and in that of a spurge or machineel a most
virulent poison ; how sweet and nutritious herbage
should grow among the acrid crowfoot and aconite, we
find ourselves totally unable to comprehend the exist-
ence of such wonderful powers in so small and seeming-
LEAVES ON THE ATMOSPHERE.
177
ly simple an organ as the leaf of a plant. The agency
of the vital principle alone can account for these won-
ders, though it cannot, to our understanding, explain
them. " The thickest veil," says Dr. Thomson at the
end of his chapter on vegetation, " covers the whole of
these processes ; and so far have philosophers hitherto
been from removing this veil, that they have not even
been able to approach it. All these operations indeed,
are evidently chemical decompositions and combina-
tions ; but we neither know what these decompositions
and combinations are, nor the instruments in which they
take place, nor the agents by which they are regulated."
The vain Buffon caused his own statue to be inscrib-
ed " a genius equal to the majesty of nature," but a
Wade of grass was sufficient to confound his pretensions.
L 178 ]
CHAPTER XVII
OF THE SEVERAL KINDS OF FULCRA, OR APPENDAGES TO
A PLANT.
The word Fulcrum, whose proper meaning is a prop
or support, has been applied by Linnaeus not only to
those organs of vegetables correctly so denominated,
such as tendrils, but also to various other appendages
to the herbage of a plant, none of which are universal, or
essentiaI,nor is there any one plant furnished with them all.
I prefer the English term Appendages for these organs in
general, to Props, because the latter applies only to one
of them. Seven kinds of these are distinguished by
Linnaeus, nor do I find it necessary to enlarge that num-
ber.
1. Stipula. The Stipula, a leafy appendage to the
proper leaves or to their footstalks. It is commonly
situated at the base of the latter, in pairs, and is ex-
tremely different in shape in different plants.
The most natural and usual situation of the Stipu-
las is in pairs, one stipula on each side of the base of
the footstalk, as in Lathyrus latifolius, Engl. Bot. t.
1108, whose stipulas are half arrow-shaped, f 115 ;
also in Willows, as Sahx stipularis, t. 1214, and S.
aurita, t. 1487. In Rosa Potentilla, and many gene-
ra allied to them, the stipulas are united laterally to
the footstalk,/ 116. See Potentilla alba, t. 1384.
In all these cases they are extrafoliacea, external with
respect to the leaf or footstalk ; in others they are in-
OF THE FULCRA.
179
trafolicea, internal, and are then generally simple, as
those of Polygonum, t. 1382, 756, &c. In a large
natural order, called Rubiacea, these internal stipulas
in some cases embrace the stem in an undivided tube
above the insertion of the footstalks, like those of Po-
lygonum just mentioned : in others, as the Coffee,
Cojfea arabica, and the Hamellia patens, Engl. Bot. t.
21, they are separate leaves between the footstalks,
but meeting just above their insertion. The Euro-
pean Rubiacea have whorled leaves, as Asperula Ga-
lium, Rubia, &c. ; but Asperula cynanchica, Engl.
Bot. t. 33, has sometimes two of its four leaves so
small as to look like stipulas, seeming to form an in-
termediate link between such as have whorled leaves
and such as have opposite ones with stipulas. The
next step from Asperula is Diodia, and then Sperma-
coce. In the two last the bases of the stipulas and
footstalks are united into a common tube,
Some stipulas fall off almost as soon as the leaves
are expanded, which is the case with the Tulip-tree,
Liriondendron tulipifera j in general they last as long
as the leaves.
The absence or presence of these organs, though
generally an indication that plants belong to the same
natural order and even genus, is not invariably so.
Some species of Cistus have stipulas, others none,
which is nearly the same with grasses. The stipula
in this, one of the most distinct of all natural orders,
js peculiar, consisting of an internal white membrane
crowning the sheath of their leaf, and clasping the
culm. See Phalaris canariensis, Engl. Bot. t. 1310,
HO OF THE FULCRA,
and Lagurus ovatus, t. 1334. In Aria carulea, t.
750, a few minute hairs supply its place, while Sesle-
ria carulea, t. 1613, and some maritime grasses, have
scarcely more than the rudiment of a stipula. Old
writers call this organ in grasses by a peculiar name
liguh, and others denominate it membrana foliorum,
but both terms are superfluous. A curious instance
of stipulas supplying the place of leaves is observable
in Lathyrus Aphaca, t. 1167, which has only one or
two pair of real leaves on the seedling plants, and
those soon disappear, serving chiefly to prove, if any
proof were wanted, that the rest are true stipulas.
Remarkably scariose or dry membraneous stipulas
are seen in lllecebrum Paronychia, Fl. Grac. t. 246,
and in the genus Pinus.
2. Bractea. The floral leaf, a leafy appendage to the
flower or its stalk. It is of a variety of forms, and
sometimes green, sometimes coloured. The Lime-
trees, Tilia europaa, f. 117, #. 610, and parvifo-
lia, t. 1705,havea very peculiar oblong pale floral leaf,
attached to the flower-stalk. (86) The Lavenders,^
118, see Curt. Mag, t. 400 and 401, have coloured
bracteas, and the Purple-topped Clary, Salvia Hor-
minum, Fl. Grac. t. 20, exhibits a gradation from
the proper leaves to green bracteas, and from them to
coloured ones, which last are barren, or unaccompa-
nied by flowers. Hence I am induced to believe this
(86) [Not less remarkable in the Tilia Americana, Lime tree,
or Busswood."|
OR APPENDAGES OF PLANTS.
1S1
plant a mere variety of S. viridis, t. 19, all whose
bracteas are green and fertile. Bartsia, alpina, Engl.
Bot. t. 361, and Melampyrum arvense, t. 53, display
an elegant transition from leaves to coloured bracteas.
The Orchis tribe have green leafy bracteas, different
in size in different species. A most beautiful large
and coloured bractea is produced in Mussanda fron-
dosa, Hort. Mai. v. 2, #. 18, from one of the teeth of
the calyx, also in M. glabra of Willdenow, and two
new species brought from America by Mr. John Fra-
ser. Spinous bracteas of a curious construction guard
the calyx in Atractylis cancellata, f 119. Linnaeus
observes that not bracteas are to be found in the class
Tetradynamia.
The ochrea of Rottboll, TVilldenovPs Principles of
Botany, 50, which enfolds the flower-stalks in Cype-
rus, see Engl. Bot. t. 1309, seems to me a species of
bractea.
3. Spina, f. 120. A Thorn. This proceeds from the
wood itself, and is either terminal like Hippophae
rhamnoides, Engl. Bot. t. 425, Rhamnus catharticus,
t. 1629 / or lateral as Cratagus (or Mespilus) Crus-
galli, (87) tomentosa, parvifolia, &c.
Linnaeus observes that this sometimes disappears
by culture, as in the Pear-tree, Pyrus sativus. which
when wild has strong thorns ; hence he denominates
such cultivated plants tamed, or deprived of their nat-
ural ferocity. Professor Willdenow, Principles of
(87) [*A very common species of thorn.]
183
OF THE FULCRA,
Bot. t. 270, considers thorns as abortive buds, and
thence very ingeniously and satisfactorily accounts for
their disappearance whenever the tree receives more
nourishment.
The permanent footstalks of the Gum Tragacanth
shrub, Astragalus Tragacantha, are hardened into
real spines, as are the flower-stalks in Pisonia, as well
as the stipulas of Xanthium spinosum and the Mimosa.
—Linn. Mss.
4. Aculeus,f 121, a Prickle, arises from the bark only,
and comes off with it, having no connection with the
wood, as in Rosa, Rubus (the Bramble Raspberry,
&c), and Zizyphus, Willd. Sp. PI. v. 1, 1102.
This is not liable to disappear by culture, being
very distinct in nature from the last.
5, Cirrus, t. 9,f. 122. A Tendril. This is indeed
properly called a fulcrum or support, being intended
solely to sustain weak and climbing stems upon more
firm and sturdy ones. By its means such climbers
often reach, in tropical forests, to the summits of lofty
trees, which they crown with adventitious blossoms.
Tendrils or claspers when young are usually put forth
in a straight direction ; but they presently become
spiral, making several circumvolutions, by which
they take hold of any thing in their way, and then as-
sume a firmer texture. After accomplishing a cer-
tain number of turns in one direction, some tendrils
have a power of twining subsequently the contrary
way ; many of them moreover are branched or com-
OR APPENDAGES OF PLANTS.
185
pound, so that the chances of their meeting with a
support are multiplied.(88) The Vine, Vitis vinifera,
the various species of Passion-flower, and the Pea or
Vetch tribe afford good examples of spiral tendrils.
The Virginian Creeper Hedera, or, as it ought to be
called, Vitis quinquefolia, has branched tendrils, whose
extremities adhere to the smoothest flint, like the
fibres of Ivy.' Glgriosa superba,f. 76, Andr. Repos.
t. 129, and Flagellaria indica, have a simple spiral
tendril at the end of each leaf; for they belong to the
Monocotyledones, the structure of whose whole her-
bage is generally of the most simple and compendious
(88) [This is commonly the case with such tendrils as fasten
their extremities, and then contract themselves into a spiral
Goil, thus drawing the plant nearer to the supporting object.
The circumstance of the turns being made in opposite direc-
tions, is clearly a provision to obviate the twisting of the tendrils
which would otherwise take place.
Mr. Knight has published, in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1812, some experiments, which go to illustrate the laws of
the motions of tendrils. A number of trials, made with tendrils
of the Vine, Ivy, &c. shewed that these organs recede from the
light, and tend toward shady or opake bodies in their neigh-
bourhood. A plant of the Amfielofisis quinquefolia which was pla-?
ced in the middle of a greenhouse, pointed its tendrils toward
the north or back wall. Another plant of the same species be-
ing placed at the east end of the house, presented its tendrils to-
ward the west or centre of the house. Being transferred to the
west end and exposed to the evening sun, the tendrils turned
round, and pointed again to the centre of the house. In another
case the tendrils were sensibly attracted by a piece of dark col-
oure'l paper placed near them, while a pane of glass did not pro-
duce on them the least effect.]
184
OF THE FULCRA,
kind.(89) The flower-stalks of Cardiospermum Halica-
cabum bear tendrils ; but a most singular kind of ten-
dril, if it may so be called, which certainly has a right
to the name of fulcrum, is found in the Annona hex-
apetala, Linn. Suppl. 270. The flower-stalk of this
tree forms a hook, and grasps the neighbouring branch,
serving to suspend the fruit, which is very heavy, re-
sembling a bunch of grapes, and indicates the plant in
question to be either a Michelia or an Uvaria.
6. Glandula, a Gland, is defined by Linneus as a little
tumour discharging a fluid. Such are abundant on
the stalk and calyx of a Moss Rose,,/! 123, Curt.
Mag. t. 69, and between the serratures of the leaf of
Salix pentandra, Bay-leaved Willow ; also on the
footstalks of Viburnum Opulus, (90) Engl. Bot. t.
332, and various species of Passion-flower. The
liquor discharged is in the first-mentioned instances
resinous and fragrant, in the latter a sort of honey.
7. Pilus,f 124. A Hair. This, according to the Lin-
nean definition, is an excretory duct of a bristle-like
form. Such it undoubtedly is in the Nettle, Urtica,
Engl. Bot. t. 148, and #. 1236, whose bristles are tu-
bular and pervious, having each a bag of poison at its
base, like the fang of a serpent; as well as in numerous
(89) [The Clematis Virginiana, Virgin's Bower, or Trav-
eller's Joy, climbs by means of its leaf stalks, which twine like
tendrils round their supporters.]
(90) [Guelder Rose, or Snow ball. Several species of
Cassia have large glands on the leaf stalks. Ribes Floridum has
both surfaces of the leaf covered with them.]
OR APPENDAGES OF PLANT3.
185
plants whose hairy coats exude a viscid moisture*
But the hairs which clothe many plants are merely a
protection against cold, heat, or insects. Sometimes
they are hooked, sometimes branched and entangled,
as in Mullein, Verbascum, t. 549, &c. In Croton, So-
lanum, and Lavatera, they have often a starry figure.
Very generally they are found, under a microscope, to
be curiously jointed. Some Begonia bear on their
leaves flat little straps called by their authors ramenta
shavings, instead of cylindrical hairs ; but I know not
that they at all differ in nature from the usual pubes-
cence, nor do they merit to be particularly distinguish-
ed. Some of the natural order of asperifolia, as
Echium, t. 181, and Lycopsis, t. 938, especially
some exotic species of this order, are clothed with
curious hard tubercles from which their bristles pro-
ceed. Echium pyrenacium, Desfont. Atlant. v. 1.
164, is an instance of this,y! 125.
The pubescence of plants varies greatly in degree
according to differences of soil or exposure ; several
kinds, as Mentha hirsuta, t. 447,448, naturally hairy,
being occasionally found smooth, but if transplanted
they soon resume their proper habit. Yet the direc
tion of the hairs or bristles proves a very sure means
of distinguishing species, especially in the genus
Mentea, the hairs about whose calyx and flower-stalk
point differently in different species, and I have found
it the only infallible distinction between one Mint and
another. See Trans, of Linn. Soc. v. 5. 171. The
accurate Dr. Roth has lately applied the same test to
z
18b OF THE Fl'LCRA.
the species of Myosotis, which all botanists before him
had either confounded under M. scorpioides, Engl.
Bot. t. 480, or else separated upon vague principles.
Some species of Galium are admirably characterized
by the bristles of their leaves, or of parts of their
leaves, being hooked backward or forward. We
therefore accept the 272d maxim of Linnseus's Philo-
sophia Botanica with that limitation which he himself
has allowed in his commentary upon it. " The Pu-
bescence," says he, " is a ridiculous distinction, be-
ing for the most part effaced by culture." After quo-
ting examples, he concludes : " We are therefore not
to have recourse to the hairiness or spines of plants
but in case of absolute necessity." Such necessity
every botanist will allow to have existed in the Men-
tha and in Myosotis scorpioides ; and though the de-
gree of pubescence varies from culture, and even its
structure be changeable, as in Hedypnois hispida,
Engl. Bot. t. 554, and hirta, t. 555, its direction is I
believe as little liable to exception as any character
that vegetables present.
[ 1<*7 1
CHAPTER XVIII.
OF THE INFLORESCENCE, OR MODE OF FLOWERING, AND IT?
VARIOUS FORMS.
Inflorescence, inflorescentia, is used by Linnaeus
to express the particular manner in which flowers are sit-
uated upon a plant, denominated by preceding writers
the modus florendi, or manner of flowering. Of this the
several kinds are distinguished as follows.
Verticulus,/ 126. A Whorl. In this the flowers
surround the stem in a sort of ring ; though they
may not perhaps be inserted on all sides of it, but
merely on two opposite ones, as in Dead Nettle, La-
nium, Engl. Bot. t. 768-—770, Mentha Rubra, t.
1413, and Clinopodium vulgare, t. 1401 ; or even on
one side only, as Rumex maritimus, t. 725.(91) The
flowers of Hippuris vulgaris, t. 763, are truly inserted
in a ring round the stem, f. 127 ; but they are not
whorled independent of the leaves, and are therefore
more properly, with a reference to the leaves, denomi-
nated axillary and solitary.
Racemus,/! 128, a Cluster, or Raceme, consists of
numerous rather distant flowers, each on its own prop-
er stalk, and all connected by one common stalk, as a
bunch of Currants, Ribes rubrum, Engl. Bot. t.
'289, nigrum t. 1291, and Orobus sylvaticus, t. 518,
(91) [And many other species of Rumex or^)ock.]
m
«JL 1HE LNFLORESCE.a 1
A cluster is most generally drooping or pendulous.
and the flowers are all expanded nearly at the same
time.
A compound racemus occurs in Solanum Dulca-
mara, t. 565, and an aggregate one, several being
gathered together, in Actaa racemosa, (92) Dill. Elth.
t. 67 ; but the example of a bunch of Grapes, quoted
by Linnaeus for a racemus, appears to mc a true
thyrsus ; see below.
Spica,/! 129, a Spike, bears numerous flowers ranged
along one common stalk, without any partial stalks,
as in Satyrium hircinum, Engl. Bot. t. 34, Orchis bi-
folia, t. 22, Plantago major, (93) #. 1558, and media,
t. 155.9, Potamogeton heterophyllum, t. 1285, and/fo-
itans, t. 1286 ; but this is so seldom the case, that a
little latitude is allowed. Veronica spicata, t. 2,
therefore,/! 130, and Ribes Spicatum, t. 1290, as well
as the Common Lavender, Lavandula Spica, are suffi-
ciently good examples of a spike, though none of
them has entirely sessile flowers ; and Linnaeus uses
the term in numerous instances where it is still less
correctly applicable. A spike generally grows erect
Its mode of expansion is much more progressive than
that of the raceme, so that a long period elapses be-
tween the fading of the lowest flowers and the open-
ing of the upper ones. The flowers are commonly
all crowded close together, or if otherwise, they form
separate groups, perhaps whorls3 when the spike is
(92) [Called in the United States, Black Snake Root.]
(93) [Greater Plantain.]
OF THE IXFLORESCENCE.
185
said to be either interrupted, or whorled ; as in some
Mints. In Sanguisorba officinalis the spike begins
flowering at me top. See Capitulum below.
A compound spike is seen in Lavandula vinnata,
Curt. Mag. t. 401,and L. abrotanoides of Willdenow.
Spica secunda, a spike whose flowers lean all to one
side, occurs in Nardus stricta, Engl. Bot. t. 290.
Spicula, f 131, a Spikelet, is applied exclusively
to grasses that have many florets in one calyx, such
florets, ranged on a little stalk, constituting the spike-
let, which is therefore a part of the flower itself, and
not of the inflorescence; see Poa aquatica, t. 1315,
fluitans, t. 1520, Briza minor, t. 1316, &c.
Corymbus, f. 132, a Corymb, is a spike whose partial
flower, stalks are gradually longer as they stand lower
on the common stalk, so that all the flowers are nearly
on a level, of which Spiraa opulifolia, a common
shrub in gardens, is an excellent specimen. The Lin-
naean class Tetradynamia exemplifies this less perfect-
ly, as Cardaminepratensis, Engl. Bot. t. 776, Cheiran-
thus sinuatus, t. 462, and the common Cabbage, Bras-
sica oleracea, t. 637, in which the corymbus of flowers
becomes a racemus of fruit, as happens also in that sec-
tion of the Veronica, entitled by Linnaeus corymboso-
racemosa. The flowers of Yarrow,f 133, Achillea, t.
757,and 758, and several others of the compound class,
as well as the Mountain-Ash, #. 337, grow in a corym-
bose manner, though their inflorescence may not come
exactly under the above definition. It is worthy of re-
mark that Linnaeus in that definition uses the word spica,
not racemus, nor has he corrected it in his own copy
190
OF THE INFLORESCENCE.
of Phil. Bot. p. 41, though he has properly altered a
slip of the pen in the same line, petiolis, topedunculis.*
This shows he did not restrain his idea of a spike
absolutely to sessile flowers, but admitted that ex-
tended signification which nature justifies. Many
plants acquire partial stalks as the fruit advances to-
wards maturity.
Fasciculus, f 134, a Fascicle, is applied to flowers
on little stalks, variously inserted and subdivided,
collected into a close bundle, level at the top, as the
Sweet William, Dianthus barbatus, Curt. Mag. t.
207, and D. Armeria, Engl. Bot. t. 317.(94)
Capitulum, f 135, a Head or Tuft, bears the flowers
sessile in a globular form, as Statice Armeria, t. 226,
Adoxa Moschatellina, t. 453, and Gomphrena globosa,
the Globe Amaranthus of the gardens.
Perhaps the inflorescence of Sanguisorba qfficina*
lis, t. 1312, might be esteemed a capitulum, because
its upper flowers come first to perfection, as in
Adoxa, which seems contrary to the nature of a spike ;
but it does not appear that all capitate flowers expand
in the same way, and Sanguisorba canadensis has a
real spike, flowering in the usual manner, from the
bottom upwards. So Allium descendens, Curt. Mag.
t. 251, opens its upper, or central, flowers first, con-
* It might be expected from the numerous learned editors
and copiers of this and other works of Linnaeus, that they should
correct such manifest errors as the above, which any tyro mighi
perceive.
(94) [The Dianthus Armeria is a native."]
OF THE INFLORESCENCE.
191
trary to the usual order in its genus ; both which in-
stances prove such a diversity to be of small moment.
Umbell a, an Umbel, for which some authors retain the
obsolete old English name of Rundle. In this seve-
ral flower-stalks, or rays, nearly equal in length,
spread from one common centre, their summits form-
ing a level, convex, or even globose surface, more
rarely a concave one. When each ray is simple and
single-flowered, it is called a simple umbel,/! 136, as
those of Allium ursinum, Engl. Bot. t. 122, Ivy, #.
1267, Primula veris, t. 5, farinosa, t. 6, elatior, t.
513, and Eucalyptus re-sinifera, Exot. Bot. t. 84.(95)
In a compound umbel each ray or stalk mostly bears
an umbellula, or partial umbel, as Athamanta Libano-
tis, Engl. Bot. t. 138. This is usually the case in
the very natural order of plants called unbelliferous,
f. 138, to which the last-mentioned, as well as the
common Carrot, Parsnep, Parsley, Hemlock, &c. be-
longs.
A few only of this order have simple umbels, as
Hydrocotyle vulgai'is, t. 751, and the curious Astran-
tia, f 137, and Eriocaha, Exot. Bot. t. 76—79. In
Euphorbia the umbel is differently compounded, con-
sisting of 3, 4, 5 or numerous rays, each of which is
repeatedly subdivided, either in a threefold or forked
manner. See Engl. Bot. t. 883, 959, &c.(96)
(95) [Fine examples of the Simple Umbel occur in the Silk-
weeds, Asclefiias Syriaca, fiurfiu rase ens, tuberosa, &c]
(96) [An Umbel is said to be radiate, when the outer petals
of the external flowers are larger and longer than the rest ; it is
I9ii OF THE INFLORESCENCE.
Cyma,,/! 139, a Cyme, has the general appearance of an
umbel, and agrees with it so far that its common
stalks all spring from one centre, but differs in having
those stalks variously and alternately subdivided.
Examples are found in Viburnum, Engl. Bot. t. 331,
332, and the common Laurustinus, as also in Sam-
bucus, Elder, #. 475, 476. This mode of inflores-
cence agrees with a corymbus also in general aspect,
but in the latter the primary stalks have no common
centre, though the partial ones may sometimes be um-
bellate, which last case is precisely the reverse of a
cyma.
Panicula,/! 140, a Panicle, bears the flowers in a sort
of loose subdivided bunch or cluster, without any or-
der. When the stalks are distant, it is called diffusa,
a lax or spreading panicle, as in Saxifraga umbrosa,
t. 663, so frequent in gardens under the name ofLon-.
don Pride, and S. Geum, t. 1561, but particularly in
many grasses, as the common cultivated Oat, and
Avena strigosa, t. 1266 ; in this tribe the branches of
the panicle are mostly semiverticillate ; see Aira
aquatica, t. 1557. A divaricated panicle is still
more spreading, like those of Prenanthes muralis, #.
457, and Spergula arvensis, t. 1535 ; the last being
dichotomous or forked. A dense or crowded panicle,
coarctata, is observable in Milium lendigerum, t. 1107,
and Agrostis stolonifera, t. 1532, but still more re-
markably in Phelum paniculatum, t. 1077, whose in
Jloscular, when the flowers are alike in size. See Aggregate
Flowers.]
OF'THE INFLORESCENCE.
19:;
florescence looks, at first sight, like a cylindrical spike,
but when bent to either side, it separates into branch*.
ed lobes, constituting a real panicle. (97)
Thyrsus, f. 141, a Bunch, is a dense or close panicle,
«
more or less of an ovate figure, of which the Lilac,
Syringia vulgaris, Curt. Mag. t. 183, Tussilago hyb-
rida and Petasites, Engl. Bot. t. 430, 431, are exam-
ples cited by Linnaeus. I presume likewise to con-
sider a bunch of grapes, Vitis vinifera, as a true thyr-
sus, to the characters and appearance of which it cor-
rectly answers. Its ultimate terminations are some-
times obscurely umbellate, especially while in blos-
som, which is no objection here, but can never be the
case in a racemus, whether simple or compound. See
Racemus.
Of simple flower-stalks, whether solitary or cluster-
ed, radical or cauline, axillary, lateral or terminal, we
have already spoken.
Linnaeus remarks that the most elegant specific
characters are taken from the inflorescence. Thus
the Apple, Engl. Bot. t. 179, and the Pear, form two
species of Pyrus, so far at least a most natural genus,
the former of which bears an umbel, the latter a co-
rymb. Pyrola uniflora, t. 146, secunda, t. 517, and
umbellata, Curt. Mag. t. 778, are admirably distin-
guished by their several forms of inflorescence.
(97) [A Panicle leaning one way, Panicula aecunda, is found
in Dactylis glomerata, or Orchard Grass.]
AA
[ 194 ]
CHAPTER XIX.
OF THE FLOWER AND FRUIT.
Having examined the general structure and external
form of plants, we now come to more important and
even essential, though more transitory organs—the flow-
er and fruit, or parts of fructification. By these each spe-
cies is perpetually renewed without limits, so far at least
as the observation of mankind has reached ; while, as
we have already mentioned, all other modes of propaga-
tion are but the extension of an individual, and sooner or
later terminate in its total extinction.
Nothing can be more happy than the Linnaean defini-
tion of these organs ; Phil. Bot.52. " The fructifica-
tion is a temporary part of vegetables, destined for the
reproduction of the species, terminating the old individ-
ual and beginning the new."
Pliny had long ago beautifully said, that " blossoms
are the joy of trees, in bearing which they assume a new
aspect, vieing with each other in the luxuriance and va-
riety of their colours." Linnaeus has justly applied this
to plants in general, and, improving upon the idea, he
considers their herbage as only a mask or clothing, by no
means indicative of their true nature or character, which
can be learned from the flower and fruit alone.
Mr. Knight has traced his central vessels, by which
the sap is conveyed from the root, in the flower and
fruit. On the returning sap into the bark of these parts
he has not been able to make any distinct observation ;
OF THE FLOWER AND FRUIT.
