' A TREATISE MATERIA MEDICA. rLLEN, M. D. BY WILLIAM CUl PROFESSOR OF THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. 1.^ **£/*// THIRD AMERICAN EDITION. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY MATHEW CAREY. SOLD BY KIMBER, CONRAD AND CO. ;—T. AND B. KITE ;—BIRCH ANB SMALL ;—SAMUEL F. BRADFORD ;—C. AND A. CONRAD AND CO,—THOMAS DOBSON ;—W. W WOODWARD; AND JAMES HUMPHREYS. Jan. 1. 1808. .a PREFACE. A HE Lectures on the Materia Medica formerly published in my name, though very incorrect, were so well received by the public, that, notwithstanding my endeavours to prevent it, they have been several times reprinted, and even translated into foreign languages. This mark of public favour led me to think of giving a more cor- rect and complete edition of those Lectures. But -"finding that it was not possible for me to give it with the corrections and supple- ments which would be necessary, in a satisfying manner, I have long abandoned that idea, and judged it more proper to give an almost entirely new work; which I endeavour to do in the present publica- tion. In this work I must acknowledge the omission of many articles which have commonly found a place in treatises on the same subject. For such omissions it is proper for me here to account. The various nomenclature of the several substances treated of, I did not think it necessary to detail, as it may be readily obtained elsewhere ; and particularly I have not attempted to ascertain the no- menclature of the ancients; both because of the difficulty that at- tends such a labour, and because the utility of it appears to me very- doubtful. In this last respect, if any one shall differ from me, he may find enough of it in other writers ; none of whom, however, have ascertained the matter so clearly as to prevent the many ill-founded and useless transcripts and quotations from the ancients which still too frequently appear. In ascertaining the species of plants, where several of the same genus may be employed, I have purposely omitted entering into any critical discussion which of them is the most proper for the purpose of medicine. This is often a necessary labour. But I thought it enough for me, in the Catalogue which I have prefixed to my Trea- tise, to mark the botanical distinction of the species 1 judged most fit to be employed, and of which only I intended to treat in the after parts of my work. A third, and perhaps more considerable, omission which I have to account for, is, the not giving any description of the medicine as it is employed, or fit to be employed. This, however, I have omit- ted, because I could not do it so completely and accurately as the au- thors to whom I shall refer, and whom I suppose my readers to have itt their hands. That I have not given the chemical analysis of the several sub- stances, is an omission, which, if I mistake not, will require no apo- logy in the present age. I have omitted it, because I judge it to be of no use in explaining or ascertaining the virtues of medicines. iv PREFACE. Any person who is of a different opinion, may find such analysis in the accounts of the Academy of Sciences, as they are fully and faith- fully given in Mr. Geoffroy's Treatise on the Materia Medica. Though I may be readily excused for omitting the chemical analy- sis, I doubt whether I shall be so easily forgiven for frequently omit- ting the treatment of substances by the application of different men- struums, and for not mentioning the quantities of extract that are obtained from each of them. An attention to this is very necessary in the pharmaceutic treatment of medicines: and I have frequently pointed out the application of it. But 1 did not think it proper to increase the bulk of my Work by details contained in books to which I refer, and which I wish to recommend to all my readers. From the omissions above mentioned, and from others that may be observed, it will be readily perceived, that the following Work is not offered to the public as complete and sufficient for every class of students. I do not indeed suppose that it can be understood by per- sons who have no previous knowledge of the Materia Medica, or who have never read other books on the subject. On the contrary, I wish that other books may have been read; though from what I have said in my history of the several writers, it will appear that very few of them are to be read with advantage or even with safety, and 1 find it difficult to point out a selection. There are however three works, which I can venture to recommend, and which I wish to place in the hands of all my readers. These are the Treatise of the Materia Medica by Dr. Lewis, as now published by Dr. Aiken ; the Treatise of Petrus Jonas Bergius on the Ma- teria Medica, taken from vegetables; and the Apparatus Meditami- num by the learned Professor of Gottingen, Jo. Andreas Murray, Knight of the royal order of Wasa. In these three books, a student will find the omissions I have men- tioned above, fully and correctly supplied. I «ish him also to con- sult them for another purpose, as he will there find the grounds and occasions of many of the reflections which I have offered in the course of this present Treatise. Having thus taken notice of the omissions in this publication, and the means by which many of them may be supplied, I am now to men- tion in general what my Treatise contains, and what apologies may be necessary for its various imperfections. I have not attempted to give a full account of all that might be s.Jd of the several subjects of the Materia Medica. My chief pur- pose is to give the principles upon which those substances are to be judged of as medicines; to correct the errors of former \t riters in that respect; and to offer some new principles and doctrines which to me appear to be necessary. These doctrines are given partly in my general introduction to the whole, anil partly in the reflections on the general operation of medicines, which 1 have prefixed to the several chapters. These discussions have extended that introduction, as well as some other parts of my Work, to a length beyond what might have beeen expected ; but the state both of physiology, and pa- thology, for ages past, over the greatest part of Europe, led me to think such discussions necessary. These speculations may often ap- PREFACE. v rar doubtful, epsecially to persons little exercised on this subject. hope, however, they are well founded; and I offer them with en- tire deference to the judgment of the public. In assigning the virtues of medicines. I have avoided the compila- tions which have been so often injudiciously made, by repeating al- most every thing that had been said before on the subject, and com- monly without any proper distinction of authorities or of probabili- ties. In this business I have avoided the fault which Galen im- puted to Dioscorides, and which has been the fault of almost every writer on the Materia Medica since his time, that is, of ascribing too many virtues to one and the same medicine. I have, on the contrary, been sparing in assigning virtues: and I have assigned those only which are founded upon a nice selection of authorities; such as seem to me to be consistent with the laws of the animal ceconomy; and especially such as 1 have had confirmed by the experience which an extensive practice of fifty years has afforded me an opportunity of acquiring. It may be alleged that I seem to be very sceptical with respect to the assertions of writers on the Materia Medica ; and it may be true that I have been perhaps too rigorous in that respect. But I am per- suaded that every practitioner of judgment and extensive experience must to a very great degree become sceptical upon the same subject. As my doubts, however, have arisen chiefly from my own experience, I must in candour admit, that my experience, like that of every one else, may be fallacious, especially in concluding from negative expe- riments. In all cases, therefore, where medicines show active parts, I advise farther trials to be made, as I may not have employed large enough doses, nor have adapted them properly to the circumstances of disease. It may be further observed, that through the whole of this Work, I have omitted a number of articles entirely, and have been brief upon many others to be commonly found in books, while on some others I may seem to be rather diffuse. This I acknowledge to be true; but I flatter myself that the articles omitted, or passed over slightly, v\ ill be found by most judges to be such as do not deserve more particular notice. I should indeed have omitted more than I have done', had it not been that 1 judged it necessary to correct the asser- tions frequently to be found in the writers on this subject. With respect to the articles on which I may perhaps be accused of prolixity, they will be found to be upon subjt cts the most import- ant, and the most frequently employed in practice ; such as Milk, Peruvian Dark, Opium, Camphire, Mercury, and several others. In considering such subjects, I wished to ascertain, with some preci- sion, their use in the great diversity of diseases, and circumstances of disease, in which they have been tmpioyed. Throughout the whole of my Work, to support my reasonings, and to authenticate the facts adduced, I have quoted the testimony of writers, whom I myself, and I believe the public, esteem. But it may be complained of, that in doing this, I have not always specified the particular works, or the parts of the works, of the authors 1 re- fer to. This indeed is a defect: but the supplying it would have re- via CONTENTS. Faffe CATALOGUUS Rerum Specialium ex quibus constat Materia Medica,.....- - - 117 >»»T>9»c OF ALIMENTS. CHAP. I. Of Aliments in general, - - - - " * *^4 ^i?T. /. Of Acid, as alimentary, - - • - 139 II. Of Sugar, as alimentary, - 141 ///. Of Oil, as alimentary, - 142 CHAP. II. Of Particular Aliments, ------ 146 SECT. I. Of Vegetable Aliments, 147 //. ty Aliments taken from the Animal Kingdom, 184 -4icT. /. Of Aliments taken from the Class of Mammalia, ib. II. Of Milk,......186 ///. Of Animal Food, strictly so called; that is, Food consisting of the whole, or of Part of the Sub- stance of Animals, - - - - 215 1. Of Aliments taken from Quadrupeds, - 223 2.------»-----------Birds, 226 3___________________The Class of Amphibia, 231 4.------------------the Cass of Fishes, 232 5.------------------Insects, - - 235 6___________________£/ic t?/as* of Worms, 236 APPENDIX to CHAP. II. The Cookery of Meats, - 237 CHAP. III. Of Drinks,........241 SECT. I. Of Simple Water, 242 II. Of Drinks -whose Basis is Water, but to -which Additions have been made by Nature or Art, 244 CHAP. IV. Of Condiments, ------. 251 Conclusion, -: - ~ "\ z 256 THE HISTORY OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE CHIEF WRITERS UPON IT. AT is sufficiently probable, that very soon after the first begin- nings of human society, some art of physic and some knowledge of remedies arose amongst men: and accordingly, no country has been discovered, among the people of which, however rude and uncultivated in other respects, an art of physic and the know- ledge of a great number of remedies has not been found. The invention of remedies amongst the rudest people may in a great measure be accounted for, from the instincts arising in certain dis- eases ; from the observation of spontaneous cures effected by the powers of the animal oeconomy; from accidental errors in the choice of aliments; and even from those random trials to which pain and uneasiness often lead. But it is not necessary to insist on such speculations at present; and it is still less requisite to repeat here the many frivolous and fabulous accounts that have been given of the invention of particular remedies and medicines. In whatever manner these may have been first invented, every account we have of the progress of arts amongst men informs us, that the art of physic and the knowledge of remedies have had a share in that progress; and that at all times the urgency of dis- ease, and the knowledge of a few remedies, have engaged men in a constant endeavour to increase the number of them. In what manner this proceeded in different countries in ancient times is not exactly known. The most ancient account we have of arts, is that of their being cultivated in Egypt, but we know few particulars of the state of them there that deserve to be taken notice of: and with respect to medicine in general, it is needless to inquire, as it is known to have been under such regulations as must have been a certain obstacle to its progress and improve- ment. The first distinct accounts of the art of physic, as exercised by a particular class of men, are those we have of it in Greece among the priests of Esculapius. It would seem, that for some time these priests, if not the sole, were at least the chief practitioners of physic in that country; and as the trade was lucrative, it is to be presum- ed, that these practitioners would endeavour to become knowing Vol. i. B 10 HISTORY OF THE in it, and consequently to extend and enlarge their knowledge ol remedies. In the temples of Esculapius, therefore, it is probable that a stock of knowledge was preserved, and transmitted down from one set of priests to their successors: and at the same time, these temples afforded a particular means of preserving the know- ledge of the materia medic .; for we know it to have been then common for persons who had not been cured oi diseases by the remedies prescribed to them in the temple, to hang up their votive tablets, on which were written some account of their disease, and ol the remedies by which it had been relieved. It is not my business here to trace the progress of physic in Greece; but we may in gen ral observe, that it had its first begin- nings in the temples of Esculapius; that these were the first schools of the art; that the first writings upon it were produced there; and that the first clinical practitioners were sent out from these temples. The celebrated Hippocrates was one of these; who, after having been instructed in the knowledge of the school of Cos, and pro- bably also well acquainted with that of Cnidus, became an itine- rant and clinical practitioner. Very few accounts remain of the medicines employed in the temples of Esculapius; and it will readily occur that the first cor- rect information must be expected and sought for in the most an- cient medical writings now remaining, and which are those com- monly ascribed to Hippocrates. These writings, however, at least for the purposes of history, afford a precarious and uncertain in- formation; for, as we now have them collected together, they are certainly the works of many different persons, as well as of many different ages; insomuch that it is impossible, with any clearness, to judge what was the true state of the materia medica in the time of Hippocrates. Besides, if we reflect in how many instances the nomenclature is entirely unknown, and in how many it is very doubtful and uncertain, we shall be satisfied how idle it is in modern writers to quote the authority of Hippocrates for the virtues of almost any medicine. Indeed, laying aside our partiality for that celebrated person, there c;»n be no just ground for suppos- ing, that at the period in which he lived, much discernment in the materia medica could have prevailed; and it is hardly necessary to add, that even although the substances named in those writings were known to us with more certainty than they are, yet the dis- tinction of diseases and of their circumstances are so seldom given, that at present we can hardly be guided by them in employ- ing any of the medicines they suggest. Soon after the age of Hippocrates, Aristotle and Theophrastus, by laying the foundation of natural history, paved the way for a great improvement in the knowledge of the materia medica: I ut in ancient times, that improvement wras never carried far; :,i d consequently for want of the means of accurately distinguishing MATERIA MEDICA. 