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i 
 EXAMINATIONS
              IN
     ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY,
           PRACTICE O*
PHYSIC, SURGERYJ_MJvrjERI A MEDICA,
   CHEMISTRp, ANJMI^RItfAQfa ■> y
          r>£&&&%&& GENERAL'S OFFICE
         sijuDEUt8,-S.-1803
      WHO ARE ABOUf TCfXAssfoHK,    f  C
COLLEGE OF SUR^e^S,-^JMPttfi-MfiRICAI, ^. _,,
       OR TRANSPORT BOARD.       jf
t
  By ROBERT gOOPER, M.D.
LECTURER ON MEDICINE, &C. IN LONDON.
NEW-YORK:
PRINTED AND SOLD BT COLLINS AND CO.
     NO. 189, PIARL-STREET.

          1811. 
 
               TO THE






 GENTLEMEN STUDYING MEDICINE,






                 AND






  PREPARING FOR THEIR EXAMINATION;






          THIS LITTLE WORK






            IS DEDICATED,






AS A MARK OF THE AUTHOR'S ATTENTION






                 TO






     THEIR INTEREST AND WELFARE. 
 
EXAMINATIONS
                   IN

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, SURGERY,

  PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, MATERIA MKDICA,

       CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY ;


    FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF STUDENTS.
              ANATOMY.