195
but he has determined that no matter of increase is fur-
nished from the flowers or their stalks, as from leaves, to
the part of the branch below them, nor indeed to any
other part, Phil. Trans, for 1801, p. 340. There can
be no doubt that certain parts of the flower, which we
shall presently describe, perform functions respecting
air and light analogous to those of leaves, but entirely
subservient to the benefit of the flower and fruit. Their
secretions, formed from the returning sap, are confined
to their own purposes. As soon as these are accomplish-
ed, a decided separation of vessels takes place, and the
ripe fruit, accompanied perhaps by its stalk, falls from
the tree. Dr. Hales tried in vain to give any flavour to
fruit by the most penetrating and volatile fluids conveyed
through the sap-vessels ; for the laws of secretion are
absolute in the organs of the flower, and their various re-
sults are, if possible, more strikingly distinct than even
those we have contemplated in the leaves.
It is scarcely necessary to repeat that the fructification
is essential to vegetables. A plant may be destitute of
stem, leaves, or even roots, because if one of these parts
be wanting, the others may perform its functions, but it
can never be destitute of those organs by which its spe-
cies is propagated. Hence, though many individual
plants may be long without blossoms, there are none, so
far as nature has been thoroughly investigated, that are
not capable, in favourable circumstances, of producing
them, as well as seeds ; to whose perfection the blos-
soms themselves are altogether subservient.
Linnaeus distinguishes seven parts of fructification,
some of which are essential to the very nature of a flow-
196 OF THE I'AllTS 01 FRUCTIFICATION
er or fruit, others not so indispensably necessary, and
therefore not universal.
I. Calyx, the Calyx or Flower-cup, generally resem-
bling the leaves in texture and colour, and forming
the outermost part of a flower. This is not essential,
and is often absent.
II. Corolla, the Corolla, or more delicate coloured inter-
nal leaf or leaves, properly petals, of a flower, likewise
not essential.
III. Stamen, or Stamina, the Stamen or Stamens, com-
monly of a slender or thread like form, bearing some
kind of knob or cellular body, and ranged internally
with respect to the Corolla. These are essential.
IV. Pistillum, or Pistilla, the Pistil, or Pistils, in the
centre ol the flower, consisting of the rudiments of the
fruit, with one or more organs attached to them, and,
of course, essential.
V. Pericarpium, the Seed-vessel, of a pulpy, woody, or
leathery texture, enclosing the seeds, but wanting in
many parts.
VI. Semen, the Seed, the perfecting of which is the sole
end of all the other plants.
VII. Receptaculum, the Receptacle, basis or point of
connection. This must necessarily be present in
so,:ie form or other.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CALYX. 197
I. Calyx. The Flower-cup, or more correctly the
external covering of the flower, when present, was
originally divided by Linnaeus into seven kinds, some
of which are more justly so denominated than the oth-
ers, and I have ventured to make an alteration in his
list.
I. Perianthium,f. 142. Calyx, properly and common-
ly so called, when it is contiguous to and makes a
part of the flower, as the five green leaves which en-
compass a Rose, including their urn-shaped base ; the
two green bristly ones which enfold the bud in Glau-
eium tuteum, Fl. Brit. Engl. Bot. t. 8 ; the tubular
part, comprehending the scales at its base, in the
Pinks, #.61, 62, or the globular scaly cup, in Centau-
rea, t. 56. The Tulip, #. 63, is a naked flower,
having no calyx at all.(98)
(98) [Some of the most remarkable forms of the calyx are
Ventricosus, inflated, when it appears swelled or distended, as
in Cucubalus Behen, or Campion.
Prismaticus, prismatic, with sharp, somewhat parallel angles,
as in Mimulus, or Monkey Flower.
Imbricatum or Squamosum, imbricated or scaly.
Squarrosum, Squarrose, when the leaflets which compose it,
are bent back at the points.
Scariosum, Scariose, when the leaflets are hard, thin, and dry.
Ciliatum, fringed with hairs or bristles on the margin.
Muricatum, Muricated, set with short stiff prickles.
Sfiinosum, thorny, each leaflet tipped with a thorn, as in thistles.
Turbinatum, turbinate, having the figure of a top.
Calyculatum, calyculated or doubled, when one calyx appears
to he enclosed at Us"base by another.]
V
196 OF THE INVOLUCRUM.
This part is of an infinite variety of forms in differ-
ent genera, being either simple or compound, divided
or undivided, regular or irregular. In some instances
it is permanent till the fruit is ripe, in others it falls
even before the flower is well expanded.
Some genera have a double perianthium, as Malva,
t. 671, or even a triple one, as Scabiosa, t. 1311.
2. Involucrum, f. 143, Involucre of Professor Martyn ;
but I generally retain the Latin termination. This is
remote from the flower, and can scarcely be distin-
guished clearly from a Bractea. The term was first
adopted by Linnaeus, at the suggestion of his friend
Artedi, in order to distinguish the genera of umbellif-
erous plants, for which purpose the latter deemed the
part in question very important. But according to
the laws which Linnaeus had laid down, the parts of
the flower and fruit alone were to afford generic charr
acters, and the most sound botanists have ever since
kept to this rule, with infinite advantage over less cor-
rect ones, however ready to derive ideas respecting
the natural habit, and secondary characters, of a ge^
nus, not only from the inflorescence and bracteas, but
even from the leaves, stipulas, or other parts. Lin-
naeus and Artedi, therefore, were obliged to consider
the involucra and involucella, the former accompany-
ing the general and the latter the partial umbels, as a
sort of calyx, and the umbel altogether as one aggre-
gate flower, composed of florets united by a common
radiated receptacle. Consequently a cyme must be
considered in the same light; nor are reasons wanting
in support of this hypothesis, which we shall consider
OF THE INVOLUCRUM.
199
after having first explained all the parts of fructifica-
tion.
In Euphorbia, however, the term bractea would
surely be more proper than involucrum or involucel-
lum, as is evident from a consideration of the inflores-
cence of the whole genus, so very different in different
species. In E. Peplis, and many others, the flowers
are solitary and axillary ; in others again, as E.
amygdaloides, Engl. Bot. t. 256, and Characias, t.
442, some flower-stalks are umbellate, some scatter-
ed ; and the subdivisions of the umbel in all are ulti*
mately forked, that is, of a nature between umbellate
and scattered. This genus has, moreover, a proper
calyx or perianthium of a most distinct and peculiar
nature. Some species of Anemone, a genus destitute
of a perianthium, are said by Linns us to have an invo-
lucrum, as A. Pulsatilla, t. 51, for which the name of
bractea would be vastly more correct, though in A.
Hepatica, Curt. Mag. t. 10, it is placed so near the
flower as to seem a part of it, which, however, is real-
ly not the case.
The name of Involucrum \s applied by Gleditsch
to the membrane covering the fructification of ferns,
f. 144, 145 ; nor have I, in studying this part with pe-
culiar attention, in order to reform the genera of these
plants, see Tracts relating to Natural History, p. 215,
found reason to contrive any new appellation. My
learned friends Willdenow and Swartz have judged
otherwise, calling this membrane the indusium, or
covering; which seems to me altogether superfluous.
See its various forms in Engl. Bot. t. 1458—60,
1150, 1159, 1160, &c.
200
OF THE AMENTUM.
3. Amentum, f 146. Catkin, denominated by authors
before Linnaeus julus, nucamentum, or catulus ; con-
sists of a common receptacle of a cylindrical form be-
set with numerous scales, each of which is accompa-
nied by one or more stamens or pistils, so that the
whole forms an aggregate flower.(99) The recepta-
cle itself and the bases of the scales are firmly united,
and the whole catkin falls off entire, except that in
some instances the upper part of each scale withers
away, as in the Willow genus, Salix, Engl. Bot. t.
1388—90, 1402—4, &c, the seed-vessels in that
genus being quite distinct from the scales. In others,
the whole scale remains, enlarges, hardens, and pro-
tects the seed, as in Pinus, the Fir tribe. Such is the
case with catkins of fertile flowers, which are necessa-
rily permanent till the seed is ripe ; barren ones fall
as soon as the stamens have performed their office.
Every catkin consists generally of either one kind of
flower or the other. There are few certain and inva-
riable instances of stamens and pistils in the same cat-
kin, that circumstance occurring chiefly in a few spe-
cies of Salix and Carex ; nor is Typha, t. 1455—7,
an exception to this. Examples of barren-flowered
catkins are seen, not only in Salix and Pinus, but in
several plants whose fertile or fruit-bearing flowers
are not catkins, such as the Walnut, and, unless I am
much mistaken, the Hasel-nut, #. 723. Each nut or
seed of the latter has a permanent coriaceous calyx of
(99) [The Ament or Catkin is the most common inflorescence
of our Forest trees ; as the Oak, Walnut, Chesnut, Birch, Alder.
8cc]
OF THE SPATHA AND GLUME.
201
its own, inadvertently called by Gaertner an involu-
crum, though he considers the whole as an amentum,
which this very calyx proves it not to be.* Humu-
lus, the Hop, #. 427, has a catkin for the fertile flower
only.
4. Spatha,f. 147. Sheath, a covering which bursts
longitudinally, and is more or less remote from the
flower. This is exemplified in the Snow-drop, Ga-
lanthus nivalis, t. 167, the various species of Narcis*
sus, t. 17, 275'and 276, and the Arum, (100) #. 1298.
The Spatha of the latter encloses a Spadix, or elon-
gated receptacle, common to many flowers, according
to the genuine Linnaean idea of this kind of calyx,
taken from Palm-trees. In these the Spadix is
branched. (101)
5. Gluma,f. 148. Husk, the popular calyx of Grass-
es and Grass-like plants, of a chaffy texture. These
husks are usually compressed, embracing each other
at the base, as in Phleum pratense, t. 1076. Some-
times they are depressed, flattened vertically, as in
Briza, t. 540 and 1316. To the husk belongs the.
* It appears moreover that Carfiinue, the Hornbeam, has hith-
erto erroneously been supposed to have an amentum for the fer-
tile flower. The true nature of the covering of the seed, as well
as of the common stalk, proves it otherwise,
(100) [The spatha of Arum trifihyllum is inflected at the top,
and often elegantly striped within That of Pothos fatida ap-
pears with its spadix before the leaves]
(101) [The receptacle of Acerus or Sweet Flag, is a Spadixj
destitute of a Spatha.]
BB
202
OF THE FEKICHJETIUM
Arista, f. 149, Beard or Awn, a bristle-shaped appen-
dage, usually spiral, and possessing the property of
an hygrometer. This, however, is not always pres-
ent, even in different individuals of the same species.
" Unfortunately for the science,
On the awn there's no reliance."
So says, or rather sings, with more truth than sub-
limity, the ingenious author of the Flora Londinensis,
fasc. 6, #. 8.
The spiral kind of awn is most frequently attached
to the Coroll of grasses, which is precisely of the same
husky nature as their calyx, and is, by some bota-
nists, considered as such. Specimens ofgluma muti-
ca, beardless husks, are seen in Phalaris canariensis,
Engl. Bot. t. 1310, and gluma aristata, awned ones,
in Lagurus ovatus, t. 1334, and Stipa pennata, t.
1356.
6. Perichatium, f. 150. A scaly Sheath, investing the
fertile flower, and consequently the base of the fruit-
stalk, in some Mosses. In the genus Hypnum it is
of great consequence, not only by its presence, con-
stituting a part of the generic character, but by its
differences in shape, proportion, and structure, serving
frequently to discriminate species. See Engl. Bot. t.
1037—9, 1182, 1445—8, &c. ; see also the same
part in Neckera, t. 1443, 4. Linnaeus appears by his
manuscripts to have intended adding this to the different
kinds of calyx, though it is not one of the seven enu-
merated in his printed works. Nor is he, surely, cor-
rect in allowing it to the genus Jungermannia. The
AND VOLVA
206
membranous part which he there calls perichatium is
strictly analagous indeed to the calyptraf. 151,152 b,
or veil of real mosses, esteemed by him a kind of ca-
lyx ; but as I presume with Schreber, to reckon it
rather a corolla, and Hedwig once thought the same,
and as Jungermannia has more or less of a real calyx
besides,/ 152 a, see Engl. Bot. t. 771, &c, I would
no longer apply the term perichatium to this genus at
all.
The part called calyptra being removed from the
list, as being a corolla, the perichatium takes its
place among the seven kinds of calyx. We lay less
stress upon this coincidence than Linnaeus might
have done, when, according to the fashion of the
times, he condescended to distribute his immortal
Philosophia Botanica into 12 chapters and 365 sec-
tions, and reckoned seven parts of fructification as
well as seven species of calyx.
7. Volva, f. 153. Wrapper, or covering of the Fungus
tribe, of a membranous texture, concealing their
parts of fructification, and in due time bursting all
round, forming a ring upon the stalk, as in Agaricus
procerus, Sowerb. Fung. t. 190, and A. campestris,
the Common Mushroom, #. 305 ; such at least is the
original meaning of this term, as explained in the Phil.
Bot. ; but it has become more generally used, even
by Linnaeus himself, for the more fleshy external cov-
ering of some other Fungi, which is scarcely raised
out of the ground, and enfolds the whole plant when
young, f. 154. See Agaricus volvaceus, t. 1, and
204
ORIGIN OF THE CALYX.
Lycoperdon fornicatum, t. 198; also the very curious
L. phalloides, t. 390, now made a distinct genus by
the learned Persoon, under the name of Batarrea
phalloides.
Linnaeus adopted from Czesalpinus the opinion that
the Calyx proceeded from the bark, like the leaves, be-
cause of its similarity in colour and texture to those
organs. He even refined upon the original idea, and
supposed this part to proceed from the outer bark, while
the more delicate corolla originated in the liber. What
is now known of the physiology of the bark, as explain-
ed in several of our preceding chapters, renders this hy-
pothesis totally inadmissible.
The knowledge of the real use of leaves, see chapter
16, may however throw some light upon that of the
calyx. Besides protection of the flower from external
injuries, which is one evident use of this part, it ap-
pears highly probable that it may often contribute to the
growth and strength of the stalk which supports it, as
the leaves do to that portion of branch below them. The
stalk often swells considerably during the growth of the
flower, especially just below the calyx, becoming more
woody, an alteration frequently necessary for the support
of the ripening fruit. When the calyx falls very early,
as in the Poppy tribe, Papaver and Glaucium, I cannot
find that the flower-stalk is subsequently enlarged, nor
in any manner altered ; while in genera without num-
ber, whose calyx is permanent, the stalk becomes not
only more woody, but often considerably thickened.
II. Coroila. The Corolla, vulgarly called the leaves
of the flower, consists of those more delicate and dila-
OF THE COROLLA.
205
ted, generally more coloured leaves, which are always
internal with respect to the calyx, and constitute the
chief beauty of a flower. In the Rose the Corolla is
red and fragrant ; in the Violet purple ; in the Prim-
rose yellow.
This term includes two parts, the Petal, Petalum,
and the Nectary, Nectarium. The former is either
simple, as in the Primrose, in which case the Corolla
is said to be monopetalous, of one petal ; or com-
pound, as in the Rose, in which it is polypetalous,
of several. The Nectary is sometimes a part of the
petal, sometimes separate from it.
A monopetalous Corolla consists of two parts; the
tube, tubus, the cylindrical part enclosed in the calyx
of the Primrose, and the limb, limbus, which is the
horizontal spreading portion of the same flower, f.
155. The analogous parts of a polypetalous Corol-
la, as in the Wall-flower or Stock, f. 156, are named
the claw, unguis, f. 157 a, and the border, lamina, b.
The Corolla is infinitely diversified in form in dif-
ferent genera, whence Tournefort and Rivinus deriv-
ed their methods of arrangement. It is called regular
when its general figure is uniform, as in the Rose, the
Pink, the Columbine, Aquilegia, vulgaris, Engl. Bot.
t. 297, and Gentiana Pneumonanthe, t. 20; irregular
when otherwise, as the Violet, #. 619, 620, Dead-net-
tle, #. 768, and Lathyrus, t. 805 and 1108. An
equal Corolla, f. 156, is not only regular, but all its
divisions are of one size, like those of the Primrose,
t. 5, Campanula, t. 12, or Saxifraga, #. 9 ; an une-
qual one,,/! 158, is when some segments are alternate-
20
barbigcr, from barba, a ; kc.
(117) [Comparative appellations aie useful, provided they do
not protract the name to an inconvenient length, which is too
apt to be the case. Linnaeus himself occasionally transgresses
his own rules, and some of his specific names are among the
most formidable of the Sesquifiedalia verba. Such are Arethusa
efihioglossoides, Afiocynum androscemifolium, 8cc. The genus
Eufiatorium, which is itself none of the shortest, has for its spe-
cies a Coronofiifolium, Hyssofiifolium, Ceanothifolium, and several
others of the kind. Names of this sort give a repulsive aspect
to the science, and increase its difficulties, since, at the present
day, many persons who possess a great taste for the study, are to-
tally unacquainted with the languages. To those who are con-
versant in Latin and Greek, it is true, the etymology affords a
very great aid to the recollection ; but it often happens that the
standard of comparison is imperfectly known to us, so that the
name gives no more idea of the species, than a much shorter, or
less significant one might do. American plants are often com-
294
REMARKS ON
arvense, pratense, nemorosum and sylvaticum, Carex
arenaria, uliginosa and sylvatica, as well as aquaticat
maritima, rupestris, alpina, nivalis, used for many
plants. But names derived from particular countries
or districts are liable to much exception, few plants
being sufficiently local to justify their use. Thus
Ligustieum cornubiense is found, not only in Cornwall,
but in Portugal, Italy, and Greece ; Schwenkia ameri-
cana grows in Guinea as well as in South America.
Such therefore, though suffered to remain on the author-
ity of Linnaeus, will seldom or never be imitated by any
judicious writer, unless Trollius europaus and asiaticus
may justify our naming the third species of that genus*
lately broughtfrom America, americanus.{ 118) The use of
pared to European ones, not only genera, but species ; which to
us are far from being the most familiar objects, and by no means
" dextra manu notiora." It is of no use to us to have a Carex
vulfiinoidea, if we have no vulfiina, or a Viburnum Lantanoides,
while we have no Lantana. Comparisons were formerly built
one upon another, so as to become exceedingly uncouth and un-
satisfactory. Thus from Alsine were formed Alsinastrum, Alsin-
astroides, and Alsinastriformis. The Aira JEgilojisoides of Wal-
ter may be rendered, something, which resembles something, •which
resembles a goat. Carex vulfiinoidea is an equally distant rela-
tion of a fox.]
(118) [Names derived from the native countries of plants are
frequent, particularly those furnished by places foreign to Europe,
which have been formerly visited by botanists from that continent.
Among the most common are Jafionica, Sibirica, Zeylanica, &c.
A great portion of North American plants bear the names Vir-
ginica and Canadensis. Some names of this kind are far from being
the most short or harmonious. Thus we have Astranthus Co-
chinehinensis, Limonia Madagaocaricnsis, Lilium Kamscatcense,
SPECIFIC NAMES.
295
a plant is often commodiously expressed in its specific
name, as Brassica oleracea, Papaver somniferum, Ino-
carpus edulis ; so is likewise its time of flowering, as
Primula veris, Leucojum vernum, astivum and autumna-
le, and Helleborus hyemalis.
When a plant has been erroneously made into a new
genus, the name so applied to it may be retained for a
specific appellation, as Lathraa Phelypaa and Bartsia
Gymnandra ; which may also be practised when a plant
has been celebrated, either in botanical, medical, or any
other history, by a particular name, as Origanum Dic-
and Rosa Cherokeensis. If names of this sort have any advan-
tage, it is in preserving the history of a species by designating
its original habitat or place of growth. Thus Erigeron Cana-
dense has overrun the continent of Europe, and the Peach Tree,
Amygdalus Persica is cultivated in most parts of the world. The
supposed origin of both these, being preserved in their specific
meaning, will never be subject to mistake. Where we have ev-
idence that a plant or tree inhabited a country at a very remote
period, its local name becomes additionally interesting. Thus
the Citron or Lemon Tree, Citrus Medica, according to the
Greek botanical writers, is a native of Medea ; and from that
country it Was brought into Italy after the time of Pliny. It is
the trae intended by Virgil in the lines
" Medea fert tristes succos tardumque saporem
Felicis mali," &c.
The Weeping Willow, as it appears from the manuscripts of
P. Collinson, Esq. was first introduced into England from the
banks of the Euphrates, some time before the year 1748 The
elegant name Salix Babylonica instantly recals to the mind one of
the most beautiful and pathetic pieces of ancient poetry ; " By
the rivers of Babylon we sat down, yea we wept," Sec]
•2&6
SPECIFIC NAMES.
tamnus, Artemisia Dracunculus, Laurus Cinnamomum,
Selinum Carvifolia, Carica Papaya.(ll9) In either case
the specific name stands as a substantive, retaining its own
gender and termination, and must begin with a capital
letter ; which last circumstance should be observed if a
species be called after any botanist who has more par-
ticularly illustrated it, as Cortusa Matthioli, and C.
Gmelini, Duranta Plumierii, and Mutisii. The latter
genus suggests an improvement in such kind of names.
The genitive case is rightly used for 7the person who
founded the genus, D. Plumerii ; D. Mutisiana might
serve to commemorate the finder of a species, while D.
Ellisia implies the plant which bears it to have been
once called Ellisia.
There is another sort of specific names in the geni-
itive case, which are to me absolutely intolerable, though
contrived by Linnaeus in his latter days. These are of
a comparative kind, as Lobelia Columnea, meaning Co-
lumnea formis. We may allow a few such, already es-
tablished, to remain, but no judicious author will imitate
them.
Botanists occasionally adapt a specific name to some
historical fact belonging to the plant or to the person
whose name it bears, as Linnaa borealis from the great
botanist of the north ; Murraa exotica after one of his
favourite pupils, a foreigner ; Broxvallia demisa and da-
ta, from a botanist of humble origin and character, who
(119) [The factitious word Theobroma, food for the gods ; ap-
plied to the Cocoa or Chocolate Tree, is much better merited,
than the classical Ambrosia, which belongs to a common weed.l
CHANGES OF NAMES.
*27
afterwards became a lofty bishop, and in whose work
upon water I find the following quotation from Seneca
in the hand-writing of Linnaeus : " Many might attain
wisdom, if they did not suppose they had already reach-
ed it." In like manner Buffbnia tenuifolia is well known
to be a satire on the slender botanical pretensions of the
great French zoologist, as the Hillia parasitica of Jac-
quin, though perhaps not meant, is an equally just one
upon our pompous Sir John Hill. I mean not to approve
of such satires. They stain the purity of our lovely
science. If a botanist does not deserve commemora-
tion, let him sink peaceably into oblivion. It savours of
malignity to make his crown a crown of thorns, and if
the application be unjust, it is truly diabolical.
Before I conclude the subject of nomenclature, I beg
leave to offer a few reflections on changes of established
names. It is generally agreed among mankind that
names of countries, places, or things, sanctioned by gen-
eral use, should be sacred ; and the study of natural his-
tory is, from the multitude of objects with which it is
conversant, necessarily so encumbered with names, that
students require every possible assistance to facilitate the
attainment of those names, and have a just right to com-
plain of every needless impediment. The grateful Hol-
landers named the island of Mauritius after the hero
who had established their liberty and prosperity ; and it
ill became the French, at that period dead to such feel-
ings, to change it, when in their power, to Isle de
France, by which we have in some late botanical works
the barbarous Latin of Insula Francia. Nor is it allow
oo
298
RIGHT OF OCCASIONALLY
able to alter such names, even for the better. Americo
Vespucci had no very great pretensions to give his own
name to a quarter of the world, yet it is scarcely probable
that Columbia will supersede America. In our science
the names established throughout the works of Linnaeus
are become current coin, nor can they be altered without
great inconvenience. Perhaps, if he had foreseen the
future authority and popularity of his writings, he might
himself have improved upon many which he adopted out
of deference to his predecessors, and it is in some cases
to be regretted that he has not sufficiently done so. In
like manner, the few great leaders in natural knowledge
must and will be allowed to ward off and to correct, from
time to time, all that may deform or enfeeble the prevail-
ing system. They must choose between names nearly
of the same date, and even between good and bad ones
of any date. A botanist, who, by the strength of his
own superior knowledge and authority, reforms and elu-
cidates a whole tribe of plants hitherto in confusion, as a
Hedwig in Mosses, or Acharius in Lichens, ought to
be unshackled in every point in which he can be of ser-
vice. His wisdom will be evinced by extreme caution
and reserve in using his liberty with respect to new
names, but more especially new terms ; and, after all,
he will be amenable to the general tribunal of botanists,
and the judgment of those who come after him. Few
indeed are illustrious enough to claim such privileges as
these. Those who alter names, often for the worse, ac-
cording to arbitrary rules of their own, or in order to
aim at consequence which they cannot otherwise attain,
•lre best treated with silent neglect. The system should
CHANGING NAMES
295
not be encumbered with such names, even as syno-
nyms.
When, however, solid discoveries and improvements
are made in the science ; when species or genera have
been confounded by Linnaeus himself, and new ones
require to be separated from them, the latter must neces-
sarily receive appropriate appellations; as also when a
totally wrong and absurd name has by mistake been
given, as Begonia capensis ; in such cases names must
give place to things, and alterations proceeding from
such causes must be submitted to. Thus I believe Mr.
Salisbury's Castalia is well separated from Nymphaa.
See Annals of Botany, v. 2. 71.
A great and just complaint has arisen in my time
among the cultivators of botany, who found the names
of many garden plants, with which they had long been
conversant, altered for others without any apparent
cause, and in many instances for the worse; as Aristolo-
chia macrophylla, an excellent and expressive name, for
a very unappropriate. one, A. Sipho. For this J am
obliged to censure my much regretted and very intelli-
gent friend L'Heritier. When he came to England to
reap the rich harvest of our undescribed plants, he paid
no respect to the generic or specific names by which Dr.
Solander or others had called them, because those names
were not printed ; but he indulged himself, and perhaps
thought he confirmed his own importance, by contriv-
ing new ones ; a factitious mode of gaining celebrity, to
which his talents ought to have been infinitely superior.
Nor would it have been easy to say how far this incon-
venient plan of innovation might have extended, had
500
COMPOUND
not the Hortus Keioensis come forth to secure our re-
maining property.
