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EXAMINA-Lw^.
     AX ATOM Y,  PH YSIOLO G Y,

              PRACTICE OF

 PHYSIC,  SURGERY, MATERIA MEDWA,

     CHEMISTRY, AND PHARMACY,

             FOR THE CSK OF


          STUDENTS,

        WHO ARK AGOIT TO PASS THE

f'Ol.LRGE OF SURGEONS, OR THE MEDICAL OR

          TRANSPORT BOARD.



      BY  ROBERT HOOPERyM. D.
   LECTURER ON MEDICINE, &cf IN LONDON.

                        •  Jrrw',..'■.

             NEW-YORK:

      PRINTED FOR AND SOLD BY COLLINS AND CO
           NO. 189, PEARLSTREST
1315. 
1 
               TO THE






GENTLEMEN  STUDYING MEDICINE,






                 AND






 PREPARING FOR THEIR EXAMINATION;






           THIS LITTLE WORK






            IS DEDICATED,






 AS A MARK OF THE AUTHOR'S ATTENTION






                 TO







     THEIR INTEREST AND WELFARE. 
 
         EXAMINATIONS
                    IN
ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY, SURGERY,

   PR U THE OK PHYSIC, MATERIA MRDICA,

        CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY;
     FOR THE  INSTRUCTION OF STUDENTS.
              ANATOMY.

   '• Q- H.OVV many bones compose the cra-
nium ?
   A.  Eight: namely, os frontis, two ossa parie-
talia, osoccipitis, twoossatemporalia, os ethmoi-
des, and the os sphaenoides.
   2. Q. What is the union of the liones of the
skull termed ?
   A.  Suture.
   3. Q. Describe the situation of the sphenoi-
dal bone.
   A.  The sphenoidal bone is situated in the
middle of the  basis of  the cranium, extending
underneath, from one temple across to the other.
   4. Q. Into  how many portions is the tempo-
ral bone distinguished ?
   A.  Generally into two portions,  viz. a squa-
mous portion and a petrous portion.
   5. Q. In what bone is the organ of hearing
situated ?
   A.  In  the  petrous portion of the temporal
bone.
                   A 2 
6
  6  Q. How many tables  have the honey of
the cranium /
  A.  Two: an external and an internal.
  7. Q. What  is the name of the substance
which unites the two tables of the cranium ?
  A.  It is called Diploe, and meditullium.
   8. Q. What is the name  of the suture which
connects the frontal with the parietal bones ?
  A.  The  coronal suture.
  9. Q. Jiy what suture is  the occipital  bone
united to the parietal bones ?
  A.  By the lambdoidal  suture.
   10. (.-(. What name is given, to the suture
which connects the pari- tal bones 1
  A.  It is  called the sagittal suture.
   11. Q. How many  species of sutures arc
there ?
   A.  Two: viz. the true and false.
   12. Q. What bones are united by the false
sutute* ?
   A. The temporal bones are united to the pa-
rietal bones, by the false  or squamous suture.
   13. Q.  Through what foramina do the olfac-
tory nerves pass out of the  cranium ?
   A. Through the foramina ciibosa, which arc
in thn ijt'ier part of the ethmoid hone.
   14. O.  Where is the foramen magnum occi-
pitale situated ?
   A. in the occipital bone, at the inferior part
between the condyles and  behind the  basiiary
process.
   15. {\. To what bone does the crista galli be-
long? 
1
   A. To the ethmoid hone; it forms the pro-
jecting process within the cranium, to which the
falciform process of the dura mater ia attached.
   iG. {{. To what bone does the sella turcica
belong ?
   A. To the sphenoid bone; it is placed in the
middle, and projects into (he cavity of the cra-
nium.
   17. Q. Describe the frontal bone.
   A. The frontal bone has some resemblance to
a cockle-shell; it is placed in the anterior part
of the skull, and forms the fore-head and upper-
part of the orbits.  It receives the anterior lobes
cerebri, forms a notch for the ethmoid bone, is
externally convex, internally concave, and has
several elevations and depres&ious.
   18.  Q. Where is the os ethmoides situated ?
   A. The os aethmoides is situated at the root
of the  nose, in  a notch between the orbitat
plates of the frontal bone.
   19. Q. What  bone  separatee the ethmoid
 from the occipital bone ?
   A. The os sphaenoideum.
   20. Q. To what bone does the mastoid prr>
Cess belong ?
   A. It is a part of the temporal bone.
   21. Q. How many hones compose the  orbit?
   A.  Seven : viz. os frontis, os ethmoidale, os
 sphenoidale, ob lachrymale, os jugale, os paiati,
 and the os maxillare  superius.
   22. Q. How many bones compose the lower
jaw ?
    A.  One, in the adult, which is called the in-
 ferior maxillary bone. 
3
   23.  Q.  What bones form the septum narium /
   A. The azygos process of the ethmoid bone
and the vomer.
   2-t.  Q.  To what  bone do the superior turbi-
nated bones, as they are called, belong ?
   A. To  the ethmoid bone, of which they are
a part.
   25.  Q.  In what bone is the antrum of High-
more situated ?
   A. In the  superior maxillary bone, immedi-
ately behind  the cheeks.
   26.  Q.  What separates the antrum of  High-
more from the orbit ?
   A. The orbitar process, or plate, of the su-
perior  maxillary bone.
   27.  Q.  Is there any communication between
the orbit and the nostril ?
   A. Yes: by the ductus ad nasum, in which
there is a membranous canal, in  the fresh sub-
ject, to convey the tears into the nose.
   28. Q. How many bones are there in the tym-
panum?
   A. Four: the incus, stapes, malleus, and os
orbiculare.
   29. Q. To what bone of the cranium does the
styloid process belong?
   A. To the temporal bone.
   30. Q. What bones form the foramen lacerum
Jin basi cranii ?
   A. The temporal and occipital bones.
   31. Q. What are  the processes of the  sphe-
noid bone called, which form the sides of the
posterior nostril ?
   A. The pterygoid processes. 
9
   32. Q. What passes through the foramen la-
cerum iu hasi cranii ?
   A. The jugular vein and par vagum.
   33. Q.  Do the ossa paiati form any part of
the orbit ?
   A. Yes: a portion of the palate-hone rises
into the orbit, and I'm ms a part of the posterior
and  inferior part of it.
   34. Q.  Where is the vomer situated ?
   A. In the centre of the  nostrils, having the
ephenoid and ethmoid bones at its upper part*
and  the superior maxillary  and palatine hones
at its lower part, and the cartilaginous septum
of the nose on  the anterior part.
   35. Q.  Point out the situation of the zygo-
matic processes on the face.                   «
   A. It forms  the lateral and superior part of
the cheek,  extending  anteriorly  from the ex-
tremity of the ear.
   36. Q. Where is the os unguis situated ?
   A. The  os unguis is situated in the orbit, at
the internal angle, immediately underneath the
meeting of the  eye lashes.
   37, Q.  What is the name of the portions of
the os ethmoides, which hang down into the
nostrils?
   A. The superior turbinated bones and azygos
process.
   38. Q. What is the shape of the os male ?
   A. It is of a quadrangular shape.
   39. Q. What are the bones called which com-
pose the spine?
   A. Vertebrae, of which there are twenty-fanr. 
10
  40. Q.  Describe the spine.
  A. The spine is a long, bony, and carlilagi
nous, hollow column, consisting of twenty-four
bones, or vertebrae, and extending from the
occipital bone to the os sacrum.
  41. Q. What is there peculiar to the second
vertebra ?
  A. It has an odontoid process at the upper
part of its body.
  42. Q.  How would you distinguish a dorsal
vertebra from  the rest ?
  A. The bodies of the dorsal vertebre are lar-
ger than the cervical, and less than the lumbar;
they are more flattened at the sides, more con-
vex before, and more concave behind, than any
of the other vertebre ; the spinous process ter-
minates in  a  round tubercle;  the transverse
processes are very thick; they have no foramen,
as in the cervical;  there is an articulating sur-
face on the side of the body, and a superficial
one in the points of the transverse processes.
  43. Q.  Where is the  os hyoides situated ?
  A. It is situated at the root of  the  tongue,
between it and the larynx.
  44. Describe the scapula.
  A. The scapula is a triangular bone, situated
at the lateral and upper part of the bapk.  11 has
three margins, a spine, the acromion and cora-
eoid process, and an articular cavity for the head
of the os humeri.
  45. Q.  What bone is fixed to the acromion
scapule ?
  A. The clavicle, or collar-bone. 
II
  46. Q. How many bones has the fore-arm ?
  A. Two : the ulna and radius.
  47. Q. Where is the ulna situated?
  A. Wheu the hand is supine, it is situated at
the under and inner part of the fore-arm, between
the humerus and carpus.
  48. Q. On what bone do we lean when on our
elbow ?
  A. The ulna.
  49.  Q.  How  many bones  corapo^^tbe
shoulder-joint ?
  A. Two: the scapula and the os brachii.
  50. Q. What is the process called ob which
we lean ?
  A. The olecranon.
  51. Q. What bone unites the arm to the tho-
rax?
  A. The clavicle, or cellar-bone.
  52. Q. How many bones compose the carpus?
  A. Eight: viz. os scaphoides, os lunare, os
Cuneiform*,  os  orbiculare,  os trapezium,  os
magnum, and os unciforme.
  53. Q. What receives the head  of the os
femoris ?
  A. The acetabulum, or cup like cavity of the
os innominatum.
  54. Q. Where is the os tince situated ?
  A. The os  tinee, or mouth of the womb, is
situated at the top  of the vagina and inferior
part of the uterus.
  55 Q. What bone supports  the leg ?
  A. The astragalus, on which the tibia  rests.
  56. Q. How many bones compose the tarsu?" 
12
   A. Seven: viz. astragalus, os calcis, 09 nnvi
culare, os cuboides,  and the three  cuneiform
bones."
   57. Q.  Where is the trochanter  major situ-
ated ?
   A. It forms the great projection at the supe-
rior and external part <ff the thigh-bone.
   58. Q. On what bone is the linea aspera situ-
ated ?
   A."|pn the back part of the os femoris.
   5&Q. What are the processes on the lower
end of the os femoris called ?
   A. flHiey are called condyles.
   GO. Q.  How many bones compose the knee-
joint ?
   A. Three:  viz. the  patella, the os femoris,
and the tibia.
   61. Q. What are the bones of the leg called ?
   A. Tibia and fibula.
   62. Q.  What is the shape of the tibia?
   A. It is long and triangular;  larger  above
than below.
   03. Q.  What bone forms the inner ankle?
   A. The inner ankle is formed of a projec-
tion from the  lower part of  the tibia.
   64. Q.  What bone forms the outer  ankle ?
   A. The lower end of the fibula forms it.
   65. Q. What are the names of the  bones of
the pelvis ?
   A. They are four in number, viz. the  two ossa
innominata, one os sacrum, and one os coccygis.
   06. Q. How would you  distinguish a male
from a female pelvis ? 
l«i
   A. In the female pelvis, the os sacrum iB short-
er and broader than that of the male, the osea ilia
are more expanded, the brim of the pelvis is near-
ly of an oval shape* it is wider  from side to side
than from the symphisis pubis to the os sacrum;
whereas, in man, it is rounder,  and evejrytf h
of less diameter,; the os sacrum is narr<^veri';a]
the os coccygis more firmly connected. •
   67. Q.  Into how many  portions is the os in-
nominatum distinguished ?
   A. Into three, viz. the iliac, the pubic,  and
nchiatic portions, which, in the foetus,,j|e three
distinct bones, and become one in th
   j68. Q.  What separates  the ossa inn
from each other behind ?
   A. The sacrum.
   69. Q.  Is there any  bone between the;
innominata anteriorly ?
   A. No: the pubic portions  of each
gether ttyfarm Abe pubes.
   70. Q* Where is the os coccygis siti
   A. At the lower part, o.r apex, of
crum.
   71„ Q.  What is the name of the cavijy tivjf
receives the head of the os humeri ?    *
   A. The glenoid cavity.                    i
   72. (J.  To what  bone does  the acetabulum
belong ?
   A. It belongs to the  os innominatum.
   73. Q.  What bones form the hip-joint?
   A. The head of the os femoris and the ace-
tabulum of the os innominatum.
                    B
 
u
,  74. Q. Where is the tuberosity of the ischium
situated ?
  A. At the inferior part of the os innomina-
tum; we sit upon it.          „       ,
  75. Q. Of what bone is the ascending ramus

" A. |Pbtla part of the os jjgnoppnatum.
  76.JJQ. What bones form the thorax ?
  A>f£welve dorsal vertebrae, the  sternum, and
twelvejribs; in all twenty-five bones,,
  77,J^. What is the use of the  periosteum ?
         allow. an attachment for  muscles* and
        a bed for the ramification of vessels to
        he bone.                 .      ^
      Qj,What is the situation of the common
oaretid^artery in the neck ? ,
  A. ^The common carotid.,artery Vies on the
side of .the^trachea, between it and,the internal
jugular vein.
.-,79. Q.f{What parts of the body  are free from
adipose  structure ?
  ' A.-^The skin of the scrotum, penis, and eye-
lids,  have nojgdipose structure.
.: 80. Q. What are the muscles the  subclavian
 rJL-y passes between, in going over^the first

  A.TheSu^^artery,aSUpa8ae9.vCT
the first  rib, goes between the anterior anil, mid-
dle scalenus muscles.
  81. Q. ^here is the Eustachian tube situa-
ted?
  A It passes from $\e tympanum of the ear
obliquely forwards ajny*wards, and opens in
 
                     15

the fauces, near  the  opening of the posterior
nosfcil.                                   **k-
  82. Q.  What are the names of the valves at
the origin of the aorta ?
  A. They are called the semilunar valv
are three  in number.
  83. Q.  What are the differences betweei
foetal and adult heart?
  A. In the foetal heart,  an opening exists be-
tween  the auricles in the septum auricjflpira,
called  the foramen ovale; this is close-in the
adult heart.  An artery  also passes frojjjjjrfhe
pulmonary artery obliquely to  the asfiHpg
aorta in the foetus, which is called canjpiFarte-
riosus; this becomes  a ligament in the adult.
  84. Q.  Where does the excretory ducf of the
parotid gland open ?                   ^
  A. The excretory duct of the parotypianrt
or Steno's duct,  passes obliquely overtime out-
side of the masseter muscle, and  perforates  the
cheek, opening near the second molaris'.
  85. Q. What  is the name of  the excretory
duct of the sub-maxillary gland, and where does
it open ?                     ''        ^
  A. The exeretory duct of the sub-maxillary
gland, is  called ductus Warton&i; it passes be-
tween  the  genio-glossus  and1" mylo-hyoideus
muscles, and opens on the side of the  frenum
lingue.
   86. Q.  How many arteries has the thyroid
gland ?
   A. The thyroid  gland  has  four arterie%^
namely, the  two superior thyroideal antf the
two inferior thyroideal.
 
16
    67. Q. Whereis the ductus arteriosus situat-
  ed, in the foetus ?
    A.  It passes obliquely from the ascending
  aorta to the pulmonary artery.
    88. Q. What viscera are contained in the
  Abdomen ?
  "*&.  The omentum, the stomach, the large and
  smallHntestines, the liver and gall-bladder, the
  mesentery, the lacteal vessels, the thoracic duct,
  the spleen, the pancreas, the kidneys and supra-
  renal capsules, part of the aorta  descend ens, and
     Vcava ascendens.
          KWhat is the membrane  called, that
          cavity, and covers the viscera of the
          .?
          e peritoneum.
           Are the kidneys completely envelop*
           peritoneum ?
          F> only their anterior surfaces.
          . Where   is the  external cutaneous
  nerve situated at the  bend of the arm 1
 ;;  lA. 'The external cutaneous  nerve is situated
  at the bend of the arm, under the cephalic and
  the median cephalic veins.
    92. Q. What is the situation of the internal
  cutaneous nerve at the bend of the arm ?
    A.  The internal cutaneous nerve is situated
  under  the median basilic nerve; it frequently
  sends a small twig over the vein.
   .<.£)$. Q. What is the  insertion and origin  of
>  the ligamentum nuchas ?
    A. 1,he ligamentum nuchas arises from the
'yspine of the occipital bone, and is fixed to the
  spinous processes of all the cervical vertebrae.
 
17
  94. Q. Describe the stomach.
  A. The  stomach is a membranous recepta*
ele,  placed in  the left  hypochondriaftlregion,
Composed of three membranes.  It has a Bupe-<
rior orifice  called cardia, and an inferior orifice|j
called pylorus; a lesser and greater curvatui§
and  two surfaces distinguished into  anterior anu
posterior.                           ^
  95. Q. What viscera  are  attached*)  the
great curvature of the stomach ?      ^^L
  A. The  large omentum,  the  spkflF aud
transverse  arch of the colon.        <fl
  96. Q. Describe the liver.       '^^m
  A. The liver is the largest abdominal viscus,
placed  in  the right hypochondriac regio'nXand
partly in the epigastric region.  It is distinguish-
ed into three lobes, is suspended  by  five liga-
ments, and is composed of arteries, vein?^: ves
absorbents, excretory ducts, and cellular mem-
brane, and is covered by the peritona!um.
  97. Q. Where is the prostate gland BJLUicued ?
  A. It lies  directly  under the^syWjpyiis
pubis;  it embraces  the neck of  the b! Miller
and  rests upon the  rectum.              * V
  98. Q. What forms the anterior crural uervc ?
  A. The three or four superior lumbar  nerves.
  99. Q. What are the suprarenal capsules ?
  A. The suprarenal capsules are flat  bodies,
of a dark yellow colour: they rest upon the kid-
neys; they contain a dark-coloured fluid, and
are larger in the foetus than in the adult.
   100.  Q.  What is the  use of the liver.
   A. To secrete bile.
                     B 8 
                       18

   t 101;. Q. What are the excretory ducts of the
   liiser^talled ?
     A.  Pori biliarii.
<$^- 102. Q. How would you   distingubh  the
1 '  fmall  from the large intestines ?
     A.  The large intestines have  three longitu-
   dinal bands, running on their surface; they are
   lobd&ted, and  have the  portions of fat adhe-
   ri^Bfcp) them, called appendicular epiploicae;
   whichfcircumstances are not to  be noticed in
   the small intestines.  There  are  the valvule
   cooMtentes in the  small intestines, wbich do
   nowB&'in the large.
—J^fUjLSl- What are the branches of the supe-

    ^J^Jllie superior mesenteric artery gives off,
~V.'SHHHS$right side, three branches.   The ilio-
   colica, whose branches go to the cecum, and to
   a portion of the ileum; the colica dextra, which
^■^etegdiWi^the  right  side of the colon; and the
  *4g55knie<lia, which divides on the mesocolon,
   arid? sends one branch to the right side  and
   HSfSier  to the left, that inosculates with the
  J^&bch from the inferior mesenteric artery.
 . f*  104. Q.  How are arteries distinguished from
.  ; veins?
      A. The arteries are distinguished from veins
   by their  coats  being whiter and more dense;
^  also more elastic.   Their apertures gape in the
i  living body, and they pulsate.  The  arteries
L  and veins of the lower extremity are very simi-
Ifevjar in regard to the thickness of  their coats;
'^Nibe popliteal  artery and vein  both gape*
      105.  Q. What is the tunica conjunctiva ? 
19
  A. The tunica conjunctiva is a reflection of
the inner membrane of the eye-lid, over the sur-
face of the eye; it prevents  extraneous bodies
passing deep into the socket.
   106. Q.  What gives the whitish blue colour
to the bulb of the eye ?
   A. The whitish blue colour of the bulb of the
eye is occasioned by the  expanding tendon aAtf
the muscles shining through the transparent tu-   -A
nica conjunctiva.
   107. Q. Describe the situation and course of
the colon.                                   —p.
   A. The colon ascends on the right  side toj^T.
the liver;  passes under the liver and stoniaohMJH
to the left  side, where it  descends, by a  sig- "™
moid flexure, to the pelvis, and ends in  the rec-
tum.
   108. Q.  What is the  excretory duct of the
kidney called 1
   A. The ureter.                          »
   109. Q. Describe the uterus.
   A. The uterus is a spongy hollow receptafcte,
ef  a pear shape, placed in the  pelvk between
the urinary bladder and rectum,  divided into
fundus, cervix and orifice or os tineas; it  has
four ligaments, two fallopian tubes, two ovaria;
and the vagina hanging from its cervix.
   110. Q. Through what tube  does the ovum
pass from the ovarium into the uterus ?
   A. Through the fallopian tube.
   111. Q.  Where are the vasa  vorticosa situat-    1
ed?
   A. The vasa vorticosa are situated  on  the 
20
   Choroid coat of the eye;  they are formed by a
   contortion of the veins of thatTmembrane.
     112.  Q.  What are the nerves that form  the
 ?) lenticular ganglion of the eye ? "
   ^* A. The  lenticular ganglion is formed  by a
   branch from the third and fifth pair of nerves.
     113.  Q.  Which is the largest viscus of the'
   abdomen ?
     A. "The liver.
     114.  Q.  What do  the openings of the veru
   montanum  belong to?
."   A. The orifices found on the veru montanum
  belong to the  vesicule seminales and  prostate
   gland.
     115.  Q.  Where are Cowper's glands to be
   foand ?
     A. ^Cowper's  glands are situated near  the
   bulb of the urethra before  the  prostate gland.
     116.  Q.  Where is the torcular of Herophilus
  .to be found ?
   -A. The torcular of Herophilus is to be found
  jjifefte junction of the falx and the tentorium.
   '^17.  (£.  What artery forms  the superficial
   palmar arch?
     A. The  superficial palmar arch  is chiefly
   formed by the ulnar  artery.
     118. Q.  Of what kind of structure is the out-
   er surface of the peritoneum ?
     A. The  outer  surface of the peritoneum  is
   cellular.
     119.  Q.  What forms the scrotum ?
     A. The scrotum is formed by a continuation
   etf the common integuments. 
21
  120. Q.  What is the excretory duct of  the
testicle called !
  A.  The excretory duct of the testicle is cal-
cd vas deferens.
  121. Q.  What is the proper juice of the sto-
mach called ?
  A.  The gastric juice.
   122. Q. Where is the spleen situated ?
  A.  It is situated in the left hypochondriura,,
near the fundus of the stomach under the ribs..
  123. Q.  Describe the eye.
  A.  The eye is divided into external and in-
ternal parts.   The external parts are the super-
cilia,  the palpebra, the cilia, lachrymal gland,
lachrymal caruncle, nasal duct, and muscles of
the bulb, and the tunica conjunctiva.   The i"'
ternal parts are  the sclerotic coat, the cornea,
the choroid coat, iris, uvea, retina, hyaloid mem-
brane, capsule of the lens and vitreous humours,
three humours and two chambers.
   124. Q. How many coats has the  eye ?
   A.  It is  generally considered to have eight
coats, but many anatomists consider it to have
but three:  viz. the tunica sclerotica, the tunica
choroides, and the retina.
   125. Q.  Where is the urethra most dilated ?
   A.  The urethra is  most dilated at that part
which is surrounded by the prostate gland.
   126. Q.  What part of the  vagina is covered
by the peritoneum ?
   A. The upper and posterior part.
   127. Q. What length is  the  urethra in fe-
males. 
22
      A. The urethra in females is about an inch in
    length.
      126. Q. What secretes  the  pigmentum ni-
    grum of the choroid membrane ?
    ■> A.  The pigmentum nigrum  of  the  choroid
    membrane is secreted  by the  arteries of that
    membrane.
      129. Q. How many chambers has the eye ?
      A. Two: an anterior and a posterior chamber.
    Eh' 130. Q.What separates the anterior from the
    posterior  chamber?                *
      A. The curtain formed by the iris and uvea.
      131. Q. What is contained in the capsule of
    the crystalline lens ?
      A. The crystalline lens and a little water.
 ,    132. Q. What artery nourishes the crystalline
$  lens ?
      A. The arteria centralis retinae.
»     133.  Q. Where is the pigmentum nigrum of
•    the eye situated ?
      A. Upon the uvea, behind the iris and upon
    the surface of the tunica choroidea.
     ■134.  Q. How many muscles  are there, that
    arise from the trunk, and are inserted into the
)(■*■  scapula?
     A. The muscles that  are inserted into the
    scapula are six in number,  viz.  trapezius, leva-
    tor scapulae,  pectoralis  minor, rhomhoideus,
    serratus magnus, and subclavius.
      135. Q. What are the muscles that arise from
    the shoulder joint, anil are inserted into the fore-
    urm ?  ■
     A. They are six in number,  viz. trapezius, 
23
Mvator scapule, pectoral* jniuor^homboideufl,
serratus magnus, arid subclavius.
   136. Q.  Wher«i.iB the lachrymalsacsituated.
   A.  In the superior part of the lachrymal
groove, or  the commencement of the.ductus ad
nasum behind the tendon of the orbicularis.
  t J.37. Q.  What is  situated in the groove at the
lower internal edge of each rib ?
   A. The  intercostal artery, vein, and nerve
   138.  Q.  What  difference in situation istl
between the right and left kidney ?
   A. The right kidney is much lower than the
left, occasioned by the  liver occupying so much
space.
   139.  Q.  What are the ducts that enter the
duodenum ?
   A. The  ductus communis choledochus, an
the ductus pancreaticus.
   140. Q.  How many  muscles arise from the
shoulder, and are inserted  into the fore-arm ?
   A. The  muscles  that are attached to the
shoulder and fore-arm are two in number, viz.
biceps flexor cubiti, and the long head of the
triceps.
   141.  Q.  How many  muscles arise from the
arm to be inserted into  the fore-arm ?
   A. The muscles that arise from the arm and
are iusertedin tothe  fore-arm, are six in number,
namely, the anconeus,  the short heads of the
triceps extensor cubiti,  the brachialis interim?,
•upinator radii  longus,  supinator radii  brevis,
and pronator radii teres.
   142. Q. Where are the  testicles situated in
the foetus ? 
                   24

