u
 

s  <C it  v c«a_ c?^_... —---. ^
C'J. .-x.".<^&<
^ \  CCjCia>
C    < cc: !
 5^  < Cc_  <<:a
<!•:  <C C: " >,::cX
;o? c  <cc ■ <v?-
,«£ C  <r
'■cc C <c
 <c c c
 0Ss c~ C
  rfCC c

 ■or c C
   .CCT <
   ;cc
  cc
 Cc
 <CC'
x <a;
       £c C  <C"<C~'~o c cr  i■■'i*


  <^CC  cf cc?rR#  ^cC- CC
^a^CC?'  ^C^^a#-fe^«




CrV>^«^Cc C<T^  <: C <^> V ■- ■■^^<W!>*-i'- SS

,   -a-C-C<^.ci   < c _c <^<^   ^  C~fe"c   r/r
^*C>5^C^c<:    cTCTJa.  <jc^c^c^   <r^
=r  2  cc
-CtOC1^1 "C^."rjkC' ^' w ■
Surgeon General's Office
< K£


<  ■? C
<   <«.a
cc <iR


     ..♦-'■ *o  <



^:r <c * «r  c
   <C~<  ^<i  C ,< Cc x



  Cc  ^<3







C2 cc '<L<-JL'1SC":<.'■.♦-'
 «C c^:"^a^;' '
oa^ <:qc
 c .Jf.\ [ <; c_\ <r
c & _< c: <r

 c-cT'ccc


       ' «ti C   cr v

 C <c   c^ c   < j  c

"^ C_«.CJa   CCca   <f'<r   ,
c c: c   cicc   <  c   ^


> C'C "<1 «
_< cc" ^<c<
^ cc   <cc  er<   ccv
 <■ cc  *«cciaT  < <r  cc "
$. cc  *g r«T < c  cc? :
^C  dCTiC CCc3
^Ci  «J^C cc cc  cc«c
        .C <c^c c.  cc <  ;
             - ';c  (C <^n
        .C_ ^O C c c ^  '-
<; C	<r
•s <:	^T
c- C	<^
< C	^
c C	<^t
c_ c	<r<
-c c	<^T
c <r	rr «r-
 <"C-  C,
 :<Cl  (jfiCTC CC CC  CC<^
,-iC
 c  -




    <'  GC  C_ «Cc.c Cc pi
   | ^c  <ki   c  €C^.c-c c v<
   ^ c £ir~  <-   fir? . '^- <.\
-SlCc 
 <c~  c ^ ^
c. ccc
 I  ^s,clc^c-c:  <sc<lV   c
   C ■< C c <• CC  CCC  ; c

c << ccc ccc<r~< <r
g  c<?  cr c  c d*« c c c ir^
i  o  c:c  c cc"cc c  <gr
    &<c  c . c ex c   c c

*C C  C C CT^  <ra   c" ,- .a-
^^Srccr^.  cX,',
*ca <c C'C <cr  «*£;•  <• r ■,-•
la c  c;ccj c  C<CC<rc c cc
<«£ CCr'C.  C'C'CCCC

*S  Sc  c <l«<^  c c c «r
r   sc  c <^c<Sc «^< c c<r

c, &cCc<^  ccccc
•  \  Cc cCc C CO. CC
"   -  Cc; c  c  Xcc c<a:v cc
   v   Cc c  ca:«i"'C  <3a:<: C«ffl
*'•  c  -<X   c?..< c  occcrX
       "" ' C CC CC< CT
5 ^ < <c c c <<
  <^_c~ < CC"««

«£~ x  <r  cc  ,c
^>^  <:  cc c
 -a.  C
<x c c
<X cC
c  C
<X-C
C c
cc
CaC
C ' C
C C
<c *"<cr;"
ccxxjcI
<cc«c:
 ^<r, c C
c</  c
xa  S-^<1.
C-  C < <K
      a C


 cr  cess
^cr  <c c<£
<>  ^C
-  c<<
  <C cV.
<C "etc
<<T  Cr  '^
<'c*r-
C c x
  ~x-<x
 C<XX



  C tC-.v
   <av '<.
  ■ c"   f
    <    c.  <a   r-. ••«
<S CC C C_  ccc<
\ C- C-C^
4 . C C-
 c,^.c;
ciac.^:
 C ^C<C
c<C<
 v<^ C
 < c
<S C_ CC  c  «c
 <^; <_1 ct c   -
 <- "^  <C_ cc
<S^^cic;  cc
 1  S S^1 cc <r  <
 ^-C c_ cc  c
 <^ c ex
ic c
Clc  c
K c v
^c.c

  c c
KC  C
        . v cc c  <•
        : cCC <_:  cc
      - CC'"«c-c
     -.-CC C" <
. C  <T« C7C ^
"c.  C   C C"*f-rc
    C C Cc ta ,
    Z_CC CNs<
    d  C C  C'c,
^ • ■ :■   C  <^  <2  •«<:: :
    C  ' Ca-C- "<*■' ■'■
   <T  C c   c; .c
"-•  cC  <S:c3 orrc;
r    c  c-c;. r,%
    c  <r^ "c  <r •: <.
  c  c  c   ^
■ C  C.<C' -Ca •<
 C  C-C'cc. C _ <S  : <i
C ' C <r C   C"  <■
 "   CCc C   C-C
C  C<tl'C   c  *'
  g: < c
  <.  «c>c
 C "< c
c cc
  cc
  c c
  c c
  c c
 c xc  ,
 c: cc  <r
 c cC  c
 ccC  c
 c cc: c
 C <c C
 C <C c  ■■
C ^c C   cc
C<C C  a'^
 Cc C   ■■'<%
 C_cc C   '"t
 1   «:  <z


  -<| c
"C  '«C. c
   <k:c c
!'.-^-"-<C'C  C
 "-^SS^ Ca
 <4CT c
 CSS. a  C
 <a_  C
CcC
 C <C<_
  c  'Cc ce  c
r c-   ex c: <c  ;
  <  <^  "C  cc
  c  cc   <  c
-r  <3 C   CXS C   CCg  ^
  1 ' '.'<:  ~<z   <—  <  •  - <z:
 <.   <<< X  CcC ' «. cr   >
a   -<|  C  CCC cc.v<rcx.   <XX  C
X.__ '«C C. CCC/^CCa  C_ 'i   <a
-*■<"., <CX <^" C c oc< cc   <r' ^  C?
*c"".<c<" c. c. exec c   c:c
    -^< c: c  C cc <<x:  c.  Cc^
      :  C  c c cc<r C Cc  CC
.  — „,: ^-" <^C cc C d  C't *-~  ■
 <sr <:. C. ..c c ccc  <1 C   :
*£>£=* C cac^cxc  Cc -C <X<
<^'..C C  CCC :C "C  <T^   C C C<
cr :*: c;Xc X  c  civ   c  X - C
IT  <c  cz  <(X, <c  C3  <1 <c   <
Sax  d'<.Ccc_<C  <:   C cc .  C
ST  •.   C _• c  <C^<"  <L  C   <<c <
C  -    <_ x <c "C   Ci  C  «■
 cc >,..    c£c  C*c  ^  C •  *  "
  cxc. -<^   ccc  ^  ^  c.  v..
 *'C'  «C    i'  CC 4T^ «C  <T  CCC::
cr r<-
CC.x
 cc:  •
  c
  cc
   <x
<_  c
<:  c 
 
f
           LECTURES
                   ON

    THE  NATURAL  HISTORY

            AND MANAGEMENT OP      C*

      THE  TEETH;

 THE CAUSE OF THEIR DECAY;

THE ART OF PREVENTING ITS ACCESSION;
                   AND
VARIOUS OPERATIONS, NEVER HITHERTO SUGGESTED;
    FOR THE PRESERVATION OF SUCH TEETH AS
      IT IS TOO FREQUENTLY CONSIDERED
           NECESSARY TO EXTRACT
                         i (
f
&*L
BY  L. S. PARMLY,
                      AL COLI

                           i w Kr »c^x x
BENTIST TO THE PRINCIPAL MEMBERS OF THE ROTAL COLLBfif
     OF PHTSICIANS AND SURGEONS, OF LONDON
           KEIV-YORK:
PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR BY KIRK AND MERCF.Iif,
          No. 22 Wall-street.
Broderkkfy Bitter, Printers, J\'o. 2 Dm-&'?(.

           1820 
 Sotflhern Dia'rict of SVtic York, as.

  BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the seventh day of June; in the
 forty-fourth year of the Independence of the United States of America,
 e   uPa,rm1^' °.f the sard district, hath deposited  in this office the title
 ot a book, the right whereof he  claims  as author  and proprietor, in the
 words following, to wit :

  " Lectures on the Natural History and Management of the Teeth :
 the cause of their decay;  the art of preventing its accession; and various
 operations, never hitherto suggested, for the preservation of such teeth as
 rt is  too frequently  considered necessary to extract.  By L S  Parmly
 Dentist to the principal members of the Royal College of Physicians and
 burgeons, of London."                                  .

  In conformity to the act of the  Congress of the United States, entitled
  An act  tor the encouragement of learning,  by securing the copies of
maps, charts, and books, to the authors  and proprietors of such copies,
during the time therein mentioned ;"  and,  also,  to an act, entitled " an
act supplementary to an  act, entitled an act for the encouragement  of
 learning,  by securing the  copies of maps, charts, and  books, to the
authors and proprietors of such copies, daring the times therein mention-
ed, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engravinff.
 and etching, historical and other prints."                  S <="gravmg,

                                        G.  L. THOMPSON,
                         Uerk of the Southern District of New- York. 
Copy of a certificate reeeived by L. S. Parmly, from Anthony
       Carlisle, Surgeon to His Britannic Majesty,
            Professor of Anatomy, M. R. C S. L.
                      &.C.  &c. &c.
                  " Soho-Square, August 12, 1818.
     As  an act of justice, due to extraordinary merit,
I offer this professional testimonial  in behalf of Mr.
Parmly, Dentist.
     I consider his discovery of the causes which produce
decay  in  teeth,  to  be  a valuable accession to surgical
knowledge; while his liberality and candour, in making
his experience public, do Mm honour as a Man.
     I  have  equal reason  to  be satisfied with Mr.
Parmly's  skill in   the  several operations  belonging to
his vocation.
                        ANTHONY  CARLISLE."


Copy of a note from Astley Cooper, to Mr. Bond, Surgeon, of
                       Brighton.
   " MY DEAK SIR,
                    Mr. Parmly,  who  will  deliver you
this note,  is a Dentist of very scientific views, and of
excellent practical information.
            You will do me a favour by examining his
inventions, which I am sure you will be pleased with;
and you will oblige me by recommending  him  to your
friends at Brighton.
                     Yottrs truly,
                              ASTLEY COOPER." 
   Copy of a certificate from Richard  Rush, Esq. Envoy
      Extraordinary  and Minister Plenipotentiary of the
        United States of America at the Court of the
              United Kingdom of Great Britain
                      and Ireland.
     " I have had opportunities of knowing the estimation
 in  which  Mr. ParmTy, of the  United States, is held, as
 a Dentist, in London, by persons competent to form a
judgment, and know  that his standing is  of the highest
 kind, both for practical  skill and scientific attainments
 in  his profession.
     He is the Dentist of  my family,  and has performed
 an operation  on my teeth, greatly to my satisfaction in
 all respects.
                                RICHARD RUSH.
   London, April 6,  1820." 
          PROSPECTUS
                 OF


      ON THE CAUSE OF DECAY.
         AND on the MANAGEMENT OF

THE    TEETH;
           AS DELIVERED AT
    FRANKLIN-HOUSE, BROADWAY,
            NEW-YORK.
  In these  Lectures, the  Natural History
and Diseases of the Teeth are developed
and illustrated by Physiological inferences,
Various operations  for the  assistance  of
partial Defects,  and for the removal of Dis-
ease, are demonstrated;  and Mr. Parmly's
peculiar mode of preventing its  accession
fully detailed. 
   The advantages to be derived from care-
 ful and judicious operations upon  unsound
 Teeth, prove that the too frequent practice
 of extracting them, is, in the greater num-
 ber of instances,  quite  unnecessary;  and
 that, by mechanical adaptations of form and
 surface, portions only of decaying Teeth,
 may be rendered of the most essential ser-
 vice to the Possessor, for the remainder of
 life.
   Mr.  Parmly is particularly anxious to  di-
 rect the attention of Parents to the preven-
 tion of Disorders and malformations in Chil-
 dren's  Teeth, and to impress the  import-
 ance of effecting perfect arches as essential
 to distinct articulation, and as first rate aux-
 iliaries of Public speaking.