  1. Q. JlAOW many bones compose the cra-
nium ?
  A. Eight: namely, os frontis, two ossa parie-
talia, os occipitis, tvvoossa temporalia, os ethmoi-
des, and the os sphaenoides.
  2. Q. What is the union of the bones of the
skull termed ?
  A. Suture.
  3. Q. Describe the situation of the sphenoidal
bone.
  A. The sphenoidal bone is situated in the
middle of the basis of the cranium, extending
                    A2 
(  6  )
underneath, from one temple across to the other.
   4 Q  Int© how many portions  is the tempo-
ral bone distinguished ?
   A. Generally  into two portions, viz. a squa-
mous portion and a petrous portion.
   5 Q.  In what bone is the organ of hearing
situated ?
   A- in the petrous portion  of  the  temporal
bone
   6. Q How many tables have the bones of the
cranium ?
   A,  Two :  an external and an interna).
   7. Q. What is the name  of the substance
Which unites the two tables of the cranium ?
   A.  It is called Diploe, and meditullium.
   8. Q. What is the name of the  suture which
connects the frontal  with the parietal bones ?
   A.  The coronal suture.
   9. Q. By what suture is the occipital bone
united to the parietal bones ?
   A.  By the lambdoidal suture.
   10  Q. What  name  is given to  the  suture
which connects the parietal bones ?
   A.  It is called the sagittal suture.
   11. Q.  How many species of sutures are
there ?
   A. Two: viz. the true and false.
   12. Q. What bones  are united by  the false
sutures ?
   A.  The temporal bones are united to the pa-
rietal bones, by the false or squamous suture. 
(  7  )
   13. Q.  Through what foramina do the olfacto-
ry nerves pass out of the cranium ?
   A.  Through the foramina cribrosa, which are
in the upper part of the ethmoid bone.
   14. Q.  Where is the foramen magnum occi-
pitale situated ?
   A.  In the  occipital bone, at the inferior part
between the condyles and behind the basilary pro-
cess-
   15. Q.  To what bone does the crista galli be-
long?
   A. To  the ethmoid bone ; it forms the pro-
jecting process within the cranium, to which the
falciform process of the dura mater is attached.
   16. Q.  To what bone does the sella turcica be-
long?
   A. To  the sphenoid bone ; it is placed in the
middle, and projects into the cavity of the cranium.
   17. Q.  Describe the frontal bone.
   A. The frontal bone has some resemblance to
a cockle-shtll; it is placed in the anterior part of
the skull,  and  forms the  fore-head and  upper-
part of the orbits.   It receives the  anterior lobes
cerebri, forms a notch for the ethmoid bone, is
externally convex, internally concave, and has
several elevations and depressions.
   18. Q.  Where is the os aethmoides situated ?
   A. The os aethmoides is situated at the root of
the nose,  in a notch between the orbitar plates of
the frontal bone.
   19. Q.  What bone separates the ethmoid from
the occipital  bone ? 
(  8  )
  A. The os sphenoideum.
  20. Q. To what bone does the mastoid process
belong ?
  A. It is a part of the temporal bone.
  21. Q.  How many bones compose the orbit ?
  A. Seven : viz. os frontis, os sethmoidale, os
sphenoidale, os lachrymale, os jugale, os palati,
and the os maxillare superius.
  32. Q.  How  many bones compose  the lower
jaw ?
  A.  One, in the adult, which is called the infe-
rior maxillary bone.
  23. Q.  What benes form the septum narium?
  A. The azygos process of the ethmoid bone,
and the vomer.
  24. Q.  To what bone do the superior turbinat-
ed bones,  as they are called, belong ?
  A. To the ethmoid bone, of which they are a
part.
  25. Q.  In what  bone is the antrum of High-
more situated ?
  A. In the superior maxillary bone, immediate-
ly behind  the cheeks.
  26. Q.  What separates the antrum of High-
more from the orbit ?
  A. The orbitar process, or plate, of the supe-
rior maxillary bone.
  27. Q.  Is there any  communication between
the orbit and the nostril ?
   A. Yes:  by the  ductus ad nasum, in which
there is a membranous canal, in  the  fresh sub-
ject, to convey the tears into the nose. 
(  9  )
  28. Q. How many bones are there in the tym-
panum ?
  A.  Four: the incus, stapes, malleus, and os
orbiculare.
  29. Q. To what bone of the cranium does the
styloid process belong ?
  A.  To the temporal bone.
  30. Q. What bones form the foramen lacerum
in basi cranii ?
  A.  The temporal and occipital bones.
  31. Q. What are the processes of the sphenoid
bone called, which form the sides of the posterior
nostril ?
  A  The pterygoid processes.
  32. Q. What passes through the foramen la»
cerum in basi cranii ?
  A.  The jugular vein and par vagum.
  33. Q, Do the ossa paiati form any part of the
orbit ?
  A.  Yes : a portion of the palate-bone rises into
the orbit,  and forms a part of the posterior and
inferior part of it.
  34. Q. Where is the vomer situated ?
  A.  In the centre of the nostrils, having the
sphenoid and ethmoid bones at its upper part, and
the superior maxillary and palatine bones at its
lower part,  and  the cartilaginous septum of the
nose on the anterior part.
  35. Q. Point out the situation of the zygomatic
processes on the face.
  A. It forms the  lateral and superior part  of 
(  io  )
the check, extending anteriorly from the extrem-
ity of the ear.
   36. Q. Where is the os unguis situated ?
   A. The os unguis is situated in the orbit,  at
the internal  angle, immediately underneath the
meeting of the eye-lashes.
   37. Q. What is the name of the  portions off
the os ethmoides, which hang down into the nos-
trils ?
   A. The superior turbinated bones and azygos
process.
   88. Q. What is the shape ef the os male ?
   A. It is of a quadrangular shape.
   39. Q.  What are the bones called which com-
pose the spine ?
   A. Vertebre, of which there are twenty-four.
   40. Q. Describe the spine.
   A. The spine is a long, bony, and cartilaginous,
hollow column, consisting of twenty four  bones,
or vertebre, and extending from the occipital
bone to the os sacrum.
   41. Q.  What is there  peculiar to the second
vertebra ?
   A. It has an odontoid process  at the upper part
of its body.
   42. Q.  How would  you distinguish a dorsal
vertebra from the rest ?
   A. The bodies  of the dorsal vertebre are lar-
ger than the cervical, and less than the lumbar ;
they are more flattened at the sides, more convex
before, and more concave behind, than any of the
other vertebre ; the  spinous process  terminates 
(  11  )
in a round tubercle ;  the transverse processes are
very thick; they have no.foramen, as in the cervi-
cal ; there is an articulating surface on the side
of the body, and a superficial one in the points of
the transverse processes.
   43. Q. Where is  the os hyoides situated ?
   A. It is situated at the root of the tongue,  be-
tween it and the larynx.
   44. Q. Describe the scapula.
   A. The scapula is a triangular bone, situated
at the lateral and upper part of the back.  It has
three margins, a spine, the acromion  and cora-
coid process, and an articular cavity for the head
of the os humeri.
   45. Q. What bone is fixed to the acromion
scapulae ?
   A. The clavicle, or collar-bone.
   46. Q. How many bones has the fore-arm?
   A. Two : the ulna and  radius.
   47. Q. Where is the ulna situated ?
   A. When the hand 's supine,  it is situated at
the under and  inner part of the fore-arm, between
the humerus and carpus.
   48. Q. On  what bone do we lean when on  our
elbow ?
   A. The ulna.
   49. Q.  How  many bones compose the shoul-
der-joint ?
   A. Two: the scapula and the os brachii.
   50. Q.  What is the process  called  on which
we lean ?
   \. The olecranon. 
C  12   )
   51.  Q. What bone unites the arm to the tho-
 rax ?
   A. The clavicle,  or collar-bone.
   52.  Q. How many bones compose the carpus ?,
   A. Eight: viz. os seaphoides, os lunare, os cu-
neiforme, os orbiculare, os trapezium, os  mag-
num, and os unciforme.
   53.  Q. What receives the head of the os fe-
moris ?
   A. The acetabulum, or cup-like  cavity of the
6s innominatum.
   54.  Q. Where is the os tincse situated ?
   A. The os tinea, or mouth of the womb, is sit-
uated at the top of the vagina and inferior part of
the uterus.
   55.  Q. What bone supports the leg ?
  A. The astragalus, on which the tibia rests.
   56.  Q. How many bones compose the tarsus I
   A. Seven : viz astragalus, os calcis,  os navi-
culare, os cuboides,  and the three cuneiform
bones.
   57.  Q. Where is the trochanter major situat-
ed ?
   A. It  forms the great projection at the superi-
or and external part of the thigh-bone.
   58.  Q. On what bone is the linea  aspera situ-
ated ?
   A. On the back part of the os femoris.
   59.  Q. What are the processes on the lower
end of  the os femoris called ?
   A. They  are called condyles.
   60.  Q. How many bones  compose the knee-
joint ? 
(  13  )
  A.  Three : viz. the patella, the os femoris, and
the tibia..
  61. Q- What are the bones of the leg called l
  A-  Tibia and fibula.
  62. Q. What is the shape of the tibia?
  A.  It is long and triangular ; larger above than
below.
  63. Q- What bone forms the inner ankle ?
  A.  The inner ankle is formed  of a projection
from the lower part of the tibia.
  64. Q. What bone forms the outer ankle ?
  A.  The lower end of the fibula forms it.
  65. Q  What are  the names of the  bones of
the pelvis ?
   A.  They are four in number,  viz. the two ossa
innominata, one os sacrum, and one os coccygis.
   66. Q. How  would you distinguish  a male
from a female pelvis ?
   A.  In the female pelvis, the os sacrum is short-
er and broader than that of the male, the ossa ilia
are more expanded, the brim of the pelvis is near-
ly of an oval shape, it is wider from side to side
than from the symphisis pubis to the os sacrum ;
whereas, in  man, it is rounder, and every where
of less diameter ; the os sacrum is narrower, and
the os coccygis  more firmly connected.
   67. Q. Into how many portions is the os inno-
minatum distinguished ?
   A. Into three, viz. the  iliac, the pubic, and js-
chialic portions, which, in the fetus, are three dis-
tinct bones, and become one in the aduit.
                      B 
(  14  )
  68. Q. What separates the ossa  innominata
from each other behind ?
  A.  The sacrum.
  69. Q. Is there any bone between the ossa in-
nominata anteriorly ?
  A.  No : the pubic portions of each meet toge-
ther to form the pubes.
  70. Q. Where is the os coccygis situated ?
  A.  At the lower part, or apex, of the os sacrum.
  71. Q. What is the  name of the cavity  that
receives the head  of the os humeri ?
  A.  The glenoid cavity.
  72. Q. To what bone does the acetabulum be-
long?
  A. It belongs to the os innominatum.
  73. Q. What bones  form the hip-joint ?
  A. The  head of the os femoris and the aceta-
bulum of the os innominatum.
   74. Q. Where is the tuberosity of the ischium
situated ?
   A. At the inferior part of the os innominatum ;
we sit upon it.
   75. Q. Of what bone is  the ascending ramus
 of the pubis a part ?
   A. It is a part  of thees innominatum.
   .76. Q. What  bones form the thorax ?
   A. Twelve dorsal vertebrae, the sternum, and
 twelve ribs ; in all twenty-five bones.
   77. Q. What  is the use of the periosteum ?
   A. To allow an attachment for muscles,  and
 to  afford a bed for the ramification of vessels to
 nourish the bone. 
C  15   )
  78. Q. What is the situation of the common
carotid artery in the neck ?
  A.  The common carotid artery lies on the side
of the trachea,  between it and the internal jugu-
lar vein.
  79. Q. What parts  of the body are free from
adipose structure ?
  A. The skin of the scrotum, penis, and eyelids,
have no adipose structure.
  80. Q. What are the muscles the subclavian
artery passes between, in going over the first rib ?
  A. The subclavian artery, as it passes over the
first rib, gees  between the anterior and middle
scalenus muscles.
  81. Q. Whereis the Eustachian tube situated?
  A. It passes from the tympanum of the earob-
liquely  forwards and inwards,  and opens  in the
fauces,  near the opening of the posterior nostril.
  82. Q. What are the names of the valves at
the origin of the aorta ?
  A.  They are called the semilunar valves, and
are three in number.
  83.  Q. What  are the differences between the
foetal and adult heart ?
  A  In the foetal heart, an opening exists be-
tween the auricles in  the  septum auricularum,
called  the foramen  ovale;  this is closed in the
adult heart.   An artery also passes from the pul-
monary artery obliquely to the ascending aorta
in  the  fetus, which is called canalis arteriosus ;
this becomes a ligament in  the adult. 
(  16  )
   84. Q.  Where does the excretory duct of the
 parotid gland open ?
   A.  The excretory duct of the  parotid gland,
 or Steno's duct, passes obliquely over the outside
 of the masseter muscle, and perforates the cheek,
 opening near the second molaris. •
   85. Q. What is  the name of the excretory
 duct of the  sub-maxillary gland, and where does
 it open ?
   A.  The excretory duct of the  sub-maxillary
 gland, is called ductus  Wartonii ; it passes  be-
 tween the genio-glossus and mylo-hyoideus mus-
 cles, and opens on the side of the frscnum lingue.
   86.  Q. How many arteries  has the  thyroid
 gland  ?
   A. The thyroid gland has four arteries, name-
 ly, the two superior thyroideal and the two infe-
 rior thyroideal.
   87  Q.  Where is the ductus arteriosus situat-
 ed, in  the foetus ?
   A. It passes obliquely from the ascending aor-
 ta to the pulmonary artery.
   88.  Q.  What viscera are contained in the ab-
domen ?
   A. The omentum, the stomach, the large and
small  intestines, the liver and gall bladder,  the
mesentery, the lacteal vessels,  the  thoracic duct,
the spleen, the pancreas, the kidneys and supra-
renal capsules, part of the aorta descendens, and
vena cava ascendens.
   89.  Q.  What is the membrane called,  that 
C  17  )
lines  the cavity and covers the viscera of the ab-
don en ?
  A  The peritoneum.
  90. Q. Are the kidneys completely enveloped
in the peritonxum ?
  A.  No : only their anterior surfaces.
  91. Q.  Where is the external cutaneous nerve
situated at the bend of the arm ?
  A.  The external cutaneous nerve is situated at
the bend of the arm, under the cephalic and the
median cephalic veins.
  92. Q.   What is the situation of the internal
cutaneous nerve at the bend of the arm ?
  A.  The internal cutaneous nerve is situated
under the median basilic nerve; it frequently sends
a small twig over the vein.
   93. Q.  What is the insertion and origin of the
 ligamentum nucha; ?
   A. The ligamentum  nuch<e  arises from  the
 spine of the occipital  bone, and is fixed  to  the
 spinous processes of all the cervical vertebras.
   94. Q.  Describe the stomach.
   A. The stomach is a  membranous receptacle,
 placed in the left hypochondriac region, compos-
 ed of three membranes.   It has a superior orifice
 called cardia, and an inferior orifice called pylorus;
 a lesser  and greater curvature, and two surfaces
 distinguished into anterior and posterior.
   95. Q.  What viscera  are attached to the great
 curvature  of the stomach ?
   A. The large omentum, the spleen, and trans-
 verse arch of the colon.
                     B  2 
C  18   )
   96.  Q. Describe the liver.
   A. The liver is the largest abdominal viscus,
placed in the right hypochondriac  region, and
partly in the epigastric region.   It is distinguish-
ed into three lobes, is suspended by five ligaments,
and is composed of arteries, veins, nerves, absor-
bents, excretory ducts,  and cellular membrane,
and is covered by the peritonaeum.
   97. Q. Where is the prostate  gland situated ?
   A. It lies directly under the symphysis pubis;
it embraces the neck of the bladder, and rests up-
on the rectum.
   98. Q. What forms the anterior crural nerve ?
   A. The three or four superior lumbar nerves.
   99. Q. What are the suprarenal capsules ?
   A. The suprarenal capsules are flat bodies, of
a dark  yellow colour; they  rest upon the kid;
neys ; they contain a dark coloured fluid, and are
larger in the foetus than in the adult.
   100.  Q. What is the use of the liver.
   A. To secrete bile.
   101.  Q.  What are the excretory ducts of the
liver called ?
   A. Pori biliarii.
   102.  Q  How would you distinguish the small
from the large intestines?
   A. The large intestines have  three longitudi-
nal bands, running on their surface ;  they are ta-
bulated,  and have the portions of fat adhering to
them, called appendiculse epiploicse ; which cir-
cumstances are not to be noticed in the small in-
testines.   There are the valvule conniventes in 
(  19   )
the small intestines,  which do not exist in  the
large.
   103. Q.  What are the branches of the superior
mesenteric artery ?
  A. The  superior mesenteric artery gives off,
on the right side, three branches.  The ilio-coli-
ca, whose branches go to the cecum,  and to a
portion c" the ileum ; the colica dextra,  which
supplies U'P: right side of the colon; and the colica
media, which divides on the mesocolon, and sends
one branch to the right side and another to the
left, that inosculates  with the branch from the in-
ferior mesenteric artery.
   104. Q. How are arteries distinguished from
veins ?
   A. The arteries are distinguished  from veins
by their coats being whiter and more dense ; also
more elastic.  Their apertures gape, in the living
body, and they pulsate.  The arteries and veins
of the lower extremity are very similar,  in regard
to the thickness of their coats ; the popliteal ar-
tcrv and vein both gape.
    105. Q. What is the tunica conjunctiva ?
   A.  The tunica conjunctiva is a reflexion of the
inner membrane of  the eye-lid, over  the surface
of the^.eye  ; it prevents extraneous bodies passing
deep into the socket.
    106. Q. What gives the  whitish blue colour
to the bulb of the eye ?
   A.  The whitish blue colour of the bulb of the
eve is occasioned by the expanding tendons of the 
(  20   )
muscles  shining  through the transparent tunica
conjunctiva.
   107 Q. Describe the situation and course of
the colon.
   A. The colon ascends on the right side to the
liver;  passes under the liver and stomach to the
left side,  where it descends, by a sigmoid flexure,
to the pelvis, and ends in the rectum.
   108. Q. What  is  the excretory difct of the
kidney called ?
   A. The ureter.
   109. Q. Describe the uterus.
   A. The uterus is a spongy hollow receptacle,
of a pear shape, placed in the pelvis between the
urinary bladder and rectum, divided into fundus,
cervex and orifice  or  os tince ;  it has four liga-
ments, two fallopian tubes, two  ovaria, and the
vagina hanging from its cervex.
   1 to. Q. Through what tube does the  ovum
pass from the ovarium into the uterus ?
   A. Through the fallopian tube.
   111. Q. Where  are the vasa vorticosa situat-
ed?
   A- The vasa vorticosa are situated on the cho-
roid coat of the eye ; they are  formed by a con-
tortion of the veins of that membrane.
   112. Q. What are the nerves that form the
lenticular ganglion of the eye ?
   A. The lenticular  ganglion  is  formed  by a
branch from the third and fifth pair of nerves.
   113. Q. Which is the largest viscus of the ab-
domen ? 
(  21  )
  A.  The liver.
  114. Q.  What do the openings of the  veru
montanum belong to ?
  A.  The orifices found on the veru montanum
belong to the vesicule seminales and prostate
gland.
  115. Q.  Where  are  Cowper's glands to be
found ?
  A.  Cowper's glands are situated near the bulb
of the urethra before the prostate gland.
  116. Q.  Where is the torcular of Herophilus
to be  found ?
  A.  The  torcular  of Herophilus is to be found
in the junction of the falx and the tentorium.
  117. Q.  What artery forms  the  superficial
palmar arch ?
  A.  T, he superficial palmar arch is chiefly form-
ed by the ulnar artery.
   118. Q.  Of what kind of structure is the outer
surface of the peritoneum ?
  A.  The outer surface of the peritoneum is cel-
lular.
  119. Q.  What forms the scrotum ?
  A.  The scrotum  is formed by a continuation
of the common integuments.
  120. Q.  What is the excretory duct  of the
testicle called ?
  A.  The excretory duct of the testicle is called
vas deferens.
   121. Q.  What is the proper juice  of the sto-
mach called ?
  A.  The  gastric juice.
   122. Q.  Where is the spleen situated? 
(  22  )
  A. It is situated in the  left  hypochondriutn,
near the fundus of the stomach under the ribs.
   123. Q. Describe the eye.
  A. The eye is  divided into external and inter-
nal parts.   The external parts are the supercilia,
the palpebra, the cilia, lachrymal gland, lachry-
mal caruncle, nasal duct and muscles of the bulb,
and  the tunica conjunctiva.   The internal parts
are the sclerotic coat, the cornea,  the choroid
coat,  iris, uvea,  retina,  hyaloid membrane, cap-
sule  of the lens and vitreous  humours, three
humours and two chambers.
  124. Q. How many coats has the eye ?
  A. It is  generally considered to  have eight
coats, but many  anatomists consider it to have
but three : viz. the tunica  sclerotica, the tunica
choroides, and the retina.              •
  125. Q. Where is  the urethra most dilated ?
  A.  The urethra is most dilated  at that part
which is surrounded by the prostate gland.
  126. Q. What part of the vagina is covered by
the peritoneum ?
  A. The upper and posterior part.
  127. Q. What length is the urethra in fe-
males.
  A.  The urethra in females is about an inch in
length.
  128. Q. What  secretes  the pigmenturn nig-
rum of the choroid membrane ?
  A. The pigmentam  nigrum  of the choroid
membrane is secreted by the arteries of that mem-
brane. 
(  23  )
  129. Q.  How many chambers has the eye ?
  A.  Two: an anterior and a  posterior  cham-
ber.
  130. Q.  What separates the anterior from the
posterior chamber ?
  A.  The curtain formed by the iris and uvea.
  131. Q.  What is contained in  the capsule of
the crystalline lens ?
  A.  The crystalline lens  and a little  water.
  132. Q.  What artery nourishes the crystalline
lens ?
  A.  The arteria centralis retine.
  133. Q.  Where is the  pigmentum nigrum of
the eye situated ?
  A.  Upon the uvea, behind the iris and upon
the surface of the tunica choroidea.
  134. Q.  How many  muscles are  there that
arise from the trunk and are inserted into the sca-
pula ?
  A.  The muscles that are inserted into the sca-
pula are  six in number, viz.  trapezius,  levator
scapule, pectoralis minor, rhomboideus, serratus
magnus, and subclavius.
   135. Q.  What are the muscles that arise from
the shoulder joint and are  inserted into the fore-
arm ?
  A.  They are six in number, viz. trapezius, le-
vator scapule, pectoralis minor,  rhomboideus, *
serratus magnus and subclavius.
   136. Q. Where is the lachrymal sac situated.
   A. In the superior part of the lachrymal groove, 
(  24  )
or the commencement of the ductus ad nasum be-
hind the tendon of the orbicularis.
   137.  Q. What is situated in the groove at the
lower internal edge of each rib ?
   A. The intercostal artery, vein, and nerve.
   138.  Q. What difference in situation is there
between the right and left  kidney ?
   A. The right kidney is much lower than the
left, occasioned by the liver occupying so much
space.
   139  Q. What  are the ducts that enter the
duodenum ?
   A. The ductus communis choledochus, and the
ductus pancreaticus.
   140  Q. How many muscles arise from the
shoulder and are inserted into the fore-arm ?
   A. The muscles that are attached to the shoul-
der and fore-arm  are two  in number, viz. biceps
flexor cubiti, and the long head of the triceps.
   141.  Q. How many muscles arise from the
arm to be inserted into the fore-arm ?
   A. The muscles that arise from  the arm  and
are inserted into the fore-arm are  six in number,
namely, the anconeus, the short heads of the tri-
ceps extensor cubiti, the brachialis  internus, su-
pinator  radii longus,  supinator radii brevis, and
pronator radii teres.
   142.  Q. Where are the testicles situated in the
foetus ?
   \. The testicles in the  foetus before the sixth
month are in the abdomen, they receive a cover- 
(  25  )
 ing of peritoneum,  and are placed at the lower
 part of the kidneys.
   143. Q. In what  intestines  are  the  valvule
 conniventes found  ?
   A. In the small intestines, chiefly in the duo*
 denum and jejunum.
   144. Q. What is the name of the duct leading
 from the pelvis of the kidney to the bladder ?
   A. The ureter.
   145. Q. What forms the linea alba ?
   A. The meeting of the flat tendons of the ab-
 dominal muscles.
   146. Q. How many openings  has the right
 auricle of the heart.
   A. Four, viz.  the opening of the vena  cava su-
 perior, that  of the vena cava inferior, that  of the
 caronary vein, and  ostium venosum.
   147. Q. Where do the ostia  of  the  lacteals
 open ?
   A. Upon the  internal surface of the small in-
testines.
   148.  Q. What muscles arise from the scapula
and are inserted  into the humerus ?
   A. The muscles which arise from the  scapula
and are inserted into the humerus, are  the sub-
scapularis, teres major, teres minor, supraspina-
tus,  infraspinatus,  coraco-brachialis, and  the del-
toides.
   149.  Q. Where does the mesentery begin ?
   A. The mesentery  begins about the termina-
tion of the duodenum.
                      C 
(  26   )
   156. Q.  What forms  the profundal  palmar
arch ?
  A. The profundal palmar arch is chiefly form-
ed by the radial artery.
   151. Q.  How many openings has the left au-
ricle of the  heart ?
  A. Five, viz. those of the four pulmonary ves-
sels and the ostium venosum.
   152. Q.  What is the true organ of vision ?
  A. The retina.
   153. Q.  What is the general  division  of the
internal ear ?
  A. The internal ear is divided into the tympan-
um and labyrinth which consists of the cochlea,
vestibulum, and semicircular canals.
   154. Q.  What nerves form the great sympa-
thetic ?
  A. A branch of the sixth pair of nerves with a
recurrent twig of the second branch qf the fifth
pair of nerves.
   155. Q.  Do  the olfactory nerves supply the
nose with the sense of  feeling ?
  A. No, but branches from the fifth pair do.
   156. Q.  WThat are the vessels surrounded by
the capsule of Glysson ?
  A. The vessels surrounded by  the capsule  of
Glysson are the vena porte, the hepatic  artery,
the hepatic  veins, the excretory ducts,  and some
absorbents.
   157. Q. How many dilatations are there in the
urethra ?
  A. There are generally three dilatations to be 
(  27  )
found in the urethra of men ;  one at the point of
the glans penis,  another at the  bulb of  the ure-
thra,  and a third in the prostate gland.
   158. Q. What muscles are divided in amputa-
tion of the thigh ?
   A.  The muscles divided in amputation of the
thigh, are the biceps flexor cruris, semi-tendin-
osus,   semi-membranosus,   gracilis,  sartorius,
vastus externus,  vastus internus, rectus  femoris,
and the long tendon of the abductor magnus.
   159. Q.  How many arteries are there '.
   A.  Two: viz. the aorta and pulmonary artery;
all the other arteries are branches of these two.
   160. Q.  WThat are the  arteries  called which
supply the kidneys ?
   A.  The renal or emulgent  arteries.
   161. Q.   What  is the  name of the vessels
which nourish the heart ?
   A.  Coronary arteries.
   162. A.  What are the arteries of the  stomach
called ?
   A  Coronary—they are  four in number, viz.
coronaria, gastrica dextra,  gastrica sinistra, and
pylorica.  The veins are called gastric.
    163.  Q.  How are the  trunks of  arteries
nourished ?
   A. The arterial  trunks  are nourished by the
vasa  vasorum,  which arise frem  the nearest
small branches, and  are every where dispersed
on their surface.
   164. Q. What change do the collateral arter-
ies undergo when a large arterial trunk is tied ? 
e  28   )
 .  A. The collateral arteries, after a large arterial
 trunk is tied, dilate, their coats become stronger,
 and acquire an additional strength ; they are also
 found to become tortuous.
   165. Q. What forms the phrenic nerve ?
   A. The phrenic  nerve is formed by the third
 and fourth  cervical, it also receives a filament
 from the second.
   166. Q. Where is the popliteal artery situated?
   A. In the ham, between the condyles of theos
 femoris, hamstrings,  and heads of the gastrocne-
 mius externus.
   167. Q.  What arteries are given off from the
 arch of the aorta ?
   A.  Three  branches:  viz.  the  arteria inno-
 minata, the left carotid, and the  left subclavian.
   168. A. What is the  course and  distribution
 of the epigastric artery ?
   A. It arises from the femoral artery, just as it
 is about to pass under Poupart's ligament, it pas-
 ses upwards and inwards at the upper and outer
 part of the abdominal ring, behind the spermatic
 cord,  running along the edge of the  transversus
 in an oblique manner to the pyramidales ; it then
 ascends under the middle of the rectus, furnish-
 ing branches to the abdominal parietes, and  ter-
 minates above the umbilicus,  anastomosing with
 the mammary.
   169  Q. What is the  first  ganglion, formed
by the intercostal nerve, called ?
  A.  The cervical ganglion.
   170. Q. What forms the chorda tympani ? 
(  29  )
  A-  The chorda tympani is formed by the por-
tio  dura, it  is  a reflected  twig of that  nerve,
which passes between the long processes  of the
malleus and incus,  and over  the  membrana
tympani.
  171. Q. What is the most elastic substance in
the body ?
  A.  The most elastic substance in the body is
cartilage.
  172. Q. Are tendons elastic ?
 'A.  No; they are inelastic, otherwise the effect
of muscles would be greatly diminished.
  173. Q. What is the  course  of the femoral
artery ?
  A.  The femoral artery passes oyer the head of
the os femoris down into a hollow at the  upper
and inner part of the thigh, with the rectus and
sartorius muscles upon the outside, and the  ad-
ductor on the  inner side ; it descends along the
inside of the thigh between the  vastus internus
and triceps, it then  gradually bends backwards
till it reaches the ham to become the popliteal.
   174.  Q.   What are the terminations of the
arteries ?
  A.  One  termination is  in veins,  another in
secreting extremities, a third in glands, a fourth
in cells, as in the penis,  and a fifth termination
is in anastomoses.
   175. Q.  What  is  the  valve of Eustachius
formed by ?
  A.  The Eustachian valve is formed by  a fold
of the inner membrane of the right auricle.
                     C  2 
(  30   )
   176. Q. What arteries nourish the pancreas ?
   A. The arteries which nourish the pancreas
 are  derived  from the pylorica, duodenalis  and
 splenica.
   177. Q. Have the veins of the dura mater any
 valves ?
   A. No, they have none.
   178. Q. What are the arteries of the dura
 mater ?
   A. The arteries of the dura  mater are the
 anterior, middle, and posterior meningeal.
   Q. 179.  Where does the anterior  meningeal
 artery arise ?
   A. The anterior meningeal artery arises from
 the carotic).
   180.  Q.  From whence does the middle menin-
 geal artery arise ?
   A. The middle meningeal artery arises from
 the internal carotid artery.
   181. Q. What are the veins at the flexure of
 the arm ?
   A. The  cephalic, the median-cephalic,  the
 basilic,  and the median-basilic.
   182.  Q.  What muscles are  inserted into the
 patella ?
   A. The  rectus femoris, the  vastus externus,
 the vastus internus, and crursus.
   183.  Q.  What are the names of  the muscles
which are inserted into the os calcis ?
   A  Gastrocnemius  externus,  gastrocnemius
internus, and plantaris.
   184. Q.  What is  the  name  of the tendon 
(  31  )
formed by the  gastrocnemius  externus,  and
soleus ?
   A. The tendo Achillis.
   185. Q. Do the external condyles of the hu-
merus give origin to the extensor or flexor  mus-
cles of the fore arm ?
   A. To  the extensors.
   186. Q. What plexus of nerves surround the
axillary artery ?
   A.  The brachial plexus.
   187. Q.  What forms the first  arch of the
palate ?
   A. The constrictor isthmii faucium, covered
by the skin of the mouth.
   188. Q. What are the vessels which form the
vena porte ?
   A. The superior and inferior mesenteric  vein,
and the splenic vein.
   189. Q. What are the  glands called situated at
the root of  the lungs ?
   A. Bronchial glands;  they are of a dark co-
lour.
   190. Q. What muscles are  attached  to the
coraeoid process of the scapula ?
   A. The coraco-brachialis, the pectoralis minor,
and the short head of the biceps flexor cubiti.
   191. Q. Where is the  diaphragm situated ?
   A. Between the thorax and abdomen, forming
a vaulted arch or septum  attached to the lower
borders of the ribs.
   192. Q. What are the  muscles of the abdo-
men? 
(  32  )
  A. The obliquus externus, obliquus internus,
transversalis abdominalis, and pyramidalis, form-
ing five pair.
  193. Q.  Where is  the  longest cms  of the
diaphragm situated ?
  A. On  the left side of the fore-part of the
loins.
  194.  Q.  What  tendon  passes  through  the
shoulder-joint ?
   A.  The  long  tendon of the biceps  flexor
cubiti.
  195. Q.  On  Which side of the  aorta  is  the
longest emulgent artery situated ?
  A. On the right, in consequence of the vena
cava being placed  on  that  side, and the  artery
having to pass behind that vessel.
   196. Q. What forms the capsule of Glysson ?
  A. A reflexion of the peritoneum, which, with
a quantity  of cellular  substance, surrounds the
vessels and nerves of the liver just before they
enter that viscus.
    197.  A. What bones  form the  lachrymal
groove, or ductus ad nasum and where does it
terminate ?
  A. The lachrymal bone, the superior maxillary
bone, and the inferior spongy bone. It terminates
at the lower and lateral  parts of the nose, at the
inner and fore-part of the antrum maxillare, un-
der the os spongiosum  inferius, in a straight line
with the second dens molaris.
   198. Q. What are the salivary glands called?
  A. They are the parotid gland, the sublingual 
(  33   )
 glands, the  submaxillary  glands, the glands of
 the cheek, the labial glands, and molar glands.
   199. Q. Where is the thyroid gland situated ?
   A. Upon  the trachea,  lying  on the cricoid
 cartilage, and horns of the thyroid cartilage.
   200. Q. Where is the pituitary gland situated?
   A. In the sella turcica, a cavity in the sphenoid
 bone.
   201.  Q. Where is the lachrymal gland situat-
 ed?
   A. In a depression of the orbitar  process  of
 the frontal bone within the orbit.
   202. Q.  What is the extent of the peritoneum
 covering the bladder ?
   A. The peritoneal coat extends over the fund-
 us, sides and back part to near the termination of
 the ureters.
   203. Q. From  what artery does the  inferior
 thyroid arise ?
   A. The inferior thyroid  artery arises from the
subclavian.
   204.  Q. How many  branches does the axil-
lary artery send off ?
   A. The  axillary  artery generally gives  off
 four arteries,  viz.  thoracica  longior, thoracica
 superior,  thoracica  humeraria,  and  thoracica
alaris.
   205.  Q. What are the most important fascie
of the body ?
   A. The fascia covering the  temporal muscle ;
that given off from the biceps covering the fore-
arm ; that covering the abdominal muscles and 
C  34  )
back;  the  fascia of the lower extremities, and
the plantar and palmar fascia.
   206.  Q. What  are the ligaments  about  the
shoulder joint ?
   A. The capsular ligament of the head of the
os brachii,  the triangular ligament which extends
from the coracoid  process to the  acromion, the
coroid and trapezoid ligaments that extend from
the clavicle to the coracoid process.
'"   207. Q. What  is the name of the  ligament
that connects the os femoris  to the bottom of the
acetabulum ?
   A. The ligamentum teres.
   208. Q. On what vertebra is rotation of the
head performed ?
   A. The head rotates upon the second cervical
vertebra,  by the intervention of the atlas.
   209. Q. Where is the female urethra situated ?
   A.  The female urethra is situated under the
symphisis of the pubis, between the nymphe and
below the clitoris, just above the entrance of the
vagina.
   210. Q.  What are the. branches  which the
subclavian artery gives off ?
    A.   They  are  six in  number;  viz. arteria
mammaria interna,—thyroidea  inferior,—inter-
costalis,—vertebralis,—cervicalis  profunda,  and
cervicalis superficialis.
   211. Q. WTiat are the ligaments of the pelvis ?
   A.  The  long  and short  sacro  ischiatic liga-
ments, the ligamentum obturans ; the ligament-
um poupartii; the transverse ligaments, going; 
(  35  )
from the spinous processes of the  ilium to the
fourth .and fifth lumbar vertebre, the annular liga-
ment of the  ossa pubis;  the  ligamenta vaga,
which pass from  the ilium to  the sacrum ;  and
the lacertus ligamentosus, that runs from the last
lumbar vertebra along the ridge of the os inno-
minatum to the pubes ; besides these,  there are
the  capsular and longitudinal  ligaments of the
sacrum and os coccygis.
   212.  Q. What are the  burse  mucosae,  and
4heir use ?
   A. The burse mucose are small bags placed
under muscles and tendons that  are frequently
brought into action,  they contain a fluid similar
to synovia, the use of which is to  lubricate the
muscles and tendons.
   213.  Q. Where do  the corpora cavernosa
penis arise ?
   A. The corpora cavernosa penis arise from the
edge of the ramus of  the is«hium and os pubis.
   214. Q.  What vessels does the  right pulmona-
ry artery pass, in going to the  lungs ?
   A. The right pulmonary artery passes behind
the aorta and  superior cava.
   215. Q. What parts do the external and inter-
nal carotid artery supply ?
   A. The external carotid artery  supplies the
face and external  parts of the head ; the internal
carotid artery supplies the brain.
   216. Q.  What does the coeliac artery supply ?
   A. The coeliac artery  supplies the  stomach'
liver, and spleen. 
(  36   )
   217.  Q. What is  the course of the external
maxillary artery over the jaw-bone ?
   A. The external mamillary artery passes before
the edge of the masseter over  the middle and
lateral part of the jaw-bone.
   218.  Q. Between what tendons does the radial
artery lie  at the wrist ?
   A. The  radial artery lies (at the wrist,) be-
tween the tendons of the flexor carpi radialis and
supinator  longus.
   219.  Q. What are the arteries given off from
the thoracic aorta ?
   A. The thoracic aorta gives off the bronchial,
the oesophageal, and the inferior intercostal arter-
ies.                                  »
   220.  Q.  What nerve supplies the tongue for
the organ of taste ?
   A. A branch of the fifth pair, which is termed
the gustatory nerve.
   221.  Q. Where does the posterior meningeal
artery arise ?
   A. The posterior meningeal artery arises from
the vertebial.
   222.  Q. How is the pia mater nourished ?
   A. The pia mater is nourished  by arteries
from the brain.
  223. Q. What is the use of the adeps ?
   A. The adeps  guards against  the effects of
pressure,  it lessens  the specific gravity  of the
body, fills up the  interstices  of muscles, and is a
reservoir of nourishment of  the body.
   224.  Q. What forms the common  integu-
ments ? 
(  37   )
  A.  The  common integuments are formed by
the cuticle, rete  mucosum,  cutis,  and adipose
substance.
  225. Q.  What are  the branches of the fifth
pair of nerves I
  A.  The branches of the fifth pair of nerves are
the ophthalmic,  the superior maxillary, and the
inferior mamillary.
  226. Q.  What are the papillae minimse,  and
papille medie of the  tongue formed by ?
  A.  The papille minime and medie, are form-
ed by the  extremities of nerves surrounded by  a
lace-work of blood-vessels.
  227. Q. Describe the contents of the cranium ?
  A.  The  cranium contains the cerebrum, cere-
bellum, and medulla oblongata ; the dura mater,
the pia mater, and tunica arachnoides ;  nine pair
of nerves,  the accessory nerves of  Willis ;  the
several sinuses, the arteries that nourish the brain
and its membranes, and  the veins that return the
blood into the sinuses ;  and  also absorbent ves-
sels.
  228. Q.  What membrane nourishes the inter-
nal table  of the skull ?
  A.  The  external lamina of the dura mater.
  2 29. Q.  What  does  the falciform  process of
the dura  mater separate  i
  A.  It  separates the hemispheres  of the brain
from  each other.
  230. Q.  What vessel  runs in the falciform pro-
cess of the dura mater ?
D 
(  38  )
  A.  The superior longitudinal sinus is the prin-
cipal vessel.
  231  Q. Where is the tentorium situated ?
  A  Between the cerebrum and cerebellum.
  232  Q. How many lobes has the brain ?
  A.  Six ;  viz. two anterior, two posterior,  and
two middle or inferior lobes.
  233. Q. How many hemispheres has the ce-
rebrum ?
  A.  Two;  viz. the right and the left.
  234. Q. What are the cavities  in the brain
called ?
  A.  They  are called ventricles.
  235. Q. What separates the lateral ventricles
from each other ?
  A-  The septum lucidum.
  236. Q.  From what part of the brain does the
pineal gland arise ?
  A. From the thalamusnervioptici on each side
by peduncles.
  237. Q.  From what part of the brain do the
optic  nerves arise ?
  A.  They  arise from the thalami nervorum op-
ticorum.
  238. Q.  What nerves pass through the fora-
men lacerum orbitale superius ?
  A.  The third, the  fourth, the first  branch of
the fifth and sixth pair of nerves.
  239. Q. Through what  foramina do the  fifth
pair of nerves pass out of the cranium ?
  A.  Through the foramen lacerum orbitale su- 
(  39  )
perius, foramen rotundum, and foramen ovale, in
separate branches.
  240. Q. Does the arm receive nerves from the
brain, or from the spinal marrow ?
  A.  From  the spinal marrow.
  241. Q. What nerve supplies the nose for the
sense of smelling ?
  A.  The olfactory, or first pair.
  242.  Q.  What   nerves  supply  the   dia-
phragm ?
  A.  The phrenic, or diaphragmatic nerves.
  243. Q.  Where  do the great  sciatic nerves
arise ?
  A. From a plexus of nerves formed by the
fourth and fifth lumbar nerves, jointed by the first,
second, and  third sacrals.
  244. Q  What is the name of the ganglion in
the abdomen  which supplies most of  the abdo-
minal viscera ?
  A. The semilunar ganglion.
  245.  Q.  What does the foramen magnum oc-
cipitale transmit ?
   A. The spinal marrow, the vertebral arteries,
and the accessory nerves of Willis.
   246.  Q.  How  many  membranes   has   the
brain ?
   A. Three ; viz. the dura mater, the pia mater,
and the tunica arachnoides.
   247.  Q.  What are the processes of the dura
mater called ?
   A. They are three in number;  viz. the fal- 
(  40  )
ciform process,  the  tentorium, and the septum
cerebelii.
  248. Q.  What are  the  viscera of the  tho-
rax ?
  A.  The pleura, the lungs, the thymus gland
(in  children,)  the oesophagus, the ductus  tho-
racicus, the  arch  of the  aorta, branches of
the vene cave,  the vena azygos, the pericar-
dium, the heart,  the par vagum,  and the great
intercostal nerves.
  249. Q  How many lobes has the left lung ?
  A-  It has two lobes.
  250. Q.  What separates the  chest into two
cavities ?
  A.  The mediastinum, which is formed  by the
pleura.
  351. Q  What are contained in the posterior
mediastinum ?
  A-  1 he oesophagus, the bronchie, the large
vessels of the heart, the par vagum, great inter-
costals, and thoracic duct.
  252. Q.  What is there in the anterior medias-
tinum that disappears towards adult age ?
   A-  The thymus gland.
  253. Q. Describe the heart ?
   A.  The heart is a hollow  muscular viscus, sit-
uated in the pericardium,  in the cavity of the
thorax, resting upon the diaphragm.
   254. Q.  Do the auricles of the heart commu-
nicate before birth ?
   A.  Yes, by the foramen ovale. 
                   (   41  )