  A. The testicles in the foetus before the sixth
month are in the anoomen, they receive a cover-
ing $f peritonaeum, and are placed at the lower
part of the kfdneys.
   143. Q. In what intestines are  the valvule
conniventes found ? ^A
   A. In the small intestines, chiefly in the duo-
denum andjejumtm.
   144. Q. What ib the name of the duct lead-
idgTrom the pelvis of the kidney to the bladder ?
  A. The ureter.
   145. Q. What forms the linea alba 1 J •.'
   A. The meeting of the fiat tendons of the ab-
dominal muscles.
   146. Q.  How many openings bas the  right
luricle of the heart.
   A. Four, viz. the opening of the vena  cava
superior, that of the vena cava inferior, that of
the coronary vein, and ostium venosum.
   147. Q.  Where do the ostia of the lacteals
open ?
   A. Upon the internal surface of the small in-
testines.
   148. Q. What muscles arise from the scapula,
and are inserted into the humerus ?
   A. The muscles which arise from the scapula,
and are inserted into the humerus, are the sub-
scapularis,  teres major.,teiiewwiinor, stipraspina-
tus, infraspinatus, coraco4hracii»lis, and the deb-
toides.                     ^Jf
   149. Q. Where rfoei the^BJfese^tery begin ?
   A. The mesentery begins about the termina-
tion of the  duodenum".
   150. Q.  What forms ^he profundal  palmar
itch? 
25
   A. The profundal palmar arch is chiefly form-
ed by the radial artery.
   151.  Q. How many openings has the left au-
ricle of the heart ?
   A. Five, viz. those of the four pulmonary ves-
sels and the ostium venosum.
   152.  Q. What is the true organ of vision?
   A. The retina.
   153.  Q. What is the general division of the
internal ear?
   A. The internal ear is divided into the tym-
panum and labyrinth which consists of the coch-
lea, vestibuium, and semicircular canals.
   154.  Q.  What nerves form the great sympa-
thetic ?
   A. A branch of the sixth pair of nerves with
a  recurrent twig of the second branch of  the
fifth pair of nerves.
   155.  Q.  Do the olfactory nerves supply  the
nose with the sense of feeling?
   A. No, but branches from the fifth pair do.
   156.  Q. What are the vessels surrounded by
the capsule of Glysson ?
   A. The  vessels  surrounded by the capsule of
Glysson are the vena porte,  the hepatic arte-
ry, the  hepatic veins, the excretory ducts, and
some absorbents.
   157.  Q.  How many dilatations  are there in
the urethra ?
   A. There are generally three dilatations to
be found in the urethra of men; one at the point
of the glands, penis, another at  the  bulb of the
urethra, and a third in the prostate gland.
                   C 
26
   158. Q. Wrhat muscles are divided in amputa-
tion of the thigh ?
   A. The muscles divided in amputation of the
thigh, are the biceps flexor cruris, semi-tendi-
nosus,  semi-membranosus,  gracilis,  sartorius,
vastus externus, vastus internus, rectus femoris,
and the long tendon of the abductor magrius.
   159. Q. How many arteries are there?
   A. Two: viz. the aorta and pulmonary artery;
all the other arteries are branches of these two.
   160. Q. What are the arteries called  which
supply the kidneys ?
   A. The renal  or emulgent arteries.
   161. Q. What is the name of the  vessels
which nourish the heart ?
   A.  Coronary arteries.
   162. Q. What are the arteries of the stomach
called?
   A. Coronary—they are four in number,  viz.
coronaria, gastrica dextra, gastrica sinistra, and
pylorica.  The veins are called gastric.
   163.  Q.  How are the  trunks  of arteries
nourished ?
   A. The arterial trunks are nourished by the
vasa vasorum, which  arise from the nearest
small branches, and are every  where dispersed
on their surface.
   164. Q. What change do the collateral arter-
ies undergo  when a large arterial trunk is tied?
   A. The collateral arteries, after a large arte-
rial trunk is tied, dilate,  their coats become
stronger, and acquire an additional  strength;
they are  also found  to become tortuous. 
27
  165. Q. What forms the phrenic nerve ?
  A. The phrenic nerve is formed by the third
and fourth cervical, it also receives a filament
from the second.
  166. Q. Where is the popliteal artery situated/
  A. In the ham, between the condyles of the
os femoris, hamstrings, and heads of the gastroc-
nemius externus.
  167. Q.  What arteries are given off from the
arch of the aorta ?
  ^A.  Three  branches: viz. the arteria  inno-
minata, the left carotid, and the left subclavian.
   168. Q. What  is the course and distribution
of the epigastric artery ?
  A.   It arises from the femoral artery, just as
it is about  to pass  under Poupart's ligament, it
passes  upwards and inwards at the  upper and
outer  part of the  abdominal  ring, behind the
spermatic cord, runniug along the edge of the
transversus in an oblique manner to the pyrami-
dales;  it then ascends under the  middle of the
rectus,  furnishing  branches to the abdominal
parietes, and  terminates  above the umbilicus,
anastomosing with the mammary.
  169.  Q. What is the first ganglion,  formed
by the intercostal nerve, called ?
  A. The cervical ganglion.
  170. Q. What forms the chorda tympani ?
  A. The chorda tympani is formed by the por-
tio dura, it is a reflected twig of that uerve,
which  passes betiveeu the long processes of the
malleus and incus, and  over the roembrana
tympani. 
28
   171.  Q. What is the most elastic substance
in the body ?
   A. The most elastic substance in the body
is cartilage.
   172.  Q. Are tendo-ns elastic ?
   A. No; they are inelastic, otherwise the ef-
fect of muscles would be greatly diminished.
   173.  Q. What is the course of the femoral
artery ?
   A. The femoral artery passes over the head of
the os femoris down into a hollow at the upper
and inner part of the thigh, with the rectus and
sartoriu.5 muscles upon the outside, and the ad-
ductor on the inner side; it descends along the
inside of the thigh between the vastus internus
and triceps, it then gradually bends backwards
till it reaches the ham to become the popliteal.
   1741  Q. What are the terminations of  the
arteries ?
   A. One termination is in veins,  another in
secreting extremities, a third in glands, a fourth
in cells, as in the penis, and a fifth termination
is in anastomoses.
   175.  Q. What is the valve of Eustacbius
formed by ?
   A.  The Eustachian valve is formed by a fold
of the inner membrane of the right auricle.
   176.  Q.  What arteries nourish the pancreas ?
   A. The arteries which nourish the pancreas
are derived from  the  pylorica, duodeualis and
splenica.
   177. Q.  Have  the veins of the dura mater
any valves ? 
29
  A.  No, they have none.
  178. Q.  What are  the  arteries of the dura
mater 1
  A.  The arteries of the dura mater are the
anterior, middle, and posterior meningeal.
  179. Q.  Where does the anterior meningeal
artery arise ?
  A.  The anterior meningeal artery arises from
the carotid.
  180. Q.  From whence  does the middle me-
ningeal artery arise ?
  A.  The  middle meningeal artery arises from
the internal carotid artery.
  181. Q.  What are  the veins at the flexure of
the arm ?
  A.  The cephalic, the median-cephalic, the
basilic, and the median-basilic.
  182. Q.  What muscles  are inserted into the
patella ?
  A.  The rectus femoris, the vastus externus,
the vastus  internus, and crura^us.
  183. Q.  What are  the names of the muscles
which are  inserted into the os calcis .'
  A.  Gastrocnemius  externus, gastrocnemius
internus, and plantaris.
  184. Q.  What is the name of the tendon
formed  by  the gastrocnemius externus,  and
soleus ?
  A.  The tendo Achillis.
  185. Q.  Do the external condyles of the hu-
merus give origin to the extensor or flexor mus-
cles of the fore-arm ?
  A.  To the extensors.
                    C 2 
30
  186. Q.  What plexus of nerves surround the
axillary artery?
  A.  The  brachial plexus.
  187. Q.  What forms  the  first arch of the
palate ?
  A.  The  constrictor isthmii faucium, covered
by the skin of the mouth.
  188. Q.  What are the vessels which form the
vena  porte ?
  A.  The superior and inferior mesenteric vein,
and the splenic vein.
  189. Q.  What are the glands called situated
at the root of the lungs ?
  A.  Bronchial glands; they are of a dark co-
lour.
  190. Q.  What muscles are attached to the
coracoid process of the scapula ?
  A.  The  coraco-brachialis,  the pectoralis mi-
nor, and the  short head of the biceps flexor cu-
biti.
   191. Q. Where is the diaphragm situated 1
  A.  Between the thorax and abdomen, form-
ing a vaulted arch or septum  attached to the
lower borders of the ribs.
   192. Q. What are the muscles of the abdo-
men ?
   A. The obliquus externus, obliquus internus,
transversalisabdominalis, and pyramidalis, form-
ing five  pair.
   193. Q. Where is the longest cms of the
diaphragm situated ?
   A. On the left side of the fore-part of the
*«HUS. 
J31
   19i.  Q. What  tendon passes through  the
•shoulder-joint I
   A. The long tendon of  Hie biceps  flexor
cubiti.
   195.  Q. On which side of the aorta is the
longest emulgent artery situated ?
   A. On the right, in consequence of the vena
cava being placed on  that side, and the artery
 having to pass behind that vessel.
   196.  Q. What forms the capsule of Glysson '!
   A. A  reflection of the peritoneum, which,
 with a quantity of cellular substance, surrounds
 the vessels and nerves of the liver just before
 they enter that viscns.
    J!>7. Q. What bones form  the lachrymal
 groove, or ductus ad nasum, and where does it
 terminate ?
    A. The lachrymal bone, the superior maxil-
 lary bone, and the inferior spongy  bone.   It
 terminates at the lower and Iuter.il parts of the
 nose, at the inner and fore-part of the antrum
 maxillare, under the os spongiosum inferius, in
 a straight liuv with the second dens molaris.
    198. Q. What are the salivary glands called ?
    A. They  are the parotid gland, the sublingual
 glands, the  submaxillary glands,  the glands of
 the cheek, the labial  glands, and molar glands.
    199. Q. Where is the thyroid gland situated ?
    A. Upon the trachea, lying on the cricoid
 cartilage, and horns of the thyroid cartilage.
    20Q. Q. Where is the pituitary gland situated?
    A. In the sella turcica, acavity in the spine-
 p.oid bone. 
32
  201. Q.  Where is the lachrymal gland situ-
ated?
  A. In a depression of  the orbitar process of
the frontal bone within the orbit.
  202. Q. What is the extent of the peritone-
um covering the bladder ?
  A. The peritoneal  coat extends  over the
fundus, sides and back part to near the termina-
tion of the ureters.
  203. Q. From what artery does the inferior
thyroid arise ?
  A. The inferior thyroid artery arises from the
subclavian.
  204. Q. How many branches does the axil- .
lary artery send off?
  A. The  axillary artery generally ^ives  off
four arteries,  viz. thoracica longior, thoracica
superior, thoracica  humeraria, and thoracica
alaris.
  205. Q. What are the  most important fascie
of the body ?
  A. The fascia covering the temporal muscle*;
that given off from the biceps covering the fore-
arm; that coveriug  the abdominal muscles and
back;  the fascia of the lower  extremities, and
the plantar and palmar fascia.
  206. Q. WThat are the  ligaments about the
shoulder joint ?
  A. The capsular ligament of the head of the
os brachii, the triangular ligament which ex-
tends from the coracoid process to the acromi-
on, the coroid and trapezoid ligaments that ex-
tend from the clavicle to the cracoid process. 
3S
  207. Q. What is the name of the ligament
that connects the os  femoris to the bottom of
the acetabulum ?
  A.  The ligamentum teres.
  208. Q. On what vertebra is rotation of the
head performed ?
   A.  The head  rotates upon the second cervi-
cal vertebra, by the intervention of the atlas.
  209. Q. Where is the female urethra situated?
  A.  The female urethra is situated under the
symphisis of the pubes, between the nymphe
and below the clitoris, just above the entrance
of the vagina.
  210. Q.  What are the  branches which the
subclavian artery gives off ?
   A. They are  six  in number;  viz. arteria
mammaria  interna,—thyroidea inferior—inter-
costalis,—vertebrafiB,—cervicalis profunda, and
cervicalis superficialis.
   211. Q. What are theligaments of the pelvis?
   A. The long  and short sacro-ischiatic liga-
ments, the ligamentum obturans; the ligament-
um poupartii; the transverse ligaments, going
from the spinous processes of  the ilium to the
fourth and fifth  lumbar vertebrae,  the annular
ligament of the ossa pubis"; the ligamenta vaga,
which pass from the ilium to the sacrum;  and
the lacertus  ligamentosus,  that  runs  from the
las-t lumbar vertebra along the ridge of  the os
innominatum to the pubes; besides these, there
are the capsular  and longitudinal ligaments of
the sacrum and os coccygis.
   212.  Q.  What  are the borse  mucose, and
their line. 
24
   A. The burse mucose are small bags placed
under muscles and tendons that are  frequently
brought into action, they contain a fluid similar
to synovia, the use of which is to lubricate tho
muscles and tendons.
   213.  Q.  Where  do  the  corpora  cavernosa
jveuis arise ?
   A. The corpora cavernosa  penis arise fron
the edge of the ramus of the ischium and os pubis
   214.  Q.  What vessels does the  right pul-
monary artery pass, in going to the lungs ?
   A. The right pulmonary artery passes behind
the aorta and superior cava.
   215. Q. What parts do the  external and in-
ternal carotid artery supply ?
   A. The external carotid artery supplies the
face and external parts of the head; the internal
earotid artery supplies the brain.
   216. Q. What does the coeliac artery supply ?
   A. The coeliac artery supplies the  stomach,
liver, and spleen.
   217. Q. What is  the course of  the external
maxillary artery over the jaw-bone ?
   A. The external maxillary artery passes be-
fore  the edge of the  masseter over the middle
and lateral part of the jaw-bone.
   218. Q. Between what tendons does the ra-
dial artery lie at the  wrist ?
   A. The radial artery lies  (at the wrist,) be-
tween the tendons of the flexor carpi radialis
and supinator longus.
   219. Q. What are  the arteries given off from
the thoracic aorta ?
   A. The thoracio aorta gives off  the bronchi- 
35
5d, the (esophageal, and the inferior intercostal
arteries.
  220. Q.  What nerve supplies the tongue for
the organ of taste ?
  A.  A branch of the fifth pair, which is termed
the gustatory nerve.
  221. Q.  Where does the posterior meningeal
artery arise ?
  A.  The posterior meningeal artery arises
from the  vertebral.
  222. Q.  How is the pia mater nourished ?
  A.  The  pia mater is  nourished  by arteries
from the  brain.
  223. Q.  What is the use of the adeps ?
   A. The  adeps guards against the effects of
pressure, it lessens  the specific gravity of the
body, fills up the interstices of muscles, and i?
a reservoir of nourishment of the body.
  224.  Q. What forms the common integu-
ments ?
   A. The  common integuments-are formed by
the cuticle, rete mucosum, cutis, and adipose
substance.
  225. Q.  What,are the branches of the  fifth
pair of nerves ?
  A. The  branches of the fifth pair of nerves
are the ophthalmic, the superior maxillary, and
the inferior maxillary.
  226. Q.  What are the papille minime, and
papille medie of the tongue  formed by ?
   A. The papille minime and medie, are form
ed by the extremities of  nerves surrounded by
a lace-work of blood vessels. 
36
  227. Q.  Describe the contents of the  cra-
nium.
  A. The cranium contains the cerebrum, cere-
bellum, and medulla oblongata ; the dura ma-
ter, the  pia  mater,  and tunica arachnoides;
nine pair of nfi'-es, the accessory  nerves of
Willis; the several  sinuses, the arteries  that
nourish the brain and its  membranes, and the
veins that  return the  blood into the sinuses;
ajud also absorbent vessels.
  228. Q.  What membrane nourishes the in-
ternal table of the skull ?
  A.  The external  lainiua  of the dura mater.
  229. Q.  Wrhat does  the  falciform  process of
the dura mater separate ?
  A.  It separates the hemispheres of the brain
from each other.
  230. Q.  What vessel runs in the falciform
process of the dura  mater ?
  A.   The  superior longitudinal sinus is the-
principal vessel.
  231. Q.  Where is the tentorium situated ?
  A.  Between the cerebrum and cerebellum.
  232. Q.  How many lobes has the brain ?
  A.  Six; viz. two anterior, two posterior, and
two middle or inferior lobes.
  233. Q. How many hemispheres has the ce-
rebrum ?
  A.  Two; viz. the right and the left.
  234. Q.  What are the cavities in  the brain
called?
  A.  They are celled ventricles. 
37
  235. Q. What separates the lateral ventricles
from each other.
  A.  The septum lucidum.
  236. Q. From  what part  of the brain does
the pineal gland arise ?
  A.  From  the thalamus nervi optici on each
side by peduncles.
  237. Q. From  what part of the brain do the
optic nerves arise ?
  A.  They  arise from  the thalami nervorum
epticoru;n.
  238. Q. What nerves pass through the fora-
men lacerum orbitale superius ?
  A.  The third,  the fourth,  the first branch of
the fifth and sixth pairiM* nerves.
  239. Q. Through what foramina do the fifth
pair of nerves pass out of the cranium ?
  A. Through the foramen lacerum orbitale su-
perius, foramen rotunduni, and foramen ovale,
in separate branches.
  240. Q. Does  the  arm  receive nerves from
the brain, or from the spinal  marrow ?
  A.  From  the spinal marrow.
  241. Q. What nerve supplies the nose for the
sense of smelling?
  A.  The olfactory, or first  pair.
  242.  Q.  What   nerves  supply  the dia-
phragm ?
  A.  The phrenic,  or diaphragmatic nerves.
  243. Q. Where do the  great  sciatic nerves
arise ?
  A.  From a plexus of  nerves formed by the
                     D 
38
fourth and fifth lumbar nerves, jointed by  the
first, second, and third sacrals.
  244. Q. What is the  name of the ganglion
in the abdomen which supplies most of the ab-
dominal viscera ?
  A. The semilunar ganglion.
  245.  Q. What does  the  foramen magnum
occipitale transmit ?
  A. The spinal marrow, the vertebral arteries,
and the accessory nerves of  Willis.
  246.  Q. How   many  membranes has  the
brain ?
  A. Three; viz. the  dura mater, the  pia
mater,  and the  tunica arachnoides.
  247. Q. What are thftprocesses of the dura
mater called ?
  A. They are three in  number; viz. the  fal-
ciform process, the  tentorium, and the septum
cerebelli.
  248. Q.  What are the viscera of the tho-
rax ?
  A. The pleura, the lungs, the  thymus gland
(in children,) the oesophagus, the ductus tho-
racicus, the arch of the aorta, branches of  the
vene cave,  the vena azygos, the pericardium,
the heart, the par vagum, and the great  inter-
costal nerves.
  249. Q. How many lobes has the  left lung ?
  A. It has two lobes.
  250. Q.  What separates the chest into two
cavities ?
  A. The mediastinum,  which  is  formed by
the pleura. 
39
  251. Q. What are contained in the posterior
mediastinum ?
  A.  The oesophagus, the bronchie, the large
vessels of the  heart, the par vagum, great  in-
tercostals, and thoracic duct.
  252. Q.  What is there in the anterior medi-
astinum that disappears towards adult age ?
  A.  The  thymus gland.
  253. Q.  Describe the heart ?
  A.  The  heart  is a hollow muscular viscus,
situated  in the pericardium, in the cavity of
the thorax, resting upon the diaphragm.
  25 4. Q.  Do the auricles of the heart com-
municate before birth ?
  A. Yes, by the foramen ovale.
  255. Q. Where is the Eustachian valve situ
ated?
  A.  At the  entrance  of  the  inferior cava,
within the  right auricle of  the heart.
               SURGERY.