   Tickets for a  single Lecture, 15  cents each,
or for the three Lectures, subscribed for at once,
 %i 50. 
LECTURE FIRST.
  The importance  of  the Teeth to the
health,  appearance, and  enunciation of
Man,  and  to  the  general  welfare of the
animal economy, must  be evident to every
contemplative  mind.   Wherefore,  it  may
not be improper to commence  this Essay
with a brief view of their Natural History,
for the purpose of  elucidating such techni-
cal phraseology as may of necessity occur
in its  progress.
   Nature has  supplied  these important or-
gans with a greater portion than any  other
of the human body, of that earthy matter
on which  all the  solidity and  firmness  of
an animal frame depend,  and has protected
them  in a manner suited to their situation
as more or  less exposed. 
6
   1 st. The cutting edges and crowns of the
 Teeth  have an additional  firm covering,
 termed the cortex striatus, or enamel, placed
 out of the reach of the  general circulation,
 and so durable as to resist the influence of
 those causes by which  the common bones
 crumble to dust.
   2ndly.   The  necks  of the  Teeth  are
 closely invested  and  protected  by   the
 Gum, which is highly vascular, a vermillion
 substance, of a peculiar nature,  protecting
 also the alveoli, or sockets  of  the  Teeth,
 and capable of bearing extreme pressure,
 without injury to its circulation, or inducing
 that kind  of  inflammatory  action, which
 takes place in  other soft solids,  when  ex-
 posed to similar causes.
   3rdly.  The alveolar processes, which are
of a yielding and elastic nature, are formed
entirely for the reception of the Teeth, and,
along with the  Gum, are intended to pre-
vent injury  from concussion,  which would
otherwise   arise.   These  processes,  after 
/
dentition, embrace the  fangs  immediately
under the  Gum,  and  acquire, by age,  an
increased firmness, nearly as hard as that
of the Teeth  themselves.
  Thus, the Teeth and their appendages
form  one  peculiar structure,  the  whole
intimately  connected,  dependant on each
other,  and admirably perfected  for their
various  functions ; displaying,   when  in
health, superior  strength and durability to
all the  other  parts of the animal  frame.
It  appears,  by  minute  observation,  that
their premature loss or  decay cannot arise
from any  defect of  original  organization,
but is  to  be  ascribed solely to the  action
of impure matter, the  result of  uncleanli-
ness, on a part incapable of freeing itself
from extraneous accretions, as  in the other
parts  of the  living body;  and,  to  supply
this want of natural power, the interference
of art appears indispensable.
   Thus, it is  of importance to Society to
know what the qualifications  of the  in- 
8
 structor ought to be,  for enabling him to do
 justice to this particular art.
   In the first place, he should be an anato-
 mist, to  understand  the structure of  the
 mouth and teeth, and the art of preserving
 their original regularity and soundness.
   Secondly,  a surgeon,  to  know their dis-
 eases,  and the mode of treating them.
   Thirdly, a good  mechanic, to supply the
 defect, or loss of parts; and should, further,
 understand the  art and effect of colouring,
 so as  to  imitate nature  with  all  possible
 correctness.
   Thus,  the acquirements requisite for the
 Dentist,  in the  management of the Mouth
 and Teeth, constitute, of themselves, an im-
portant professional education,  and should
be studied  and acted upon,  by  distinct
individuals,  for the  benefit  of  mankind.
  This  has been  done,  in  a certain  de-
gree, since the  time  of  Mr. John Hunter,
who  first  placed it  on a practical founda-
tion,  while  his  successors,  (for  example. 
9
Blake and Fox,) with the same zeal and in-
dustry as he  displayed, gradually extended
the means of alleviating disease and restoring
the symmetry of the face.
  But, however useful the improvements of
medical science have been to society in the
alleviation and cure of diseases incident to
the mouth and teeth, the preventive means
which Mr. Fox, in his work  termed  the
» delightful secret," will, if prosecuted and
brought forward,  supersede the necessity
of every other; since the want of preventive
means, has been one great cause of human
misery,  and  the only reason why mankind
do not longer retain these important organs
for masticating their food and preserving a
perfect voice, the functions  of which appa-
ratus, constitute  in some degree,  a main
spring of life.
   The  means  of preserving it, therefore,
should be duly valued by every individual;
and it is the express object of this Essay,
to display the real value and importance of
                    2 
                     10
 the art of preventing disease, to show ho?E
 much the functions of the mouth, are con-
 nected with the great processes that support
 and  prolong  life by a perfect  digestion of
 food, and also with the attribute of distinct
 articulation.
   From the intimate connexion of the Teeth
           *
 with  these great functions of life, Nature  has
 rendered  them durable  in their substance,
 combining strength with symmetry; and  the
 idea is  absurd, that an unhealthful condition
 of these organs depends on imperfect forma-
 tion.  Can we  conceive that any thing comes
 imperfect  from the hand of the Creator into
 the service of life?  Do  we  not  find per-
 fection  the attribute of all his works,  from
 the highest to  the lowest ?
  How  unjust is such a  reflection  on the
great Author of our existence, who clearly
has formed nothing  in vain!
  This  truth  we find strongly  illustrated,
when we  contemplate the  nicety and art,
not only  with which  the  human body  is 
It
constructed, but each separate organ which
belongs to every individual of the animal
and vegetable kingdoms.
  But  the Teeth, the hardest parts  of the
frame,  although intended by Nature to sur-
vive every other apparatus, are, through
neglect and mismanagement, the first that
give way;  a circumstance which weakens
the energies of the system, since the food
cannot be duly prepared  for digestion with-
out considerable mastication:  and the in-
ternal  organs are not altogether sufficient
for this purpose, if it enter the stomach in
that crude state, which  must be the case
when little masticated.   Hence  arise innu-
merable disorders  of the abdominal  vi-
scera,  and the  necessary  supply of  nutri-
ment not being furnished to  the  system,
the  whole frame becomes enfeebled and
emaciated.
   It is on this principle we are able to ex-
plain numerous  symptoms affecting different
parts of the body; and which could not be ac- 
12
counted for, but by the intimate connexion
of the whole,  and by the sensations  of one
part being conveyed  by nervous sympathy
to another, or other causes, which have not
been fully explained.
   To every organ of the  animal body, is
assigned  some peculiar and needful office;
and in a healthy state, the most perfect har-
mony subsists  between them.  Neither in-'
terrupts,  but  each assists the operation of
another;  and thus the ultimate preservation
of the whole is promoted.
   By this wise adjustment there is no schism
in the body, no separate or interfering ends
are pursued by the multiplicity of its mem-
bers; but the safety  and support of each,
are the undivided care of all.  Hence, in
this view, there is no  part of the frame that
is not of importance, however trifling  or
insignificant it  may appear.  The most vital,
as well as those on which  the  lesser ener-
gies  of the system depend, are equally es-
sential to life  and its  comforts.   On every
i 
13
consideration, then, the mouth claims an im-
portant rank in the human structure; for on
its functions depend, in a great degree, the
health,  beauty, and strength  of  the body,
and those functions which form the essence
of life.
  The Eye, the first of the senses, from which
we  form our judgment of all creation,  is
greatly influenced by the state of the mouth.
For example, during the period of dentition,
with inflammation and pain;  and in age,  it
is materially affected, from  the  connexion
of nerves by  tooth-ach,  and  has even  its
strength and  power  sensibly  diminished
from the continued existence of this irritat-
ing cause.
  The sense of Hearing is often  imperfect,
unless the air is allowed to pass through the
mouth,  and  have  free access into the Eusta-
chian tube, so as to balance that received
through the ear.
  The extensive sympathy of the Teeth, with
the different parts of the Head, also, is strong- 
14
 ly displayed in that species of ear-ach which
 often precedes as well as attends a diseased
 Tooth; and still more so, in that grievous
 disease which is  termed,  Tic Douloureux,
 where a primary affection of a  Tooth is the
 original source of that excruciating anguish
 which is felt in this malady,  and which pro-
 duces that deranged and irritable state  of
 nervous sensation  that can only be removed
 by dividing the excited nerve by an incision
 of the cheek,  which painful operation  may,
 upon many  occasions,  be spared, upon  a
 careful examination  of the Teeth, and the
judicious treatment of those in fault.
  Pursuing the subject further, we find the
 sense of Smell loses its  acuteness by any dis-
 ease of the mouth, which affects the breath.
 The  taint  being constantly  conveyed  into
 the olfactory cavities.
  The Taste is seated in  the mouth alone;
 and  the correctness of this sense depends
 upon its healthy state.
  The peculiar prerogative  of  Speech, the 
lo
power of revealing or manifesting the mind,
and  all those distinguishing characteristics
which constitute the pre-eminence of the Hu-
man race, depend upon the functions of the
mouth; the teeth  tending to heighten the ef-
fect of every feature, and modulate the voice
to that degree of perfection, which no musi-
cal instrument can ever attain.
   The art of preserving the Teeth, Gums,
and the apparatus which nature has connect-
ed with them, is, therefore, of the highest im-
portance; since,  from the mistaken refine-
ments of the culinary art,  they require more
attention than any other part of the body.
   First, In consequence of the relics of food
insinuating themselves  between the enamel
and  gum, an injurious  matter  is constantly
imparted from them, by absorption, into the
constitution at large.
   Secondly, From the Teeth being almost ex-
traneous bodies, nature does not, as in other
parts of the frame,  possess the  power  of
freeing them from whatever is injurious, 
16
   A knowledge, therefore, of the art of pre-
serving them from the earliest period of life,
appears indispensable  for  the  purpose  of
promoting  its health,  comfort,  and happi-
ness.
   This it will be my endeavour to explain, in
the hope of pointing out the proper and safe
tract, by which these blessings may be more
largely attained and renderded permanent;
for the Mouth without Teeth, may not be un-
aptly compared to a house without furniture;
and the preservation of the Teeth, as the pre-
servation of furniture,  depends  entirely on
proper care and attention.
  The Teeth may be considered in two points
of view; with respect  to  their  structure or
sensibility,  and with regard  to their use.  In
regard to the latter, it may be observed, that
in quadrupeds they possess  a two-fold use,
both as weapons of defence,  and instruments
of support.
  Do they not give to Man the same  health-
ful  and spirited appearance ?  And  how 
17
tame do the face  and features  look when
deprived of this  appendage of character!
  As a preliminary step to the consideration
of their important functions, it will  be pro-
per to give a short view of their formation
and progress.
  The  Temporary   Teeth  are originally
formed  with the  alveoli  or sockets  by the
process of secretion.
  At  Birth,  the bodies of ten Teeth, of a
bony  substance,   appear  distinctly  shaped
in each Jaw.  As  they proceed in ossifica-
tion and more perfect shape, the investing
membrane  secretes  a fluid from which a
very white substance is deposited upon the
pulp.
  This is  the Enamel, which is at first of a
 consistence not harder than Chalk;  but,  in
 Age, it acquires such hardness that a file, in
 cutting it,  is soon  worn smooth.
   After Birth, the growth of the Teeth is
 rapid,  and  cannot  therefore  be confined
 long within the alveolar cavities, The fangs
                     3 
18
or roots are the  only  parts that lengthen?
and, as this takes place,  the  sockets grow
round, and more closely invest them.
  On the progressive ossification  of the se-
cond  or permanent, set of Teeth, (thirty-
two in number) the fangs of the first  set,
twenty in number,  undergo the process of
Absorption,  and are carried out  of the sys-
tem, having  completed their original and
destined purpose.
  A series of distinct  vessels form and de-
posit this solid part of the structure, and it
is maintained in health and use for a certain
period,  after which others are employed to
disorganize and remove it, when  it becomes
as it were an extraneous substance, and no
longer required  for the service  of the sys-
tem.
  A similar process takes  place  in  other
parts of the body, in cases of diseased bone:
tumours of a bony consistence having been
absorbed by this active power of the small
vessels.  Anatomical History abounds with 
19
strong proofs of these efforts of nature, either
to complete the perfection of her work, or
to preserve it in a healthy state.  The power
of the absorbent  vessels may  be  judged
of from the experiment of feeding Animals
with  madder,  or  other colouring  matter,
which completely  tinges  the most  minute
recesses of the bones, but not the Enamel.
  Having thus stated the leading particulars
of the structure and changes  of the Teeth, I
shall  next proceed to make  some observa-
tions  on their importance.
  In order to  promote perfect digestion,  it
is necessary that the food  be sufficiently
comminuted  by the  action  of the Teeth,
during which it becomes blended with a
certain quantity of saliva, thus rendering its
solution  easier when it descends  into the
Stomach, to be mixed with the Gastric juice.
The necessity for the comminution of food,
and  the  importance of the Teeth as instru-
ments in  effecting  this, cannot  be better
illustrated than by considering the manner in 
20
which  food  is taken by animals which feed
on vegetable productions.   They eat very
hastily, and for  the  purpose of  correcting
this disadvantage, Nature has provided them
with more than one Stomach, or  receptacle
for  food, from the first of which  the animal
has the power to  return it into the  Mouth, for
the purpose of undergoing a second mastica-
tion, which office is vulgarly called " chew-
ing the Cud."  This process fits it  for the
proper reservoir,  where it is finally convert-
ed into nourishment  for the system at large.
  The Incisores or front Teeth of these Ani-
mals are thin, by which they are  enabled to
crop their food quickly, and the  Molares or
grinders  in each Jaw have  a large  surface
for   grinding the  food  subjected to  their
action.
  These circumstances serve to show the
same necessity for mastication in the human
subject,  and  the  importance of  the  Teeth
being  in a sound and healthy  state, as the
only Instruments that can perform this office. 
21
Surely the provision that nature has so wise-
ly and carefully made in all Animals cannot
be defective in  Man, without his health and
comforts suffering in proportion.  Where the
Teeth are wanting, the food can never be
properly divided, nor a due quantity of sa-
liva  elicited  from the Glands to  render its
solution in the Stomach complete, and  form
it into perfect  chyle; for the human  body
may be considered a living laboratory;  it
being sufficiently evident,  that the compo-
nent parts of the animal frame  are at all
times under  the influence of a powerful
chymical agency.
  The  process of digestion  converts the
food in the Stomach into nutriment or chyle,
and  separates  the  useful from the feculent
parts.
  The Chyle, again, is converted into blood,
and from the  blood are formed various fluids
fitted for the  different purposes of life.
  The  Enamel,  and  afterwards the  bony
parts of the Teeth  receive their  indurating 
22
matter from vessels  which are destined to
secrete or separate it from the common mass
of circulating blood.
  But no sooner is the Enamel sent into the
service of life than it is  exposed to the ac-
tion  of that matter  which has the  power of
decomposing it in the way already  explain-
ed.   The  extent of this  exposure depends
entirely on  ourselves;  for nature has com-
pleted  the Enamel  when the second  set of
Teeth appear.
  From neglect, then, on our part, and its
destructive  consequences, arise   the  first
traces of injury to the general health.   The
first symptoms of mortality are here allowed
to show themselves, and to proclaim that no
sooner do we begin to live, than,  from inat-
tention to  cleanliness, we begin to decay; a
truth which seems  to make  but  slight  im-
pression,  from the little  exertion made for
the prevention of latent mischief.
  But if it be remembered, that the putrid
matter, which,  though minute  in  quantity, 
23
acts so powerfully on the solid structure of
a Tooth, must  act  with  no less energy on
parts of a less compact texture, we shall be
awakened to a serious consideration of this
subject, and remind ourselves that the mat-
ter which  destroys bone when applied to
it, if allowed to accumulate, will, by being
absorbed, which it cannot fail to be,  taint in
a similar manner, the whole frame,  and be
finally the means of breaking up the consti-
tution.
  Thus the Teeth,  when neglected,  are the
despositories of a matter which  acts  as  a
constant  source of disease  to  the  system,
and  is followed  by  a  most  disagreeable
effect, viz. an offensive breath;  a fact which,
without  difficulty, may be more than  suffi-
ciently demonstrated.
  The breath,  or air which is exhaled by
the nostrils, is  widely  different  from  that
which  is  expired  through the mouth  of a
person with diseased Teeth  and  Gums.
The first, or that breathed through the Nop- 
                   24
trils, possesses nothing but the natural efett
matter deprived of its  oxygenous principle
furnished  by Nature.   The other is, that
passing through the Mouth,  and  receiving a
peculiar noxious impregnation from the fer-
menting sordes, caries, and other matter about
the Teeth, the mischief being  caused  by
portions so minute as to escape our obser-
vation, and consequently requiring an appa-
ratus more  efficient  than   that  commonly
used.
   That this is the case, every day's obser-
vation will confirm, where the breath of Old
People ceases to be offensive after they have
lost  their Teeth,  which was  not the case
before; the same may be proved by Infants.
and  those with clean Teeth.
   Fetid  Breath,  therefore, is  occasioned
entirely by the state of the Mouth,  and has
no connexion with that of  the  Stomach  or
digestive  Organs,  as  erroneously supposed.
The  escape  of vapour from a  disordered
Stomach  can only  produce  a  temporary 
25
effect; but from uncleanliness of the mouth
we find  the taint  constant  and  habitual,
and unless the cause be eradicated, all the
spices and perfumes of the East, though they
may for a moment conceal, cannot remove
it.  Cleanliness of the mouth,  therefore, is of
great importance to the general health.  In
fact, the danger of the lungs, from constantly
inhaling a putrid effluvium, has been strongly
commented upon by the Faculty of Medicine
as a leading cause of Pulmonary  Consump-
tion.
  When the great annual mortality from this
disease is considered, we  cannot doubt that
this putrid matter may so change the nature
of the air inhaled, as  to cause that slow in-
flammation of the lungs productive of those
Tubercles  which are the  foundation of the
disease.  The same putrid effluvium, from a
number of diseased Teeth, is the cause of
the noxious exhalations in crowded places,
and not properly the Taint of the Atmos-
phere, from the  Air being merely heated or
                 4 
26
confined :  and this circumstance renders a
person  not  only offensive  to  himself, but
a positive nuisance  to  Society, where the
olfactory nerves are acute.
  Where  then can we  look for a cause  of
early constitutional  decay so  certain,  so
constant, and so active as that of the putrid
matter generated in  the mouth, and  acting
powerfully  on  the  hardest parts  of our
frame.
  This matter may also contain Animalcules
large enough  to irritate  the nerves  of the
Teeth to such a degree, as  to occasion
Tooth-ach in all the violence of its tor-
ments.
  It is the peculiar quality of all putrescent
matter to act as  a  ferment in  assimilating
every thing it touches, if allowed to remain,
to its own nature.
   Its ravages  are slow,  insidious, and for
a long time  imperceptible.  At length, how-
ever,  the destructive  enemy  is  revealed.
He  overpowers us in all the fulness  of his 
27
deformity, and our City is a heap of ruin.*
before we suspected  his  arrival  at  our
Gates.
   A  species of mortification is induced.
which though apparently seated in a minute
part,  extends its baneful influence through-
out the whole body.
  To those unaccustomed to extreme nicety
in respect to the mouth, this conclusion may
seem extended beyond reasonable bounds,
but it is not the case.
   The effect of this noxious matter is often
so strongly  felt by a bystander, as to occa-
sion nausea  and  faintness, which are erro-
neously supposed to  arise from some other
cause.  The latent existence of this mis-
chief may be compared to the rot, in wood,
which extends to every part, and in the
end is a  certain destruction to  the  whole
structure.
   Thus the very  part of our body which  i*
meant for the support  and  prolongation  of
life, by preparing for use the supplies which 
a
renovate exhausted strength,  when  neglect-
ed, becomes equally the medium of inducing
disease and decay; so that the first marks
of mortality are  conspicuous  in  a death or
destruction  of the  most solid parts of the
frame; from which we are led to conclude,
that, in proportion to  the health and sound-
ness  of the  Mouth  will  be  the  general
health, soundness,  and  energy  of  the  sys-
tem ; and the first sign of decay plainly pro-
claims to us, (though  a hint we  are not dis-
posed  to  take)  that  Death is  at the door,
and  has commenced  his   first  approaches
in the destruction of this  important orga-
nization, the  inlet equally to  health  and
disease.
  Can the care of our Teeth then  reasona-
bly occupy  too much  of our attention ? At
least, let us have recourse to  those means
which  will  prevent  the  constitution  from
being worn out by sleepless nights and days
of irritation  and  pain which no species of
torture can exceed, 
29
   It must surely be interesting to every one
to know how disease  of this nature may be
prevented.
   We see of late years 'what has been done
by vaccination alone, in  a decrease of the
annu.il Bills of Mortality, by preventing the
destruction  of the  human species by one
disease only.  What may not be expected
from  preventing  diseases  of the  Mouth.
which it is undoubted are capable of extend-
ing their influence,  and occasioning others
which imperceptibly lay the foundation of ill
health at every period of life.  By prevent-
ing the accession of those, life may be  pro-
longed, and  its  blessings preserved  in the
human race;  as they  are with every other
class of the Animal Creation.