  255.  Q. Where is the Eustachian  valve situ-
ated ?
  A.  At the entrance of the inferior cava, within
the right auricle of the heart.
D 2 
SURGERY.
  256. Q.   W HAT are the symptomsof com-
pressed brain ?
  A.  The  person is mostly insensible ;  an apo-
plectic stertor of the breathing soon  comes on ;
loss of voluntary motion ; tremors,  and convul-
sions.  The pupil is contracted, or dilated ; and,
if the person can be roused from his  stertftrous
sleep, he complains of giddiness and dimness of
sight.  Often there is hxmorrhage from the nose,
eyes,  and ears ; and the faces and urine are dis-
charged involuntarily ; and as the compression is
generally  produced by fractured skull, the find-
ing a portion of skull depressed, from the blow is
sufficient.  The pulse is irregular and slow.
  257. Q. What  are  the  symptqms of concus-
sion of the brain ■
  A. The patient is first in a state of insensibility,
and the extremities usually become  cold;  there
is a great tendency to sleep,  but the  sleep is un-
attended  by stertor.   If the concussion  be not
very great, the patient soon becomes more sensi-
ble, but vomiting takes place ; he is at times deli-
rious ; the pulse irregular and quick;  and phre-
nitis  often  succeeds the  concussion.   Should,
however,  the concussion be  very great, the in-
sensibility of the patient increases. 
(  43   )
  258 Q. How would you distinguish a fissure
of the cranium from a suture.
  A. By the course of the fissure, by its appear-
ance  not being zigzag, and by  the  pericranium
not  adhering to it in the way it does to a  suture.
  259. Q. What practice would you adopt to re-
lieve concussion of the brain -
  A. The most approved practice is to bleed ac-
cording to  circumstances;  to  administer saline
purges; to  put the patient on the antiphlogistic
regimen.   Should symptoms of phrenitis come
on,  large and repeated blood-letting is to  be had
recourse to, and blisters are to be applied to the
head, or neck, in order to reduce the inflammation
of the brain.
  260. Q. When a portion  of the cranium is
depressed, what  would you do to alleviate it-'
  A. Apply the trephine.
  261. Q.  When a portion of the cranium is de-
pressed, where would you apply the trephine to
raise it •
  A. On a part of the skull which would  include
a portion of the depressed bone,  that the elevator
may  be introduced so  as to raise the depressed
portion.
  262. Q. What do you  mean by an exompha-
los?
  A. An  umbilical hernia or  protrusion of the
intestines or omentum through  the umbilical
ring.
  363. Q. What is a buhonocele ? 
(  44   )
  A.  It is an inguinal hernia, formed by a pro-
trusion of intestine through the abdominal ring.
  264. Q.  What do you mean by hydrocele ?
  A.  A  collection of serous fluid in the tunica
vaginalis testis.
  265. Q.  What  are the symptoms of strangu-
lated intestine ?
  A.  The  patient is seized with sickness, and a
vomiting of  foecal matter; obstinate costiveness
comes on;  synochal fever takes place.  The rup-
ture remains  stationary, and no effort can return
it;  the tumour of  the part becomes very  painful,
and the pain  extends  to the abdomen, attended
with a general tension.
  266. Q.  Describe the operation for strangula-
ted inguinal hernia.
  A. Having shaved off the hair from the tu-
mour, and the patient being  placed in a  suitable
situation for the operation, an incision should be
made about an inch above the ring,  which, if the
tumour be not very large, should extend to the
most depending part of the swelling, so  that the
skin and cellular membrane covering the sac will
thus be cut through.  Perhaps the external pudi-
cal artery,  that crosses the sac near the abdomi-
nal ring, will also be cut through, if so it will be
necessary to secure this artery before we proceed,
to prevent  further bleeding.  Then, with a pair
of forceps,  a part of the fascia must  be raised and
divided,  to allow the introduction  of a director,
on  which instrument  the fascia is  to  be  divided
upwards, to within an inch of the abdominal ring, 
(  45   )
  and downwards, to the bottom of the tumour.
  Tne next thing to be attended to, is the division
  of the stricture :  with this view, the  finger is to
  be passed into the sac, as far as the stricture,
  winch will be found either at the abdominal ring,
  or about an inch and a half from this aperture, in-
, clnnng upwards  and outwards, or in the mouth
  of the sac.   If  the stricture be at the ring, the
  finger is to be passed as far as the stricture, and
  then a probe-pointed bistoury must be conveyed
  over the front part of the sac into the ring, which
  is next to be divided in a direction upwards, op-
  posite the middle of the sac, and to extend just
  sufficient to allow the protruded parts to be re-
  turned into the  abdomen.   By this  division of
  the  ring, the epigastric arterv is not wounded,
  nor are the transverse tendinous fibres cut through
  that cross the upper part of the  ring, by  which
  the aperture of the ring is not so much weakened.
  Tne strict up*- heing thus removed, the protruded
  parts are to be returned into  the cavity of the ab-
  domen.   Should the intestine be  gangienous, it
  is not to be returned.  The intestine may, how-
  ever,  have dark decolourations, and may  be re-
  turned without  harm : these states  siiould be
  carefully distinguished.  If the omentum be gan-
  grenous, the dead part should be cut off, and the
  other part rcurned,  if hxinorrhage is not likely
  to occur from its surface.   When the omentum
  is indurated, the indurated portion may be cut off.
  The parts are now to be dressed in the usual way.
    267.  Q.  How would you treat a violent oph-
  thalmia ? 
(  4«   )
  A. Bleed locally, and generally according to
the age of the patient.   If there be great inflam-
mation of the tunica conjunctiva, carefully scari-
fy it; apply  soft emollient poultices to the eyes,
renewing them often ;  give saline purges and di-
aphoretics ; keep the eyes shaded ;  and,as the
chronic  stage  succeeds, alter the remedies in >
some degree, according to circumstances ; apply
astringent sedative lotions to the eyes, leaving off
the poultices.   Make use of the thebaic tincture,
dropping in two or three drops twice  or thrice
a-day, between the eye-lid and ball.
  268. Q. How would  you treat gangrene in
general ?
   A. With tonics, stimulants,  and  a generous
diet.
  269. Q.  When a locked jaw arises from an in-
jury of the great toe,  how  would you endeavour
to relieve it?
   ^. By making a free division of the  injured
part; and if this did not succeed, by  amputating
the bone.  Antispasmodics, as opium and ether,
must be  given internally
  270 Q.  When a  ball is lodged in the calf of
the leg,  and  it is necessary to make an incision
upon it,  in what direction would you make that
incision ?
  A. In  a perpendicular direction.
  271. Q.  How does the complete division of
a punctured artery (as the temporal) stop the
haemorrhage?
  A. By the retraction of the extremities of the
artery. • 
(  47   )
  272.  Q. What  is the cause of the cold sensa-
tion and numbness of the leg and foot, generally-
felt from an aneurism of the popliteal artery ?
  A. Pressure upon the popliteal nerve, which
supplies the leg and foot with nervous influence ;
it is also caused  by  obstructed circulation, the
popliteal artery losing part of its power, and con-
taining a quantity of coagulum
  273  Q. If necessary to take up  the  brachial
artery,  near the flexure of the arm,  how will the
circulation be carried  on ?
  A. By the two profundals chiefly, which inos-
culate with the recurrents of the ulnar and radial
arteries.
  274.  Q. How is amputation of the shoulder-
joint performed ?
   A. As there is no room  for the application of
the  tourniquet, in this operation,  the subclavian
artery  is to be compressed  by an assistant, by
mens  of a pad, just where it passes  over the
first rib ; or,  to render the operation more safe,
it is preferred to take up the axillary  artery at
once ;  then, with a  large  common bistoury,  a
semicircular incision is to be made with its con-
vcuty  downwards, across the integuments cover-
ing  the deltoid muscle, about four inches  btlovv
 the acromion.   Tn,: skin should not be detach .d,
but  the muscle u to be cleared from  the bone
quite  up to ti>e joint; then the  tendons pasvng
over the joint are to be cut  through, also the cap-
 sular ligament, so as lo allow the bone to be dis-
 located' from the  joint,  having done this, the 
(  48  )
 skin, and other parts, underneath the joint, are to
 be divided  with  one stroke of the knife ; after
 this, the circumflex,or any small vessel that may
 bleed,  should be  secured  and tied.   The flap of
 the deltoid muscle is next to be laid down, so that
 its edge will meet the  margin of  the wound  be-
 low.  The operation is then finished by dressing.
   275.  Q. How  many species of while swelling
 are there ?
   A. Two:  the  st rofulous and  the rheumatic
 species.
   276.  Q. What muscles  are  cut through in
 the operation of lithotomy on the male ?
   A. The transveisalis perinei, and generally a
 part of the accelerator urine, and sometimes a
 part of the levator ani.
   277.  Q. What are the  peculiarities of a gun-
 shot wound?
   A  Great contusion and laceration, which pro-
 duce a deadened  state of the fibres immediately
 surrounding the wound, that require to be thrown
 off in the form of a slough, before the wound can
 heal; they also frequently contain pieces of cloth,
 or bullets.
   278.  Q  How is an aneurismal tumour distin-
 guished from other tumours ?
   A. By its pulsating, and by its receding, upon
 pressure, and soon returning  again to  its usual
 bulk.
   279. Q. W^hat i the substance generally found
in aneurisn^al sacs ■ 
C  49   )
   A. The coagulable part of the blood, which is
usually found in layers.
   280  Q. How is amputation below the knee to
be performed ?
   A. Having  placed  the patient in a  proper po-
sition, and  applied  the tourniquet to compress
the  artery,  one assistant  is  to support the leg,
while the other pulls up the integuments ;  a cir-
cular incision  is then to be made round the leg,
to divide the integuments ; when these are divi-
ded, a portion of them is to be dissected back
from the  muscles, by means of  a  scalpel, suffi-
cient to cover  the stump ;  these being kept back,
another circular  incision  is  to be made by the
knife, some way higher up than the first incision;
by  this incision, the soft parts are  divided quite
to the bones.  The interosseous ligament is then
to be»throroughly divided  by the scalpel, or the
catlin ;  the soft parts should be properly retract-
ed, and  the saw should  next be applied, to divide
the bones ;  after which, the spicule left by the
saw,  are to  be removed by  the pincers.   The
vessels are next to be secured bv ligatures, slack-
ening the tourniquet from time to time,  lest any
vessel should not be secured.   I o discover this,
it is always necessary to sponge away  the clotted
blood from the wound.  After these precautions
are  taken, the edges of the  wound are  to be
brought  together, by drawing the integuments
over the surface of the wound ; the ligatures are
to be left out, and  the wound covered with lint
and cloth.
                       E 
i  ^o   )
   281. Q. What are the consequences thai ge-
'irr.'illy arise from w»unded nerves ?
   A. Locked jaw, convulsions, and inflammation
of the part.
   282. Q. What is meant by a compound frac-
ture ?
   A. It is a fracture ot the bone, attended with
an external wound of the soft  parts.
   283. Q. What  takes place  when a bone  is
denuded of its periosteum ?
   A  Generally exfoliation, to a certain degree.
   284.  Q. What bone is perforated in operating
for fistula lachrymalis ?
   A. The os unguis.
   285  Q. Why are luxations of the shoulder-
joint more frequent than luxutions of the  hip-
joint ?
   A. Because the glenoid cavity is very superfi-
cial to allow of extensive motion to the head of
the os brachii, which is very large.  The joint  js
also more exposed to unguarded  blows, or acci-
dents, than any other joint; and the surrounding
muscles have no effect in strengthening the joint.
The hip joint, on the contrary, is confined  as to
motion ; the acetabulum is also very deep in the
fresh subject, so as  to aides'  cover the head of
the os femoris ; and thus this joint is rendereu
very strong.
   286. Q, Under what circumstances  is ampu-
tation of an extremity necessary?
   A. Yv here the t/one becomes much diseased
when;  grt '  laceration  from gnn-.vhot wonncis >] 
t  51  )
have been produced ; where great destruction ot
part» have taken place in compound  fracture ;
and wliere, from other causes, the operation is
required.
  287.  Q. What forms the sac in femoral her-
nia ?
  A. The fascia of the thigh, and the perito-
neum.
  288.  Q. In  what direction is Poupart's liga-
ment to be divided, if necessary, to liberate stran-
gulated femoral hernia ?
  A.  That recommended by Mr Hey, is to in-
troduce a director within the crural ring on that
side of the intestine, or omentum, which*is near-
est to the symphysis of  the pubes, and to make
the incision  directly  upwards.  Gimbernat re-
commends the incision to be carried directly to-
wards the  symphysis pubis.
  289.  Q. How many  ways are there of punc-
turing the bladder,  to relieve  suppression of
urine ?
  A.  First,  from  the  perineum ;——secondly,
above the os pubis ;—-thirdly, through the rectum
in the male, and vagina in the female ;—fourth-
ly, by dilating  the  meatus  urinarius in the fe-
male.
  290.  Q. On what part of the arm is pressure
to be made before amputation of the fore-arm ?
   A. As  high up as convenient; placing the pad
at the inner edge of the biceps, so as to compress
the artery against the bone. 
(  52  )
   291.  Q. At what part of  the  aort?. do aneu-
risms most frequently occur ?
   A. At the arch of the aorta, just as it is about
to descend.
   292.  Q. What are the unfavourable  circum-
stances  in compound fracture, that require the
extremity to be amputated ?
   A  When the wound of the soft parts is large
and lacerated, and the bone, or bones, very much
splintered, together with a violent degree of con-
tusion of the neighbouring muscles, amputation
is necessary  ; but a prompt decision, in many ca-
ses of compound  fracture,  requires  great dis-
cernment on the part of the  surgeon, whether to
amputate or not.
   293   Q  What are the signs  of a fractured
cranium ?
   A. A depression of a part of the skull, and the
symptoms  of  pressure on  the brain, as coma,
stertorous breathing, loss of voluntary  motion,
convulsions, tremours, involuntary discharge of
the urine and feces,  dilatation of the pupil, irre-
gular pulse, and sometimes hemorrhage from
the nose, eyes, and ears.
   294.  Q. What is the cause of stupor, or coma>
in fracture of the cranium ?
   A. Pressure upon  the brain.
   295.  Q. What is the  medical  treatment in
fractures of the skull  ?
   A. Bleed repeatedly, give saline purges, and
order a  low diet, the patient should be  kept on
fhe antiphlogistic regimen for  near a month,  to 
(  53  )
guard against  subsequent inflammation of the
brain.
   296.  Q. Why are fistulx generally dilated ?
   A- To produce a new action  in those ulcers,
by which granulations take place from their  bot-
tom.
   297  Q. How is the radical cure of hydrocele
performed ?
   A. By evacuating the fluid, and afterwards ex-
citing such a degree of inflammation of the tunica
vaginalis  and  testicle as will cause adhesion to
take place, and consequently an obliteration of the
cavity ;  this is either done by caustic, seton,  in-
cision, or by injection
   298  Q  Where does a  psoas abscess general-
ly point ?
   A. In the groin, at the internal part of the
thigh, and the loins.
   299.  Q. VV hat are the signs of a wounded ar-
tery ?
   A. Effusions  of  florid  blood, and  its being
thrown out by jerks from the vessel.
   300.  Q. What are the general terminations of
inflammation ?  -
   A. Resolution,  suppuration,  and  mortifica-
tion.
   301.  Q. What method is to be taken after a
cannon  ball has torn o'Tthe limb?
   A  To amputate the stump ;  sometimes it is
necessary to pertocm the  amputation above the
nearest joint.
   302.  Q. What are the circumstances that pre-
                     E 2 
                  (  54  )