11 substances from one another, this branch of physic remained in much uncertainty and confusion. For a long time after the age of Hippocrates, we have hardly any of the writings of the eminent physicians of Greece, at least any of known date, from whence we might learn the progress of the materia medica amongst them. We may presume, however, that they were constantly endeavouring to find out more efficaci- ous medicines; and therefore, upon the whole, increasing their number. At the same time this seems not to have been the case with Erasistratus; who is said to have employed few medicines, and those only of the milder kind; and to have declared against the compound medicines, which even in those days were studiously attempted. Although Erasistratus, by this conduct, might in some measure retard, yet there were others who at the same time favoured the progress of the materia medica, and particularly th- equally cele- brated anatomist Herophilus, who was nearly his cotemporary. This person, who held a distinguished rank amongst the physi- cians of Greece, was very much employed in quest of remedies; and probably gave so much encouragement to this study, as to make his disciple Philinus of Cos devote himself entirely to empiricism. Philinus is by many supposed to have been the author or founder of the sect of professed empirics which appear- ed immediately after that time: But whether we suppose Philinus, or with more probability Serapion of Alexandria, to have been the author of that sect, certain it is, that it arose immediately after the time of Herophilus; and this period might be considered as one of the most remarkable in the history of physic in general, or of the materia medica in particular. It produced, however, no considerable revolution in either the one or the other. What the empirics contributed to the reformation or improve- ment of physic is not now known. Heraclides of Tarentum was of the empiric sect, and is said to have been a person of judgment and diligence in the studv of the materia medica; but neither his writings, nor those of any other of the same sect, now remain, nor are there any clear accounts of their improvements now to be found. This seems to afford a pretty certain proof that their labours were very fruitless: for had they discovered any new remedies, or ascertained more exactly the virtues and proper administration of those already known, it may be safely presumed, that such im- provements would have been adopted and preserved by the prac- titioners of every other sect. The scheme of the empirics was sufficiently specious, but the accomplishment of it was only to be attained in the course of many ages: and therefore, while men constantly found it incom- plete and imperfect, as it is even at the present day; practitioners were ever ready to desert it, and to seek for those aids which 12 HISTORY OF THE were promised by the other plans of physic. These remarks on the ancient empirics may perhaps enable us to account for the very imperfect state of the materia medica, not only among the an- cients, but also at all times since, in so far as it depends upon experience alone. Although such had been the slow progress of the materia me- dica among the physicians of Greece, it might be expected to have received some improvement when physic came to be estab- lished at Rome. This, however, if it took place at all, was to be ascribed to the Greek physicians who came and practised there; for amongst the Romans themselves the art had remained long in a rude and imperfect state. Of this we have a strong evidence in the works of Cato the Censor, which yet remain: for in these we have incantation given for the reduction of a luxation; and the brassica seems to have been with Cato an almost universal remedy. This may serve to show, that we are not to inquire after the materia medica among the Romans themselves, but amongst the Greek physicians who practised at Rome. The first of these who became of eminence was Asclepiades. He had not been originally devoted to the profession of physic, and in entering upon it seems to have formed a system for him- self: but if he followed any of the great physicians of Greece, it was Erasistratus; who established a mild practice, employed few medicines, and declared strongly against the luxuriance of com- position which was then attempted. Like him, Asclepiades seems to have employed a small number of medicines only, and there- fore contributed little to the study of the materia medica. Although he acquired great authority amongst the practitioners of Rome, yet there were probably few of these who could enter into the subtleties of his theory; and it was this difficulty which give occasion soon after to the establishment of the sect called Methodic. The plan, however, of this sect, confining them to three general indications only, was by no means suited to enlarge the materia medica; which accordingly does not seem to have been an object of their cultivation. Upon this occasion, it is proper to take notice of the elegant Celsus, who lived at this period, and was the only native of Rome who ever became distinguished in the line of physic. Though perhaps not strictly of the profession, he was undoubtedly often engaged in the practice; and in his writings we have many proofs of his discernment and good judgment. In his works we find a great deal more relating to the materia medica than in those of any former author; many medicines being enumerated by him, and a judgment given with respect to them. Unfortunately, how- ever, we are under such uncertainty with regard to his nomen- clature, that we cannot always be determined in our judgment MATERIA MEDICA. 13 respecting the propriety of his doctrines. He is particularly full in his account of alimentary substances: so that it is with respect to these we can best judge of his opinions; and it is there we find some singularities which we can hardly approve of. In modern times, much mischief has been imputed, perhaps not very justly, to the farinacea non fermentata; and few moderns therefore will approve of Celsus in preferring the panis sine fermento to the panis fermentatus. In many instances, his judgment, if we understood it well, might be found perhaps to be very good; but in other particulars, we cannot readily admit of it. Thus, in Book II. Chap. XVIII. where he is considering the quantity of nourishment in different aliments, he has the following assertions, which certainly do not discover any correct principles on the subject. Omnia legumina, quceque ex frumentis panisfcia sunt, generis valentissimi esse. In media materia——ex quadrupedibus leporem: aves omnes a minimis adphcenicopterum. Imbecil'imam materiam esse—oleas, cochleas, itemque conchylia. Ex avibus—valentior, quce pedibus, quam quce volatu magis niti- tur. Atque ece aves quoque qua: in aqua degunt leviorem cibum prcc- stant, quam quce natandi scientiam non habent. Inter domesticos quadrupedes, levissima suilla est. Omne etiam ferum animal domestico levius est. These opinions, and several of a like kind, will hardly at present be admitted as just. With respect to Celsus, it is proper to mention, that before his time there had commenced a particular object of study which very much engaged him, and all the after-writers on the materia me- dica among the ancients. This was the study of poisons and of their antidotes. What the experience of Mithridates in this matter might amount to, I cannot positively determine; but a great deal of what the ancients have said on the subject of poisons, seems to have been purely imaginary. Indeed there can be no doubt that their doctrine of antidotes was frivolous and ill-founded; whilst, at the same time, the luxuriance of their compositions shows that they hardly had any discernment with respect to the particulars of the materia medica. Even Celsus himself is not to be exempt- ed from this criticism. This direction in the study of the materia medica, with re- spect to poison and antidotes, I should perhaps have mentioned before, by taking notice of a writer who lived long before Celsus, and some of whose writings still remain. This is Nicander of Co- lophon, whose poetical works, Theriaca and De Alexipharmach, have been frequently published and commented upon, though it does not appear that they merited any such attention. His skill 14 HISTORY OF THE in natural historv appears to have been very mean and incorrect, and has much fable intermixed with it. His antidotes, in so far as we know them, or can judge of them from later experience, are very ill-founded; and this/with their being crowded together into one' composition, gives much reason to suspect that Nicanuera knowledge of the several particulars of the materia medica was extremely imperfect. After Celsus, the next writer on the subject of the materia me- dica, to be taken notice of, is Scribonius Largus, who treats pro- fessedly of the composition of medicines. With regard to him, we must give precisely the same judgment as with respect to Cel- sus. There occur in him the same uncertain and doubtful nomen- clature; the same abundance of external remedies; and respecting the internal, the same inaccuracy in distinguishing diseases, as well as the like imperfection in marking the causes and circumstances of those to which medicine should be adapted. Together with all this, we find the same study of poisons and antidotes, and the same injudicious luxuriance of composition, which has disgraced the prescriptions of physicians ever since. From this writer we perceive, that the same ungenerous selfish- ness of keeping medicines secret prevailed in ancient times, as it has often done since, to the reproach of the profession: and from the history of Antonius Pachius we find, that then, as since, these secret medicines were in a quackish manner held forth as almost universal remedies. In Scribonius there occur also many superstitious follies with respect to remedies, which detract very much from the good sense and philosophy of those days; and such indeed occur not only in him, but in Pliny, Galen, and all the other writers of ancient times. The luxuriancy of composition would seem to have been at its height about this time in the hands of Andromachus senior; and it affords a certain proof of the very slow progress of discernment in the business of the materia medica, that even to the present day the compositions of Andromachus have retained a place in our Dispensatories. Even the London College, who, in their Dispensatory of the year 1746, had shown so much discernment and judgment in correcting the luxuriancy of composition, still retained the Theriaca Andromachi in its ancient form; which though perhaps contrary to the judgment of some of the members, yet discovered how much many of them were still governed merely by the power of habit. After mentioning the time of Andromachus, we are arrived at a remarkable period in the history of the materia medica, which is that of the time of the much esteemed Dioscorides. This author who probably lived in the time of the Emperor Vespasian is of those now remaining who wrote professedly on the subject the MATERIA MEDICA. 