   When these facts  are  reflected on, can
there be a stronger inducement to give due
attention  to  the  Mouth  and Teeth, in  a
regular and  proper manner, as a  preventive
of general disease,  that  we  may  enjoy  a
sound  body and perfect senses to the latest
period of life. 
30
   Thus the principle  which I have  now
 briefly  explained,  claims  the most serious
 attention, as it is deeply concerned with the
 prolongation of life; and the enjoyment of
 health: I shall conclude this Lecture  with
 a quotation  from  Dr.  Ewell's  Letters  on
 Cleanliness.
   " The last point which I  shall with soli-
 citude press upon you, is  the  purification
 of the Teeth and Mouth.
  " If possible, this is more all important for
 your general health, than cleaning any other
 part.   To the scripture, that  i out  of the
 mouth cometh forth evils,' might have been
 added with equal  truth, ' in it are engen-
 dered many.' It is inconceivable how great-
 ly the whole system is  affected, sometimes
 inflamed, by the mouth.   You must have
 witnessed,  that  a  small quantity of spirit
 held in the mouth  of a  sick  person  invigo-
 rates the whole body.   A disgusting mouth-
ful  frequently excites vomiting in persons
not  very  delicate;  and diseases  of  the
Mouth almost universally produce  serious
effects in other parts of  the body." 
31
LECTURE SECOND.
  The advantages of cleanliness to the well
being of Animal life, are too obvious to re-
quire illustration; and the influence it exerts
on contagious and various other  diseases,
is  more  than a sufficient groundwork for
this position.
  Since it applies  no less as an  axiom to
local  than to general circumstances, those
important Instruments of the Animal  ma-
chine, the Teeth, demand its fullest exer-
tion ;  for these,  when disordered, produce
the seeds of constitutional  disease.
  By a Chymical Agency on  those relics of
the food, which accidently lodge between
them,  a  deleterious  change  takes  place. 
                   32
constituting  an Active Poison,  which  coi
rodes their structure.
  The importance of the Teeth to the func-
tions of the  System,  and the perfect enjoy-
ment of health, is apparent from the moment
of their development, a process which consti-
tutes the most critical period of infancy, and
which  shows at once their  extensive influ-
ence on the  constitution at large.
  The effects of those aches and pains that
then distress the Child excite a general de-
rangement of the whole machine; fever ac-
cedes, the functions in every part  are dis-
turbed, and the Brain not unfrequently suf-
fers by an attack of Convulsion.
  The Teeth are alone the cause  of this
dangerous attack  on health and existence;
and they display an influence no less  serious
at an after period of life  when they become
diseased.
  Hence, we should bear in mind the care
that ought to be taken of this important part
of our frame. 
33
  Nature, to guard the Teeth against dis-
ease, has placed them as extraneous bodies;
and it is  only from neglect in allowing their
structure to be acted upon by  what ought
to be removed, that  disease  occurs.   But
although nature has  guarded them thus far
against   the attacks of incidental disease,
she  has  deprived  them of that power  of
freeing   themselves  by their own  efforts,
which other organs possess, by a dense and
compact structure to fit them for  their me-
chanical use.
   But the healthy condition of the Teeth is
necessary  even to the perfect  exercise  of
our  senses,  in consequence  of  their con-
nexion with the nervous system.
   The  secretions  of the  mouth  furnish a
stimulus to the nerves, which excite the sen-
sation of taste, and  these form an intimate
communication with those of the organs of
hearing, of smell, and of vision.
   This  view  alone should establish the im-
portance of preserving the mouth and  its
                     5 
:>4
apparatus in a healthful condition, the better
to derive, through the use of our senses, the
full and perfect enjoyment of life from every
surrounding object presented to them.
  In a vitiated state of the mouth, where
the secretions are loaded with disease,  and
impregnated  with noxious  matter,  the  off
spring  of uncleanliness, the  general  feelings
are annoyed to such  a degree, that the indi-
vidual  is  often  in  a manner deranged.  In
that state, can the palate convey the proper
sensation of taste? Can the  olfactory nerves
receive  the  free  impression  of pleasing
odours, or the ear  be duly acted  on  by
sound ?
  Thus,  a want of cleanliness counteracts
the harmony of the system, by  which the
growth of a  child  is unprosperous,  and the
senses  do  not  receive  that full evolution
which  they would  have made, if not thus
restrained.
   Since  in  childhood  the first sufferings
begin, in childhood also the foundation of a 
35
good or bad constitution is laid.  Hence, as
these sufferings are in part unavoidable, it is
at this stage of life, in particular, that art, as
the assistant of nature,  (when  too  slow in
her operations) should  interfere  as far as
possible to alleviate them.  It is also at  this
critical time  that  the   greatest attention
should be paid to  the state of  the gums, to
mark the  protrusion of the Teeth, as well as
the after  change;  for it is only by knowing
the steps  and  order of their progress  that
proper aid can  be given to the efforts of
nature during the years  of childhood.
   So important is  the interference of art at
this time, that to judge  properly of its effect,
let us  compare two children from the time
of dentition, or  immediately after the  pro-
trusion of the front Teeth; in one of whom
a proper attention has been paid  to theis
cleanliness,  and the other  where  it is ne-
glected.   The  first  evidently enjoys   the
greatest advantage for securing comfort and
health, his organs will  receive  the  supplier 
36
of nourishment, duly prepared; his system
will  not  only be  thriving,  but the  deve-
lopment  of natural  attributes  and  bodily
strength, will gradually proceed to maturity.
He will possess sound health and an  active
frame, his mind unfolding with equal  ra-
pidity and perfection as his body.
  No disorder of the mouth will communi-
cate its distress to the other parts, and  ex-
cite sympathetic anguish.
  His mind, vigorous and active, will apply
with ardour to every study and pursuit suit-
able to his  years.  His  disposition will be
pleasant  and  cheerful, for he  has had  no
malady to contort his temper, or distress his
frame.
  Contrast this happy picture with that of a
child where  the Teeth  and Gums are dis-
eased from a want of cleanliness.
  The causes of pain  and irritation are
ever present,  and are increased by the in-
fluence of the tartar,  which gradually accu-
mulates on the Teeth, producing inflamma- 
37
tion of the  gums, and  even an  absorption
and destruction  of the alveolar  processes,
which  all provident  nature  intended for the
security of those  instruments.
  The consequences of this are,  occasional
severe fits  of Tooth-ach, swelled face, and
other marks  of indisposition, which by the
least  cold  lay  him  aside  for  weeks  and
months,  putting  a  stop to  every study and
pursuit.
  The body, instead of being gradually in-
creased and duly nourished, as in the other
instance, is here  puny and diminutive;  nay,
even rickety, deformed, and unsightly, upon
too many occasions.  The  mind, instead of
being active and  vigorous, is fretful, peevish.
and not alive to external impressions, owing
to continual irritation and pain.
  The most critical years of life, which are
intended to form the  mind, are  lost in a
struggle to  get the better  of indisposition,
brought on by neglect,  and nourished and
rendered permanent by the  same cause; for 
38
 it is an incontrovertible fact, that no child,
 with bad Teeth is ever healthy; and as this
 fact has been abundantly verified,  in my ex-
 perience,  the same cause will  prove a cer-
 tain excitement of whatever constitutional
 disease the system may be naturally predis-
 posed to.  Thus, diseases, which might have
 been dormant  without this baneful  cause,
 are  always ready to appear  in  children
 whose  Teeth are  bad, and  to  the  disgrace
 of their nurses, neglected ;  for little in  a
 habit predisposed will excite  the action of
 inbred  disease.
  " In  concluding this letter (on the Treat-
 ment of  Children,  says  Dr. Ewell)  I  feel
 some pain at the apprehension that I have
 not said enough to induce a strict adherence
 to  the  practices recommended.   I knew
 them to  be so  judicious, that  I  felt  as  if
 argument  were useless.   The subject is
 those,  of  whom  our  Christ  declared, ' of
 such is the  kingdom of heaven!' Ladies, if
 you  feel  as mothers,  if you  have  souls to
partake of the  heaven of  doing  good to
innocence in pain, you will not require long 
39
arguments to adopt practices promoting the
health of children.  I ask,  I pray you, if I
have not urged sufficiently to induce you to
do it; then,  as a  favour, as a kind compli-
ance, in return for the wish I have to serve,
immediately  prescribe."
  Thus  the proper treatment of the Teeth,
when properly considered,  forms the  foun-
dation  of  happiness;  First, as the  prime
si;--  zthener of the  constitution;  Secondly,
as X  grand means of extending the growth:
and, Thirdly, as the sure foundation of health
and  harmony in the system.    By care  of
the Teeth, and thereby avoiding  frequent
illnesses, directly  or  indirectly arising from
the neglect of them,  we are enabled  to un-
dertake those pursuits fitted to our age and
genius.   We may  thus economise time, and
apply life to every beneficial purpose.
  The possession of carious Teeth, besides
its effects  on the  temper  and  growth  of
childhood,  is liable to produce very serious
evils  at a more advanced period of life, by
giving to the air inhaled a putrid  taint  or 
40
impregnation,  which  being conveyed into
the lungs,  diminishes  the  benefits  of  its
otherwise healthful office.
  Indeed, it may  be regarded as an esta-
blished fact, that it is only by the  influence
of the living principle that the human frame
is prevented from yielding  to the powers of
a chymical agency constantly acting on it,
as on inanimate  substances.  But there are
certain parts to  which this living  principle
does not so strongly extend, and  here the
laws of Chymistry take full effect; the part
being subjected  to all these changes  which
heat and stagnation produce, and thus ex-
citing a fermentation in the matter subjected
to their operation, as is strongly marked in
the Teeth,  which  are,  as we  have  seen,
beyond the  reach of the circulation, since
they are exposed to accumulations from
what we eat and  drink; and the particles
of the  matter  so accumulated are  highly
disposed to morbid changes, deleterious to
the healthful state of these organs. 
41
  The  same  matter introduced  into  the
stomach,  which  thus acts  on the  Teeth,
would be harmless to that organ;—the con-
stant motion of its  contents, their  admix-
ture with a  variety of fluids, changing their
relations and  powers, and the strong influ-
ence of the living principle  on this viscus,
are counteracting circumstances which pre-
vent  all  injury  and  accumulation  here.
Thus we see it is not by any failure of the
natural  qualities  of the Teeth that their
premature decay is  occasioned.  This ma-
lady is alone to be attributed to the situa-
tion in  which they are  placed,  whereby
they are  exposed to the common fate  of
all  matter under  the influence of chymical
powers,  and  which  even  their  compact
structure cannot  resist,  unless those accu-
mulations be prevented, which finally con-
stitute  a  corroding  power  they cannot of
themselves oppose.
  From  these facts  we  may venture  to
assert,  that  soundness of constitution and
                    6 
                   42
duration  of life,  greatly depend upon  the
healthy condition of the mouth.
   All  these facts  are  important  reasons
then, for an early attention  to  the  Teeth,
and  the  natural organs  connected  with
them, for it is principally in childhood  that
the means of preserving them perfect  can
fully succeed before the evil commences.
  The preservation of the Teeth and Gums,
therefore, is one of the first objects to be
studied for insuring health and  strength.
  As they  form by nature,  a complete arch,
the removal of a Tooth destroys the even-
ness of the gum and the alveoli, diminishing
the strength of the  jaw, and proportionally
reducing the perfection of voice and articu-
lation.
  If the great distinctive  attribute  of man
be  the faculty of speech, that speech can
never  be complete or perfect, without two
arches of Teeth to  modulate the sound, and
give proper utterance to the words.  Indeed,
it is obvious  to every one, that when the 
43
Teeth are lost,  the speech becomes imper-
fect, and often scarcely intelligible.
  This circumstance makes  them valuable
beyond measure, to a public speaker,  and
their preservation  ought  to meet due atten-
tion from those  who wish to  shine either in
the Senate, at the  Bar, or in the Pulpit.
  Without these instruments of utterance,
the graces of eloquence  are  lost, and  the
power of  impressing  the mind, and con-
vincing the  understanding,  if not  taken
away, is considerably diminished.
  It is the premature loss of this part of the
human structure, that produces the leading
mark of age, and  occasions the contracted
countenance, the wrinkles of the face, and
those unseemly  changes  which youth and
beauty ever  wish  to see placed at  a  dis-
tance.
  This may  be  done in a certain  degree,
and the countenance exhibit  the great lines
of character  that  belong to it, by a proper
attention to the cleanliness and regularity of 
                   44
the Teeth.   No face, however pleasing and
prepossessing, can ever  be complete in its
attraction where the mouth is disfigured.
  However worthy of admiration by natural
symmetry,  or intelligence of character, a
still and silent countenance may be, we at
once  lose the grateful impression, when a
disclosure  of bad Teeth is made by  the
influence of any excitement.
  The circumstance either attaches disgrace
to the individual for present want of cleanli-
liness, or to its parents, or nurse, for past
neglect.  Even  the laugh, the test of good
Rumour  and openness which  invites to cor-
diality and confidence,  fails  to  produce  a
reciprocal  effect,  where we  are  disgusted
by a foul mouth.
   Nay,  from, the  very  form,  position,  and
cleanliness  of the Teeth, so far as depends
on the.  individual himself, may  be  justly
 inferred his taste in  other matters.  Hence,
 in order to win  that admiration which is the
 aatural  wish of every one, the care of the 
45
Teeth becomes  an essential  qualification,
and  ought to form an early branch  of edu-
cation, which  cannot be  too  forcibly im-
pressed on the minds of children.
   Independent  of  their  soundness,  as a
necessary appendage of external symmetry,
the Teeth are no less important, as has been
stated, to  the preservation of  the  general
health.   From their structure  being highly
sensible, and every where surrounded with
parts of equal sensibility, they communicate
every  impression of  their disease to the
system at large.  Thus, the first pains  that
undermine the constitution, and sow  the
seeds of  irreparable  mischief, may often
be  traced  to the  diseased  state  of the
Teeth when  unable to perform their natural
functions.
  So conspicuous is this with all animals in
a domesticated state, that the failure of their
Teeth may be considered as the very break-
ing up of  their constitution.  Unless fed on
soft food, where the use of the Teeth is less 
46
required,  their lives cannot be protracted.
In proof of the same fact, we  may adduce
the long lives of fowls, and other  animals,
having no Teeth are consequently not sub-
ject to any disease of the Mouth; a strong
corroboration of which, is also afforded by
the long lives of some kinds of fish.
   Thus the lives of animals as well as man,
seem by nature to  be in a considerable de-
gree regulated by the health and  perma-
nence  of the Mouth.  In the  Teeth of all
animals in a state of nature, we discover no
diseased structure or  deformity, and there-
fore we must ascribe it in the human sub-
ject to  fortuitous,  not constitutional or he^
reditary causes; for that  they are less de-
structible, than  any other part of the frame
is evident,  since,  in places where bodies
have  lain for centuries,  Teeth  are found
entire  and  sound, while the  other bones
crumble  to  dust;  a  sufficient proof that
disease is not naturally entailed  upon their
structure, but is. the effect of the  constant 
47
accumulation and action of offensive matter
upon them,  which operates by a putrid fer-
mentation on those parts unnoticed, before
the agonizing pain of a single Tooth calls
our attention to those adjoining; when we
are astonished,  as much as we are grieved,
to find many in a state of rapid decay.
   It may not be uninteresting  in  this place,
to notice the opinions of former writers re-
specting the cause  of caries,  or  diseases  of
the Teeth, some of which have been highly
detrimental to the interests of society, and
have led to a supineness, and even neglect
of this part of our frame, on no just or solid
foundation.
   The first opinion I  beg leave to mention,
is that  of Mr.  Hunter:  viz. that diseases of
the Teeth are, in part,  hereditary.  In  his
work on the Natural  History and  Diseases
of the  Teeth,  he thus  expresses  himself:
(page 140.)
   « This  decay of the Teeth does  not seem
to be so entirely the  effect  of accident  a^ 
48
might  be  imagined;   it sometimes takes
place in them by pairs,  in which case, we
may suppose it owing to an original cause,
coming into  action at  its  stated time,  the
corresponding  Teeth being  in pairs,  with
respect to the disease,  as well  as to situa-
tion, shape, &c.
  " This disease has not hitherto been ac-
counted  for.  If it had  been always on the
inside  of the cavity, it might have been sup-
posed to be owing to a deficiency of nourish-
ment, from some fault in the vascular system;
but as it begins most commonly externally,
in a part where the Teeth, in their  most
sound state, receive little or no nourishment,
we cannot refer it to that cause.
  " We may, therefore, reasonably suppose,
that it is a disease arising  originally in the
Tooth itself."*
  The fallacy of this opinion must be appa-
rent from the fact  we  have endeavoured to
establish, viz. that the Teeth,  in regard to
the other parts of the  system,  may  be  con-
sidered as extraneous  bodies  ;  and,  since
  * Natural History*of the Human Teeth ; by John Hunter.  Lon
don • printed 1800 
49
they cannot exfoliate or release themselves
from disease,  so, in the same manner,  the
other parts of the  system  under disease
cannot introduce into them the seeds of a
constitutional malady.
  The next opinion I beg leave to notice, is
that of Mr. Fox, which supposes a defect in
their original  formation, or that the Teeth
do  not possess sufficient stability and per-
manence for their intended functions.   Mr.
Fox thus expresses  himself.   (Page 12.)
  " The proximate  cause of Caries appears
to be,  an inflammation in  the bone of the
Crown of the Tooth,  which, on account of
its  peculiar structure, terminates  in morti-
fication.
  " The chief predisposition to this disease,
consists  in a defective formation  of either
the enamel or bony part of the Teeth.
  " The great distress  which  usually  ac-
companies,  and the  inconvenience which
always follows the loss of the Teeth, makes
the discovery of some  mode of prevention
6f caries very desirable.
                    7 
.jO
  " This delightful secret,  although  it  is
pretended to in the advertisements of every
Quack, we can only expect so acquire, when
the philosopher's stone, and the grand pa-
nacea have been obtained.
  " It is not in our power to alter the laws
of Nature, or change the natural constitution
of man, we can only obviate evils by attend-
ing to  the  causes which  produce them,
and  it is in this manner  we can, in a very
great measure,  preserve  the  Teeth from
disease."*
  The incorrectness  of this opinion, I  ex-
plained by the circumstance, that the Teeth
in their  structure, are more compact, than
any other kind of  bone, by their incasement
in the enamel; and as a proof of this, they
are found to survive  all the other parts of
the system,  an  evidence of  their  perma-
nence, and non-liability to decay.
  A third opinion, equally erroneous, is that
which  supposes  the Teeth  are acted upon
by  changes  of  temperature.    This is the
  * Natural History and Diseases of the Human Teeth, by Joseph
Fox. London, printed 1814. 
51
opinion of Mr. Hertz, as exemplified by the
following quotation-—(Page 37.)
  " Heat, to a certain degree, is highly de-
trimental to the vitality of the Teeth; hence
we find that those animals who live chiefly
on hot  food,  are most  subject  to  carious
Teeth.  Increased circulation in the gums,
whether the effect of mercury,  or  general
fever of the system, is also very injurious to
the Teeth;  and hence caries of  the Teeth,
are a common consequence of salivation and
inflammatory fever."*
  The  opinion of Mr. Fuller may  next be
quoted, being much the  same as  that of Mr.
Hunter, though  differently expressed.   He
supposes that an organic mischief is origin-
ally  implanted, during their formation, and
is finally the cause of their decay.
  Mr. Fuller  thus expresses himself: (Page
48.)
  V
  "  Caries,  or decay of the Teeth,  appears
to be the only disease to  which the Teeth
themselves,  strictly  speaking, are  subject.
  * Familiar Dissertation, on the Causes and Treatment of the
Diseases of the Teeth : by J. P Hertz.  London, printed 1815. 
52
By caries, is understood, a rotting, or mould-
ering  away of the substance of a Tooth.
Numerous causes have been assigned as the
origin  of  decay  in  the Teeth—such  as
scurvy,  heat of the stomach,  heat of the
mouth, nervous fever,  acidity of the saliva,
&c. none  of which appear sufficiently to
account for caries.
  " From the various causes assigned for it,
we may suppose it is not properly or gene-
rally understood;  not  from  want of ability,
in those who  have treated  on the subject,
but, probably, from an idea, that it does not
deserve so particular an investigation. This,
however, may readily be seen to be a mis-
take ;  for, as caries  frequently terminates
only by extraction of the offending Tooth,
and, as this is  at  all times a painful opera-
tion, persons on whose minors reason has its
proper  influence,  will more readily submit
to a severe remedy, when  they know it  is
the best the nature of  the case will possibly
admit;  nor, indeed, can a rational or satis-
factory practice be established, in any  in-
stance, without a complete knowledge  of
the subject, both  in its natural history and 
53
present state;  and, so  far as we are de-
fective in either, so far we must submit to
the dictates of chance, or, perhaps, be the
humble dupes of empiricism. From the care-
ful  attention to circumstances,  caries will
be  found not so  much the effect of chance,
as is generally imagined: it appears, almost
universally, to be an  organic mischief, im-
planted during the formation of the Teeth."*
  Mr. De Chemant, in  his work, candidly
acknowledges his ignorance of the cause of
caries,  and  thus very  properly  expresses
himself on the subject:  (Page 5.)
  " Of those  parts  which  enter into the