  256.  Q.  WHAT  are  the  symptoms of
compressed brain ?
  A.  The person is mostly insensible; an apo*
plectic stertor of the breathiug soon comes on;
lo:-s of voluntary motion ; tremors, anil convul-
sions.  The pupil is contracted, or dilated; and,
if the person can !><■ roused from his stertorous
sleep, lie complains of giddiness and dimness o
bi^ht. Often there is hemorrhage from  the nose
 vps, and ears: and the feces and urine are dis 
4(J
charged involuntarily; and as  the compression
is  generally produced  by fractured skull, the
finding a  portion of skull depressed from the
blow is sufficient.   The  pulse is irregular and
slow-
   257. Q. What are the symptoms of  concus-
sion of the brain ?
   A.  The patient is first in a  state of  insensi-
bility, and the  extremities  usually  become
cold; there is a great tendency to sleep, but the
sleep  is unattended by stertor.  If the  concus-
sion be not very great,  the patient soon be-
comes more sensible, but vomiting takes place;
he is at times delirious; the pulse irregular and
quick; and phrenitis often succeeds the con-
cussion.   Should, however, the concussion be
very great, the  insensibility of the patient in-
creases.
   258. Q. How would you distinguish  a fissure
of the cranium from a suture ?
   A. By the course of the fissure, by its appear-
ance  not being zigzag, and by the  pericranium
not. adhering to it in the way it does to a suture.
   259. Q. What practice would you adopt to re-
lieve concussion of the brain ?
   A. The most approved  practice is  to bleed
according to circumstances; to administer saline
purges; to put the  patient on the antiphlogis-
tic regimen.   Should symptoms  of phrenitia
come on,  large and repeated blood-letting is to
be had recourse to, and blisters are to be appli-
ed to the  head, or neck, in order to reduce the
inflammation of the brain. 
41
  260. Q.  When a portion of  the  cranium is
depressed, what would you do to alleviate it ?
  A.  Apply the trephine.
  261. t£.  When a portion of the cranium is
depressed, where would you apply the trephine
lOi#ise it?
  A.  On a part of the skull  which would  in-
clude a portion of the depressed bone, that  the
elevator may be introduced so as to raise the  de-
pressed portion.
  262. Q.  W hat do you mean by an exompha-
los?
  A.  An umbilical hernia or protrusion of  the
intestines or omentum through  the umbilical
ring.
  263. Q.  What is a bubonocele ?
  A.  It is an inguinal hernia, formed by a pro-
trusion of intestine through the abdominal ring.
  264. Q.  What do you mean  by hydrocele ?
  A.  A collection of serous fluid in the  tunica
vaginalis testis.
  265. Q.  What are the symptoms of strangu-
lated  intestine ?
  A.  The patient is seized with sickness, and
a vomiting of  foecal matter;  obstinate costive-
ness comes on; synochal fever takes place. The
rupture remains  stationary,  and no effort can
return it; the  tumour of the part becomes very
painful, and the pain extends to the abdomen,
attended with a general tension.
  266.   Q. Describe the operation for strangu-
lated  inguinal  hernia.
  A. Having  shaved off the  hair from the  tn-
                     D 2 
42
mour, and the patient being placed in a suitable
situation for the operation, an incision should
be  made about an inch above the  ring, which,
if the tumour be not very large, should extend
to the most  depending part of the swelling, so
that the skin and  cellular membrane covering
the sac  will thus be cut through.  Perhaps the
external pudical artery, that crosses  the sac
near  the  abdominal  ring,   will also be  eut
through, if so, it will be necessary to secure this
artery   before we  proceed, to prevent  further
bleeding.  Then,  with a pair of forceps, a part
of the fascia must  be raised and divided, to al-
low  the introduction  of a director, on which
instrument the fascia is to be divided upwards,
to within an inch  of the abdominal  ring, and
downwards, to the bottom of the  tumour.  The
next thing to be attended to, is  the division of
the stricture :  with this view, the finger is to be
passedintothe sac, as far as the stricture, which
will be  found either at the abdominal ring,  or
about an inch and a half from this  aperture, in-
clining  upwards and outwards, or in the mouth
of the sac.   If the stricture be at the  ring, the
finger is to be  passed as far as the stricture, and
then a probe-pointed bistoury  must  be conveyed
over the front part of  the  sac into  the  ring,
which is next to be divided  in a direction up-
wards, opposite  the middle of the  sac, and  to
extend just sufficient to allow the protruded parts
to be returned into the abdomen.   By this di-
vision of the ring, the epigastric artery is not
wounded, nor are the transverse tendinous fibres 
43
cut through that cross the upper part of the ring,
by which the aperture of the ring is not so much
weakened.  The stricture being thus removed,
the protruded parts are to be returned into the
cavity of  the abdomen.  Should the intestine
be  gangrenous, it is not to be returned.   Trie
intestine may, however, have  dark discoloura-
tions, and may be returned without harm; these
states should be carefully distinguished.  If the
omentum be gangrenous, the dead  part  should
be  cut off, and the other part returned, if he-
morrhage is not likely to occur from its surface.
When the omentum is indurated, the indurated
portion may be cut off.  The parts are now to
be  dressed in the usual way.
  267. Q. How would you treat a violent oph-
thalmia ?
  A. Bleed locally, and generally according to
the age of the patient.   If there be great inflam-
mation of  the tunica conjunctiva,  carefully
scarify it; apply soft emollient poultices to the
eyes, renewing them often;  give saline purges
and diaphoretics; keep the eyes shaded; and,
as the chronic  stage succeeds, alter the  reme-
dies in some degree, according to circumstan-
ces ; apply astringent sedative lotions  to the
eyes,  leaving off the  poultices.   Make use of
the thebaic tincture, dropping in two or  three
drops  twice or thrice  a-day, between the .eye-
lid and ball.
   268. Q. How  would you  treat  gangrene  in
general ?
   A.  With tonics, stimulants, and a generous
diet. 
   269. Q. When a locked jaw arises  from an
 injury of the great toe, how would you endea-
 vour to relieve it ?
   A.  By making a free  division of the injured
 part; and if this did not succeed, by amputating
 the bone.  Antispasmodics, as opium and ether,
 must be given internally.
   270. Q. When a bill is lodged in the calf of
 the leg, and it is necessary to make an incision
 upon it, in what direction would you make  that
 incision ?~
   A. In a perpendicular direction.
   2.71. Q. How does  the complete division of
 a punctured  artery (as the  temporal) stop the
 hemorrhage ?
   A. By the  retraction of the extremities of
 the artery.
   272. Q. What is the cause of  the  cold  sen-
 sation and numbness of the  leg and foot, gene-
 rally felt from an aneurism of the popliteal arte-
 ry?     (
   A. Pressure upon the popliteal nerve, which
 supplies the leg aud loot with  nervous influ-
 ence ; it is also caused by obstructed circulation,
 the popliteal artery losing part of its power, and
 containing a quantity of coagulum.
   273. Q. If necessary to take up the brachial
 artery, near the flexure of  the arm,  how  will
 the circulation be carried on ?
   A. By  the two profundus chiefly, which
 inosculate with the recurrents of the ulnar  and
 radial arteries.
   274. Q. How is amputation of the shoulder*
joint performed ? 
45
  A.  As there is no room for the application of
the tourniquet, in this operation, the subclavian
artery is to be compressed by an assistant, by
means of  a pad, just where it passes over the
first rib; or, to render the operation more sate,
it is preferred to take up the axillary artery at
once; then, with a large common bistoury, a
semicircular incision is to be made with its con-
vexity downwards across the integuments cover-
ing the deltoid muscle, about four inches btlow
the acromion.  The skin should not be detach-
ed, but  the muscle is to be cleared from  the
bone quite up to the  joint;  then  the  tendons
passing over the joint  are to be  cut through,
also the capsular ligament, so as  to allow the
bone  to be dislocated from the joint.  Having
done  this, the skin,  and other parts, underneath
the joint, are to be  divided with one stroke  of
the knife;  after this, the circumflex,  or any
small vessel that may bleed, should be secured
and tied.   The flap of  the  deltoid muscle is
next to be laid down, so  that its edge will meet
the margin of the  wound below.   The opera-
tion is then finished by dressing.
   275.  Q. How many species of white swell-
ing are there ?
   A.   Two: the scrofulous and the rheumatic
 species.
   276.  Q. What muscles  are cut through in
 the operation of lithotomy  on the male ?
    A. The transversalis perinei, and generally
 a part of the accelerator urine, and sometimes
 a part of the levator ani. 
46
   277. Q.  What are the peculiarities of a gun-
 shot wound ?
   A. Great contusion  and  laceration,  which
 produce a deadened state of the fibre* immedi-
 ately surrounding the wound, that require to be
 thrown off in the form of a slough, before the
 wound can  heal; they also frequently contain
 pieces of cloth, or bullets.
   278. Q. How is an aneurismal tumour distin-
 guished from other tumours ?
   A. By  its pulsating, and by its  receding,
 upon pressure, and  soon returning again to its
 usual bulk.
   279.  Q. What ia the  substance   generally
 found in aneurismal sacs?
   A. The coagulable pari of the blood, which is
 usually found in layers.
   280. Q. How is amputation below  the knee
 to be performed ?
   A. Having placed the patient in a proper po-
sition, and applied  the  tourniquet to  compress
 the artery, one assistant is to support the leg,
while the  other pulls up the integuments; a cir-
cular incision is then to  be made round the leg,
to divide the integuments: when these are divi-
ded, a portion of them is to be dissected back
from the muscles, by means of  a scalpel, suffi-
cient to cover the stump ; these being kept back,
another circular incision is to be made by the
knife, some  way higher up than the first inci*
sion; by this incision, the  soft  parts are divid-
ed quite to the  bones.   The interosseous liga-
ment is then to be thoroughly  divided by the 
47
 •calpel, or the catlin; the soft part should be
 properly retracted, and the saw should next be
 applied,  to divide the bones; after which, the
 spicule left by the saw, are to be removed by
 the pincers.  The vessels  are next to be secared
 by ligatures, slackening the tourniquet from time
 to time, lest any vessel should not be secured.
 To discover this, it is  always  necessary  to
 sponge away the clotted blood from the wound.
 After these precautions are taken, the edges of
 the wound are to be brought together, by draw-
 ing  the  integuments over the surface of the
 wound ; the ligatures are to be left out, and the
 wound covered with lint and cloth.
  281. Q. What are the consequences that ge-
 nerally arise from wounded nerves ?
  A. Locked jaw, convulsions, and inflammation
 of the  part.
  282. Q. What is  meant by a compound frac-
 ture 1
  A. It is a fracture of the bone, attended with
 an external wound of the soft  parts.
  283. Q. What takes place when a bore is
 denuded of its periosteum?
  A. Generally exfoliation, to a certain degree.
  284. Q. What bone is perforated in operating
 for  fistula lachrymalis ?
  A. The os unguis.
  285. Q. Why are luxations of the stooulder*
joint more frequent than  luxations of the hip-
joint ?
  A. Because the glenoid cavity  is very super-
 ficial to allow of extensive motion to the head 
48
of the 03 brachii, which is very large. The joint
is also more exposed to unguarded blows, or ac-
cidents, than any other joint; and the surround
ing muscles have no effect in strengthening the
joint. The hip-joint, on the contrary, is confined
as to motion; the acetabulum is also very deep in
the fresh subject, so as to almost cover the bead
of the os femoris; and thus this joint is render-
ed very strong.
  286. Q. Under what circumstances is  ampu-
tation of an extremity necessary ?
   A. Where the bone becomes  much diseased;
where great laceration from gun-shot wounds
have been  produced;  where great destruction
of parts have taken place in compound fracture;
and where, from other causes, the operation is
required.
  287. Q. What forms the sac in femoral her-
nia?
  A. The  fascia of the thigh,  and the perito-
neum.
  288. Q.  In  what direction is Pouparfs liga-
ment to be divided,  if  necessary, to liberate
strangulated femoral hernia ?
  A. That recommended by Mr. Hey, is to in-
troduce a director within the crural ring on that
side of the intestine, or omentum, which is near-
est  to the symphysis of the pubes, and to make
the incision directly upwards.   Gimbernat  re-
commends the incision to be carried directly to-
wards the symphysis pubis.
  289. Q.  How many ways are there of punc- 
49
 (firing the bladder, to relieve  suppression of
 urine ?
   A.  First, from  the perineum;—secondly,
 above the os pubis;—thirdly, through the rec-
 tum in the male, and  vagina in the female;
 fourthly, by dilating the meatus urinarius in the
 female.
   290.  Q. On what part of the arm is pressure
 to be made before amputation of the fore-arm ?
   A. As high  up as convenient; placing  the
 pad at the inner edge of  the biceps, so as te
 compress the artery against the bone.
   291.  Q. At what part of the aorta do aneu-
 risms most frequently occur ?
   A. At  the arch of the aorta, just as it is about
 to descend.
   292.  Q. What are the unfavourable circum-
 stances in compound fracture, that require  the
 extremity to be amputated ?
   A. When the wound of the soft parts is large
 and lacerated,  and  the bone, or  bones, very
 much splintered, together with a violent degree
 of contusion of the neighbouring muscles, am-
 putation is necessary; but  a  prompt  decision,
 in many cases of compound fracture, requires
 great discernment on the part of the  surgeon,
whether to amputate or not.
  293. Q. What are the signs of a fractured
 cranium ?
   A. A depression of a part of the skull, and the
 symptoms of pressure on the  brain, as  coma,
stertorous breathing, loss of voluntary motion,
convulsions, tremours, involuntary discharge of
                     E 
50
t he urine and feces, dilatation of the pupil, itre-
gular pulse,  and sometimes  hemorrhage from
the nose, eyes, and ears.
  294, Q. What is the cause of stupor or coma,
in fracture of the cranium ?
   A. Pressure upon the brain.
   295. Q. What  is  the medical  treatment in
fractures of the skull ?
   A. Bleed repeatedly, give saline purges,  and
order a low diet, the  patient  should be kept on
the antiphlogistic regimen for near a month, to
guard against subsequent inflammation of the
brain.
   296.  Q. Why are  fistule generally dilated ?
   A. To produce a new action in those ulcers,
by whicj) granulations  take place from their
bottom.
   297. Q. How is the radical cure of hydrocele
 performed ?
   A. By evacuating the fluid, and afterwards
 exciting such a degree of inflammation  of  the
 tunica vaginalis and testicle  as will cause adhe-
 sion to take  place, and consequently an oblite-
 ration of the  cavity; this is  either done by
 caustic, seton, incision, or by injection.
   298. Q. Where does a psoas«abscess general-
 ly point ?        •
   A. In the groin, at the  internal part of the
 thigh, and the loins.
   299. Q. What are  the signs of a wounded ar-
 tery ?
   A. Effusions of florid blood, and its being
 thrown out by jerks  from the vessel. 
51
  300. Q. What are  the  general terminations
of inflammation ?
  A.   Resolution,  suppuration,  and mortifica-
tion.
  301. Q. What method  is to be taken after a
cannon ball has torn  off the limb?
  A.  To amputate the stump; sometimes it is
necessary to perform the amputation above the
nearest joint.
  302. ($. What are the circumstances that pre-
vent  the dilatation of gun shot  wounds to ex-
tract the extraneous substance ?
  A.  When it is likely to create  a great irri-
tation of the wound without gaining any advan-
tage; when the ball  enters far into the sub-
stance of a bone;  where it enters any of the
large  cavities;  where the ball  cannot be dis-
covered ; and where  the foreign bodies are less
likely to create inflammation  than  their ex-
traction.
  303. Q.  What is the treatment  of gun-shot
wounds ?
  A.  First, when  the wound is in any extre-
mity  to determine  for or  against  amputation,
which in many cases require great judgment.
The amputation should be performed before  in-
flammation arises,  or  a disjiosition  to gangrene
takes place in the  limbs; should, however, am-
putation be deferred  for a day or two, and the
wound  in  a  high  state of inflammation,  the
wound is to be brought to  a state  of suppura-
tion,  at which  period  amputation, if needful,
should  be performed,  weighing in mind the 
52
 constitution of the patient and other circum-
 stances.  Extraneous substances are generally
 to be  extracted, particularly  when they press
 upon  an important viscus or a considerable
 nerve; if hemorrhage  take place from a large
 artery, it is to be exposed  and tied, the  exter-
 nal  wound  often requires  dilating,  but  some-
 times dilatation is improper.
   Counter openings are sometimes to be made,
 as when the ball lodges under  contused skin
 that will probably slough,  but if the skin re-
 main uninjured, and the ball is scarcely percep-
 tible to the  feel, this operation is improper, as
 the wound heais better when  it is  left alone.
 When sloughing takes place on the surface of a
 wound, its removal is favoured by a plentiful
 suppuration.
   The rest of the treatment is similar to contus-
 ed wounds.
   304. Q. What is the  treatment of con$sed * j
 wounds ?
   A. To prevent a high degree of inflammation,
 which often terminates in grangrene; this is to
 be effected by  a strict antiphlogistic regimen,
topical bleeding by leeches, &c.  The forma-
tion  of pus is to be promoted by emollient poul-
tices ;  should  gangrene  succeed the  inflamma-
tion, warm,  stimulating  applications are  to be
applied,  and the patient is to take bark, wine,
and a nourishing diet
  305. Q.What are the terminations of  erysi-
pelas ?
  A. Resolution, grangrene, and suppnrarierh 
53
     306. Q. Under what circumstances is au arti-
   ficial anus to be formed ?
     A.  Where absolute gangrene of an incarce-
   rated intestine has taken place.
     307. Q. How is gastroraphe performed?
     A.  Gastroraphe is employed to unite wounds
   of the abdomen in the following  way : two neeJ
   dies are placed on the same ligature, and intro-
   duced through both lips of the wound from with-
   in outwards, including peritonaeum, muscles, and
   integuments.
     308. Q. How is emphysema produced from a
   wound of the thorax ?
     A.  By the lungs being wounded, and the con-
   sequent escape of air into the  cellular mem-
   brane.
     309. Q.  What is the treatment of wounds of
   the joints ?
     A.  The  admission of  air into their cavities
£jtis to^obviated, as this causes a high  degree  of
   inflammation to take place.  If the capsular li-
   gament is much torn,  amputation becomes ne-
   cessary ; in other respects  the  joint is  to  be
   considered as under a high degree of inflamma-
   tion,  and the  antiphlogistic regimen is  to  be
   adopted; if suppuration take place in the cavi-
   ty of  the joints,  the  pus  should be carefully
   evacuated so as not to allow the air to enter.
     310. Q.  What is meant by spina ventosa?
      A.  A disease affecting a bone, in which it be-
   comes spongy and suppurates;  and  the pus  es-
   capes by several openings.
                       E 2 
54
  311. Q. What is the prognosis in wounds of
the abdominal viscera ?
  A.  Generally bad.
  312. Q. How may an abscess  of the  liver
rupture ?
  A.  First, externally, by the liver forming an
adhesion to the parietes of the abdomen, and
the abscess pointing on its external surface.
Secondly, by adhesive  inflammation  taking
place  between the  liver, diaphragm, and lungs,
and the abscess evacuating itself into the lungs.
Thirdly, by adhesion taking place between the
liver  and colon,  and the abscess making its
way into the  intestine.   Fourthly, into the ca-
vity of the abdomen.
  313. Q. What symptoms accompany wounds
of the abdominal viscera ?
  A.  Profuse hemorrhage from  the external
wound; the escape of the contents of particular
viscera, attended with a small, feeble, and con-
tracted pulse, pallid countenance, coldness of
the extremities, great debility, hiccough, vq-
miting, spasm, and tension of the abdomen.
  314. Q. How is the hip-disease distinguished
from an affection of the  knee-joint, as the fore-
running symptoms of the hip-disease are gene-
rally pains about the knee,  and no evident af-
fection of the hip ?
  A.  By a diminution of the circumference of
the leg and thigh of the affected side; an  elon-
gation of the limb, and  pressure upon the ace-
tabulum exciting pain.
  315. Q. In taking up the  brachial artery; 
55
what nerve are you to avoid includiug in  the
ligature ?
   A. The median nerve which accompanies
the brachial artery.
   316.  Q. What are granulations?
   A. They are exudations of coagulable lymph
from the vessels of the exposed surface, which
soon  become organized, possessing blood-ves-
sels, nerves, and absorbents.
   317.  Q. What forms the boundaries or-cyst
of an abscess ?
   A. A deposit of coagulable lymph, which be-
comes organized so as to form a cyst.
   318.  Q. What i9 meant by a furunculus ?
   A. A circumscribed inflammatory tumour,
which usually attains the size of'a  small wal-
nut; it imperfectly suppurates, and  the matter
is contained in a cyst.
   319.  Q. What is the cause of piles ?
   A. Pressure  upon  the  vessels of the anus
which prevents the return of blood to the heart:
as that  from a gravid uterus,  costiveness,  tu-
mours; and from long sitting ; which last allows
the abdominal viscera to press upon the blood-
vessels.
   320.  Q. How is the operation for fistula lach-
rymalis  performed ?
   A.  First an opening is  to be made  at the
most depending part of  the tumour, by means
of a lancet, which will discharge the sac of its
contents;  a probe is then to be passed forwawl
in the natural  passage with moderate  force;
should this be impracticable, an artificial open 
56
ing is to be cautiously drilled on the anterior
part of the os unguis by a trocar, or any other
sharp instrument in an oblique direction. W hen
this has  penetrated a sufficient  depth, which
may be ascertained by the want  of resistance,
and the discharge of blood by the nose, the per-
forator is to be removed, and a silver tube  in-
troduced into the opening,  where it should re-
main till the edges of the wound become cal-
lous.   After  this is effected, the tube is to be
withdrawn, and the external wound heals  rea-
dily.
   321.  Q. What are exostoses ?
   A. They are tumours of  bone formed upon
bone.
   322  Q. What is meant by sphacelus ?
   A. It is a complete  mortification of a part
whereby  it  loses its natural colour,  and  be-
comes black  and soft.
   323. Q. What is meant by sarcocele ?
   A. A scirrhous enlargement of the testicle.
   324.  Q. What are the causes of fistule in
a no.
   A. They  are caused  by the formation of ab-
scesses about the anus, which  spread among
the intestines of  the muscles, and between the
integuments; these abscesses are produced ori-
ginally by inflammation.  There are also other
causes giving rise to fistule, condylomatous tu-
mours, Sec.
   325. Q. If the carotid  artery  should be
wounded, and assistance should  be obtained in
time to take  up the vessel, what nerve are you
f© avoid including in  the ligatnre ? 
57
   A. In taking up the carotid artery the eighth.
pair of  nerves which runs close  to the artery
should not be  included in the ligature ?
   326. Q. In a transverse wound of the trachea
how is reunion effected ?
   A. The union of a transverse wound of the
trachea is best effected by bringing the patient's
head downwards and forwards to the f-ternum;
the head should be maintained in thi-t position,
and the edges of the wound should be kept in
contact until they have grown together. Liga-
tures are not recommended, as they create ir-
ritation in the trachea.
   327.  Q. What are the vessels generally di-
vided when a person cuts his throat ?
   A. When suicide is  attempted by cutting
the throat, the vessels cut  through are either
the external maxiilary, the lingual, or the the-
roideal  artery : the trunk of the carotid artery
is  seldom cut.
   328.  Q. How  does  a false  aneurism take
place ?
   A. A false aneurism  is  occasioned  by  an
aperture of an artery allowing the blood to rush
into the cellular structure.
   329. Q. How is amputation of the fingers or
toes accomplished ?
   A. In amputating the fingers or toes a small
semilunar incision is to be made on the back of
the finger or toe, which should extend, form-
ing a convexity about half an inch in front of
the joint; the flap is next to be raised and re-
flected; having effected this, the skiu in front
of the finger over the joint is to be divided, and 
53
this incision must extend across the  finger or
toe, and meet the two ends of the first  semilu-
nar incision, then bending the  finger the cap-
sular  ligament is to  be  divided, which  will
allow the head of the bone to be dislocated.
Should the digital arteries bleed much, they may
be secured, but the hemorrhage  often  stops
without having recourse to ligature :  the flap is
to be brought over the wound, and the edges of
the wound kept together by adhesive plaster.
  330.  Q.  How is emphysema distinguished
from anasarca.
  A. Emphysema is distinguished from anasar-
ca by the crackling noise produced upon pres-
sure, and by the  rapidity of the swelling.
  331. Q. What is the general division of stric-
tures ?
  A.  The general division of  strictures is in-
to :—spasmodic, which depends upon a spasmo-
dic contraction of a part of the urethra :—and
permanent stricture, which is caused by a par-
tial narrowness of the  urethra,  forming a ridge.
There is also another kind of  stricture, which
depends upon a permanent contraction  and an
occasional spasmodic  affection.
  332. Q How is the introduction of the male
catheter  effected ?
  A.  The introduction of the male catheter is
performed in the following manner.  The penis
should be drawn upwards  and  held by  the  left
hand ; haying oiled the catheter, it is to be in-
troduced  into the urethra with its concavity to-
wards the abdomen, pressing  its  point down- 
59
 wards until it reaches the bulb of the urethra ;
 when this has happened, the beak of the instru-
 ment has passed under the arch of the pubis;
 the handle of the instrument is then to be gra-
 dually brought forwards between the patient's
 thighs, and during this action the beak of the
 instrument becomes elevated and slips into the
 bladder.   The operation  may • be  performed
 either when the patient is standing, sitting, or
 on his back.
  333. Q. What is the character of a scorbutic
 ulcer ?
  A. A scorbutic ulcer is one that affords a foe-
 tid, sanious, and bloody discharge,  the edges
 are of a livid colour, and the surface is covered
 by a loose  spongy  flesh; there are generally
 other symptoms which establish its nature, such
 as loose  spongy gums,  and livid spots of  the
 akin.
  334. Q. What is the treatment of a fractured
 rib?
  A.  In a case of fractured  rib the action of
 the chest is to be confined, and the ends of the
fractured ribs  are to be kept as nearly as possi-
ble  in apposition, which  may be  effected by
surrounding the body  with a wide  roller.   It
may also he necessary   to bleed the  patient,
and adopt the antiphlogistic regimen, to guard
against inflammation.
  335. Q. What is a bronchocele ?
  A. Bronchocele is an indolent enlargement of
the  thyroid gland.
  336. Q. What method is to be taken if, after 
QQ
    liberating a strangulated intestine by operation
    a great quantity of irreducible thickened omen-
    tum exists ?
      A. The indurated omentum is to  be cut off,
    unless hemorrhage, or other circumstances, for-
    bid it;  in such cases it may be left unreturned.
      337.  Q. What is the difference between a fe-
    moral and an inguinal hernia.
      A. In femoral hernia the intestine or omen-
    tum protrudes under Poupart's ligament, and in
    inguinal hernia they protrude through the abdo-
-n   minal ring.
      S38.   Q.  What are  the circumstances by
    which  you judge the operation necessary to
    liberate a strangulated hernia?
      A. If reduction of the hernial contents cannot
    be effected by the hand aided by the position of
    fhe patieut and by  bleeding, cathartics, clys-
    ters, cold topical applications,  the  warm bath,
    and tobacco-smoke introduced into the rectum,
    each of which  having been judiciously tried
    without effect, the operation then is imperiously
    demanded.
      339.  Q.  What  means would  you have re-
    course to in order  to reduce a strangulated her-
    nia, before you judge it necessary to  perform
    the operation ?
      A. First, the patient should be  placed in  a
    suitable position with the pelvis  elevated,  the
    thigh bent and rotated inwards, and the reduc-
    tion of the hernial contents skilfully attempted;
    should this  fail, bleeding  should be  had re-
     ourse to;  and it is recommended to take away 
61
the blood suddenly so as to occasion fainting,
at which time  the taxis should  again  be at-
tempted.  Success not being obtained,  cathar-
tics and the warm bath should be  speedily
made use of.   These with the taxis not having
succeeded, the united effort of cold to the tu-
mour, and tobacco, either in fume or decoction.
If strangulation still continue alter these means
have been used, and another  attempt  by the
hand has been ineffectual, the operation should
be performed, the protraction of which  beyond
a certain time would endanger the patient.
   340.  Q. What are the symptoms of suppres-
sion of urine ?
   A. A swelling above the os pubis, a violent
inclination to make water,  tension and pain of
the abdomen,  cold perspirations, oppressed re-
spiration, hiccough and fainting follow.
   341.  Q. How would you attempt to  relieve
a suppression of urine  in  a  medical point of
view ?
   A. Bleed  copiously; apply leeches to the
perineum, or above the os pubis ; exhibit opium
by the mouth,  and in glysters;  use the warm
bath, and apply fomentations to the hypoga3tri-
um and perineum.
   342.  Q. When these means fail to evacuate
the urine, what would you have recourse to ?
   A. To the catheter.
   343.  Q. What do you  mean  by a popliteal
aneurism ?
   A. A dilationV the popliteal artery forming
a pulsating tumour in the ham.
                      F 
62
   344.  Q. Describe the operation for popliteal
 aneurism.
   A. An incision should  be made about two
 inches and a half through the skin and fascia of
 the thigh,  on the inner edge of the sartorius
 muscle; as soon as the femoral artery is felt, a
 careful  incision is  to be  made on  each side of
 it, in order that the finger may be passed under
 it; a double ligature is then to be introduced by
 means of a blunt needle under the vessel, leav-
 ing out  the femoral vein and the accompanying
 branches of the anterior crural nerve ; one por-
 tion  of  the ligature  is to be  tied as high,  the
 other as low, as the detachment of  the artery
 will allow.  The part of the vessel between the
 ligatures is to be divided, and after this the  ex-
 ternal  wound is  to be  brought  together and
 dressed  in the usual way.
  345.  Q.  What are the symptoms ofa phleg-
 mon ?
  A. A. phlegmon is a tumour attended with
 heat, redness, pain, tension, and more or less of
 the synochal fever.
  346.  Q.  How would you treat a phlegmon ?
  A. First, by endeavouring to effect a resolu-
tion  by  local or general bleeding, the antiphlo-
gistic regimen, the exhibition of saline  cathar-
tics,  and diaphoretics,  and applying  cold, as-
tringent, sedative applications, warm emollient
poultices and fomentations  according to its na-
 ture. If suppuration should commence,  by giv-
 ing tonics and cordials, a generous diet, and for-
warding the process by poultices.   If mortmca- 
63
tion should appear likely to ensue, bark, acids
and wine will  >e proper, and <<timulating poulti-
ces ol jeer grounds, and fomentations with bitter
decoctions and c-imphorated spirit.
   347.  Q. How are issues in'de ?
   A. Issues are made by  making an  opening
either with a lancet, or caustic, large enough to
admit a pea being introduced  in it.
   348.  Q. What is the  treatment after ampu-
tation ?
   A. The chief circumstances to  be attended
to after amputation are;—to adopt the antiph lo-
gistic regimen; to prevent inflammation, which
is to be regulated  by the constitution  of the
patient; the first dressing ought to be  removed
the  third or fourth  day after the operation, and
new  dressings are to be applied as at first every
day until  the inflammation has entirely subsi-
ded.   The ligatures are to be  very gently  pull-
ed every  day after the first  week, until  they
oome easily off.
   349. Q. What is the treatment of hernia hu-
moralis, or inflammation of the testicle ?
   A. In hernia humoralisthe patient should be
kept in  an  horizontal  position; if young and
plethoric,  bleeding should be adopted.  It  is
generally  necessary to apply  leeches repeated-
ly;  to  administer  saline purgatives;  fomenta-
 tions and  poultices, or cold lotions, are to be
 had recourse to, and  the  testicle is to be sup-
 ported  by a bag truss.  Should there  he great
 pain in the loins, opiates will become necessary: 
64
if alter the inflammation has subsided  an indu
ration  should exist,  frictions  with mercurial
ointment will be found beneficial.
  350. Q.  What are the indications of cure in
mortification ?
  A. The indications of cure  in mortification
are ;—to arrest the progress of the disease, and
to promote the separation of the mortified part.
  351. Q.  How is the division of  the froenum
lingue to be effected, and what are the arteries
to be avoided ?
  A. The liberation of the froenum lingue con-
sists in dividing the froenum as far as seems ne-
cessary with a pair of sharp scissors with blunt
points;—the raninal arteries must be cautiously
avoided in this operation.
  352. Q.  What  is the  general treatment of
fractures ?
  A. In the general treatment of fractures, the
limb is to be placed  in such  a position as  will
relax those muscles which tend to displace the
ends of a fractured bone; this seems best effect-
ed  by placing the limb in a  middle state be-
tween flexion and extension:  the  ends  of the
fractured bone are to be confined in a state of ap-
position; this is done by the aid of splints secured
by  straps:—to remedy the effects of pressure
from the splints, compresses of tow or other soft
substances is usually placed under the splints.
An eighteen-tail bandage is generally made use
of in fractures of the long bones, and is applied
dose to the limb.  When there is much inflam 
65
mation of the limb  before the fracture is  set,
liuen wetted with cold saturuine lotions is to be
applied between  the splints and limb, which
should be kept cold and moist by repeatedly
squeezing the lotion over the limb.  It may
be necessary to  bleed or give opiates accord-
ing to circumstances.
  353.  Q. How is a ganglion to be cured ?
  A. A ganglion may  often be removed  by
pressure;  sometimes it  may be necessary to
remove it by the scalpel, or to  make a perfora-
tion in it, and allow its contents to escape.
  354.  Q. How do aneurisms terminate if not
cured ?
   A. Aneurismal swellings, if not cured,  gra-
dually increase in size, the skin over the tumour
becomes pale; the pain  increases, and the  skin
begins to grow  livid; a degree of inflamma-
tion takes place, the skin cracks, and dischar-
ges  for some  time  a bloody serum,  until at
length it becomes quite gangrenous, when all of
a sudden  the tumour bursts, and the  patient
dies from hemorrhage.
  355.  Q. What is a steatoma ?
  A. Steatoma is a tumour containing a fatty
substance, and surrounded by a cyst of indura-
ted cellular membraue.
  356.  Q. What is meant by atheroma ?
  A. Atheroma is an encysted tumour contain-
ing matter of a doughy  consistence.
  357.  Q. What prognosis can be formed  after
the operation for hernia 1
                    F  % 
66
   A. If the operation to liberate strangulated
 hernia is performed early, there is comparative-
 ly little danger.  The danger is dependent upon
 the operation being delayed after necessity de-
 mands it.    Mortification  has ensued within
 twelve hours after  strangulation, and  in some
 few  instances strangulation  has been known
 to subsist for several days, and no mortification
 take place.
   358.  Q.  What causes  give rise to prolapsus
 ani ?
   A. The causes that give rise to prolapsus ani
 are costiveness,  debility, hemorrhoidal swell-
 ings,  or the action of stimulative substances
 that  iucrease the action of the rectum.
   359.  Q,  What are the signs of luxation in
 general P '
   A. In luxations the shape of the joint is al-
 tered ; the  motion of the limb is much impair-
 ed ;  a certain degree  of inflammation  takes
 place; the  pain  attending  which is sometimes
 so acute as  to occasion  convulsions, or spas-
 modic affections, from the compression of nerves
 by the displaced bone.
  360. Q. How are luxations of the collar-bone
 to be cured ?       /
  A.  Luxations of the collar-bone are easily re-
duced by pressure with the fingers, but  there is
 great difficulty in keeping the bone in this situ-
 ation.  The arm should be raised and confined
by bandages, a compress should be placed on
the luxated bone to prevent the action of the
muscles drawing the bone out of its place. 
67
  Sol. Q.  How is a venereal ophthalmy to be
cured ?
  A.  In the treatment of venereal ophthalmy,
mercurial frictions are to be  made use of, the
decoctum  sar?aparille compositum should be
taken.  A collyrium  of the  oxy muriate of
mercury  is recommended.   The eyelid may b§
also smeared with the unguentum hydrargyri
nitratL
  362. Q. In what direction do luxations of the
head  of  the  os  brachii most commonly  take
place ?
  A. The dislocation of  the head of the os
brachii generally takes place into the axilla.
  303. Q.  How  is dislocation of the thigh dis
tinguished  from a fracture of its neck ?
  A. Dislocation may be  distinguished  from
fracture of  the head of the  femur by these cir-
cumstances:—In fracture the leg is much short
er;  the limb cau be moved in many directions;
the toes mostly turn inwards;  by particular mo-
tions, a grating may be perceived, and a loss of
continuity.   In  dislocations of the thigh joint,
the  leg is generally much lengthened,  the  toes
are  turned  outwards, and it is almost impossible
to turn them inwards, at least without giving the
greatest pain j a vacancy is observed at the seat
of the acetabulum, and a tumour is felt which
13 caused by  the  head of the bone  out of the
acetabulum.
  364. Q.  Define a caries.
  A.  Caries is a mortification of a bone attend-
ed with an  ichorous foetid discharge. 
63
  365. Q.  Why does, the toothach produce so
considerable a pain ?
  A.  From the inflammation that takes place
in the pulp being confined by the fang.
  366. Q.  What are the causes that  give  rise
to ischuria ?
  A.  Ischuria may arise from inflammation of
the bladder produced  from various .causes;
spasms  affecting   the  neck  of  the  bladder;
scirrhosities of the prostate gland;  caruncles
in the urethra; pressure of the  uterus in  the
last months of pregnancy ; tumours in the peri-
neum, and vagina, as prolapsus  of the uterus;
polypi, or  enlargement of the corpus  spongi-
osum; the penis itself pressing the sides of the
urethra together; ischuria may also arise from
a loss of tone in the bladder itself,  and from
stones impacted in the urethra.
  367.  Q.  What is meant by hoematocele
scroti ?
  A.   Hoematocele is  a tumour produced by
blood beiug extntvasated in the strotum, tunica
vaginalis, or in the spermatic chord; it is most-
ly occasioned by  some external violence, as
blows inflicted  on the scrotum or surrounding
parts, producing a rupture of vessels.
  368. Q.  What are the symptoms of a punc-
tured  nerve from bleeding ?
  A.  In a punctured nerve from bleeding the
patient leels a more acute pain than  usual un-
der the operation, a numbness is communicated
to the shoulder,  aud  down  to the fingers:
these symptoms are often succeeded by spasms 
69
 of the neck and jaw, frightful dreams, the pa-
 tient becomes extremely irritable  and  deli-
 rious.
  369.  Q. What is a cataract ?
  A. A cataract is an opacity of the chrysta!-
 linu lens or its capsule.
  370. Q. What is meant by mollities ossium ?
  A. A state of bones whereby the}' become
 soft and preternaturally flexible.
  371.  If the head of the shoulder bono is lux-
 ated upwards, what is the consequence ?
  A. When  the head of the shoulder bone  is
 luxated  upwards,  a fracture of  the acromion
 process takes place.
  372.  Q.  What is the direction in  which lux-
 ations of the ulna  most commonly happen ?
  A. Luxations of the ulna most frequently take
 place upwards and backwards.
  373.  Q. How is a dislocation of thejower
jaw reduced ?
  A. A dislocation of the lower jaw is reduced
 by  passing  both  thumbs, previously covered
 with a linen cloth, into the mouth;  the jaw is
 then to be pushed  backwards, depressing the
 angles and raising  the symphysis of the jaw  at
 the  same  time  by gentle  pressure; the jaw
 immediately  springs back into its natural situ-
 ation by the action of the muscles.
  374.  Q.  What is a fungus?
  A. A fungus i:- a soft fleshy excrescence ri-
 sing out of an old wound  or  ill conditioned
 ulcer, and preventing its healing.
  375. t|. Ho>,v are dislocations oftheos femo-
 rjs reduced? 
79
  A.  In dislocations of the thigh bone, whet*
the head is in the foramen ovale,  the muscles
of the thigh are first to be relaxed as much  as
possible, the limb is  then to be extended  to
displace the end of the bone from its cavity:
when this is effected the' bone is to be  drawn
upwards and inwards into its socket; thi3 gene-
rally effects the reduction : but should the bone
be  above the acetabulum, a slight extension
will effect its reduction; it happens occasional-
ly that  the head of the  bone is not reduced,
owing to the projection of the acetabulum pre-
venting  the necessary extension;  the bone
must then be elevated a little over  this projec-
tion, and the reduction is then effected.
   376. Q. In mortification of a limb, what state
are the arteries in near the diseased part ?
  A.  When mortification takes place at the low-
er part of an extremity, the diameter of the ar-
teries is diminished near the diseased part, and
they become stopped up with coagulated blood.
   377.  Q. When an artery is tied by ligature,
how is a permanent obliteration of its channel
effected ?
   A.  After an artery is secured by ligature, co-
agulable lymph is separated near the strictured
part,  this becomes organized,  and  unites the
sides  of  the arteries together, and thus oblite-
rates  the artery.
   378.  Q. What are the properties of pus ?
   A. Pus is a fluid of a lightish colour, of the
consistence of cream ; it has little smell, is void
of acrimony, and consists of globules swimming 
71
in a transparent, colourless fluid.  Its specific
gravity  is greater than that  of water.
  379.  (|. What are the differences between
pus and mucus .'
   A. Pus is  distinguished from  mucus by the
following circumstances; pus sinks  in water,
mucus  floats; pus gives to water a uniform
white colour;  mucus has a ropy appearance
in water.  If pus and mucus are mixed with
sulphuric acid, on the addition of water the pus
h precipitated-to the bottom, and the mucus
forms swimming flakes.   A solution  of caustic
alkali dissolves both pus and mucus;  but on the
addition of water the pus is separated and not
the mucus.
   380.  Q. What are the symptoms which an-
nounce the formation of pus in inflammation of
the hip joint ?
   A. The symptoms which point, out the for-
mation  of pus in inflammation of the hip joint
are various, as the disease may be acute or chro-
nic.  When  the former takes place,  the  parts
surrounding the joint become tense and  pain-
ful, the skin  becomes red, inflammatory  fever
takes place,  as  the pain abates, rigours suc-
ceed, and a swelling is observed about the joint.
W hen the abscess is the  consequence of  chro-
nic  inflammation,  an  increase  of pain  takes
place previous to the occurrence of suppuration,
starting and catchings during sleep are noticed;
the  pus in the chronic species is a long while
before it arrives at the surface, at length a fluc-
tuating  tumour forms, but it does not immedi-
ately point. 
72
  381. Q.  What is the character of cancerou*
ulcer ?
  A. Cancerous ulcer is irregular in its figure,
and unequal on its surface, the edges are thick.
serrated, and extremely painful, there are largt:
chasms in  its substance,  produced partly, by
sloughing, and partly by an ulcerating process.
The ulcer affords a very foetid sanious  matter,
it spreads with great rapidity, and in its pro-
gress produces frequent hemorrhages.
  382. Q.  What prognosis  is to be given of
wounds of the oesophagus ?
  A. Wounds of the oesophagus generally are
mortal.
  383. Q.  How is  the removal  of a tumour
from the  breast performed ?
  A. In  removing a tumour from the breast, the
operation is generally performed as the patient
is in a sitting position, the pectoral muscle is
to be made tense by keeping the arm back, and
if none of the integuments are to be removed,
a straight incision is to be made through them,
the tumour is to he regularly dissected all round
front the circumjacent parts, and its base  is to
be detached  from its connexions from above
downwards, till the whole is separated.  If the
tumour is of a malignant nature, and adhering
to the skin and  pectural muscle benealh, an
inch or two of  the fat  should be removed on
every side of the diseased part,  and after the
removal of the tumour, the surface of the pec-
toral muscle, wherever it is adhering to the tu-
mour, should be removed. 