vent the dilatation of gun-shot wounds to extract
the extraneous substance ?
   A. When it is likely  to create a great irrita-
tion of the wound  without gaining  any advan-
tage ; when the ball enters fur into the substance
of a bone ;  where it enters any ol the large cavi-
ties ; where the ball cannot be discovered ; and
where the foreign bodies are less likely to create
inflammation than their extraction.
   303. Q.  What is the treatment of  gun-shot
wounds ?
   A. First, when the wound is in any extremity
to determine for or against amputation, which in
many cases require  great judgment.   The  am-
putation should be performed before inflamma-
tion arises, or a disposition to  gangrene takes
place in the limbs ; should, however, amputation
be deferred for a day or  two, and the  wound in a
high state  of inflammation, the wound is lo  be
brought to  a state of suppuration, at which pe-
riod amputation, if needful, should be  perform-
ed, weighing in mind the  constitution of the pa-
tient, and other circumstances.  Extraneous  sub-
stances are  generally to  be e- trfcted, particular-
ly when they press upon an important viscus  or
a considerable nerve ;  if hemorrhage take place
from a large artery,  it  is to be e  posed and  tied,
the external wound  often  requires  dilating, but
sometimes  dilatation is improper.
   Counter  openings are  sometimes to be made,
as when the ball  lodges under contused  skin  that
will probably slough, but if the  skin remain un- 
(  55  )
injured, and the hail is scarcely perceptible to the
feel, this operation is improper, as the wound
heals better when it is left alone.  When slough-
ing takes place on the surface of a wound, its re-
moval is favoured by a plentiful suppuration.
  The rest of the treatment is similar to contus-
ed wounds.
  304. Q.  What is the treatment of contused
wounds ?
  A. 'To prevent a high degree of inflammation,
which often terminates in gangrene ;  this  is to
be effected  by a strict antiphlogistic regimen, to-
pical bleeding by leeches. &c.   The formation of
pus is to be promoted by emollient  poultices ;
should gangrene succeed the inflammation, warm
stimulating  applications are to be applied, and
the  patient is to take bark, wine, and a nourish-
ing diet.
   305. Q. What  are the terminations  of erysi-
pelas ?
   A. Resolution,  gangrene, and suppuration.
   306. Q. Under what circumstances is an arti-
ficial anus to be formed ?
   A. Where absolute gangrene of an incarcerat-
ed intestine has taken place.
   307.  Q.  How is gastroraphe performed ?
   A. Gastroraphe is employed to  unite wounds
of the abdomen in  the following way : two nee-
dles are placed on the same ligature, and introduc-
ed  through both lips of the wound from within
outwards, including peritoneum, muscles and in-
teguments. 
(  56  )
  308. Q. How is emphysema produced from a
wound of the thorax ?
  A.  By the lungs being wounded, and the con-
sequent escape of air into  the  cellular  mem-
brane.
  309 Q. What is the treatment of wounds of
the joints ?
  A.  The admission of air into their cavities is
to be  obviated, as this  causes a high degree of
inflammation to take place.   If the capsular liga-
ment  is much  torn, amputation becomes  neces-
sary ; in other respects the joint is to be consid-
ered as under a high degree of inflammation, anrl
the antiphlogistic regimen is to be adopted ; if
suppuration take  place  in the  cavity of the joints,
the pus should  be carefully evacuated so as not to
allow  the air to enter.
  310. Q. What is meant by spina ventosa?
  A.  A disease affecting a bone,  in which it be-
comes spongy and suppurates ; and the pus es-
capes by several  openings.
  311. Q  What is the prognosis in wounds of
the abdominal  viscera ?
  A.  Generally  bad.
  312 Q.  How may an abscess of the liver rup-
ture ?
   A.  First,  externally,  by the liver forming an
adhesion to the parietes of the abdomen, and the
abscess pointing on its external surface. Second-
ly, by adhesive  inflammation taking place  be-
tween the liver,  diaphragm,  and  lungs, and the
abscess evacuating itself into  the lungs.  Third- 
(  57  )
ly, by adhesion taking place  between the liver
and  colon, and  the  abscess  making  its way
into the intestine.  Fourthly,  into the cavity of
the abdomen.
   313. Q.  What symptoms accompany wounds
of the abdominal viscera ?
   A. Profuse  hemorrhage from the external
wound ;  the escape of the,contents of particular
viscera, attended  with a small, feeble, and con-
tracted pulse, pallid countenance, coldness of the
extremities, great debility,  hiccough, vomiting,
spasm, and tension of the abdomen.
   314. Q.  How is the hip-disease distinguished
from an affection of the knee joint, as the fore-
running symptoms  of the  hip disease are gene-
rally pains about the knee, and no evident affec-
tion of the hip ?    -            .
   A. By a diminution of the circumference of the
leg and thigh of the affected side ; an elongation
of the limb, and pressure upon the acetabulum ex-
citing pain.
   315  Q- In taking  up  the brachial  artery,
what nerve are you to avoid including in the li-
gature ?
   A. The median nerve which accompanies the
brachial artery.
   3 i6  Q. What are granulations ?
   A. They are exudations of coagulable lymph
from the vessels of the exposed surface, which
soon become organized, possessing blood-vessels,
nerves, and absorbents. 
(  58  )
   3 If. Q.  What forms the boundaries or cyst of
an abscess ?
   A  A deposit of coagulable lymph,  which be-
comes organized so as to form  a cyst.
   3 18. Q  What is meunt by a furunculus ?
   A. A  circumscribed inflammatory tumour,
which usually attains the size of a small walnut;
it imperfectly suppurates, and the matter is con-
tained in a cyst.
   3-19. Q.  What is the cause of piles  ?
   A. Pressure upon  the  vessels of  the  anus
which prevents the return of blood to  the heart;
as that  from  a  gravid  uterus, costiveness, tu-
mours ; and from long sitting ; which last allows
the abdominal viscera  to press upon  the blood-
vessels.
   320. Q.  Hrtw is the operation for fistula lach-
rymaiis performed ?
   A. First an opening is to be made at the most
depending  part  of the tumour, by means  of a
lancet, which will discharge the sac of its con-
tents ; a probe is then to be passed forward in the
natural  passage with  moderate fjprce ;  should
this  be impracticable,  an artificial opening is  to
be cautiously drilled on the anterior part of the
os unguis by a trocar,  or any other shai p instru-
ment in an oblique direction.  When this has
penetrated a sufficient  depth,  which may be as-
certained by the want of resistance, and the dis-
charge of blood by the  nose, the perforator is  to
be removed, and a silver tube introduced into the
opening, where it should remain till the edgeso 
(  59  )
the wound become callous.   Afterfc nis is effect-
ed the tube is lo be withdrawn, and the external
wound heals readily.
  321. Q.  What are exostoses ?
  A.  They are tumours of bone formed  upon
bone.
  322. Q.  What is meant by sphacelus ?
  A  It is  a complete  mortification  of a part
whereby it loses its natural colour, and becomes
black  and soft.
  323 Q.  What is meant by sarcocele ?
  A.  A scirrhous enlargement of the testicle.
  324 Q. What are the causes of fistule in ano.
  A-  They  are caused by  the formation of ab-
scesses about the anus, which  spread among the
intestines of the muscles, and between the inte-
guments ; these abscesses are produced oritin-
ally  by inflammation.   There  are  also other
causes giving rise  to fistule, condylomatous tu-
mours, &c
  325. Q If the carotid artery should be wound-
ed,  and assistance  should be obtained in  time to
take up the vessel, what nerve are you to  avoid
including in the ligature ?
  A.  In taking up the carotid artery the eighth
pair of nerves which  runs  close to  the artery
should not be included  in the ligature.
  326. Q.  In a transverse wound of the trachea
how is re-union affected ?
   A. The union  of a  transverse wound of the
trachea is best effected by bringing  the patient's
head  downwards  and forwards to the sternum ; 
(  60   )
the head should be maintained  in this  position,
and the edges  of  the wound should be kept in
contact until they have  grown together.   Liga-
tures are not recommended, as they create irrita-
tion in the trachea.
   327.  Q.  What are the vessels generally divid-
ed when a person cuts his throat ?
   A. When suicide  is attempted by cutting the
throat, the vessels Cut through are either the ex-
ternal  maxillary,  the lingual, or the theroideal
artery : the trunk of  the carotid artery is seldom
cut.
   328. Q. How  does  a false aneurism  take
place ?
   A. A false aneurism is occasioned by an aper-
ture of an artery  allowing the blood to rush  into
the cellular structure.
   329. Q. How is amputation  of the fingers or
toes accomplished ?
   A.  In amputating the fingers or toes a small
semilunar incision is to be made on the back of
the finger or toe,  which  should extend, forming
a convexity about half  an inch in front ot the
joint; the flap is next to be raised and reflected;
having effected this, the skin in front of the fin-
ger over the joint is to be divided, and this inci-
sion must extend across the  finger or toe, and
meet the two  ends of the first semilunar incision,
then bending  the finger the capsular ligament is
to be  divided, which will allow the head of the
bone to be dislocated.  Should the digital arteries
bleed   much  they  may  be secured,  but  the 
(  61  )
hemorrhage often stops without having recourse
to ligature : the flap  is to be brought over the
wound, and the edges of the wound kept toge-
ther by adhesive plaster.
   330 Q. How  is  emphysema distinguished
from anasarca ?
   A  Emphysema is  distinguished from anasar-
ca by the crackling noise produced upon pressure,
and by the rapidity of the swelling.
   331. Q. What is the general division of stric-
tures ?
   A. The general division of strictures is into :—
spasmodic,  which  depends upon  a spasmodic
contraction of  a part of the urethra :---and per-
manent stricture, which  is  caused by a partial
narrowness of the urethra, forming a ridge. There
is also another kind of stricture, which depends
upon a permanent contraction and an occasional
spasmodic affection.
   332. Q.  How is the introduction of the male
catheter effected ?
   A.  l'he  introduction of the  male  catheter is
performed in the following manner.   The penis
should  be drawn upwards and held by  the  left
hand ; having oiled the catheter, it is to be intro-
duced into the urethra with its concavity towards
the abdomen, pressing its point downwards untU
 it reaches the bulb of the urethra ;  when this has"
happened, the beak of the instrument has  passed
 under the arch of the pubis ; the handle  of the
 instrument is then to be gradually brought for-
 wards  between the patient's thighs, and  during
                      F 
I  62   )
this action the beak of the instrument becomes
elevated and slips into the bladder.   The opera-
tion may be performed either when the patient is
standing, sitting, or on his back.
   333. Q. What is the character of a scorbutic
ulcer ?
   A. A  scorbutic ulcer is one that affords a foe-
tid, sanious, and bloody discharge, the edges are
of a livid colour, and the surface  is covered by a
loose spongy flesh ; there are  generally other
symptoms which establish  its  nature, such as
loose spongy gums, and livid spots of the skin.
   334. Q. What is the treatment of a fractured
rib ?
   A. In a case of fractured rib, the action of the
chest is to be confined, and the ends of the fractur-
ed ribs are to be kept as nearly as possible in ap-
position, which may be effected by surrounding
the body with a wide roller.   It may also be ne-
cessary to bleed the patient, and adopt the anti-
phlogistic  regimen,  to guard against inflamma-
tion.
   335.  Q. What is a bronchocele ?
   A. Bronchocele is an indolent enlargement of
the thyroid gland.
   356. Q. What method is  to be taken if, after
liberating a strangulated intestine by operation,
a great quantity of irreducible thickened omen-
tum  exists ?
   A. The indurated omentum  is to be cut off,
unless hemorrhage, or other circumstances, for-
bid it; in such cases it may be left unreturned. 
(  63   )
   337.  Q. What is the difference between a fe-
moral and an inguinal hernia ?
   A. In  femoral hernia the  intestine or omen-
tum protrudes under Poupart's ligament, and in
inguinal hernia they protrude through the abdo-
minal ring.
   338  Q. What are the circumstances by which
you judge the operation  necessary to liberate a
strangulated hernia ?
   A. If reduction of the hernial contents cannot
be effected by the hand, aided by the  position of
the patient and by bleeding, cathartics,  clysters,
cold topical applications, the warm bath, and to-
bacco-smoke  introduced into the rectum, each of
which having been judiciously tried without  ef-
fect, the  operation  then is imperiously demand-
ed.
   339.  Q What means would you have  re-
course to in order to reduce a strangulated hernia,
before you judge it necessary to perform the ope-
ration ?
   A. First,  the  patient shonld  be  placed in a
suitable  position  with  the pelvis elevated, the
thigh bent and rotated inwards, and the  reduc-
tion of  the hernial contents  skilfully attempted ;
should this fail, bleeding should be had recourse
to ; and  it  is recommended to take away the
blood suddenly  so as to occasion fainting, at
which time the taxis should again be attempted.
Success not  being obtained, cathartics and the
warm bath should be speedily made use of. These 
(  64  )
with the taxis  not having succeeded, the united
effort of cold to the tumour,  and tobacco, either
in  fume or  decoction.   If strangulation  still
continue after these means have been used,  and
another attempt by the hand has been ineffectu-
al, the operation should be performed, the pro-
traction of which beyond a  certain  time would
endanger the patient.
   340. Q. What are the symptoms of suppres-
sion of urine ?                                    I
   A. A swelling above the os pubis, a violent in-
clination to make water, tension  and pain of the
abdomen,  cold perspirations, oppressed  respira-
tion, hiccough and fainting follow.
   341. Q.  How would you attempt  to  relieve a
suppression of urine in a medical point of view ?
   A. Bleed copiously  ; apply leeches to the pe-
rineum,  or above the os pubis  ; exhibit opium
by the mouth, and in glysters  ; use the warni
bath, and apply fomentations to the  hypogastri-
um and perinseum.
   342. Q.  When these means fail to  evacuate
the urine, what would you have recourse to  ?
   A. To the catheter.
   343. Q.  What do you mean  by a popliteal an-
eurism ?
   A. A dilation of the popliteal artery forming a
pulsating tumour in the ham.
   344. Q.  Describe the operation for  popliteal
aneurism ?
   A.  An incision should be  made about  two
inches and a half through the skin and fascia of 
(  65   )
the thigh, on the inner edge of the sartorius mus-
cle ; as soon as the femoral artery is felt, a care-
ful incision is to be made on each  side of it, in
order that the finger may be passed under it;  a
double ligature is then to be introduced by means
of a blunt needle  under the vessel, leaving  out
the femoral vein and the accompanying branches
of the anterior crural nerve ;  one portion of the
ligature is to be tied as high, the  other as  low,
as the detachment of the artery will allow.   The
part of the vessel between the ligatures is to be
divided,  and after this  the external wound  is to
be  brought together and  dressed  in the usual
way.
   345.  Q. What are the symptoms of a phleg-
mon ?
   A. A phlegmon  is a tumour attended  with
heat, redness, pain, tension, and more or less of
the synochal fever.
   346. Q. How would you treat a phlegmon ?
   A. First by endeavouring to effect a resolution
by local or general  bleeding, the  antiphlogistic
regimen, the exhibition of saline cathartics, and
diaphoretics, and applying cold,  astringent, seda-
tive applications,  warm emollient poultices and
fomentations according to its nature.  If suppu-
ration  should  commence, by giving tonics and
cordials, a generous diet, and forsvarding the pro-
cess by poultices.  If mortification should ap-
 pear likely to ensue, bark, acids and wine will be
 proper, and stimulating poultices of beer grounds, 
(  66   )
and fomentations with bitter decoctions and cam-
phorated spirit.
  347.  Q- How are issues made ?
  A. Issues are made  by  making an  opening
either with a lancet,  or  caustic,  large enough to
admit a pea being introduced in it.
  348.  Q. What is  the treatment after ampu-
tation ?
  A. The chief circumstances to be attended to
after amputation are :—to adopt the antiphlogis-
tic regimen ; to prevent inflammation, which is
to be regulated by the constitution of the patient;
the first dressing ought to  be removed the third
or fourth day after the operation, and  new dress-
ings are to be applied as at first every day until
the  inflammation  has  entirely  subsided.   The
ligatures are to be very gently pulled every day
after the first week, until they come easily  off.
  349.  Q. What is the treatment of hernia hu-
moralis, or inflammation of the testicle ?
   A. In hernia humoralis the patient  should be
kept in an horizontal position; if young and ple-
thoric,  bleeding should be adopted.   It is  gene-
rally necessary to apply leeches repeatedly ; to
administer saline purgatives; fomentations and
poultices, or cold lotions, are to be had recourse
to, and  the testicle is to be supported by  a bag
truss.   Should there be great pain in  the  loins,
opiates will become  necessary : if  after the in-
flammation has subsided an induration  should
exist, frictions with mercurial ointment  will be
found beneficial. 
(  67   )
   350. Q. What are  the  indications of cure in
mortification ?
   A.  The  indications of cure in  mortification
are:—to arrest the progress of the  disease,  and
to promote the separation of the mortified part.
   351. Q How is the division of  the  ficenum
lingux to be effected, and what are the arteries
to be avoided ?
   A   The liberation of the froenum linguae con-
sists in dividing the froenum as far as  seems  ne-
cessary with a pair of sharp scissors  with blunt
points:—the raninal  arteries must be cautiously
avoided in this operation.
   352. Q.  What is  the  general  treatment of
fractures ?
   A.  In  the general treatment of fractures,  the
limb is to be placed in such a position as will re-
lax those muscles which tend to displace the ends
of a fractured bone ; this seems best effected by
placing the limb in a middle state between flexion
■and extension:  the  ends of the fractured  bone
are to be  confined in a state of apposition ,  this
is done by the aid of splints secured by straps:'—
to remedy the effects of pressure from the splints,
compresses of tow  or other soft  substances is
usually placed under the splints,  An  eighteen-
tail bandage is generally made use of in fnxtures
of the long  bones, and  is  applied  close to  the
limb.   When there is much inflammation of the
limb before the fracture is set,  linen wetted with
cold saturnine lotions is to be applied between
 the splints  and limb, which should  be kept 
(  68  )
cold and  moist by repeatedly  squeezing  the  lo-
tion over  the  limb.   It  may be necessary to
bleed or give opiates according to circumstances.
  353. Q. How is a ganglion  to be cured ?
  A-  A ganglion may often be removed by pres-
sure :  sometimes it may be necessary to  remove
it by the scalpel, or to make a perforation in it,
and allow  its contents to escape.
  354  Q How do aneurisms  terminate if not
cured ?
  A.  Aneurismal swellings, if not  cured, gra-
dually increase in size, the skin over the  tumour
becomes pale; the pain increases, and the skin
begins to grow livid ; a degree  of inflammation
takes place, the skin cracks, and discharges  for
some time a bloody serum, until at length it be-
comes quite gangrenous, when all of a  sudden
the tumour bursts, and the  patient dies from
hemorrhage.
  355. Q. What is a steatoma ?
  A.  Steatoma is a tumour  containing  a fatty
substance, and surrounded by a  cyst of indurated
cellular membrane.
  356  Q  What is meant by atheroma ?
  A  Atheroma is an encysted  tumour contain-
ing matter of a doughy consistence.
  357. Q. What prognosis can be formed after
the operation for hernia ?
   A.  If  the operation to liberate strangulated
hernia is performed early, there is comparatively
little danger.  The danger is  dependent upon
the operation being delayed after necessity  de- 
(  69   )
mands it.  Mortification has ensued within twelve
hours after strangulation,  and in some few  in-
stances strangulation has  been known to subsist
for several days and no mortification take  place.
   358. Q.  What causes  give rise to  prolapsus
ani?
   A. The  causes that give rise to prolapsus am
are cosliveness, debility, hemorrhoidal swellings,
or the action of stimulative substances that in-
crease the action of the rectum.
   359. Q.  What are  the signs of luxation in
general?
   A.. In luxations the shape of the joint is al-
tered ; the  motion of the limb is much impaired;
a certain degree of inflammation takes place ; the
pain attending  which is sometimes so acute as
to occasion convulsions, or spasmodic affections,
from the compression of nerves by  the displaced
bone.
   360.  Q.  How are luxations of the collar bone
to be cured ?
   A. Luxations of the collar bone are easily re-
duced by pressure with the fingers, but there is
great difficulty  in keeping the bone  in this  situ-
ation.   The arm should be  raised and confined
by bandages, a compress should be placed on the
luxated bone to prevent the action of the muscles
drawing the bone out of its place.
   361. Q.  How is a venereal  ophthalmy to be
cured ?
   A-  In  the treatment  of venereal  opthalmy,
mercurial  frictions are to  be made use of, the de- 
(  70   )
coctum sarsaparille compositum should be ta-
ken.  A collyrium of the o y-muriate of mercu-
ry is  recommended.  The  eyelid may be also
smeared with the unguentum hydrargyri nitrati.
  562  Q. In what  direction do  luxations of the
head  of the  os brachii  most commonly take
place ?
  A.  The  dislocation  of the head  of the  os
brachii generally takes place into the axilla.
  363.  Q. How is dislocation of the  thigh  dis-
tinguished from a fracture of its  neck ?
  A.  Dislocation  may   be  distinguished from
fracture of the head of the  femur  by these cir-
cumstances :—In fracture the leg is much short-
er , the limb can be moved in many  directions ;
the toes mostly turn inwards; by particular mo-
tions, a grating may be perceived, and a  loss of
continuity.   In  dislocations of  the  thigh joint,
the leg is generally much lengthened, the  toes
are turned outwards, and it  is almost impossible
to turn them inwards, at least without giving the
greatest pain ;  a vacancy is  observed at the seat
of the acetabulum,  and  a tumour is felt which is
caused by the head of the bone out of the aceta-
bulum.
   364. Q. Define a caries.
   A.  Caries is a mortification of a bone  attend-
 ed  with an ichorous foetid discharge.
   365. Q. Why does the tooth  ache produce so
 considerable a pain ?
   A  From  the inflammation that takes place in
 the pulp being confined by the fang. 
(  71   )
   366. Q. What are the causes that give rise to
ischuria ?
   A  Ischuria may arise from inflammation of
the bladder produced from various causes; spasms
affecting the neck of the bladder; scirrhosities
of the  prostate gland ;  caruncles in the urethra ;
pressure of the uterus in the last months of preg-
nancy  ; tumours in the  perinaeum, and  vagina,
as prolapsus of the uterus; polypi, or  enlarge-
ment of the corpus spongiosum ; the penis it-
self pressing the sides of the  urethra together;
ischuria may also arise from a loss of tone in the
bladder itself, and  from stones impacted in the
uretura.
   367. Q. What is meant by hcematocele scroti?
   A.   Hcematocele is a tumour produced  by
blood being extravasated in the scrotum,  tunica
vaginalis, or in  the spermatic chord ;  it is most-
ly occasioned by some external violence, as blows
inflicted  on  the scrotum or  surrounding parts,
producing a rupture of vessels.
   363. Q. What are the symptoms of a punc-
tured nerve from bleeding ?
   A.  In a punctured nerve from bleeding the ;:a-
tient feels a more  acute pain than usual under
the operation, a numbness is communicated to
the shoulder, and down to  the fingers: these
symptoms are often succeeded by spasms of the
neck and jaw, frightful dreams,  the paiient be-
comes extremely irritable and delirious.