15 most ancient. He is commended by Galen as one of the best and most complete writers on the materia medica; and he is remark- able lor having been considered ever since as the principal and clas- sic writer upon it. He has accordingly been transcribed and re- peated by almost every writer since; but that this has been owing to the real value of his writings, it is not easy to perceive. Dioscorides has given us a large list of medicines, with some opinion respecting each; but as his descriptions are very imper- fect, and the nomenclature has been since very much changed, we are often uncertain what the substances are which he treats of, and therefore cannot always judge how far the virtues ascribed to them are well founded. In several respects, however, his judg- ment in general may be suspected. When we find him so'often ascribing to substances the power of resisting the poison of ser- pents and other animals, and even of curing the bite of mad dogs; when he gives us many medicines for dissolving the stone in the bladder, for consuming the spleen, for moderating the venereal appetite in males, and for preventing conception in females, for promoting the birth of children, and expelling the secundines and dead foetus, and for making children black-eyed; the ascribing these and other improbable virtues, gives me a mean opinion of the judgment of Dioscorides, or, if you will, of the physicians of his time, in this business. Linnaeus, by the character of* Experta, which in his list of writers he annexes to the writings of Diosco- rides, seems to consider these writings as the fruits of experi- ence; but I cannot believe that Dioscorides had consulted expe- rience when he attributed to so many medicines the power of pro- moting urine, and of exciting the menses. Such powers may truly exist in many medicines: but it may be truly asserted, that they are not to be found in one of a hundred to which Dioscorides has ascribed them. In many parts of his writings, where he treats of substances which we may be supposed acquainted with, the justness of his skill in assigning virtues is very doubtful; and to me he appears to be not only mistaken, but sometimes inconsistent with what he has said in another place. In many instances he is loose and tin- distinguishing with respect to the circumstances of diseases to which medicines are to be applied; and often pointing them out onlv as being useful in general, as in Vitiis renum, Pidmonum, Vulvae, &c: but such opinions are generally useless, and may be often misleading and pernicious. From these considerations, I cannot join in that snperstitious regard which has been so generally paid to Dioscorides; and must deem it to have been rather unfortunate for the study of the ma- teria medica in modern times. It has certainly been unluckv that more labour has been bestowed to ascertain the medicines pointed id HISTORY OF THE out by him, about which we are doubtful, than in ascertaining the virtues of those substances we are acquainted with. Nearly at the same time with Dioscorides, or soon after, lived the elder Pliny, another copious writer on the materia medica. This truly learned man was, however, as upon most other sub- jects, so in particular on that of the materia medica, a mere and often an injudicious compiler. He has frequently repeated after Dioscorides, or the authors whom Dioscorides had himself bor- rowed from: although, being hardly in any case a practitioner in physic, he was perhaps less fit than Dioscorides for making a com- pilation on this subject. With respect to his writings on the mate- ria medica, we can only say, that every difficult) and every fault that occur in the writings of Dioscorides occur also in those of Pliny. Injustice to the latter it must, however, be acknowledged, that he discovered more judgment than his cotemporaries, in condemn- ing the very luxuriant compositions which at that time were so much affected. After mentioning the number of ingredients in Mithridatium Antidoton, and taking notice of the small propor- tion of some of them, he adds, " Quo deorum perfidiam istam monstrante? Hominum enim subtilitas tanta esse non potuit. Os- tentatio artis et portentosa sciential venditatio manifesta est." Soon after Pliny appeared the celebrated Galen, from whose ex- tensive knowledge and erudition, and especially from his large ex- perience in the practice of physic, we might have expected a great improvement of the materia medica; but we are much disappoint- ed, as we find nothing in his writings sufficient to excuse the inso- lence with which he treats his predecessors, nor to support the va- nity he discovers with regard to his own performances. On the subject of the materia medica, he attempted what was very much a new system. He maintained, that the faculty or power of medicines depends chiefly upon their general qualities of heat and cold, moisture and dryness. He observed, that the writers be- fore him had supposed the same; but that their doctrines could not be usefully applied, because they had not observed the various combination of these qualities, and much less the various degrees in which the quality might be in every particular substance. All this Galen endeavoured to supply: and for that purpose he sup- posed that every quality might be in four different degrees, and that its powers would be in proportion to these; and when he treats of particulars, it is chiefly to tell us what are its general qualities, and the different degrees of these in each. His judg- ment of these is not taken exactly from the sense of taste and odour which every subject affords, or from any other measure which could then be applied: Even the general qualities, and more ,o their several degrees, are hypothetically and much at random assigned. Though the whole of the doctrine were better founded MATERIA MEDICA. 17 I need not say that it would not apply to the ascertaining the vir- tues of medicines; and Galen himself takes notice, that certain virtues do not. depend upon the general qualities, but upon some- what not easily ascertained in the whole of the substance. Though the doctrine in general was false and inapplicable, yet, it was received and implicitly followed by all the physicians of Greece who came after Galen; and indeed by all the physicians of Asia, Africa, and Europe, for at least 1500 years after h& time. To judge further of the state of the materia medica in the time of Galen, we must observe, that in treating of particular sub- stances, besides giving us the state of the cardinal qualities in each, he gives us sometimes particular virtues which might not seem to arise from the general qualities; but in this he is not more cor- rect, or, if I might be allowed the expression, not more wise than Dioscorides. The resisting the poison of serpents, and even of mad dogs; the dissolving the stone in the bladder; the consum- ing the spleen; the expelling the secundines and dead foetus, and some other equally improbable virtues, he ascribes to various sub- stances. He justly finds fault with Dioscorides for attributing too many virtues to the same substances; but he is not himself every where free from the same fault. It might have been expected that he would frequently have appealed to his own experience; and sometimes, though very rarely, he does' so: although he had done it more frequently, there are passages in which we cannot admire the accuracy of his discernment. In repeating after Dioscorides the virtues of the damasonium, he adds, "Sednos ea quidem experti non sumus: quod autem "constitutos in renibus calculos, aqua decocta fuerat pota commi- " nuat, id certe experti sumus." On the lapis Judaicus he has this remarkable instance of his experience: " Ad vesica lapides"---- " in quibus nos experti sumus, proficit nihil, quod ad lapides vesicae "pertinet; verum ad eos qui in renibus haerent, efficax est." Other examples may be given of Galen's false experience: but it will be sufficient to remark, that there can be no stronger proof of this, than when a person imputes effects to substances absolutely inert with respect to the human body: and such are the various super- stitious remedies, sympathetic cures, and most of the amulets that have been employed as remedies. Galen gives us a remarkable in- stance on the subject of paeony. He is probably the author of the anodyne necklace, so long famous among the great and little vul- gar of England. If he had taken his opinion of the pseony from the testimony of others, or even from the theory he has here laid down in favour of its possible virtue, I should have been ready to excuse him; but when he gives it as a matter of his own particu- lar experience, I must suspect either his truth or his discernment. Vol. I. C 18 HISTORY OF THE Here is his account, as translated by Charterius—" Eo propter haud desperaverim, earn (quod merito creditum est) ex collo pu- cris suspensam comitialem morbum sanare. Equidem vidi puellum quandoque octo totis mensibus morbo comitiali liberum, ex quo hanc radicem gestavit; ac postea forte fortuna quum, quod a collo suspensum erat, decidisset, protinus denuo conyulsione correp- turn: rursusque suspenso in locum illius alio, inculpate postea egisse. Porro, visum est mihi satius esse rursum id collo detra- here, certioris experientiae gratia. Id quum fecissem, ac puer iterum esset convulsus; magna recentis radicis parte ex collo ejus suspendimus; ac deinceps prorsus effectus est puer, nee postea convulsus est." He adds his explanation of this event, which I need not consider, as at any rate it will hardly apply to the fact that he gives in the same paragraph, of some threads tied about the neck of a viper so as to suffocate it, and afterwards tied about a patient's neck, and curing all sorts of tumors arising in it. Besides his Treatise of Simple Medicines, Galen has given us two other works that may throw some light on the state of the ma- teria medica in his hands. One of these works is his Treatise de Compositione Medicamentorum secundum locos; that is, as they are adapted to the several parts of the body. In this we have a large collection of compound medicines; and the largeness of the collection which appears in the number of compositions for the same disease, and the number of ingredients in most of the com- positions, show sufficiently to me the great want of discernment in the nature of medicines. This want of discernment appears fully enough in Galen himself: for although he is not indeed with- out giving us his own judgment, yet certainly, from his own ob- servation or experience, he had not arrived at any nice judgment, when the work I have mentioned is almost entirely a compilation from Andromachus, Asclepiades, Pharmacion, Archigenes, and a number of other writers who had gone before him. We have thus said enough of the materia medica of Galen, and perhaps more than it deserved: but as his system continued to be implicitly followed so long after his own time, it seemed proper to show what was, almost entirely the state of the materia medica till the middle of the 17th century; and as there are still in late writings many remains of what was derived from Galen, I was willing to show upon how bad a foundation many of these writ- ings have been compiled, and particularly to mark out how much a veneration for antiquity has retarded the progress of science in modern times. After Galen, no change in the plan of the materia medica was made by the physicians of Greece; and although in Aldus, Oriba- sius, and some others, there are large compilations, on the subject, yet they are nothing more than compilations, conspicuous for the MATERIA MEDICA. 19 same imperfections which are so remarkable in the writings of Galen himself. When the knowledge of physic had very much declined among the Greeks, it happened to be transferred to the Saracens, whom we commonly speak of under the name of Arabians; and these for some time were almost the only persons in Asia and Africa who cultivated science. Amongst them, in a climate which had not been before examined, several of its productions, learned perhaps from the natural physic of the people, were added to the materia me- dica of the Greeks, and probably with some improvement; as in place of the more violent and drastic purgatives of the Greeks, the Arabians substituted several of a milder kind. In no instance, however, that I can perceive, did they discover any medicines of peculiar power; and as they had derived almost the whole of then- knowledge of physic from Greece, so in every part of it they had adopted very entirely the system of Galen. In particular, it does not appear that they made any improvements, either in the gene- ral plan of the materia medica, or in ascertaining the virtues of particular medicines. In one instance, however, they laid the foundation of a very con- siderable change which afterwards more fully took place in our sub- ject; for it was certainly amongst them, that for the purpose of me- dicine, substances were first operated upon, and were prepared by the peculiar operations of chemistry. In the same state that physic was amongst the Arabians, it was, after a long age of ignorance, revived in the western parts of Eu- rope, by schools that were established there by the Arabians or their disciples. It was revived, however, among men not only in the lowest condition with respect to science, but of no industry or activity in the pursuits of it; and from whom, therefore, nothing new was to be expected. Accordingly, nothing new appeared among the physicians of Europe, while they continued to be the servile followers of the Arabians. At length, about the middle of the 15th century, the taking of Constantinople by the Turks having forced many learned Greeks to take refuge in Italy, this event, together with some other cir- cumstances, gave rise to the study of the language, and thereby to the literature of the Greeks in the western parts of Europe. The physicians becoming thus acquainted with the writings of the ancient Greeks, soon perceived that these were the chief sources from whence the Arabians had drawn their knowledge, and very properly applied themselves to the study of the original writers. From thence having observed that in some particulars the Ara- bians had deviated from the practice of the Greeks, they set them- selves to criticise the Arabians, and to correct the errors derived from them, which then prevailed. This produced some controversies 20 HISTORY OF THE between those who followed the Greeks and those who still tena- ciously adhered to their Arabian masters; and these controversies continued for some part of the 16th century. By degrees, how- ever, the Greek party prevailed, and the Arabians came to be ge- nerally neglected; though it is curious to be observed, that so late as the middle of the 17th century, Rolsinck, a professor of Jena, read lectures upon the Arabian Rhazes, and Plempius of Leyden published and commented upon a work of Avicenna. Upon this occasion, I could not avoid touching this part of the history of physic, though it has little relation to our subject; which, during the period mentioned, made very little progress among persons who were almost entirely the bigotted followers of the an- cients. Whether they followed the Greeks or the Arabians, it was chiefly, and almost only, the system of Galen which both parties adopted; and the materia medica, with a few additions by the Arabians, continued to be much the same as it had been delivered b\ Galen himself; being every where explained by the cardinal qualities and their different degrees, with very little reference to any thing acquired by experience. The system of Galen, almost alone, had now subsisted in the schools of physic, from his own time in the 2d centurv after Christ, till the 16th was pretty far advanced; and it is well known to have happened at all times, that of the persons who apply to science, the greatest part implicitly receive the doctrines delivered by their masters; which having once imbibed, they adhere to them with a degree of bigotry that opposes every attempt towards innovation and improvement. Such was the condition of the state of phvsic with the followers of Galen at the beginning of the 16th century, that it required some violent efforts to shake off the torpor and van- quish th^ bigotry of the Galenic school; and although the reforma- tion which happened was not conducted with the discretion that might have been wished, yet it was fortunate for science that such a revolution took place at this time. It has been already remarked, that chemistry appeared first among the Arabians; and it is probable that some of their first operations were upon metallic substances. Accordingly, we find a preparation of mercury mentioned in Rhazes; and it is pretty certain, that in the immediately following ages the chemists were busy in their operations upon antimony: for the Currus Trium- phahs Antimonii published under the name of Basil Valentine and supposed to have been written about the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th century, mentions a great variety of these preparations. Although the progress of this business cannot be precisely traced yet there is good ground to believe, that the chemists very early directed the employment of their art to the preparation of medi MATERIA MEDICA. 