I have only to add a few words respecting a kind of
generic names that has of late becqme more common
than Linnaeus probably would have approved, though
he has once or twice allowed it; I allude to those com-
pounded either of two established names, or of one com-
bined with any other word. Of the former number is
Calamagrostis, formed of Calamus and Agrostis, two
Linnaean names ; and this is no where sanctioned by
any good authority. Happily the genus to which it has
negligently been applied is an Arundo. Of the latter
sort is Cissampelos, formed of Cissus, another established
genus, and Ampelos, a Vine ; the latter not among Lin-
naean names : also Elaagnus, constructed of two old
Greek names, neither of which is now in botanical use
by itself. These are both expressly allowed by Lin-
naeus, nor indeed can there be any objection to the latter.
Cissampelos may certainly justify Hyoscyamus, composed
of Cyamus and a word denoting swine ; if not, this would
prove an objection to the reestablishment of Cyamus,
much more to the purpose than any that has been ad-
vanced ; for Hyoscyamus having been so long and uni-
versally used in systematic botany, could scarcely give
place, even to its venerable prototype. On the same
ground only can several new generic names used in the
fern tribe, be admitted. These are formed out of Pte-
ris, the established generic appellation of a common
Brake, with some other Greek word prefixed ; as Angi-
opteris, a Brake with a capsule, Tmesipteris, a cloven
Brake, and Canopteris a new Brake. Whatever may
GENERIC NAMES.
301
become of the former two, I must always protest against
the last, given by the celebrated Bergius to the Darea of
Jussieu; on account of its unexampled impropriety. As
well might any new genus, resembling a Rose, be called
Novarosa ; for though the Greek language may assist
us with regard to sound, it can never make amends for a
radical deficiency of sense.
[ 302 ]
CHAPTER XXIII.
EXPLANATION OF THE LINNJEAN ARTIFICIAL SVVI i.M
The Linnaean System is, as I have already observeds
professedly artificial. Its sole aim is to help any one to
learn the name and history of an unknown plant in the
most easy and certain manner, by first determining its
Class and Order in this system ; after which its Genus
is to be made out by comparing the parts of fructifica-
tion with all the generic characters of that Order ; and
finally its Species, by examining all the Specific defini-
tions of the Genus. We thus ascertain the generic and
specific name of our plant in Linnaeus, and under those
we find an enumeration more or less ample, of its Syno-
nyms, or the different appellations it has received from
other writers, with a reference to figures in various
books ; and as Linnaeus always cites Bauhin's Pinax,
which is the common botanical catalogue, or index to all
previous works, we thus gain a clue to every thing re-
corded concerning our plant. Of all this mass of infor-
mation and entertainment we shall find nothing more
concise, luminous, or engaging, either with respect to
the distinctions, uses, or history of plants, than what is
diffused through the various publications of Linnaeus
himself; and the same may, with at least equal truth,
be said of those of his works which illustrate the Animal
kingdom. His magic pen turns the wilds of Lapland
into fairy land. He has all the animals of Sweden as
much at his call, as our first parent while the terrestrial
OF THE LlNNiEAN ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM. 303
paradise was yet in primaeval tranquillity. No writer
whatever has rendered the natural productions of the
happiest and most luxuriant climates of the globe half so
interesting or instructive as Linnaeus has made those of
his own northern country.
The Classes of the Linnaean System are 24, and
their distinctions are founded on the number, situation,
or proportion of the Stamens. The Orders are founded
either on the number of the Pistils, or on some circum-
stance equally easy, which we shall in due time explain.
The first eleven Classes are characterized solely by
the number of the Stamens, and distinguished by names,
of Greek derivation, expressive of these distinctions.
1. Monandria. Stamen 1.
A small Class.
2. Diandria. Stamens 2.
3. Triandria-----3.
4. Tetrandria-----4.
5. Pentandria-----5.
A numerous Class.
6. Hexandria-----6.
7. Heptandria-----7.
A very small class.
8. Octandria----8.
9. Enneandria----9.
A small Class.
10. Decandria----10.
11. Dodecandria----12 to 19.
12. Icosandria-----20 or more Stamens, in-
serted into the Calyx. Here we first find the situation
304
LINNJEAN CLASSES-
of the Stamens taken into consideration. They grow
out of the sides of the Calyx, often from a sort of
ring, as in the Strawberry. This is truly a natural
Class, as are several of the following ones ; so that
in these instances the Linnaean method of arrange-
ment performs more than it promises. The character
of this Class is the more important, as such a mode of
insertion indicates the pulpy fruits which accompany
it to be infalliby wholesome, and this holds good, not
only when the stamens are numerous, but in all other
cases. Thus Ribes, the Currant and Goosberry ge-
nus, whose 5 stamens grow out of the caly x, stand in
the fifth class, a wholesome fruit, among many poison-
ous berries.* No traveller in the most unknown
wilderness need scruple to eat any fruit whose stamens
are thus situated ; while on the other hand he will do
well to be cautious of feeding on any other parts of
the plant.
13. Polyandria. Stamens numerons, commonly
more so than in the last Class, and inserted into the
Receptacle, or base of the flower, as in the Poppy,
Anemone, &c. The plants of this fine and nume-
rous Class are very distinct in nature, as well as char-
acter, from those of the Icosandria.
14. Didynamia. Stamens 2 long and 2 short. Here
proportion comes to our assistance. This is a natural
Class, and contains most of the labiate, ringent or
personate flowers as the Dead-nettle, Snap-dragon,,
Fox-glove, &c.
LlNNiEAN CLASSES, 305
15. Tetradynamia. Stamens 4 long and 2 short
A very natural Class, comprehending all the Cruciform
flowers, as the Wall-flower, Stock, Radish, Mustard,
See. Cleome only does not properly belong to the
rest.
16. Monadelphia. Stamens united by their fila-
ments, more or less extensively, into one tube, as the
Mallow tribe, in which such union is very remarkable,,
and the Geranium family, in which it is less evident
17. Diadelphia. Stamens united into 2 parcels,
both sometimes cohering together at the base. This
Class consists of Papilinaceous flowers, and is there-
fore natural, except that some such genera having
distinct Stamens are excluded, and referred to the
tenth Class, in consideration of their number solely ;
as some ringent flowers with only 2 Stamens are
necessarily placed, not in the 14th Class, but the 2d.
18. Polyadelphia. Stamens united into more than
2 parcels, as in St. John's-wort. A small Class, in
some points related to Icosandria.
19. Syngenesia. Stamens united by their Anthers
into a tube, rarely by their Filaments also; and the
flowers are Compound. A very natural and extremely
numerous Class. Examples of it are the Dandelion,
Daisy, Sunflower, &c.
20. Gynandria. Stamens united with, or growing
out of the Pistil; either proceeding from the Germen,
pp
30b LLNNAiAN CLASSES.
as in Aristolochia, Engl. Bot. t. 398, or from the Style,
as in the Orchis family. The Passion-flower is
wrongly put by Linnaeus and others into this Class,
as its stamens merely grow out of an elongated re-
ceptacle or column supporting the Germen.
21. Monoecia. Stamens and Pistils in separate flow-
ers, but both growing on the same plant, or, as the
name expresses, dwelling in one house, as the Oak,
Hazle, and Fir.
22. Dioecia. Stamens and Pistils not only in separate
flowers, but those flowers situated on two separate
plants, as in the Willow, Hop, Yew, &c.
These two last Classes are natural when the barren
flowers have, besides the difference in their essential
organs, a different structure from the fertile ones in
other respects ; but not so when they have the same
structure, because then both organs are liable to meet
in the same flower. In some plants, as Rhodiola,
Enoi. Bot. t. 508, each flower has alwavs the rudi-
me .its of the other organ, though generally inefficient.
23. Polygamia. Stamens and Pistils separate in some
(lowers, united in others, either on the same plant, or
on two or three different ones.
This Class is natural only when the several flowers
have a different structure, as those of Atriplex ; but
in this genus the Pistil of the united flower scarcely
produces seed. If, with Linnaeus, we admit into
Polygamia every plant on which some separated bar-
LINNiEAN CLASSES.
387
ren or fertile flowers may be found among the united
ones, while all agree in general structure, the Class
will be overwhelmed, especially with Indian trees. I
have therefore proposed that regard should be had to
their general structure, which removes all such incon-
venience, and renders the Class much more natural,
24. Cryptogamia. Stamens and Pistils either not
well ascertained, or not to be numbered with any
certainty, insomuch that the plants cannot be referred
to any of the foregoing classes. Of this Ferns, Lich-
ens, Sea-weeds and Mushrooms are examples.
Appendix. PALMiE, Palm-trees, a magnificent
tribe of plants, chiefly tropical, whose flowers were
too little known when Linnaeus wrote, to serve the
purpose of classification ; but they are daily clearing
up, and the Palms are found generally to belong to
the Classes Monoecia, Dioecia, or Hexandria.
The Orders of the Linnaean System are, in the first
13 Classes, founded on the number of the Styles, or on
that of the Stigmas when the Styles are wanting, which
occurs in Viburnum. Such Orders are accordingly
named
Monogynia, Style, or sessile Stigma, 1.
Digynia. Styles, or sessile Stigmas, 2.
Trig yn i a------------------------------3.
Tetragynia---------------------4.
Pentagynia---------------------5.
308
LINNiEAN ORDERS.
Hexagynia. Styles, or sessile Stigmas, 6,
of very rare occurrence.
Heptagynia----------------------7,
still more unusual.
OcTAGYNIA----------------------- 8,
scarcely occurs at all.
Enneagynia. Styles, or sessile Stigmas, 9,
of which there is hardly an instance.
Decagynia —--------------------10.
Dodecagynia------------------about 12.
Polygynia------------------------many.
The 2 Orders of the 14th Class, Didynamia, both
natural, are characterized by the fruit, as follows :
1. Gymnospermia. Seeds naked, almost universally,4.
2. Angiospermia. Seeds in a capsule, numerous.
The 2 Orders of the 15th Class, Tetradynamia, both
very natural, are distinguished by the form of the fruit,
thus:
1. Siliculosa. Fruit a Silicula, Pouch, or roundish
Pod.
2. SiLiquosA. Fruit a Siliqua, or long Pod.
The orders of the 16th, 17th and 18th Classes, Mona-
delphia, Diadelphia and Polyadelphia, are founded on the
number of the Stamens, that is, on the characters of the
first 13 Classes.
The Orders of the great natural 19th Class, Syngem
esia, are marked by the united or separated, barren, fer-
tile, or abortive, nature of the florets.
LINNjEAN orders.
30S
1. Polygamia jEqjialis. Florets all perfect or uni-
ted, that is, each furnished with perfect Stamens, a
Pistil, and one Seed.
2. Polygamia superflua. Florets of the disk with
Stamens and Pistil ; those of the radius with Pistil
only, but each, of both kinds, forming perfect Seed.
3. Polygamia frustranea. Florets of the disk as
in the last; those of the radius with merely an abor-
tive Pistil, or with not even the rudiments of any.
This is a bad Order, for reasons hereafter to be ex-
plained.
4. Polygamia necessaria. Florets of the disk
with Stamens only, those of the radius with Pistils
only.
5. Polygamia segregata. Several flowers, either
simple or compound, but with united anthers, and
with a proper calyx, included in one common calyx.
Linnaeus has a 6th Order in this Class, named Mo-
nogamia, consisting of simple flowers with united an-
thers ; but this I have presumed to disuse, because the
union of the anthers is not constant throughout the spe-
cies of each genus referred to it, witness Lobelia and
Viola, while on the contrary several detached species in
other Classes have united anthers, as in Gentiana, Engl.
Bot. t. 20. These reasons, which show the connection
of the anthers of a simple flower to be neither important
in nature, nor constant as an artificial character, are con-
firmed by the plants of this whole Linnaean Order being
natural allies of others in the 5th Class, and totally dis-
310
LlNNiEAN ORDERS.
cordant, in every point, from the compound syrigene-
sious flowers.
The Orders of the 20th, 21st and 22d Classes are
distinguished by the characters of some of the Classes
themselves which precede them, that is, almost entirely
by the number of their Stamens ; for the union of the
anthers in some of them is, for the reasons just given, of
no moment.
The Orders of the 23d Class, Polygamia, are, accord-
ing to the beautiful uniformity of plan which runs
through this ingenious system, distinguished upon the
principles of the Classes immediately preceding.
1. Monoecia has flowers with Stamens and Pistils on
the same plant with others that have only Pistils, or
only Stamens ; or perhaps all these three kinds of
blossoms occur ; but whatever the different kinds
may be, they are confined to one plant.
2. Dioecia has the two or three kinds of flowers on
two separate plants.
3. Trioecia has them on three separate plants, of
which the Fig is the only real example, and in that
the structure of the flowers is alike in all.
The Orders of the 24th Class, Cryptogamia, are pro-
fessedly natural. They are 4 in Linnaeus, but we now
reckon 5.
1. Filices. Ferns, whose fauctification is obscure,
and grows either on the back, summit, or near the
base of the leaf, thence denominated a frond. See p.
117.
LINNjEAX orders.
311
2. Musei. Mosses, which have real separate leaves,
and often a stem ; a hood-like corolla, or calyptra,
bearing the style, and concealing the capsule, which
at length rises on a stalk with the calyptra, and opens
by a lid.
3. Hepatic^. Liverworts, whose herb is a frond,
being leaf and stem united, and whose capsules do not
open with a lid. Linnaeus comprehends this Order
under the following.
4. Algje. Flags, whose herb is likewise a frond, and
whose seeds are imbedded, either in its very sub-
stance, or in the disk of some appropriate receptacle.
5. Fungi. Mushrooms, destitute of herbage, bearing
their fructification in a fleshy substance.
Such are the principles of the Linnaean Classes and
Orders, which have the advantage of all other systems in
facility, if not conformity to the arrangement of nature ;
the latter merit they do not claim. They are happily
founded on two organs, not only essential to a plant, but
both necessarily present at the same time ; for though
the Orders of the 14th and 15th Classes are distinguish-
ed by the fruit, they can be clearly ascertained even in
the earliest state of the germen.*
* An instance apparently to the contrary occurs in the history
•f my Hastingia coccinea, Exot. Bot. t. 80, a plant most evident-
ly, both by character and natural affinity, belonging to the Didy-
namia Gymnos/iermia, but as I could no where find it described
in that Order, I concluded it to be unpublished ; and was not a
little surprised to be told some time afterwards, that it was ex-
tant in the works of my friends Retzius and Willdenow, under
312
DIFFICULTIES IN THE
Tournefort founded his Orders on the fruit ; and his
countryman Andanson is charmed with the propriety of
this measure, because the fruit comes after the flower,
and thus precedence is given to the nobler part which
distinguishes the primary divisions or Classes ! But
happily the laws of a drawing-room do not extend to
philosophy, and we are allowed to prefer parts which
we arc sure to meet with at one and the same moment,
without waiting a month or two, after we have made out
the Class of a plant, before we can settle its Order.
The Linnaean System, however, like all human inven-
tions, has its imperfections and difficulties. If we meet
in gardens with double or monstrous flowers, whose es-
sential organs of fructification are deformed, multiplied,
or changed to petals ; or if we find a solitary barren or
fertile blossom only ; we must be at a loss, and in such
cases could only guess at a new plant from its natural
resemblance to some known one. But the principal
imperfection of the System in question consists, not
merely in what arises from variations in number or
structure among the parts of a flower, against which no
system could provide, but in the differences which some-
times occur between the number of Stamens, Styles,
Sec, in different plants of the same natural genus. Thus,
some species of Cerastium have only 4, others 5, Sta-
mens, though the greater part have 10. Lychnis dioica
Didynamia Angiosfiermia, by the name of Holmskioldia, after a
meritorious botanist. This last name therefore, however unut-
terable, must remain ; and I wish the Linnaean system, as well
as myself, might be as free from blame in all other cases as in
this.
LINN.EAN SYSTEM.
G15
has the Stamens on one plant, the Pistils on another,
though the rest of the genus has them united in the same
flower ; and there are several similar instances ; for
number in the parts of fructification is no more invaria-
ble than other characters, and even more uncertain than
such as are founded on insertion) or the connexion of
one part with another. Against these inconveniences
the author of this System has provided an all-sufficient
remedy. At the head of every Class and Order, after
the genera which properly belong to them, he enume-
rates, in italics, all the anomalous species of genera sta-
tioned in other places, that, by their own peculiar num-
ber of Stamens or Styles, should belong to the Class or
Order in question, but which are thus easily found with
their brethren by means of the index.
It is further to be observed that Linnaeus, ever aware
of the importance of keeping the natural affinities of
plants in view, has in each of his artificial Orders, and
sections of those Orders, arranged the genera according
to those affinities ; while at the head of each Class, in
his Systema Vegetabilium, he places the same genera
according to their technical characters ; thus combining,
as far as art can keep pace with nature, the merits of a
natural and an artificial system. His editors have sel-
dom been aware of this ; and Murray especially, in his
14th edition of the book just mentioned, has inserted
new plants without any regard to this original plan of
the work.
From the foregoing remarks it is easy to comprehend
what is the real and highly important use of the Genera
Plantarum of Jussieu arranged in Natural Orders, the
QQ
314
NATURAL SYSTEM
most learned botanical work that has appeared since the
Spaces Plantarum of Linnaeus, and the most useful to
those who study the philosophy of botanical arrange-
ment. The aim of this excellent author is to bring the
genera of plants together as much as possible according
to their natural affinities ; constructing his Classes and
Orders rather from an enlarged and general view of those
affinities, than from technical characters previously as-
sumed for each Class or Order ; except great and pri-
mary divisions, derived chiefly from the Cotyledons,
the Petals, and the insertion of the Stamens. But his
characters are so far from absolute, that at the end of
almost every Order we find a number of genera merely
related to it, and not properly belonging to it, and at the
end of the system a very large assemblage of genera in-
capable of being referred to any Order whatever. Nor
could a learner possibly use this system as a dictionary,
so as t^find out any unknown plant. The characters
of the Orders are necessarily, in proportion as those Or-
ders are natural, so widely and loosely constructed, that
a student has no where to fix ; and in proportion as they
are here and there more defined, this, or any other sys-
tem, becomes artificial, and liable to the more excep-
tions. The way therefore to use this valuable work, so
as to ascertain an unknown plant, is, after turning to the
Order or Genus to which we conceive it most probably
allied, to read and study the characters and observations
there brought together, as well as all to which they may
allude. We shall find we learn more from the doubts
and queries of Jussieu than from the assertions of most
other writers. We shall readily perceive whether our
OP JUSSIEU.
31^
plant be known to him or not; and if at the same time
we refer it, by its artificial characters, to the Linnaean
System, we can hardly fail to ascertain, even under the
most difficult circumstances, whether it be described by
either of these authors. A student may acquire a com-
petent knowledge of natural orders, with very great
pleasure to himself, by repeatedly turning over the work
of Jussieu with any known plants in his hand, and con-
templating their essential generic characters in the first
place, and then what regards their habit and affinities ;
proceeding afterwards to combine in his own mind their
several points of agreement, till he is competent to form
an idea of those assemblages which constitute natural
Classes and Orders. This will gradually extend his
ideas ; whereas a contrary mode would only contract
them, and his Jussieu would prove merely an artificial
guide, without the advantages of facility or perspicuity.
r sis ]
CHAPTER XXIV.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE LINNJEAN CLASSES AND ORDERS
I proceed to a compendious view of the Linnaean
Classes and Orders, which will serve to illustrate many
things in the preceding pages.
Class 1. Monandria. Stamen 1.
This contains only two Orders.
1. Monogynia. Style 1. Here we find the beautiful
exotic natural order called Scitaminea, consisting of
Cardamoms, Ginger, Turmerick, &c, hitherto a
chaos, till Mr. Roscoe, in a paper printed in the 8th
vol. of the Linnaan Society's Transactions, reduced
them to very natural and distinct genera by the form
of the filament. See Exot. Bot. t. 102, 103, 106
—8.
Salicornia, Engl. Bot. #.415 and 1691, and Hip-
puris, t. 763, are British examples of Monandria Mo-
nogynia. (120)
Valeriana (Class 3) has some species with pne sta-
men.
2. Digynia. Styles 2. Contains Corispermum, Fl. Grac.
t. 1, Blitum, Curt. Mag. t. 276, and a few plants be-
sides.
(120) [Salicornia or Glass wort, and Callitriche, or Water Stav
Wort, are common American examples of the first class]
WANDRIA. TRIANDRIA.
31?
Class 2. Diandria. Stamens 2.—Orders S.
1. Monogynia. This, the most natural and numerous
Order, comprehends the elegant and fragrant Jasmi-
nea, the Jasmine, Lilac, Olive, &c. (121)—also Vero-
nica. Engl. Bot. t. 2, 1027, 623, 783, &c—and a few
labiate flowers with naked seeds, as Salvia, Engl. Bot.
t. 153, 154, Rosemary, &c, natural allies of the 14th
class ; but having only two stamens, they are neces-
sarily ranged here in the artificial system. (122)
2. Digynia consists only of Anthoxanthum, a grass,
Engl. Bot. t. 647, which for the reason just given is
separated from its natural family in the third class.
3. Trigynia—has only Piper, the Pepper, a large tropi-
cal genus,
Class 3. Triandria. Stamens 3.—Orders 3.
1. Monogynia. Valeriana, Engl. Bot. t. 698, 1591 and
1371, is placed here because most of its species have
three stamens. See Class 1. Here also we find the
sword-leaved plants, (123) so amply illustrated in Cur-
(121) [The Jasminea> of Jussieu are trees or shrubs with
generally opposite leaves and regular monopetalous corollas.
They correspond nearly to the Linnaean natural order Sefiiarie.
The Privet Ligustrum, and Fringe Tree, Chionanthus ; are
American examples.]
(122) [Of Labiate flowers of the second class, we have Penny-
Royal, Cunila ; Oswego tea, Monarda ; Water Horehound, Ly-
cofius, &c. They are closely allied to the first order of class
XIV.]
(123) [The Ensatee constitute a very beautiful natural order,
with sword shaped leaves and liliaceous flowers.}
318
TRTANDUI.V.
tis's Magazine, Iris, Gladiolus, Ixia, he, also Crocus,
Engl. Bot. t. 343,344,491, and numerous grass-like
plants, Schcenus, Cyperus, Scirpus, see Fl. Grac. v. 1,
and Engl. Bot. t, 950, 1309, 542, 873, &c.
2. Digynia. This important Order consists of the true
Grasses; see/>. 113. Their habit is more easily
perceived than defined ; their value, as furnishing
herbage for cattle, and grain for man, is sufficiently
obvious. No poisonous plant is found among them,
except the Lolium temulentum, Engl. Bot. t. 1124,
said to be intoxicating and pernicious in bread.
Their genera are not easily defined. Linnaeus, Jus-
sieu, and most botanists pay regard to the number of
florets in each spikelet, but in Arundo this is of no
moment. Magnificent and valuable works on this
family have been published in Germany by the cele-
brated Schreber and by Dr. Host. The Fl. Graca
also is rich in this department, to which the late Dr.
Sibthorp paid great attention. Much is to be ex-
pected from scientific agriculturists ; but Nature so
absolutely, in general, accommodates each grass to its
own soil, and station, that nothing is more difficult
than to overcome their habits, insomuch that few
grasses can be generally cultivated at pleasure.
3. Trigynia is chiefly composed of little pink-like
plants or Caryophyllea, as Holosteum, Engl. Bot.
t. 27.
Tillaa muscosa, t. 116, has the number proper to
this order, but the rest of the genus bears every part
of the fructification in fours. This in Linnaean Ian-
TETANDRIA.
S19
guage is expressed by saying the flower of Tillaa is
quadrifdus*, four cleft, and T. muscosa excludes or
lays aside, one fourth of the fructification.
Class 4. Tetrandria. Stamens 4.—Orders 3.
1. Monogynia. A very numerous and various Order,
of whichthe Proteacea make a conspicuous part, con-
sisting of Protea, Banksia, Lambertia, Embothrium,
&c. See Botany of New Holland, t. 7—10. Scabiosa,
Engl. Bot. t. 659 ; (124) Plantago, t. 1558, 1559,
remarkable for its capsula circumscissa, a membra-
nous capsule, separating by a complete circular
fissure into two parts, as in the next genus, Centun-
culus, t. 531 / Rubia, t. 851, and others of its natu-
ral order, of whose stipulation we have spoken p. 178,
are found here, (125) and the curious Epimedium, t.
438.
2. Digynia. Buffonia, t. 1313.
Cuscuta, placed here by Linnaeus, is best removed
to the next class. (126)
3. Xetragynia. Ilex, t. 496, a genus sometimes
furnished with a few barren flowers, and therefore
* See Linn. Sfi.Pl. 186, and Curt. Lond.fasc. 6. t. 31.
(124) [The Protea of Jussieu are splendid exotics. Many of
the Aggregate or Aggregate flowers belong to the fourth class.
Cefihalanthus or Button bush is an American example. This
however is included the Rubiacea.]
(125) [The Rubiacea of Jussieu including the Stellata of Lin-
naeus have a regular corolla, four or five parted, with the same
number of stamens inserted in its tube. The fruit resembles
two naked seeds, or is a single capsule or berry. Leaves com;
monly opposite as in Houstonia, or whorled as in Galium.]
(126) [Cuscuta Americana, has always five stamens.]
820
PENTANDRIA.
removed by Hudson to the 23d class, of which it
only serves to show the disadvantage ; Potamogeton,
t. 168, 376, and Ruppia, t. 136, are examples of this
Order. They all have sessile stigmas.
Class 5. Pentandria. Stamens 5. A very large
class.—Orders 6.
1. Monogynia. One of the largest and most important
Orders of the whole system. The genera are enu-
merated first artificially, according to the corolla being
of one petal or more, or wanting; inferior or superior ;
with naked or covered seeds; but stand in the system
according to their affinities, and compose some
natural orders, as Asperifolia, rough-leaved plants,
which have a monopetalous inferior corolla, and four
naked seeds, with always more or less of spinous
bristles or callous asperities on their foliage ; see
Borago,Engl. Bot. t. 36, Lycopsis,t. 938 and Echium,
t. 181. Next comes that most elegant tribe of spring
plants denominated Precia by Linnaeus, Primula, t. 4
—6, Cyclaman, t. 548, the charming alpine Aretia,
and Androsace, Curt. Mag. t. 743. These are fol-
lowed by another Linnaean order, nearly akin, called
Rotacea, from the wheel-shaped corolla, Hottonia,
Engl. Bot. t. 364, Lysimachia, t. 761.—Convolvulus
and Campanula, two large well-known genera, come
afterwards ; then Lobelia, t. 140, Impatiens, t. 937,
and Viola, t. 619, 620, brought hither from the abol-
ished Linnaean order Syngenesia Monogamia. The
Lurida follow, so called from their frequently dark,
gloomy aspect, indicative of their narcotic and very
PENTANDRIA.