   3fiy. Q. What is a cataract ? 
(  72   )
  A.  A cataract is an  opacity of the chrystal-
line lens or its capsule.
  370. Q.  What is meant by mollifies ossium ?
  A.  A state of bones whereby they  become soft
and preternaturally flexible.
  371. If the head of the shoulder bone is lux-
ated upwards, what is the consequence ?
  A.  When the head  of  the shoulder bone is
luxated upwards, a fracture of the acromion pro-
cess takes place.
  372. Q.  What is the direction in  which lux-
ations of the ulna most  commonly happen ?
  A.  Luxations of the  ulna most frequently take
place  upwards and backwards.
  373. Q.  How  is a dislocation of the  lower jaw
reduced ?
  A.  A dislocation of  the lower jaw is reduced
by passing  both thumbs, previously covered with
a linen cloth, into the mouth ;  the jaw is then to
be pushed backwards, depressing the angles  and
raising the  symphysis of the jaw at  the same
time by gende  pressure;  the  jaw  immediately
springs back into its natural situation by the ac-
tion of the muscles.
  374. Q.  What is a fungus ?
   \.  A fungus is a soft fleshy excrescence rising
out of an old wound or  ill conditioned ulcer,  and
preventing  its healing.
  375. Q.  How are dislocations  of  the os femo-
ris reduced ?
  A.  In dislocations of the thigh bone, when the
head is in the foramen  ovale, the muscles of the 
(  73   )
thigh are first to be relaxed as much as possible,
the limb is then to  be extended to displace  the
end of the bone from its cavity : when this is ef-
fected the bone is to be drawn upwards and in-
wards into its socket; this generally effects the
reduction : but should the bone be above the ace-
tabulum, a slight extension  will effect its reduc-
tion ; it happens occasionally that the head of the
bone  is not reduced, owing to the projection of
the acetabulum preventing the necessary exten-
sion ; the bone must then  be  elevated  a little
over this projection, and the  reduction  is then
effected.
   376.  Q. In  mortification of a limb what state
are the arteries in near the diseased part ?
   A. When mortification takes place at the low-
er part of an extremity, the  diameter of  the ar-
teries is diminished  near  the diseased part, and
they become stopped up with coagulated blood.
   377.  Q^  When  an artery  is tied by ligature,
how  is a permanent obliteration of its channel
effected ?
   A. After an artery is secured by ligature,  co-
agulable lymph is separated  near  the  strictured
part,  this becomes organized, and unites the sides
of the arteries together, and thus obliterates the
artery.
   378. Q^ What are the properties of pus?
   A. Pus is a fluid  of a  lightish colour, of the
consistence of cream ; it has little smell, is void
 >f acvimonv, and consists of globules swimming
                      G 
(  74  )
in a transparent, colourless fluid.  Its  specilk
gravity is greater than that of water.
  37y.  Q_ What are the differences between pus
and mucus?
  A.  Pus is distinguished  from mucus by the
following  circumstances;  pus sinks in water,
mucus floats ; pus gives to water a uniform white
colour; mucus has  a ropy  appearance in water.
If pus and mucus are mixed with sulphuric acid,
on the addition  of  water the pus is precipitated
to the bottom, and  the mucus forms swimming
flakes.  A solution  of caustic alkali  dissolves
both pus and mucus ; but on the addition of wa-
ter  the pus is separated and not the  mucus.
  380.  Q_ What are  the symptoms which an-
nounce the formation of pus  in inflammation of
the hip joint?
   A. The symptoms which point out  the for-
mation of pus in inflammation of  the  hip joint
are various, as the disease may be acute or chro-
nic.  'When the  former  takes place, the  parts
surrounding the joint become tense and painful,
the skin becomes red, inflammatory fever takes
place, as the pain abates, rigours  succeed, and
a swelling is observed about the joint   When
the abscess is  the consequence of chronic inflam-
mation, an  increase of pain takes place previous
to the occurrence  of suppuration, starting and
catchings during sleep are noticed; the pus in
the chronic  species  is a  long while before  it  ar-
rives at the surface, at  length a fluctuating tu-
mour forms, but it  does not immediately point. 
(  75  )
  381. Q. What is the character of cancerous
ulcer i
  A. Cancerous ulcer is irregular  in its figure,
and unequal on its surface, the edges are thick,
serrated, and extremely painful, there are large
chasms in  its substance,  produced partly by
sloughing,  and partly by  an ulcerating process.
The ulcer affords a very foetid sanious matter, it
spreads with great rapidity, and in its progress
produces frequent hemorrhages.
  382. Q. VVhat prognosis  is  to  be given of
wounds of the oesophagus ?
  A. Wounds of the  oesophagus generally are
mortal.
  383. Q. How is the removal of a tumour from
the breast performed ?
  A. In removing a tumour from the breast, the
operation is generally performed as the palient is
in a sitting position, the pectoral muscle is to be
made tense by keeping the arm back, and if none
of the integuments are to be removed, a straight
incision is to be made through them, the tumour
is to be regularly dissected all round from the
circumjacent parts, and its base is .to be detached
from its connexions from above  downwards, till
the whole is separated.  If the tumour is of a
malignant nature, and  adhering to the skin and
pectoral muscle beneath, an inch or two of the
fat should be removed  on every side of the dis-
eased part, and after the removal of the tumour,
the surface of the pectoral muscle, wherever it
is adhering to the tumour, should be removed. 
C  76  )
   384.  Q^ What is a node ?
   A.  A node is a swelling of a bone,  the perios-
teum, or a tendon mostly arising from a  vene-
real cause.
   385. Q_ What is the character of a venereal
ulcer in the throat ?
   A.  A  venereal ulcer affecting the throat is
very deep, it has a defined or thick edge, and is
generally very foul, having a lardaceous slough
adhering to it that cannot be detached.
   386. C^ How is the vena saphena to be tied
when  in a varicose state ?
   A.  The vena  saphena is to be tied by passing
a ligature under the vessel; the integuments are
to be pinched up into a transverse fold, and the
ligature  is to be conveyed  under the vessel by
means of a blunt silver needle.
   387.  Q^ How is hydrocele distinguished from
other  tumours ?
   A.  Hydrocele is distinguished from hernia by
the tumour in  hernia  being somewhat elastic,
and becoming more  distended when the person
coughs.   The swelling in hernia always begins
at top and extends gradually downwards.  Her-
nia is  distinguished from encysted dropsy of the
chord by the swelling  lying at the superior part
of the scrotum,  whilst  in hydrocele it is at  the
inferior part.  It may be distinguished from scirr-
hous testicle, being  firm, hard, and not yielding
upon pressure, and from the great weight in pro-
portion to its bulk.   In hydrocele a lighted can-
dle, placed at the opposite side of the tumour, 
(  77   )
   will make the contents  of the  sac  seem trans-
   parent.
      388. Q  What are the favourable symptoms
   that point out success from trepanning ?
      A  The favourable symptoms which  point out
   success from trepanning are, the patient becom-
   ing less stupid, his breathing less oppressed, and
   the  pupils contracting upon exposure  to strong
   light.
      389. Q  If, after  trepanning, a collection of
   fluid  should be found between the  dura and pia
   mater, how is it to be removed ?
      A. Under such circumstances,  a small  hole
   may be cautiously scratched on the dura mater,
ft  to evacuate it.
      390. Q. When the parotid duct is wounded,
    what is the consequence ?
i     A. The consequence  of wounding the parotid
   duct is a fistulous opening which discharges sali-
   va, particularly during meals.      (
      391. Q. What is ecchymosis?
      A. Ecchymosis is an extravasation of blood in
   the cellular membrane,  occasioned by a rupture
   of the small vessels of the  part.
      392. Q. What is  meant by. exfoliation ?
      A. Exfoliation is a separation of a dead portion
   of bone from the living.
      393. Q. What method is to be  taken to pre-
    vent exfoliation that is  likely  to occur from a
•  wound ?
      A.  In attempting to prevent exfoliation  that
    may take place from a wound, all that is  to be
                        G  2 
(  78  )
done is to cover the exposed bone as soon as pos>
sible with the flesh that has been detached.
  394. Q.  Where is the fluid in hydrocele situ-
ated ?
  A. The fluid in hydrocele is situated between
the tunica vaginalis and the tunicaalbuginea of
the testicle.
  395. Q. How are fistule in perinaeo to be dress-
ed after they have been laid open ?
  A. Fistule  in perinso, -after being laid open,
are to be  dressed quite down to the end, to allow
of granulations shooting up from the bottom be-
fore re-union of the parts takes place.
  396. Q.  What is meant by simple fracture ?
  A. By simple fracture is meant  a  breach  of
continuity of bone, without an external wound.
  397. Q.  What regimen do gun-shot  wounds
require ?
  A. Gun-shot wounds generally require the an-
tiphlogistic regimen.
   398. Q. How  is the operation for phymosis
performed ?
   A. This operation is performed by introducing
a directory under the prepuce,  then passing a
curved  pointed bistoury and slitting open the
prepuce
   399.  Q  Where do strictures most  frequently
take place in the urethra ?
   A. Strictures  most commonly  occur at  the
membranous part of the urethra ; from its being
more  acted upon by  the salts of the  urine ; the
urine, after being expelled  from the bladder, re- 
(  79   )
mains at this part of the urethra to be thrown out
by the accelaratores urine.
  400. Q  From whence does the  discharge of
gonorrhea flow ?
  A. The discharge of gonorrhea flows from the
mucus lacunae of the urethra.
  401. Q. What muscles are divided in ampu-
tation ofthe thigh ?
  A. The muscles divided in amputation of the
thigh are  the biceps flexor cruris,  semitendino-
sus, semimembranosus,  gracilis, sartorius, vas- ^
tus externus,  vastus  internus, rectus  femoris,
crureus, and the long tendon of  the adductor
magnus.
  402. Q. At  what part of  the os femoris do
fractures most frequently take place ?
  A. Fractures of the os femoris most frequent-
ly take place  at the middle  or  third  of its ex-
tent.
  403.  Q. What part of the tibia is most  liable
to be fractured ?
   A. The part of the tibia most liable to frac-
tures is the part a little above  the internal malle-
olus.
   404.  Q. What takes place in a luxation of the
ankle, the  foot being turned   upwards and out-
wards ?
   A. When the ankle is luxated, the foot being
turned upwards and outwards, the fibula is gene-
rally fractured.
   405. Q.  What  change   do  the collateral 
(  80  )
branches undergo when a large arterial trunk is
tied ?
   A.  The collateral arteries, after a large arteri-
al trunk is tied, dilate, their  coats become strong-
er, and acquire an additional strength ; they also
are found to become tortuous.
   406.  Q. What is meant  by cicatrization ?
   A. Cicatrization  is  that process  by which
wounds and sores heal,  or by which the  forma-
tion  of new skin takes place over a wound or
ulcer.
   407.  Q. How is castration performed ?
   A. Castration  is performed in  the  following
manner.  The patient is to be laid on  a table of
convenient height.   An incision is then to be
made opposite the abdominal ring,  and continued
a good  way down the scrotum, in order  to lay
bare the spermatic chord and testicle ;  the sper-
matic chord thus laid bare is to be detached from
the surrounding  membranous connections, and
then the surgeon with  his  finger  and thumb se-
parates the blood-vessels from the vas deferens,
he must next pass a ligature between them, and
having tied the former only, he must cut,through
the  whole  chord at a quarter or half an inch
from the ligature ;  the  next thing  to be  done is
to  dissect the testicle  out from  the  scrotum.
Should  any vessels bleed they are  to be secured.
The wound is next to be brought together to
unite by the first intention, and the  scrotum is tn
be supported by the T bandage.
   4-08.  Q. What is meant by  crdlus ? 
(  81  )
  A.  Callus is the ossific matter that forms the
conjunction of a fractured bone
  4'' '9. Q.  What is the theory of the formation
of callus ?
  A.  The  theory o'f the formation of callus is
this ;  from the ends of a broken  bone, the  arte-
ries secrete a gelatinous matter, this very soon
becomes organized  by the elongation of the se-
creting vessel, which at length deposits bone in
this new formed animal substance, so as to pro-
duce a junction of the broken bone.
  410. Q.  What are the consequences that may
arise from a fractured sternum ?
  A.  The consequences that may result from a
fracture of the sternum are, the fractured  por-
tions may be driven inwards, so as to injure the
lungs.
  411.  Q.  What are the cases that require the
operation for bronchotomy ?
  A.  Bronchotomy has been proposed in the ac-
tive inflammation of the upper part of the larynx
which threatens suffocation.  To extract foreign
bodies that become impacted in the trachea.  In
the croup it has been proposed to extract the co-
agulable lymph that would have caused suffoca-
tion.  It has also been  recommended to be per-
formed on  those recently suffocated or drowned,
and in glossitis,  where  the tongue has so enlarg-
ed as to shut up the passage through the fauces.
   412.  Q. What  are the symptoms of calcu-
lus?
   A« The symptoms of calculus are, a dull un- 
(  82  )
easy sensation about the neck of the bladder, with
a similar sensation  at the glans  penis, this in-
creases, and becomes more frequent.  In voiding
the urine, the stream is frequently stopped, and
great pain is produced at the neck of the bladder ;
in order lo obtain ease, the patient changes  his
position ; sometimes  small  pieces of stone are
voided.   The urine is sometimes charged with
mucus,  at  other times limpid ; sometimes it is
tinged with blood, especially after violent exer-
cise : but the most diagnostic sign is touching
the stone with the sound.
   413.  Q.  What sensation is communicated to
the operator upon touching a stone in the blad-
der with the sound ?
   A. When a stone in the bladder is touched
by the sound, a tremulous motion is  communi-
cated to the fingers of the operator.
   414.  Q.  Why is the  finger  introduced into
the rectum whilst sounding ?
   A. The  finger is introduced  into the rectum
whilst sounding in order to raise the  undermost
part of the bladder, and  consequently  to  bring
the calculus in such a situation that  the sound
may touch  it.
   415. Q  In  trepanning, generally  a  slight
bleeding takes place from the diploe'  when  the
saw has arrived at that part ; what conclusion is
to be formed when it,does not take place ?
   A. When  the saw has reached the diploe in
trephining, if an oozing of blood  does not take
place, an inference  may  be drawn that the dura 
(  83  )
mater  is  detached  from  the  cranium at that
part.
  4 16. Q.  What are the symptoms that some-
times attend luxations, besides an alteration in the
shape of the joint ?
  A. In luxutions some degree of inflammation
takes place, occasionally  there  are  convulsions
and spasmodic affections from compression of the
nerves by the displaced bone.
  417. Q  How would you endeavour to unite a
ruptured tendon  ?
  A. A  ruptured tendon is to  be  united,  by-
bringing the ruptured ends of the tendon as near-
ly in contact as possible,  and keeping the mus-
cles of the part relaxed.
  418. Q. How  is the  interrupted  suture per-
formed ?
  A. The interrupted suture is performed by in-
serting two needles on one ligature, and introdu-
cing each of them at the bottom of  the wound,
they are then to be  pushed outwards at a proper
distance  from the edge of the wound, and  the
needles are to be taken off the ligature, which is
to be pulled to bring the edges of the  wound into
contact.   The number of ligatures is to be  ac-
cording to the extent of the wound.
   4llJ. Q. How is the twisted suture perform-
ed ?
   \ The vwisted suture is  performed by intro-
dacing two or more pins, according to the extent
of the v>oun<i,  through  both  its edges;  when
the edges oi the wound are brought into contact 
(  84  )
upon the pins, a wax  ligature is to be  twisted
round these so as to form a figure of 8   This
kind of suture is generally used in the operation
for the hare lip.
  420. Q. How is the glovers suture perform-
ed ?
  A.  The glovers suture is performed by  pass-
ing a number of stitches in a spiral direction along
the edges of the wound.
  421. Q.  What is the glovers suture used for ?
  A.  The glovers suture is used  for wounds of
the abdomen and intestines.
  422. Q.  What is the interrupted suture used
for?
  A.  The interrupted suture  is made use of to
bring the edges  of large and deep wounds to-
gether. 
PHYSIOLOGY.
  423. Q.  W HAT is the course of the cir-
culation ?
  A. The blood is received from the arteries by
the veins, and is returned by the superior and in-
ferior cava to the right auricle of the heart, which,
becoming distended,  contracts and empties its
blood into the right ventricle.  The right ven-
tricle then  contracts and  propels the  blood
through  the pulmonary artery into the lungs,
there to undergo a peculiar  change, and to be
conveyed by the four pulmonary  veins into the
left auricle.   The left auricle  being  distended
evacuates its blood into the  left ventricle.   The
left ventricle propels  the blood through the aorta,
to be circulated by the arteries, and again to be
returned by  the veins to the heart.
  424 Q. How  do you distinguish venal from
arterial blood ?
  A. Venal blood is of a dark colour (excepting
that which is in the venal system of the lungs.)
Arterial  blood is of a florid red  vermillion hue
(excepting  the blood of the pulmonary artery,
which is dark.)
                     H 
(  86  )
  425. Q.  What is the contraction of the heart
Called ?
  A.  Systole.
  426. Q.  In what'viscus does the change from
arterial to venal blood take place ?
  A  In the lungs.
  427. Q.  What is the colour of the blood in the
pulmonary artery ?
  A.  Of a  dark colour.
  428. Q.  What is the cause of the bile regur-
gitating into the gall bladder ?
  A.  Because the opening of the ductus com-
munis choledochus is shut, when digestion is not
going on,  the bile  therefore, not finding an ac-
cess to the  duodenum, regurgitates into the gall
bladder.
  429. Q.  What is the use of the urinary blad-
der ?
  A.  To receive, to retain for a certain time, and
to expel the urine.
  430. Q.  What is the use of the gastric juice ?
  A.  To digest the food.
  431. Q.  What is the theory of ossification ?
  A.  First, the formation of a jelly, this becom-
ing cartilage, the absorbents remove a portion  of
the cartilage, forming  a cavity,  and the arteries
next deposit the osseous matter in the cavity : it
is, however,  not always cartilage that the  bony
matter is deposited  in, for in most  of  the fla*
bones the  deposition takes place between mem-
branes.
  4^2. Q.  How is inspiration performed ? 
(  87   )
  A. The intercostal muscles contract, assisted
by other muscles, and  increase the transverse
breadth of the cavity of the chest;  whilst the dia-
phragm contracts and increases the length of the
cavity of  the chest; the  air then  rushes down
the trachea, and inspiration is performed.
  433.  Q. What is meant by secretion ?
  A. The formation of a fluid different from the
blood, from the minute ends of arteries.
  434.  Q. What  change  is produced on  the
blood in the lungs ?
  A. The blood is changed from  a dark  colour
to a florid  red, it is deprived of hydrogen and car-
bon, and absorbs oxygen, caloric and a portion of
nitrogen.
  435.  Q. How is expiration performed ?
  A. By  the relaxation of the  intercostal mus-
cles and diaphragm, and the thorax assuming its
relaxed state.
  436.  Q. What is meant by animal heat ?
  A. The natural heat  of  an animal, which, in
the human being, raises the mercury in Fahren-
heit's thermometer to about 98°.
  437.  Q. Why does not the  fluid exhaled to
lubricate the different cavities of the body accu-
mulate ?
  A. Because in a healthy state the inhalents or
absorbents counterbalance the exhalents or secre-
ting arteries.
   438. Q. How is nutrition effected ?
   A. By the lacteals, the ostia of which open up-
on the internal surface of the small intestines, se- 
(  88  )
lecting the chyle from the excrementitioU9  part
of the food,  and conveying it into the thoracic
duct which empties itself into the angle of the
left jugular and subclavian vein, thereby repairing
the blood of its continual losses in nourishing the
body.
  439 Q. What membrane moderates the ef-
fect of light on the retina ?
  A. The ins, which diminishes or enlarges the
pupil, according to the intensity of the light.
  440. Q. What  is the  use of  the fluid which
fills the labyrinth of the ear ?
  A. It preserves the nervous fibrils soft, and
moderates the tremours of sound.
  441. Q  WThy does not the fat gravitate to the
lower extremities af'er long standing, like the
fluid of an anasarcous person ?
  A. Because the fat is contained  in  vesicles
which do not communicate like  the cells of the
cellular membrane.
  442. Q. Why does not the urine excite inflam-
mation of the bladder ?
  A. Because the bladder is accustomed  to its
stimulus,  and a great quantity  of mucus is se-
creted by the internal membrane to blunt its acri-
mony.
  443. Q. Why do enlarged mesenteric glands
cause an atrophy ?
   A. Because  they obstruct the passage of the
chyle through the lacteals to the thoracic duct.
  444. Q. In what ages and sex is the pulse the
most frequent ? 
(  89   J
   A. In children and  women the pulse is most
frequent
   445.  Q. What is  the use of the anastomoses
of arteries ?
   A. The use of arteries anastomosing is to al-
low of blood being  conveyed to parts where its
passage is prevented in the  principal branch or
branches  that  supply  these parts with  blood ;
another use is that of facilitating the  passage of
blood from one part  to another, and  prevent the
distention of parts.
   446.  Q. Is the fat solid or fluid in the living
body ?
   A. The fat in a living body is found in some
parts in a state of semiHuidity, and in other parts
it is found absolutely fluid.
   447.  Q. What is the cause  of fainting that
sometimes takes place under the operation of
tapping ?
   A. Fainting takes place in  tapping in conse-
quence of the sudden removal of  the pressure of
fluid from the diaphragm and viscera.
   448.  Q. How does a compression  of the tho-
racic duct, either by an aneurism of  the heart or
aorta, occasion so frequently a dropsy ?
   A. The compression of the thoracic duct pre-
vents the lymph from the absorbent vessels being
returned into the blood, the absorbents are there-
fore  prevented performing their office, and an ac-
cumulation takes place.
   449.  Q. Why does a person troubled with cal-
II 2 
C  90  )
cuius find great difficulty in  passing the uriue
when he leans forward ?
  A. Because the  calculus falling against the
orifice of the urethra thereby prevents the regu-
lar flow of urine.
  450. Q. Why  does not the urine flow back
from the bladder to the kidney ?
  A. The urine is prevented flowing back to the
pelvis of the kidney by the valve formed  by the
inner coat of the bladder over  the orifice  of the
ureter, produced by the ureter's piercing the blad-
der obliquely.
  451. Q.  Why  is the  spine composed  of so
many small bones ?
  A. The reason why the spine is  composed of
so many bones is to allow of great strength with
a sufficient degree  of mobility.
  452. Q. Is there any alteration in the muscles
of a paralytic limb ?
  A. Yes, the muscles of a paralytic limb arc
paler and more flaccid.
  453. Q. How is the voice performed ?
  A. The voice results  from the  vibration the
air suffers during its passage through the glottis,
when expelled from the lungs.
  454. Q. Which of the two  has  the greatest
power in  preventing luxations of the joint, the
muscles that surround the joint, or its own liga-
ments ?
  A. The muscles that  surround joints give
them greater strength than  their surrounding li-
gaments. 
(  91   )
  455. Q. What is the use of the cartilages of
the surfaces of joints ?
  A. The uses of the articular cartilages are to
give the bones a smoothness for easy motion, to
assist motion by their  elasticity, and to  guard
against the effects of concussion.
  456. Q. What is the most elastic substance in
the body ?
  A- The most elastic substance in  the body is
eartilage.