21 cines; and, agreeable to the fanatical spirit which so generally prevailed among them, they conceived the idea of preparing an universal medicine, and one which should protract life to a thou- sand years. How they succeeded in these visionary schemes, need not now be told: but it is certain that many of them became empirical practitioners of physic; and it is probable that the medicines they employed were violent, and were therefore avoided by the timid and inert regulars of those days. One of the latter, Gordonius, author of the Lilium Medicinae, gives us this account of the opinion which then prevailed with regard to chemical medicines: "Quia (sa\s he) modus chemicus in multis utilis est, sed in aliis est tristabilis quod in ejus via infinitissimi perierunt." In this situation matters stood at the beginning of the 16thcenturv, when the famous Paracelsus appeared. He does not appear to have studied in any of the established schools of those days.; but, de- termined to follow his father's profession, which was that of physic, he seems to have travelled about in quest of remedies amongst all sorts of people, and particularly among the chemical practitioners of those times. From these he learned the use of mercury and an- timony; and from some hardy empirics, the use of opium; at least, a more free use of this than was then common. By em- ploying these remedies, he was enabled to cure many diseases which had baffled the inert remedies of the Galenists: and being of a bold and boastful disposition, he made the most of these ac- cidents; while at the same time, the partiality of mankind to em- piricism soon contributed to give him great fame. He was so far more fortunate than any former chemical practi- tioner had been in acquiring a general reputation, that he was called to a professor's chair in the University of Basil. In this situation he found it necessary to become systematic; and making use of such theories as he could derive from his predecessors in chemistry, upon these grounds attempted a system of physic, blen- ded with most extravagant and visionary doctrines, supported and covered by a great deal of new and unmeaning jargon of his own. His lectures were chiefly employed in recommending his own chemical remedies, and declaiming in the most outrageous man- ner against the established schools of physic. He did not, however, continue long in this employment; for his boisterous temper en- gaged him in measures which soon obliged him to leave both the university and city of Basil. His history after this is pretty well known; and it is only re- quisite to say, that he gave occasion to the forming a sect of phy- sicians who appeared in opposition to the established schools, then entirely followers of Galen. The chemists employed a set of re- medies which the Galenists very violently opposed; and for a hundred years afterwards, the physicians of Europe were divided 4>Af HISTORY OF THE into the two sects of chemists and of Galenists. The chemists were men of little erudition and of mean parts, and delivered theories full of jargon and nonsense; but against all this the effica- cy of their medicines supported them, and increased more and more their credit with the public. Their encroachments on the trade were felt by the Galenists, and produced a violent opposition, supported by all that bigotry which is common to schools long es- tablished, and of which the Galenists still held the entire posses- sion. Upon this occasion the Galenists were imprudent: for they assailed their antagonists, not in their weak, but in their strongest quarter ; and attacked with intemperate violence, all those power- ful and efficacious remedies by which the authority of the chemists was supported. This happened particularly in France, where the Galenists called in the aid of the secular arm, and employed it to oppress their adversaries. It was in Germany that the chemical practitioners especially prevailed; and there was hardly a sovereign court in that country, in which an alchymist and a chemical practitioner of physic were not retained. Even the Galenical practitioners there came soon to employ the remedies of the chemists; and Sennertus, one of the most eminent Galenists of Germany, endeavoured to reconcile the two opposite parties. Linacre and Kay, the restorers of physic in England, were zea- lous Galenists; but as no regular school of physic was ever well established there, the persons destined to physic chiefly resorted to the schools of Italy and France, where they generally became Galenists.' And although the London college showed some dis- position to oppress the chemical practitioners in the person of Francis Antony, it was more under the pretence of checking quack- ery than opposing chemistry. Very early in the 17th century, Sir Theodore Mayerne, who as a chemical physician, had been much opposed and oppressed by the Galenists of France, was called over into England, where he was appointed first physician to the king, and continued to hold that office for more than thirty years after. His theory and his pre- scriptions were very like those of the Galenists; but he was a great favourer of chemical medicines, and particularly of antimo- ny; the medicine with regard to which the two sects were most especially divided. It does not, however, appear, that upon this account he met with any opposition from the phvsicians of Eng- land; and indeed, on the contrary, we find him becoming a mem- ber of, and acquiring great authority, in the London college It is probable that his great credit put an end, in England, to all dis- tinction between the Galenic and chemical practitioners • and as in the year 1666 the faculty of Paris rescinded their arret discoura ging the use of antimony, there was thereafter hardly any where a distinction to he found between Galenists and chemists. MATERIA MEDICA. 23 This detail of the progress of chemical physic, and of the conflict which happened between «the chemists and the Galenists, seemed necessary in order to explain the state of the materia medica in modern times ; and it merits peculiar attention, that in the course of the 16th century, the introduction of the more frequent use of chemical medicines, and of the more frequent application of chem- istry to their preparation, produced a very great change in the state of the materia medica. Fossil medicines, and some of them en- tirely unknown to the ancients, came now to form a much greater part of it than formerly; and not only those of the metallic, but many of the saline kind, little known before, were now introduced. The Galenists had in some degree employed distilled waters, and extracts: but now the chemists subjected a much greater variety of substances to those operations ; and hence distilled waters, es- sential oils, quintessences, and extracts, came, with those who ad- mitted of chemical remedies at all, to constitute almost the whole of the materia medica. Many of these preparations were indeed injudicious, and the employment of them was without discern- ment; but the virtues ascribed to them entered into the writings on the materia medica, and have been frequently repeated since. These pretended virtues are often asserted as from experience: but among the many deceivers in the business of the materia medi- ca, none have been more frequently such than the chemists. Whilst chemistry was thus employed to modify the materia medica, it was accompanied by every species of fanaticism; by the doctrines of astral influences, animal magnetism; by preten- sions to alchemy, to panaceas, and to medicines capable of prolong- ing life. All these had some influence on the materia medica; but none were ever more generally received than the doctrine of signatures; and which has had its influence even till very lately. The Decoctum ad Ictericos of the Edinburgh Dispensatory 1756, never had any other foundation than this doctrine of signatures in favour of the Curcuma and Chelidonium Majus. The doctrines of chemistry, though attended with so many ab- surdities, were, however, the most promising towards explaining that quality in medicines upon which their virtues depended ; and accordingly have ever since been more or less applied to that pur- pose. After the vague and unmeaning theories and jargon which the chemists on their first appearance introduced, the first appear- ance of system was that of the doctrine of acid and alkali, which continued to have a great share in medical doctrines for a long time after; so that according to the fancy of the physician, the causes of almost all diseases were referred to an acid or an alkali prevailing in the human body; and remedies accordingly were ar- ranged as they possessed the one or the other principle. Thus we find Tournefort trying every vegetable juice by experiment, to dis- cover in it the mark of acid or alkali: but it was soon found that 24 HISTORY OF THE this system was too general to admit of its being applied to any extent, and that it was necessary to inquire more particularly into the constituent parts of medicinal substances. At the same time, this was still expected from chemistry; and accordingly the Aca- demy of Sciences engaged some of their members to make the Chemical Analysis, as it is called, of almost every medicinal sub- stance; and which, I believe, was executed with great accuracy. It was, however, soon perceived, that substances of very different, and even of opposite qualities in medicine, gave out in a chemical analysis, very much the same products; and it was therefore also perceived, that these analyses harcih threw any light upon the me- dicinal virtues of the substances treated in that manner. It was about this time, that certain phycisians, who presumed to judge of the constituent parts of medicines, partly from their chemical anah sis, partly from their sensible qualities, formed plans of materia medica. Such was that of Herman the professor of materia medica at Leyden, in his little work, intitled Lapis% Materia; Medicos Lydius : but to any person considering this work, it will be obvious, thai the author has often determined the consti- tuent parts at random, and that his doctrine is neither clear, cor- rect, nor applicable; though it has still remained long amongst the doctrines of the materia medica. It has almost at all times been supposed, that the virtues of medicines were so strictly connected with their sensible qualities of taste and smell, that from thence the knowledge of their medi- cal virtues was to be acquired. Accordingly, these sensible quali- ties have been generally taken notice of bv the writers on'the sub- ject; and Sir. John Flayer, as well as others, has thereupon at- tempted to build an entire system; but with little success, as we shall have occasion to show hereafter. After all the schemes at any time formed for investigating the virtues of medicines, it will be readily acknowledged, that the con- clusions formed from any of them can hardly be trusted till they are confirmed by experience; and though this also may often prove fallacious, it is much to be regretted that so little pains have been taken by our writers to obtain this test in favour of the vir- tues they ascribe to medicines. Some attempts, indeed, in this way have been made ; and the sagacity and judgment of Conrad Gesner, had he been at leisure to prosecute this inquiry, would have been of more service than the multitude of compilations which have been made. What has rendered the alleged results of experience less useful shall be said in another place; but in the mean time it will be proper to take notice of two attempts which were made in England to consult experience with respect to the materia medica. The first was by Mr. John Ray, who in attempting to give a complete history of plants, thought it incumbent on him, as manr MATERIA MEDICA. 