   38*.  Q. What is a node ?
   A. A node is a swelling of a bone, the peri
osteum, or a tendon mostly arising from  a vcne
real cause.
   S85. Q. What is the character of a venereal
ulcer in the throat ?
   A. A venereal ulcer affecting the throat is
very deep, it has a defined or thick edge, and is
generally very  foul, having a lardaceous slough
adhering  to it that cannot be detached.
   386.  Q. How is the vena sapliena to be tied
When in a varicose state ?
   A. The vena saphena is to be tied by passing
a  ligature under the vessel; the integuments
>nrc to be pinched up into a transverse fold, and
the ligature is to be conveyed under the vessel
by means of a  blunt silver needle.
   387. Q. How is hydrocele distinguished from
other tumours?
   A. Hydrocele is  distinguished from hernia
by the tumour  in hernia being somewhat elas-
tic,  and  becoming  more distended  when the
person coughs.   The swelling in hernia always
begins  at top, and extends gradually down-
wards.   Hernia is distinguished from encysted
dropsy of the chord  by the swelling \yh\z,  al
the superior part of the scrotum,  whilst in hy-
drocele it is at the inferior part.  It may be
distinguished from scirrhous testicle, being firm,
hard, and not yielding upon pressure, and from
the great  weight in proportion to its bulk.  In
hydrocele a lighted candle,  placed  at the op-
posite side of the tumour, will make the con;
f-nti of the sac seem transparent.
                     G 
74
  388. Q. What are the favourable symptoms
that point out success from trepanning ?
  A.  The favourable  symptoms which point
out success  from trepanning  are, the  patient
becoming less stupid, his breathing less oppress-
ed, and the pupils contracting upon exposure to
strong light.
  389. Q. If, after trepanning, a collection of
fluid should be found between the dura and pia
mater, how is it to be removed ?
  A.  Under such circumstances, a small hole
may be cautiously scratched on the dura mater,
to evacuate it.
  390. Q. When the parotid  duct is wounded,
what  is the consequence?
  A.  The consequence of wounding the paro-
tid duct is a fistulous opening which discharges
saliva, particularly during meals.
  391. Q. What is ecchymosis?
  A.  Ecchymosis  is an extravasation of blood
in the cellular membrane, occasioned by a rup-
ture of the small vessels of  the part.
  392. Q.  What is meant by exfoliation ?
  A.  Exfoliation is a separation of a dead por-
tion of bone from the living.
  393. Q. What method is to be taken to pre-
vent  exfoliation that is likely to occur from a
wound?
  A.  In attempting to  prevent exfoliation that
may take place from a  wound, all that is to be
done  is to cover the exposed bone as soon as
possible with the flesh that  has been detached.
  394.  Q.  Where is  the  fluid in.  hydrocele
sKubted ? 
75
  A.  The  fluid  in hydrocele is situated be-
tween the tunica vaginalis and the tunica albu-
ginea of the testicle.
  395. Q.  How are fistule  in perineo to be
dressed after they have been laid open !
  A. Fistule in perineo, after being laid open,
are to be dressed quite down tothe end, to allow
of granulations shooting up from the bottom
before reunion of the parts takes place.
  396. Q.  What is meant by simple fracture?
  A.  By simple fracture is meant a breach of
continuity of bone, without an external wound.
  397. Q.  What regimen do gun-shot wounds
require ?
  A.  Gun  shot wounds generally require the
antiphlogistic regimen.
  398. Q.  How is the operation for phymosia
performed ?
  A.  This operation  is performed by intro-
ducing adirectory under the prepuce, then  pass-
ing a curved pointed bistoury, and slitting  open
the prepuce.
  399. Q. Where do strictures most frequently
take place  in the urethra ?
  A.  Strictures  most commonly occur at the
membranous part of the urethra; from its being
more acted upon by the salts of the urine; the
Hrine, after being  expelled  from  the bladder,
remains at this part of the urethra to be thrown
out by the  accelaratores urine.
  400. Q.  From whence does the discharge of
gonorrhea  flow ?
   \.  The  discharge of gonorrhea  flows  from
the mucus lacunar of the urethra. 
7«
  401. Q.  What-muscles are divided in ampitt-
lation of the thigh ?
  A. The muscles divided in amputation of the
thigh are the biceps flexor cruris, semitendino-
sus, semimembranosus, gracilis, sartorius,  vas-
tus  externus, vastus internus, rectus  femoris,
cruras*,  and the long tendon of  the adductor
aiagnus.
  402. Q.  At what part of the os femoris dfr
fractures most frequently take place ?
  A. Fractures of the os femoris most frequent-
ly take place at the middle or third of its ex-
tent.
  403. Q.  What part of the tibia is most liable
to be fractured ?
  A. The part of the tibia most liable to frac-
tures is the part a little above the internal mal-
leolus.
  404. Q.  What takes plaee in a luxation  of
the ankle, the foot being turned upwards and
outwards ?
  A. When the ankle is luxated, the foot being
turned upwards and outwards, the fibula is ge-
nerally fractured.
  405.  Q.  What change do lhe  collateral
branches undergo when a large arterial trunk
is tied ?
  A. The collateral arteries,  after a  large ar-
terial trunk is tied, dilate,  their coats become
stronger, and  acquire  an additional strength;-
they also are found to become tortuous.
   106. Q.  What is meant by cicatrization ?
  A. Cicatrisation is that process by  which
weunds and sores heal, or by which the forma* 
77
.ion of new skin takes place over a wound  or
ulcer.
  407. Q.  How is castration performed ?
  A.  Castration is performed in the following
manner.   The patient is to be laid on a table
of convenient height.   An incision is then to
be made opposite the abdominal ring, and con-
tinued a  good way down the scrotum, in order
to lay bare the spermatic  chord and testicle ;
the spermatic chord thus laid bare is to be  de-
tached from the surrounding membranous con-
nexions, and then the surgeon  with his  finger
and thumb separates the blood vessels fr>m  the
vas deferens,  he  must next pass a ligature  be-
tween them,  and having tied the former only,
he must cut through  the whole chord at a quar-
ter or half an inch from the ligature; the next
thing to  be done  is to dissect the testicle  out
from  the scrotum.   Should any vessels bleed,
they  are to be secured.  The wound is next to
be brought together to unite by the first inten-
tion,  and the scrotum is to be supported by  the
T bandage.
  403  Q. What is meant by callus ?
  A. Callus is the ossific matter that forms  the
conjunction of a fractured bone.
  40').  Q. What is the theory of the formation
of calliis ?
   A. The theory of the formation of callus is
this;  from the ends of a broken bone, the arte-
ries secrete a gelatinous matter, this very soon
becomes organized by the elongation of the se-
creting vessel, which at length deposits bone in
                    ©  2 
19
   this new formed animal substance,-so as to[>iv
   duce a junction of the broken bone.
     410.  Q. What are the consequences that may
   arise from a fractured sternum ?
     A. The consequences that may result from;
   fracture of the sternum are,  the fractured por-
   tions may be driven inwards, so as to injure the
   lungs.
     411.  Q. What are the cases that require the
   operation for bronchotomy ?
     A. Bronchotomy has  been proposed in the
   active inflammation of the upper part of the
   larynx  which  threatens suffocation.  To ex-
,  tract foreign bodies that  become impacted  in
   the trachea.   In the croup it has been proposed
   to extract the coagulable lymph that  would.
   have caused suffocation.   It has also been re-
   commended to be performed on those recently
   suffocated or drowned,  and in glossitis, where
   the tongue has so enlaged as to shut up the pas-
   sage through the fauces.
     412.  Q. What are the symptoms of calcu-
   lus?
     A. The symptoms of calculus are, a dull un-
   easy sensation about the neck of the bladder,
   with a similar sensation at the glans penis, this
   increases, and becomes more frequent. In void-
   ing the urine, the stream is frequently stopped*
   and great pain is produced at the neck of the«
   bladder;  in order to obtain ease, the patient
   changes  his position; sometimes  small  pie-
   ct s  of stone are voided.   The urine is some-
   times charged with mucus, at other times lini-