321
dangerous qualities; as Datura, t. 1288, Hyoscya-
mus, #.591, Atropa, t. 592, and Nicotiana, or Tobac-
co. In a subsequent part we meet with the Vine,
Currant, and Ivy, and the Order finishes with some
of the natural family of Contorta, so called from their
oblique or twisted corolla, and which are many of
them very fine plants, as Vinca, t. 514, 917. They
often abound with milky juice, generally highly acrid;
but Dr. Afzelius met with a shrub of this order at
Sierra Leone, the milk of whose fruit was so sweet, as
well as copious, as to be used instead of cream for tea.
This is certainly what no one could have guessed
from analogy. Gardenia is erroneously reckoned a
contorta by Linnaeus.
2. Digynia begins with the remainder of the Contorta ;
then follows some incomplete flowers, as Chenopo-
dium, t. 1033, Beta, t. 285, and afterwards the fine
alpine genus of Gentiana, t. 20, 493, 896, famous
for its extreme bitterness and consequent stomachic
virtues.
The rest of the Order consists of the very natural
Umbelliferous family, characterized by having five
superior petals, and a pair of naked seeds, suspended
vertically when ripe from the summit of a slender
hair-like receptacle. Of the inflorescence of this
tribe, and the difficulties attending their generic dis-
tinctions, we have spoken p. 243. In Eryngium, t.
718, and 57, the umbel is condensed into a capitulum,
or conical scaly head, showing an approach towards*
the compound flowers, and accompanied, as Jussieu
RI'
o.&
PENTANDRIA.
observes, by the habit of a Thistle. Lagoecia is
justly referred to this natural order by the same
writer, though it has only a solitary seed and style.
The Umbellifera are mostly herbaceous ; the qual-
ities of such as grow on dry ground are aromatic,
while the aquatic species are among the most deadly
of poisons ; according to the remark of Linnaeus,
who detected the cause of a dreadful disorder among
horned cattle in Lapland, in their eating young leaves
of Cicuta virosa, Engl. Bot. t. 479, under water.
(127)
Botanists in general shrink from the study of the
Umbellifera, nor have these plants much beauty in
the eyes of amateurs ; but they will repay the trouble
of a careful observation. The late M. Cusson of
Montpellier bestowed more pains upon them than
any other botanist has ever done ; but the world has,
as yet, been favoured with only a part of his remarks.
His labours met with a most ungrateful check, in the
unkindness, and still more mortifying stupidity, of his
wife, who, on his absence from home, is recorded to
have destroyed his whole herbarium, scraping off the
dried specimens, for the sake of the paper on which
they were pasted!
3. Trigynia is illustrated by the Elder, the Sumach, or
Rhus, Viburnum, &c, (128) also Corrigiola, Engl.
(127) [To this general rule there are exceptions. The pois-
onous Hemlock, Conium maculatum, grows in dry ground, while
several species of Angelica,\thich are aromatic and harmless,inhab-
it watery places.]
(128) [The Sumach, Rhus ; Elder, Sambucus, and many simi-
lar shrubs with pithy stems and small flowers, constitute the Lin-
nsean order Durngsa^]
HEXANDRIA
:>*
Bot. t. 669, and Tamarix, t. 1318, of which last one
species, germanica, has 10 stamens.
4. Tetragynia has only Evolvulus, nearly allied to Con-
volvulus, and the elegant and curious Parnassia, t. 82.
5. Pentagynia contains Statiee, t. 226, 102, and 328,
a beautiful maritime genus, with a kind of everlasting
cahx. The Flora Graca has many fine species.
Linum or Flax follows : also the curious exotic Aldro-
vanda, Dicks. Dr. PI. 30 ; Drosera, Engl. Bot. t. 867
—9 : the numerous succulent genus Crassula ; and
the alpine Sibbaldia, t. 897, of the natural order of
Rosacea,
6, Polygynia. Myosurus, t. 435, a remarkable instance
of few stamens (though they often exceed five) to a
multitude of pistils.
Class 6. Hexandria. Stamens 6. Orders 6.
1. Monogynia. This, as usual, is the most numerous.
The Liliaceous family,with or without a spatha, (129)
called by Linnaeus the nobles of the vegetable king-
dom, constitute its most splendid ornament. The
beautiful White Lily is commonly chosen by popular
writers to exemplify the stamens and pistils. The less
ostentatious genus ofJuncusorRush,which soon follows
is more nearly allied to the Lilies than a young bota-
nist would suppose. Near it stand several genera
which have little affinity to each other, and of these
Capura is a mistake, having been made out of a
(129) [Called by Linnaeus Sfiathacece and Coronaria, according
as" the spathe is present or wanting.!
32*
HEPTANDR1A.
specimen of Daphne indica, which chanced to have
but six stamens.
2. Digynia, has but few genera. The valuable Oryxa,
Rice, of which there now seems to be more than one
species, is the most remarkable. It is a grass with
six stamens.
3. Trigynia. See Rumex, Engl. Bot. t. 1533,127, &c,
some species of which have separated flowers ; Tqfi-
eldia, t. 536 ; and Colchicum, t. 133 and 1432.
4. Tetragynia. Petiveria alliacea, a plant the number
of whose stamens is not very constant, and whose
specific name is supposed to allude, not only to its
garlic scent, but also to the caustic humour of the bo-
tanist whom it commemorates.
5. Hexagynia: An order in Schreber and Willdenow,
contains Wendlandia populifolia of the latter ; with
Damasonium of the former, a genus consisting of the
Linnaean Stratiotes alismoides, Exot. Bot. t. 15.
6. Polygynia. Alisma only—Engl. Bot. t. 837, 775,
Sec.
Class 7. Heptandria. Stamens 7. Orders 4.
1. Monogynia. Trientalis, Engl. Bot. t. 15, a favour-
ite plant of Linnaeus ; and jEsculus, the Horse Ches-
nut. Several genera are removed to this order by
late writers.
2. Digynia. Limeum, an African genus, only.
3. Tetragynia. Saururus, a Virginian plant. Aponog-
eton, placed here by Linnaeus, is now properly re-
OCT ANURIA.
moved to Dodecandria. It is an East Indian and
Cape aquatic genus, bearing above the water white
fragrant flowers in a peculiar spike, which is either
solitary or double.
4. Heptagynia. Septas, a Cape plant, very nearly akin
to Crassula, to which Thunberg refers it. If its char-
acter in Linnaeus be constant with respect to number,
it is very remarkable, having the calyx in 7 deep seg-
ments, 7 petals, 7 germens, and consequently 7 cap-
sules.
Class 8. Octandria. Stamens 8. Orders 4.
1. Monogynia. A very various and rich order, consist-
ing of the well-known Tropaolum or Nasturtium,
whose original Latin name, given from the flavour of
the plant, like Garden Cresses, is now become its
English one in every body's mouth. The elegant
and fanciful Linnaean appellation, equivalent to a tro-
phy plant, alludes to its use for decorating bowers,
and the resemblance of its peltate leaves to shields, as
well as of its flowers to golden helmets, pierced
through, and through, and stained with blood. See
Linn. Hort. Cliff. 143.—Epilobium, Engl. Bot. t.
838, 795, &c, with its allies, makes a beautiful part
of this order ; (130) but above all are conspicuous the
favourite Fuchsia, the chiefly American genus Vac-
(130) [The natural order Calycanthema,\nc\udes many beautiful
American plants of this class. Such are Efiilobium, Gaura
unothera, Rhexia, &c. These have their petals and stamens in-
serted in the calyx, which commmonly stands upon the germ.]
i26
KXNEANDRIA
einium, t. 456, 319, &c.; the immense and most ele-
gant genus, Erica, so abundant in southern Africa,
but not known in America ; and the fragrant Daphne,
t. 1381, of which last the Levant possesses many
charming species. Acer, the Maple, is removed hith-
er in Fl. Brit, from the 23d class.
2. Digynia has a few plants, but little known; among
them are Galenia africana, and Moehringia mus-
cosa.
3. Trigynia. Polygonum, t. 436, 509, 941, is a genus
whose species differ in the number of their stamens
and styles, and yet none can be more natural. Here
therefore the Linnaean system claims our indulgence.
Paullinia and Cardiospermum are more constant.
4. Tetragynia. Here we find the curious Paris, t. 7,
and Adoxa, t. 453. Of the former I have lately re-
ceived a new species, gathered by my liberal friend
Buchanan among the mountains of Nepal.
Class 9. Enneandria. Stamens 9. Orders 3.
1. Monogynia. Of this the precious genus Laurus, in-
cluding the Cinnamon, Bay, Sassafras, Camphor, and
many other noble plants, is an example.
2. Trigynia has only Rheum, the Rhubarb, nearly re-
lated to Rumex.
3. Hexagynia. Butomus umbellatus, Engl. Bot. t.
651, a great ornament to our rivers and pools.
DECANDRIA.
327
Class 10. Decandria. Stamens 10. Orders 5.
1. Monogynia. A numerous and fine assemblage, be-
ginning with a tribe of flowers more or less correctly
papilionaceous and leguminous, which differ very
materially from the rest of that natural order in having
ten stout, firm, separate stamens. See Cassia, Curt.
Mag. t. 107, 633, and Sophora, t. 167; also Exot.
Bot. t. 25—27, and Annals of Botany, v. 1. 501.
The Ruta, Rue, and its allies, now become very
numerous, follow. See Tracts on Nat. Hist. 287.
Dictamnus, vulgarly called Fraxinella, is one of them.
Dionaa Muscipula, seep. 146, stands in this artificial
order, as do the beautiful Kalmia, Rhododendron, An-
dromeda, Arbutus and Pyrola, Engl. Bot. t. 213, &c
(131)
2. Digynia. Saxifraga, remarkable for having the
german inferior, half inferior, and superior, in differ-
ent species, a very rare example. See Engl. Bot. t.
167, 440, 663, 1009, 500, 501. Dianthus, the Pink
or Carnation tribe, and some of its very distinct nat-
ural order, Caryophyllea, conclude the Decandria,
Digynia. (132)
3. Trigynia. The Caryophyllea are here continued, as
Cucubalus, t. 1527, Silene, t. 465, 1398, Arenaria, t.
189, 512, very prolific and intricate genera intheLe-
(131) [The last genera, with Erica and Vaccintum, from
the 8th class, and some others, constitute the natural order Bi-
cornes, so called, because their anthers are furnished with two
long straight'points or horns.]
(132) [The Caryofihyllea have five petals inserted with claws.
Gucubalus, Arenaria, Stellaria, &c. are native genera of this order."]
328 DODECANDRIA.
vant. Malpighia and Banisteria, beautiful plants of
the Maple family, which next occur, have no affinity
to the foregoing.
4. Pentagynia. Abounds in more Caryophyllea, as
Lychnis, t. 573, and Cerastium. t. 789, 790. Coty-
ledon, 325, Sedjtm, t. 1319,, and Oxalis, t. 762, are
placed here. Some of the last genus have the fila-
ments united at their base, and therefore should be-
long to the 16th class,—another defect in the artificial
system.
5. Decagynia. Consists of only Neurada, with Phyto-
lacca ; the latter an irregular genus as to stamens and
styles, which therefore afford good marks to discrim-
inate the species.
Class 11. Dodecandria. Stamens 12 to 19. Orders 6
1. Monogynia. A rather numerous and very various
order, with scarcely any natural affinity between the
genera. Some of them have twelve, others fifteen or
more stamens, which should be mentioned in their
characters. Asarum, Engl. Bot. t. 1083, and the
handsome Ly thrum Salicaria, 1.1061, also the Amer-
ican Snow-drop-tree, Halesia, not rare in our gardens,
may serve as examples of this order. Sterculia is
very properly removed hither from Gynandria by
Schreber and Willdenow, as its stamens are not in-
serted above the germen.
2. Digynia consists of Hetiocarpus, a very rare Ameri-
can tree with a singularly fringed or radiated fruit;
ICOSANDRIA.
3*9
and Agrimonia, Engl. Bot. t. 1335. The latter
might as well have been placed in the next class, with
which it agrees in natural order.
3. Trigynia is chiefly occupied by Reseda, the Migno-
nette, #. 320, 321, and Euphorbia, t. 256, 883, &c,
one of the most well defined and natural genera, of
which the Punicea, Ic. Pict. t. 3, is a splendid ex-
otic species.
4. Tetragynia, in Schreber and Willdenow, consists of
Calligonum, a genus illustrated by L'Heritier in the
Transactions of Linn. Society, v. 1; and Aponogeton%
already mentioned/?. 324.
5. Pentagynia has Glinus, an insignificant genus ; and
Blackwellia, a doubtful one.
6. Dodecagynia is exemplified in Sempervivum, the
Houseleek, Engl. Bot. t. 1320, whose styles vary
from 12 to 18 or 20. Sempervivum Sediforme, Jacq.
Hort. Vind. t. 81, is a Sedum with a superabundance
of parts in the fructification. Linnaeus confounded it
with S. rupestre.
Class 12. Icosandria. Stamens 20 or more, inserted
into the Calyx. Orders 3.
1. Monogynia consists of fine trees, bearing for the most
part stone fruits, as the Peach, Plum, Cherry, &c,
though the leaves and other parts are bitter, acrid, and,
as we have already mentioned, sometimes very dan-
gerous, owing to the peculiar essential oil, known by
ss
330
ICOSANDRIA.
its bitter-almond flavour. See specimens of this fam-
ily in Engl. Bot. t. 1383, 706, 841, 842. The. Myr-
tle tribe (133) is another natural order, comprehended
chiefly under Icosandria Monogynia, abounding in a
fragrant and wholesome aromatic oil. These are plen-
tiful in New Holland. See Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3.
255, also Exot. Bot. t. 43, 59, and 84. Caryophyllus
aromaticus, the Clove, should on every account be
removed hither.
2. Pentagynia. In this order it is most convenient to
include such plants as have from two to five styles,
and occasionally, from accidental luxuriance only,
one or two more. An example of it is the very natu-
ral family of the Pomacea, as Pyrus, the Apple, Pear,
&c. Engl. Bot. t. 179, 350, 337 ; and Mespilus, t.
1523, Exot. Bot. t. 18, 85. In this family some
species of the same genus have five, others three, two,
or only one style, and a corresponding number of
seeds. Spiraa, nearly allied to it, stands here, most
of its species having five styles, though some have a
much greater number; see Engl. Bot. t. 284, 960.
Mesembryanthemum, a vast and brilliant exotic genus,
of a succulent habit, abounding in alkaline salt, and a
few genera naturally allied to it, make up the rest of
the order.
3. Polygynia. An entirely natural order of genuine
Rosaceous flowers, except possibly Calycanthus.
^133) \_Hesfieridea.of Linnaeus. They have firm, evergreen
: saves, sweet scented flowers, and numerous stamens.]
ICOS ANURIA.
.131
Here we find Rosa, Engl. Bot. t. 187, 990—2 ; Ru-
bus, t. 826, 827, 716 ; Fragaria, t. 1524 ; Potentil-
la, t. 88, 89, 862 ; Tormentilla, t. 863, 864 ; Geum,
#.106; Dryas, t. 451; and Comarum, t. 172: all
elegant plants, agreeing in the astringent qualities of
their roots, bark and foliage, and in their generally
eatable, always innocent, fruit. (134) The vegetable
kingdom does not afford a more satisfactory example
of a natural order, composed of natural genera, than
this ; and Linnaeus has well illustrated it in the Flora
Lapponica. His genus Tormentilla, differing from
Potentilla in number of petals and segments of the
calyx, though retained by Jussieu, may perhaps be
scarcely distinct ; yet there is a difference in their
habit, which has induced me to leave it for further
consideration. Haller united them both with Fraga-
ria and Comarum, which the character and habit of
the latter totally forbid, and Gaertner has well sug-
gested a mark from the smoothness of the seeds in
Fragaria, (as well as Comarum,) to strengthen that of
its pulpy receptacle. Whatever difficulties may at-
tend these genera, how admirably does the fruit serve
us in Rosa, Rubus, Dryas and Geum, to discriminate
those whose leaves, flowers, and habit all stamp them
as distinct ! A student cannot do better than to study
this order and these genera, as an introduction to the
knowledge of more obscure ones ; and the beautiful
plants which compose it, mostly familiar to every
body, are easily obtained.
(134) [The Rose, Bramble, Strawberry, Cinquefoil, and the
other plants mentioned above were called by Linnaeus Senticoaai'^
332
POLYANDRIA,
Class 13, Polyandria. Stamens numerous, inserted
into the Receptacle. Orders 7.
1, Monogynia. The genera of this order are artificially
distributed according to the number of their petals*
but not so arranged in the body of the system. They
form a numerous and various assemblage of handsome
plants, but many are of a suspected quality. Among
them are the Poppy, the Caper-shrub, the Sanguina-
ria canadensis, Curt. Mag. i. 162, remarkable for its
orange juice, like our Celandine, Engl. Bot. #.1581 ;
(135) also the beautiful genus Cistus with its copious
but short-lived flowers, some of which {Engl. Bot. t.
1321) have irritable stamens ; the splendid aquatic
tribe of Nymphaa, &c, #. 159, 160. But the pre-
cious Nutmeg and the Tea are perhaps erroneously
placed here by Linnaeus, as well as the Clove ; while
on the other hand Cleome more properly belongs to
this part of the system than to the 15th Class.
2. Digynia has principally the Paonia, t. 1513, variable
in number of pistils, and Fothergilla alnifalia, an
American shrub,
3. Trigynia. Delphinium the Larkspur, and Aconitum
the Monk's hood, two variable and uncertain genera
as to number of pistils,
(135) [The Poppy, Celandine, Blood Root, 8cc. which have a
eapsule or silique, and a caducous calyx belong to the natural
order Rhceadea. Some other genera chiefly of the order Polygy-
nia, which have many pods, or many naked seeds, to one flower,
are placed in the natural order Multisiliqua. Such are Caltha,,
Aguilegiai Anemone, Ranunculus, Sec]
POLYANDRIA.
4. Tetragynia. Tetracera ought, by its name, to have
constantly four pistils, but the rest of this order are
very doubtful. Caryocar, whose large rugged woody
nuts contain the most exquisite kernel ever brought to
our tables, and which is the same plant with Gaert-
ner's and Schreber's Rhizobolus, as the excellent
Willdenow rightly judged, is not certain in number ;
and still less the Cimicifuga ; whilst Wahlbomia is
probably a Tetracera : see Willdenow,
5. Pentagynia contains chiefly Aquilegia the Colum-
bine, and Nigella—both strictly allied to genera in
the third order. Reaumuria indeed is here well pla-
ced. Some Nigella have ten styles.
6. Hexagynia consists of Stratiotes, Engl Bot. t. 379;
and Brasenia, a new genus of Schreber's with which
I am not acquainted. (136)
I would recommend an union of the last five orders,
for the same reasons that influenced me in the preced-
ing class. They now only serve to keep natural gen-
era asunder, the species of which not only differ
among themselves as to number of pistils, but each
species is often variable besides. The genera are so
few that no inconvenience could arise on that account.
I conceive such reforms, founded in experience not
in theory, serve to strengthen the system, by greatly
facilitating its application to practice.
(136) [I presume it is the Hydrofieltis of Michaux, the only
species of which is a common North American aquatic; both
from the similarity of their characters, and the application of the
name in Dr. Muhlenburg's catalogue. Ed.~]
334 DIDYNAMIA.
7. Polygynia. An order for the most part natural, com-
prehending some fine exotic trees, as Dillenia, Exot.
Bot. t. 2, 3, 92 and 93 ; Liriodendron, the Tulip-
tree ; the noble Magnolia, &c.; a tribe concerning
whose genera our periodical writers are falling into
great mistakes. To these succeed a family of plants,
either herbaceous or climbing, of great elegance, but
of acrid and dangerous qualities, as Anemone, in a
single state the most lovely, in a double one the most
splendid, ornament of our parterres in the spring ;
Atragena and Clematis, so graceful for bowers; Tha-
lictrum, Adonis, Ranunculus, Trollius, Helleborus and
Caltha, all conspicuous in our gardens or meadows,
which, with a few less familiar, close this class.
Nothing can be more injudicious than uniting these
two last classes, as some inexperienced authors have
done. They are immutably distinct in nature and
characters, whether we call the part which immedi-
ately bears the stamens in the Icosandria a calyx, with
most botanists, or a receptacle with Mr. Salisbury in
the 8th vol. of the Linnaean Society's Transactions,
where, among many things which I wish had been
omitted, are some good remarks concerning the dis-
tinction made between calyx and corolla. This the
writer in question considers as decided in doubtful
cases by the latter sometimes bearing the stamens,
which the former, in his opinion, never really does.
Class 14. Didynamia. Stamens 2 long and 2 short.
Orders 2, each on the whole very natural.
1. Gymnospermia. Seeds naked, in the bottom of the
calyx, 4, except in Phryma, which has a solitary
DYDINAMIA.
335
seed.—Corolla monopetalous and irregular, a little
inflated at the base, and holding honey, without any
particular nectary. Stamens in 2 pairs, incurved,
with the style between them, so that the impregnation
rarely fails.(137) The plants of this order are mostly
aromatic, and none, I believe, poisonous. The calyx
is either in 5 nearly equal segments, or 2 lipped.
Most of the genera afford excellent essential charac-
ters, taken frequently from the corolla, or from some
other part. Thus, Perilla has 2 styles, of which it
is an unique example in this class.
Mentha a corolla whose segments are nearly equal,
and spreading stamens. Engl. Bot. t. 446—8.
Lavandula the Lavender and Westringia, Tracts on
Natural History, 277, #. 3, have a corolla resupinata,
reversed or laid on its back.
Teucrium a deeply divided upper lip, allowing the
stamens and style to project between its lobes. Engl.
Bot. t. 680.
Ajuga scarcely any upper lip at all, #. 77 and 489.
Lamium has the mouth toothed on each side, #.
768.
Prunella, t. 961, has forked filaments ; Cleonia 4
stigmas ; Prasium a pulpy coat to its seeds. These
(137) [Plants of this order, besides their 4 unequal stamens, rin-
gent corolla and naked seeds ; have their flowers commonly
arranged in whorls, their stems square and their leaves opposite.
Examples are common, as, the Mints, Germander, Balm, Catmint,
Ground Ivy, &c. They form the natural order Verticillata of
Linnaeus, and Labiata of Jussieu. Some of the genera however
depart from the usual mode of inflorescence, as Trichostema and
others.]
336
TETRAD YX AM I A.
instances will suffice as clear examples of natural gen
era, distinguished by an essential technical character,
in a most natural order.
2. Angiospermia. Seeds in a capsule, and generally
very numerous. (138)—The plants of this order have
the greatest possible affinity with some families in
Pentandria Monogynia. (139) Some species even
vary from one class to the other, as Bignonia radicans,
Curt. Mag. t. 485, and Antirrhinum Linaria, Engl.
Bot. t. 658, 260, in which the irregular corolla be-
comes regular, and the 4 unequal stamens are chang-
ed to 5 equal ones ; nor does this depend, as has
been asserted, on the action of any extraneous pollen
upon the stigmas of the parent plant, neither are the
seeds always abortive. No method of arrangement,
natural or artificial, could provide against such anom-
alies as these, and therefore imperfections must be ex-
pected in every system.
Class 15. Tetradynamia. Stamens 4 long and 2
short. Orders 2, perfectly natural. Flowers cruci-
form.
1. Siliculosa. Fruit a roundish pod, or pouch. In
some genera it is entire, as Draba, Engl. Bot. t. 586,
and the Honesty or Satin flower Lunaria; in others
(138) [The Personate or masked flowers are chiefly found here,
as Antirrhinum, Chelone, Mimulus, &c]
(139) [Some genera of this order have the rudiment of a fifth
stamen ; as Chelone, Pentatemon, &c. while many plants of the
fifth class have an irregular monopetalous corolla, resembling
those of this order.]
TLTR ADYNAMIA.
33?
notched, as Thlaspi, t. 1659, and Iberis, t. 52 ; which
last genus is unique in its natural order in having un-
equal petals. Crambe, t. 924 ; Isatis. t. 97 ; and
Bunias, t. 231 ; certainly belong to this Order,
though placed by Linnaeus in the next.
2. Siliquosa. Fruit a very long pod. Some genera
have a calyx .clausus, its leaves slightly cohering by
their sides, as Raphanus, t. 856 ; Cheiranthus, t. 462 ;
Hesperis, #. 731; Brassica, t. 637, &c. Others have
a spreading or gaping calyx, as Cardamine, t. 1000 ;
Sisymbrium, t. 855 ; and especially Sinapis, t. 969
and #. 1677.
Cleome is a very irregular genus, allied in habit,
and even in the number of stamens of several species,
to the Polyandria Monogynia. Its fruit, moreover,
is a capsule of one cell, not the real two-celled pod of
this Order. Most of its species are foetid and very-
poisonous, whereas scarcely any plants properly be-
longing to this Class are remarkably noxious, for I
have great doubts concerning the disease called Ra-
phania, attributed by Linnaeus to the seeds of Ra-
phanus Raphanistrum.
The Cruciform plants are vulgarly called antiscor-
butic, and supposed to be of an alkalescent nature.
Their essential oil, which is generally obtainable in
very small qualities by distillation, smells like volatile
alkali, and is of a very acrid quality. Hence the foetid
scent of water in which cabbages, or other plants of
this tribe, have been boiled.
TT
SjS
MONADELPHIA.
Class 16. Monadelphia. Stamens united by their
filaments into one tube. Orders 8, distinguished by
the number of their stamens.
1. Triandria is exemplified by Sisyrinchium, Ic. Pict. t.
9, and Ferraria, Curt. Mag. t. 144, 532, both erro-
neously placed by Linnaeus in Gynandria. Also the
singular Cape plant Aphyteia, consisting of a large
flower and succulent fruit, springing immediately
from the root, without stem or leaves. On this plant
Linnaeus published a dissertation in 1775. Tama-
rindus has lately been removed hither from the third
Class, perhaps justly.