  457. Q Are tendons elastic ?
  A. Tendons are not elastic,  for, if they were,
the power of muscles would be greatly diminish-
ed.
  458. Q. What is the use of the adeps ?
  A. The adeps  guards against the effects of
pressure,  it lessens the specific gravity of the bo-
dy, fills up the interstices of muscles, and is a re-
servoir for nourishment to the body. 
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.
    459. Q. VV HAT do you  mean by a teta-
  nus ?
    A.  It is a tonic spasm of the extensor or flexor
  muscles of the body.
    460. Q. How would you treat inflammation of
  the bowels ?
    A.  By  general and topical blood-letting, by the
  warm  bath and fomentations, by the frequent ex-
  hibition of purges, and by giving saline diapho-
  retics  with mucilaginous drinks.
    461. Q. What is a dysentery ?
    A.  It is a spasmodic constriction of the colon,
  with a retention  of the natural feces, and  the
  frequent expulsion of mucus or sanguineous mo-
  tions.
    462. Q. What are  the symptoms of  enteri-
  tis ?
    A. Fever,  costiveness, a twisting around the
  umbilicus, tension and acute pain of the abdo-
  men, increased pain upon pressure,  tenesmus or
  vomiting,  according to the seat  of the inflamma-
  tion ; quick, or slow, and  hard, contracted pulse ;
^ great prostration of strength, and high-coloured
  urine. 
(  93   )
   463. Q. What are  the  symptoms of volvu-
lus ?
   A. Violent pain  and distention  of the abdo-
men, attended  with  a  peculiar  twisting around
the  navel,  obstinate costiveness, slight  febrile
symptoms, and a frequent  vomiting of a sterco-
raceous matter.
   464. Q. What are the symptoms  of nephri-
tis ?
   A. Pyrexia, pain in the region of the kidney,
extending along the course  of the ureter, accom-
panied with numbness of the leg and thigh of the
affected side, nausea and vomiting, retraction of
the  testicle, high-coloured  urine,  sometimes
mucous  or  bloody,  frequent  micturation, dy-
suria.
  465. Q. How would you distinguish hepatitis
from gastritis ?                      '
   A. From gastritis by the seat of the pain, by
the sympathetic pains of the clavicle and should-
er, by the less prostration of strength and greater
fulness of the pulse,  by the colour of the  stools
and urine.
  466  Q. What purges would you  give in ne-
phritis ?
   A. Oleaginous purges and frequent emollient
clysters.
   467. Q. What  are the  symptoms  of pneu-
monia ?
   A. Obtuse pain and  sense of weight and op-
pression in the chest; anxious breathing, and
the pain is  increased during  inspiration; hard, 
C  54  )
contracted, and frequent pulse; the face is usu-
ally flushed, and of a purple hue ; the tongue is
white, the urine is high coloured,  and there are
other symptoms of synocha.
  468. Q. How would you distinguish cystitis
from enteritis •'
  A From enteritis by the seat of the pain ; the
tension and  tumour which is above the pubes in
cystitis, by the micturation,  and by the painful
discharge of urine in small quantities, or the com-
plete obstruction to its passage.
  469. Q: When gangrene takes  place in inter-
nal parts, what are the symptoms ?
  A. A peculiar appearance of the  countenance;
cold perspirations ; coldness of the extremities ;
sudden  cessation  of pain ;  hiccup ; subsultus
tendinum ; suppression of urine ; convulsions,
and the pulse scarcely perceptible.
  470. Q. What are the symptoms of hydroce-
phalus ■'
  A Languor, inactivity, loss of  appetite, nau-
sea, vomiting, parched tongue, dry  skin, flushing
of the face, and other symptoms of  pyrexia ; pain
over the eyes, the pain in the head  ache becomes
extremely acute, and intermits, occasioning the
patient to scream violently, disturbed sleep, ex-
treme restlessness, flushed countenance, costive-
ness,  vomiting,  stupor,  convulsions,   dilated
pupils.                              •
  471. Q. What is a typhus fever ?
  A. A  very  infectious fever, characterised  by
great debility, disturbed animal functions, languid 
(  95   )
circulation, furred tongue, aching pains in differ-
ent parts of the body, particularly the head and
small of the back,  and  the evacuated fluids of
the body undergoing speedy putrefaction.
   472. Q.  What are the indications of cure in a
typhus fever ?
   A. To excite a new action in the system,  by
rousing the actions of the brain and arteries.  To
support the strength of the patient, and to obviate
the putrid tendency in the fluids.
   473. Q. What is  the  best way of destroying
the foetid smell of sick wards ?
   A. By extricating nitrous fumes from  a mix-
ture of nitre and sulphuric acid placed  in  hot
sand.
   474. Q. What is meant by scrofula ?
   A. A peculiar disease affecting  people  of a
particular habit of body, and usually the glandu-
lar parts.
   475. Q. What is the best way  of relieving
inflammatory affections ?
   A. By bleeding either locally or generally, by
blisters, exhibiting cathartics, diaphoretics, and a
low diet.
   476. Q. How is the colic  distinguished from
enteritis.
   A. The colic is  distinguished from enteritis
by the peculiar twisting  and occasional pain,  by
the absence of  fever in the early part of the dis-
ease, by the pain in enteritis being increased, in
colic alleviated by pressure ;  by the irregular con-
traction of the  abdominal muscles. 
X  96  )
  477. Q. How is a diarrhea distinguished from
dysentery ?
  A. Diarrhea is distinguished from dysentery
by being unattended either with fever, inflamma-
tion, contagion, or tenesmus, by the appearance
of the matter evacuated, which in one disease is
feculent or mixed with alimentary matter, in the
other mucal, sanguinous, or putrid.
  478. Q.  How many  species of diabetes are
there ?
  A. There are two species of diabetes, viz.
diabetes mellitus, and the diabetes insipidus.
  479. Q.  How  is  mania  distinguished  from
phrenitis ■
  A. Mania is distinguished from phrenitis by
the former not being accompanied by fever, which
the latter always is.
  480. Q.  What is meant by anasarca ?
  A. Anasarca is a preternatural collection  of
serum or watery fluid in the  cellular membrane
of the whole or part of the body.
  481. Q.  What are the indications in  the cure
of scurvy ?
  A. The indications in the  cure of scurvy are ;
1st. to correct  the septic tendency of the fluids ;
2d. to palliate urgent symptoms ; 3d. to restore
the tone of the solids.
  482. Q. What are the species of tympani-
tes?
  A. There are two species of tympanites, viz.
tympanites  abdominalis, or  collection  of  air in
the cavity of the peritonxum ; and  tympanites 
(  97   )
 intestinalis, or collection of air in the cavity of the
 intestines.
   483. Q.  What sex is most  subject  to teta-
 nus ?
   A. The male sex is most  subject to tetanus,
 and those of a  robust  or  vigorous  constitu-
 tion.
■  484. Q.  What is the general division of te-
 tanus?
   A. The general division of tetanus is into tris-
 mus,  or locked  jaw ; opisthotonos,  when  the
 spasmodic affection of the muscles causes the bo-
dy to be  bent backwards ; and  emprosthotonos,,
when the body is bent forwards.
   485.  Q. What are Dr. Cullen's species of pa-
 ralysis ?
   A. His species of paralysis are, 1st. paralysis
partialis,  or palsy of a certain muscle  or set of
muscles ; 2nd. paralysis  hemiplegica, or a total
palsy of one side of the body ; 3d. paralysis  pa-
raplegica, or a palsy of one half the body taken
transversely ;  4th. paralysis venenata, or palsy
from poisons.
   486.  Q. How  many  species of catarrh  are
there ?
   A. Two,  viz. catarihus a frigore, or common
cold, and catarrhus contagiosus, or the  influ-
enza.
   487.  Q^ What are the species of apoplexy ?
   A. There are  several: but the  most  useful
distinction is into  the sanguineous  and the se-
,,ous.
                      I 
(  98   )
  488. C^. What are the  indications of cure in
dropsy ?
  A.  To evacuate the fluid, and to prevent a se-
cond accumulation.
  489. Q. How many species of cholera morbus
are there •'
  A. Two, viz. cholera spontanea  and cholera
accidentalis.
  490. Q_ What are the species of syncope -?
  A. Three, viz. syncope accidentalis, syncope
cardiaca, and syncope anginosa.
  491. Q. What are the  indications of cure in
catarrh ?
  A. To reduce  the  febrile  action of  the  sys-
tem,  and to allay  the irritation of the affected
parts.
  492. (^ How is synocha distinguished from
typhus ?
  A. From typhus by the more sudden  accession
of the disease ; by its arising from common cau-
ses, as sudden alterations of temperature ; the
application of cold to a heated body ; violent ex-
ercise, intemperance, &c. and  not from conta-
gion ; by the strength of the  body not  being di-
minished ; the hardness of the pulse ; the white-
ness of the  tongue ;  and by the high  colour of
the urine.
   493.  Q. How  is cynanche tonsillaris distin-
guished from cynanche maligna ?
   A. By the fever, which in the former is in-
flammatory, in the latter typhoid; and by the ab-
sence of ulceration in cynanche tonsillaris. 
(  99   )
  494.  Qi.  How  is rheumatism  distinguished
from podagra ?
  A.  By its generally attacking the larger joints;
by the pain shifting its  seat, and following  the
course of the muscles in its translation to other
parts ; by the disease not having been preceded
by symptoms of dyspepsia ; by its occurring at
any period of life, whereas gout is usually confin-
ed to the adult age.
  495. Oi, How is tympanites distinguished from
ascites ?
  A.  By the absence of fluctuation and of those
symptoms  which characterise the  hydropic dia-
thesis. 
MATERIA  MEDICA.
  496  Q. IIOW many species of cinchona or
Peruvian barks are there ?
  A.  There are several species, but only three
in general use,  viz. cortex cinchone cordifolis,
or yellow bark ;—cortex  cinchonae lancifolie,  or
common quilled bark ;—-cortex cinchonas oblon-
gifolix, or red bark.
  497. Q. What are the virtues of cinchona
barks ?
  A.  Tonic, antiseptic, and stomachic.
  498. Q. What are the virtues of opium ?
  A. Narcotic,  antispasmodic,  and stimulant,
or sedative, according to the dose which  is ad-
ministered.
  499. Q. What is the dose of digitalis ?
  A. From one to three  grains in the form of
powder.
  500. Q. What cathartic exerts its influence  on
the  rectum ?
  A. Aloes.
  501. Q. What are the virtues of aloes ?
  A. Cathartic, emmenagogue and anthelmin-
tic. 
(  «»   )
  502. Q^ What do you mean by cathartics ?
  A.  Those medicines, which, when taken inter-
nally, increase the alvine evacuations.
  503. o What do  you mean  by emmena-
gogues ?
  A.  Medicines which  have the  power of de-
termining blood to the uterus, either by their lo-
cal  irritation, or by their exciting the action of
the system generally.
  504. (^ What are diaphoretics ?
  A.  They  are medicines which augment the
insensible perspiration.
  505. (^ What are  diuretics ?
  A.  Those medicines which increase the secre-
tion of urine.
  506. Q^ What quantity of confectio opii of
the London pharmacopoeia contains one  grain of
opium ?
  A  About six and thirty grains.
  507. Q^ What is meant by antispasmodics ?
   A. Medicine which have the power of  allay-
ing or removing inordinate motion in the muscu-
lar system.
   508. Q^ What medicines come under the class
of antispasmodics -?
   A. Moschus, castoreum,  oleum animate, pe-
 troleum, ammonia, assafcetida, sagapenum, gal-
banum, Valeriana,  oleum cajeputa, opium, cam-
 phor, ether.
   509. Q^ What is meant by sialogogues  ?
   A. Those  medicines which  promote  a dis-
 diaree of saliva from the salivary glands,
                     I 2 
C  »08  )
   j 10. Q.  What are tonics ?
   A. Medicines which give  tone to the system
or muscular fibre.
   511. Q.  What is the dose of confectio opii ?
   A. From five grains to half a drachm.
   512. Q.  In a fluid ounce of the liquor antimo-
nii tartarizati how much antimonium  tartariza-
tum is contained ?
   A. Two grains.
   513. (^What quantity of mercury is contained
in three grains of the pilula hydrargyri ?
   A. One grain.
   514. Q  How many kinds of aloes  are now
used in medicine ?
   A. Two, viz. the extract of the aloes spicata,
called socotrine aloes, and  he extract of the aloes
vulgaris, called Barbadoes aloes.
   515. Q.  What is the dose of  the nitras ar-
genti ?
   A. From gr. fs. to gr. iij.; it has been given
in a much larger dose.
   516. Q.  What are expectorants ?
   A. Such medicines as promote the secretion
from the lungs.
   517. Q.  What are stimulants ?
   A. Those medicines which increase the  action
of the nervous and vascular system.
   518. Q.  What  medicines come  under  the
class of tonics ?
   A. Peruvian bark ; quassia ; camomile ; gen-
tian ;  oak  bark;  columba ;  lesser centaury ;
pomegranate;   cascarilla; wormwood; south 
(  103  )
 ernwood ; tansy ;  buck bean ; elm bark ;  agri-
 mony ;  ferrugineous prepa atio s ; sulphat of
 copper; oxide of zinc ; sulphat of zinc ; alum ;
 and most of the mineral acids.
   519. Q How much  mercury is contained in
 two drachms of the unguentum hydrargyri  for-
 tius ?
   A. One drachm.
   520. Q. In tc grains  of the  pulvis ipecacu-
 anhae compositus how much opium is contained ?
   A. One grain.
   521. Q. What is the dose of the oxidum hy-
 drargyri rubrum ?
   A. From half a grain to two grains.
   522. Q. What is  the dose of the submurias
 hydrargyri ?
   A. From one to twelve grains, to act as a pur-
 gative, and from one eighth of a grain to  one
 grain, to act as an alterative.
   t22. Q. What is meant by antiseptics ?
   A. Those medicines which are capable of re-
 sisting a tendency to  putrefaction.
   524. Q. What are the substances that  come
 under the class of antiseptics ?
   A. Acids;  Peruvian bark ; quassia  ; colum-
 ba; wormwood ; southernwood ; alkohol; xther;
 wine ; seneka root; madder ; opium ; camphor;
carbonic acid.
   525. Q. What is  meant by anthelmintics ?
   A. Such substances as have the power of des-
 troying worms. 
(  104   )
  526. Q. Enumerate the  principal  anthelmin-
tics ?
  A.  Worm-seed;  tin-filings ; assafostida ;  tan-
sy ; Indian pink : male fern ;  tobacco; cowitch;
cabbage  tree bark ;  savine ;  aloes;  gamboge ;
hedge-hyssop ;  jalap ;  castor-oil;  almond  oil;
and most of the cathartics.
  527. Q..  What do you mean by alteratives?
  A.  Alteratives are those medicines which so
change the state of  the  solids  and fluids as to
effect the cure of a disease without producing
any evacuation,  or suddenly increasing  the ani-
mal functions.
  528. Q^ What are astringe' ts ?
  A.  They are medicines which have the power
of'onstringing the animal fibre.
  529. Q^ What are the subs ances that come
under this class.
  A.  Alum ; superacetate of lead : preparations
of iron ;  opium ; logwood ;  oak-bark ;  pome-
granate ;  galls ; tormentil ;  simarouba ;   red
roses ; balaustine  flowers;  rhubarb in small
doses ; catechu ; oxide of zinc ; acetate of zinc ;
sulphat of copper; sulphuric acid ; the  calcare-
ous earths; and bistort.
  530- C^ What are the virtues of the nitras
argenti ?
  A.  It is used externally as an escharotic ;  in-
ternally it is given as an antispasmodic in epilep-
sy and chorea St. Viti.
  531. Q^ What are the virtues of the  antimo-
nium  tartarisatum ? 
(  105   )
  A. It acts as a diaphoretic in the dose of  one
eighth of a grain to one grain, and as an emetic
from one grain to six.
  532. Q.  In cases where poison has been taken,
what emetic would you select •
  A. The  sulphat of zinc, as it is more speedy
in its operation than most of the other emetics.
  533. Q.  What are the virtues and dose of the
pulvis ipecacuanhas compositus?
  A. It is given as a diaphoretic from four grains
to a scruple.
  534. Q.  What are the virtues of  the sulphu-
retum hydrargyri rubrum ?
  A. It is given as an alterative from two grains
to a  scruple, and it is  also used to  fumigate  ven-
ereal ulcers of the throat and otherparts.
  535. Q.  What are  the virtues of the acetas
potasse ?
  A. It is given as a diuretic and purgative from
ten grains to three drachms.
  536. Q.  What are the virtues  of the tartras
potassx ?
  A. It is given as a  purgative from a scruple to
three drachms.
  537. Q  What are the virtues  of the  pulvis
antimonialis ?
  A. It is given as an alterative and diaphoretic
from three  grajns to fifteen.
  538. Q.  What is the dose of the oxy-murias
hydrargyri ?
  A. From the sixteenth part of a grain to  half
a grain. 
(  106  )
   539. Q^ What are styptics ?
   A. They are substances which possess a pow-
er of stopping hemorrhages.
   540. Q^ What is meant by errhines ?
   A. Those medicines which, when applied to
the membrane of the nose, excite sneezing, and
increase the secretion therefrom.
   541. C^ What do you mean by epispastics ?
   A. Substances which  blister the skin, that  is,
which increase the action of the vessels of those
parts of the body to which they are applied,  pro-
ducing an efflux of fluid there, and a  collection
of serum between  the cuticle and cutis.
   542. Q. What is catechu ?
   A. A reddish brown substance of an astringent
taste, prepared in India  by boiling the  wood of
the acacia catechu, and evaporating the decoction
by the heat of the sun.
   543. Q. What is scammony •
   A. A concrete gummy resinous juice, of alight
grey colour, and rather an unpleasant smell and
bitterish sub-acrid  taste, brought  from  Aleppo
and Smyrna, and which exudes from the cut root
of the convolvulus seammonia.
   544. Q. What is myrrh ?
   A. A substance of a black red colour, solid and
heavy, of a peculiar smell and bitter taste, brought
from Arabia.
   545. Q. What is ipecacuanha ?
   A. A small root wrinkled and contorted, of a
givyishor ash colour, of a bitter sub-acrid taste, 
(  107  )
and very little smell, the produce of the callicocca
ipecacuanha, growing in South America.
  546. Q.  What is camphor ?
  A. A substance which is white and  pellucid,
somewhat unctuous to the touch, of a bitterish,
aromatic, acrid taste ; of a fragrant smell, resem-
bling that of rosemary ; it is found  in  concrete
lumps between the  bark in the interstices of the
wood and  pith  of the laurus  camphora,  which
grows  in  Japan ; it undergoes two sublimations
before we receive it in England.
  547. Q.  From whence do  we obtain  opium,
and what is the name of the plant that affords
it?
  A. It  is obtained from  Persia, Arabia, and
Turkey,  where  incisions are  made  into the
capsule or head of the papaver somniferum ; the
juice flows and becomes  concrete by the heat of
the sun.
  548. Q.  What animal affords castor, and what
part of the animal does it form ?
  A. The animal  that affords  this substance is
the  castor fibre,  which  inhabits the  northern
ceuntries of Europe and America ; the substance
so called is found in two bags situated in  the in-
guinal regions of the male beaver, distinct from
the testes.
  549.  Q. What is quassia ?
  A. A wood afforded by  the quassia excelsa,
which grows abundantly at ^urinam.
   5 50.  Q. What plant affords the jalap root ? 
(  108  )
  A. The convolvulus jalapa,  which grows iu
South America.
  551- Q« From whence do we obtain sperma-
ceti ?
   \. From  the  head of  the physeter macroce-
phalus, a species of whale that inhabits the nor-
thern seas. 
CHEMISTRY  AND  PHAR-
             MACY.
  552.  Q. -ti-OW is distillation performed ?
  A.  Distillation is performed in three ways ;
1st, per asctnsum ; 2nd, per descensum ;  3rd,
per latus.
  55 3. Q.  Explain the three methods  and the
apparatus made use of.
  A.  The distillation per ascensum is performed
generally with the common still, which has affix-
ed  to it a head and refrigeratory.  The still is
for the purpose of containing the materials  to be
distilled, the head for the vapour to ascend. From
the head a tube is continued in a circular manner
through a tub of cold water : this last constitutes
the refrigeratory ;  the use  of which  is  to  con-
dense the vapour into a fluid by abstracting heat.
Distillation per descensum is performed in the
following way ;—a perforated tinned iron  plate
isfi<ed within any convenient vessel so as  to
leave  a space  beneath it; on  this the  substance
to be  distilled is laid, and over it is placed another
plate  accurately closing the mouth of the vessel, 
(  no   )
and strong enough to bear the fuel.  The heat
  thus applied at top, and the vapour is forced
to descend into the inferior cavity,  where  it is
condensed.  Distillation  per latus is  performed
in a  retort with a receiver ;  the  fluid to  be  dis-
tilled is introduced into the body of the retort, the
receiver is then adjusted, and  heat is applied  to
the retort, the  fluid is thus  raised to a  state of
vapour that becomes  condensed  into  a fluid,
which  runs  do*wn the side  of  the neck into the
receiver.
  554. Q. What  is meant by solution ?
  A.  Solution is the diminution  of the aggrega-
tion of a  solid,  so  as to cause  it to lose the solid
form,  and to enter into chemical combination
with a fluid.
  555. Q. What is  the difference between in-
fusion  and decoction ?
  A.  Infusion consists in pouring upon any  sub-
stance a  cold or hot menstruum, and suffering it
to stand a certain time, and then straining it off.
Decoction consists in  boiling the substance with
the menstruum a  certain time, and then strain-
ing off.
  556. Q. What  is meant by precipitation ?
  A.  It  is that process by  which a  solid is ob-
tained  from a solution.
  557. Q. In what respects does crystallization
differ from precipitation ?
  A. Only  that the particles  of the solvend on
separating from the solution assume certain de-
terminate arrangements. 
(  111   )
   658. Q. What is the transparency of crystals
owing to ?
   A. To a  quantity of water  that they  hold,
which is called water of crystallization.
   559. Q. When crystals part  with their water
of crystallization, what are they  said to do ?
   A. To effloresce.
   560. Q. What is meant by deliquescence ?
   A. It is a term given to express  a property in
some salts by which they  absorb the moisture of
the atmosphere, and become fluid.
   561.  Q.  What is  meant by attraction ?
   A. A term given to denote the power by which
bodies unite with each  other, or remain in con-
tact with each other  until a superior force is ex-
erted to separate them.
   562.  Q.  What is the difference between at-
traction of aggregation or cohesion, and chemical
attraction or t>ftinity  ?
   A. Attraction of aggregation denotes that pow-
er which is exerted between particles of a similar
nature, as those of mercury, glass, wood, &c. On
the contrary, chemical attraction  denotes the pow-
er exerted between particles of  a  dissimilar na-
ture, as, salt  and water, muriatic acid and soda,
nitric acid and potash, &c.
   563.  Q.  What is the  result of a  chemical
combination ?
   A. A new substance  is  formed  in which the
particles combined  have assumed new proper-
ties
   564.  Q-  When a compound is resolved into its 
(  112   )
 constituent parts, what process is it said to have
 undergone ?
   A. The process of analysis.
   565.  Q. How is the  analysis of compounds
 effected ?
   A. Either by  the power  of heat, or by the
 power of a superior affinity
   566.  Q  What is meant by synthesis ?
   A. The formation of a compound (possessing
 new properties) by the combination of two or more
 simple substances.
   567.  Q. What is caloric ?
   A. A substance,  the evolution  of which pro-
 duces the sensation of heat.
   568.  Q. What are the general effects of calo-
 ric upon substances ?
   A. 1st. Substances are expanded, and thus in-
 crease in bulk by their combination with  caloric
 (excepting alumina, which is contracted.)  2nd.
 It is the cause of fluidity.  3rd.  It produces va-
porization.   4th.  It effects  ignition ; and its
 combination  with some substances is said to be
 the cause of their elasticity.
   569.  Q. What is oxygen ?
   A. The acidifying principle ; a  peculiar gas,
 colourless, invisible and  elastic ;  it supports life
 and flame.
   570.  Q.  When  ovygen enters into combi-
 nation,  what  are the classes of compounds that
it forms ?
   A  Two classes, viz oxydes and acids.
   571.  Q. What is an oxyde  ? 
(  113   )
  A.  A metal, or a combustible combined with
oxygen, that does not possess acid properties.
  572 Q.  What are the properties of hydro-
gen ?
  A.  It is  an invisible elastic gas,  which  has a
peculiar smell, extinguishes flame, burns in con-
tact with oxygen, explodes when mixed with oxy-
gen, and is about 12 times lighter than common
air.
  573 Q.  What are the compounds of hydro-
gen ?
  A.  Sulphurated, phosphorated, and carbonated
hydrogen gas.
  574. Q.  What is  the composition of water ?
  A.  Oxygen and hydrogen in chemical combin-
ation.
  575. Q.  What is meant by a hydrate ?
  A.  A combination of water with a salt or other