                                     i 
79
pid; sometimes  it is tinged  with blood, espe-
cially after violent exercise :  but the  most di-
agnostic sign is touohing the stone with  the
sound.
  413.  Q. What sensation is communicated to
the operator upon touching a stone in the blad-
der with the sound ?
  A. When a stone in the bladder is  touched
by  the  sound,  a tremulous motion is  commu-
nicated  to the lingers of the operator.
  414.  Q. Why  is the finger  introduced  into
the rectum whilst sounding ?
  A. The finger is introduced into the rectum
whilst sounding in order to raise the undermost
part of the bladder, and consequently to bring
the calculus in such a  situation that the sound
may touch it.
  415.  Q. In trepanning, generally  a slight
bleeding takes  place from the diploe when the
saw has arrived at (hat part; what conclusion is
to be formed when it does not take place ?
  A. AVhen the saw has reached the diploe in
trephining, if an oozing of blood does  not take
place, an inference may be drawn that  the dura
mater is detached from  the  cranium  at  that
part.
  416.  Q. What are the symptoms that some-
times attend luxations, besides an alteration in
the shape of the joint ?
  A. In luxations some degree of inflammation
takes place, occasionally there are convulsions
and spasmodic  affections from compression of
the nerves by the displaced booe. 
80
'  417. Q.  How would you endeavour to unite
ruptured tendon ?
  A.  A  ruptured  tendon is  to be united,  by
bringing the ruptured ends of the tendon as
nearly  in contact as possible, and keeping the
muscles of the part relaxed.
  418.  Q.  How is the interrupted suture per-
formed ?
  A. The  interrupted suture is performed by
inserting two needles  on one  ligature, and  in-
troducing each  of  them  at  the bottom  of the
wound, they are then  to be pushed outwards at
a proper distance form the edge of the  wound,
and the needles are to be taken off the ligature,
which is to be pulled  to bring the edges of the
wound into  contact.  The number of ligatures
is to be according  to the extent of the wound.,
  419.  Q.  How is the twisted suture  perform-
ed?
  A. The twisted suture is performed by intro-
ducing two or more pins, according to the  ex-
tent of the  wound, through both  its  edges;
when the edges of the wound are brought into
contact upon the pins, a wax ligature is to  be
twisted round these so as to  form  a figure of 8.
This kind  of suture  is generally used in  the
operation for the hare lip.
  420.  Q.  How is the glovers suture  perform-
ed ?
  A. The glovers suture is  performed by pass-
ing a number of stitches in a spiral direction
along the edges of the wound.
  421.  Q.  What is the glovers suture used for? 
81
  A.  The  glovers suture is used for wounds of
the abdomen and intestines.
  422. Q.  What is the interrupted suture used
for?
  A.  The  interrupted suture is made use  of
to bring the  edges of large and deep  wounds
together.


             PHYSIOLOGY.

  423. Q.  WHAT  is the  course of  the  cir-
culation !
   A. The blood is received  from the arteries
by the veins,  and is returned by the  superior
and  inferior cava  to the right auricle of the
heart, which, becoming distended,  contracts
aud empties its  blood into the right ventricle.
The right ventricle then contracts and propels
the blood through the pulmonary artery iuto the
lungs, there to uudergo a peculiar change, and
to be conveyed by the  four  pulmonary  veins
into the left auricle.  The  left auricle being
distended evacuates its blood  into the left ven-
tricle.  The li'ft ventricle propels  the  blood
through the aorta, to  be  circulated by the ar-
teries, and  again to  be returned  by the veins
to the heart.
  424. Q.  How do you distinguish venal from
arterial blood ?
   A. Venal blood is  of a dark colour (except-
ing that  which  is in the venal system of the
lungs.)  Arterial blood is of a florid  red ver-
million hue (excepting the blood of the pulmo-
nary artery, which is dark.) 
82
  425. Q.  What is the contraction of the heart
called ?
  A. Systole.
  426. Q.  In what viscusdoes the change from
arterial to venal blood take place ?
  A. In  the lungs.
  427. Q.  Whrit is the colour of the blood in
the pulmonary artery ?
  A. Of a  dark colour.
  328. Q.  What is the cause of  the bile regur-
gitating into the gall bladder?
  A. Because the opening of the ductus com-
munis choledochus is shut,  when  digestion is
not going on, the bile therefore,  not finding an
access to the duodenum, regurgitates into the
gall bladder.
  429. Q.  What is the use of the urinary blad-
der?
  A. To receive,  to retain  for a certain time,
and to expel the urine.
  430. Q.  What is the use of the gastric juice?
  A. To digest the food.
  431. Q.  What is the theory of ossification ?
  A. First, the formation of a jelly, this becom-
ing cartilage, the absorbents remove a portion of
the cartilage, forming a cavity, and the arteriea
next deposit the osseous  matter in the cavity:
it is however, not always cartilage that the bo-
ny  matter is deposited in, for in most of the flat
bones the deposition takes place between mem-
branes.
   432. Q.  How is inspiration performed ?
   A. The  intercostal  muscles contract, assist-
ed by other muscles, and increase the transverse 
83
breadth of the cavity of the chest; whilst the
diaphragm  contracts and increases the length
of the cavity of the chest; the air then rushes
down the trachea, and inspiration is performed.
  433.  Q.  What is meant by secretion ?
  A. The  formation of a  fluid  different from
the blood, from the minute ends of arteries.
  434.  Q.  What change  is produced on the
blood in the lungs ?
  A. The  blood is changed from a dark colour
to a  florid red, it is deprived of hydrogen and
carbon, and absorbs oxygen, caloric, and a por-
tion of nitrogen.
  435.  Q.  How is expiration performed ?
  A. By the relaxation of the intercostal mus-
cles and diaphragm, and the thorax assuming its
relaxed state.
  436. Q. What is meant  by animal  heat ?
  A. The natural heat of an animal, which, in
the human  being, raises the mercury in Fahren-
heit's thermometer to about  98°.
  437.  Q.  Why does not the fluid exhaled to
lubricate the different cavities of the body accu-
mulate ?
  A.  Because in a  healthy state the inhalents
or absorbents  counterbalance the exhalents or
secreting arteries.
  438. Q.  How is nutrition effected ?
  A. By the  lacteals, the ostiaof which open
upon the internal surface of the small intestines,
selecting the  chyle  from  the  excrementitious
part  of the food, and conveying it into the tho-
pacie duct which empties itself into the angle of
the left jugular  and subclavian vein, thereby 
84 •
repairing the blood of its  continual  losses in
nourishing the body.
  439. Q. What membrane moderates the ef-
fect of light on the retina ?
  A.  The iris, which diminishes or enlarges the
pupil, according to the intensity of the light.
  440. Q. What is the use of the fluid which
fills the labyrinth of the ear ?
  A.  It preserves  the nervous fibrils soft, and
moderates the tremours of sound.
  441. Q. Why does not  the fat gravitate to
the lower extremities after  long standing, like
the fluid of an anasarcous person ?
  A.  Because the fat is contained  in vesicles
which do not communicate like the cells of the
cellular membrane.
  442.  Q. Why does  not  the urine excite in-
flammation of the bladder ?
  A.  Because the bladder is accustomed to its
stimulus, and a great quantity of mucus is se-
creted by the internal membrane to blunt its
acrimony.
  443.  Q. Why do enlarged mesenteric glands
cause an atrophy ?
  A.  Because they obstruct the passage of the
•chyle through the lacteals to the thoracic duct.
  444. Q. In what  ages and sex is the pulse
the most frequent ?
  A.  In children and women the pulse' is mosf
frequent.
  445. Q. What is  the use of the anastomoses
of arteries ?
   A. The use of arteries anastomosing is to al
low of blood being conveyed to parts where it? 
.  85
passage is prevented in the principal branch <*i
branches that supply these parts  with blood;
another use is that of facilitating the passage of
blood from one part to another, and prevent the
distention of parts.
  446.  Q. Is the fat solid or fluid in the living
body?
  A. The fat in a living body is found in some
parts in a state of semifluidity, and in other parts
it is found absolutely fluid.
  447.  Q. What is  the cause  of  fainting  that
sometimes takes place uuder the operation of
tapping ?
!  A. Fainting takes place in tapping in conse-
quence of the sudden removal of the pressure of
fluid from the diaphragm and viscera.
  448.  Q. How does a compression of the tho-
racic duct, cither by an aneurism of the heart
or aorta, occasion so frequently a dropsy ?
  A. The compression of the thoracic duct pre-
vents the lymph from the absorbent vessels be-
ing returned into the blood, the absorbents are
therefore prevented performing their office, and
an accumulation takes place.
  449.  Q. Why  does a person troubled  with
calculus find  great difficulty  in passing the
urine when he leans forward ?
  A. Because  the calculus falling against the
orifice of the urethra thereby prevents the regu-
lar flow of urine.
  450. Q. Why does not the urine flow back
from the bladder to the kidney ?
   A. The urine is  prevented flowing back to
the pelvis of the kidney by the valve formed
H 
Sb
by the inner coat of the bladder over the orifice
of the ureter, produced by the ureter's piercing
the bladder obliquely.
   451.  Q. Why  is the spine composed of so
many small bones ?
   A. The reason why the spine is composed of
so many bones is  to allow of great strength with
a suificieut degree of mobility.
   452.  Q. Is there any alteration in the mus-
cles of a paralytic limb.
   A. Yes, the muscles of a paralytic limb are
paler and more flaccid.
   453.  Q. How  is the voice performed ?
   A. The voice  results from the vibration the
air suffers during  its passage through the glottis,
when expelled from the lungs.
   454.  Q. Which of the two has the  greatest
power in preventing luxations of the joint, the
muscles that surround the joint, or its own liga-
ments ?
   A. The  muscles  that  surround joints give
them greater strength than  their surrounding
ligaments.
   455.  Q. What is the use the cartilages of
the surfacefcof joints ?
   A. The uses of the articular cartilages are to
give  the bones a  smoothness for easy motion, to
assist motion by  their elasticity, and  to guard
against the effects of concussion.
   456.  Q. What is the most elastic substance
 in the body ?
   A. The most  elastic substance in the  body
 is cartilage.
    ?57.  Q. Are tendonselastfr ' 
87
  A. Tendons ore not elastic, for if they weir,
the power of muscles wouldbe greatly diminish-
ed.
  458. Q. What is the use of the adeps?
  A.  The adeps guards against the effects of
pressure, it lessens the specific gravity  of the
body, fills up the interstices of muscles, and is a
reservoir for nourishment jto the body.
       PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.

  459. Q.  WlIAT do you mean by a  teta;
nus?
  A.  It h a tonic spasm of the extensor or flex-
or muscles of the body.
  460. Q.  How would you treat inflammation
of the bowels ?
  A.  By general and topical blood-letting, by
the warm bath and fomentations, by the frequent
exhibition  of purges, and by giving saline dia
phoretics with  mucilaginous drinks.
  461. Q.  What is a dysentery ?
  A.  It h a spasmodic constriction of the colon,
with a retention of the natural  feces, and the
frequent expulsion of mucus or sanguineous mo-
lions.
  462. Q.  What are  the symptoms of enteri-
tis?
  A.  Fever, costiveness, a twisting around the
umbilicus,  tension  and acute pain of the abdo-
men, increased pain upon pressure,  tenesmus or
vomiting, according to the seat of the inflamma-
tion ;  quick, or slow, and hard, contracted pulse . 
86
*reat prostration of strength, and high coloured
Urine.
  463. Q. What are the symptoms  of volvu-
lus ?
  A.  Violent pain and distention of the abdo-
men,  attended with a peculiar twisting around
the navel, obstinate costive ness, slight febrile
symptoms, and a frequent vomiting of a stereo-
raceous matter.
  464. Q. What are the symptoms  of nephri-
tis?
  A.  Pyrexia, pain in the region of the kidney,
extending along the course of the ureter, accom-
panied with numbness of the leg and thigh of
the affected  side, nausea, and  vomiting, re-
traction  of  the  testicle, high-coloured urine,
sometimes mucous or bloody, frequent mictura-
tion, dysuria.
  465. Q. How would you distinguish hepatitis
from gastritis ?                    -  ■     •«.
  A.  From gastritis by the seat of the'pain, by
the sympathetic pains of the clavicle and should-
er,  by the  less  prostration of strength  and
greater fulness of the pulse, by the colour of the
stools and urine.
  466 Q. What purges would you give in ne-
phritis ?
   A. Oleaginous purges and frequent emollient
clysters.
   467. Q. What are  the  symptoms   of pneu-
monia ?
   A. Obtuse pain and sense of weight and op-
pression in the chest: anxious breathing, and
the pain is increased during inspiration; hard. 
39
contracted, and frequent pulse; the face is uaii
ally flushed, and of a purple hue; the tongue is
white, the urine is high coloured, and there are
other symptoms of synocha.
   468.  Q. How would you distinguish cystitis
from enteritis ?
   A. From enteritis by the seat of the  pain :
the tension  and tumour which is above  the
pubes in cystitis, by the micturation, and by the
painful  discharge of urine in small quantities
or the complete obstruction to its passage.
   469.  Q. When gangrene takes place in ill
ternal parts, what are the symptoms ?
   A. A  peculiar appearance of  the  counte-
nance ;  cold  perspirations; coldness of the ex-
tremities;  sudden  cessation of pain;  hiccup;
subsultus tendinum; suppression of urine;  con-
vulsions, and the pulse scarcely perceptible.
  470.  Q. What are the symptoms of hydroce-
phalus ?
  A. Languor, inactivity, loss of appetite, nau-
sea, vomiting, parched tongue, dry  skin, flush-
ing of the face, and other symptoms of pyrexia;
pain over the eyes, the pain in the headacb
becomes extremely acute, and intermits, occa-
sioning  the patient to scream violently, disturb-
ed sleep,  extreme restlessness, flushed counte-
nance,  costiveness, vomiting, stupor,  convul-
sions, dilated  pupils.
  471.  Q. What is a typhus fever ?
   A.  A very infectious fever, characterized by-
great debility, disturbed animal  functions,  lan-
guid circulation, furred tongue, aching  pains in
different parts of the #ody, particularly the head
                    H ?■ 
ao
and small of the back, and the evacuated fluids
of the body undergoing speedy putrefaction.
  472.  Q. What are the indications of cure in
a typhus fever ?
  A. To excite anew action in the system, by
rousing the actions of the brain and arteries.
To support the strength  of  the patient, and to
obviate the putrid tendency in the fluids.
  473.  Q. What is the best way of destroying
the foetid smell of sick wards ?
  A. By extricating nitrous fumes from a mix-
ture of nitre and sulphuric acid  placed in hot
sand.
  474.  Q. What is meant by scrofula?
  A. A peculiar disease affecting people of a
particular habit of body, and usually the glandu-
lar parts.
  475.  Q. What is the  best way of relieving
inflammatory  affections ?
   A. By bleeding  either locally or generally,
by  blisters, exhibiting cathartics, diaphoretics,
and a low diet.
   476. Q. How is  the colic distinguished from
enteritis.
   A. The colic is  distinguished from enteritis
by the  peculiar twisting and occasional pain,
by the  absence of fever in the early part of the
disease, by the pain in enteritis being increased,
in colic alleviated  by pressure; by the irregu-
lar contraction of the abdominal muscles.
   477. Q.  How is a  diarrhea distinguished
from dysentery ?
   A. Diarrhea is distinguished  from dysentery
by being unattended eithfr with fever, inflam- 
91
mation, contagion, or tenesmus, by the appear-
ance of the matter evacuated, which in one dis-
ease is feculent or mixed with alimentary mat-
ter, in the other mucal, sanguinous, dr-( utrid.
   478. Q. How many species of diabetes are
there ?
   A. There are two species of diabetes, viz.
diabetes mellitus, and the diabetes insipidus.
   479.  Q.  How is  mania distinguished from
phrenitis 1
   A. Mania is distinguished from phrenitis by
the former  not being accompanied  by fever,
which the latter always is.
  480.  Q. What is meant by anasarca?
  A.  Anasarca is a preternatural collection of
3erum or watery fluid in the cellular membrane
of the whole or part of the body.
  '481. Q. What are the indications in the cure
of scurvy ?
  A.  The indications in the cure of scurvy are;
I st. to correct the septic tendency of the fluids;
2d. to palliate urgent symptoms; 3d.  to restore
the tone of the solids.
  482. Q. What are  the  species of tympani-
tes ?
  A.  There are  two species of tympanites, viz.
tympanites abdominalis, or collection of air in
the cavity of the peritoneum; and tympanites
Intestinalis, or collection of air in the cavity of
the intestines.
  483. Q. What sex is  most subject to teta-
nus ?
  A.  The male  sex is most subject to tetanus -
and those of a robust or vigorous constitution. 
92
  484. Q. What is the general division of te-
tanus?
  A. The general division of tetanus is into tris-
mus,  or  locked jaw; opisthotonos, when the
spasmodic affection of the muscles causes the
body  to be bent backwards;  and emprosthoto-
nos, when the body is  bent forwards.
  485. Q. What are Dr.  Cullen's speeies of
paralysis ?
  A.  His species of paralysis are, 1st. Paraly-
sis Partialis, or-palsy of a certain  muscle or set
of muscles; 2nd. Paralysis hemiplegica, or a to-
tal palsy of one side of the body;  3d. Paralysis
paraplegica, or a palsy of one half the body ta-
ken transversely; 4th. Paralysis  venenata, or
palsy  from poisons.
  486. Q. How many species of catarrh  are
there  ?            N
  A.  Two, viz. catarrhus a frigore, or common
cold,  and  catarrhus  contagiosus,  or the in-
fluenza.
  487. Q. What are the  species of apoplexy ?
  A.  There  are several:  but  the most useful
distinction is into the  sanguineous and the se-
rous.
  488. Q.  What are the indications of cure in
dropsy ?
  A.  To evacuate the fluid, and to prevent a
second accumulation.
  489. Q. How many species of cholera morbus
are there ?
  A.  Two, viz. cholera  spontanea and cholera
accidentals.
   490. Q. What are the species of syncope ? 
03
  A.  Three, viz. syncope accidental, syncope
cardiaca, and syncope anginosa.
  491. Q.  What are the indications of cure in
catarrh ?
  A.  To reduce  the febrile action of the sys-
tem, and to allay the irritation of the affected
parts.
  492. Q. How  is  synocha distinguished
from  typhus ?        »
  A. From typhus by the more sudden acces-
sion of the disease : by its arising from common
causes, as sudden alterations  of  temperature;
the application of cold to a heated body;  vio-
lent exercise, intemperance, «fcc.  and not from
contagion; by the strength of the body not be-
ing diminished;  the hardness of the pulse; the
whiteness of the  tongue; and  by the high co-
lour of the  urine.
  493. Q.  How is cynanche tonsillaris distin-
guished from cynanche maligna ?
   A.  By the fever, which, in the former, is in-
flammatory, in the latter typhoid, and by the
absence of ulceration  in cynanche tonsillaris.
  494. Q. How  is  rheumatism  distinguished
from podagra ?
  A.  By  its generally  attacking the larger
joints; by  the pain shifting its seat, and follow-
ing the course of the muscles  in its translation
to other parts; by the disease  not having been
preceded by symptoms of the dyspepsia; by its
occurring at any period  of life, whereas gout is
usually confined to the adult age.
   495. Q. How is tympanites distinguished from.
Ascites ? 
94
  A. By the absence of fluctuation and of those
symptoms  which characterise the hydropic dia-
thesis.
         MATERIA MEDICA.