25 other botanists have idly supposed it, proper for them to enume- rate the virtues of the plants used in medicine. In this, however, Mr. Ray has chiefly copied from preceding writers, and particu- larly from John Bauhin and Schroeder; but wisely perceiving that the proper foundation was experience, he applied to many of his friends engaged in the practice of physic; and from some of these has given us a number of experiments, which have been since transcribed by Geoffroy and other writers. Either, however, from the fallacy of experience, or from the rashness of his friends in drawing conclusions from it, the value of Mr. Ray's reports is not so great as might have been expected. About the same time Mr. Boyle endeavoured to engage the practi- tioners of physic in the study of specific medicines; that is, of me- dicines whose virtues are learned only from experience. There will be occasion hereafter to consider not only in what circumstan- ces the doctrine of specifics may be admitted, but also how it is to be properly managed; and at present it is only necessary to take notice of its effects on the state of the materia medica at the end of the last century. Mr. Boyle, from the great benevolence of his dis- position, was very diligent in inquiring after specific and experi- enced remedies; and has given us a collection of remedies which he supposed to be of this kind. From his want, however, of dis- cernment with respect to the nature and state of diseases; from his not being sufficiently aware of the fallacy of experience, and perhaps from his being little on his guard against false information; his collection has contributed very little towards the improvement of the knowledge of the materia medica. Soon after this, when it was perceived that the chemical analy- sis by the power of fire contributed nothing towards discovering the constituent parts of substances in which their medicinal virtues were especially to be found, it came to be very justly conceived, that a more simple and less violent means of resolution might bet- ter answer the purpose. Physicians and chemists, therefore, set about treating many vegetable substances, either by infusion and decoction in water, or by infusion in spirituous menstruums, and obtaining extracts in consequence of these operations; and such labours still continue to be employed with great diligence. In ma- ny cases they have been useful in ascertaining whether the medicinal virtues were best extracted by watery or by spirituous menstruums; whether the virtues resided in a volatile or in a fixed substance; and whether they were chiefly in the parts that could be separated by these operations, or only in the entire and undecomposed substance of the vegetable matter. By these labours tlje doctrines of the ma- teria medica have been often corrected, and we have been thereby frequently taught not only to distinguish the different degrees of Vol. I. D 26 HISTORY OF THE the same quality in different bodies, but they have been particu- larly useful in directing the most proper pharmaceutical treatment of medicines, and have sometimes afforded an analogy forjudging of the virtues of untried substances. With respect to their effect in ascertaining the virtues of medicines, I think they have done very little: for whether the medicinal virtue be found to reside in a volatile or a fixed, in a gummy or a resinous part, it will still re- quire and depend upon experience to determine what that virtue is. We are now arrived at a period when a number of different theo- ries, successively or together, prevailed in"the schools of physic; and which, according to the nature of their different systems, va- riously affected the'state of the materia medica. Thus the Stahlians, in following the general principle of their system, always myste- rious, have introduced archeal remedies, and many of a supersti- tious and inert kind; while at the same time, trusting to the Auto- crateia, they have opposed and rejected some medicines of the most powerful nature. On the other hand, the mechanical physicians, by introducing the Corpuscularian philosophy; that is, the notion of the small parts of bodies acting upon one another, by their figure, size, and density, have in that manner endeavoured to explain the operation of medicines upon the fluids and solids of the human body; and have thereby introduced many false opinions concerning their vir- tues. It was the Cartesian physicians who first introduced this doctrine; but it was especially Dr. Boerhaave, who, by adopting it, contributed to extend it to the whole of medical writers. Even at this day it has not yet passed away; for I observe that a late au- thor, Mr. Navier, and a living writer, Mr. Fourcroy, have ^con- tinued to explain the operation of mercury by its specific gravity. As it has happened, that ever since the introduction of chemi- cal reasoning, physicians have generally considered the cause of diseases to be depending on the state of the fluids, so they have considered the operation of medicines chiefly as changing that state; and the theory still enters to a considerable extent into the doc- trines of the materia medica. I judge this to be very improper, while the state of the moving powers, and of the various means of changing that, are as yet but little attended to. With respect to this, Dr. Hoffman admitted the general principle, and has this ex- pression: " Demum omnia quoque eximise virtutis medicamenta, non tarn in partes fluidas,earum crasin ac intemperiem corrigendo, quam potius in solidas, et nervosas, earundem motus alterando ac moderando, suam edunt operationem: de quibus tamen omnibus, in vulgari usque eo recepta morborum doctrina, altum est silen- tium." Notwithstanding this, he himself, in treating of particu- lar medicines, has for the most part employed the Corpuscularian philosophy, or a very ill defined chemistry, to explain the opera- tion of medicines upon the fluids. MATERIA MEDICA. 27 Another circumstance, still affecting and injuring the writings on the materia medica, is that of referring the operation of me- dicines to certain general indications ; most of which have arisen irom defects both of physiology and pathology, and are neither sufficiently explained nor well understood. They are for the most part of too general and complicated a kind, and ought to be redu- ced at least to more simple operations; and which, if it could be done with clearness, would not only prove one of the most useful methods of delivering the materia medica, but would almost entire- ly destroy the doctrine of specifics, which must otherwise conti- nue upon the most mysterious and uncertain foundation. At pre- sent, many of the general indications to which the virtues of medi- cines are referred, are absolutely suppositious and false. From having thus pointed out the many false sources from which opinions concerning the virtues of medicines have been de- rived, it will be evident that the writings upon the materia medica, being almost always compilations, must be full of mistakes and fru volous matters. Whenever an author does not speak from his own knowledge and experience, but only informs us that a medicine has been said by former writers to have certain effects, or has been commended as curing certain diseases, he is merely a compiler, and upon a very uncertain foundation. It is impossible indeed for any man to treat of every article of the materia medica from his own experience; but surely, when it becomes necessary for him to quote the expe- rience of others, he must be allowed to do so, but it must be with great skill and discretion in choosing his authorities; which, how- ever, has been seldom done; and the neglect of it has filled out writings with a great deal of false experience. Notwithstanding what I have now insinuated with respect to the imperfections to be found in the writers on the materia medica, it must be owned, that in modern times, more especially in the course of the present century, and even lately, the materia medica has re» ceived much correction and improvement. The progress of philosophy has corrected many superstitious follies that were formerly intermixed with the doctrines of the ma- teria medica. Chemistry bas given us many new medicines, en- tirely unknown in ancient times; and this science, in its progress, has not only gradually corrected its own errors, but has taught us to reject many inert medicines which formerly made a part of the materia medica. It has taught us a greater accuracy in preparing all its peculiar productions, and to lay aside many of those ope- rations with which it had amused the physician, and had imposed much useless labour upon the apothecary. In particular, it has in- structed us how to make the combinations of medicines with great-. er correctness and propriety; and in all these respects has rendered. 28 HISTORY OF THE the whole of the pharmaceutic treatment of medicines more sim- ple and accurate than it was before. Chemistry has thus greatly improved the state of the materia me- dica, and has led physicians to a discernment that should reject that luxuriance of composition formerly so prevalent; and which, even at present, in most parts of Europe, is far from being suffi- ciently corrected. The reformation in this respect has not yet ta- ken place to any remarkable degree, excepting in the northern countries of Europe, in Britain, Sweden, Denmark, and Russia. And if we look into the last edition of the Wirtemberg Dispen- satory, which is of much authority in Germany, or into the Phar- macopoeia Generalis, lately published by Spielman, we shall per- ceive that a great luxuriance of composition still prevails in Ger- many; and if we look into the Codex Medicamentorum Parisien- sis, we shall be surprised at the many injudicious compositions, consisting of numerous and inert ingredients, which still prevail in the enlightened kingdom of France. Having thus finished what it seemed proper to say of the gene- ral history of the materia medica, it may be expected, and will be proper, to give some particular account of the principal authors who have treated this subject. With respect to ancient authors, it does not seem necessary to say more than I have done above; and therefore what is farther to be offered shall relate only to the chief writers in modern times. The writers of the 16th century, such as Tragus and Taberm- montanus, though frequently quoted since, do not deserve much attention, as they are merely compilers from the ancients, tran- scribing all their imperfections, and adding some mistakes of their own. If they offer some new facts, they are on a doubtful founda- tion, and often manifestly mistaken. As a specimen of the writings of Tragus, let us take the following, which I am ashamed to find quoted and repeated by the ingenious Mr. Geoffroy. On the sub- ject of the Polytrichum, Mr. Geoffroy has these words: " Tragus asserit illud vel solum vel cum Ruta' muraria, vino aut hydrome- hte decoctum et per aliquot dies ex ordine potum, obstructiones jecinons solvere, morbum regium expellere, pulmonis vitia pur- gare, spirandi difficultate prodesse, duros lienis tumores emollire, urinam ciere, arenulas expellere, et mulierum menses suppresses promovere. It might have been expected from the good judg- ment of Mr. Geoffroy, that he would have concluded this account as he had done one before, with saying, « Ejus virtutes lonKe re- missions etdebihores esse, usus et experientia demonstraverunt " The first writer of the 17th century whom I think it necessarv to mention is, John Schroeder; and that not for his own merit but for his having been so long considered as an authority in these matters. He has been quoted by the latest writers; and his very MATERIA MEDICA. 29 words have been transcribed by Ray, Dale, and Alston; and an edition of his work, in the German language, was published in the year 1746: all which may be sufficient to show how slow the progress of discernment has been in the business of the materia medica. In the year 1646, Schroeder published his Pharmacopoeia Me- dico-chymica, which might have been entitled Galenico-chymica; and by uniting the Galenical and chemical pharmacy together in one book, he recommended his work to both the parties then sub- sisting. He is systematic, and as complete as the then state of science could well allow. His chemistry, after the labours of Hartman, Quercetan, Liba- vius, and Angelus Sala, is more correct than it had been in the hands of Paracelsus and his immediate followers. He is, however, luxuriant in chemical preparations to the highest degree, and shows to what a wonderful number these had arisen in the course of a hundred years; but he is still fraught with all the folly, fanati- cism, and extravagant commendation which had prevailed among the writers of that scet. The Galenic doctrine of Shroeder, though much followed afterwards, was in no better condition. He has followed the ancients in all their faults, and has repeated after them, without any reserve or even the smallest correction. He is still entirely in the Galenic system of the cardinal qualities and their different degrees, and is full in the doctrine of the elective qualities of purgatives. In following the ancients, he delivers the virtues of medicines by their general qualities and supposed pow- ers, upon no proper foundation; and I might say, very often upon a false one. The next writer to be mentioned is John Bauhin. His botani- cal merit is not to be taken notice of here; and I am only to speak of what in his Historia Plantarum he has written on the virtues of those plants which make a part of the materia medica. Upon this subject he was learned; and so diligent a compiler, that he may be read instead of all those who had gone before him. He has compiled, however, without any choice of authorities, and without omitting or correcting the mistakes that had before pre- vailed on the subject. He certainly did not deserve to be followed as he has been by Ray and others after him; and by no means de- serves to be read now. Not long after the work of John Bauhin, there appeared the Botanicum Quadripartitum of Simon Pauli; which has been so much respected by after writers, that it is proper to lake some no- tice of it here. After I had looked into this writer, I was a little surprised to find this character of him in Etmuller: " Simon Pauli, qui est elegans et simul tamen copiosus autor, atque cum judicio scripsit;" and I was still more surprised by finding this character of him in Geoffroy: "Simon Pauli, vir sane doctus et ingenuus." 30 HISTORY OF THE Pauli, indeed, wholived in the literary age of Copenhagen, had much erudition; but it was of the most frivolous kind, and with- out affording any correction of the imperfections and mistakes which had appeared in the writers whom he quotes, or showing any choice in the authorities he makes use of. He gives us often his own observation and experience: but the result of them is commonly so improbable, that I can give him little credit; and hardly in one of twenty instances in which Mr. Geoffroy has been pleased to quote him. His accounts are often delivered with such a trifling garrulity, that it is impossible to consider him as a' man of good sense; and from much experience I have now formed an opinion, that from men of weak judgment, facts and pretended experience are not to be relied on. Soon after Simon Pauli appeared Georgius Wolfgangus Wedelius, who, in a work under the title of Amaenitates Materiae Medicae, has attempted to reduce the subject to principles; but both his physiology and pathology are so imperfect, that I cannot find him to have thrown any light upon the business. He is still an abettor of the doctrine of signatures, as well as a believer in the power of amulets; and with regard to what he says further of the virtues of particular substances, he seems to be entirely guided by those who had gone before him. There is hardly any notice due to Emanuel Koenig, who towards the end of the last, or soon after the beginning of the present cen- tury, published on all the parts of the materia medica: he also at- tempted to reduce the matter to principles; but he does it in a very imperfect manner, and there is not a folly in any foregoing writer that is not discovered in his work. In treating of particular sub- stances he is a mere compiler, with as little judgment as any we have upon the subject. Jean Baptiste Chomel began to read lectures upon the materia medica about the beginning of this century, and published his Abrege de l'Histoire des Plantes usuelles in 1712. The work does not appear to be a very valuable one; but there have been repeated editions of it: and the last by his son in 1761, shows me that much improvement in the knowledge of the materia medica had not made any progress in France. Mr. Chomel, however, has his merit. He does not transcribe Schroeder as many others had done. He has entirely omitted the Galenical doctrine of the cardinal qualities and their degrees; and though he was an eleve of the great Tournefort, he does not re- peat after him the explanation of the virtues of plants by the oils, salts, and earths, which the chemical analysis had seemed to point out. Mr. Chomel has chosen, as I judge, a proper plan of arranging the subjects of the materia medica, according to the similarity of their virtues '.n answering the general indications of cure. In this, MATERIA MEDICA. 