2. Pentandria. Erodium, Engl. Bot. t. 902, separated,
with great propriety, from Geranium by L'Heritier ;
Hermannia, a pretty Cape genus, Curt. Mag. t. 307 ;
and a few other plants, more or less akin to the Mal-
low tribe, compose this Order ; to which also strictly
belong some species of Linum, Geranium, &c. Pas-
siflora, removed from Gynandria, belongs most un-
questionably to Pentandria Trigynia, and by no means
to this Class.
3. Heptandria consists only of Pelargonium of L'Heri-
tier, an excellent genus, comprising most of the Cape
Geraniums, and marked by its irregular flower, 7
stamens, and tubular nectary.
4. Octandria contains Aitonia, Curt. Mag. t. 173, nam-
ed in honour of the excellent and universally respected
author of the Hortus Kewensis. Pistia is, I believe
justly, placed here by Schreber and Willdenow.
MONADELPHIA. 33.9
5. Decandria. Geranium, properly so called, Engl.
Bot. t. 404, 405, 272, &c, is the principal genus
here. The late Professor Cavanilles, however, in
his Dissertationes Botanica referred to this order a
vast number of genera, never before suspected to be-
long to it, as Bannisteria, Malpighia, Turraa, Melia,
&c, on account of some fancied union of their fila-
ments, perhaps through the medium of a tubular nec-
tary ; which principle is absolutely inadmissible ; for
we might just as well refer to Monadelphia every
plant whose filaments are connected by insertion into
a tubular corolla. Some species of Oxalis, see p.
327, belong to this Order ; as do several papiliona-
ceous genera, of which we shall speak under the next
class. (140)
6. Endecandria contains only the splendid South-Amer-
ican genus Brownea, the number of whose stamens is
different in different species.
7. Dodecandria, Stamens mostly 15, is composed of
some fine plants allied to the Mallows, as Pterosper-
mum, t. 620, Pentapetes, &c,
8. Polyandria, a very numerous and magnificent Order,
comprises, among other things, the true Columnife-
ra or Malvacea, (141) as Malva, Engl. Bot. t. 671,
754, Althaa, t. 147, Hibiscus, Spied. Bot. t. 8, Gos-
(140) [The Geraniums, Oxalis, and some others, which have
a five petalled corolla, and their fruit surmounted with a beak,
are called by Linnaeus Gruinales.']
(141) [The Malvaceous plants were called by Linnaeus Colum-
rJfera, on account cf the large tube of stamens, rising like a col-
umn in the centre of the flower.]
346
DIADELPHIA.
sypium, the cotton-tree, Alcea the Hollyhock, &c.
Stately and beautiful plants of this Order, though not
Malvacea, are Carolinea, whose angular seeds are
sold in our shops by the name of Brasil nuts ; Gusta-
via, named after the late King of Sweden, a great pat-
ron of botany and of Linnaeus ; Camellia, Curt. Mag.
t. 42, whose splendid varieties have of late become
favourites with collectors ; Stuartia, Exot. Bot. t.
110 ; and Barringtonia, the original Commersonia,
Sonnerat Voy. a la Nouv. Guinee, t. 8, 9.
Class 17. Diadelphia. Stamens united by their fila-
ments into 2 parcels, both sometimes cohering at the
base. Orders 4, distinguished by the number of
their Stamens.—Flowers almost universally papiliona-
ceous.
1. Pentandria. The only genus in this Order is Mon-
nieria, Lamarck, t. 596, a rare little South American
plant, whose natural order is uncertain. It has a rin-
gent corolla, ternate leaves, a simple bristly pubes-
cence, and is besprinkled with resinous dots.
2. Hexandria. Saraca, in this Order, is as little
known as the Monnieria, except that it undoubtedly
belongs to the leguminous family. It seems most alli-
ed to Brownea, Jonesia, Afzelia, &c. Fumaria, the
only genus besides, is remarkable for the great varie-
ty of forms in its seed-vessel, whence botanists who
make genera from technical characters, without regard
to natural principles, have injudiciously subdivided it.
See Engl. Bot. t. 588—590, 943, 1471.
DIADELPHIA.
J4I
3. Octandria. Poly gala, t. 76, is the principal genus
here. America and the Cape of Good Hope abound
in beautiful species of it, and New Holland affords
some new genera, long confounded with this. Dal-
bergia is perhaps as well placed in the next Older.
4. Decandria is by far the most numerous, as well as
natural, Order of this Class, consequently the genera
are difficult to characterize. They compose the fam-
ily of proper Papihonaca or Leguminosoz, the Pea,
Vetch, Broom, &c. Their stamens are most usually
9 in one set, with a single one separate.
The genera are arranged in sections variously charac-
terized.
* Stamens all united, that is, all in one set. The
plants of this section are really not diadelphous but mo-
nadelphous. See Spartium, Engl. Bot. t. 1339. Some
of them, as Lupinus, and Ulex, t. 742, 743, have in-
deed the tenth stamen evidently distinguished from the
rest, though incorporated with them by its lower part.
Others have a longitudinal slit in the upper side of the
tube, or the latter easily separates there, as Ononis, t.
682, without any indication of a separate stamen. Here
therefore the Linnaean System swerves from its strict
artificial laws, in compliance with the decisive natural
character which marks the plants in question. We ea-
sily perceive that character, and have only to ascertain
whether any papilionaceous plant we may nave to ex-
umine has 10 stamens, all alike separate and distinct, in
which case it belongs to the 10th Class, or whether they
are in any way combined, which refers it to the 17th.
342
DIADELPHIA.
** Stigma downy, without the character of the pre-
ceding section, for this and all the following are truly di-
adelphous. Very nice, but accurate, marks distinguish
the genera, which are sufficiently natural. The style
and stigma afford the discriminative characteristics of
Orobus, t. 1153 ; Pisum, t. 1046 ; Lathyrus, t. 670,
1108 ; Vicia, t. 334, 481—483 ; and no less decisively
in Ervum, t. 970, 1223, which last genus, notwithstand-
ing the remark in Jussieu 360, " stigma non barbatum"
(taken probably from no genuine species,) most evi-
dently belongs to this section, as was first remarked in
the Flora Britannica ; and it is clearly distinguished
from all the other genera of the section by the capitate
stigma hairy all over ; nor is any genus in the whole
Class more natural, when the hitherto mistaken species
are removed to their proper places. See Fl. Brit.
*•## Legume imperfectly divided into two cells, al-
ways, as in all the following, without the character of the
preceding sections. This is composed of the singular
Biserrula, known by its doubly serrated fruit, of which
there is only one species ; the Phaca, Jacq. Ic. Rar. t.
151 ; and the vast genus of Astragalus, Engl. Bot. t.
274, &c, lately illustrated in a splendid work by an able
French botanist, Decandolle.
##*# Legume with scarcely more than one seed. Of
this Psora'[ea, Curt. Mag. #. 665 ; the curious Stylosan-
thes of Swartz ; the Hallia of Thunberg ; and our own
Trifolium, Engl. Bot. t. 1770,1048—1050, are exam-
ples. The last genus, one of the most natural as to
DIADELPIHA.
343
habit and qualities, is extremely untractable with re-
spect to botanical characters. Some species, #. 1047,
1340, 1769, have many seeds in each pod ; some have
not even the capitate inflorescence made a part of the
generic definition. The difficulty is lessened by estab-
lishing Melilotus as a genus, with Jussieu : but the
whole requires to be well reconsidered ; for, if possible,
so great a laxity of definition, with such glaring excep-
tions, should not disgrace any system.
***** Legume composed of single-valved joints,
which are rarely solitary. Hedysarum, t. 96, is the
most important genus of this section, and is known by
its obtuse or rectangular keel. Hippocrepis, t. 31 ;
Ornithopus, t. 369 ; and Scorpiurus, known in gardens
by the name of Caterpillar, from its worm-like pod, are
further examples. Smithia, Ait. Hort. Kew. t. 13, is
remarkable for having the joints of the legume connect-
ed by means of the style, as by a thread ; the stamens in
2 equal divisions, with 5 anthers to each ; and a two-
lipped calyx. Hedysarum vespertilionis, Jacq. Ic. Rar.
t. 566, in some points approaches this genus, and more
certain species are possibly latent among the numerous
unsettled papilionaceous plants of India.
****** Legume of one cell, with several seeds. To
this belong the genus Meliotus, if separated from Trifo-
lium ; the Indigofera, several species of which are so
valuable for dyeing blue ; the handsome Robinia, Curt.
Mag. t. 311 ; Cytisius,t. 176, &c. ; and Clitora*, Ins.
* From x\uu, to close or shut up, in allusion to the situation
of the wings and keel.
344
POLYADELPHIA
of Georgia, t. 18 : also Lotus, Engl. Bot. t. 925, and
Medicago, t. 1616 ; which last is justly transferred by
Willdenow from the foregoing section to this.
Papilionaceous plants are rarely noxious to the larger
tribes of animals, though some species of Galega iutoxi-*
cate fish. The seeds of Cytisus Laburnum have of late
been found violently emetic, and those of Lathyrus sati-
vus have been supposed at Florence to soften the bones,
and cause death ; we know of no other similar instan-
ces in this Class, which is one of the most abundant in
valuable esculent plants. The negroes have a notion
that beautiful little scarlet and black seeds of Abrus pre-
catorius, so frequently used for necklaces, are extremely
poisonous, insomuch that half of one is sufficient to kill a
man. This is totally incredible. Linnaeus however as-
serts rather too absolutely, that' " among all the legum-
inous or papilionaceous tribe there is no deleterious
plant to be found."
Class 18. Polyadelphia. Stamens united by their
filaments into more than 2 parcels. Orders 3, dis-
tinguished by the number or insertion of their stamens,
which last particular Linnaeus here overlooked.
No part of the Linnaean system has been less accu-
rately defined or understood than the Orders of the
18th Class. Willdenow, aware of this, has made
some improvements, but they appear to me not suffi-
cient, and I venture to propose the following arrange-
ment.
1. Dodecandria. Stamens, or rather Anthers, from 12
to 20, or 25, their filaments unconnected with the
POLYADELPHIA.
345
calyx. Of this the first example that presents itself
is Theobroma, the Chocolate tree, Merian. Surin. t.
26, 63, Lamarck Encycl. t. 635. The flowers have
not been seen fresh in Europe, and we only know
them from drawings made in the West Indies, one of
which, preserved in the Linnaean herbarium, is my
authority for the following descriptions. The fila-
ments are inserted between the long tapering segments
of a 5-cleft nectary, on its outside, and each bears at
its summit 4 sessile, obtuse, spreading anthers.
Aublet's figure of this genus, which Schreber and
Willdenow seem to have followed, represents but 2.
The fruit is perhaps most properly a berry with a
hard coat, vvhpse seeds, when roasted, make choco-
late. Bubroma of Schreber, Guazuma Lamarck, t.
637, confounded by Linnaeus with the preceding ge-
nus, has similar filaments, but each bears 5 anthers ;
Jussieu and Cavanilles say 3. The fruit is a woody
capsule, with 10 rows of perforations. Abroma, Jacq.
Hort. Vind. v. 3. #. 1. Miller Illustr. t. 63, has 5 par*
eels of anthers, nearly sessile on the outside of the
nectary, between its obtuse, reflexed, notched lobes.
It is difficult to say how many anthers compose each
parcel, for the different accounts on record are totally
irreconcileable. We have found 3 ; the drawing sent
to JLinnzeus represents 6 ; and Miller has a much
greater number. Perhaps they may vary. In this
uncertainty the genus in question is best placed with
its natural allies in this orde , with a reference to it in
italics at the end of Polyadelphia Polyandria. Its
urj
*
346
POLYADKLPMIA.
fruit is a membranous winged capsule, opening at the
top. Monsonia, Curt. Mag. t. 73, Lamarck, t. 638,
removed by Schreber and Willdenow to Monadel-
phia, rather, I think, belongs to this diss wheie Lin-
naeus placed it. The 5 filaments, bearing each 3
long-stalked anthers, are merely inserted into a short
membranous cup, or nectary, for so the analogy of the
3 preceding genera induces us to call it ; and if we
refer Monsonia to Monadelphia, we fall into the error
of Cavanilles mentioned p. 339. Lastly, Citrus, the
Orange, Lemon, See, Lamarck, t. 639, most unques-
tionably belongs to this Order. Its stamens are about
19 or 20, combined variously and unequally in sev-
eral distinct parcels ; but those parcels are inserted
into a proper receptacle, by no means into the calyx,
as the character of the Class Icosandria indispensably
requires. Even the number of the anthers of Citrus
accords better with most plants in Dodecandria than
in Icosandria, notwithstanding the title of the latter.
2. Icosandria. Stamens numerous, their filaments inser-
ted (in several parcels) into the calyx.—To this Order
Professor Willdenow properly refers Melaleuca Exot.
Bot. t. 34—36, 55, 56, which had previously stood
in Polyandria, botanists having only considered num-
ber and not insertion in the Orders of Polyadelphia,
whence a double mistake has arisen, concerning Cit-
rus on the one hand, and Melaleuca on the other.
3. Polyandria. Stamens very numerous, unconnected
with the calyx. This Order consists of several gen-
era. The most remarkable is Hypericum, Engl. Bot.
SYNGLNESIA.
347
t. 109, 1225—1227, &c, whose stamens united into
3 or 5 parcels, corresponding with the number of its
styles. Munchhausia is a Lagerstromia, nor does it
appear to be polyadelphous at all. Linnaeus seems
to have intended bringing Thea into this Order.
Class 19. Syngenesia. Anthers united into a tube.
Flowers compound. Orders 5.
This being truly a natural Class, its Orders are
most of them equally so, though some are liable to
exceptions, as will presently be explained.
1. Polygamia aqualis. In this each floret, taken sep-
arately, is perfect or united, being furnished with its
own perfect stamens and pistil, and capable of bring-
ing its seed to maturity without the assistance of any
other floret. The Order consists of 3 sections.
* Florets all ligulate, or strap-shaped, called by
Tournefort Semiflosculous. These flowers are gen-
erally yellow, sometimes blue, very rarely reddish.
They expand in a morning, and close towards noon
or in cloudy weather. Their herbage is commonly
milky and bitter. Leontodon, Engl. Bot. t. 510 ;
Tragopogon, t. 434, 638; Hieracium, t. 349, &c;
and Cichorium, t. 539, exemplify this very natural
section.
** Flowers globose, generally uniform and regular,
their florets all tubular, $-cleft, and spreading. Car-
duus, t. 107, 675, 973—976 ; Onopordum, t. 977 ;
and Arctium, t. 1228, well exemplify this. Carb
348
SYNGENESIA
na, t. 1144, does not so exactly agree with the above
definition, having a flat disk ; but its affinity to the
other genera is indubitable. Its flattened disk and
radiating coloured calyx seem contrived to imitate
the radiated flowers of the following Order.
*** Flowers discoid, their florets all tubular, regu-
lar,crowded and parallel, forming a surface nearly fat,
or exactly conical. Their colour is most generally
yellow, in some cases, pink. Santolina, t. 141 ; and
Bidens, t. 1113, 1114, are genuine examples of this
section : Eupatorium, t. 428, and the exotic Staheli-
na, Dicks. Dr. PI. 13, approach to the preceding
one. There is however the most absolute difference
between these two sections, collectively, and the first;
while, on the other hand, they have considerable af-
finity with some of the following Orders, as will be
hereafter explained.
2. Polygamia superflua. Florets of the disk perfect
or united ; those of the margin furnished with pistils
only ; but all producing perfect seed.
* Discoid, the florets of the margin being obsolete or
inconspicuous, from the smallness or peculiar form
of the corolla; as Artemisia, Engl. Bot. t. 338, 978,
1230; Tanacetum, t. 1229 ; Conyza, t. 1195 ; and
Gnaphalium, t. 267, 1157. In the last the marginal
florets are mostly 5-cleft and tubular like the rest, on-
ly wanting stamens. Caution is requisite to detect
the difference between this section and the preceding
Order.
SYNGENESIA.
$4?
** Ligulate, 2-lipped, of which'Perdicium, a rare
exotic genus, is the only instance.
*** Radiant, the marginal florets ligulate, form-
ing spreading conspicuous rays ; as Bellis the Daisy,
#. 424 ; Aster, t. 87, a very numerous genus in
America; Chrysanthemum, t. 601, 540; Inula, t.
1546, &c. This section seems at first sight, a com-
bination of the first and third sections of the former
Order, but this is chiefly in the form of its corollas.
It is rather an approach of that third section towards
what is equivalent to becoming double in other tribes.
Accordingly, the Chamomile, Anthemis nobilis, t. 980;
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, t. 601 ; and some
others, occasionally have their whole disk changed to
ligulate white florets, destitute of stamens, and con-
sequently abortive. Such are called double flowers
in this Class, and very properly. Many exotic spe-
cies so circumstanced are met with in gardens. A
few very strange anomalies occur in this section, as
already mentioned, p. 341, one Sigesbeckia having
but 3 stamens, instead of 5, the otherwise universal
number in the Class : and Tussilago hybrida, t. 430,
as well as paradoxa of Retzius, having distinct an-
thers. Nature therefore, even in this most natural
Class, it is not without exceptions.
3. Polygamia frustranea. Florets of the disk, as in the
preceding, perfect or united ; those of the margin
neuter, or destitute of pistils as well as of stamens ;
only some few genera having the rudiments of pistils
in their radiant florets.
35u
SY.MiFAIlSIA.
This Order is, still more evidently than the last,
analogous to double flowers of other Classes. Ac-
cordingly, Coreopsis is the very same genus as Bidens,
only furnished with unproductive radiant florets. C.
bidens of Linnaeus is the same species as in B. cer-
nua ; C. coronata is his B.frondosa ; and C. leucan-
tha, B. pilosa. Some species of Coreopsis indeed
have never been found without rays. Linnaeus ex-
presses his difficulties on this subject in Phil.. Bot.
sect. 209, but seems inclined to unite the two genera.
A similar ambiguity occurs between Gorteria and
Atractylis, Relhania (of the last Order) and Atjiana-
sia, and in some degree between Centaurea, Engl.
Bot. t. 278, 1678, 56, &c, and Carduus, or Serra-
tula ; only the scales of the calyx of Centaurea gen-
erally keep that genus distinct.
I should be much inclined to abolish this Order.
Those of its genera which have rudiments of pistils in
their radiant florets, as Rudbeckia and Helianthus,
would very commodiously range with their near rela-
tions in Polygamia superjlua, nor are wc sure that
such radiant florets are in all circumstances abortive,
neither can a student often know whether they are so
or not. It does not follow, from what has just been
observed, that the presence of radiant florets, whether
abortive or not, can never afford a generic character,
provided there be no corresponding genus without
them. This must be determined by experience and
observation. They are indeed to be considered as a
very secondary mark, the most essential in this Class
being derived from the receptacle, crown of the seed.
SYXGENKSIA.
351
and calyx. These Gaertner has illustrated with the
greatest accuracy and skill, but even these must not
be blindly followed to the destruction of natural gen-
era.
4. Polygamia necessaria. Florets of the disk furnished
with stamens only, those of the margin, or radius,
only with pistils ; so that both ate necessary to each
other. This is well seen in the common Garden Ma-
rigold, Calendula, in whose calyx, when ripening seed,
the naked and barren disk is conspicuous, Othonna,
Curt. Mag. t. 306, 768, Arctotis, Osteospermum and
Silphium, not rare in gardens, are further examples of
this Order, which I believe is constant and founded
in nature. We have no British specimens either of it
or the fellowing. Filago, at least as far as our Flora
is concerned, belongs to Gnaphalium. See Engl.
Bot. t. 946, 1193, &c.
5. Polygamia segregata. Several flowers, either simple
or compound, but with united tubular anthers, and
with a partial calyx, all included in one general calyx.
Of these the Globe-thistle, Echinops, and Stoehe, with
Seriphium and Corymbium, (which two last require to
be removed hither from the abolished Linnaean Order
Syngenesia Monogamia,) have only 1 floret in each
partial calyx ; Jungia has 3, Elephantopus 4, others
more. In every case the partial calyx is distinguished
from the chaffy seed-crown observable in several gen-
era of the other Orders, (though the latter is indeed
analogous to a calyx,) either by being inferior, or by
the presence of a seed-crown, or feathery down, be-
■V'S
GYNANDRIA
sides. See Lamarck, t. 718—723, where the plants
in question are well represented.
Class 20. Gynandria. Stamens inserted either upon
the style or germen. Orders 9 in Linnaeus, but some
alterations concerning them are necessary.
This is one of those Classes abolished by the celebra-
ted Thunberg, and by several less intelligent writers who
have followed him. The reasons which led to this
measure appear to have been that Linnaeus has errone-
ously placed in Gynandria several plants which have not
the requisite character ; hence that character itself has
been judged ambiguous, or not founded in nature, and
the system has been supposed to be simplified by over-
looking it. This appears to me a great mistake. The
character of the Class, taken as above, is as evident,
constant and genuine as that of any other in the system.
No doubt can arise, if we be careful to observe that the
stamens actually grow out of the germen or style, and
not merely out of any part that supports the germen ; as
will appear by examples.
1. Monandria. Stamen, or sessile Anther, 1 only.
This contains all the beautiful and curious natural
family of the Orchidea, or Orchis tribe, except only
Cypripedium, which belongs to the next Order. I
am induced to consider the bulk of this family as mo-
nandrous, upon a careful review of Professor Swarta's
representation of the subject, in his excellent treatise,
just come to my hands in English. See Tracts rela-
tive to Botany translated from different Languages
GYNANDRIA.
(by Mr. Konig,) printed for Phillips and Fardon,
1805. I have already, p. 217, mentioned the glutin-
ous nature of the pollen of these plants. This forms
yellow elastic masses, often stalked, in each cell of the
anther, and the cells are either parallel and close to-
gether, or removed from each other to the opposite
sides of the style : which serves to connect them,
just as the filament does in many Scitamineous plants,
alike therefore decided to be monandrous. Such a
decision with regard to those also is justified by the
analogy of other species, whose cells being approxi-
mated or conjoined, properly constitute but one an-
ther. The grand and absolute subdivision of the
Orchidea is justly founded by Dr. Swartz, after Hal-
ler, on the structure of the anther, whether it be, as
just described, parallel, like that of Orchis, Engl. Bot.
t. 22 ; Ophrys, t. 65 ; and Diuris, Exot. Bot. t. 9,
Sec.; or vertical, consisting of a moveable lid on the
top of the style, like Dendrobium, t. 10—12 ; or Ma -
laxis, Engl. Bot. t. 72. The style of the Orchidea
has been called a column, but I think that term now
altogether superfluous. It is really a style, and the
stigma is a moist shining space, generally concave,
and situated, for the most part, in front of the style
beneath the anther. In Orchis bifolia, t. 22, and
others, it is just above the orifice of the spur. Con-
cerning the nectary of these plants there has been
much diversity of opinion. The calcar, spur, in Or-
chis, and some other genera, is acknowledged to be
such, and holds abundance of honey. This spur is
judged by Swartz, as well as Linnaeus, a decisive
\\w
354 GYNANDHIA.
generic mark of distinction, and it commonly is so;
but some Indian species brought by Dr. Buchanan
prove it not to be absolute. The remarkable and
often highly ornamented lip, considered by Swartz as
the only corolla, for he takes all the other leaves of the
flower for a calyx, has, by Linnaeus and others, been
thought, either a part of the nectary, or, where no
spur is present, the only nectary. Nor is this opin-
ion so ill-founded as many botanists suppose ; for the
front of the lip evidently secretes honey in Ophrys (or
Epipactis) ovata, t. 1548, and probably in others not
yet attended to. Nevertheless, this lip might, like
the petals of lilies, be deemed a nectariferous corolla,
were it certain that all the other leaves were truly a
calyx. But the 2 inner are so remarkably different
from the 3 outer ones in Ophrys, t. 64, 65, 71, 383,
and above all, in Stelis, Exot. Bot. t. 75, that I am
most inclined to take the former for the corolla, the
latter being, according to all appearance, a calyx.
An insensible gradation from one to the other, of
which we have pointed out other instances in treating
of this subject already, occurs in Diuris, #.8, 9 ;
while in some Orchidea the leaves all partake more
of the habit of a calyx, and in others of a corolla.
liven the lip in Thelymitra, t. 29. assumes the exact
form, colour, and texture, of the rest of the flower ;
which proves that a dissimilarity between any of these
parts is not always to be expected in the family under
consideration. Vahl appears by the preface to his
Enumeratio Plantarum to have removed the Scitami-
nea to Gynandria, because the stamen of Canna ad-
GYNANDRIA
35J
hcres to the style. This, if constant, could only con-
cern that genus, for the rest of the Order are in no
sense gynandrous.
2. Diandria. To this Order Cypripedium, Engl. Bot. t.
1, must be referred, having a pair of very distinct
double-celled anthers. See Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1.1.
2, 3. Here we find Forstera, so well illustrated by-
Professor Swartz in Sims and Konig's Annals of Bot-
any, v. 1. 291, t. 6 ; of which genus Phyllachme, t.
5 of the same volume, is justly there reckoned a spe-
cies. Of the same natural order with Forstera is Sty-
lidium, but that having I think, 4 anthers, belongs to
the fourth Order of the present Class. Gunnera, plac-
ed by Linnaeus in Gynandria Diandria^ is not yet
sufficiently well understood*
3. Triandria. Salacia, if Linnaeus's description be
right, is properly placed here ; but Jussieu doubts
it, nor does my dried specimen serve to remove the
uncertainty. Stilago proves to be merely the barren
plants of Antidesma alexiteria, and belongs to Dioecia ;
as Sisyrinchium and Ferraria do to Monadelphia, the
tubular united stamens of the two last having been
mistaken for a solid style. Rhopium of Schreber (Me-
borea ofAublet, t. 323,) seems therefore the only cer-
tain genus of the Order under consideration ; unless
Lamarck be right in referring to it Jacquin's Strump-
fia, upon which I have not materials to form any opin-
ion. The original discoverer attributes to this plant
5 stamens with united anthers; hence it found a place
in the Syngenesia Monogamiq of Linnaeus. Lamarck
356 <*YN\NDRIA.
merits attention, as he appears to have had an authen-
tic specimen. See his #. 731.
4. Tetrandria. Nepenthes, of whose extraordinary
kind of leaf mention is made/». 162, is the only genus
of this Order in Linnaeus, but very erroneously plac-
ed here, for it belon gs to Dioecia Monadelphia. The
O der however must be retained for the sake of Styli-
dium, a New Holland genus, related, as above men-
tioned, to Forstera. This is my Ventenatia, Exot.