substances ; the chrystals are hydrates, and  the
sulphur precipitatum is an hydrate of sulphur.
  576. Q.  What is nitrogen?
  A.  An elastic, invisible gas, exceedingly irres-
pirable, and which extinguishes flame.
  577.  Q.  What  are  the compounds of  nitro-
gen ?
  A.  In a state of mechanical combination with
oxygen, it forms atmospheric air, and when che-
mically combined  with  different proportions of
oxygen it forms two o.vydes and one acid, viz. ni-
trous oxyde, or gaseous o.yde of azot; nitric ox-
yde, which possesses a greater proportion of oxy-
                     K 2 
(  IH  )
gen than the preceding, and nitrie acid, which is
fully saturated with oxygen.
  578  Q.  What are the component parts of at-
mospheric air ?
  A. Atmospheric-air is  chiefly  composed of
oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid.
  579. Q.  How is a combination of a combusti-
ble  vvith a metal or an earth designated ?
  A. The  combustible  is terminated  by  the
word uret, but the metal or earth  retains its ori-
ginal name :  for example,  if sulphur and lime
were combined,  it would be called sulphuret of
lime ;  phosphorus and iron, phosphuret of iron ;
and so forth.
  680.  Q  What is phosphorus ?
  A. A very inflammable substance,  of a white
setnitransparent colour,  and of the consistency of
wax.
  581. Q. What are the compounds of phospho-
rus ?
  A. It combines with  certain  combustibles,
earths, and metals,forming phosphurets ; it forms
an  oxyde, and two acids, viz. the phosphorus  acid
and the phosphoric acid.
  582  Q  In what does pure carbone exist ?
  A- The  diamond is pure carbon.
  583.  Q. What is charcoal ?
  A- An oxyde of carbon.
  584. Q. What  are the  other  compounds of
carbon ?
  A- Gaseous carbonic oxyde, carbonic gas, and
the carburetted hydiogen gas. 
(  115   )
  585. Q. How would you exhibit carbonic acid
gas internally ?
  A  Either by exhibiting the saline draught in
the state of  effervescence,  or by  giving yeast
mixed up in a convenient vehicle, or by giving the
double soda  water.
  586. Q. What is sulphur ?
  A.  A simple inflammable substance.
  587. Q^ From what kingdom of nature do we
obtain sulphur ?
  A.  From  the mineral kingdom ;  it is found in
various forms : in  a native state,  forming strata
with gypsum and limestone ; it is also  thrown
out from volcanos, and it is also found combined
with several  metals; sulphur  also  exists both in
the vegetable and animal kingdom.
  588. (^ What are the preparations of sulphur
directed  to be  made use of by the London phar-
macopoeia.
  A.   Sulphur lotum,  sulphur  precipitatum,
oleum suiphuratum,  and sulphuretum  potas-
se.
   589. (^ How  is the  sulphur   precipitatum
made ?
  A. By foiling quick lime,  sulphur and water
together for a certain  time ; filtering the solu-
tion, and adding muriatic  acid in order to throw
down  the sulphur, which is to be separated and
washed.
   590  Q_ What  takes place during this opera-
tion '
   A. During the boiling  the sulphur combines 
(  116   )
with a portion of hydrogen from the water, it af-
terwards unites itself to the lime, forming an hy-
droguretted sulphuret of lime ; this is held in so-
lution by the water,  and passes through  the fil-
ter ; upon  the addition of muriatic acid, the mu-
riatic acid combines with the lime, the hydrogen
is evolved  from the sulphur, and the sulphur is
precipitated.
   591. Q^In what respects do the sulphur lotum
and the sulphur pi aecipitatum differ from the sul-
phur subiimatum ?
   A. The  sulphur subiimatum  contains a small
portion of sulphuric acid ; the other preparations
are free  from  this acid,  and are  considered to
hold a portion  of water  in a state of  chemical
combination ;  they are therefore hydrates of sul-
phur.
   592. Q_What combinations does sulphur form
with oxygen ?
   A. It forms an oxyde, the sulphureous acid
and the sulphuric acid.
   593.  Q^  Are there  any  other compounds of
sulphur ?
   A. Yes,  it combines with hydrogen,  phospho-
rus, the metals, the earths and alkalis.
   594.  Q^  What are acids ?
  A. They are substances of a soitr taste, pos-
sessing a power of changing vegetable blues to a
red,  and of combining with earths, meLi's, and
alkalis.
  595.  Q.  What does an acid consist of ?
  A. An acid consists of a base or bases combin- 
(  117   )
ed with oxygen ; the base  is called the acidifia-
ble principle,  and the oxygen is called the acidi-
fying principle.
   596. Q How  do chemists distinguish the acids
according to the proportion of oxygen  with which
they are combined ?
   A. If an acid  basis is perfectly saturated with
oxygen, the acid produced  is said to  be perfect,
and is distinguished in  English by the  syllable
ic, as sulphuric acid ; but if the base predomin-
ates, the acid  is considered as imperfect, and is
distinguished by the English ous, as sulphureous
acid.   When  an acid has an excess  of oxygenf
it is called oxygenated and  hyper-oxygenated.
  597.  Q. What are the acids employed medi-
cinally '
  A.  The acetic,  tartaric,  citric, benzoic, carbo-
nic, boracic, muriatic, nitric, sulphuric, phospho-
ric, succinic.
  598.  Q. How is benzoic acid made  ?
  A.  A quantity  of gum  benzoin and  lime are
rubbed together, and boiled with a  quantity of
water for half an hour,  it is then filtered, and to
the solution muriatic acid is added as  long as any
precipitate is  formtd ;  the precipitate  is then
collected and dried to undergo the process of sub-
limation.
   599.  Q. What  is the theory of the  formation
of benzoic acid in  this way.
   A. The lime  during  the boiling takes the ben-
zoic acid from the gum benzoin, the  benzoate of
lime  thus formed is held in  solution  by the  wa- 
(  118   )
ter : upon the addition of muriatic acid, the lime
abandons the benzoic acid to combine with the
muriatic acid ,  the benzoic acid from its insolu-
bility is precipitated, and the muriat of lime  re-
mains in the solution.
   600.  Q.  How is citric acid made ?
   A. A quantity of lemon juice is made boiling
hot, and a sufficient quantity of prepared chalk is
added until it is saturated : the powder that forms
is then washed and dried : dilute sulphuric acid
is then to  be boiled  upon the powder ; the fluid
is ne u  filtered off and evaporated with a gentle
heat, so that  crystals  may  form  as it  cools.
The crystals are further purified  by repeated
cr stallization.
   60 I.  Q.  How  is the  formation of  citric acid
effected as  thus directed by the London Col-
lege ?
   A. When the lemon juice  and prepared chalk
are mixed together, the citric acid and lime com-
bine, while the carbonic acid escapes in efferves-
cence :  the  citrate of  lime   is decomposed by
the sulphuric acid which is added, for it takes to
the lime, and sets the citric acid at liberty.
   602.  Q.  WThatsalt is taken into the stomach
when the saline draught is given ?
   A. The citrate of potash.
   603  Q.  In what respects do the nitric and ni-
trous acids differ ?
   A. The nitrous acid holds  in solution a quan-
tity of nitric oxyde, which is continually escaping,
this gas gives the acid an orange colour, and is 
C  119   )
the cause of its fuming : the nitric acid is colour-
less, and does not evolve nitric oxyde.
   6U4.  Q.  How is muriatic acid made ?
   A. A quantity of sulphuric acid diluted  with
water is put into a glass retort;  to this is added
a quantity of muriat of soda; one third of the
water directed to be used is put into the receiver,
to absorb  a quantity of gas that may be suddenly
evolved ;  the receiver  is  then  luted to the retort,
and the muriatic acid is distilled over by the heat
of a sand bath.
   605.  Q.  In  the  formation of muriatic acid
what are the decompositions and combinations ?
   A. The  murias sodas  is decomposed by the
sulphuric  acid which combines  with the soda :
the muriatic acid,  thus  let loose in the state  of
gas, is absorbed by the water.
   606.  Q.  How is nitric acid made ?
   A. fcqual parts of dried nitrate of potash and
sulphuric  acid are put  into a glass retort; distilla-
tion is then  to be carried on in a sand bath until
a red vapour arises ; the  nitric acid  that is dis-
tilled over is to be re-distilled from a fresh portion
of dried nitrate of potash.
   607.  Q.  In  making  nitric acid,  what takes
place ?
   A. The sulphuric acid combines with  the pot-
ash of the nitras potassae, forming sulphat of pot-
ash, and the nitric acid is distilled over.
   608.  Q.  How is boracicacid obtained ?
   A. By  adding sulphuric acid to a hot  solution
of borax  ;  this  combines with  the  soda of the 
(  120   )
borax, forming sulphat of soda,  and the  boracic
acid is crystallized upon the solution cooling.
  609. Q.  How is the oxy-muriatic acid obtain-
ed ?
  A.  It is obtained from a mixture of  muriat of
soda, black oxyde of manganese, and  sulphuric
acid ; during the process the sulphuric acid com-
bines  with the soda, forming sulphat of soda, the
muriatic acid consequently being set at liberty
combines with a portion of oxygen from the black
oxyde of manganese, and is converted into oxy-
muriatic acid.
  610. Q.  Why is the oxy-muriatic acid requir-
ed to be kept in the dark ?
  A.  Because it is decomposed by the agency of
light: that is, it is resolved into muriatic acid
from  the loss of the oxygen with which it was
combined.
  611. Q.  Has this acid  the property of chang-
ing vegetable blues to a red ?
  A.  No:  it deprives  vegetable  substances of
colour : hence its utility in bleaching.
  612. Q.  What is  the composition of  nitric
acid ?
  A.  Oxygen and nitrogen.
  613. Q.  What is the composition of phospho-
ric  acid ?
  A.  Phosphorus and oxygen.
  614. Q.  In what state do we obtain hyper-
oxy-muriatic acid ?
  A.  Combined  with an alkaline base ; as form- 
(  121   )
ing the hyper-oxy-muriat of potash.  This is the
only state in which it exists.
  615. Q. What is the composition of carbonic
acid ?
  A. Carbon and oxygen ; by heating potassium
or the metal of potash in carbonic acid, the potas-
sium combines with  the oxygen  of the carbonic
acid, and charcoal or oxyde of carbon is deposit-
ed-
 ' 616. Q. What  are  the  acids  that  have not
hitherto been decomposed ■
  A. The muriatic acid, the fluoric acid, and the
boracic acid
  6.7. Q. What is the composition of the vege-
table acids ?
  A. Varied proportions of carbon and hydrogen
acidified  by oxygen.
; 618. Q What are alkalis ?
  A. They are substances  that possess an acrid
^taste, a urinous smell ;  they convert most vege-
table blues to a green, and  they render oils  mis-
cible with water.
  619. Q What is the composition of the al-
kalis ?
   A.  A  metal and oxygen.
  620. Q. What  is the  general  distinction of
 alkalis ?
   A.  Into fixed and volatile, they  are also dis-
 tinguished into vegetable alkali or potash, mine-
 ral alkali or soda, and volatile alkali or ammonia.
 Potash and soda are considered as  fixed alkalis,
 because  they are not volatilized but by a Yery in-
                       L 
(  122   )
tense heat, whereas ammonia, which  is the vola-
tile alkali, requires only  the temperature of at-
mosphere to change its state of aggregation.
   621. Q. How is the potash of commerce ob-
tained ?
   A. From the  lixivium  of wood ashes :—the
ashes of all wood afford this alkali, but the harder
woods most abundantly.  Another method of ob- /.;.
taining potash is by burning the impure tartar of
commerce and lixiviating it.
   622. Q. How is the sub-carbonas potass^- o-,-a
tained ?                                       ,'
   A. By mixing a quantity of impure po'ishof/
commerce with a stated quantity  of water:  by
boiling these for a certain time, filtering the so-
lution, and finally evaporating the water from ther
salt, while stirring it.
   623.  Q.  How  are the extraneous or more'
crystallizable salts of the impure potash  got rid
of?
   A. Sub-carbonate of potash being very soluble
in water in comparison  to  the extraneous salts
contained in impure potash,  an  advantage is  ta-
ken of this, for only a sufficient quantity of water
is added to dissolve the  sub-carbonates ;  the ex-
traneous salts therefore not  being  dissolved re-
main upon the filter.  They consist  chiefly of
sulphate of potash, muriat of potash, with a quan-
tity of earthy impurities.
   624. Q. What  is the difference between sal
tartari, sal absinthii and sub carbonas potasse ?
   A. Very little difference, excepting in the pro- 
(  123   )
  portion of carbonic acid  with which they  are
  combined ;  they are all sub-carbonates of potash,
  but are differently obtained
     625  Q. What are the preparations of potash
  directed to be used  by the London College ?
     A. Acetas  potassa:.  sulphas  potassx, super-
  sulphas potasse, tartras potasse, sub-carbonas
  potasse, carbonas potasse, liquor  sub-carbonatis
  potassac, liquor potasse, potassa fusa,  potassa
  cum calce.
t    626.  Q  How is the potassa fusa obtained ?
•I    A. By evaporating the water from the liquor
 ' potassa;, melting the salt, and casting it into pro-
  per moulds.
     627.  Q. How is the liquor potassae made ?
     A. By putting together sub-carbonate of pot-
  ash,  quicklime and hot water, suffering them to
  remain  a length of time, then filtering.
     628.  Q. Why is the lime added ?
     A. To abstract the carbonic acid from the sub-
 f carbonate  of potash.
     629.  Q. What is the composition of cremor
  tartari ?
     A. It is a  super-tartrate  of potash ;  that is,
  combined  with an excess of tartaric acid.
     630.  Q. How is  the tartras potasse made  ?
     A. It is made by  adding a quantity of sub-car-
  bonate of potash to a quantity of super-tartrate of
  potash dissolved in water, evaporating to a certain
  extent,  and crystallizing the salt.
     631.  Q. What effect has the sub-carbonate of
  potash in this preparation ? 
(  124   )
  A.  It parts with its  carbonic acid to combine
with the  excess of tartaric acid in the super-tar-
tras potasse to form a neutral salt.
  632. Q. How is the perfect carbonate of pot-
ash formed ?
  A.  By  adding carbonate of ammonia to  sub-
carbonate of potash dissolved in water.   This so-
lution is exposed to a certain degree of heat, un-
til all  the ammonia is expelled, and the sub-car-
bonate of potash becomes a perfect  carbonate
by taking carbonic  acid from the carbonate  of
ammonia.
  633. Q Why is the carbonate of potash pre-
ferred to the sub-carbonate for a saline draught to
be taken  in the state of effervescence ?
  A.  Because it affords most carbonic acid.
   634. Q What remains  in the retort after the
distillation of nitric acid ?
   A. A super-sulphat of potash.
   635 Q. What is  the  composition of nitre
crystals ?
   A  Nitric acid, potash, and water.
   636. Q. Why is the nitras potassae  made use
of in forming sulphuric acid •
   A.  To supply the sulphur, when burning, with
a greater quantity of oxygen.
   637. Q. What are the  states of combination
that potash enters into with tartaric acid ?
   A. Two states, so as to form an acidulous salt
and a neutral salt.
   638.  Q. How is the tartras potasse made ?
   A.  By adding a sufficient quantity of sub-car- 
(  125   )
bonate of potash to neutralize the super-tartrate of
potash, which is previously to be dissolved in hot
water :  it is afterwards to be evaporated, filtered,
and then put by in order to crystallize.
   639. Q. How is impure soda obtained ?
   A.  It  is generally obtained by lixiviating the
ashes of burnt plants,  that have grown on the
sea-shore,  particularly  the herb  called by Lin-
naeus  Salsola kali.
   640.  Q. How  is the sub-carbonas  sodae ob-
tained ?
   A.  By boiling a stated quantity of impure soda
of commerce in a  quantity  of distilled water,  fil-
tering the solution, evaporating it, and  crystalli-
zing the  salt.
   641. Q.  How  is the carbonas soda; obtain-
ed ?
   A.  By adding  sub-carbonate  of  ammonia lo
sub-carbonate of soda, dissolved in a quantity of
distilled  water; exposing  this solution  to heat
for a certain time, in order to  expel  the ammo-
nia ; then crystallizing the  carbonate of soda.
   642. Q. What salt remains after the distilla-
tion of muriatic acid?
   A.  Sulphat of soda, which is directed to be re-
served and prepared for use.
   643. Q.  What  is the composition pf common
table salt ?
   A.  It consists principally of muriatic acid and
soda.
   644. Q. Why doesit dili juese ?
                     L 2 
(  126  )
  A. Because it contains a little muriat of mag-
nesia.
  645. Q. How is ammonia obtained ?
  A In  a variety of  ways ; it is abundantly
formed by animal decomposition ;  it exists in
combination with an acid in soot;  it is obtained
by distilling hartshorn,  or bones ; but it is ge-
nerally obtained from the sal ammoniac of com-
merce.
  646. Q. What is the  composition of ammo-
nia ?
  A.  Hydrogen  and nitrogen :  but Mr. Davy
has made it appear to be a compound of a metal
which he has named ammonium.
  647. Q. What compounds of ammonia are
directed to be kept by the London College -?
  A.  Carbonas  ammonie, liquor acetatis  am-
moniae, liquor  carbonatis ammonie,  and the li-
quor ammonie.
  648. Q. How is the formation of carbonate of
ammonii effected ?
   \.  By sublimation  from a mixture  of dried
prepared chalk and muriat of ammonia ; a dou-
ble  decomposition takes  place ; the lime of the
prepared chalk combines with the muriatic  acid,
forming muriat of lime, while the carbonic  acid,
the other constituent of the chalk, combines with
the ammonia, and forms carbonate  of ammonia,
which is sublimed.
  64y. Q. Is this a perfect carbonate ?
  A.  No : it is a sub-carbonate ; the carbonate
of ammonia is void of smeil. 
(  127   )
  650.  Q. How is the liquor ammonie made ?
  A  By abstracting the muriatic acid of muri-
at of ammonia by means of lime, and causing
the ammoniacal gas to be absorbed by water.
  651.  Q. How is the liquor ammonias acetatis
made ?
  A. By saturating acetic acid with carbonate of
ammonia.
  652.  Q  What is an earth ?
  A. A substance that is nearly insoluble in wa-
ter  ; that has little or no smell ; that is incom-
bustible ;  and, when pure, assumes the form of a
white powder.  The specific gravity of an earth
should not exceed 4.9.  All the earths are sup-
posed to have metallic bases, but are at  present
considered as simple substances.
  653.  Q.  How many  earths are  at  present
known to chemists ?
  A. Nine ;  viz.  silex, argil, magnesia, lime,
barytes, strontian, zircon, glucine, and yttiia-
  654.  Q. What are  the earths that are used in
medicine ?
  A. They  are four in number;  viz. magnesia,
lime, argil, or alumina, and barytes ; which last
is not  admitted into the  London  Pharmaco-
poeia.
  655. Q. What substances afford argil ?
  A. It exists in  many  fossils,  and forms the
basis of common clay.
  656  Q What is there peculiar to this earth ?
   A. It contracts when exposed  to heat, and 
(  H8   )
becomes so hard as to be capable of striking fire
with steel.
  657  Q.  Is argil ever found pure in nature, or
used in medicine in its pure state ?
  A. No.
  658  Q.  What  compounds  of  argil  are di-
rected to be kept in the shops,  by  the  London
College ?
   A. The  alumen exsiccatum, and the liquor
aluminis compositus.
  659.  Q.  What is the composition of alumen?
  A. Sulphuric acid in excess, argil, or alu-
mina,  and a small portion  of potash, and often
ammonia.
  660.  Q.  Why is potash always put in to form
alum ?
  A. To facilitate crystallization, the sulphat. or
super-sulphat of argil  alone, crystallizes  in very
small quantities, and that with great difficulty.
  661.  Q.  Is alum ever found in nature ?
  A. Yes,  it is often  found in a species of slate,
denominated alum slate, which is mixed with the
layers of coal.
  662.  Q.  From whence do we obtain magne-
sia ?
  A. It is never found, in the pure state ; but in
combination in  many fossils;  it is also found
combined with acids in many springs, and in sea-
water ;  from these several  sources  the earth is
obtained.
  663  Q.  What preparations of magnesia does
the college  direct to be used ? 
(  129   )
   A. The carbonas magnesia? and the  sulphas
magnesie, and magnesia.
   664.  Q.  How   is  the  carbonas  magnesia;
made ?
   A. By mixing together a solution of sub-car-
bonate of potash and  of sulphat  of magnesia,
boiling for a certain time, and filtering.   The
carbonate of magnesia remains upon the filter,
and is to be well washed with hot water, to entire-
ly deprive it of the sulphat  of potash ; it is after-
wards dried
   665.  Q.  What takes place in this process ?
   A. A double decomposition takes place ; the
potash loses its carbonic  acid  to  combine  with
the sulphuric acid,  while the magnesia  loses its
sulphuric acid to combine with the carbonic acid ;
and thus a carbonate of magnesia is obtained, and
a sulphat of potash remains in solution.
   666.  Q.  When the  carbonate of magnesia  is
exposed to an intense  heat for some time, what
takes place ?
   A- It loses its carbonic acid, and pure magne-
sia is obtained.
   667.  Q Which  is lightest, the carbonas mag-
nesie. or magnesia ?
   A. Magnesia.
   668.  Q^  How is sulphat  of magnesia ob-
tained ?
   A. It used to be obtained by evaporating the
water of the mineral springs at Epsom, but it is
now generally obtained  by evaporating the  bit- 
(  130  )
tern, or the fluid that remains after the crystalli-
zation of salt from sea-water.
  669. Q^ What are the sources of lime ?
  A.  It  is  a  constituent of chalk-stone, lime-
stone, marl, shells, bones ; it  is found combined
with many acids, as carbonic, fluoric, boracic, and
sulphuric  acid ; it exists in small portions in sea-
water, in  spring and river water, and it is found
in vegetables
  670. Q^ What preparations of lime do the Lon-
don College direct to be kept ■
  A.  Calx, liquor calcis, creta preparata.
  671. Q.  How is calx, or lime, to be obtained ?
  A.  By burning chalk-stone with a  white heat,
until it ceases to effervesce, or give off carbonic
acid, when thrown into acetic acid.
  672. (^ Is this pure lime which remains?
  A.  Sufficiently pure for medical purposes, but
not for chemical.
  673. (^ What takes place in the slackingof lime?
  A.   The water is absorbed with a hissing noise,
the lime  cracks and  falls  into  powder, a great
quantity of caloric is evolved, so as to convert one
portion of water into a vapour, while the other
portion of the water enters into combination with
the lime, and becomes solidified.
  674. q_ What is a metal ?
  A.  It is a simple substance, possessed of great
tenacity and  hardness, opacity,  the  property  of
reflecting  light, a certain specific gravity, and  of
combustibility,  when raised to a certain tempe-
rature, in  contact with oxygen. 
(  131   )
  675. Q;  Are all the metals opaque ?
  A. Yes, all except gold-leaf,  which, when beat
extremely thin, transmits green light.
  676. Q.  What is the difference between duc-
tility, malleability, and tenacity ?
  A. Malleability is that  property by  which a
metal may  be pressed or beat into thin leaves, or
plates.  Ductility,  the property by which a me-
tal may be drawn into wires of certain diameters ;
and tenacity, the power of cohesion of the parti-
cles  of metals, by  which they allow of  ductility
and malleability.
  677. q_ What is the cause of expansion in me-
tals ?
  A. Caloric,  which is supposed  to cause the
metallic particles to assume greater distance.
  678.  Q^ Do metals conduct caloric ?
  A. Yes : they are the best conductors of that
principle.
  679. Q. Do metals differ much in fusibility ?
  A. Yes.    Mercury  melts at a  very low tem-
perature, even in the coldest atmosphere ; on the
contrary, platinum requires the most intense heat
for its fusion.
   680.  Q^ Are these the chief properties of me-
tals  ?
   A. Yes, excepting that they  are the best elec-
trical conductors,  and  generate  Galvanism  by
contact.
   681. Q; When a metal combines with oxy-
gen, what change has it undergone ? 
(  132  )
   A. It has become oxydized, and the compound
formed is called an oxyde.
   682. Q.  When a metal combines with an acid
so as to form  a salt, what change does the metal
first undergo ?
   A. It becomes oxydized  either by decompo-
sing the  water,  or part of the acid, ani is then
dissolved by the remaining acid.
   683. Q. When two metals are combined, what
is the compound called ?
   A. An alloy ;  excepting the combination of a
metal with mercury,  which  is termed an amal-
gam.
   684. Q.  What  is the number of metals at
present known ?
   A. They amount to twenty-one, if the new
metals of alkalis, 8cc. are excluded.
   635. Q.  Enumerate the metals ?
   A. Gold, platinum, silver, mercury, copper,
iron, tin,  lead,  nickel,  zinc, bismuth, antimony,
tellurium, arsenic, cobalt,  manganese- tungsten,