  496. Q. IxOW many gpecies of cinchona or
Peruvian barks are there ?
   A. There are several species, but only three
"m general use, viz. cortex cinhone cordifolie,
or yelloAv  bark;—cortex cinchone lancifolie,
or common quilled bark;—cortex cinchone ob-
longifolie, or red bark.
   497. Q. What  are the virtues  of  cinchona
barks ?
   A. Tonic, antiseptic, and stomachic.
   498. Q.  What are the virtues of opium ?
   A. Narcotic, antispasmodic and stimulant.
or sedative, according to the dose which is ad-
ministered.
  499. Q. What is the dose of digitalis ?
   A. From one to three grains in the form of
powder.
  500. Q. What  cathartic exerts its  influence
on the rectum ?
   A. Aloes.
  501. Q. What are the virtues of aloes ?
   A. Cathartic, emmenagogue and anthelmin-
tic.
  502. Q. What  do you mean by cathartics 1
   A. Those medicines, which, when  *aken in-
fernally, increase  the alvine evacuations. 
95
   503. Q. What  do you mean  by emmena
 gogues ?
   A.  Medicines which have the power of de-
 termining blood to the uterus, either by their lo-
 cal irritation, or by their exciting the action of
 the system generally.
   504. Q. What are diaphoretics ?
   A.  They are medicines which augment the
 insensible perspiration.
   505. Q. What are diuretics ?
   A.  Those medicines which increase the se-
 cretion of urine.
   506. Q. What quantity of confectio opii of
 the London pharmacopoeia contains one grain
 Of opium?
   A.  About six and thirty grains.
   507.  Q.  What is meant by antispasmodics '.'
 '  A. Medicines which have the power of allay-
 ing or  removing inordinate motion in the mus'
 cular system.
   508.  Q.  What medicines  come under the
 class of antispasmodics ?
   A. Moschus, castoreum, oleum animate, pe-
troleum, ammonia, assafoetida, sagapenum, gal-
banum, Valeriana, oleum cajeputa, opium, cam-
phor, ether.
  509. Q. What is meant by sialogogues ?
  A. Those  medicines which promote a dis-
charge of saliva from the salivary glands.
  510. Q. What are tonics ?
  A. Medicines which give tone to the system
or muscular fibre.
  511. Q. What is the dose of confectio opii ?
   A. From five grains to half a drachm. 
96
  512. ^. In a fluid ounce of  the liquor anti->
monii tartarizati how much antimonium tartari-
zatum is contained ?
  A.  Two grains.
  513. Q. What quantity of mercury is con-
tained in three grains of the pilula hydrargyri ?
  A.  One grain.
  514. Q. How many kinds of aloes are now
used in medicine ?
  A.  Two, viz. the extract of  the aloes spica-
ta, called socotrine aloes, and the extract of the
aloes vulgaris, called Barbadoes aloes.
  5IS. Q. What is  the dose of the nitras  ar*
genti ?
  A.  From gr. fs. to gr. iij.;  it has been given
in a much larger dose.
  516. Q. What are expectorants?
  A.  Such medicines as promote the secretion
from the lungs.
  517. Q. What are stimulants ?
  A.  Those medicines which increase the ac-
tion of the nervous and vascular system.
  518. Q. What  medicines come under the
class of tonics ?
  A.  Peruvian bark; quas-ia; camomile; gen-
tian;  oak  bark;  columba;  lesser  centaury;
pomegranate;  cascarilla;  wormwood;  south-
ernwood;  tansy; buck bean; elm bark; agri-
mony; forrugineous preparations;  sulphat of
copper; oxide of zinc; sulphat of zinc; alum;
and most of the mineral acids.
  519. Q. How much mercury is contained in
two drachms of the unauenfcnm. hvdrargyri fo>
fhis?                  • 
97
  A.  One drachm.
  520. Q. In ten grains of the puivis ipecacu
auhe compositus how much opium is contained?
  A.  One grain.
 '52!. Q. What i3 the dose of the oxidum hy-
drargyri rubrum ?
  A.  From  half a grain to two grains.
  522. Q. What is the  dose of the submurias
hydrargyri ?
  A.  From  one to twelve grains,  to act as a
purgative, and from one eighth of a grain to one
grain, to act as an alterative.
  523. Q. What is meant by antiseptics ?
  A.  Those medicines which are capable of
resisting a tendency to putrefaction.
  524. Q. What are the substances that come
under the class of antiseptics ?
  A.  Acids; Peruvian  bark; quassia; colum-
ba; wormwood; southernwood; alkohol; ether;
wine; seneka root; madder;  opium; camphor;
carbonic acid.
  525. Q. What is meant by anthelmintics ?
  A.  Such  substances as have the  power of
destroying worms.
  526. Q. Enumerate the principal anthelmin-
tics?
  A. Worm-seed; tin-filings; assafoetida; tan-
sy ; Indian pink; male fern; tobacco; cowitch;
cabbage  tree  bark;  savine;  aloes; gamboge ;
hedge-hyssop; jalap; castor-oil;  almond  oil;
and most of the  cathartics.
   527.  Q. What do you mean by alteratives ?
   A. Alteratives are those medicines which so
change the  state of the solids and  fluids as to
                      I 
98
effect the cure of a disease without producing
any evacuation, or suddenly increasing the ani-
mal functions.
  528. Q.  What are astringents ?
  A. They  are  medicines which have the
power of constringing the animal fibre.
  529. Q.  What are the substances that come
under this class.
  A. Alum; superacetate of lead; preparations
of iron; opium;  logwood; oak bark;  pome-
granate;  galls;   tormentil;  simarouba;  red
roses;  balaustine  flowers; rhubarb  in  small
doses; catechu; oxide of zinc; acetate of zinc;
sulphat of copper; sulphuric acid;  the calcare-
ous earths; and bistort.
  530. Q.  What are the virtues of the nitras
argenti ?
  A. It is used externally as an escharotic; in-
ternally it is given as an antispasmodic in epi-
lepsy and chorea St. Viti.
  531. Q.  What are the virtues of the antimo-
nium tartarisatum ?
  A. It acts as a diaphoretic in the  dose of one
eighth of a grain to one grain, and as an emetic
from one grain to six.
  532. Q.  In cases where  poison has been ta-
ken, what emetic Would you select ?
  A. The sulphat of zinc, as it is more speedy
in its operation  than  most of the  other eme-
tics.
  533. Q.  What are the virtues and dose of the
pulvis ipecacuanhe compositus ?
  A. It is given  as a  diaphoretic from four
grains to a scruple. 
99
  534. Q. What are the virtues of the sulphu-
retum hydrargyri rubrum ?
  A. It  is given as  an  alterative  from two
grains to a scruple, and it is also used to fumi-
gate venereal ulcers of  the  throat  and other
parts.
  535. Q. What are the  virtues of the aceias
potasse ?
  A. It  is given as  a  diuretic and purgative
from ten  grains to three drachms.
  536. Q. What are the  virtues of the tartras
potasse ?
  A. It  is given as a purgative from a scruple
to three drachms.
  537. Q. What are the  virtues of  the pulvis
antimonialis ?
  A. It is given as an alterative and  diapho-
retic from three grains to fifteen.
  538. Q. What is the dose of the oxy-murias
hydrarffyri ?
  A. From the sixteenth  part of a grain to half
a grain.
  539. Q. What are styptics ?
  A. They  are  substances  which  possess  a
jvower of stopping hemorrhages.
  540. Q. What is meant by errhines ?
  A. Those medicines which, when applied to
the membrane of the nose, excite sneezing, and
increase  the secretion therefrom.
  541. Q. What do you mean by epispastics ?
  A. Substances which blister the  skin, that
is,  which increase the action of the vessels of
those parts of the body to which they are ap-
plied,  producing an efflux of  fluid there and a 
100
lection  of serum  between  the cuticle  and
cutis.
  542.  A. What is catechu ?
  A. A reddish brown substance of an astrin-
gent  taste, prepared in India  by  boiling the
wood of the  acacia  catechu, and  evaporating
the decoction by the heat of the sun.
  543.  Q. What is <-cammony ?
   A. A concrete gummy resinous juice, of a
light grey colour, and rather  an unpleasant
smell and bitterish sub-acrid taste, brought from
Aleppo and  Smyrna,  and which exudes from
the cut root of the convolvulus scammonia.
   544.  Q. What is myrrh ?
   A. A substance of a black red colour, solid
 and heavy, of a peculiar smell and bitter taste,
 brought from Arabia.
   545. Q. What  is ipecacuanha ?
   A. A small  root wrinkled and contorted, of a
 greyish or ash  colour, of a bitter sub-acrid taste
 and very little smell,  the produce of the calli-
 eocca ipecacuanha, growing in south America.
   546. Q. What is camphor ?
   A. A  substance which is white and pelucid,
 somewhat unctuous to the touch, of a bitterish,
 aromatic, acrid taste  ; of a fragrant  smell, re-
 sembling  that of rosemary; it is found in con-
 crete lumps between the  bark in the inter tiee*
 of the  wood and pith of  the laurus  camphora,
 which grows in  Japan; it undergoes  two sub-
 limations before we receive it in England.
    547. Q. From whence do we obtain opium,
 and what is the name of the plant that  afford?
 it? 
101
   A. It is obtained from Persia, Arabia,  and
Turkey,  where  incisions  are  made into the
capsule or head of the papaver somniferum;the
juice flows and becomes concrete by the heat
of the sun.
   548. Q. What animal  affords castor,  and
what part of the  animal does it form ?
   A. The animal that affords this substance is
the  castor fibre, which inhabits the northern
countries of Europe and America; the substance
so called is found in two bags situated in the in-
guinal regions of the male beaver, distinct from
the testes.
   549. Q. What is quassia ?
   A. A wood afforded by  the quassia excelsa,
which grows abundantly at Surinam.
   550. Q. What plant affords the jalap  root ?
   A. The convolvulus jalapa,  which grows in
South  America.
   551. Q. From whence do we obtain sperma-
ceti ?
   A. From the head of the physeter macroce
phalus, a species of whale that inhabits the nor;
them seas.
     CHEMISTRY AND PHAR-
                 MACY.