Bot. t. 66, 67 ; but another genus having previously,
without my knowledge, received the latter denomina-
tion, that of Stylidmm, under which I had, some time
ago, communicated this genus to the French botan-
ists*, and which they have adopted, becomes estab-
lished. See La Billardiere's excellent work on New
Holland plants, where several species of it are figured.
5. Pentandria. The original genera of this Order,
Ayenia, Gluta, and Passiflora, Exot. Bot. t. 28, most
unquestionably have nothing to do with it, their sta-
mens being inserted below the germen, merely on a
columnar receptacle. The learned Schreber there-
fore removed them to the 5th Class.
But this Order may receive a reinforcement from
the Linnaean Pentandria Digynia. Several of the
* I was not aware of Loureiro's Stylidium, a plant, according
to his description, of the 7th Class ; Fl. Cochinch. -v. 1. 221 ; but
this can scarcely interfere with ours, being probably, as it grows
about Canton, some well-known shrub that happened to have a
7-cleft flower. It should seem to belong to the Rubiacea, not-
withstanding some points in the description.
GYNANDRIA JoT
Contorta have long been thought to belong to Gynan-
dria ; see Pergularia, Ic. Pict. t. 16, and Ander. Re-
pos. t. 184. In this genus, as well as Cynanchum
and Asclepias, the pollen is borne in 5 pair of glutin-
ous masses, exactly like the pollen of Orchidea, by 5
glands -upon the stigma. Some obscurity arises from
each mass of pollen being received into a bag or cell,
formed by a peculiar valvular apparatus that encircles
the organs of impregnation, and bears a great resem-
blance to stamens. The pollen however is, in the
above genera, not attached to these cells or valves, but
to.the 5 glands, each of which is double, and all of
them seated on that thick abrupt angular body which
acts as a stigma*. Nor is it worth while to dispute
whether this whole body be a stigma or not, with re-
gard to the question under consideration, for it is
borne by the styles, above the germen, and itself bears
the anthers. I humbly conceive, however, with Lin-
naeus and Jacquin, that as part of it, at least, receives
the pollen, stigma is full as good a name for this body
as Haller's term dolium, a tub ! Still less is it worth
while to controvert with Kolreuter the propriety of
the term pollen, because the substance in question is
not actually a dry powder, any more than in the Or-
chis tribe, or in Mirabilis, Exot. Bot. t. 23. That
term is technically used for the matter which renders
the seeds fertile, including its vehicle, whether the
* Mr. R. Brown believes the cells secrete the pollen, and pro-
ject it on the stigma, as the pollen of some Orchidece stick to
any part of the plant. If so, these plants must remain in Pen-
tandria.
GYNANDRIV
latter be capsular or glutinous, in short, whatever the
appearance or texture of the whole may be. Anoth-
er question remains, more immediately to our present
purpose, whether these plants have 5 stamens or 10 ?
Jacquin, who has well illustrated several of them in
his Miscell. Austr. v. 1. #. 1—4, and Rottboll in a
dissertation on the subject, contend for the latter.
Rottboll wrote to Haller, that " finding Linnaeus deaf
to all that had been said, he sent him his treatise, to
see whether he would persist in falsifying nature."
Thus sordid underlings foment the animosities and
flatter the failings of their superiors ! Linnaeus judi-
ciously suspended his opinion, and, after all, proves
to be most correct. The annalogies of the Orchidea
and Scitaminea very clearly decide that the 2 cells,
or the double masses of naked pollen, can only be
considered as one anther of 2 lobes. Even Periploca
graca, though not gynandrous, confirms this. Each
lobe of its anthers stands, as in many Scitaminea, on
the outermost edge of the filament ; thus meeting
that on the adjoining filament, and in appearance con-
stituting with it a 2-lobed anther, as the lobe of the Sci-
taminea,where there is but one filament, meets its cor-
responding lobe by embracing the style.
6. Hexandria. Aristolochia, Engl. Bot. t. 398, a curi-
ous genus, of which there are many exotic species, is
the only example of this, Pistia being removed to
Monadelphia Octandria,
7. Octandria. The Scopolia of Linnaeus, which origi-
nally constituted this Order, proves to be a Daphne >
GYNANDRIA
359
see Plant. Ic. ex Herb. Linn. t. 34. Cytinus how-
ever, Cavan. Ic. t. 171, a singular parasitical plant on
the roots of Cistus in the south of Europe, has pro-
perly been brought hither from the Order Dodecan-
dria, of which it originally formed the only example.
The observations of Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Ferd.
Bauer confirms those of other botanists, that the an-
thers are 8, not 16, and that they are truly inserted
upon the style.
8. Decandria is now abolished. Of the two genera
which constituted it, Kleinhovia belongs to the Class
Dodecandria, having 15 stamens, see Cavan. Monar
delph, t. 146 ; and Helicteres to Decandria Mono-
gynia.
9. Dodecandria is likewise abolished.
10. Polyandria is in a similar predicament, for I am
not aware of any genus that can be admitted into it.
Xylopia goes with the greatest propriety to its natural
allies in Polyandria Polygynia, Annona, &c, its short
stamens being inserted into the receptacle below the
germen. Grewia, as well as Schreber's Microcos if
a good genus, belong to Polyandria Monogynia, the
organs of impregnation being merely elevated on a
common stalk, like those of Passifora and Ayenia.
Ambrosinia, Arum, and Calla, are all justly removed
by Schreber to Monoecia, though I think, for reasons
hereafter given, they are more commodiously and
naturally placed in the Order Polyandria of that Class,
0 MONOKCIA.
than in the Order Monandria. Dracontium and Po
those of the same natural family, having perfect or uni-
ted flowers, the former with 7 stamens to each, the latter
with !, are undoubtedly to be referred to their cor-
responding Classes, Heptandria and Tetrandria.
Zostera, the only remaining genus of Gynandria
Polyandria in Linnaeus, I have long ago ventured to
remove to Monandria Monogynia ; see Engl. Bot. t.
467.
lass 21. Monoecia. Stamens and Pistils in sepa-
rate flowers, but both growing on the same individual
plant. Orders 9 or 10.
Several reformers of the Linnaean system have also
abolished this Class and the two following, by way of
rendering that system more simple. Ten years' ad-
ditional experience since the preface to the 7th vol-
ume of English Botany was written, have but con-
firmed my opinion on this subject. If any plants
ought to be removed from these Classes, they must
be such as have the structure of all the accessory-
parts of the flower exactly alike, (the essential parts,
or stamens and pistils only, differing,) in both barren
and fertile flowers ; and especially such as have in
one flower perfect organs of one kind, accompanied
by rudiments of the other kind, for these rudiments
are liable occasionally to become perfect. By this
means dioecious species of a genus, as in Lychnis,
Valeriana, Rumex, &c, would no longer be a re-
proach or inconvenience to the system. But, on the
other hand, some difficulty would occasionally arise
MONOECIA.
36i
to a student, in deciding whether there were any real
difference of structure between these accessory parts
or not, and it might puzzle an adept to determine the
question. For instance, whether the nectary in Salix,
different in the barren and fertile flowers of some spe-
cies, should lead us to keep that genus in Dioecia,
though in other species the nectary is precisely alike
in both the kinds, and occasionally an abortive ger-
men occurs in the barren flowers, as stamens do,
more rarely, in some fertile ones. Considering all
this, I should refer Salix to Diandria Monogynia.
With respect to those Monoecious or Dioecious
genera whose barren flowers are decidedly unlike the
fertile ones, the former being in a catkin, the latter
not, as Corylus, Quercus, &c, I conceive nothing more
pernicious or troublesome can be attempted than to
remove them to the Classes of united flowers. They
meet with no allies there, but, on the contrary, form
so natural an assemblage by themselves, as to be
unanimously kept separate by the authors of every
natural system that has appeared. But even if this
were not the case, there is a most important reason
for keeping them as they are, which regards the
artificial system more particularly, and of which its
author was well aware ; they are of all plants most
uncertain in the number of their stamens. Now this
uncertaintv is of little moment, when we have them
primarily distinguished and set apart from other pinnTs
by their Monoecious or Dioecious character ; because
the genera being few, and the Orders constructed
widely as to number of Stamens, we find little diffi-
\x
362 M0N0ECLV
culty in determining any genus, which would be by
no means the case if we had them confounded with
the mass of the system. Even the species of the
same genus, as well as individuals of each species,
differ among themselves. How unwise and unscien-
tific then is it, to take as a primary mark of discrim-
ination, what nature has evidently made of less conse-
quence here than in any other case! It is somewhat
like attempting a natural system, and founding its
primary divisions on the artificial circumstance of
number of stamens.
I proceed to give some illustrations of the Orders
in Monoecia.
1. Monandria. Zannichellia, Mill. Illustr. t. 77, and
Aegopricon, Plant. Ic. ex Herb. Linn. t. 42, are gen-
uine examples of this Class and Order, having a dif-
ferent structure in the accessory parts of their barren
and fertile flowers. Artocarpus, the celebrated Bread-
fruit, may likewise be esteemed so on account of a
partial calyx in the barren flower. The other amen-
taceous genera may most intelligibly perhaps be re-
ferred to the Order, Polyandria. Chara is now re-
moved to the first Class in the system ; see Eng. Bot.
t. 336.
2. Diandria. Anguria can remain here only till the pro-
posed reformation takes place, having no difference of
structure in its flowers. Lemna, so imperfectly known
when Linnaeus wrote, is now well understood, and,
having frequently united flowers, belongs to the sec-
ond Class ; see Engl. Bot. t. 926, 1095, 1233.
MONOECIA.
;*6
3. Triandria. The great genus of Carex, t. 1051,928,
993__995, &c., and some other grassy plants, are
found here. Typha, t. 1455—1457, is less clear in
its structure ; Sparganium, t. 744, 745, 273 is suffi-
ciently so. Tragia, Hernandia and Phyllanthus are
properly placed in this Class and Order.
4. Tetrandria. Littorella, t. 468 ; the valuable genera
Betula, t. 1508, and Buxus, t. 1341; also the Net-
tle Urtica, t. 1236 ; are good examples of this. Mo-
rns the Mulberry, of the same natural order as the
Nettle, has scarcely any difference of structure in the
accessory organs of the flowers. This tree however is
remarkable for being often inclined to become even
dioecious in its constitution, one individual bearing-
most fruit when occompanied by another whose barren
flowers are more effective than its own. Empleurum,
Exot. Bot. t. 63, is one of those ambiguous genera
which are but imperfectly monoecious,
5. Pentandria. Xanthium, Ambrosia, Nephelium, Par-
thenium, Iva and Clibadium all partake, more or less
accurately, of the nature of compound flowers, but
their anthers not being united, they could not be re-
ferred to the Class Syngenesia ; particularly Xanthi-
um and Nephelium, whose fertile flowers have no re-
semblance to that Class. Amaranthus, an extensive
dunghill genus in warm countries, analogous to our
Chenopodium, follows next. Leea is the same with
Aquilicia, and belongs to Pentandria Monogynia, the
former name being retained for the sake of the highly
meritorious botanist and cultivator whom it commem
364
MttNOECIA.
orates. The Gourd tribe, (142) Cucurbita, Cticumis,
Bryonia, Engl. Bot. t. 439, might be brought hither
from the abolished Order Syngenesia, unless it should
be thought better to consider them as polyadelphous,
to which I am most inclined.
6. Hexandria. Zizania, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 7. t. 13 ;
and Pharus, Browne's Jamaica^ t. 38, both grasses,
compose this Order, to which Schreber has added
Epibaterium and Pometia of Forstcr, as well as the
splendid Guettarda, Hort. Mai. v. 4. #. 48. The
latter varies from 6 to 9 in the parts of the flower,
and constitutes the Order Heptandria in Linnaeus,
according to his usual principle, of placing such ir-
regular plants, as much as possible, in small Classes
or Orders, that they might be the more easily found,
7. Polyandria. Stamens more than 7. Ceratophyllum,
Engl. Bot. t. 947, 679 ; Myriophyllum, t. 83, 218 ;
and the handsome Sagittaria, t. 84, stands here at
present, but the accessory parts in their two kinds of
flowers are alike. Begonia, Exot. Bot. t. 101, has
the number of its petals, though various in several
species, always sufficiently different in the barren and
fertile flowers to fix it here.—The most indubitable
plants of this Order are amentaceous, (143) Quercus,
Engl. Bot. t. 1342 ; Fagus, #. 886 ; Corylus, t. 723 ;
(142) [The Cucurbitacex, or Gourd tribe of Linnaeus, include
the Melon, Cucumber, Pumpkin, and others of similar fruit.
The Passion Flower is referred to this natural order.]
(143) [The Amentace.262,
that we are glad to take advantage of a trifling differ-
ence in the calyx of the two florets, (the barren one
being most frequently three-cleft, the fertile five-cleft,)
to keep it here.
All things being considered, this Class may be
thought scarcely worth retaining. Yet as we know
two or three genera entitled to a place in it, upon
principles which the analogy of the two preceding
Classes shows to be sound, we cannot tell but others
may exist in the unexplored parts of the globe. For
this reason, and for the uniformity of the system, I
would venture to preserve it. If the 21st and 22d Clas-
ses should hereafter be reformed by some judicious
CRYPTOGAMIA.
371
and experienced hand, according to the principle I
have suggested, of retaining in them such genera only
as have a permanent difference in the accessory as
well as the essential parts of their flowers, their bulk
being by such a reformation much diminished, it
migt be advisable to reduce them to one Class, in
which the slender remains of Polygamia might com-
modiously be included, and the title of such a Class
should be Diclinia, expressing the two distinct seats
or stations of the organs of fructification.
Class 24. Cryptogamia. Stamens and Pistils eithei
not well ascertained, or not to be numbered with any
certainty. Orders 5.
1. Filices. Ferns. The parts of their, flowers are al-
most entirely unknown. The fructification, taken
collectively, and proved to be such by the production
of prolific seeds, grows either on the back, summit,
or near the base of the frond. Some are called annu-
lata, annulated, their capsules being bound with an
elastic transverse ring ; others thecata, or more prop-
erly exannulata, from the want of such an appendage,
of which some of the latter have nevertheless a spu-
rious vestige. All the former, and some of the lat-
ter, are dorsiferous, bearing fruit on the back of the
frond, and of these the fructification is either naked,
or else covered with a membranous involucrum.
The genera are distinguished by Linnaeus according
to the shape and situation of the spots, or assemblages
of capsules, besides which I have first found it nec-
essary to take into consideration the absence or
372
CKYPTOGAMIA.
presence of the involucrum, and especially the direc-
tion in which it bursts. See Tracts relating to Nat,
Hist. 215, t. 1.
Polypodium, Engl. Bot. t. 1139, has no involu-
crum ; Aspidium, t. 1458—1461, has a single, and
Scolopendrium, t. 1150, a double one. Osmunda, t.
209, has been remarked by Professor Swartz to
have a spurious ring. It is one of those ferns the
lobes of whose frond are metamorphosed, as it were,
into spikes of capsules. Botrychium of Swartz, more
distinctly spiked, and having no vestige of a ring, is
separated by him from Osmunda. See one specjes of
it in Engl. Bot. t. 318. Ophioglossum, t. 108, and
Eqw'setum, t. 915, 929, are other examples of spiked
ferns. Each seed of the latter is embraced by 4 fila-
ments, judged by Hedwig to be the stamens. Sup-
posed ferns with radical fructifications are Pilularia, t.
521, and Isoetes, t. 1084 ; but the former might pos-
sibly be referred to Monoecia Polyandria, and latter to
Monoecia Monandria, as the system af present stands.
Lycopodium, t. 224, 1148, &c, is a fern, at least in
my opinion, with axillary fructification.
2. Musci. Mosses. These are really herbs* with dis-
tinct leaves and frequently as distinct a stem. Their
conical membranous corolla is called a calyptra, f 151,
or veil, its summit being the stigma. This veil clothes
the capsule, which, before the seed ripens, is elevated
on a fruit-stalk. The capsule is of one cell and one
* Hedwig's term musci frondo si is incorrect.
CRYPTOGAM [A.
373
valve, opening by a vertical lid, / 213f. Seeds very
numerous and minute. The barren flowers of mosses
consist of an indefinite number of nearly cylindrical,
almost sessile anthers, / 190 ; the fertile flowers of
one, rarely more, perfect pistils, accompanied by sev-
eral barren pistils,/. 192. Both stamens and pistils
are intermixed with numerous succulent jointed
threads, / 191, which perhaps answer the purpose
of a calyx or corolla, as far as protection is concerned.
Some few species of moss have the stamens and pis-
tils associated in the same flower, but they are gen-
erally separate.. Hypnum, Engl. Bot. t. 1424, 1425,
has a scaly sheath, or perichatium, f. 150, at the base
of its fruit-stalk, composed of leaves very different
from the foliage of the plant. This is considered as
a sort of calyx, see p. 202, and as such is allowed to
enter into the generic character; but there is some
reason to esteem it rather of the nature of bracteas.
The capsule of Splachnum, Engl. Bot. t. 144, &c,
stands on a peculiar fleshy base, called apophysis, f.
189 a.
Micheli in his Genera Plantarum, published in
1729, tab. 59, has well represented the parts above
described, though he mistook their use, being quite
ignorant of the fecundation of plants. Dillenius took
the one flower precisely for the other, and yet absurd-
ly called capsula what he believed to be anthera. Lin-
naeus, who had previously formed just ideas on the
subject, as appears from his manuscript Tour to Lap-
t This part in Phascum only does not separate from the cap-
sule.
374
CRYPTOGAMIA.
land, too implicitly submitted his own judgment to
that of Dillenius, and adopted his hypothesis, at the
same time correcting, as he thought, his phraseology.
Hence the whole glare of the blunder of Dillenius has
fallen on Linnaeus ; for while we read in the Linnaean
definitions of mosses every where the word anthera,
and in those of Dillenius, usually accompanying them,
eapsula ; few persons, who have lately been instruct-
ed by Hedwig that the part in question is really a
capsule, take the trouble to recollect that Dillenius so
grossly misused that word* Various ideas have been
started on this subject by Haller, Necker, and others,
which could only claim attention while it remained in
great obscurity. The excellent Hedwig has entire-
ly the merit of an original discoverer in this branch of
physiology. He examined all that had been done be-
fore his time, detected the truth, raised mosses from
seed,/ 193—196, and established their characters on
the principles we have already explained.
The Linnaean genera of Mosses are chiefly found-
ed on the situation of the capsule, whether lateral or
terminal, with some other circumstances. They are
too few, and not strictly natural. Hedwig first
brought into notice the structure of the fringe, peris-
tomium, which in most mosses borders the orifice of
the capsule. This is either simple, / 189 b, or
double, / 213, 214, and consists either of separate
teeth, or of a plaited and jagged membrane. The
external fringe is mostly of the former kind, the in-
ner, when present, of the latter. The number of teeth,
remarkably constant in each genus and species, is
CRYPTOGAMIA.
375
either 4, 8, 16, 32 or 64. On these therefore Hed-
wig and his followers have placed great dependence,
only perhaps going into too great refinements relative
to the internal fringe, which is more difficult to exam-
ine, and less certain, than the outer. Their great er-
ror has been laying down certain principles as absolute
in forming genera, without observing whether all such
genera were natural. Such mistakes are very excus-
able in persons not conversant with botany on a gen-
eral scale, and whose minute and indefatigable atten-
tion to the detail of their subject, more than compen-
sates the want of what is easily supplied by more
experienced systematics. Thus Barbula of Hedwig
is separated from Tortula,»Engl. Bot. t. 1663, and
Fissidens from Dicranum, t. 1272, 1273, on account
of a difference of form or situation in the barren flow-
ers, which is evidently of no moment, and merely di-
vides genera that ought to be united. The same may
be said of genera founded on the union of the stamens
and pistils in one flower. On this subject I have
been more diffuse in a paper on Mnium, in Tr. of
Linn, Soc. v. 7, 254, to which I beg leave to refer
those who are desirous to study it further. Various
and abundant specimens of this tribe of plants, show-
ing the various structure of the fringe, lid and other
parts, may be seen in the latter volumes of English
Botany more especially.
Mosses are found in the hottest and coldest cli-
mates. They are extremely tenacious of life, and,
after being long dried, easily recover their health and
vigour by moisture. Their beautiful structure can-
*>76
CRYPTOGAMIA
not be too much admired. Their species are nume-
rous, and in some cases difficult to determine, partic-
ularly in the genera Tortula and Orthotrichum ; nor
is the generic character of the latter so easy or certain
as most others. Schreber, Dickson, Swartz, Bridel,
Weber, Mohr and Turner are great names in this
department of Botany, besides those of whom wc
have already spoken.
3. Hepatica. Liverworts. Of these the herbage is
commonly frondose, the fructification originating from
what is at the same time both leaf and stem. This
character, however, proves less absolute than one
founded on their capsules, which differ essentially
from those of the preceding Order in having nothing
like a lid or operculum. The corolla or veil of some
of the genera is like that of Mosses, but usually bursts
at the top. The barren flowers are unlike the organ-
ized stamens of the last-mentioned plants, being
either undefined powdery heads, as in Jungermannia,
see Hedwig's Theoria, t. 15, or of some peculiar con-
formation, as in Marchantia, Engl. Bot. #.210, where
they are imbedded in a disk like the seeds of Lichens,
in a manner so contrary to all analogy, that botanists
can scarcely agree which are the barren and which
the fertile flowers of this genus. The four-valved
capsule of Jungermannia, with the veil bursting at
its summit to let the fruit-stalk pass, may be seen in
Engl. Bot. t. 185, 186, which are both frondose spe-
cies, like /. epiphylla, t. 771, whose calyx as well as
corolla are evident; and t. 605—608, which have
CRYPTOGAMIA
377
apparently distinct leaves, like Mosses. Anthoceros,
t. 1537, 1538, is a curious genus of the Hepatica.
Linnaeus comprehended this Order under the folio .v-
ing one, to which it is, most assuredly, far less akin
than to the foregoing.
4. Alga. Flags. In this Order the herbage is fron-
dose, sometimes a mere crust, sometimes of a leathe-
ry or gelatinous texture. The seeds are imbedded,
either in the frond itself, or in some peculiar recepta-
cle. The barren flowers are but imperfectly known.
Here we find that great natural Order, comprehended
by Linnaeus under one genus by the name of Lichen,
the fructification of which, for the most part, consists
of a smooth round disk,/ 198, flat, convex, or con-
cave, with or without an adventitious border, in the
substance of which disk the seeds are lodged. In
some others they are placed in powdery warts, or in
fibrous receptacles. The barren flowers are supposed
to be powdery also, / 197, very much like those of
Jungermannia. See Engl. Bot. t. 126, and various
other parts of that work, where a great number of
species are figured. The whole tribe has been much
investigated, and attempted to be divided into natural
genera founded on habit, by Dr. Hoffmann of Goet-
tingen, whose figures are perfect in their kind. But a
more complete scheme for reducing this family to
systematic order has been recently made known to
the world by Dr. Acharius, a learned Swede, who in
his Prodomus, and Methodus Lichenum, has divided
it into genera founded on the receptacle of the seeds
zz
378
CRYPTOGAMIA.
alone. Hence those genera, though more technical,
are less natural than Hoffmann's ; but they will, most
likely, prove the foundation of all that can in future
be done on the subject, and the works of Acharius
form a new aera in cryptogamic botany. It is only
perhaps to be regretted that he has been somewhat
too prodigal of new terms, which when not wanted
are always a burthen to science, and rather obscure
than illustrate it. Thus Hedwig used the term spo-
rangium for a seed-vessel, pericarpium, in which the
learner would seek in vain for any distinction, or new
idea. A student might very justly complain if, in a
science necessarily so overburthened with words, he
were required to call the same part by a different name
in every different family. I would gladly therefore
retain the word frons in preference to the thallus of
Acharius, receptaculum for his apothecium, pedicellus
for his bacillum or podetium, and semina for his spora,
because I see no improvement in the change. When
this or any other writer strikes out new ideas, and dis-
criminates "parts hitherto mistaken or unknown, we
thankfully receive from him new terms to express his
discoveries. Thus the cyphella of Acharius is a pe-
culiar sort of pit or pore on the under side of the
frond in that section of Lichens called Sticta, see
Engl. Bot. t. 1103, 1104 ; his lirella are the black
letter-like receptacles of the genus Opegrapha, t.
1753—1756 ; his trica the analogous parts, resemb-
ling a coiled horse-hair, in Gyrophola, the Umbilicaria
of Hoffmann, t. 522. These terms are necessarv
CRYPTOGAMIA.
379
and instructive, and are chosen with that accuracy
and taste for which Dr. Acharius is conspicuous.
The aquatic or submersed Alga form a distinct
and peculiar tribe. Some of these abound in fresh
water, others in the sea, whence the latter are com-
monly denominated sea-weeds. The chief genera
are Ulva, #.419, 420, 1276, well defined by its seeds
being dispersed under the cuticle throughout the
membranous or gelatinous substance of the frond ;
Fucus, t. 1066—1069, &c, whose seeds are collect-
ed together in tubercles or swellings, of various forms
and sizes ; and Conferva, of which the 24th and 25th
volumes of Engl. Bot., more especially, show various
specimens. This last genus is commonly known by
its capillary, and, for the most part, jointed frond.
The seeds of some species are lodged in external
capsules or tubercles ; of others in the joints of the
frond ; and hence the ingenious Dr. Roth has formed
a genus of the former, called Ceramium. His Rivu-
laria, Engl. Bot. t. 1797—1799, is perhaps more
satisfactorily separated from Conferva, as we trust is
Vaucheria, t. 1765, 1766, a fresh-water genus named
after M. Voucher of Geneva, who has published an
elaborate and faithful microscopical work on Fresh-
water Confervas. The submersed Alga in general
are merely fixed by the roots, their nourishment be-
ing imbibed by their surface. Many of them float
without being attached to any thing. The genus
Fucus has received more botanical attention than the
rest of this tribe, and the works of Gmelin, Esper,
Stackhouse and Velley have ascertained many spe-
580
CRYPTOGAMIA
cies, which the labours of Dr. Goodenough, Mr.
Woodward and Mr. Turner have reduced to system-
atic order. Still a more perfect combination of the
skill of the painter and the botanist is to be desired,
relative to the genus in question, and this is about to
be supplied by the Historia Fucorum of the writer
last mentioned, and his friend Mr. W. J. Hooker.