31 however, he appears to be extremely imperfect. He ha9 hardly upon any occasion explained these indications in a manner that can at present be admitted. Many of them seem to be absolutely improper; and most of them, if at all admissible, are too compli- cated to be employed with any clear instruction or even with safety to students. Under the same titles he has often associated plants of very dis- similar, and even of opposite nature and qualities; and he has of- ten inserted inert substances, that did not deserve to have a place any where. Besides giving the general qualities, he mentions particular vir- tues which might not seem to arise frem the general qualities. In this, however, he is not very fortunate, as he found it necessary for him to repeat after the writers that had gone before him. He does not indeed transcribe Dioscorides and Galen so much as others had done; but he has not omitted their opinions so often as with propriety he might. In quoting his modern authorities, he does not make the selection nor show the judgment that might be desired. Tragus, Tabernaemontanus, Matthiolus, Zacutus, Schroe- der, John Bauhin, Simon Pauli, Etmuller, Koenig, Boyle, and Ra\, are not necessarily bad authorities: but they are certainly such when they deliver very improbable events; and their being quoted for such, frequently occurs in Chomel. Chomel himself should be valuable, by his frequently reporting his own experience: but in a variety of instances he does this with respect to many substances which we presume to be very inert; and with respect to many, when the power ascribed, and the cures said to be performed, are very improbable. Perhaps, however, too much has been already said of this author; and it would be tedious to point out the many instances that might be mentioned of his in- correctness and mistake. Stephen Francis Geoffroy, was a man of genius, and in many re- spects of good judgment, though this does not always appear in his writings on the materia medica. In his book on this subject, when treating of vegetables, he gives us an exact account of the analysis made by the direction of the academy of sciences. These are now not considered as of much use; but Mr. Geoffroy often attempts to explain the virtues of plants by the salts, oils, and earths which they seem to contain: in which, however, he gives little instruc- tion; and as we have said above, the doctrine in general is false and ill founded. In giving particular virtues, Mr. Geoffroy seldom does it from his own experience, and generally upon the authority of former writers? and in this he does not show much judgment, either in selecting those authorities, or in correcting either their extravagant commendations or their manifest mistakes. An example of this has been already given in one of the quotations he makes from HISTORY OF THE Tragus; and in many other places he appears equally injudicious in quoting from that author. I have mentioned above his charac- ter of Simon Pauli, and have given some reasons for my thinking it ill founded; but the best proof of this are the very quotations which Mr. Geoffroy makes from him. On the subject of vegeta- bles, in almost every page Mr. Geoffroy quotes from Pauli; but seldom with' much judgment. I can by no means admit, upon the authority of Pauli, that Carduus benedictus can heal cancers; or that the Anonis can be a certain remedy for a stone either in the kidneys or bladder. In repeating such accounts, Mr. Geoffroy appears to me injudicious; and he is certainly trifling in quoting Pauli for the use of distilled water of Aparine. It will hardly now- a-days be received upon the authority of Pauli, that the seed of the aquilegia has been of great use in the small-pox and measles, and still less that it has the power of assisting in the birth of chil- dren; and it gives no credit to the judgment of Mr. Geoffroy, that he confirms the virtues of this seed by his own experience. Mr. Geoffroy quotes the authority of Simon Pauli, for the bellis minor being highly useful in the cure of some desperate cases of phthisis pulmonalis; and it is a weak supplement to the authority of Wep- fer, which, however, in this case is hardly sufficient. Upon the au- thority of Simon Pauli it is difficult to believe that the decoction of clove-julyflowers had served to free numberless persons from ma- lignant fevers. To conclude, Mr. Geoffroy can receive no credit by repeating after Pauli, that the Argentina, by being put into the shoes of the patients, had proved useful in dysentery and all kinds of haemorrhagy. I have now said enough of Mr. Geoffroy's inju- dicious quotations from Simon Pauli: and I could give many in- stances of his being equally injudicious with respect to the other writers whom he quotes; so that from this, and many other circum- stances, his compilation may be judged to be of very little value. Mr. Geoffroy in his own lifetime did not complete his treatise on the materia medica, leaving a great number of the indigene plants of France unmentioned; but his work was so much valued, that it was thought proper to give the public a supplement, which has been done in three duodecimo volumes. This indeed is exe- cuted very much in the manner of Mr. Geoffroy's own work; but notwithstanding the great name which in the preface is said to have reviewed it, I must take the liberty of saying, that in quoting au- thorities, the supplement is equally trifling and injudicious as the work of Mr. Geoffroy himself; so that upon the whole, it is of very little value. In the list of writers on the materia medica, I cannot omit the Synopsis Universae Praxeos Medicae, by Mr. Lieutaud. The se- cond volume of this work, which is entirely de Medicamentis may- be considered as a treatise of the materia medica; and though it be MATERIA MEDICA. 33 as I cannot esteem, yet as being a late publication by a man of the highest rank in the profession, I think proper to take notice of it, as marking for the time the state of the materia medica in one of the most enlightened nations of Europe. Mr. Lieutaud has distributed the subjects of the materia medi- ca according to the general qualities by which they are adapted to the several indications arising in the practice of physic: but it must be observed, that the indications marked are for the most part ill defined, too general as well as too complicated, to convey anv in- struction to young practitioners; and they are truly exposed to all the objections I made to those of Chomel. Let us take, as an ex- ample, Mr. Lieutaud's title of Febrifuga. Under this title, of the substances enumerated, some are astringent, some are bitter, others aromatic; even the aloe and gummi gutta are inserted; and, on the same ground, fifty more might have been added. Very pos- sibly most of the substances mentioned, may upon one occasion or other, be employed in the cure of fever; but they are certainly adapted to different circumstances of the disease : and as they are here huddled together, they can give no instruction, and may often mislead. From this article, and from many others, it may be ob- served, that Mr. Lieutaud might have given a more useful ar- rangement, by throwing together the medicines of similar quali- ties; but in this and every other enumeration in his book, he has given the several medicines in a promiscuous and very discordant order. Under the article of Febrifuga, the enumeration of his em- poretica proceeds in this manner: '*' Radices taraxaci, funiculi, pentaphylli, asari, gentian*;" and yet there can hardly be a more discordant set of substances. These, however, are not the only faults of Mr. Lieutaud's enu- merations; for in many instances, substances are enumerated, that do not at all belong to the title under which they are placed. Thus, under the title of Antiputrida, we find various animal substances ; under Refrigerantia, there occurs Cerevisia; under Astringentia, there are the Sophia chyrurgorum, Bursa pastoris, and Polygona- tum; under the Stomachica is put the Iris Germanica; and under Emollientia the Senecio. These are mistakes which perhaps may be considered as oversights in opere longo; but there are some general opinions, deliberately given, which cannot so easily admit of excuse. In almost every one of his enumerations, we find sub- stances either absolutely inert, or of so little power, that for a long time past they have been entirely neglected in practice. Mr. Lieu- taud, however, has found virtues in them which nobody else can discover. Such, amongst others, are the Distilled waters which he frequently prescribes ; and which, notwithstanding his vindication of them, have been properly rejected from most of the dispensato- ries of Europe, excepting that of Paris. Vol.. I. K 54 HISTORY OF THE The Ebur, Cornu cervi prxparatum, Cranium humanum, Ungula alcis, Pulvis bufonum, Cortex suderis, and many others of like kind, if they were to appear in prescription, would, in Britain at least, effectually disgrace a practitioner. Some preparations formerly commended and in use, are now by many thought to be inactive and superfluous; as the Cinnabaris factitia et antimonii, the Antihectu cum Poterii, Antimonium diaphoreticum, Althiops mineralis, and some others of at least disputed virtue; but Mr. Lieutaud retains them, and sometimes with much commendation of their virtues. In treating of particular subjects, he does not, like Chomel and Geoffroy, choose to quote his authorities; but he manifestly re- peats the common-place accounts of former writers, and is every where liable to the censure which Galen applied to Dioscorides, of ascribing too many virtues to the same substance. Like many other writers, he imputes to several medicines very improbable ef- fects. He mentions the Fragaria and Dens leonis as being remedies inpollutionibus nocturnes; the Radix graminis as being anthelmin- tic and lithontriptic; the Bedeguar employed for the cure of the bronchocele; Coffee as useful in preventing rickets; Polypodium in the cure of scrophula; and the Euphrasia as mending the visus imbecillitas in senibus : He mentions the Avena as proper ad fu- gandwn puerperarum lac; and there can be nothing more remarka- ble than his account oi Cerevisia bringing on strangury and a go- norrhcea spuria. He recommends many substances for healing in- ternal ulcerations, for the most part an improbable effect; but his commending the oleum terehinthince for this purpose, seems to me a very dangerous doctrine. Many other mistakes, inaccuracies, and even frivolous things, might be pointed out in this work ; but it is believed that enough has been said to show that it cannot be consulted with any advan- tage, nor even with safety. I have insinuated above, that Mr. Lieutaud's work might be considered as showing the state of knowledge on. this subject in France at the time of its publication ; and it certainly may be con- sidered as showing it to be then in many persons of that country in a very imperfect condition: but it may be alleged that Mr. Lieutaud, who was little engaged in practice, who lived very con- stantly at Versailles, and had little communication with the litera- ture of Paris, cannot be considered as giving a proper specimen of the learning and judgment which prevails among the many inge- nious men who are to be found in that city. Since the time of Mr. Lieutaud, there has been published at Paris a Traite de Matiere Medicale, extraite des meilleurs Au- teurs, et principalement du Traite des Medicamens de M. de Tournefort et des Lecons de M. Ferrein. This work I consider as superficial and incorrect, and in every respect unworthy of Mr. Ferrein, who was a man of learning and judgment, and, If he had been still in life, would never have countenanced the publication. MATERIA MEDICA. 