  552. Q. H.OW is distillation performed ?
  A.  Distillation is  performed in three ways ;
1st. Per ascensum ;  2nd. Per descensum; 3rd.
Per latus.
T 2 
102
   j53.  Q. Explaiu the three  methods and the
apparatus m.-.de use of.
   A. The distillation per ascensum is perform-
ed  generally  with  the common still, which
has aflixt d to it a head and refrigeratory.   The
still is for the purpose of containing the materi-
als to be distilled, the  head for the  vapour to
ascend.   From the head a tube is continued in
a circular manner  through a tub of cold water:
this last constitutes the refrigeratory; the use
ot which is to condense the vapour into a fluid
by abstracting heat.  Distillation per descensum
is performedjn the following way;—>a perforated
tinned iron plate is fixed within any convenient
vessel so  as to leave a space beneath it ;  on
this the  substance to be distilled is  bid, and
over it is placed another plate accurately clo-
sing the mouth of the vessel, and strong enough
to bear the fuel. The heat is thus applied at top,
and the vapour is forced to descend into the
inferior cavity, where it is  conden.-ed.  Distil-
lation per latus is  performed in a retort with a
receiver; the fluid to be distilled is introduced
into the body of the retort, the receiver is theu
adjusted, and heat is applied  to the retort, the
fluid i3 thus raised to a state of vapour that be-
comes condensed into a fluid, which runs down
the side of the neck into the receiver.
   554.  Q. What is meant by  the solution ?
   A. Solution  is the diminution of the aggrega-
tion of a solid, so as to cause it to loose the solid
form, and  to enter into  chemical combination
with a fluid.
* 
103
  555. Q.  What is the difference  between i;i
fusion and decoction ?
  A.  Infusion consists in pouring upon any sub-
stance a cold or hot menstruum, and suffering it
to stand a certain time, and then straining it off.
Decoction  consi-ts in  boiling  the substance
with the menstruum a certain time, and  then
straining off.
  556. Q.  What is meant by precipitation ?
  A.  It is  that process by which a solid is ob.
tained from a solution.
  557. Q.  In  what respects does crystallization
differ from  precipitation ?
  A.  Only that the particles of the sol vend oa
separating from the solution assume  certain de-
terminate arrangements.
  558. Q. What is the transparency of crystals
owing to?
  A. To a quantity  of water that they hold,
which is called water of crystallization.
  559. Q.  When crystals part with  their water
of crystallization, what are they said to do ?
  A.  To effloresce.
  560. Q.  What is meant by deliquescence?
  A.  It  is a term given to express a property
in some salts by  which they absorb  the mois-
ture of the atmosphere, and become fluid.
  561. Q.  What is meant by attraction?
  A.  A  term  given  to denote  the power by
which bodies unite with each other, or remain
in  contact  with  each other until a superior
force  is  exerted to separate them.
  562. Q.  What is the difference between ai- 
10*
traction of aggregation or cohesion, and chemi-
cal attraction or affinity ?
   A.  Attraction of aggregation denotes that
power which is exerted between particles of a
similar nature, as those of mercury, glass, wood,
Sec.   On the contrary, chemical attraction de-
notes the power exerted between particles of a
dissimilar nature, as, salt and water, muriatic
acid  and soda, nitric acid and potash, &c.
   563. Q. What  is the  result  of a chemical
combination ?
   A. A new substance is formed in which the
particles combined  have assumed new proper-
ties.
   564. Q. When a compound is resolved into
its constituent parts, what process is it said to
have undergone ?
   A. The process of analysis.
   565. Q. How is the analysis of compounds
effected ?
   A. Either by the power of heat, or by tht
power of a superior affinity.
   566. Q. What is meant by synthesis ?
   A. The formation of a compound (possessing
new properties) by  the combination of two or
more simrde substances.
   567. Q.  What is caloric ?
   A. A substance, the evolution of which pro.-
duces the sensation  of heat.
   56S. Q. AVhat are the general effects of ca-
loric upon substances ?
   A. 1st. Substances are expanded, and thus
increase in bulk by their combination with ca- 
105
lorio (excepting alumina, which is contracted.)
2nd. It is the cause of fluidity.  3rd. It produ-
ces vaporization.   4th. It effects ignition; and
its combination with some substances is said to
be the  cause of their elasticity.
   569. Q. What is oxygen ?
   A. The acidifying principle ; a peculiar gas,
colourless, invisible and elastic; it supports life
and  flame.
   570. Q. When oxygen enters into combina-
tion, what are the classes of compounds that it
forms ?
   A. Two classes, viz. oxydes and acids;
   571. Q. What is an oxyde ?
   A. A metal, or a combustible combined with
Oxygen, that does not possess acid  properties.
   572.  Q. What are the properties  of hydro-
gen?
   A. It is an invisible elastic gas, which has a
peculiar smell, extinguishes flame, burns in con-
tact  with oxygen, exploiles when  mixed with
oxygen, and is about 12 times lighter than com-
mon air.
   573. Q. What are the compounds of hydro-
gen  ?
   A. Sulphurated, phosphorated, and carbonat-
ed hydrogen gas.
   574. Q. What is the composition of water ?
   A. Oxygen and hydrogen in chemical com-
.bination.
   575. Q. What is meant by a hydrate?
   A. A combination of water  with a  salt or
other  substances;  the  crystals are hydrates,
and  the sulphur precipitatum is an hydrate of
-ulphur. 
106
  576. Q. What is nitrogen?
  A. An elastic, invisible gas, exceedingly ir-
fespirable, and which extinguishes flame.
  577. Q. What are the compounds of nitro-
gen ?
  A. In a state of mechanical combination with
oxygen, it forms atmospheric air, and when che-
mically combined with different proportions of
oxygen, it forms two oxydes and one acid, viz.
nitrous oxyde, or gaseous oxyde of azot; nitric
oxyde, which possesses a greater proportion of
oxygen than the preceding, and nitric acid,
which is  fully saturated with oxygen.
  578. Q. What are the component parts of at-
mospheric air ?
  A. Atmospheric air  is chiefly composed of
oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid.
  579. Q. How is a combination of a combusti-
ble with a metal or on earth designated ?
  A. The  combustible is terminated  by the
word uret,  but the  metal or earth  retains its
original name; for example, if sulphur and lime
were combined, it would be called sulphuret of
lime; phosphorus and iron, phosphuret Of iron ;
and so forth.
  5 SO. Q. What is phosphorus ?
  A. A very inflammable substance, of a white
semitransparent colour, and of the consistency
of wax.
  581. Q.  What are the  compounds of phos-
phorus ?
  A. It  combines  with certain combustibles,
earths, and metals, forming phosphurets; it form*
an oxyde, and two acids, viz.  the  phosphorus
acid and the phosphoric acid. 
lto
   /32. Q. In what does pure carbone exist ?
   A- The diamond is pure carbon.
   583. (^ What is charcoal 7
   A. An oxyde of carbon.
   584. Q. What  are the other compounds of
carbon.'
   A. Gaseous  carbonic oxyde,  carbonic gas,
and  the carburetted hydrogen gas.
   585.  Q.  How  would you exhibit carbonic
acid gas internally ?
   A. Either by exhibiting the saline draught in
the  state of  effervescence, or by giving yeast
mixed up in a convenient vehicle, or by giving
the double soda water.
   586. Q. What  is sulphur?
   A. A simple inflammable substance.
   587. Q. From what kingdom of nature do we
obtain  sulphur?
   A. From the mineral kingdom; it fcffound in
various forms : in a native state,  forming strata
with gypsum and limestone ; it  is also thrown
out from volcanos, and it is  also found combin-
ed with several metals ; sulphur also exists both
in the vegetable and animal kidgdom.
   588. Q^What are the preparations of sulphur
directed  to be made use of by the London phar-
macopeia
   A.  Sulphur  lotum,  sulphur  precipitatum,
oleum  sulphuratum, and sAilphuretum potasse.
   589. Q.  How  is the sulphur precipitatum
made ?
   A. By boiling quick  lime, sulphur and water
together for 3 certain time; filtering the  solu- 
10S
lion, and adding muriatic acid in order to throw
down the sulphur, which is to be separated and
washed.
  590. Q. What takes place during this opera-
tion ?
  A.  During the boiling the sulphur combines
with a portion of hydrogen from the water, it af-
terwards unites itself to the  lime, forming an
hydroguretted sulphuret of lime; this is held in
solution by the  water, and passes  through the
filter; upon the addition of muriatic  acid, the
muriatic acid combines with  the lime, the hy-
drogen is evolved  from the  sulphur, and the
suphur is precipitated.
  591.  Q. In what respects do the sulphur lo-
tum and the sulphur  precipitatum differ from
the sulphur sublimatum?
  A. The sulphur sublimatum  contains a small
portion of sulphuric acid; the other  preparations
are free  from this  acid, and are  considered to
hold a portion of water in a state  of chemical
combination; they are therefore  hydrates of
sulphur.
  592. Q. W hat combinations does  sulphur form
with  oxygen?
  A. It  forms an oxyde, the sulphureous acid
and the sulphuric acid.
  593. Q.   Are there any other compounds of
sulphur ?
   A. Yes, it combines with hydrogen, phospho-
rus, the metals, the earths, and alkalis.
  594. Q. What are acids ?
   A. They are substances of a sour taste, pos- 
109
sessing a power of changing vegetable  blues to
a red, and of combining with earths, metals, and
alkalis.
  595. Q What does an acid consist of?
  A. An acid consists of  a base or bases com-
bined with oxygen; the base is called the acid-
ifiable principle, and the  oxygen  is called the
acidifying principle.
  596.  Q. How  do  chemists distinguish the
acids according to the proportion of oxygen with
which they are Combined ?
  A. If an acid basis is perfectly saturated with
oxygen, the acid produced is said to be perfect,
and is distinguished in English by the syllable
ic,  as sulphuric acid; but  if the base predomi-
nates, the acid is considered as imperfect, and
is distinguished by the English ous,as sulphure-
ous acid.  When  an acid has an excess of oxy-
gen, it is called oxygenated and hyper-oxygen-
ated.
   597.  Q. What are the acids employed medi-
cinally ?
   A. The acetic, tartaric, citric,  benzoic, car-
bonic, boracic, muriatic, nitric, sulphuric, phos-
phoric, succinic.
   593.  Q.  How is benzoic acid made ?
   A. A quantity of gum  benzoin and lime are
 rubbed  together, and  boiled with a quantity of
 water for half an hour, it is then filtered,  and to
 the solution  muriatic acid is added as  long
 as  any precipitate  is formed;  the precipi-
 tate is  then collected and dried to undergo the
 process ef sublimation.
                       X 
ne
  599. Q. What is the theory of the formation
of btuzoic acid in this way ?
  A. The lime during the  boiling takes the
benzoic acid from the gum benzoin, the benzoak
of lime thus formed is held in solution by the
water:  upon the addition of muriatic acid, the
lime abandons the benzoic acid to combine with
the muriatic acid ;  the benzoic acid from its in-
solubility is precipitated, and the muriat of lime
remains in the solution.
  600.  Q. How is citric acid made ?
  A. A quantity of lemon juice is made boiling
hot, and a sufficient quantity of prepared chalk
is added until it is saturated :  the powder that   ,
forms is then washed and dried : dilute sulphur-
ic acid  is then to be boiled upon the  powder;
the fluid is next filtered off and evaporated with
a gentle heat, so  that crystals  may form as it
cools.   The crystals are further purified by re-
peated crystallization.
  601.  Q.  How is the formation of citric acid
effected as  thus directed  by the London Col-
lege ?
   A. When the lemon juice and prepared chalk
are mixed together, the citric acid and lime com-
bine, while the earbonic acid escapes in effer-
vescence ; the citrate of lime is decomposed by
the sulphuric acid which is added, for it takes
to the lime, and sets the citric acid at liberty.
   602. Q. What salt is taken into the stomach
when the saline draught is given ?
   A. The citrate  of potash.
   603. Q. In what  respects do the nitric and
nitrous acids differ ? 
in
   A. Tfhe nitrous acid holds in solution a quan-
tity of nitric o*yde, which is continually es-
capln'j;  this gas gives the acid an orange colour,
an . is the cause bf its  fuming: the nitric acid
is colourless, and does  not evolve nitric oxyde.
   604. Q. How is muriatic acid made ?
   A. A quautity of sulphuric acid diluted with
Water is put into a glass retort; to this is added
a quantity of muriat of soda; one  third of the
water directed to be used is put into  the re-
ceiver to absorb a  quantity of gas that may tie
suddenly evolved; the receiver  is then luted
to the retort, and the  muriatic acid is distilled
over by the heat of a sand bath.
   605. Q.  In the formation of muriatic  acid
what are the decompositions and combinations ?
   A. The  murias  sode is decomposed  by the
sulphuric acid whu-h combines with  the soda:
the muriatic acid, thus let loose in the state or
gas, is absorbed by the water.
   606. Q. How is  nitric acid made ?
   A. Equal parts of dried nitrate of potash and
sulphuric acid are put into a glass retort; distil-
lation is then to be carried on in a sand bath un-
til a red vapour  arises;  the nitric acid that is
distilled over is to be  re-dtstilled from  a  fresh
portion of dried nitrate of potash.
   607. Q. In making nitric acid, what takes
 place ?
   A. The  sulphuric acid combines with the
 potash of the nitras potasse, forming sulphat of
 potash, and the nitric acid is distilled over.
   60S.  Q. How is horacic acid obtained?
   A. By  adding sulphuric  acid to a hot solu- 
112
lion  of borax; this combines with the soda of
the borax, forming sulphat of soda, and the bo-
racic  acid is crystallized  upon the  solution
cooling.
  609. Q.  How is  the  oxy muriatic  acid ob-
tained ?
  A. It is obtained from a mixture of muriat of
soda, black oxyde of manganese, and sulphuric
acid; during the process the sulphuric acid corn-
bit es with the 6oda, forming sulphat of  soda,
the muriatic acid consequently being set  at li-
berty combines with a portion of oxygen from
the black oxyde of manganese, and is convert-
ed into oxy-muriatic acid.
  610. Q. Why is the oxy-muriatic acid requir-
ed to be kept in the dark ?
  A. Because it is decomposed by the ngency
of light:  that is, it is resolved into muriatic acid
from  the loss of the oxygen with which it was
combined.
  611. Q. Has this acid the property of chang-
ing vegetable blues to a red ?
   A. No:  it deprives vegetable substances of
colour: hence its utility in bleaching.
   612. Q. What is  the composition  of  nitric
acid ?
   A- Oxygen and nitrogen.
   613. Q. What is the composition of phospho-
ric acid ?
   A. Phosphorus and oxygen.
   614. Q. In what slate do we  obtain hyper-
oxy-muriatie acid ?
   A. Combined with an alkaline base; as form-
 ing  the hyper-oxy-muriat of potash.  This is
 the oniy state in which  it exists. 
US
  615  Q. What is the composition of carbonic
acid /
   V.. Carbon and oxygen; by  heating poftssi-
nm or the metal of potash in c-irbonic acid, .he
potissiu-n coml)ities with the oxygen of the c ir-
bonic acid, and charcoal or oxyde of carbon  is
deiiosited.
  6lb.  Q. What are  the arfids  that have not
hitherto been decomposed.'
  A. The m-iriatic acid, the fluoric acid,  and
the bor.icic acid.
  617. Q. What is the composition of the vege-
table acids ?
   A. Varied proportions of carbon and hydro-
gen acidified by oxygen.
  618.  Q. What are alkalis?
   A. They  are *ubstatioes  that possess an
acrid taste, a urinous smell; th<jy convert most
vegetable blues to a green, and they render oils
mi-cihli  with water.
  619.  Q. What is the composition of the al-
kalis I
  A. A metal  and oxyg< n.
  6/0.  Q. What is the general distinction  of
alkalis ?
  A. Into fixed and volatile, they are also dis-
tinguished into vesetable alkalior ootash, mi ie-
ral alkali or s >da, and volatile alkali or amnouia.
Potash and soda are consid red ;s fixed alkalis,
because  they are not volatilized  but by a very
intense heat,  whereas  ammonia, which is the
volatile  alkali,  requires only th-. tern .eratire of
Mmosphere to  change it* state of aggregation.
                     k2 
114
  62 J. Q. How is the potash of commerce ob-
tained ?
  A.  From the lixivium of  wood ashes:—the
ashes of all wood afford  this  alkali,  but the
harder woods most abundantly.  Another me-
thod of obtaining potash is by burning the im-
pure tartar of commerce and lixiviating it.
  622.  Q. How is the sub-carbonas  potasse
obtained ?
  A. By mixing a quantity of impure potash of
commerce with a staled quantity of water: by
boiling  these for a certain time, filtering the so-
lutionT  and finally evaporating the water from
the salt, while stirring it.
  623.  Q. How  are  the  extraneous  or more
crystallizable salts of the impure potash got rid
of?
   A. Sub-carbonate of potash being very solu-
ble in water in comparison  to the extraneous
salts contained in impure  potash, an advantage
is taken of this, for only a sufficient quantity of
water is added to dissolve the sub-carbonates;
the  extraneous sails therefore  not being  dis-
solved  remain upon  the filter.  They consist
chiefly of sulphate of potash, muriat of  potash,
with a  quantity of earthy  impurities.
   624. Q. What is the difference between sal
tartan, sal absinthii and sub-carbonas potasse ?
   A. Very little difference,  excepting in the
proportion of carbonic acid  with  which they
are  combined; they  are  all suh-carbonates  of
potash, but are differently obtained.
   625. Q. What are the preparations of potash
directed to be used by the Loudon College ? 
115
  A. Acetas potasse, sulphas potasse, super-
sulphas |K)tasse, tartras  potasse, sub-corbonas
potasse, -arbonas potasse, liquor sub-carbonatis
potasse, liquor  potasse, potassa fusa, potassa
cum calce.
  626.  Q. How is the potassa fusa obtained ?
  A. By evaporating the water from the liquor
potasse,  melting the salt,  and casting it into
proper moulds.
  627. Q. How is the liquor potasse made?
  A. By putting together sub-carbonate of pot-
ash, quicklime and hot water, suffering them to
remain a length of time, then filtering.
  628. Q. Why is the lime added ?
  A. To abstract the carbonic acid  from the
sub-carbonate of potash.
  629. Q. What is the composition of cremor
tartari ?
   A. It is a super-tartrate of potash; that is,
combined with an excess of tartaric acid.
   630. Q. How is the tartras potasse made ?
   A. It is made by adding a" quantity of sub-
carbonate of potash to a quantity of  super tar-
trate of potash dissolved in water,  evaporating
 to a certain extent, and crystallizing the  salt.
   631. Q. What  effect has the sub-carbonate
 of potash in this preparation ?
   A.  It parts with its carbonic acid to combine
 with the excess of tartaric acid in the super-tar-
 tras potasse to  form  a neutral salt.
   632. Q. How is the perfect carbonate of pot-
 ash formed?
    A. By adding carbonate of ammonia to sub-
 carbonate of  potash  dissolved in water.  This
 solution is exposed to a certain degree of heat. 
116
Until all the ammonia is expelled, and the sub
carbonate of potash becomes a perfect carbo-
nate by taking carbonic acid from the carbonate
of ammonia.
  6i3. Q. Why is the carbonate of potash pre-
ferred to the sub-carbonate for a saiine draught
to be taken in the state of effervescence ?
  A. Because it affords most carbonic acid.
  634. Q  What remains in the retort after the
distillation of nitric acid?
  A. A super-sulphat of potash.
  635. Q. What is the composition of  nitre
crystals ?
  A. Nitric acid, potash, and  water.
  636. Q. Why is the nitras potasse made use
of in forming sulphuric acid ?
  A. To supply  the  sulphur, when burning,
wit'i a greater quantity of oxygen.
  637. Q. What are the  states of combination
that poUsh enters into with tartaric acid !
  A  Two states,  so  as  to form an acidulous
salt and a neutral salt.
  638. Q. How is the tartras potasse made ?
  A. By adding a sufficient quantity  of sub-
carbonate of potash to neutralize the su;<er-tar-
trate of  potash, which is previously to be dis-
solved in  hot water: it is afterwards to be eva-
porated,  filtt red, and then  put by in order to
crystallize.
  639. Q. How is impure soda obtained ?
  A. It is generally obtained by lixiviating the
ashes of  burnt  plants,  that have grown on  the
sea-shore,  particularly the herb colled by Lin-
naeus Salsola kali. 
117
  640. Q.  How is the sub-carbonas sode ob-
tained ?
  A.  By boiling a stated quantity of  impure
soda of commerce in a quantity of distilled wa-
ter, filtering the solution,  evaporating  it,  and
crystallizing the salt.
  641. Q.  How is  the carbonas sode obtain-
ed ?
  A.  By adding sub-carbonate of ammonia to
sub-carbonate of  soda, dissolved in a quantity
of distilled water; exposing this solution to heat
for a certain time, in order to expel the ammo-
nia ; then crystallizing the carbonate of soda.
  642. Q.  What salt remains after the  distilla-
tion of muriatic acid ?
  A.  Sulphat of  soda, which is directed to be
reserved and  prepared for use.
  643. Q.  What is the composition of common
table salt ?
  A. It  consists principally of muriatic acid
and soda.
  644. Q.  Why does it diliquese ?
  A. Because it contains a little muriat of mag-
nesia.
  645. Q. How is ammonia obtained ?
  A. In a variety of wa}'s; it is  abundantly
formed by  animal  decomposition; it exists  in
combination with an acid in soot; it is obtained
by distilling hartshorn, or bones;  but it is ge-
nerally obtained from the sal ammoniac of com-
 merce.
   646. Q. What is the composition of ammo-
 nia?
   A. Hydrogen and nitrogen:  but Mr. Davy 
                   118