molybdenum, uranium, titanium, chromium.
   686. Q.  What are the metals that are used in
medicine ?
   A- Silver, mercury, copper, iron, tin, lead, zinc,
bismuth, arsenic, antimony.
   687. Q.  In  what  state is  silver found in na-
ture ?
   A. Native and mineralized.
   688. Q.  What are the preparations of  silver
used in medicine  ?
  A. Only thenitras argenti, which is made with 
I  133   )
silver, nitric  acid, and distilled water.  The ni-
tric acid and water are mixed ;  the silver is then
added, which speedily  becomes dissolved by the
application of a gradual heat ; when this is ef-
fected, the solution is evaporated, in order to ob-
tain a dry nitrate of silver.   The nitrate of silver
is then melted in  a crucible, with a, gentle heat,
and is cast into proper moulds.
  689. Q. What takes place during the melting
of the nitrate of silver ?
  A.  It loses part of its nitric acid, and becomes
reduced to a sub-nitrate.
  690. Q. What are the sources of mercury ?
  A.  It is found native ; it is found in combina-
tion with muriatic acid, and it is found in com-
bination with sulphur, constituting an ore called
native cinnabar ; from this ore the quicksilver of
commerce is generally obtained.
  691. Q. What  preparations of mercury are
directed to be used by the  London   Pharmaco-
poeia ?
  A.  Oxymurias hydrargyri, liquor oxymuriatis
hydrargyri,  hydrargvrus cum  creta,  submurias
hydrargyri, nitrico oxydum hydrargyri, oxydum
hydrargyri cinereum, oxydum  hydrargyri ru-
brum, hydrargyrus  precipitatus albus, hydrar-
gyrus  purificatusj and hydrargyri sulphuretum
rub rum.
  692. Q. How  is  the  oxymurias  hydragyri
formed ?
   A. Mercury and sulphuric acid are first boiled
together, in a glass vessel, until a dry salt is ob-
                    . M 
<  13*   )
fcained :  by this process  the mercury  first  be-
comes  oxydized, and then dissolves in  the re-
maining acid ; this is evaporated, until a dry salt
is procured,  which is an oxy-sulphat of mercury ;
this is to be  mixed with a quantity of dried mu-
riat of soda, and sublimed ; the order of affini-
ties is now changed ; the muriatic acid combines
with the oxyde of mercury, forming an oxy-mu-
riat  of mercury, which  is  sublimed, and the
sulphuric acid  combines with  the soda, forming
sulphat of soda, which is not sublimed.
   693. Q. In what state of oxydizement does the
mercury exist in this preparation ?
   A. In the state of red oxyde.
   694.  Q. How is the hydrargyria cum  creta
made ?
   A  By rubbing creta and mercury  together,
until the globules of the mercury disappear.
   6^5.  Q,  What is the composition of this pre-
paration ?
   A. It is  composed of an o-yde of mercury
combined with carbonate of lime.
   696.  Q.  How  is  the  submurias hydrargyri
made ?
   A. A quantity  of oxy-muriat of mercury is
rubbed  with a quantity of purified mercury, until
the globules of the mercury are  extinguished ; it
is then  to be sublimed, and the sublimation and
rubbing are to be repeated three times ; after
which  it is  to  be reduced to a very  subtile pow-
der. 
(  135   )
   697. Q^ What is the use of the purified  mer-
cury in this preparation?
   A. It abstracts from  the oxy-muriat of  mer-
cury a portion of its oxygen ; by which the oxyde
of mercury  that existed in the oxy-muriat  is
converted into  an  imperfect black o yde ; this
imperfect oxyd  requires less  muriatic  acid to
saturate it than the perfect oxyde does ; the com-
pound formed is therefore a muriat,  but the Lon-
don College have thought proper to call it a sub-
muriat, to prevent mistakes.
   698.  q. How is the nitrico-oxydum hydrargyri
made ?
  A.  A quantity of mercury, nitric acid, and d's-
tilled  water,  are boiled together, until the mer-
cury is dissolved ;  the solution  is then evaporat-
ed, until a dry white mass  appears ; this white
salt  is to be rubbed into powder,  and e posed to
heat gradually raised, until it no longer gives off
red fumes
  699.  Q^ What takes place during the forma-
tion of nitric o yde of mercury ?
  A.  The mercury decomposes a portion of the
nitric acid by attracting  oxygen ; it becomes con-
verted into  an  o  yde.  and nitric oxyde gas is
evolved ; the oxyde  of mercury thus formed, is
then dissolved by the undecomposed nitric  acid,
and a nitrate of mercury is formed.   When the
dried  nitrate of mercury is exposed to heat, the
greatest part of the nitric acid is driven off, and a
perfect o yde of mercury remains, holding a very
small portion of nitric acid. 
(  136  )
   700.  Q  How is the red  oxyde of mercury
 made ?
   A. By exposing mercury i a glass vessel, with
 a broad bottom, a long neck and a narrow mouth,
 to a heat of 600% until the mercury is converted
 into red scales, which are to be reduced to a very
 fine powder.
   701.  Q.  What  is the theory of  this pro-
 cess ?
   A. The mercury, when exposed to 600°, rises
 in vapour up the neck of the vessel;  the vapour
of the mercury  combines  with a ma imum of
 o  ygen, by  decomposing  atmospheric an, and
falls back into the vessel in the state of dark red
scales, which become of a deeper red as the pro-
cess goes on.
   702.   Q_ Why does not the mercury escape
when exposed to this temperature •
   A.  Because the vessel is provided with a long
narr w neck, that is drawn out into a capillary
opening, which prevents the escape of the  mer-
cury, but allows a free admission of air.
   703. Q.  How is the grey oxyde  of mercury
 prepared ?
   A  It is prepared by boiling sub-muriat of
mercury with lime water, constantly stirring, un-
 til a grey oxyde of mercury is separated ; it is
then to be washed with distilled water, and dried.
During this preparation, the lime combines with
the muriatic acid of the muriat  of mercury, and
its oxyde is separated. 
i  1S7   )
   704. Q.  Why are iron filings directed  to be
 used in purifying mercury ?
   A Because the iron  has a  greater  attraction
 for the  metals which  mercury is often amalga-
 mated with  than for the mercury.
   705.  "Q^ How is  the  sulphuretum hydrargyri
 ma  e ?
   A. It is made by mixing mercury with melted
 sulphur over the fire ; when this is effected, the
 mass is cooled, reduced to powder, and sublim-
 ed.
   706  Q_ How is the hydrargyria precipitatus
 albus made ?
   A. By  dissolving  muriat   of ammonia and
oxy-muriat  of mercury in water, and pouring
into this solution a quantity of liquid  sub-carbo-
nate of potash. The powder that  is thrown down,
is washed until it becomes insipid and dried.
   707.  Q^ WThere is iron  found  ?
   A. It is found abundantly in the earth, under
a variety of forms, mineralized by sulphur,  com-
bined with earths, alloyed with metals; it e ists
in the waters of many springs ;  it is contained in
vegetables ;  it gives colour to  the blood, and to
many fossil subsiances.
   708.  Q^ What preparations of iron are direct-
ed to be kept by the London < 'ollege ?
   A. Ferrum  ammoniatum ; carbonas  ferri ;
sulph s  ferri  ; ferrum tartarasatum ; liquor ferri
alkalini; tinctura ferri muriatis  j tinclura  ferri
ammoniati;  vinum ferri.
                     M2 
(  138   )
  709. Q^ What  is the composition of  ferrum
ammoniatum ?
  A  It is composed of muriat of iron and mu-
riat of ammonia.
  710. Q^ How is it made ?
  A.  By  subliming equal parts of carbonate of
iron and muriat of ammonia.
  711. Q. How is the carbonate of iron made ?
  A  By  dissolving sub-carbonate  of soda and
sulphat of iron in two separate portions of wa-
ter, mixing  the solutions,  suffering  the green
powder to subside, then washing and drying it.
  712. Q^ What change of affinities is produced
by mixing these solutions ?
  A.  The carbonic acid combines with the iron,
leaving the soda to  combine with  the sulphuric
acid ; a sulphat of soda therefore remains  in so-
lution, and a  carbonate of iron  is precipitated.
This new compound consists of the black oxyde
of iron, combined with carbonic acid, but upon ex-
posure to  the air, passes very soon to the state of
red oxyde.
  713. Q. How  is  the ferrum  tartarizatum
made ?
  A.  It is made by mixing iron filings, super-tar-
trate of potash, and water together ; they are ex-
posed to the air in a broad glass vessel, for eight
days : the compound  is then dried in a sand-
bath,  and reduced to powder ; after this is  done,
it is to be mixed with another portion of water,
and exposed for eight days longer. 
(  139   )
   714. Q. What is the theory of the formation
of this compound ?
   A. During the exposure to the air, the iron be-
comes oxydized by abstracting oxygen both from
the air and the water with which it is mixed ; and
the oxyde of iron combines  with the superabun-
dant tartaric acid of the super-tartrate of potash ;
the compound  formed is therefore a tartrate of
potash and iron.
   7 15. Q. W hat is the composition of the liquor
ferri alkalini ?
  A. It is considered as composed of nitric acid,
red oxyde of iron,  with potash, forming  a triple
compound.
  716. Q  How is it made ?
  A. It  is  made with iron, nitric acid, distilled
water, and solution of sub-carbonate of potash.
The  acid and water are  first to be mixed, and
poured on the iron ;  when the effervescence has
ceased, the acid solu!ion is to be poured  off, and
added gradually to  the solution of sub-carbonate
of potash, occasionally shaking,  '  has assumed
a deep brown red  colour, and no further effer-
vescence takes place ;  it is then to be set by for
six hours, and its clear solution poured off.
   717. Q. How  is the tinctura  ferri muriatis
made ?
   A. Carbonate of iron is put with muriatic acid
for three days ;  during which time the carbonic
acid is displaced  from the red oxyde of iron and
the red oxyde  combines with the muriatic acid,
and forms an oxy-muriat of iron, which is  after- 
(  140   )
 wards combined  with a  quantity  of rectified
 spirit.
    718  Q  What compound of iron exists in the
 vinum ferri ?
    A. A tartrate of iron and potash.
    719  Q. In what state in nature is lead found ?
    A. It is found oxydized,  forming a variety  of
 ores ;  combined with  sulphur, forming an ore
 called galena ;  combined with muriatic and  car-
 bonic acids.  It is found in the state of carbonate,
 phosphate, arseniate,  arsenic phosphate, molyb-
 date, and sulphat.
    720. Q.  What  are the compounds of lead ad-
 mitted into the new London  Pharmacopoeia ?
   A. Liquor acetatis plumbi; super-acetas plumbi,
 liquor acetatis plumbi.
   721  Q.  How  is  the super-acetate of lead.
 made ?
   A. It is made by  boiling  the  carbonated
 oxyde of lead in acetic  acid,  which displaces the
 carbonic acid  and  combines with  the  oxyde of
 lead ; the solution is to be filtered, evaporated to
 a certain extent, and set aside to crystallize
   722. Q.  How is the liquor acetatis plumbi
 made ?
   A. By boiling acetic acid and  vitrified oxyde
of lead together, to a certain extent  ;  then set-
ting the solution by,  that the  feculencies may
subside
   723.  Q^ What is the theory of this process ?
   A. The o:;yde of lead combines with the ace-
tic acid, and a sub-acetate of lead is formed. 
(  141   )
   724.  Q^ How is the cerusse of commerce pre-
pared ?
   A. A quantity of sheets of lead are rolled up
in a spiral form ; these are placed perpendicular-
ly on a support, over a vessel containing vinegar;
several of these vessels covered  are placed  to-
gether,  and  surrounded with dung, the heat of
which raises  the vinegar in vapour, which con-
verts the surface of the lead into  a white oxyde,
or rather a carbonate ; at length the whole of the
lead  is thus converted ; it is then taken out,  and
ground to powder.
   725.  Q;_ In what state  is copper found  in na-
ture  ?
   A. It is found mineralized  by oxygen ; com-
bined with carbonic acid,  forming malachite  and
mountain  blue ; in combination with phosphoric
acid, with  muriatic acid, with sulphuric acid, with
arsenic acid ; and it is abundantly found mineral-
ized  with sulphur, forming all the varieties of cop-
per pyrites.
   726.  Q_ What are  the compounds of  copper
directed to be used by the  London  Pharmaco-
poeia ?
   A. They are the cuprum aramoniatum, and
the liquor  cupri ammoniati.
   727   q_ How  is  the   ammoniated  copper
made ?
   A. It is made by rubbing sulphat of  copper
and sub-carbonate of ammonia together, in a glass
mortar,  until  the mixture  ceases to effervesce  ; it 
(  142   )
is then to be wrapped in bibulous paper, and dri-
ed by a moderate heat
  728 Q.  From whence do we obtain arsenic ?
  A. It is found in  nature  amongst the ores  of
cobalt antimony, tin, iron, copper, and silver; it
is found in combination with sulphur, forming an
ore called orpiment,  and it is found combined
with  oxygen, forming  an  ore called the white
oxvcie of arsenic.
  72y Q. What preparations of arsenic are used
in  medicine ?
   A. The oKydum arsenici preparatum, and the
liquor arsenicalis.
  7 30. Q. How is the  prepared oxyde of arsenic
made ?
  A  By reducing common oxyde  of arsenic to
powder, and placing it  in a crucible, covered by
an inverted  crucible ;  into which  the oxyde of
arsenic is sublimed.
   731. Q  How is the liquor arsenicalis made ?
   A  By talcing sixty four grains of prepared
oxyde of arsenic, and six»y-four grains of the sub-
carbonate of potash from tartar ; these are to be
boded in a glass vessel, with a pint of water, until
they are entirely dissolved, to which is to be added
four fluid drachms,  with as much  water as will
exactly  make the whole to fill a pint measure
exactly.
   732. Q. What is the compound formed in this
preparation  ?
   A. An arseniate of potash. 
(  143   )
   733.  Q. Has the oxyde of arsenic any peculiar
properties ?
   A. Yes; instead of being insipid, as most other
oxydes  are, it is acrid  and corrosive  to the taste,
it is soluble in water, andean be  crystallized in
octaedrons ; it reddens the infusion of litmus, and
combines with alkalis ; it has therefore been con-
sidered, by some chemists, rather as an acid than
an oxyde, and has been called arsenious acid.
   734.  Q^ What are the  sources of antimony ?
   A. Antimony is found native  in combination
with oxygen, with sulphur, and with muriatic acid.
   735.  Q.  What preparations of antimony does
the London College direct to be  kept ?
   A. The oxydum  antimonii, sulphuretum anti-
monii pracsipitatuin, antimonium tartarizatum,
pulvis  antimonialis, and  the liquor antimonii
tartarizati.
   736.  Q.  How is the oxyde of antimony made ?
   A. A quantity of  sulphuret of antimony is  to
be added to a mixture of muriatic acid and nitric
acid ; it is  then to be digested for an hour, in a
boiling heat;  the solution is then to be strained,
and poured into a quantity of water,  in which is
dissolved a portion of sub-carbonate of potash ; a
precipitate  is  then  formed, which is to be well
washed  and dried on bibulous paper.
   737.  Q.  What is the theory of the formation
of this oxyde ?
   A. The  antimony of sulphuret first becomes
oxydized by  the nitric acid, which is decompos-
ed ;  the oxyde of antimony is then dissolved by 
(  144  )
the muriatic  acid, and  a muriat of antimony is
obtained, when this is added  to the sub-cai bonate
of potash ; the sub-carbonate of potash is first de-
composed, the carbonic acid escapes, and the pot-
ash unites itself  to  the  muriatic  acid and forms
muriat of potash ; the muriatic acid having thus
combined with the potash, the oxyde of antimony
is precipitated
   738.  Q. What  becomes  of  the  sulphur that
formed  the sulphuret of antimony ?
   A. It remains upon the filter, when the solu-
tion of muriated antimony is filtered.
   739  Q. How is the sulphuretum  antimonii
precipitatum made ?
   A. Sulphuret of antimony, solution of potash,
and distilled water, are mixed and boiled over a
slow fire ; the mixture  is kept stirred, and  as
much distilled  water is added as evaporates ;
when this part of the process is finished, the solu-
tion is to be strained through a double linen cloth,
and while it is yet hot,   sulphuric acid is to be
dropped in, as may be required,  to precipitate the
powder, which <s afterwards to be well washed, to
free it of the sulphat of potash, then dried.
   740.  Q.  Explain what takes  place in this pro-
cess ?
   A. Potash, sulphur, antimony, and water, are
boiled together; the water becomes decomposed
into its constituents,  oxygen and  hydrogen, the
potash unites to the greater part of the sulphur,
and attracts  hydrogen from the  water, so that a
hydro-sulphuret  of potash is formed ; the anti- 
( 14* )
 mony combines with the oxygen of the water,
 and the sulphur which it retains attracts the other
 portion of hydrogen, which the sulphuret of pot-
 ash has not  combined with ; an  hydro-sulphu-
 retted oxyde of antimony is thus formed, which
 is held in solution ; when the sulphuric  acid is
 added, the hydro-sulphutet of potash is decompo-
 sed, the sulphuric acid and potash combine, and
 form  sulphate of potash, the hydrogen escapes,
 and the oiilphur intimately mixed with the hydro-
 sulphuretted oxyde of antimony is precipitated.
  741. Q.  How is the antimonium tartarizatum
 made ?
  A.  It is made with oxyde of antimony, super-
 tartrate of potash, and distilled water.   The wa-
 ter  is  boiled in a glass vessel, and the antimony
 and super-tartrate of potash previously mixed to-
 gether are added ; it is then  boiled for half an
 hour,  filtered through paper, and evaporated to a
 certain extent; after which it is set  by to crys-
 tallize slowly.
  742. Q.  What takes place in the formation of
 this compound ?
  A.  The excess of tartaric acid,  that  exists in
 the  super-tartrate of potash, combines with the
 oxyde of antimony, and forms a tartrate of anti-
mony ; this combines with the tartrate of potash,
and forms a triple salt, consisting of tartaric acid,
antimony, and potash.
  743. Q.  How is antimonial powder made ?
  A.  By mixing  one part of sulphuret of anti-
monv  and  two  parts of hartshorn  shavings,
                    N 
(  146 )
throwing them into a broad iron  pot, heated to a
white heat, and stirring the mixture constantly
until it acquires an ash colour ;  having taken  it
out, it is to be reduced to powder, and put into a
coated crucible, upon  which another inverted
crucible, having a small hole in its bottom, is to
be luted ;  the fire is  then to be raised to white-
ness, and kept  so for two hours.  The  mass is
then to be reduced to a very fine powder.
  744.  Q. What does  this compound  consist
of?
  A. It consists of oxyde of antimony and phos-
phate of lime.
  745.  Q. Describe the phcenomena that take
place during its preparation ?
  A. When  the  sulphuret  of antimony and
hartshorn  shavings are exposed  to a white  heat,
the sulphuret of antimony is  decomposed, its
sulphur is driven off, and the antimony remains
oxydized,  while the gelatine  of the hartshorn
shavings is destroyed, and nothing is left but phos-
phate of lime,  which becomes  mixed with the
oxyde of antimony.
  746.  Q. What is the active ingredient of the
yest cataplasm ?
  A.  The  carbonic acid gas  evolved, which is
the product of fermentation.
  747.  Q.  What are the chemical  compounds
that exist in the mistura ferri composita ?
  A-  Carbonate of iron and sulphate of potash.
  748.  Q.  What is meant by fermentation ?
  A.   The  spontaneous change of vegetable 
(  147  )
substances, by  which their properties become
altered.
  749. Q.  What circumstances are required for
fermentation to go on ?
  A.  A certain degree  of fluidity;  a degree of
heat between  55° and 65° Fahrenheit and the
contact of air.
  750. Q.  What are the general species  of fer-
mentations ?
  A.  Fermentation is divided into the spirituous,
the acetous, and the putrefactive ; besides  which,
Dr. Thomson has  added two others, viz. the pa-
nary and the saccharine  fermentation.
  751. Q.  What  ingredients  are  necessary for
fermentation ?
  A.  Water, sugar, and mucilage.
  752. Q  Can a  fluid,  after it has  undergone
the acetous fermentation, be made to undergo the
vinous ?
  A.  No :  fermentation will  only  take place in
the regular succession ;  from the acetous to the
vinous, from the vinous to the putrefactive.
  753 Q  What are the products of the spiritu-
ous fermentation ?
  A.  Ardent spirits, wines, beers, &c.
  754. Q.  What do the acetous and putrefactive
fermentations produce ?
   A.  The  acetous  fermentation produces vine-
gar, and the putrefactive fermentation produces
ammonia.
   75 5. Q-  How is alkohol obtained ?
   A.  Alkohol  may be obtained by  distilling any 
(  148  )
spirituous liquor.  Brandy affords the greatest
quantity, but in this country it is usually  obtain-
ed from malt  spirit, when it is termed rectified
spirit.
  756. Q.  How does the London College direct
alkohol to be made from rectified spirit ?
  A.  A quantity of heated sub-carbonate of pot-
ash is added to a quantity of rectified spirit; these
are macerated  together for twenty-four  hours ;
the alkohol is  then distilled off by means of a
water-bath.
  757. Q.  What is the use of the sub-carbonate
of potash ?
  A.  It abstracts the greatest part of the water
from the rectified spirit.  Alkohol appears always
to contain a portion of water.
  758. Q^ What is  the solvent of a resin ?
  A.  Alkohol ; but rectified spirit is  generally
used.
  759. Q. In what menstruum is gum soluble -'
  A.  Water,  and not in alkohol.
  760. Q.  What menstruum should be  used to
dissolve a gum resin ?
  A.  A mixture of spirit and water.
  761. Q.  What use is made of  rectified  spirit
in medicine ?
  A.  To make ethers, different spirits, and tinc-
tures.
  762. Q.  What are  the  different  medicinal
spirits composed of ?
  A.  A particular volatile oil, a quantity  of alko-
hol, and water. 
(  149 )
   763. Q. What are the elements of alkohol ?
   A. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.
   764. Q. What is an ether ?
   A. A compound formed  by the action of an
acid upon alkohol; it is the lightest fluid known ;
it is highly volatile, pungent, odorous, and inflam-
mable.
   765. Q. How are ethers designated"?'
   A. They are named  from the acid  by which
they are  obtained ; that obtained by  sulphuric
acid and alkohol, is called sulphuric ether  ; by
acetic  acid, acetic  ether ; by nitric acid, nitric
ether, and so forth.
   766. Q. What is the composition of ether •'
   A. Oxygen, hydrogen and carbon.
   767. Q. How does ether differ from alkohol,
as its constituents are  the same ?
   A. The proportions of its  constituents are dif-
ferent, it  is supposed to  contain more  hydrogen
and less carbon than alkohol.
   768. Q. Is the acid decomposed in the forma-
tion of ether ?
   A. In some  degree ; but its presence seems
chiefly to predispose to an alteration of the affin-
ities of the elements of the alkohol.
   769. Q. What ethereal compounds  are direc-
ted to be kept in the shops by the London  Col-
lege ?
   A. The sulphuric  ether, the rectified ether,
ethereal oil, aromatic spirits of ether,  compound
spirits of ether, spirit of nitric ether.
   770.  Q. How is the icther sulphuricus made ? 
(  150 )
   A. By distillation from equal quantities of rec-
tified spirit and sulphuric acid.  There are seve-
ral precautions necessary in the making of ether ;
it is to be distilled from a glass retort into a dou-
ble receiver, or two receivers luted together; they
are to be kept cold by ice, or cold water; the dis-
tillation  is to be carried  on until a heavier fluid
passes over that sinks to the bottom of the ether.
   771. Q.  How is aether rectificatus made ?
   A. Sulphuric ether is distilled from  a certain
quantity  of fused potash and water;  if fourteen
fluid ounces  are used, twelve  ounces  are to be
distilled over.
   772. Q.  Of what use is the potash in this pre-
paration  ?
   A. It combines with the sulphurous acid and
ethereal oil, which the sulphuric acid contained ;
these remain behind in the retort.
   773. Q.  How is the oleum xthaereum made ?
   A. After  the distillation of sulphuric ether,
the distillation  is to be  carried on until a  black
froth begins to rise, when the retort is to be im-
mediately removed.   The oil is then to be  sepa-
rated from  the fluid in the  receiver, and washed
with  lime-water,  to  free  it of  the adherent
acid.
  774. Q.  What is the spiritus xtheris aromati-
cus made with ?
  A. It is made with cinnamon bark, cardamom-
seed, long pepper, ginger root, and spirits of sul-
phuric ether. 
                   (  151  )

  775.  Q. What is the spiritus* setheris compo-
situs formed of ?
  A. It is formed of spirits of  sulphuric ether
and ethereal oil.
  776.  Q. How is  the spiritus aetheris nitrici
made ?
  A. By distillation from a mixture of nitric acid
and rectified spirit.
THE END. 
 
M<td. Hist.

  xi o
H7S7c
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