composition of a beautiful person, there can
be  no doubt, but that  the first place belongs
to  the Teeth  and  the Eyes;  and if  these
latter are denominated  the  mirror of the
soul, the Teeth  may  be considered  as the
thermometer  of health, and the principal
ornament of the face.  He who  should be
so  happy as to discover an infallible means
of always preserving them healthy and beau-
tiful, would certainly make a discovery in-
  »  Popular Essay on the Structure, Formation, and Management
of the Teeth ■ by Mr. Fuller, London, printed 1815. 
54
finitely more valuable to mankind, than that
which is now offered  to the public:  then,
the number of evils which precede, accom-
pany,  or follow,  the  loss  of  the natural
Teeth, would disappear from the catalogue
of complaints which afflict the human race.
But, unhappily, all the  researches that have
been  made on this subject, have  hitherto
remained fruitless, because, in the present
state of our knowledge, we cannot foresee
the disorganization of the  Teeth."*
  Mr.  Murphy  only states the  fact,  and
gives a history of its progress, in the follow-
ing words:  (Page 76.)
  " No medicine  has  yet been discovered,
which will prevent caries of the  Teeth, or
which will effectually operate as a cure, nor
is the cause from  which it originates, posi-
tively ascertained.
  " As  caries  is  liable to commence  on
every part of a Tooth, except the fangs, it
sometimes begins  on  parts  of the Teeth
which are difficult to  get at,  in  order to
  * Advice to Mothers and Nurses, on the Prevention and Cure of
(hose Diseases which attend the first Dentition: by N. De Chemant
t-ondon. printed 1816 
55.
apply any thing to arrest its progress; such
as on the sides of the necks, or on the sides
of the bodies of such Teeth as are in close
contact with a neighbouring Tooth.
  " The molares are much more subject to
decay, than any of the other Teeth.'"
  Some other  authors  (for  example,  the
Chevalier Ruspini and Son) ascribe caries
to many causes,  as expressed  in the follow-
ing quotations: (Page 55.)
  " Various  are the  species  of  caries; al-
most every part of the Teeth  is affected by
it, and  both  internal and external causes
produce it.  A caries, may be divided into
soft, superficial, deep, and dry:   it  attacks
the root the neck, or the crown, of the Teeth.
  " The Caries that  proceeds from internal
causes, namely,   the  scurvy,  &c.  generally
affects the root of the Tooth, often the in-
ternal surface, sometimes the  external, and
even the inward cavity of the  body."f
 * Natural History of the Human Teeth, with a Treatise on their
Diseases, from Infancy to Old Age : by Joseph Murphy.  London,
printed 1811.
 t Treatise on the Teeth : by Barth Ruspini  London, print-
ed 1784. 
56
   " When we reflect on the important pui**
poses which the  Teeth  are  destined  to
serve in the animal economy, we cannot but
regret their  premature destruction, arising
from various diseases in the Teeth and the
adjoining parts, by which these useful agents
are  rendered  unserviceable, or,  perhaps,
totally lost.  Many of these diseases are pro-
duced by the carelessness  and inattention
of the individual, and  might be easily pre-
vented; or when  the disease has commen-
ced, if proper assistance were  called, in
due time,  it might be easily removed."*
  Mr. Wooffendale's opinion for the imper-
fect appearances  of the Teeth, is  thus de-
livered :
  " These indentures and yellow marks of
the human Teeth  are more common at this
period, than formerly; to account for which,
I have been at some pains,  and,  I believe,
my endeavours  have not been  in vain, to
ascertain a cause.
  " I have frequently seen these marks  on
both  the  first and  second  sets  of Teeth,
  * Observations on the Teeth : by J. B. Ruspini.  London, print-
ed 1816.—(Page 3.) 
57
which  causes me  to  suspect such children
have had the small pox twice."*
  Mr.  Gerbeaux,  of Paris, thus  expresses
his opinion :  (Page 54.)
  " People who inhabit marshy,  cold, and
moist countries, have rarely fine Teeth.
  " If, to this unfavourable local  situation,
are superadded the use of the pipe and the
habit of chewing  tobacco, the  Teeth  com-
monly become of  a yellowish brown colour,
deformed  and shaking; the gums  get dis-
eased, and the toute ensemble of the mouth
offers the most diagreeable appearance.
  " It ought, therefore, perhaps,  to be  re*-
marked, that diseased  Teeth, among many
individuals,  originate in an organic dispo-
sition, which may be transmitted heredita-
rily from fathers to their child ren."f
  However  climate  or  temperature  may
act on the soft  parts  of  the body, it can
never produce any permanent  change on
the Teeth.  Its influence can  only extend
to the surrounding parts, and may give rise
  * Observations on the Teeth : by Mr. Wooffendale. Printed 1783
  t Observations on the most frequent Diseasos incidental to the
Mouth, &c. he. &c. by Gerbeaux.  Printed 1802.
                     8 
JH
 to  inflammation*  which  would  only  affect
 the Teeth as a remote cause, and not ex-
 cite any primary action upon them.
  The last opinion  to  be animadverted
 upon,  is  that of Mr. BeW, in his  recent
 work,  as  containing  a doctrine dangerous
 in the extreme,  as  far  as  it  regards  the
 management of  the  Teeth;  being  that
 which  considers  the  origin of their dis-
 eases,  particularly caries,   as  arising from
 lateral pressure of the Teeth on each other.
 On  this subject,  he  expresses himself as
 follows: (Page 22.)
  " In offering this portion  of my  opinion
 on the maladies incidental  to the Teeth, I
 am  well  aware, that,  by rending the veil
from a treatment I have  long contemplated
in theory,  and reduced  to  practice, with
 the  happiest success,  during  many years,
I tread on ground untrodden  before,  and
offer a wide field for  the contemplation of
the  philosopher, in the anatomy and patho-
logy of these organs  of mastication.   All
will  be open to their investigation;  and 
59
should  I, in the  scale  of their  more pro-
found inquiry,  be 4 tried and found wanting
in the  balance,' the success of the practice
will  plead  my apology  for the  crime of
innovation;  and, by having  drawn wiser
heads  than my own  to the consideration,
4 a good end  may be gained  to  a bad be-
ginning;' but  should the theory, through
their analization, like pure gold come forth
from the furnace,  neither wanting  in weight
nor value, my rejoiced spirit ' shall applaud
to the  very  echo that shall applaud again,'
the happy thought which led  to  the pro-
mulgation.
  " To those who only casually  glance at
the  Teeth   primary  or  permanent,  with
healthy gums, fitly arranged in their several
sockets, for  the  purposes of  mastication,
aided by the conviction  of sight and feeling,
that they are the hardest substances in our
system, how inexplicable and irreconcilable
to credibility must it appear, that these very
hard substances,  with their flinty coatings,
date their destruction from completion,  by
lateral pressure against each other V'
 * Opinions on the Causes and Effects of Diseases in the Teeth
and Gums : by Charles Bew. London, printed 1819. 
60
  This  opinion or discovery,  however  im~>
portant in the author's  mind, who supposes
that nature acts, with regard to  the Teeth,
in a different manner  from what she does
in any other part of the system,  by extend-
ing their growth  beyond  due  bounds, is
certainly  incorrect:  if this does not  take
place in the soft parts,  capable  of  an  easy
extension,  surely  it is not likely  to  take
place in the hardest.   The doctrine is  con-
trary to  the laws  of the animal economy;
and, wherever the  circumstance appears,
it may  be considered  as a deviation  from
the ordinary course of nature.
  Caries  begins  most  frequently between
the  Teeth, because  the  accumulation of
the morbid matter, where  it is most readily
detained and allowed to act, has full liberty
to exert its influence,  owing to its not being
duly removed, or prevented from collecting
and accreting.  Mr.  Bew, therefore,   only
mistakes the cause, though  correct in regard
to the most frequent seat of disease, in the
greater  number of instances. 
61
  Extract  from  the  Medico  Chirurgical
Journal; or, London Medical and  Surgical
Review, April, 1820.
  " The importance which is  now attach-
ed by  the  public  to  dental pathology, is
sufficiently  evinced by the  great  segrega-
tion  from the body of the profession, and
the concentration  of talent and respecta-
bility in this exclusive line of practice.
   "The general expression of public feeling
would  appear to indicate that  division of
labour in the medical, as well as in every
other  art,  tends to accelerate  its progress
towards perfection.   The senses  of sight
and  hearing are  now  separately  studied,
and the diseases of  them claimed  by their
respective cultivators; and it is highly pro-
bable that, ere a century elapses,  we shall
 have the stomach, the lungs, the liver, the
 kidneys, and the brain, each the foundation
 of a distinct professorship, at  least in the
 metropolis and the larger cities of the  em-
 pire.   Yet, when we consider how  intimate-
 ly the various internal organs are associa-
 ted  in function, and how  necessary it is,
 that the whole  body should  be  carefully
 studied,  in order  to comprehend  the struc- 
62
 ture and  office  of a part, we are induced
 to discountenance  this system of exclusive
 organology, since we are confident  that it
 opens a wide field  for the exercise of that
 wretched practice oidemi charlatanism which
 is  the  disgrace,  the  bane,  and almost  the
 ruin  of our science !  We have seen  so
 much of this in  our professional pilgrimage,
 especially in private practice, that we shall
 take  an  early  opportunity  of introducing
 some severe, but, we hope, just  strictures
 on certain  disingenuous  manoeuvres,   too
 often employed  by men  who  ought  to  re-
 member the dignity  of  the  science they
 profess.  These  remarks  are  not  levelled
 against any particular class of practitioners,
 but against  the  trick of trade, wherever it
 exists,  and  by  whomsoever practised.  In
 short,  we  consider that a  neglect of the
 almost divine precept conveyed in the motto
 of our Journal,*  is the worst  evil existing
 in the medical profession, and that which
 stands in the greatest  need of reform.  But
more of this hereafter.
  " We believe with Mr. Bell, that the vital
organization of the  Teeth  is  a  generally
   * "Nee tibi quid liceat sed quid fecisse decebit
    "Occurrat mentemque domat respectus bonesti." Claus, 
63
received  doctrine  among those physiolo-
gists who have paid most attention  to  the
subject."  " Yet,  as we very frequently see
caries  in two  contiguous Teeth, it is  de-
sirable  that  the  circumstance  should  be
accounted for."
  " Mr.  Parmly,  an ingenious and  expert
Dentist,  of this metropolis, maintains, in his
work and lectures  on the Teeth, that ex-
ternal  agents are the principal causes of
decay;  and his  apparatus for removing
all  impurities from their  surface, we have
found extremely useful, and can, therefore,
recommend it."
  I trust it is now sufficiently evident, that
the premature decay  of  the Teeth, is the
consequence of uncleanliness, which acts
upon them in the same manner as on other
parts, by sapping  and corroding the  vital
energy,  and   thereby causing them  to
moulder away.
  Where the Teeth are kept literally clean,
no disease will ever be perceptible.  Their
structure will equally stand the summer's
heat and  winter's   cold,  the  changes  of 
64
climate, the variation of diet, and even the
diseases to  which the other parts of the
body  may  be subject from constitutional
causes.  The opinions I have now suggest-
ed, on this important subject, are founded
on practical experience.
  If, then,  health can be improved and dis-
ease averted, by means so easy and simple,
if the growth of the body and the enjoyment
of life and comfort can be so materially pro-
moted in  like manner;  if the symmetry of
the countenance, the improvement  of  the
voice, and a more complete enunciation can
also be effected by means  so easily attain-
able,  who would not be tempted steadily to
adopt this plan, thereby establishing in their
highest perfection, a mind  unfettered by
constant sources of  irritation, and  a body
impervious to those tortures, which, with all
the vigour of electric shocks, are  darted
through the medium of the nervous system,
from one disordered spot to the remotest part
of the frame, distressing in childhood, mise-
rable in youth,  and  agonising in manhood, 
6,1
LECTURE THIRD.
  After the considerations which have been
offered  in the preceding pages,  it may be
interesting to know, that by judicious treat-
ment, innumerable inconveniences attendant
on dentition, may be obviated in the begin-
ning of life,  and imperfections remedied at
a more advanced period, by the appropriate
operations of a skilful and discriminating
Dentist.
  The protrusion of the Teeth, or what is
usually  termed  dentition,  is an  effort  in
which nature has many struggles  for effect-
ing  the  absorption  of the  investing  mem-
brane, the alveolar processes, and the gum,
to make way for their passage, and establish
                   9 
                   66
their final character.  By these efforts, they
sometimes advance too rapidly, which occa-
sions a strong tension and pressure on the
membrane and gum,  and produces pain and
irritation in the surrounding parts.
  In order to prevent  these  sufferings,  the
Gum should be daily rubbed with the finger
and  a  little fine salt, for several weeks be-
fore  the Teeth appear, and as soon as they
are perfected, the strictest attention should
be paid to cleaning them with the apparatus
which has been recommended in this work.
  But where these unpleasant circumstances
have already taken place for want of due
precaution, an early recourse to the lancet
is the safest expedient, and the  only one  to
 be depended on, for removing every  dis-
 tressing and dangerous symptom, with which
 dentition may be attended.
   It is further to be remembered, that  dur-
 ing  dentition a  more than  usual attention
 should be paid to  the state  of a child's sto-
 mach, and alimentary canal, the particulars 
67
of which rest more with the Physician than
the Dentist.
  Practice and experience will render easy
of use,  the apparatus I  have devised, and
which, without arrogating too much credit
to myself,  I may pronounce more effective
than any which has yet  been offered to the
world; and its simplicity enhances its value.
If constantly used, the accumulation of tartar
is obviated, and  the  lodgment  of all offen-
sive matter prevented.
  Instead of this simple manual operation
for the removal  of tartar,  many  dentists
have employed chymical solvents, without
considering that  in proportion as they re-
move the  tartar, they must,  at  the same
time,  act on the enamel itself; for since the
tartar contains phosphate  of lime, as  well
as  the enamel, whatever tends to destroy
the one  in its more loose state, must also
tend, if not to destroy, greatly to injure the
texture of the other.  Such means, there-
fore,  though apparently  simple, are to \)e 
68
strongly condemned, and no judicious prac-
titioner will  ever venture  on  the use  of
them.
  In the removal of tartar, the  benefit to
the Teeth arises chiefly from the  particular
situation it has occupied.
  If it collect in the interstices of the Teeth,
or round their necks, it is here that it chiefly
does mischief, by destroying the  connexion
between the  Tooth  and Gum, and finally
occasioning the loss of the former.
  A quantity of tartar  collected on  the
crown of a Tooth is unsightly, and spoils its
natural character, although it does no injury
to its texture;  on the contrary,  it forms a
sort of protection to it: hence caries  can
never attack the crown of a Tooth so de-
fended, but when this covering is removed,
and the same neglect goes on as before, the
Tooth is more prone  to rapid decay than if
the tartar had  never been  removed.   This
circumstance, which is undeniable, has been
urged  as  a strong reason  against the re- 
69
moval  of tartar; but it would certainly be
a poor excuse foe allowing our bodies to be
covered  with filth, to  maintain that it may
tend to keep us warm.
  The best  effects will always attend the
removal  of this noxious accretion, if once
properly and carefully performed,  and  a
system of cleanliness afterwards persevered
in, will supersede any future necessity for
the operation, and may be completely ef-
fected  by the constant  use of the apparatus
under consideration.
  I shall now proceed  to consider another
operation,  which  has  been  much abused,
and is more general than any other among
practical Dentists—I mean the extraction of
Teeth, an operation which cannot fail justly
to create  some alarm when  the circum-
stances attending it are considered.  We
know that,  in the hands of the  most dex-
terous  operators, it has sometimes been at-
tended with serious, nay, even fatal conse-
quences; and therefore it should be avoided 
70
wherever  in  our power, instead of being
adopted, as too often happens, in the first in-
stance.  There is, perhaps, a greater share ot
manual dexterity necessary in performing it
than is generally imagined, to prevent frac-
turing that portion of the socket where the
fang is situated,  and if the alveolar process
is uncommonly firm, and does  not yield to
the force of the instrument directed against
it, the fracture  will extend a considerable
way into the jaw, and the effects of it may
injure the  patient for life.  The operation is
sometimes  followed  by a  most dangerous
hemorrhage, which, in many cases, has de-
fied every effort of the most  experienced
Surgeons.   Nor  is the profuse loss of blood
the  only frightful cause of death  from the
difficult extraction of a Tooth, for the fatal
event has often been occasioned by nervous
exhaustion from the operation,  when no un-
usual loss of blood has occurred.
  As these  consequences  can never  be
foreseen,  and depend on the size,  situation j 
71
and form  of the  Tooth, the distribution of
the blood vessels and nerves,  and certain
peculiarities  in  the habit  of  the patient,
this  operation  of extracting should  never
be performed needlessly, or trusted to the
hands of the  rash and uninstructed. Indeed,
I would  limit   its exercise either  to the
preventing or remedying irregularity in the
arrangement of the permanent or  second
set of  Teeth,   and to  some  peculiar  in-
stances of disease in the  Maxillary Sinus,
or  to  Teeth having ulcerated fangs.  In
all  other  cases,  it is  objectionable, what-
ever pain  the  patient  may feel,  and  how-
ever ready he may be to submit to such a
measure.
  Whenever extraction becomes necessary,
I have made it  a rule to perform it in a
different manner from that  generally adopt-
ed,  so as  to  avoid  the  fracture  of the
socket,  and thus  evade  any  dangerous
consequences that  may attend  it.
   In  support of the  justice of  my  argil* 
72
 merits against this operation, I will explain
 the common method of extracting with the
 instrument in general use.
   Previous to fixing the  key, or claw,  as
 it is termed, it is common  to separate the
 connexion  between the Tooth  and  Gum,
 with a  common  lancet;  after which,  the
 fulcrum  of the   instrument,  resting  upon
 the socket on one  side, and its  claw, em-
 bracing the Tooth,  on the other,  while one
 hand  of the Operator keeps it in this situa-
 tion, his other hand, applied to the handle,
 turns  it  round,  thus  raising  and drawing
 laterally the diseased Tooth, which makes
 part of the socket  to give way.
  On  the removal of the Tooth, the soft
 parts  are  brought  together,  attention  to
avoid  the effects  of cold is enjoined, and
nature is allowed  to repair the injury which
 the jaw or socket has sustained.
  The consequences which  I have shown
 to follow this operation  will, I hope,  deter
 every person from  submitting to  it,  unless 
73
where it is pronounced eligible by a skilful
Dentist.
  It forms, however, a chief part of the bu-
siness of all  the low and  uneducated prac-
titioners, more fitly ycleped Tooth Drawers,
throughout the world;  and the success of
their practice is generally estimated by the
number of Teeth  displayed either in their
windows or travelling boxes, for captivating
Hie vulgar; many of these mouldering trea-
sures having  descended from  generation to
generation with the  family talent for Tooth
drawing,  and  being of  course  carefully
cleared of the  frightful  portions of bone
which  have  been torn  with them,  in one
common mass, from the jaw of the sufferer,
While no recopds are kept of  the ulcerated
Gums  which long  existed after these in-
juries;  nor  of the  numerous splinters  of
bone, which, far many months after,  tor-
mented the  patient,  by forcing their  way
through the  soft parts  of the mouth; nor
of the sponginess and fungous  excrescence?
                   10 
74
of the  cheek,  or jaw-bones, which have
dragged down youth and vigour to  a pre-
mature grave, constituting sacrifices  to ig-
norance and brutality,  and warnings of the
dangers of impatience.
  This  picture,  which   is  by  no  means
heightened,  will, I hope,  impress the impor-
tance and  necessity of  early attention to
preserving the Teeth and Gums in their ori-
ginal and healthy condition,  that the  danger
of their loss, by extraction, may be avoided ;
and that all the painful  circumstances pre-
ceding this event, may not be an inducement
to submit,  without reflection, to  so  harsh
and severe a measure.
  Having shown  that I consider  the  extrac-
tion  of  Teeth  eligible to  a  very  limited
extent only, from the dangerous consequen-
ces attending it, I have now to speak of an
operation, intended to supersede extraction,
which may  be termed mending  or capping
carious  Teeth—an  operation which  I have
found uniformly successful;  and  it must be 
75
consolatory to know, that diseased or ca-
rious  Teeth  may  be completely  repaired
and retained by judicious treatment.
  The operation is performed with such ex-
actness as entirely to escape  detection.—
Thus,  the same  Teeth which another prac-
titioner would  have removed,  are, by my
plan, rendered useful and ornamental through
life, and the several diseases prevented which
arise from imperfect  mastication.  This ope-
ration  I  conceived  at first  would only be
successful in a  few  cases; but much expe-
rience enables  me now to perform  it with
complete success,  in situations where it did
not then appear practicable.  It is of con-
sequence, however,  that as soon as a Tooth
is discovered to  be carious,  this remedy
should be resorted  to without delay.  The
progress of decay will  thus be immediately
checked, and all  the accompanying  symp-
toms of pain, irritation, and tainted breath,
suspended.  Previous to performing it, how-
ever,  if an inflammatory state  of the Gums 
                   76
prevail,  it should be  allowed to subside^
and it may, in the mean  time, be lessened
or removed by an application to the cavity
of the Tooth of some powerful aromatic
and sedative  combination.
  To such perfection  have I carried the
mode of  operating, in  these cases,  that
even  where  the  whole crown of a Tooth
is entirely gone,  the  deficiency may  be
supplied,  in  a permanent manner,  without
employing the common  means,  either  of
metallic matter, or of ligature, as is usual
with Dentists.