has made it appear to be a compound of a metal
which ne ha- ;amed ammonium.
  647. Q. What  compounds of ammonia are
directed to be kept by the London College.'
  A  'Jar o as ammonie, liquor acetatis am-
monia;,  liquor cartouatis ammonie, and the li-
quor ammonia •.
  648. Q. How is the formation of carbonate
of ammonia effected !
  A. By sublimation from a mixture of dried
prepared chalk and muriat of ammonia; a dou-
ble decomposition takes place; the lime of the
prepared chalk combines with  the  muriatic
acid,  forming rm<riat o:' lime,  while the carbo-
nic acid,  the other constituent of the chalk,
combines with the ammonia, and  forms  carbo-
nate of ammonia,  which is sublimed.
  649.  Q Is this a perfect carbonate ?
  A. No: it is a sub-carbonate; the carbonate
of ammonia is void of smell.
  650. Q. How is the liquor ammonia? made?
  A. By abstract ng the muriatic arid of muri-
at of  ammonia by means o\' lime, and canting
the ammoniacal gas to he absorbed by w.-.ter.
  65t. Q. How is the liquor ammonie acetatis
made'?
   A. By saturating acetic acid with carbonate
of n  imonia.  '
  652. Q. What is an earth ?
  A. A substance that is nearly  insoluble in
water; that lias little or no smell; that is in-
c , niustible; and, when pure, assumes the form
o< i white powder.  The specific gravity of an
earth should  not  exceed 4.9.  All the earths 
419
are supposed to have metallic bases, but are at
present considered as simple substances.
  653. t£.  How  many  earths  are  at  present
known to chemists ?
  A.  Niue; viz.  silex,  argil, magnesia, lime,
barytes, strontian, zircon, glucine, and  yttra.
  6.54. Q. What are the earths that are used in
medicine ?
  A.  They are four in number; viz. magnesia,
lime, argil, or alumina, and barytes; which last
is  not  admitted into  the London  Pharmaco-
poeia.
  655. Q.  What  substances afford argil ?
   A  It exists  in many fossils, and forms the
basis of common clay.
  656. Q. What is there peculiar to this earth ?
  A.  It contracts when exposed to heat,  and
becomes so bard  as to  be capable  of  striking
fire with steel.
  637. Q.  Is argil ever found pure in nature, or
used in medicine  in its pure state ?
   A. No.
   658. Q.  What compounds of  argil  are  di-
rected to be kept  in the shops,  by the  London
College ?
   A. The alumen exsiccatum, and the liquor
aluminrs compositus.
   659. Q.  What is the composition  of alumen !
   A. Sulphuric acid  in excess, argil,  or alu-
mina, and a small portion of potash,  and often
ammonia.
   660. Q. Why is potash always put in to form
alum? 
120
  A. To facilitate crystallization, the sulphat,
or super-sulphat of argil alone, crystallizes in
very small  quantities, and that with great diffi-
culty.
  661. Q.  Is alum ever found in nature ?
  A. Yes,  it is often  found in a species of slate,
denominated alum slate,  which is  mixed with
the layers of coal.
  662. Q.  From whence do we obtain magne-
sia?
  A. It is  never found in the  pure state; but
in combination in many fossils; it is also found
combined  with acids in  many springs,  and in
sea-water;  from these several sources the earth
is obtained.
  665. Q.  What preparations of magnesia does
the college direct to be used ?
  A. The  carbonas  magnesie and the sulphas
magnesie,  and magnesia.
  664. Q.  How  is  the  carbonas  magnesie
made ?
  A. By mixing together a solution of sub-car-
bonate of potash and of sulphat of magnesia,
boiling for a certain time, and filtering.  The
carbonate of magnesia remains upon the filter,
and is to be well washed with hot water, to
entirely deprive it of the sulphat of potash; it
is afterwards dried.
  665. Q.  What takes in this process ?
  A. A double decomposition takes place; the
potash loses its carbonic acid to combine with
the sulphuric acid, while the magnesia loses its
sulphuric acid  to  combine with the  carbonie 
121
acid; and thus a carbonate of magnesia is ob
taitied, and a sulphat of potash  remains in  so-
lution.
  666. Q.  When the carbonate of magnesia is
exposed to an intense heat for some time, what
takes place ?
  A.  It loses its carbonic acid, and pure mag
nesia is obtained.
  667. Q.  Which is lightest, the carbonas mag-
nesie, or magnesia ?
  A. Magnesia.
  668. Q.  How is  sulphat of magnesia obtain-
ed ?
  A. It  used to be obtained by  evaporating
the water of the mineral springs at Epsom,  but
it is now generally obtained  by evaporating the
bittern, or the fluid that remains after the crys-
tallization of salt from sea-water.
  66^.  Q. What are the sources of lime ?
  A. It is  a constituent  of chalk-stone, lime-
stone, marl, shells, bones ; it is found combined
with  many acids, as carbonic, fluoric,  boracic,
and sulphuric  acid ; it exists in small  portions
in sea water, in spring and river water,  and it is
found in vegetables.
  670. Q. What preparations  of  lime do the
London College direct to be kept ?
  A. Calx, liquor calcis, creta preparata.
  671. ($.  How is  calx, or  lime, to be obtain-
ed?
  A. By burning  chalk-stone  with  a  white
heat,, until it  ceases to  effervesce, or  give off
caroonic acid when thrown into acetic acid.
L 
122
  672. Q.  Is this pure lime which remains t
  A. Sufficiently  pure  for  medical purposes;
but not for chemical.
  673. Q.  What takes place in the slacking of
lime?
  A.  The water i3  absorbed with a hissing
noise, the lime cracks and falls into powder, a
great quantity of caloric is evolved so as to con-
vert one  portion of water into a vapour,  while
the other portion of the water enters into com-
bination with the  lime, and  becomes solidified.
  674. Q.  What is a metal ?
  A. It is a simple substance, possessed of great
tenacity  and hardness, opacity, the property of
reflecting light, a certain specific gravity  and of
combustibility, when raised to a certain tempe-
rature, in contact with oxygen.
  675. Q.  Are all the metals opaque ?
  A. Yes, all  except gold-leaf,  which,  when
beat extremely thin, transmits green light.
  676. Q.  What is the difference  between duc-
tility, malleability, and  tenacity ?
  A. Malleability is that property by which a
metal may be pressed  or beat into  thin leaves,
or plates.   Ductility,  the property by which a
metal may  be  drawn  into wires  of certain di-
ameters ; and  tenacity,  the  power of cohesion
of the particles of  metals by which they  allow
of ductility and malleability.
  677. Q.  What is the cause of  expansion in
metals ?
  A. Caloric, which is  supposed  to cause the
metallic  particles to  assume greater distance.
  678. Q.  Do metals conduct caloric ? 
123
   A. Yes : they are the best conductors of th.
principle.
   679. Q.  Do metals differ much in fusibility
   A. Yes.  Mercury melts at a very low ten,
pcrature, even  in the coldest atmosphere; o,
the contrary, platinum,requires the most iatens.
heat for its fusion.
   680. Q.  Are  these the chief properties  oi
metals I
   A. Yes, excepting that  they are the best
electrical conductors, and generate Galvanism
by contact.
   681. Q.  When a metal combines with oxy-
gen, what change has it  undergone ?
   A  It  has  become oxydized,  and  the com-
pound forned is called an OKyde.
   682. Q.  When a metal combines with  an
acid so as to form a salt,  what change does the
metal first undergo ?
   A. It becomes oxydized either by decompo-
sing the water, or part of the acid, and is then
dissolved by the remaining acid.
   683. Q.  When two  metals  are combined,
what is the compound called ?
   A. An  alloy;  excepting  the combination
of a  metal with mercury, which  is termed an
amalgam.
   684. Q. What is the  number of metals  at
present known ?
   A. They amount to  twenty-one, if the new
metals of alkalis, Sec. are excluded.
   685. Q. Enumerate the matnls ?
   A. Gold, platinum, stiver, mercury,  copper,
iron, tin, lead, nickel, zinc, bismuth, antimony, 
124
tellurium, arsenic, cobalt, manganese, tungsten,
molybdenum, uranium, titanium, chromium.
  686. Q. What are  the metals that are used
in medicine ?
   A. Silver, mercury,  copper,  iron, tin, lead,
zinc, bismuth, arsenic, antimony.
  687. Q. In what state is silver found in na-
ture ?
   A. Native and mineralized.
   688. Q. What are the preparations of silver
used in medicine ?
   A. Only the nitras argenti, which is made
with silver, nitric acid, and distilled water. The
nitric acid and water are mixed; the silver is
then added, which speedily becomes dissolved
by the application of a gradual heat; when this
is effected, the solution is  evaporated, in order
to obtain a dry nitrate of silver.   The nitrate of
silver is then melted in a crucible, with a gen-
 tle heat, and is cast into proper  moulds.
   689.  Q. What takes place during the melt-
 ing of the nitrate of silver ?
   A. It loses part of its nitric acid, and becomes
 reduced to a sub-nitrate.
   690.  Q. What are the  sources of mercury ?_
   A. It is found native;  it is found in  combi-
 nation with muriatic  acid, and it is found in
 combination with sulphur,  constituting an ore
 called native cinnabar; from this ore the quick-
  silver of commerce is  generally obtained.
    691.  Q. What preparations  of mercury are
  directed to be used  by the London Pharmaco-
  poeia.                      .            ...
     A. Oxymurias hydrargyri, liquor oxymunat is 
125
hydrargyri, hydrargyria cum creta, submuriae
hydrargyri, nitricooxydum, hydrargyrioxydum,
hydrargyri cinereum, oxydum  hydrargyri ru-
brum, hyd:argyrus precipitatus albus, hydrar-
gyrus purificatus,  and hydrargyri sulphuretum
rubrum.
   692. Q. How is the oxymurias hydrargyri
formed ?
   A. Me .-cury and sulphuric acid are first boil-
ed together, in a glass vessel, until a dry salt is
obtained  ; by this process the mercury first be-
comes oxydized,  and then dissolves in the re-
maining acid  ; this is  evaporated, until a  dry
salt is procured, which i?an oxy-sulphat of mer-
cury ; this is  to be mixed  with  a quantity  of
dried muriat of soda,  and  sublimed;  the order
of affinities is now changed; the muriatic acid
combines  with the oxyde of  mercury, forming
an oxy-muriat of mercury, which is  sublimed,
and the sulphuric acid combines with the soda,
forming sulphat of soda, which is not  sublimed.
  693. Q. In  what state of oxydizement  does
the mercury exist in this preparation ?
  A. In the state of red oxyde.
  694. Q. How is the hydrargyrus cum creta
made ?
   A. By  rubbing creta and mercury  together,
until the  globules of the murcury disappear.
   695. Q. What is the composition of this pre-
paration ?
   A. It is composed of an  oxyde of mercury
combined with carbonate of lime.
   696. Q. How  is the submurias hydrargyri
made?
                    L 2 
126
  A.  A auantity of oxy-muriat of mercury is
rubbed with a quantity of purified mercury, un-
til the globules of the mercury are extinguished;
it is then to be sublimed, and the  sublimation
and rubbing are to be repeated  three times; af-
ter which it is to be reduced to a very subtile
powder.
  697. Q. What is the use of the purified mer-
cury in this pre: aration ?
  A. It abstracts from the oxy-muriat of mer-
cury a portion of its oxygen; by which  the
Oxyde of mercury that existed iu the oxy-muri-
at is converted into an imperfect black oxyde;
this imperfect oxyde requires less muriatic acid
to saturate it than the perfect oxyde does; the
compound formed is therefore a muriat, but the
Loudon College have thought proper to call it a
submuiat, to  prevent mistakes.
   698. Q. How is the nitrico-oxydum hydrargy-
 ri made ?
   A.  A quantity of  mercury,  nitric acid,  and
 distilled water,  are boiled  together,  until the
 mercury is dissolved; the solutionis then eva-
 porated, until a dry white mass appears; this
 white salt is to be  rubbed into powder, and ex-
 posed to heat gradually raised, until it no long-
 er gives off red fumes.
    699.  Q. What takes place during the forma-
 tion of nitric oxyde of mercury ?
    A. The mercury decomposes a portion of the
 nitric  acid by  attracting oxygen ;  it  becomes
 converted into an oxyde, anil  nitric oxyde gas
 is evolved ; the oxyde of mercury thus formed, is
  then dissolved by the undecomposed nitric acid, 
127
and a nitrate of mercury is formed.  When the
dried nitrate of mercury is exposed to heat, the
greatest p .rt of the nitric acid is driven off,
and a pertect oxyde of mercury remains, hold-
ing » very small portion of nitric acid.
  700. Q. How is the red oxyde of mercury
made '.'
  A. By exposing mercury  in  a glass vessel,
with a broad bottom, a long neck and a nar-
row mouth, to a heat of 600°, until the mercury
is converted into  red scales, which are to be re-
duced to a very fine powder.
  701. Q. What if the theory of this process ?
  A. The  mercury, when exposed  to  600°,
rises in vap"ur up the  neck of the vessel; the
vapour of the mercury combines with a  maxi-
mum o!' oxygen,  by decomposing atmospheric
air, and falls back into the vessel in the state of
dark red  scales  which   become of  a  deeper
red as the process goes on.
  702. Q. Why does  not the mercury escape
when exposed to this temperature?
  A.  Because the  vessel is provided with  a
long narrow neck, that is drawn out into a ca-
pillary opening, which prevents the escape of
the mercury, but allows a  free admission of air.
  703. Q. How is the gray oxyde of mercury
prepared ?
  A.  It is prepared by  boiling sub-muriat of
mercury with lime  water, constantly stirring,
untii a gray oxyde of  mercury i« separated ; it
is then to be washed with distilled water, and
dried.  During this preparation, the lime com-
bines with the muriatic  acid of the muriat of
mercury, and its oxyde is separated. 
129
  704. Q. Why are iron filings directed to  b*
used in purifying mercury ?
  A. Because the iron has a greater attraction
for the metals which mercury is often amalga-
mated with, than for the mercury.
  705. Q. How  is the sulphuretum hydrargyri
made ?
  A. It is made by mixing mercury with melt-
ed sulphur over the fire; when this is effected,
the mass is cooled, reduced to powder, and  su-
blimed.
  706. Q. How is the hydrargyrus precipitatus
albus made ?
  A. By dissolving muriat of  ammonia  and
oxy-muriat of mercury in water, and pouring
into this solution a quantity of liquid sub-carbo-
nate of potash. The powder that is thrown down
is washed until  it becomes insipid and dried.
  707. Q. Where is iron found ?
   A. It is found abundantly in the earth, under
a variety of forms,  mineralized by sulphur, com-
bined with earths, alloyed with  metals; it  ex-
ists,  in the waters of many springs;  it  is  con-
tained  in  vegetahbs;  it gives  colour  to  the
blood, and to many fossil substances.
   708. Q What preparations of iron are direct*
ed to be kept by the London College ?
   A.  Ferrum ammoniatum;  carbonas ferri;
sulphas ferri; ferrum tartarasatum; liquor ferri
alkalini; tinctura  ferri  muriatis; tiactura  ferri
 ammoniati;  vinum ferri.
   709. Q. What  is the composition of ferrum
 ammoniatum ?
   A. It is composed of muriat of iron and  mu-
 riat of ammonia. 
129
  710. Q. How is it made ?
  A. By subliming equal parts of carbonate ol
iron and muriat of ammonia.
  711. Q. How is the carbonate of iron made 1
  A.  By dissolving sub-carbonate of soda and
sulphat of iron in two separate portions of wa-
ter, mixing the solutions,  suffering  the green
powder to subside, then washing and drying it.
  712. Q. What change of affinities is produced
by mixing these  solutions ?
  A. The carbonic acid combines with the iron,
leaving the soda to combine with the sulphuric
acid;  a sulphat of soda therefore remains in so-
lution, and a carbonate of iron is  precipitated.
This new compound consists of the black oxyde
of iron, combined with carbonic acid, but upon
exposure to the air, passes very soon to the state
of red oxyde.
  713.  Q.  How  is  the  ferrum  tartarizatum
made ?
   A.  It is made by mixing iron filings, super-
tartrate  of potash, and water together; they
are exposed  to the air in a broad glass vessel,
for eight days: the compound is  then dried in
a sand bath,  and reduced to powder; after this
is done, it is to be mixed with another portion of
water, and exposed for eight days longer
  714. Q. What is the theory of the formation
of this compound ?
   A.  During the exposure to  the air, the  iron
becomes oxydized by abstracting oxygen both
from the  air and  the water  with which it is
mixed;  and  the oxyde of iron combines with
 the superabundant tartaric  acid of the super- 
130
tartrate of potash; the  compound  formed is
therefore a tartrate of potash and iron.
   715. Q. What is the composition of the li-
quor ferri alkalini ?
   A. It is considered as composed of nitric acid,
red oxyde of iron, with potash, forming a tri-
ple compound.
   716. Q. How is  it made?
   A. It is made with iron, nitric acid, distilled
water, and solution of sub-carbonate of potash.
The acid and water are first to be mixed, and
poured on the iron; when the effervescence has
ceased, the acid solution is to be poured off, and
added gradually to the  solution of sub-carbonate
»f potash, occasionally shakiug, it has assumed
a deep brown red  colour, and no further effer-
vescence takes place; it is then to be  set by
for six hours, and its clear solution  poured off.
   717. Q. How is the tinctura ferri muriatis
made ?
   A. Carbonate of iron  is  put  with muriatic
acid  for three days;  during  which time the
carbonic acid is displaced  from  the red oxyde
of iron and the red oxyde combines with the
muriatic acid, and  forms an oxy-muriat  of iron,
which is afterwards combined with a quantity of
rectified spirit.
   718. Q. What compound of iron exists in the
vinum ferri ?
   A. A tartrate of iron and potash.
   719. Q  In  what  state in nature is lead found ?
   A. It is found oxydized, forming  a variety of
ores; combined with  sulphur,  forming an ore
called galena; combined  with muriatic and 
131
tabonic  acids.  It is found in a state of carbo-
nate, phosphate, arseniate, arsenic, phosphate,
molybdate, and sulphat.
   720. Q. What are the compounds of lead ad-
mitted into the new London  Pharmacopoeia ?
   A.  Liquor acetatis  plumbi;  super-acetas
plumbi,  liquor acetatis plumbi.
   721. Q.  How  is  the super-acetate of lead
made?
   A. It is  made  by boiling the carbonated
oxyde of lead in  acetic acid,  which  displaces
the  carbonic  acid  and  combines  with  the
oxyde of lead; the  solution is  to be filtered,
evaporated to a certain extent, and  set aside
to crystallize.
   722. Q.  How is the liquor  acetatis plumbi
made?
   A. By boiling acetic acid and vitrified oxyde
of lead together, to a certain extent;  then  set-
ting the solution by, that the  feculencies may
subside.
  723. Q. What is the theory  of this process?
   A. The oxyde of lead combines with  the
acetic acid, and a sub-acetate of lead is formed.
  724. Q. How is the cerusse of commerce
prepared ?
   A. A  quantity of sheets of lead are  rolled
up in a spiral  form;  these  are placed perpen-
dicularly on a support, over a vessel containing
vinegar; several of  these vessels  covered are
placed together, and surrounded with dung, the
heat  of  which raises the  vinegar in  vapour,
which converts the surface of the lead into a 
132
white oxyde, or rather a carbonate; at length
the whole of the lead is thus converted;  it is
then taken out, and ground to powder.
  725. Q.  In what state is copper found in na-
ture ?
  A. It is found mineralized by oxygen; com-
bined  with carbonic acid, forming  malachite
and mountain blue; in combination with phos-
phoric acid, with muriatic acid, with sulphuric
acid, with arsenic acid;  and it is abundantly
found mineralized with sulphur, forming all the
varieties of copper pyrites.
   726. Q. What are the compounds of copper
directed to be  used by the London Pharmaco-
poeia?
   A. They are the cuprum  ammoniatum,  and
the liquor cupri ammoniati.
   727. Q. How  is  the ammoniated copper
made ?
   A. It is made by rubbing sulphat of copper
and sub-carbonate of ammonia together in a
glass mortar, until the mixture ceases to effer-
 vesce; it is then to be  wrapped in bibulous
 paper, and dried by a moderate heat.
   728. Q. From whence do we obtain arsenic ?
    A. It is found  in nature amongst the ores of
 cobalt, antimony, tin, iron,  copper, and silver;
 it is found in combination with sulphur, forming
 an ore called orpiment, and it is found combin-
 ed with oxygen, forming an ore called the white
 oxyde of arsenic ?
    729. Q. What preparations of arsenic are
 used in  medicine ? 
133
  A.  The oxydum arsenici preparatum,  and
 the liquor arsenicalis.
  730. Q. How is the prepared oxyde of arse-
nic made ?
  A.  By reducing common oxyde of arsenic to
powder, and placing it in a crucible,  covered
by an inverted crucible;  into which the o:;yde
of arsenic is sublimed.
  731. Q. How is the liquor arsenicalis made ?
  A.  By  taking sixty-four grains  of  prepared
oxyde of  arsenic,  and sixty-four grains of  the
sub-carbonate of potash  from tartar; these are
to be  boiled in a glass vessel, with a pint of wa-
 ter, until they are entirely dissolved,  to which
 is to be added four fluid drachms, with as much
 water as  will make the  whole to fill a  pint
 measure exactly.
  732. Q. What is the  compound formed in
 this preparation ?
   A. An arseniate of potash.
   733.  Q. Has the oxyde of arsenic any pecu-
 liar propertied ?
   A. Yes; instead of being  insipid, as  most
 other oxydes are. it is acrid and corrosive to the
 taste, it is soluble in water, and can be crystal-
 lized  in octaedrons; it reddens the infusion of
 litmus, and combines with alkalis; it has there-
 fore been considered, by some chemists, rather
 as an acid than an oxyde, and has been called
 arsenious acid.
   734. Q. What are the sources of antimony?
   A.  Antimony is found native in combination
 with oxygen,  with sulphur, and with muriatic
 acid.
                       M 
134
  735. Q. What preparations of antimony does
the London College direct to be kept ?
  A.  The oxydum antimonii, sulphuretum an-
timonii precipitatum, antimonium tartarizatum,
pulvis antimonialis,  and the liquor antimonii
tartarizati.
  736. Q.  How  is  the oxyde of antimony
made?
  A.  A quantity of sulphuret of antimony is to
be added to a mixture of muriatic acid and ni-
tric acid; it is then to be digested for an hour,
in a boiling heat; the solution is then  to be
strained, and poured into a quantity of water,
in which is dissolved a portion of sub-carbonate
of potash; a precipitate is then formed, which
is to  be  well washed and dried on  bibulous
paper.
  737. Q. What is the theory  of the formation
of this oxyde ?
   A;  The antimony of sulphuret  first becomes
oxydized by  the nitric  acid, which  is decom-
posed ; the oxyde of antimony  is then dissolved
by  the muriatic acid, and a muriat of antimony
is obtained, when this is added to the sub-car-
bonate of potash; the sub-carbonate of potash is
first decomposed,  the carbonic acid escapes,
and the potash  unites itself to the muriatic acid
and forms muriat of potash; the  muriatic acid
having thus  combined  with the  potash, the
oxyde of antimony is precipitated.
   738. Q.  What becomes of the sulphur that
formed the sulphuret of antimony ?
   A.  It remains upon the filter, when the so-
 lution of muriated  antimony is filtered. 
135
   739.  Q. How is the sulphuretum antimonii
precipitatum made ?
   A. Sulphuret of antimony, solution of potash,
and di-tilled water, are mixed and boiled over
a slow fire; the mixture is kept stirred, and as
much distilled water  is added as evaporates ;
when this part of  the process is  finished, the
solution is to be strained through a double linen
cloth, and while it is yet hot,  sulphuric acid is
to be dropped in,  as  may be required, to pre-
cipitate the powder, which is afterwards to be
well washed, to free it of the sulphat of potash,
then dried.
   740. Q. Explain what takes place in this
process.
   A. Potash, sulphur,  antimony, and water, are
boiled together; the water becomes decomposed
into  its constituents, oxygen and hydrogen, the
potash unites to the greater part of the sulphur,
and  attracts hydrogen from the water, so that a
hydro-sulphuret of  potash is formed;  the anti-
mony combines with  the oxygen  of the water,
and  the  sulphur which it retains attracts the
other portion of hydrogen, which  the sulphuret
of potash has  not  combined  with; an hydro-
sulphuretted oxyde of antimony is thus formed,
which is held  in solution;  when  the sulphuric
acid is added, the hydro-sulphuret of potash
is decomposed, the sulphuric  acid and potash
combine, and form sulphate of potash,  the hy-
drogen escapes, and the sulphur intimately mix-
ed with the  hydro-sulphuretted oxyde of anti-
mony is precipitated. 
136
  741. Q. How is the antimonium  tartarizc
turn made ?
  A.  It is made with oxyde of antimony,  su
pertartrate of potash, and distilled water.  The
water is boiled in a glass vessel, and the anti-
mony and  super-tartrate of  potash previously
mixed together are added; it is then boiled for
half an hour, filtered  through paper, and evapo-
rated  to a certain extent; after which  it is set
by to  crystallize slowly.
  742. Q. What takes place in the formation of
this compound ?
  A.  The excess of tartaric acid, that exists in
the super-tartrate of potash, combines with the
oxyde of antimony, and forms a tartrate of anti-
mony ; this combines with the tartrate of pot-
ash, and forms a triple salt, consisting of tartaric
acid,  antimony, and  potash.
  743. Q.  How is antimonial powder made ?
  A.  By mixing one pait of sulphuret  of anti-
mony and two parts  of hartshorn shavings,
throwing them into a broad iron pot, heated to
a white heat, and stirring the mixture constant-
ly until it acquires an ash colour ; having taken
it out, it is to be reduced to powder, and put in-
to a coated crucible, upon which another invert-
ed  crucible, having  a small hole in its bottom,
is to be luted; the fire is then to be raised to
whiteness,  and kept so for  two hours.   The
mass  is then  to be reduced to a very fine pow-
der.
  744.  Q. What does this  compound consist
of? 
137
  A. It consists of oxyde of antimony and phos-
phate of lime.
  745. Q. Describe the phoenomena that  take
place during its preparation.
  A. When  the  sulphuret of antimony and
hartshorn shavings are exposed to a white heat
the sulphuret of antimony is decomposed, its
sulphur is driven off, and the antimony remains
oxydized, while the gelatine of the hartshorn
shavings is destroyed, and nothing is left but
phosphate  ot  lime, which becomes mixed with
the oxyde of antimony.
  746. Q   What is the active ingredient of the
yest cataplasm ?
   A. The carbonic acid gas evolved, which is
the product of fermentation.
  7+7. Q. What are the chemical compounds
that exist in the mistura ferri composita ?
  A. Carbonate of iron and sulphate of potash.
  748.  Q. What is meant by fermentation ?
  A. The spontaneous change of vegetable
substances, by which their properties become
altered.
  749.  Q.  What circumstances are  required
for fermentation to go on ?
   A. A certain degree of fluidity;  a degree of
heat between 55* and  65° Fahrenheit and the
contact of air.
  750.  Q.  What are the general species of fer-
mentations ?
   A. Fermentation is divided into the spirituous,
the acetous, and the putrefactive; besides which
Dr. Thompson has  added two others, viz. the
panary and the saccharine fermentation.
                    M 2 
138T
  751. Q. What ingredients are necessary fin
fermentation ?
  A.  Water, sugar, and mucilage.
  752. Q. Can a fluid, after it has  undergone
the acetous  fermentation, be made to undergo
the vinous ?
  A.  No: fermentation will only take place in
the regular  succession;  irom the  acetous to
the vinous, from the vinous to  the putrefactive.
  753. Q.  What are the  products of the spiri-
tuous fermentation ?
  A.  Ardent spirits, wines, beers, &c.
  754. Q.  What do  the  acetous and putrefac-
tive fermentations produce ?
  A.  The acetous fermentation produces vine-
gar, and  the putrefactive fermentation produces
ammonia.
  755. Q. How is alkohol obtained ?
  A.  Alkohol  may  be obtained by  distilling
any  spirituous  liquor.   Brandy   affords  the
greatest quantity, but in this country it is usually
obtained from malt  spirit, when it  is  termed
rectified spirit.
  756. Q.  How does the London College  di-
rect alkohol to be made from rectified spirit ?
  A.  A  quantity of heated  sub-carbonate of
potash is added to a quantity of rectified spirit;
these are macerated together for  twenty four
hours; the alkohol is then distilled off by means
of a water bath.
  757. Q.  What is  the use of the  sub carbo-
nate of potash ?
   A. It abstracts the greatest part of the water
from  the rectified spirit.   Alkohol  appears al-
ways to  contain a portion of water. 
139
  758. Q. What is the solvent of a resin ?
  A.  Alkohol; but rectified »Mirit is generally
used.
  759. Q,.  In what menstruum is gum soluble ?
  A.  Water, and not in alkohol.
  760. Q. What menstruum should be  used to
dissolve a gum resin ?
  A.  A mixture of spirit and water.
  761. Q.  What use is made' i rectified spirit
in medicine ?
  A.  To make ethers, different spirits, and tinc-
tures.
  762. Q.  What  are the  different  medicinal
spirits composed of ?
   A.  A  particular volatile  oil, a  quantity  of
alkof**?, and water.
  763. Q. What are the elements of alkohol ?
  A- Otvgen, hydrogen, and carbon.
  764 Q. What is an ether?
   A.  A compound formed by the action of an
acid upon alkohol; it is the lightest fluid known;
it is highly volatile,  pungent, odorous, and in-
flammable.
  765. Iiow are ethers designated ?
   A.  They are named from the acid by which
they are obtained ; that obtained  by sulphuric
acid and alkohol,  is called sulphuric ether; by
acetic acid, acetic ether; by nitric acid, nitric
ether, and so forth.
   766.  Q.  What is the composition of ether?
   A. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.
   767.  Q. How does ether differ from alkohol,
as its constituents are the same ?
   A. The proportions of its constituents are dif-  , 
140
ferent, it is supposed to contain  more hydrogei
and less carbon than alkohol.
  768. Q. Is the acid decomposed in the forma-
tion of ether ?
  A.  In some degree; but  its  presence seems
chiefly to predispose to an alteration of the af-
finities  of the elements of the alkohol.
  769. Q. What ethereal compounds are direct-
ed  to be kept in the shops by the London Col-
lege?
  A. The sulphuric  ether,  the rectified ether,
ethereal oil, aromatic spirits  of ether, compound
spirits of ether, spirit of nitric ether.
  770.  Q. How is the ether sulphuricus made ?
   A. By distillation  from  equal quantities of
rectified spirit and sulphuric acid.   There are
several precautions necessary in the making of
ether; it is to be distilled from a glass retort into
adouble receiver,ortworeceivers luted together;
tfiey  are to be kept cold by  ice, or cold water;
the distillation is to be carried on until aheavier
fluid  passes over  that sinks to the bottom of
the ether.
   771. Q. How is ether rectificatus made ?
   A. Sulphuric ether is distilled from a certain
 quantity  of fused  potash and water; if fourteen
 fluid ounces are used, twelve ounces are to be
 distilled over.
   772. Q. Of what use is the potash in this pre-
 paration  ?
   A. It combines with the  sulphurous acid and
 ethereal oil, which the sulphuric acid contained;
 these remain behind  in the retort.
■   773. Q. How is the oleum etheereum made ? 
141
  A. After the distillation of sulphuric ether,
the distillation  is  to be carried oti until a black
froth begins to rise, when the retort is to be im-
mediately removed.   The oil is then to  be se-
parated from the fluid  in the receiver,  and
washed with lime-water, to free it of the adhe-
rent acid.
  774. Q. What is the spiritus etheris aromati-
cus made with ?
  A. It is made with cinnamon bark, cardamom-
seed, long  i-epper,  ginger root, and spirits of ^ "
sulphuric, ether.
  775.  Q. What is the spiritus etheris  compo- t
situs formed of?                               ^
  A. It is formed of spirits  of sulphuric ether  T5J
and ethereal oil.
  776.  Q.  How is the spiritus etheris nitrici
made ?
  A. By distillation  from  a mixture of nitric
acid and rectified spirit.
THE END. 
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