35 Some amends for this have been made by the publication of the Precis de Matiere Medicale par M. Venel. This is a posthu- mous work, and which perhaps the ingenious author, if he had lived, would have given himself in a more perfect state; but even as it is, the public are indebted for it to Mr. Carrere. It appears to me the most judicious writing that has yet appeared in France upon the subject; and the perusing it frequently recalls to my mind these two lines: " Poets lose half the praise they would have got, " Were it but known what they discreetly blot." Mr. Venel is remarkable for omitting the many idle things which former writers repeated after one another; and he has gone still further in correcting many of those prejudices which prevailed among the vulgar physicians and writers upon this subject. His chemistry and pathology are not always correct; but are always ingenious, and often probable; and if he had continued to study the subject, there is every reason to believe he would have ren- dered it more complete and perfect. Mr. Carrere, by his notes and several useful additions, has done a great deal to this purpose, and has rendered the work very valuable. I proceed now to the writers of Germany. Of these, Zorn, as in the style of Linnaeus compilatissima, and G. Henry Behr, as su- perficial and incorrect, are below criticism. Buchner and Loesecke are more respectable; but any instruction they afford on the sub- ject of the materia medica is extremely imperfect. The first writer of Germany who deserves our notice is John Fred. Cartheuser, the author of the Fundamenta Materiae Medicae; which is a writing of deserved reputation. The author has distri- buted the several subjects according to their sensible qualities, or to their more obvious chemical constitution; and by this he has very properly associated many substances by their natural affinities. This, however, does not go throughout; for under several of his general titles, such as those of his X. XIV. XV. sections, he has often associated substances of very dissonant qualities and virtues, while by the same distribution he has separated substances of very similar qualities, and therefore such as should have been with some advantage viewed together. Upon particular subjects he has given, with great exactness, the chemical constitution of substances, according as they are volatile or fixed; as they are saline, oily, gummy, or resinous; and as these parts of bodies are obvious without any violence of fire applied. He has given this account from his own experiments; and by these as well as by those of Newman and of some others of a like kind, we are often well instructed in the most proper pharmaceutic treat- ment of medicines ; but from experiments of that kind we seldom obtain much light with respect to the medicinal virtues. As to the medical virtues of substances, Mr. Carthe'i^cr is not 36 HISTORY OF THE much wiser than others. He often attempts to explain the virtues of medicines bv their chemical constitution, but in no satifactory manner. His account hardly goes farther than that medicines are more or less active; but he does not at all explain the various modification or application of that activity. With respect to par- ticular virtues, he repeats very much after preceding authors; and in general, like them, ascribes too many virtues to the same sub- stance; so that he seldom gives any useful instruction. It may be remarked, also, that he has employed general terms, which are not only ill defined, but also very often complicated, and sometimes altogether improper. As an example of this, and indeed of the extravagance of writers on the materia medica, here is Cartheuser's account of the virtues of zedoary: " Vires medicae hujus radicis maxime quidem volatili principio oleoso camphorato adscribendas sunt, valde nihilominus activitatem ejus fixa quoque principia resinoso gummea augent. Militat inter efficacissima ta- metsi paullo calidiora medicamenta discutientia, sudorifera, alexi- pharmica, pectoralia, cardiaca, stomachalia, carminativa, anthel- mintica et uterina: ac rite usurpata, eximium subinde auxilium in morbis exanthematicis, febribus malignis et catarrhalibus adfec- tibus frigidis rheumaticis, chachecticis et cedematosis, tussi et asth- mate pituitoso, anxietatibus praecordialibus, dyspepsia, dysorexia, vomitu, diarrhoea mucosa, cardialgia et colica vere flatulenta, fluore albo, suppressione mensium chronica, partu difficili, et pla- centa; uterinae retentione praestat." Cartheuser, Sect. XIV. § 3. This is certainly extravagant; and that any instruction can be pro- perly derived from it, I cannot perceive. In 1758, the late learned and industrious Rud. Aug. Vogel published his work, intitled Historia Materiae Medicae. The sub- jects of the materia medica are here distributed according as they are taken from the leaves, from the roots, or from other parts of plants, which form no connection in the materia medica. He like- wise distributes these subjects according as they are usitata, minus usitata, and obsoleta; and such a distribution might have its use: but that of Mr. Vogel cannot have much, as it is not taken from the nature of the substances themselves, as more or less fitted for use; but from the practice of a particular country, which cannot afford much instruction; for in Mr. Vogel's lists many are marked as usitata, which are not at all employed in Britain, and in his obsoleta many that are still frequently employed here. In treating of particular substances, he repeats after others with no nice selection of authorities, nor with sound judgment on the nature of the subject. He renounces all principles deduced from reasoning; and holding he is to give only what experience has taught, he, in the first place, gives us a list of specifics; and I shall here mark several of these as specimens of his judgment and ex- perience. Thus, ad podagras dolores leniendos, Bufo ustus; ad MATERIA MEDICA. 37 phthisin, Plantago, bellis; in ictero, fiores cheiri; in alvi proflu- vius, bolus Armena, chrystallus montana; in sarcocele, Sambuci fores; in racliitide, Sarsaparilla; ad scabiem, Hedera terrestris, Bonus henricus. To conclude, with respect to what may enable us to form a judgment of Mr. Vogel, lefcus take one other specimen from what he savs of hirundo: " Integra; hirundini virtus tribuitur analep- tica, et ad visus hebetudinem specifica. Pullum, si quis comede- rit, angina per totum annum non periclitari; servatum e sale cum is morbus urget, combustum carbonemque ejus in mulso contri- tum et epotum, prodesse refert e Plinio Celsus!" Another German professor, Henr. Jo. Nepom. Crantz has given us a Treatise of the Materia Medica et Chirurgica. Here is a modern author, who in my opinion has done nothing to ad- vance the knowledge of the materia medica. He does not indeed like Vogel disclaim principles; but those which he employs are seldom scientific and judicious. He transcribes from the ancients with as little discernment as those who had written before him; and although he has been at pains to collect the latest discoveries, or pretended discoveries, in the materia medica, yet it is seldom with any mark of his own judgment, either in chemistry or medi- cine ; so that upon the whole his compilation is of very little value. The late professor Spielman of Strasburg has given us Insti- tutions Materiae Medicae, in which he has distributed medicines according to their indications; and in reducing the indications to a lesser number, he has been more chaste than many who had gone before him. This brevity, however, has often rendered him ob- scure ; and his general titles can hardly be applied to any use. In delivering the virtues he is commendably concise, but becomes thereby in many cases superficial. He is very fond of quoting Hippocrates and Galen, but does it in many instances where the authority of these venerable ancients is of little weight. Besides the institutions, Mr. Spielman has published a Phar- macopoeia Generalis; in the first part of which he has given a ma- teria medica full of superfluities; and with respect to the virtues of the substances m use, he is superficial and incorrect. In the second part, or the proper pharmacopoeia, he has also much super- fluity; and by the luxuriancy of composition which he almost every where exhibits, discovers to me an absolute want of all discern- ment in the business of the materia medica. To make amends for the errors and defects of preceding writers, the public have now received the Apparatus Medicaminum of the verv learned and ingenious professor Murray of Gottingen. This work is not yet finished; but it promises, when concluded, to be the most complete and perfect that has ever appeared upon the subject. In so far as it has yet proceeded, the author with great judgment and medical discernment has, from former writers, and 38 HISTORY OF THE more especially from those of latest date, collected every thing which deserved to be repeated. He every where discovers an intimate acquaintance with all the writers on the subject, and always makes a judicious selection of what they afford. By his distributing the vegetable substances according as they belong to the several natural orders marked by the botanists, he has associated the substances of similar qualities and virtues, in a manner that may be of great advantage to students. This author who is a native of Sweden, does credit to his coun- try, and has deservedly received honours from it; but from his present situation at Gottingen, I have classed him amongst the writers of Germany, and shall next proceed to mention those who more strictly belong to Sweden. Of these the first to be taken notice of is the very respectable Carolus a Linne, from whom we have, as it is now published by Schreber, a complete treatise of the materia medica. Before offer- ing any opinion respecting this work, it will be proper to remark, that in another treatise this learned author has shown a very sound judgment. What I allude to, is the Censura Simplicium, publish- ed in the fourth volume of the Amcenitates Academicae; in which the Excludenda seem to me every where proper and judicious, correcting in many instances the errors and futilities of former writers. In his list of Addenda, indeed as well as in his Plantse Officinales, there are many articles which are doubtful; but it is not necessary to point them out here. After Linnaeus had, in the Censura Simplicium, shown so much judgment in rejecting the inert and superfluous, it is rather sur- prising to find so many of these substances still mentioned in his Materia Medica, which he himself marks as superfluous, and which ought to have been omitted altogether. Besides, nothing can be more frivolous than what he has given respecting the substances taken from the animal and mineral kingdoms; for at least three- fourths of them neither are at present, nor in any shape deserve to be employed. The subjects of the vegetable kingdom are distributed accord- ing to his own botanical system; and as that in several places ad- mits of natural orders, it is in so far useful: but this does not go the length of rendering the distribution in general proper. Upon particular subjects, he seems disposed to ascribe too many virtues to every substance, both in the articles of vis and usus. In the latter article there may be information to persons well acquainted with the subject; but in many instances it is doubtful, and, in my opinion, very frequently ill founded. With respect, however, to the whole that Linnaeus has delivered on the materia medica, from vegetables, our attention is very much superseded by the work given us on the same subject by his scholar Bergius. The Materia Medica ex Vegetabilibus, by Petrus Jonas Be> MATERIA MEDICA. 39 gius, is a work truly of great value, and very much deserving our notice. It is precisely upon the plan of Linnaeus; and therefore the same observations we made on the distribution of that author may be applied to it. We have here, however, a very valuable ad- dition to Linnaeus in the article of Forma, which gives a very full and very exact description of the substances used in the materia medica. Where the substances are used in their recent state, the description is of all the several parts of the plant; which, 1 be- lieve, is every where exact, and may be useful, though perhaps it was not always necessary. But with respect to those substances which we know, and use only in their dried state, the descriptions of Bergius are very proper, and as being particularly correct, must be very useful. In the article of Proprietas, which comes in place of the ^tali- tates of Linnaeus, Bergius has made a great improvement, in giv- ing the sensible qualities of the substance as used in medicine, both in its recent and dried state, and leads us often to determine how far medicinal virtues are connected with the sensible quali- ties. In the articles of Vis and usus, Bergius, in ascribing virtues, is much more chaste and correct than Linnaeus: but indeed the manner of treating the subject is in both writers liable to doubt and obscuri- ty, and neither very fit nor sometimes perhaps very safe for the purpose of informing students. After these remarks on the work of Bergius, I must add, that he has given a very valuable addition in the observations which he has subjoined to almost every particular subject. In these he has communicated much useful instruction with respect to both the medical qualities and the pharmaceutic treatment; but I can say no more of these observations here than to recommend them earnestly to the reader's attention. It now only remains to mention the British writers, who have been always very few deserving our notice. Of Mr. Ray enough has been already said; and Dr. Hale, as being chiefly a transcri- ber of Schroeder, has made no improvement with respect to the medical virtues. Dr. Alston, my late worthy colleague, has given a treatise that must be supposed to have been composed long before its publication. It is not without many faithful observations derived from his own experience; but his transcripts from Schroe- der, and others of no better authority, render his work very tedi- ous and of little importance. We have had a bulky work on the subject from the well-known Dr. Hill. It is merely a compilation, without selection or judg- ment; and neither in that work, nor in his particular dissertations, so far as he refers to his own experience, is he received in this country with any credit. The only English work that does any credit to the country, or has made any improvement in the materia medica, is the 40 HISTORY OF THE Treatise of the late Dr. Lewis, and especially as published and judiciously enlarged by Mr. Aiken. As Dr. Lewis had under- taken to treat of all those subjects which had appeared in the lists of the London and Edinburgh Dispensatories, so he had from this last introduced a great many which did not deserve a place; and I think Mr. Aiken has with great propriety marked out those which have been since expunged by the Edinburgh College them- selves. When these articles are thrown aside, the rest of Mr. Lewis's work is one of the most judicious that had at that time appeared on the subject. Not to mention his correct description of drugs, and his useful experiments in their treatment, by different menstruums, he is very chaste in ascribing virtues, and in repeat- ing from former writers; and from his own experience, as well as that of the most skilful London practitioners, he gives a sounder judgment of the real virtues of substances than had been given before. There yet remains another British writer to be mentioned, and that is the late worthy Dr. Rutty, of Dublin, the author of the Materia Medica Antiqua et Nova. He tells us it has been a work of forty years; which to me, who think there is little to be learned from the ancients, is no great commendation. He has compiled very