          ARTIFICIAL  TEETH.

   If the  Teeth are of importance  to  our
 health  and  attributes, at  every period of
 life, their premature loss  demands a remedy,
 since the expression of  the countenance is
 thereby changed, the process of mastication
 rendered imperfect, and  distinct enunciatiori
  entirely  obviated.   The mouth is  not  the 
'77
only feature of "which the Symmetry is  de-
stroyed by loss of the Teeth;  for all  the
others participate  in the failure of support
which these organs furnished.  The margins
of the Gums become flattened, ahd the roof
of the mouth daily less arched.  The nose
loses its support; the  fall  beneath the fore-
head is lengthened ;  the upper  jaw  and
cheek form a concavity;  the  lower  jaw is
draWn Upwards, and the lips inwards.  The
principal muscles  of  the  face having their
fibres  placed hearty  at right angles with
the  mouth,  occasion  the  two latter altera-
tions, Whilst wrinkles  are contracted over
the  whole countenance,  in various direc-
tions, by the remaining muscles, owing -en-
tirely  to the want of that support which
the  Teeth afforded.
   The necessity for,  and the  advantage of.
Artificial Teeth, is,  therefore, So obvious,
as to stand in need 01 no further argument.
   My present •object will be, to show that
my peculiar mode of supplying  this  defect 
78
is preferable to any  at  present known  or
practised, in point of appearance,  personal
convenience, and real service.
  The substance of which they are formed,
is of the most  durable  texture,  and  such
as may be  depended on for  not  changing
colour,  so  that their natural character is
maintained  to  the last.   On no part of the
dental art  has  so much  ingenuity and real
labour  been bestowed,  without  complete
success, as on  this; and  its perfection con-
sists in the Teeth being exactly adapted to
the mouth, and worn at the same  time with
perfect convenience to the individual.
   The  chief difficulty of  Dentists has  hi-
therto existed  in their mode of supporting
Artificial Teeth, which has been  by means
 of ligatures,  or springs,  attached to  the
 natural Teeth, or, by a pivot, to the fang
 of a  lost Tooth.
   Ligatures are sure  to loosen the adjacent
 Teeth, and the pivot soon wears away the
 fang.  Thus, the artificial crown becoming 
79
loose,  it drops out, and, besides inconve-
nience to the possessor,  often gives  rise to
very ludicrous occurrences.
  Further:  this awkward contrivance,  by
allowing a  lodgment of  particles of food,
occasions  the  breath  to receive  a  taint
unpleasant  to  the  individual,  as well as
those who  are near him.  For  these rea-
sons,  I have, for  many years,  abandoned
this objectionable practice, and am  able to
secure  Artificial  Teeth,  without any  un-
pleasant expedients.  The method  is  en-
tirely  new,  and every  one who witnesses
its advantages, will acknowledge the merits
of it.
  When the Teeth in each jaw are nearly
all  lost, it  is  necessary that an artificial
socket should be formed  for their insertion,
by taking a  mould  of their  risings and  de-
pressions, and every point along the  surface
of the jaw.
  If accurately fitted,  speech  and  masti-
cation will  be properly exercised,  and no 
m
sort of inconvenience experienced by  the
wearer.
  Where, however, from irregularity of the
jaw, surfaces  are  not adapted minutely to
each other, it  may be supported by springs,
to which habit soon reconciles the wearer,
the parts acquiring,  with  time, a  decrease
of sensibility,  and no uneasiness is felt.
  Artificial  Teeth have been  objected to
chiefly on account of their colour differing  r
from, that of the human Teeth; but this has
been  caused,  in  a great  measure, by  the
unfitness of the substances from which they
have been formed.  The material generally
preferred has  been the Tooth of the Hip-
popotamus, which possesses durability  and
fine enamel,  but  too  much  whiteness for
the natural  character  of the human Teeth.
These, however, are preferable, but a strong
popular prejudice prevails against the use
of them, from an idea that various diseases
may be introduced into the system by such
means.  To obviate  objections ©f this kind. 
81
I have had recourse to a safe  and durable
substitute, equal, by its several advantages,
to the human Teeth, in those of certain
Quadrupeds  smaller  than the Hippopota-
mus, and  possessing,  at the same time, a
finer enamel.
  A successful practice of many years sets
the superiority  of  this method beyond a
doubt, and  its  value  will be  best appre-
ciated by comparison with  the  practice
commonly adopted.
  Besides the substances alluded  to, Arti-
ficial  Teeth have been formed of  what has
been  termed " Mineral Paste," which is a
substance similar to fine porcelain; and it
is impossible, in this place, that I  can  pass
unnoticed the very extraordinary degree of
perfection to  which  this  curious  art  has
lately been brought, by the merits and ex-
ertions of Mons. Maury, of Paris,  who  has
succeeded  in  imitating nature  with  an  ex-
actness of which no  language  can convey
an adequate  idea.
                   11 
82
  An operation, long since devised by the
late Mr. Hunter, is now entirely laid aside.
namely, that of transplanting human Teeth.
It consists in extracting the diseased Tooth,
and substituting another in its place.  The
operation  is  extremely  limited,  being con-
fined to only the front Teeth,  or those hav-
ing single fangs.
  With a view to success,  the Tooth to
be substituted  must be instantly transferred
from the mouth of the  individual who sub-
mits to the sacrifice, to its intended situation,
and  there properly fixed  until  it  acquires
a firm position in the socket.   The failure
of this operation in the greater number of
cases,  has occasioned it to be laid aside,
as the adhesion of the Tooth, in its proper
situation,  depends on a variety of  minute
circumstances; for example, the substituted
Tooth must be rather smaller than the one
extracted.   The extractibn also must be so
carefully made, as not  to  produce any ma-
terial injury to the socket; and, lastly, both 
83
parties must be  of  a healthy  constitution,
that the process of healing or adhesion may
readily take place.  Hence, after undergoing
this painful operation, and submitting to the
penance of a fluid regimen for some weeks, it
has too often proved unsuccessful, and cases
are notorious,  in which,  after it has been
considered successful, very grievous diseases
have been introduced into the system.
  Experience has now fully proved, that the
duration of these Teeth is limited to a very
few years.  In favour of the operation, how-
ever,  Mr. Hunter has adduced a variety of
arguments to show,  that disease  cannot  be
inoculated into  the  system by such means;
but facts  are not wanting to prove the  re-
verse,  and any explanation on the principle
of common irritation, to account for its nu-
merous varied and even fatal consequences,
cannot do away the  just and well grounded
prejudice that  attaches to this practice.
  It was, notwithstanding, an ingenious spe-
culation   on  the part of Mr. Hunter, and 
84
showed what the powers of the system are
capable of doing in the  reparation of disor-
ganized parts.