5. Fungi. Mushrooms. These cannot properly be
said to have any herbage. Their substance is fleshy,
generally7 of quick growth and short duration, differ-
ing in firmness, from a watery pulp to a leathery or
even woody texture. By some naturalists they have
been thought of an animal nature, chiefly because of
their foetid scent in decay, and because little white
bodies like eggs are found in them at that period.
But these are truly the eggs of flies, laid there by the
parent insect, and destined to produce a brood of
maggots, to feed on the decay in g fungus, as on a dead
carcase. Ellis's beautiful discoveries, relative to co-
rals and their inhabiting polypes, led to the strange
analogical hypothesis that these insects formed the
fungus, which Munchausen and others have asserted.
Some have thought fungi were composed of the sap
of corrupted wood, transmuted into a new sort of be-
ing, an idea as unphilosophical as the former, and
unsupported by any semblance of truth.
Dryander, Schaeffer and Hedwig have, on much
better grounds, asserted their vegetable nature, de-
tected thsir seeds, and in many cases explained their
parts of fructification. In fact, they propagate their
CRYPTOGAMIA.
381
species as regularly as any other organized beings,
though, like others, subject to varieties. Their se-
questered and obscure habitations, their short dura-
tion, their mutability of form and substance, render
them indeed more difficult of investigation than com-
mon plants, but there is no reason to suppose them
less perfect, or less accurately defined. Splendid and
accurate works, illustrative of this Order, have been
given to the world by Schaeffer, Bulliard and Sower-
by, which are the more useful as the generality of
fungi cannot well be preserved. The most distin-
guished writer upon them, indeed the only good sys-
tematic one, is Persoon, who has moreover supplied
us with some exquisite figures. His Synopsis Me-
thodica Fungorum helps us to the following arrange-
ment.
1. Angiocarpi, such as bear seeds internally. These
are either hard, like Spharia, Sowerb. Fung. t. 159,
160 ; or membranous, tough and leathery, like Ly-
coperdon, t. 331, 332 ; Cyathus (Nidularia) t. 28,
29 ; or Batarrea (Lycoperdon) t. 390.
2. Gymnocarpi, such as bear seeds imbedded in an
appropriate, dilated, exposed membrane, denomina-
ted hymenium, like Helvella, t. 39, in which that part
is smooth and even ; Boletus, t. 34, 87, 134, in which
it is porous ; and the vast genus Agaricus, t. 1, 2,
&c, in which it consists of parallel plates called la-
mella, or gills.
Persoon has been commendably sparing of new
terms. Besides Hymenium above explained, he has
scarcely introduced any other than peridium, for the
383
PALM.IT.
round membranous dry case of the seeds in some of
the 1st section. The term pileus, a hat, is used by
all authors for the head of those fungi that compose
the 2d section.
Appendix. Palma. The natural order of Palms
was so little understood when Linnaeus formed his
systematical arrangement of plants, and so few of their
flowers had been scientifically examined, that he was
under the necessity of leaving this order as an appen-
dix to his system, till it could be better investigated.
To its peculiar habit and physiology we have adverted
in several of the foregoing pages, see p. 58—60, 63,
117, &c.
Late observations show Palms to have for the most
part 6 stamens, rarely 3 or 9, with 3 or 6 petals, and
1 or 3 styles ; which last are sometimes in the same
flower with the stamens, sometimes in a separate one,
but both flowers always agree in general structure.
Their fruit is generally a drupa. They are akin to
the liliaceous tribe, and Linnaeus happily terms them
the princes of the vegetable kingdom. His most nu-
merous remarks concerning them occur in his Pra-
lectiones in Ordines Naturales Plantarum, published
by Professor Giseke at Hamburgh in 1792, from pri-
vate lectures and conversations of Linnaeus. This
work however is necessarily full of errors and mis-
takes, not only from its mode of compilation and the
intricacy of the subject, but because Linnaeus had
only partially studied certain parts of that subject, and
was undecided in his sentiments upon those parts.
USE €>F AN HERBARIUM. . 383
It was a singular instance of indulgent liberality in
him to allow his disciples Fabricius and Giseke to
make notes, for their own use, of what he considered
himself as scarcely competent to lay in a finished form
before the public. We are obliged to the editor for
preserving these valuable though crude materials, and
he has shown ability in digesting and elucidating them.
I should scarcely, for my own part, have thought it
right to furnish still more crude and imperfect guesses
and opinions, from manuscripts which their illustri-
ous author had purposely, as it appears, withheld from
his auditors, lest he should lead them into error.
This will explain a note in Professor Giseke's preface,
p. 19, which however was printed before his request
came to my knowledge ; for two very intelligent
friends, through whom it was meant to be conveyed,
judged it unreasonable to be made, as well as im-
proper to be complied with, and therefore suppressed
the message.
I have only to add a few practical remarks on the
preparation and use of an Herbarium or Hortus Siccus.
The advantages of preserving specimens of plants, as far
as it can be done, for examination at all times and sea-
sons, is abundantly obvious. Notwithstanding the
multitude of books filled with descriptions and figures
of plants, and however ample or perfect such may be,
they can teach no more than their authors observed ;
-«4i
OF MAKING AN HERBARIUM
but when we have the works of Nature before us, we
can investigate them for ourselves, pursuing any train of
inquiry to its utmost extent, nor are we liable to be mis-
led by the errors or misconceptions of others. A good
practical botanist must be educated among the wild
scenes of nature, while a finished theoretical one requires
the additional assistance of gardens and books, to which
must be superadded the frequent use of a good herba-
rium. When plants are well dried, the original forms
and positions of even their minutest parts, though not
their colours, may at any time be restored by immersion
in hot water. By this means the productions of the
most distant and various countries, such as no garden
could possibly supply, are brought together at once un-
der our eyes, at any season of the year. If these be as-
sisted with drawings and descriptions, nothing less than
an actual survey of the whole vegetable world, in a state
of nature, could excel such a store of information.
Some persons recommend the preservation of speci-
mens in weak spirits of wine, and this mode is by far the
most eligible for such as are very juicy. But it totally
destroys their colours, and often renders their parts less
fit for examination than the above-mentioned mode. It
is besides incommodious for frequent study, andaveiy
expensive and bulky way of making an herbarium.
The greater part of plants dry with facility between
the leaves of books, or other paper, the smoother the
better. If diere be plenty of paper, they often dry best
without shifting ; but if the specimens are crowded,
they must be taken out frequently, anrl the paper dried
before they are replaced. The great point to be attend-
PRESERVATION OF AN HERBARIUM. a8.i
•d to is that the process should meet with no check.
Several vegetables are so tenacious of their vital princi-
ple, that they will grow between papers, the conse-
quence of which is a destruction of their proper habit
and colours. It is necessary to destroy the life of such,
either by immersion in boiling water, or by the applica-
tion of a hot iron, such as is used for linen, after which
they are easily dried. I cannot however approve of the
practice of applying such an iron, as some persons do,
with great labour and perseverance, till the plants are
quite dry, and all their parts incorporated into a smooth
flat mass. This renders them unfit for subsequent ex-
amination, and destroys their natural habit, the most
important thing to be preserved. Even in spreading
plants between papers, we should refrain from that pre-
cise and artificial disposition of their branches, leaves,
and other parts, which takes away from their natural as-
pect, except for the purpose of displaying the internal
parts of some one or two of their flowers, for ready ob-
servation.
After all we can do, plants dry very variously. The
blue colours of their flowers generally fade, nor are
reds always permanent. Yellows are much more so,
but very few white flowers retain their natural aspect.
The Snowdrop and Parnassia, if well dried, contin-
ue white. Some greens are much more permanent
than others ; for there are some natural families whose
leaves as well as flowers turn almost black by drying,
as Melampyrum, Bartsia, and their allies, several Wil-
lows, and most of the Orchidea. The Heaths and
Firs in general cast off their leaves between papers,
AAA
386
PRESERVATION OF
which appears to be an effort of the living prin-
ciple, for it is prevented by immersion of the fresh
specimen in boiling water. Nandina domestica, a Jap-
anese shrub, lately introduced among us by Lady
A. Hume and Mr. Evans of Stepney, is very remark-
able in this respect. Every leaflet of its very com-
pound leaves separates from its stalk in drying, and
even those stalks all fall to pieces at their joints.
Dried specimens are best preserved by being fas-
tened, with weak carpenter's glue, to paper, so that
they may be turned over without damage. Thick
and heavy stalks require the additional support of a
few transverse strips of paper, to bind them more
firmly down. A half sheet, of a convenient folio size,
should be allotted to each species, and all the species
of a genus may be placed in one or more whole sheets.
On the latter the name of the genus should external-
ly be written, while the name of every species, with
its place of growth, time of gathering, the finder's
name, or any other concise piece of information, may
be inscribed on its appropriate paper. This is the
plan of the Linnaean Herbarium, in which every spe-
cies, which its original possessor had before him when
he wrote his great work the Species Plantarum, is
numbered both in pencil and in ink, as well as nam-
ed, the former kind of numbers having been tempo-
rary till the book to which they refer was printed, af-
ter which they were confirmed with a pen, and a co-
py of the book, now also in my hands, was marked
in reference to them. Here therefore we do not de-
pend on the opinion merely, even of Linnaeus, for we|
AN HERBARIUM.
387
have always before our eyes the very object which
was under his inspection. We have similar indica-
tions of the plants described in his subsequent works,
the herbarium being most defective in those of his 2d
Mantissa, his least accurate publication. We often
find remarks there, made from specimens acquired
after the Species Plantarum was published. These
the herbarium occasionally shows to be of a different
species from the original one, and it thus enables us
to correct such errors.
The specimens thus pasted, are conveniently kept
in lockers, or on the shelves of a proper cabinet. Lin-
naeus in the Philosophia Botanica exhibits a figure of
one, divided into appropriate spaces for- each class,
which he supposed would hold his whole collection.
But he lived to fill two more of equal size, and his
herbarium has been perhaps doubled since his death
by the acquisitions of his son and of its present posses-
sor.
One great and mortifying impediment to the per-
fect preservation of an herbarium arises from the at-
tacks of insects. A little beetle called Ptinus Fur is,
more especially, the pest of collectors, laying its eggs
in the germens or receptacle of flowers, and others of
the more solid parts, which are speedily devoured by
the maggots when hatched, and by their devastations
paper and plants are alike involved in ruin. The
most, bitter and acrid tribes, as Euphorbia, Gentiana,
Prunus, the Syngenesious class, and especially Wil-
lows, are preferred by these vermin. The last-men-
tioned family can scarcely be thoroughly dried before
388
PRESERVATION OF AN HERBARIUM.
it is devoured. Ferns are scarcely ever attacked, and
grasses but seldom.—To remedy this inconvenience
I have found a solution of corrosive sublimate of
mercury in rectified spirits of wine, about two drams
to a pint, with a little camphor, perfectly efficacious.
It is easily applied with a camel-hair pencil when the
specimens are perfectly dry, not before ; and if they
are not too tender, it is best done before they are pas-
ted, as the spirit extracts a yellow dye from many
plants, and stains the paper. A few drops of this so-
lution should be mixed with the glue used for pasting.
This application not only destroys or keeps off all
vermin, but it greatly revives the colours of most
plants, giving the collection a most pleasing air of
freshness and neatness. After several years' experi-
ence, I can find no inconvenience from it whatever,
nor do I see that any dried plants can long be preserv-
ed without it.
The herbarium is best kept in a dry room without
a constant fire. Linnaeus had a stone building for his
museum, remote from his dwelling-house, into which,
I have been told, neither fire nor candle was ever ad-
mitted, yet nothing can be more free than his collec-
tion from the injuries of dampness, or other causes of
decay.
I 389 )
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Tab. l.ySg". L Anatomy of wood, after Mirbel. See
p. 30. / 2. Embryo of Pinus Cembra, shown in a
section of the seed, then separate, and magnified,
from Mr. Lambert's work. See p. 91, 229. /
3. Seedling plants of the Dombeya, or Norfolk
Island Pine, with its 4 cotyledons, and young leafy
branches of the natural size, p. 91. / 4. A garden
bean, Vicia Fabia, laid open, showing its 2 cotyledons,
p. 90 ; f the radicle, or young root, p. 90 ; g the
germ or corculum, p. 90. Above is a bean which
has made some progress in vegetation, showing the
descending root, the ascending plumula. and the
skin of the seed bursting irregularly.
Tab. 2. Roots. / 5. Fibrous, in Grass, p. 96. / 6.
Creeping, Mint, p. 96. / 7. Spindle-shaped, Rad-
ish, accompanied by its cotyledons and young leaves,
p. 197. / 8. Abrupt, Scabiosa succisa : f 9. Tube-
rous, Potatoe, p. 198. / 10. Oval knobs of some
Orchidea: / 11. Palmate ones of others : /12.
Several pairs of knobs in Satyrium albidum : p. 109.
/ 13. solid Bulb in Crocus: f 14. Tunicate Bulb in
Allium: f. 15. Scaly one in Lilium : p. 100. / 16.
Granulated Root of Saxfraga granulata, p. 101.
J90
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Tab. 3. Stems and Buds. / 17. Forked Stems, in
Chlora perfoliata, p. 105. / 18. Scaly, in Oroban-
che : f 19. Radicans, or Clinging, in Ivy, p. 106.
/ 20. Twining from left to right, in Lonicera ; f. 21 :
from right to left, in Convolvulus, p. 107. / 22.
Sarmentum, a Runner, in the Strawberry, p. 108.
/ 23. Caulis determinate ramosus, as in the Azalea,
family, p. 122. / 24. Three pair of Buds, in Loni-
cera carulea, f. 25. Bud of the Horse Chesnut,
p. 137.
Tab. 4. Leaves. / 26. Tufted leaves, p. 126./ 27.
Imbricated : / 28, Decussated : / 29. Two-ranked,
Yew : / 30. Unilateral,^. 147. / 31. Peltate, Nas-
turtium, p. 149. / 32. Clasping the stem, p. 150.
/ 33. Perfoliate : / 34. Sheathing :/ 35. Equitant:
/ 36. Decurrent, p. 130, and spinous, p. 162. / 37.
Flower-bearing, Ruscus aculeatus, p. 130.
Tab. 5. / 38. Orbicular, Hedysarum styrac folium, p.
131. / 39. Roundish, Pyrola : f. 40. Ovate : / 41.
Obovate : /42. Elliptical or oval : / 43. Spatulate,
p. 154./ 44. Wedge-shaped : / 45. Lanceolate :
/ 46. Linear : / 47. Needle-shaped: / 48. Trian-
gular, p. 155. / 49. Quadrangular, (also abrupt, p.
159), Tulip-tree : / 50. Deltoid : / 51. Rhomboid :
/ 52. Kidney-shaped,p. 133. / 53. Heart-shaped :
/ 54. Crescent-shaped : / 55. Arrow-shaped : / 56.
Halberd-shaped, (also acute,/;. 137),/ 57. Fiddle-
shaped, (also obtuse, p. 137), Rumex pulcher, p. 157.
/ 58. Runcinate : / 59. Lyrate : / 60. Cloven : /
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
391
61. Three-lobed, Anemone Hepatica : / 62. Sinua-
ted, Oak : / 63. Deeply divided, Helleborus, p. 135.
/ 64. Laciniated :
Tab. 6. f 65. Palmate : / 66. Pinnatifid : f. 67.
Doubly pinnatifid, p. 136. / 68. Pectinate : / 69.
Unequal, Begonia : f. 70. Jagged-pointed, p. 160.
/ 71. Retuse, Rumex digynus : f. 72, Emarginate :
/ 73. Pointed : / 74. Blunt with a small point, p.
161. / 75. Sharp pointed, Ruscus aculeatus : f
76. Cirrose : / 77. Spinous, p. 138. / 78. Frin-
ged : / 79. Toothed : / 80. Serrated : / 81.
Crenate, p. 139.
Tab. 7. / 82. Doubly as well as sharply crenate, ap-
proaching to / 80. : / 83. Jagged : / 84. Wavy,
Menyanthes nymphaoides : f 85. Plaited, p. 165.
/ 86. Undulated ;/ 87. Curled,p. 141./ 88. Veiny :
/ 89. Ribbed : / 90. Three-ribbed, p. 167./ 91.
Three-ribbed at the base : / 92. Triply-ribbed :
/ 93. Cylindrical, Conchium, p. 142. / 94. Semicy-
lindrical: / 95. Awl-shaped :/ 96. Doubly tubular,
Lobelia Dortmanna:f 97. Channelled,/?. 143./98.
Hatchet-shaped, p. 171. / 99. Three-edged, Mes-
embryanthemum deltoides : f. 100. Four-edged :
Fab. 8. / 101. Alienated, Mimosa virticillata, p.
145.* / 102. Hooded, Sarracenia,p. 146. / 103.
* I have found by recent experiment, that the first leaf of
JVathyrus JYissolia is like the rest, not pinnated, but simple and
sessile. See fi. 173.
3$2
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Furnished with an appendage, Dionaa muscipula: f.
104. Jointed, Fagara tragodes, p. 149./ 105. Bin-
ate,/;. 148. / 106. Ternate:/ 107. Interruptedly
Pinnate, p. 148. / 108. Pinnate in a lyrate form, p.
149./ 109. Pinnate in a whorled manner, p. 150.
/ 110. Auricled:/ 111. Compound, p. 150. /
149. Doubly compound, or Twice ternate: f. 113.
Thrice compound, or Thrice ternate :/ 114. Pedate,
Helleborus, p. 151.
Tab. 9. Appendages. / 115. Stipulas of Lathyrus
latifolius, p. 178 ; also an abruptly pinnated leaf, end-
ing in a tendril, p. 176. / 116. Stipulas united to
the footstalk, in Rosa, p. 178 ; also a pinnated leaf
with a terminal leaflet, p. 148. / 117. Floral leaf of
Tdia, p. 180. / 118. Coloured floral leaves, Lavan-
dula Stoechas : /I 119. Spinous ones, Atractylis can-
eellata : f 120. Thorns, Hippophae rhamnoides, p.
223. / 121. Prickles, p. 182. / 122. Tendril,
Lathyrus latifolius : f 123. Glands of the Moss
Rose, p. 226. /. 124. Hairs : /. 125. Bristles of
Echium pyrenaicum, p. 185.
Tab. 10. Inflorescence. / 126. Whorl, in Lamium,
p. 188./ 127. Whorled leaves, and axillary flowers,
of Hppuris vulgaris, p. 188./ 128. Cluster, Ribes :
f 129. Spike, Ophrys spiralis : f. 130. Less correct
Spike, Veronica spicata, p. 180. / 131. Spikelet,
Bromus.p. 189. /. 132. Corymb : / 133. Corym-
bose fascicle, Achillea, p. 190. / 134. Fascicle,
Dianthus Armeria, p. 190. / 135. Head or Tuft,
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
393
Trifolium : f. 136. Simple Umbel, Eucalyptus pi-
perita, p. 191. / 137. Simple Umbel in the natural
order of Umbellata, Astrantia major, with the Involu-
crum, a :
Tab. 11. / 138. Compound Umbel, Laserpitium
simplex, with its general Involucrum, a, and partial
one, b, p. 198. / 139. Cyme, Laurustinus, p. 192.
/ 140. Panicle, Oat,/>. 192. / 141. Bunch, Com-
mon Vine, p. 193.
Calyx. / 142. Perianthium, or Calyx properly
so called, Dianthus deltoides, p. 197. / 143. Involu-
crum, so called, in Anemone, p. 198. / 144. Invo-
lucrum or Indusium of Ferns, p. 199. / 145. One
of the same separate, with a capsule and its ring. /
146. Catkin of the Hasel-nut p. 200.
Tab. 12. Calyx and corolla, with Nectary. / 147*
Sheath of the Narcissus ; a, the Petals, called by
Jussieu, Calyx; b, the Crown or Nectary, seep. 212,
/ 148. / Husk of Grasses, p. 201. / 149. Awns,
/ 150. Scaly Sheath, Pterogonium Smithii, p. 201.
/ 151. Veil of the same, p. 203. / 152. Jun-
germannia epiphylla, showing a, the Calyx, p. 201;
b, the Veil or Corolla, p. 203 ; and c, the uno-
pened Capsule. /. 153. Wrapper, Agaricus : f
154. Radical Wrapper,/?. 203./ 155. Monopetalous
Salver-shaped Corolla, p. 206. / 156. Polypet-
alous Cruciform Corolla : / 157. A separate Petal
BBB
i*4
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES
of the same ; a, Claw ; b, Border ; / 158. Unequal
Corolla, Butomus, p. 206.
Tab. 13. / 159. Bell-shaped Corolla : / 160. Fun-
nel shaped : / 161. Ringent :/. 162. Personate,
Antirrhinum reticulatum, p. 207. / 163. Papiliona-
ceous, Lathyrus ; f 164. Standard of the same ;
/ 165. One of the Wings ; / 166. Keel ; / 167.
Stamens, sty le &c,: / 168, Incomplete Corolla, Rit-
tera.f 169. Peloria, or regular-flowered variety of
Antirrhinum Linaria, p. 207. / 170. Nectary in the
Calyx of Tropaolum: f 171. Nectary of Aquilegia,
p. 266. / 172, 173. The same part in Epimedi-
um : f 174. Pair of Nectaries in Aconitum, p. 214.
/ 175. Fringed Nectaries in Parnassia, p. 214.
Tab. 14. Stamens, Pistils and Fruit. / 176. A Sta-
men : a, filament ; b, anther, p. 217. / 177.
Pistils : a, germen ; b, style ; e, stigma, p. 218. /
178. Capsule of an annual Mesembryanthemum, open
and shut, p. 221. / 179. Transverse section of the
capsule of Datura, p. 221, showing the partitions and
columella, f 180. Siliqua, or Pod : / 181. Silicula,
or Pouch,/;. 222. / 182. Legume,/?. 223./ 183.
Stone-fruit,/?. 282. / 184. Apple : / 185. Berry :
/ 186. Compound Berry, p. 225. f. 187. Berry of
Passifora suberosa, p. 284. / 188. Cone, Larch,/?.
227. / 189. Capsule of a Moss, Splachnum, with
its fleshy base, or apophysis, a, and fringe, b, p
374.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
3fl*
Tab. 15./ 190. Barren flower of a Moss, much mag-
nified, after Hedwig: / 191. Stamens, with the Pol-
len coming forth, and the jointed filaments, p. 275.
/ 192. Fertile flower of a Moss, consisting of num-
erous pistils, only one of which in general comes to
perfection. They are also accompanied by jointed
filaments : / 193. A germinating seed of Gymnos-
tomum pyrifornw, from Hedwig likewise, showing its
expanding embryo : / 194. The same more advan-
ced : / 195. The same much further advanced, and
become a young plant,showing its leaves and branched
cotyledons, p. 274. / 19. Young plant of Funaria
hygrometrica, exhibiting the same parts, p. 276. /
197. Powdery wart of a Lichen, presumed to be its
barren flower : / 198. Perpendicular section, magni-
fied, of the shield or fruit of a Lichen, showing the seeds
imbedded in its disk, /?. 377. / 199. Section of the
seed of a Date, Phoenix dactylifera, from Gaertner, the
bulk of which is a hau\Albumen,p. 230, having a lateral
cell in which is lodged the horizontal embryo,«,/>.229.
/ 200. Section of the Vitellus in Zamia, from the same
author, with its embryo a, with which it is, like a co-
tyledon, closely connected,/?. 231. / 201. Rough
coats of the seeds in Cynoglossum, p. 298. / 202.
Arillus of a Carex, p. 235. / 203. Seed of Afzelia,
with its cup-shaped Arillus. p. 235./ 204. Pappus, or
seed-down, of Tragopogon, p. 237. / 205. Tail of
the seed in Dryas: f 206. Beaked fruit of Scandix,
with its seeds separating from their base, /?. 238.
/ 207. Winged seed of Embothrium, p. 238. /
/
396 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
208. Section of the conical Receptacle of the Dais?,
with its calyx : /. 209. Cellular Receptacle of Ono-
pordum,p. 241. / 210. Ligulate floret with both
stamens and pistil, in a Dandelion, p. 242./ 211.
Ligulate floret with only a pistil, in the radius of a
Daisy, p. 242. / 212. Tubular floret from the disk
of the same, having stamens and a fertile pistil, /?. 242,
/ 213. Capsule of a Moss with^ double fringe, the
lid shown apart, p. 373. / 2U. A portion of the
same fringe magnified, p. 374.
I 391 i
INDEX I.
INDEX OP REMARKABLE PLANTS, OR THOSE OF WHICH ANT*
PARTICULAR MENTION, OR ANY CHANGE IN THEIR CLASSI-
FICATION, IS MADE.
Abroma, 345
Abrus Precatorius, 344
Acer, 326
... saccharinum, 67
tEscuIus Hippocastanum, 120
Agrimonia, 283
Ailanthus, 369
Algs, 377
Alopecurus bulbosus, 102
Amaranthus, 363
Amaryllis formosissima, 251
Ambrosinia, 365
Anagailis, 253
Angiopteris, 300
Annona hexapetala, 184
Aponogeton, 324
Aquilicia, 363
Arenaria, 261
Aristolochia Clematitis, 263
----------Sipho, 263
Arum, 85
Ash, 62
Asperifolis, 320
Athrodactylis, 366
Atriplex, 369
Aucuba, 288
Bamboo, 73
Barberry, 255
Bauhinia, 291
Black rose, 82
Blandfordia, 281
Bonapartea, 270
Brodixa, 211
Browallia. 297
Bryonia, 297
Bubroma, 345
Bufibnia, 297
Cactus coccinellifer, 265
Csnopteris, 300
Calamagrostis, 30Q
Calceolaria, 289
Calla, 359
Canna, 354.
Cannabis^
398
INDEX 1.
Capura, 323
Carpinus Betulus, 201
Caryocar, 337
Caryophyllus, 330
Celosia, 254
Ceratonia, 370
Ceratopelatum,
Chara, 361.
Cherry, double-blossomed, 219
Chrysanthemum indicum, 77 •
Cistus creticus, 156
Citrus, 346
Cleome, 337
Climbing plants, 107.