OF IRREGULARITY OF THE TEETH.

  In the preceding pages, it has been my
strong  recommendation, that particular  at-
tention should be paid to the period of shed-
ding the Teeth, or that when the first  set
begin to give way, and the second come
forward to fill  their places.  The want  of
this attention is the great cause  why irre-
gularities of the Teeth,  and  consequent de-
formity of the mouth, are apt to take place;
a, circumstance which may always be pre-
vented, if parents were sufficiently informed
on the subject.
  The regular inspection of the Dentist,  at
the critical  period of shedding, will save
this  inconvenience, and its disgusting ap-
pearance.  Until deformity is conspicuous
from this  cause, it is seldom that  profes- 
85
sional  aid  is called, and  this is frequently
delayed so long that it is a matter of diffi-
culty, and  even more commonly of impos-
sibility, to  rectify  the  fault.
  To give  examples of these irregularities,
we may observe, that, where  the permanent
Teeth are  large, and the  growth of the jaw
does  not proceed  in a corresponding pro-
portion, they are found to crowd and over-
lap each other.  It is then observable, that
the central incisores of the upper jaw  are
often so pressed forward, and  show such
prominence, as to  render  the mouth of the
person  more  like  that of a  quadruped in
shape than that of the highest subject of
animal nature.  Wherever the space of the
jaw appears too much confined, and does not
allow a regular arrangement of the Teeth,
one or more ought to be removed to give
room for their expansion.  This should be
done before the fangs are formed, and  one
or more  of the bicuspides may, with incal-
culable advantage,  become  a  sacrifice on 
8ti
this  occasion.  When  the bicuspides are
removed, the front  Teeth must  be forced,
in a gradual manner, into their natural si-
tuation. If early attended to, the occasional
pressure of the thumb and finger will be
sufficient to place them  properly;  and all
instruments  to  produce  a continued pres-
sure,  as recommended by Mr. Fox,  and
others,  should  be avoided.
  Wherever  supernumerary   Teeth  exist,
they cause an irregular cavity, by  confining
the space of the jaw.   Such  Teeth are of
a deformed  shape,  and  protrude generally
in the  upper jaw.   If within,  they show
themselves  in  front,  and if  without,  near
the molares; being  always conspicuous, and
making a disagreeable  appearance,  they
should, as soon as possible, be extracted.
   A species of irregularity may be properly
noticed in this place,  being one that  most
frequently occurs to disfigure  the character
of the Teeth ;  namely,  that  of one being
longer than the other, or where they pre- 
87
sent ragged edges.  In this way, the  front
Teeth are often so irregular as to resemble
the edge of a saw.
  The consequence of this species of irre-
gularity is,  much irritation and even inflam-
mation of those parts which come in con-
tact with their serrated  edges;  and  the
defect should  be remedied by the Dentist,
since  it  is  easily  done,  without any un-
pleasant  sensation; and  I have materially
improved the  instruments which are appli-
cable  to  such purposes.
  This operation  is  highly  useful  to  the
preservation of  the Teeth,  by its prevent-
ing any  further cracking or  separation of
the  enamel,  besides  its  improving  their
shape.  A  prejudice  has long  prevailed
against the operation, from an idea that the
removal of part of the enamel  is followed
by  a  decay of  the Teeth; but such will
never  take  place,  provided the  cavity re-
mains untouched, even if  a large portion of
the Tooth  be removed ;  and the truth of 
88
this assertion is evident, where  the  enamel
suffers from  accident,  or  is removed  by
filing, in order to take  away a carious part.
Nay,  it  is  a practice with  many  of the
Eastern nations,  to file away considerable
parts  of Teeth,  in order to give them a
particular shape;  and wherever they  do
not interfere with the cavity of a Tooth, its
health and soundness  are unimpaired.  In
fact,  the prejudice against  this  operation
arises more from the unpleasant manner in
which it is commonly done,  than from dan*
ger of  its  consequences.  By   a method,
peculiar  to myself, I have the  satisfaction
to state, that no one has experienced either
inconvenience or pain from it.

  OF  FRACTURES OF THE  TEETH.

  As  the Teeth  stand  in a  prominent and
exposed  situation,  they  are as liable to
injury by accident as bones in  other parts
of the body.  They  are  frequently  driven 
89
out by pugilistic exercises, by boys in their
quarrels, by balls in the field of battle, and
various other  causes.  Convulsive  attacks,
the grinding  our Teeth  in  unsound sleep,
and even mastication,  will produce partial
fracture, where they are not in the  best
condition; the extent  of the injury must,
of course, regulate the treatment.
  Where the fracture only affects the point
of a  Tooth,  a  file  will soon  smooth  the
surface, and render it uniform.
  The management of more serious acci-
dents must be regulated by their  nature
and extent: and the ingenuity of the Den-
tist will be shown in repairing the defects,
without any unseemly appearance or injury
to the speech; upon which  circumstances
the perfection of his art will depend.

   OF CRACKS OF THE  ENAMEL.

  This disease seems to  arise from the too
frequent  and violent action  of the rutting
                   12 
■  90
edges of the Teeth upon each other, and is
confined principally to  the incisores.
  The loss of the back Teeth is in a great
measure the  occasion  of it, by rendering
the act of mastication to depend chiefly on
the incisores.  The  appearance they thus
assume  is something like  caries, but it is
caused only by the enamel parting from the
bone, and extends no farther than the outer
surface, being neither attended with inflam-
mation,  or any degree  of softness.
  The remedy here is to cut away the dis-
figured part, and leave  the edges somewhat
rounded.
  The Teeth, like other kinds of bone, are
at times apt  to  waste away by  exposure.
This waste begins by attacking the enamel,
where a small portion appears as if scooped
out or filed away. This, for want of a more
definite term, is called the denuding process.
  As it  increases, the bone is laid  bare, and
the Tooth becomes discoloured, taking on
a brownish hue, and  appearing  still smooth 
91
and polished,  in  which state  it will often
continue for years.  By  this process some
Teeth have the anterior part of their enamel
entirely removed, and the bony part remains
prominent, but still without any exposure of
the natural cavity.  At the same time, how-
ever, in consequence of their wanting a part
of their natural investment, the Teeth be-
come tender in their sensation, and  are in-
fluenced by every change of atmospheric
temperature.   From my  own  experience, I
have been led to believe, that this disease,
with very few exceptions, is  produced by
the use of lotions and other applications, of
which  acids form a principal part, and the
opinion may be regarded as one which gives
considerable weight to my perfect  convic-
tion, that the  most simple plan of treating
the Teeth, in  their natural state, is the most
eligible; or, in other words, that benefit is
alone to be expected from a strict and rigid
observance of cleanliness. 
92
     WEARING  OF  THE TEETH.

  Though  the  Teeth, from  their natural
structure, are much stronger and more com-
pact than any other kind of bone, yet, from
their exercise in mastication, and the fric-
tion  which occurs from other movements,
to say nothing of the chymical influence of
food, they experience considerable mecha-
nical alterations, and,  in part, are literally
worn away, as is particularly instanced when
the cutting edges of  the  incisores  of  the
upper jaw meet the corresponding ones of
the under jawr, instead of overlapping them
as they ought to  do.
  Where the back Teeth are decayed or
lost, this process  sometimes  takes place to
such an extent, that  the  whole crown of
each Tooth is worn  away; and where the
mischief is not so  extensive,  the Teeth are
rendered morbidly sensible,  and  at times
give much pain, which, however, is  gradu- 
93
ally lessened as ossific matter becomes de-
posited in  the  natural cavities.
  If the deposition of  indurating matter
take place  favourably, the Tooth  acquires
a firmness of structure nearly equal to that
of the  enamel,  and hence, after the age of
fifty, any further decay rarely happens.

    OF DISEASES OF  THE GUMS.

  From the connexion between  the Tooth
and Gum, no affection of the one  can  oc-
cur without communicating its influence to
the other.
  Hence decayed Teeth, irritating and  in-
flaming the vessels of the Gums, occasion a
preternatural organization, constituting  ex-
crescences or tumours of various sizes.
  To remedy this evil, the irritating edges
of the  Tooth must be  taken away,  and  the
fang repaired,  in doing  which,  the slight
hemorrhage which occurs reduces the Gum,
and  arrests its  fungous growth.   Still, how- 
94
ever,  disease of this nature sometimes oc-
curs without any evident cause, when it be-
comes necessary to pay strict  attention to
the general health.  Where a soft vascular
growth  is conspicuous, such  tumours  are
removed either  by the  knife  or ligature.
The latter is the safest practice, as not en-
dangering so great a loss  of blood as may
take place  by the former.
  Another species of tumour at times affects
the Gums, which is always the consequence
of a diseased jaw-bone, and may be dis-
tinguished by a particular softness and dis-
position  to bleed.  The   removal of  the
diseased portion of bone is here  the only
remedy,  and if connected with  a carious
state  of the fangs  of  a Tooth, the extrac-
tion of them  will be the first step towards
the cure, which should be followed by such
applications as may promote an exfoliation
of the disordered portion of bone. 
95
      OF ARTIFICIAL PALATES.