Cluytia, 368
Coffee, 268
Columniferse, 339
Conchium, 291
Conferva bullosa, 173
Contortx, 321
Coriaria, 369
Cornus mascula, 156
Corymbium, 349
Cucumis, 364
Cucurbita, 364
Cuscuta, 319
Cyamus Nelumbo, 287
Cycas revoluta, 259
Cytinus, 358
Darea, 302
Devil's-bit, 97
Dicksonia, 292
Dictamnus albus, 156
Dillenia, 291
Dionxa muscipula, 146
Dodecatheon Meaclia, 35
Dog-rose, 250
Dombeya, 91
Dorstenia, 291
Diacontium, 360
Epimedium alpinum, 28«
Eriocalia, 371
Ervum, 347
Euclea, 370
Euphorbia, 365
Ferns, 371
Ficus, 262, 376
Filices, 371
Flores tristes, 78
Fontainesia, 290
Fraximus Onus, 157
Fungi, 380
Gentiana, 289
Glaucium phcenicium, 253
Glycyrrhiza, 289
Goodenia, 290
Gourd tribe, 364
Grasses, 318
Grewia, 359
Guettarda, 364
Gundelia, 290
Gypsophila, 289
Hastingia coccinea, 311
Hedysarum gyrans, 172
Helianthns annuus, 171, 15^
INDEX I.
Helianthus tuberosus, 98
Hclicteres, 366
Heinerocallis, 289
Hemp, 258
Hepalicx, 376
Hernandia, 291
Hillia, 297
Hippomane Mancinella, 167
Hippophae rhamnoides, 367
Hippuris, 349
Holmskioldia, 311
Hop, 157
Horse-chesnut, .120
Humea, 290
Jatropha urens, 251
Jerusalem artichoke, 98
Jungermannia, 376
Kalmia, 255
Kleinhovia, 359
Knappia, 292
Lace-bark, 38
Lachenalia tricolor, 101
Lasiopetalum, 289
Lathyrus Aphaca, 180
Lavatera arborea, 95
Leea, 363
Lemna, 344, 361
Lichen, 377
Liliacex, 323
Lilium bulbiferum, 61,
Linnaei, 291
Lithospermum, 289
Liverworts, 376
Lobelia longiflora, 167
Lonicera Cjerulea, 118
Lurid*, 320
Magnolia, 291, 323
Maltese oranges, 82.
Malvacese, 339
Marchantia, 376
Meadow Saffron, 349
Melaleuca, 346
Mentha, 335
Mimosa pudica, 210
------sensitiva, 172
Mirabilis, 357
Monocotyledones, 60
Monsonia, 346
Morus, 364
Mosses, 372
Murrxa, 296
Musa, 250
Musci, 372
Mussxnda, 181
Mysosotis, 187
Myristica, 369
Myrti, 330
Nandina domestica, 387
Nastus, 73
Nelutnbium, 287
Nepenthes distillatoria, 356
146
Nopal, 265
Norfolk island, pine of, 9 \
Nymphxa, 260, 168 .
400
INDEX I.
Omphalea, 365
Orchidex, 352
Origanum, 289
Ornithopus perpusillus, 121
Orobus sylvaticus, 130
Oxalis sensitiva, 172
Palmx, 382
Pandanus, 366, 288
Papilionacex, 341
Passiflora, 338
Periploca grxca, 357
Phleum pratense, 102
Phyllachne, 352
Pine-apple, 348
Pinus, 365
Pistacij Lentiscus, 270
Pistia, 339
Plane-tree, its buds, 119
Pomacex, 330
Populus dilatata, 157
Potamogeton, 260
Pothos, 360
Precix, 320
Primula marginata, 85
Pteris, 300
Rhapis, 251
Rhodiola, 368
Rivularia, 376
Rosacex, 330
Rotacex, 320
Rubiacex, 319, 219
Rumex sanguineus, 72
Rutacex, 235
Ruta graveolens, 254
Salix, 361
Salvia pomifera, 270
Sarracenia, 146, 161
Scheuchzeria, 291
Scitamineae, 316
Scopolia, 358
Seriphium, 349
Silene inflata, 271
Sisyrinchium, 344
Smithia sensitiva, 343, 292
Solandra grandiflora, 123
Spergula, 281
Sprengelia, 292
Sterculia, 328
S.tilago, 355
Strelitzia, 291
Strumpfia, 354
Stuartia, 90
Stylidium, 369
Tabasheer, 73
Tamarindus, 344
Taxus nucifera, 227
Thea, 347
Theobroma, 345
Tmesipteris, 300
Tournefortia, 290
Tragopogon major, 270
Tropaeolum, 326
Tulbaghia, 211
Umbelliferae, 321
Uredo frumenti, 271
INDEX I. 4<«
Valisneria spiralis, 252 Xanthe, 369
Vaucheria, 380 Xylopia, 359
Ventenatia, 355
Viscum album, 170 Yew, 227
Willows, 15€ Zostera, 360
CCC
L 40J ]
INDEX II.
INDEX TO THE EXPLANATIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
TECHNICAL TERMS, &c.
Abrupt leaves, 136
Abruptly pinnate leaves, 148
Abrupt root, 97
Absorption, 157
Acaules plantx, 113
Acerosum folium, 132
Acid secretions, 71
Acinaciforme folium, 144
Acinus, 224
Acrimony, 77
Aculeus, 182
Acuminate leaf, 137
Acuminatum folium, 137
Acute leaf, 137
Acutum folium, 137
Adpressa folia, 127
Adscendens caulis, 106
Aqualis polygamia, 309, 347
Aggregate flowers, 243
Aggregati pedunculi, 116
Air vessels, 164
Ala, 238, 207
Alatus caulis, 119
Alatus petiolus, 117
Albumen, 230
Alburnum, 43
Algs, 377
Alienatum folium, 145
Alkaline secretions, 72
Alterna folia, 125
Alterne ramosus caulis, 108
Alterne pinnatum folium, 149
Ament, 200
Amentacex, 364
Amentum, 200
Amplexicaulia folia, 129
Anceps caulis, 110
Anceps folium, 144
Angiocarpi fungi, 381
Angiospermia, 308, 336
Angulosus caulis, 110
Annual roots, 94
Anther, 217
Anthera, 217
Aphyllx plantx, 124
Apophysis, 373
INDEX U.
493
Apothecium, 378
Appendiculatum folium, 146
Appendages of plants, 178
Apple, 223
Arillus, 234
Arista, 202
Arrow shaped leaf, 134
Articulatus caulis, 110
Articulatum folium, 147
Articulatus culmus, 114
Articulata radix, 101
Articulate pinnatum folium,
149
Artificial system, 279
Asperifoliae, 320
Atmosphere, 173
Astringent principle, 71
Auriculatum folium, 150
Avenium fol. 141
Awl shaped leaf, 143
Awn, 202
Axillaris pedunculus, 115
Bacca, 225
Bacillum, 378
Bark, 38
Barren flowers, 241
Basi trinerve fol. 142
Beak, 238
Beard, 202
Bell shaped corolla, 206
Berry, 225
Bicomes, 327
Biennial roots, 94
Bifid leaf, 134
Biflori pednuculi, 116
Bigeminatum fol. 151
Bijugum fol. 150
Bilobum fol. 135
Bina folia, 125
Binatum folium, 148
Bipinnatifidium fol. 136
Bipinnatum foi. 151
Biternatum fol. 151
Bitter secretion, 71
Blistery leaf, 140
Blunt leaf, 137
Border, 205
Brachiate stem, 109
Brachiatus caulis, 109
Bracte, 180
Bractea, 180
Buds, 119
Bulbiferous stem, 100
Bulbosa radix, 100
Bulbous root, 100
Bullatum fol. 140
Bunch, 193
Caducous, (falling early,) 179,
332
Calycanthemx, 325
Calyculatus calyx, 197
Calyptra, 203
Calyx 194—197
Cambium, 45
Campanulata corolla, 206
Canaliculatum fol. 143
Capitulum, 190
Capsule, 221
Capsula, 221
Carina, 207
404
rNDEX If
Carinatum folium, 144
Cartilagineum fol. 138
Caryophyllex, 327
Catkin, 200
Catulus, 200
Cauda, 238
Caudex, 95
Caulina folia, 125
Caulinus pedunculus, 115
Caulis, 105
Cellular integument, 36
Central vessels,'54
Channelled leaf, 143
Characters, 283
Ciliatum folium, 138
Ciliatum perianthium, 197
Cirrhifer petiolus, 117
Cirrhosum folium, 137
Cirrhose pinnatum, fol. 148
Ciirhus, 182
Classes, 303
Clasping leaves, 129
Clavus (Ergot) 271
Climbing stems, 107
Climbing petioles, 117
Cloven leaf, 184
Cluster, 187
Coccum, 222
Coloratum folium, 142
Columnifcrs, 339
Coloured leaf, 142
Colours, 79
Coma 238
Completus flos, 241
Composite folia, 150
Compound flowers, 242
Compressum folium, 143
Compressed leaf, 143
Compressus petiolus, 117
Concavum folium, 141
Concave leaf, 141
Conduplicatum folium, 140
Cone, 238
Conferta folia, 125
Coniferae, 365
Conjugatum folium, 150
Conjugate leaf, 150
Connata folia, 129
Connate leaves, 129
Conniventia stamina, 21 Emarginate leaf, 137
Emarginatum folium, 137
406
INDEX 11
Embryo, 228*
Emersum folium, 128
Enerve folium, 141
Enneandria, 326
Enodis culmus, 113
Ensatx, 317
Ensiforme folium, 144
Ensiform leaf, 144
Entire leaf, 131
Epidermis, 31
Equitantia folia, 130
Erecta folia, 127
Erectus caulis, 106
Ergot, 271
Eroded leaf, 139
Erosum folium, 139
Essential character, 283
Essential oils, 70
Evaporating pores, 165
Excitability, 65
Exserta stamina, 316
Exserted stamens, 316
Factitious character, 283
Fall of the leaf, 266
Fasciculatus caulis, 113
Fasciculus, 190
Fascicle, 190
Ferns, 371
Ferule flowers, 241
Fibrosa radix, 96
Fibrous root, 96
Fiddle shaped leaf, 134
Filament, 216
Filamentum, 216
Filices, 371
Fingered leaf, 147
Fissum folium, 134
Fistulous stem, 112
Flagelliformis caulis, 107
Fleshy leaf, 143
Flexuosus caulis, 108
Flexuous stem, 108
Floral leaf, 180
Flores tristes, 75
Florets, 242
Florifera folia, 13*
Flosculi, 242
Floscular umbel, 191
Flowing of the sap, 63—67
Folium, 124
Follicle, 222
Fdlliculus, 222
Forcing, 84
Forked stem, 105
Fringe of mosses, 374
Fringed leaf, 138
Frond, 117
Frons, 117
Fructification, 194
Fructus, 220
Fruit, 220
Frustranea polygamia, 309, 349
Fulcrum, 178
Functions of stamens and pistils,
246
Fungi, 380
Funnel formed corolla, 306
Furrowed stem, 112
Fusiformis radix, 97
INDEX II."
407
Fusiform root, 97
Galbulus, 287
Galls, 268
Gangrene, 265
Gemma, 119
Gemmaceus pedunculus, 116
Genera, 279
Generic names, 287
Geniculatus culmus, 114
Genus, 279
Germ, 218,219
Germination, 82
Gibbum folium, 143
Gibbous leaf, 143
Girdling trees, 58
Glaber, glabrous, 111
Gland, 284
Glandula, 184
Glandulosum folium, 139
Glaucous, 112
Gluma, 201
Glume, 201
Grafting, 82
Gramina, 318
Granulata radix, 101
Grasses, 318
Gruinales, 339
Gymnocarpi 381
Gymnospermia, 308, 334
Gynandria, 305, 352
Hairs of plants, 184
Halberd shaped leaf, 134
Hastatum folium, 134
Hastate leaf, 134
Hatchet shaped leaf, 144
Head, 190
Heart shaped leaf, 13-3
Heat of plants, 83
Hepaticx, 376
Heptandria, 324
Herbarium, 383
Hesperides, 330
Hexandria, 323
Hilum, 233
Hirtus, 111
Hispidus, 111
Hollow leaf, 141
Honey, 212
Honey dew, 189
Hood, 203
Hooded leaf, 146
Horizontalia folia, 127
Horizontal leaf, 127
Husk, 201
Hypocrateriformis corolla, 206
Hypocrateriform, 206
Icosandria, 329, 303
Imbricata folia, 126
Imbricate leaves, 126
Imbricate calyx, 197
Impari pinnatum folium,
148
Inanis caulis, 112
Incanus, 112
Incisum folium, 135
Inclusa stamina, 216
Included stamens, 216
Incompleta corolla, 207
Incompletus flos, 241
408 INDEX II.
Incomplete flowers, 241
Incurva folia, 127
Incurva stamina, 216
Incurved leaves, 127
Incurved stamens, 216
Indusium, 199
Inequale folium, 136
Inerme folium, 188
Inferior germ, 219
Inferior flower, 219
Inflated calyx, 197
Inflexa folia, 127
Inflorescentia, 187
Inflorescence, 187
Infundibuliformis corolla, 206
Integerrimum folium, 137
Integrum folium, 130
Internodis pedunculus, 116
Interrupte pinnatum folium,
Involucellum, 198
Involucre, 198
Involucrum, 198
Involutum folium, 140
Involute leaf, 140
Irregular corolla, 205
lulus, 200
Jagged leaf, 139
Jagged pointed leaf, 136
Jointed leaf, 150
Jointed culm, 114
Jointed stems, 110
Jussieu, system of, 313
Keel, 207
Keeled leaf, 144
Kidney shaped leaf, 133
Labellum, (lift) 354
Labiatx, 335
Labiate flowers, 206
Laciniatum folium, 135
Lactescent (milky) plants, 69
Lxvis, 111
Lamellx, 381
Lamina, 205
Lanatus, 112,
Lanceolate leaf, 132
Lanceolatum folium, 132
Lateralis pedunculus, 116
Lateral footstalk, 116
Laxus caulis, 108
Leathery leaf, 145 •
Legumen, 223
Leguminous plants, 341
Liber, 38
Light, effect of, 170
Lignum, (wood) 41
Ligula, 180
Ligulate florets, 242
Ligulati flosculi, 242
Liliaceous flowers, 323
Limb, 205
Limbus, 205
Lineare folium, 132
Linear leaf, 132
Lingulatum folium, 145
Linnxi systema, 302
Lion toothed leaf, 134
Lip, 354
INDEX II. 409
Lirella, 378
Liverworts, 376
Lobatum folium, 130, 134
Lobed leaf, 130, 134
Loment, 224
Lomentum, 224
Lunulatum folium, 134
Luridx, 320
Lyrate leaf, 134
Lyratum folium, 134
Lyrate pinnatum folium, 149
Maculatus, 110
Malvacex, 339
Margin, 205
Medulla, 46
Membrana, 233
Membranaceum folium, 145
Membranous leaf, 145
Monadelphia, 305, 338
Monandria, 316
Monocotyledones, 60, 90
Monoecia, 306, 360
Monoecious flowers, 242
Monoici flores, 242
Monogamia syngenesia, 309
Monogynia, 307
Monopetalous corolla, 205
Mosses, 372
Mucilage, 69
Mucronatum folium, 137
Mucronate leaf, 137
Multiflori pedunculi, 116
Multisiliqux, 332
Muricatus calyx, 197
Muricated calyx, 197
Musci, 372
Mutica gluma, 202
Naked flower, 241
Natantia folia, 128
Natural system, 313, 278
Necessaria polygamia, 309,351
Nectariferous glands, 214
Nectariferous pores, 213
Nectariferous scales, 213
Nectarium, 212
Nectary, 212
Needle shaped leaf, 132
Nervosum folium, 141
Nerved leaf, 141
Nerveless leaf, 141
Nicked leaf, 142
Night scented flowers,
Nitidus, 111
Nomenclature, 286
Notched leaf, 137
Nucamentum, 200
Nudum folium, 142
Nudus flos, 241
Nut, 224
Oblique leaf, 127
Oblong leaf, 132
Oblongum folium, 132
Obovate leaf, 131
Obovatum folium, 131
Obtuse leaf, 137
Obtusum folium, 137
Obtusum cum acumine, 137
DDD
41U
INDEX II.
Ochrea, 181
Octandria, 325
Odour of plants, 75
Oil, 70
Operculum, 374
Opposita folia, 125
Opposite leaves, 125
Opposite pinnata folia, 149
Orbicular leaf, 131
Orbiculatum folium, 131
Orders, 307
Oval leaf, 132
Ovale folium, 131
Ovate leaf, 131
Ovatum folium, 131
Palate, 206
Palmx, 307, 382
Palmatum folium, 135
Palmate leaf, 135
Panduriforme folium, 134
Panicle, 192
Panicula, 192
Papilionacea corolla, 207
Papilionaceous-----207
Papilionaceous flowers, 341
Papillosus, 111
Pappus, 237
Partial involucre, 198
Partial flower stalk, 115
Partitum folium, 135
Patentia folia, 127
Pectinate leaf, 136
Pectinatum folium, 136
Pedate leaf, 151
Pedatum folium, 151
Pedicellus, 115
Pedicelled down, 237
Peduncle, 115
Pedunculus, 115
Pellicula, 234
Peltate leaf, 128
Peltatum folium, 128
Pentagonus caulis, 110
Pentandria, 320
Pepo, 226
Perennial roots, 94
Perfect flowers, 241
Perfoliata folia, 129
Perfoliate leaves, 129
Perianthium, 197
Pericarp, 220
Pericarpium, 220
Perichxtium, 202
Pcridiura, 381
Peristomium, 374
Personata corolla, 206
Personatx, 336
Perspiration of leaves, 154
Petal, 205
Petalum, 205
Petiolata folia, 128
Petioled leaf, 128
Petiole, 117
Petiolus, 117
Pileus, 382
Pilosus, 111
Pilus, 184
Pinnatifidum folium, 135
Pinnatifid leaf, 135
INDEX II.
411
Pinnatum folium, 148
Pinnate leaf, 148
Pistii. 218
Pistillum, 218
Pith, 46
Plaited leaf, 140
Plicatum folium, 140
Plumula, 90
Pod, 223
Podetium, 378
Pointed leaf, 137
Pollen, 217
Polyadelphia, 305, 344
Polyandria, 332
Polygamia, 306, 369
Polygynia, 307
Polypetalous corolla, 206
Pomacex, 330
Pomum, 223
Pores, 165
Pouch, 223
Prxmorsa radix, 97
Precix, 320
Prickle, 182
Prismaticum perianthium, 197
Procumbens caulis, 106
Procumbent stem, 106
Prolifer caulis, 109
Proliferous stem, 109
Prostrate stem, 106
Prostratus caulis, 106
Pubescence, 184—5
Punctatum folium, 140
Quadrangular leaf, 133
Quadrangular stem, 110
Quadrangularis caulis, 110
Quadrangulare folium, 133
Quaterna folia, 126
Quina folia, 126
Quinate leaves, 126, 148
Quinatum folium, 148
Quinquangulare folium, 133
Quinquangularis caulis, 110
Raceme, 187
Racemus, 187
Radiate flowers, 349
Radiate umbel, 191
Radical leaves, 125
Radicalia folia, 125
Radicans caulis, 106
Radicula, 94
Radix, 94
Ramea folia, 125
Rameus pedunculus, 115
Ramosus caulis, 109
Ramosssimus caulis, 109
Rays, 191
Receptacle, 240
Receptaculum, 240
Reclinatum folium, 1S7
Reclinatus caulis, 106
Rectus caulis, 108
Recurva folia, 127
Recurved leaves, 127
Reflexa folia, 127
Reflexed leaves, 127
Reniforme folium, 133
Reniform leaf, 133
412
INDEX II
Repandum folium, 139
Repand leaf, 139
Repens caulis, 106
Repens radix, 96
Resupinata folia, 127
Resin, 69
Retusum folium, 136
Revolutum folium, 139
Revolute leaf, 139
Reversed corolla, 206
Rhceadeae, 332
Rhombeum folium, 133
Rhomboidal leaf, 133
Ribbed leaf, 141
Riblessleaf, 141
Ringens corolla, 206
Ringent------206
Root, 94
Rosaceous corolla, 207
Rostrum, 238
Rotaceae, 320
Rotata corolla, 206
Rotate corolla, 206
Rugged leaf, 140
Rubiaceae, 319
Rugosum folium, 140
Runcinate leaf, 134
Runcinatum folium, 134
Salver shaped corolla, 206
Saggitatum folium, 134
Samara, 222
Sap, 56, 63
Sap vessels, 49
Sramentosus caulis, 108
Scaber, 111
Scaly roots, 100
Scandens caulis, 107
Scandens petiolus, 117
Scape, 114
Scapus, 114
Scar of the seed, 233
Scariosum perianthium, 197
Scimetar shaped leaf, 144
Scitaminex, 316
Secretions of plants, 68
Secunda folia, 126
Secunda panicula, 193
Secunda spica, 189
Seeds, 228
Seed vessel, 220
Segregata polygamia, 309, 351
Semina, 228
Semicylindraceum folium, 143
Semiflosculosi, 347
Seminal leaves, 90
Semiteres caulis, 110
Semiteres petiolus, 117
Senticosx, 33 lj
Sepiarix, 317
Separated flowers, 351
Serrate leaf, 138
Serratum folium, 138—s
Serrulatum folium, 139
Sessile flowers, 116
Sessile leaves, 129
Sessiles flores, 116
Sessilia folia, 129
Sharp leaf, 137
Sheath, 129, 201
INDEX II. 413
Sheathing leaf, 129
Silicle, 223
Silicula, 223
Siliculosa, 308, 336
Siliqua, 223
Silique, 223
Siliquosa, 308, 337
Silver grain, 55
Simple leaves, 130
Simple stem, 105
Simplicia folia, 130
Sinuate leaf, 135
Sinuatum folium, 135
Sleep of plants, 172
Solid bulb, 100
Solitarius pedunculus, 116
Spadix, 201
Sparsa folia, 125
Sparsi pedunculi, 116
Spathe, 201
Spatha, 201
Spathacex, 323
Spatulate leaf, 132
Spatulatum folium, 132
Species of plants, 279
Specific characters, 285
Spica, 188
Spicula, 189
Spike, 188
Spikelet, 189
Spina, 181
Spinosum folium, 138
Spiral vessels, 52
Spiral stalk, 114
Sporx, 378
Sporangium, 378
Spur, 253
Squamosum perianthium, 197
Squarrosum perianthium, 197
Squarrose calyx, 197
Stamen, 214
Stamina, 214
Standard, 207
Stellatx, 319
Stem, 105
Stigma, 218
Stipes, 118
Stipitate down, 337
Stipula, 178
Stone fruit, 224
Striatus caulis, 112
Striate stem, 112
Strictus caulis, 108
Strobilus, 228
Strophistum, 239
Stylus, 218
Style, 218
Submersum folium, 128
Subrotundum folium, 131
Subsessile folium, 146
Subulatum folium, 143
Subulate leaf, 143
Sugar, 72
Sulcatus, 112
Superflua polygamia, 309, 348
Superior flower, 219
Superior germ, 219
Suprxdecompositum folium, 151
Sword shaped leaf, 144
Syngenesia, 305, 347
414
INDEX II.
Tail of a seed, 238
Tanning principle, 71
Tendrils, 182
Teres caulis, 110
Teres folium, 143
Teres petiolus, 117
Terminal footstalk, 116
Terminalis pedunculus, 116
Terna folia, 125
Ternatum folium, 148
Ternate leaf, 148
Testa, 233
Tetradynamia, 305,336
Tetragonum folium, 145
Tetragonus caulis, 110
Tetragynia, 307
Tetrandria, 319
Thallus, 378
Thorn, 191
Thyrsus, 193
Tomentosus, 112
Tongue shaped leaf, 145
Toothed leaf, 138
Triandria, 317
Triangulare folium, 133
Triangularis caulis, 110
Tricx, 378
Trigonum folium, 144
Trigonus caulis, 110
Trigynia, 307
Trilobum folium, 135
Trinerva folium, 141
Trioecia, 870
Triplinerve folium, 142
Triqueter caulis, 110
Triquetrum folium, 144
Trivial names, 292
Trowel shaped leaf, 133
Truncatum folium, 136
Truncate leaf, 136
Tuberosa radix, 98
Tuberous root, 98
Tubular leaf, 143
Tubulosa floscula, 242
Tubular florets, 242
Tubulosum folium, 143
Tubus, 205
Tubes, 51
Tuft, 190
Tunic, 234
Tunicated bulb, 100
Turbinatum perianthium, 197
Two edged stem, 110
Umbel, 191
Umbel la, 191
Umbelliferx, 322
Undivided leaf, 130
Undulatum folium, 140
Unequal leaf, 136
Unguis, 205
Uniflori pedunculi, 116
United flowers, 242
Utriculi, 221
Utricles, 165
Vaginantia folia, 129
Variegatum folium, 142
Variegated leaf, 142
Varieties, 279
INDEX II.
415
Vegetation, 87
Veil, 208
Veinless leaf, 141
Veiny leaf, 141
Venosum folium, 141
Ventricosum perianthium, 197
Verrucosus, 111
Verticalia folia, 127
Vertical leaves, 127
Verticillata folia, 126
Verticillatx, 335
Verticillatus caulis, 109
Verticillus, 187
Vexillum, 207
Villosus, 112
Villous, 112
Viscid us, 111
Viscid, 111
Vitellus, 231
Volubilis caulis, 108
Volva, 203
Warty, 111
Wax, 70
Wavy, 139,140
Wedge shaped leaf, 132
Wheel shaped corolla, 206
Whorl, 187
Whorled leaves, 126
Wing, 238, 207
Winged stem, 110
Wood, 41
Wrapper, 203
Yoked leaf, 150
Yolk, 231
ERRATA.
Page 71, line 13th from bottom, for" Crinita" read, crinita ; et paria passim
„ 131, bottom line, for " Alnisolia," read, Alnifolia.
„ 146,1. 3d from bot. for "Sarracennia,**read, Sarracenia ; for" Fivesad-
dle," read, Sidesaddle.
„ 139,1. 4th for " vinnata,'' read, pinnata.
„ 198,1. 14th from bot. for " Ventricosus," read, Ventricosum .• 1. 12, for
" Pritmaticus," read, Prhmaticum.
„ 224,1. 4th, from bot. for " principle," read, pericarp.
„ 295,1. 15th from bot, for " meaning," read, names.
Kntitrs Sc.
fiv firadwi-d &rRead lloston . A-A.Finky lJhilada March 1814.
4
I
Khsafs Sr.
/
io
Kneass St
Kntass Se-
I
,4
*
MUM**