  A misfortune formerly very frequent, and
which requires  the art of the Dentist, is an
opening between the mouth and nose by the
loss of the palate.  This loss equally affects
articulation and the  use of nutriment.  A
thin plate of gold or silver, adapted with
extreme nicety to the opening,  and secured
by a piece of sponge  connected  with it, is
the best remedy for this inconvenience.
  Artificial Palates have been  so improved
of late, as to fit without the use of a sponge;
but wherever there is a necessity for such a
contrivance, it  ought  to be  frequently re-
moved, for the purpose of  being cleaned
with the utmost nicety.

           OF LIGATURES.

  Whenever  a  tooth becomes  loose, it has
been usual to give it an artificial support by 
96
 ligature, until  nature  shall have completed
 the process of its adhesion to the connect-
 ing parts.
   An accumulation of tartar, an absorption
 of the alveolar processes,  and various acci-
 dents, may give rise to diseases of this kind.
   In  adjusting a ligature, much caution is
 required not to reduce the adjoining Teeth,
 over which it is passed, to the same state of
looseness, and thus increase the evil.
  It is fit to observe that, in many  cases,
the success of this practice is very doubtful,
and therefore should  be  seldom employed.
At  all events, let an  experienced  Dentist
be consulted.
  During the  application of  ligatures  for
accidental looseness, the patient should be
kept  on  a fluid regimen until  the process
of adhesion be completed.  But,  for  many
years, I have laid aside the use of ligatures
altogether, and employed a method infinitely
preferable, by its safety.  l*s~A  y - /■     . -; - a /?•' **^
*>S 
97
DISEASE OF THE MAXILLARY SINUS.

  The inflammation of the upper jaw, from
diseased Teeth, or other causes, often ex-
tends to the investing  membrane, lining the
maxillary sinus.  The marks of this inflam-
mation of the membrane  are,  a deep throb-
bing pain, situated, as it  were, at the roots
of the upper molares.   As it  proceeds, the
eye, nose, and ear become  affected, and
as suppuration advances,  the cavity is filled
with matter, which commonly destroys the
neighbouring bone.
  In mild cases of this  kind,  the  matter,
though  formed,  will  often  continue long
confined without much perceptible injury ;
although latent mischief,  of  a serious na-
ture,  may be appehended from its absorp-
tion, when in a putrescent state.
  The disease is often difficult to ascertain,
but when this is done, the discharge  of the
matter  is the first step  to be taken; for
                   13 
98
which  purpose,  the  molaris,  or grinding
Tooth, lying immediately under  the maxil-
lary cavity, must be extracted, and a small
trochar passed through the socket into the
Sinus.   This passage should be  kept  open
for some time,  and  injections  thrown  up
until the discharge ceases altogether.
  There are other causes of disease in the
Maxillary Sinus, which belong  strictly to
the province  of Surgery.
  Having now concluded  my  brief sketch
of the  various objects which constitute the
study,  the duties,  the practice,  and  the
qualifications of a  Dentist,  who,  by due
attention to the whole, may bring credit to
himself by the alleviation of pain and suf-
fering,  (for,  certainly,  that mysterious laby-
rinth of nature, the Nervous  System, has
few points so frequently  assailed  by pain
and its attendant grievances, as those which
branch  into  the  Teeth,)  I humbly beg
leave to observe, that the motive by which
I have been actuated was solely a wish to 
99
be useful,  by  informing  the  sufferer that
considerable relief may be in store  for him
when  his  case   seems hopeless,  and  by
awaking the apathy of parents from  inat-
tention,  to  what  they suspect  not  in  in-
fancy,  may become  a source of  calamity
in manhood-
  MR.  PARMLY,  being  desirous  that  his  peculiar
treatment  of  the  Teeth, his  operations  and general
views of the subject,  should become as widely diflfused
as possible, for the common benefit of Society, under-
takes to  qualify  gentlemen of  liberal education  for
practice, as Dentists, on the following terms :

  For practice in  London,..........$1000
  In  any other City of  Great Britain  or
      America,..................700
  For foreign practice,.........» .  •  • 500

I  These terms apply  solely to  a finished  course of
instruction, including  every  particular  of the  Art with
which he is acquainted. • 
MR. PARMLY's
       PATENT  APPARATUS
FOR CLEANING THE TEETH, ALLUDED TO IN THIS WORK,
                COMPREHENDS,
   1.  A Brush, which cleans,  at once, the
upper, the outer, and the inner surfaces of
the Teeth.
   2.  A Polisher,  for removing extraneous
matter from the enamel or  bone,  without
injury—the  composition of which is  pecu-
liarly his own.
   3.  Prepared Silk,  for  cleaning the in-
terstices and the necks of the Teeth, where
the lodgment  of the  smallest quantity of
impure matter irritates the  gums,  taints the
breath,  and is the chief cause of caries and
other diseases.
  4.  Glasses  for examining the  inner sur-
faces of the Teeth; with trifling conveniens,
ces, which it is not necessary to enumerate.
    The whole contained in a small pocket case. 
 
>3>
 x  x> ^   ~
 >- x:> ^  >:
—   —  >  , -
 :>   x  )  o \
:>   x > . x-
> L> >  i€> ~>
' X >   >  X
       :> -> X^
   1  x> 3 >:
          x xx
          > XX
—   ->  X > x>
> X> ■>  a>  >
X Z> X  J> X>
:  XXX£>
^~-X>
XX£x>'
 > XJ>
 :> X X>
~> "> a:>
 a)> - '   > XX
»^XX X>  XOX
oxx ?>  x>x x

.> o  »;  x:3^~
> x  _>>■ -'
■ X  >> •  >2
 X  >v   X33>o.
>■'->.  »  *X»'v>  .
>a> • \j>t> . *■ V*3>.X

>X>  X:>> ;?>•"" > 5>;\X
■ ?> >  a>~ "t>  jta^.^X
" > A  »  X :^X>
11  X >X>  >aX"> ■
■>> '_  :»2>  vX>X
 >-x>  X>x  >^XX

"'~Xa  XX> XX-X
 ■>■ >..__2>x>  :x>■ x
 >XX> X>  »  x
 X  J> ^>  -a .a«
 X  2>>X>  ->  v~
 Y>  2>XX>  X> r-
 \*  £»J>>   a- T
^  " X> X3 . ■.• ■' :
■ ■   a> >"->>2>  > ~X
• : Xo
»  X>

 a*?>


 •>x>
 -^x>
x X
x>^
;^>:x>
^>x>
 X> X
 3 ~ x
• X> X
 > 3
 X"* Xl^',a> a> ■  *
 > -X>._ ) x ^x

    Z Y>'-> ^  a?
     -< • '  >   >  A7§3
  >X>:V>_> > X*
   ' ""^-V • X> a>  :-
   S   ^ X>  >





 >^ -v  >  a >
 j>x> X  x>
 X»> X  X>  "_
  i^>   X X>.'_5>
 "^ j> . :Z> x>

>> " >  > • "">
*- X  > >x
 v>  ;>  ■? > a
&>:x> ^>> ^
 >  a> a> j>
 x> x>x
  ■ > »  > ;;_>•
> > >i> ;x>   >
 x>x



   >x>
■  » ^^

>: ^> x
 x^>  >
;^_XD ^
_>>  o

X^>  X
~ X>  »" -
  ">x  >:
 .»-  ^ ;
 />». .,  ■
  A> X> >

  ^>  >>  »X
  J3>  ^,>X>
      O  >X>
X>  > ) ^^
^•>XX-» ^X3  a
 3»-

3>a
S>' ^     » >X- >   X->  "^   >;'j
>  »     ^S->> >  ^.  a>    v  i
>  >    . ' >> ~>   >  _^>   -> ,.,
>  >     >^>aa,   ->, V)   j, ,,
> a>    X'X   >  ^>   >
i> ^»    .••>-'->  >   >^   > ■  - -'
r> j>   - .->> > . >>   j

>' >    >%■ j   ^t>   aX>
>  ">    x-x -^> y^^

    >     ' > x>> x  x>
    -    . '  J-X^> :5 ^>:j>
*> ■' 2^>    '  >.X£> ^ ^^>

 ^> o»   x.^~.>x
 3 X^>   >X5lXXX>


>  '  >      x^» X^>^J>

>  _ >     a~>a>   > a\y~^,  ~j
^> ">  >     >3 :>^>>">,r- -
x »y>: ■>     x»> .-x v^-^y
Z> ■•>■<  >    ^>  >   >  >
X> ^>  >    xx^>   > >
X)   >  >   X *£>•  X  z>
 X> X: >   a>:XX  'X ~^>
 X> ••>  >    >^  >  o  1>

_^> ?Jf>  ux>X> °^> "":>
    a*» :- ^^>

      ^>  x»




^»x sx>


 :3»x>^  >
- x>  xx>
 X> •->  >
X >^
^>x>
         > »  >
       Jl> >x>; >
       ^> >>  >
 .!> _>   >  >
„2»  x>  •>> X

^>  r> x >  >
x> x>  ^^>  >   •
 >.^> O) X
5>  >   X  X
>>  >  x>  s> 
      >  3    -^.

>.x>.>x>   :>
> ~> > •:>


>:aiX£
        > X

  >T2> > ; —

 >> ~j>  .;>  > x»
> > X> XX>
X> ;>  >x>
>>^>  XJXX>
> x»  x x :>

 :>  >  X*  X>
 >  J>   _> x>>
>  X  X>  /> :>.
- ■    ^  x> ■. ■>
     »  x> >
    -  x>  >• ,-J
xx:> -  >  •
X~> Ta vva

  £> X^Xx
>  ?iXX->^_ ~->->"
,~"$D S»  >X
5> ?> -> x  »>
XX>  >  >  > -> ••
 X  } >>_ >>
X  XX  >X
x   >>JX
    ^ > > '■> XJ*> *>L>
     > >x>  >> xz>
■  •  > > "3  >» X>
 •  : » > ■> ^> ^X>
    .">> 3> X _
rx>   >> x j ~^>  x>
">.>   a>l  X X  ""-> x>
 > >,  •»>>> x x "x> z>
 » >  v>i x> X  x>  x>
>>••  »>£ X X  X> X>
>>>>>■ x ;:>  x>  x*
»  >>>  x .">  x> x>
X2*> X> 3>  >
x ~2>  Z>
  x>  ~>
>  x> x>
 x> ^>
  >i>^X> X-  > X>' ^> >:>  a
  >  > t>~x>  s
 x  > r> -> x>  x> > i?
 ■^  ^ -^ ,.  >  r> ->>>  ;./>
               ^   X> XX> ,   -a

          > >  x>  -o> :xx>>   ^
  >  i>x>  z> >  Z>   • 7>  X.x
!  >  >x>  Z>xx>     :
  >  x^>x>x  >  .>■;
 >  » z> :> > ^>.  >;> -
 >  ^ ^»  ^>>^>  ■■■>  _:
X- XX
x> ^ x
^> i>
r> x> x
 ■  3 3 >


- X> >o
> x x > '■
X J> >
X  -> >
 J>3 X >
   > >
   X2>
   X X


  ^> x»
  Xp X>
 x> _x>
 x> x>
 ^>  >

^a»  >a>x>.
»x
aV>"2>
»  X5>> "X
>r>    ioX>
>^>  f \1)>3
X   >>
    -» e>

    > X>
   J>3Z>




xx> >
»X2>X
a>s> a>.
> X ">
   ^S3> X3"XS» '>X


 .•^ S> :>xr
s ~> d r
■■> .i2>   >x:
 X2>   0> -
 ^>   x x ^ x>
•'5X  . XX  X \^> > X
 i>   ->  '»  X> X^  X a>
a> ^>   X ^s> ^> _:— ~^
>- >.   x  >> x
^>„  x  X -j>-2> .^>  ■
^1>   x>   ^>  X
2> -.^.:  a>   » r> :>-^>  ^>  ..
?>x   ^>   _x> ~x>>:
& v  x»   ^> 'XX> X
     X    >>  Xl?> ^>
        X»  ~> i2> J
> •  X> > >"Z>  X^>"
Ja   ^> > ^^>  XXX>
5 .a ^> >XX>  X;x ~J>  .
a X> ^>X>.>X^~
 X> XX ~> X o ^
  X*» -> > X5» XX^>X.» > ,

^ t> > > r
      x ^> -

      ^  ? .>>r> •  x
x-x>
X x>
>3
     > :>  > ^X>-a.. ~z




►   x i>  x>->   <
         > ^x>    >
 ^> X>  X  >   XXr<
->;>x  xv x   x   v
> >x>  ^>. >    >   ^
  ' faX> r >>^>   -- 
*.a'a  :..'■■
ft   •).*'• .a"
BXXa