faithfully from the ancients, not even omitting Galen's ac- count of the cardinal qualities and their degrees; and as he has repeated all the follies and imperfections that I have alleged to be found in the ancients,^ cannot find this part of Dr. Rutty's work to be of any use; and with students it nvvy often mislead. Dr. Rutty has given a very large list of the materia medica: but as in that list he has inserted a great number of substances abso- lutely inert, or nearly so; as he has inserted many superfluous, as having in a lesser degree the same qualities with others, and many which, by their being inert or superfluous, have now become ob- solete ; his work is no way useful in proportion to its bulk. When he treats of medicines which are still in use, he gives us some ob- servations of his own; but for the most part he repeats the com- mon-place accounts with no singular judgment, and generally as- cribes too many virtues to the same medicine. I have thus endeavoured to give a History of the Materia Me- dica; and have taken the liberty of offering the judgment which I have formed of the chief writers who have written upon it. As there has occurred more occasion to blame than to commend, it has been a disagreeable task; and I am afraid that the public opi- nion may be offended by my disparagement of the Ancients. I deemed it proper, however, to hazard this, because, I trust, in the progress of this work, the judgment I have offered will be fully justified; and it seemed necessary to inform students from whence they might most properly and safely draw their instruction, and be put upon their guard against opinions that might deceive and mislead them. A TREATISE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. INTRODUCTION. JjEFORE entering upon the consideration of particular medi- cines, it may be proper to treat of what in general relates to the operation of all of them. There are certain principles which have a reference to the whole; and by explaining these in the first place, we shall not only save afterwards much repetition that might other- wise have been necessary, but, by having laid down these general principles, it may be possible, in a more simple and clear manner, to explain the operation and virtues of particular medicines. It is the more requisite to enter upon the consideration of those general principles, as there are several to which physicians do not appear to have given the attention which seems to be necessary. Besides, it is well known, that with respect to the justness and propriety of many of the principles which have been adopted, phy- sicians are very far from being agreed: and I therefore deem it ne- cessary to offer my peculiar sentiments with respect to many of those principles that have been before assumed, and more neces- sary still to explain certain new principles which I shall think it requisite to employ. In the last, indeed, I perhaps hazard a great deal: but every part of science is still imperfect, and must for ever remain so, if attempts be not made to improve it. With these views, it is to be remarked, in the first place, as a principle commonly assumed upon this subject, that few or no me- dicines act upon the living human body in the same manner, and with the same effects, as upon inanimate matter; and it is now well known,|that the operation and effects of substances applied to the living human body, are for the most part altogether different from the effects of the same application to the dead body. Few indeed, or none, of these substances which are considered as medicines, have any effects at all upon the dead body; and therefore, assum- ing this as a principle, when hereafter I shall have occasion to speak of the action of substances upon the body, it must be con- stantly understood to be their action upon the living body only; and at least with very few exceptions, which shall be taken notice of when occasion requires. , Having assumed this principle, it must be obvious, that, in order to consider the operation of medicines in general, it will be proper to begin with explaining the peculiar circumstance of the human Vol. I. F 42 TREATISE OF THE body, by which it is thus capable of being acted upon in a pecu- liar manner by other bodies applied to it; and it will be also re- quisite to inquire concerning the manner in which the general operation of medicines may be variously modified, according to the different states and circumstances in which the human body may be upon different occasions. CHAPTER I. Of the Action of Medicines upon the Body in general. J.N these days, it is hardly necessary to show that the action of other bodies upon the human, is chiefly by the impulse of these bodies upon the extremities or other parts of the nerves of the human body; in consequence of which, a motion is propagated from the place of impulse along the course of the nerves, to their origin in the brain or medulla spinalis; and that, upon such occa- sion, there does for the most part arise a sensation. This again generally gives occasion to a volition; whereby a motion is pro- duced, which being determined along the course of the nerves into certain muscles, or moving fibres, the action of these, as well as the various effects which their action is suited to occasion, are in consequence produced. This is the general idea of the connection of the human body with the other parts of nature; or of the manner in which the human body is acted upon by other bodies, and in its turn acts upon these. That condition by which it is fitted to have peculiar effects produced in it by the action of other bodies, is called its Sensibility; which seems to be lodged in every part of what we can discern to be parts of its nervous system: And that condition of the body by which certain parts of it are fitted to have certain motions of contraction excited in them, either from a communica- tion with the nervous system, as expressed above, or by an im- pulse directly made upon these parts themselves, is termed the Irritability of the body; which seems to exist only in the muscu- lar or moving fibres, probably of a peculiar structure suited to that purpose. From all this, we come at this conclusion: That the peculiar effects of substances in general, or of those substances in particular which we call medicines, when applied to the human body, depend upon their action upon its sentient and irritable parts. It is, however, to be remarked here, that the action of sub- stances in producing their effects, is not universally, as insinuated^ above, by the intervention of sensation and volition; for these effects are often produced without either the one or the other. At the same time it is probable, that in all cases the effects pro- MATERIA MEDICA. 43 duced by the action of other bodies upon the human, although not accompanied with sensation, yet are produced by their action upon the sentient parts; and it is likewise probable, that in the case of action unaccompanied with any volition, both the action and its effects, depend either upon the application of those bodies directly to the irritable parts, or upon their application to sentient parts, which determine motions into those very nerves wherein motions are commonly excited by volition. Upon the whole, it is sufficiently probable, that the peculiar action of medicines depends upon the sensibility and irritability of the human body; or, in other words, that it universally depends upon motions excited and pro- pagated in the nervous system. These therefore, are the con- ditions of the living body which we were engaged to explain. What is the nature of the matter in which these motions take place, or in what manner it is inherent in the nervous system, is not well known: but we think it may be justly held as existing, and may speak of it under the appellation of the nervous power. As it appears only in the living, and disappears entirely in the dead state of the body, it may be otherwise properly enough termed the vital principle. It does not seem necessary to explain fully here, the various laws by which the motions of the nervous system are regulated and governed: but with respect to the operation of medicines, this in general is to be observed, that as there seems to be a possible communication of motion from every part of the nervous system to every other part of it; so medicines, though applied to one small part of the body only, do often in consequence of the communica- tion mentioned, show their effects in many other parts of the body. This sympathy or consent, as it is called, of the several parts of the body is in general very well known to physicians; and I shall have occasion frequently hereafter to take notice of it, in men- tioning the effects depending upon it, and the laws by which it is governed. At present I am to prosecute the consideration of it no farther. Having now considered the action of medicines in general up- on a living body, it may in the next place be observed, that as the effect of the action of one body upon another does always depend, partly upon the general operation of the body acting, and partly also upon the particular circumstances of the body acted upon; so it is well known, that as the human body is in several respects considerably different in different men, and even in the same per- son at different times, so the operation of medicines upon it must be variously modified according to the different circumstances in which the body may happen to be, and that, either throughout the whole of life in different men, or upon particular occasions in the same person. It is therefore necessary, before going further, to consider those 44 TREATISE OF THE differences in the state of the human body which may occur and give occasion to a difference in the operation of medicines upon it. We shall, therefore, proceed to consider those constitutional dif- ferences, which talce place throughout life, under the title of Tern- peraments, this being the appellation under which these diversities are commonly mentioned. SECT. I. OF TEMPERAMENTS. XN attending to the great number of circumstances in which the. bodies of men may be different from one another, it is scarcely possible to enumerate every particular: but it has been at all times presumed, that a great number of these circumstances are com- monly combined together in the same person; and that frequently one man shows a combination of circumstances not only different, but sometimes of an opposite kind to that of another. Such com- binations, upon a particular supposition with respect to their causes, the ancients named temperaments; and the term has continued to be employed in the schools of physic from the most ancient to the present time. Abstracting from all theory, we continue to employ the same term to denote a combination or concurrence of circumstances which happens in certain persons, but which in several respects is different from the combination that happens in certain others. Upon this footing, I believe the ancients distinguished what they called the different temperaments of men: for it is probable that they distinguished them by actual observation; but very soon they formed a theory with regard to them, from whence they formed appellations which have continued to be applied to them ever since. The appellations indeed have been continued, though the theories which laid the foundation of them have been long ago ex- ploded; and the moderns have neither by observation extended the ancient distinctions, nor, though they have often attempted it, have they ever given, so far as I can judge, any happy explanation of the causes or foundation of the distinctions they have so gene- rally adopted. I believe it will be generally allowed, that this part of medical doctrine is still in an embarrassed and undetermined state. In treating the subject, philosophy would require that I should in the first place distinguish temperaments, by marking the external and observable/circumstances which are found with some steadi- ness to be commonly combined together: but this I find a difficult task, and what my observation has not been so extensively applied to as to enable me to perform in the manner I would wish. I must therefore proceed in another way; and shall endeavour to consider those circumstances of the internal state of the human MATERIA MEDICA. •45 body which may give occasion to a difference in the state of the functions, and even in the external appearances which distinguish different men. These circumstances may, I think, be referred to five generaj heads according as they occur, 1st, In the state of the simple so- lids ; 2dly, In the state of the fluids; 3dly, In the proportion of solids and fluids in the body; 4thly, In the distribution of the flu- ids ; and Sthly, In the state of the nervous power. With respect to each of these heads, I shall now offer the best remarks, and give the best explanation, that the present state of our science seems to me to admit of. Article I. Of the Simple Solids. Whether these be in certain parts of a fibrous, or if they be en- tirely of a cellular texture, it is not necessary to determine here. It is enough for our purpose, that they are at different times of a different degree of density and firmness; this particularly appears in the progress of life, when from an almost fluid state they are gradually changed into a more dense and solid substance. The ancients marked the difference of temperament by the colour and strength of the hair of different persons; and many experi- ments shew that the strength of the hair does for a great part of life follow the density of the simple solid in other parts of the body. Dr. Brian Robinson, in his Treatise of the Animal oeconomy, has by many experiments clearly shown, that the density and strength of the hair increase with the age of the person; and therefore, that the state of the hair is correspondent to that of the simple solids in other parts of the body. It is true, indeed, that the state of the sim- ple solid may in different persons be considerably varied by the difference of diet, exercise, climate, and other like circumstances: but at the same time, as the state of the solid seems to be often an hereditary condition, and as it frequently shows itself very early in life, before the circumstances just now mentioned can be suppo- sed to have modified its state; so it is highly probable, that the state of the simple solid depends upon the difference of the origi- nal stamina of the body ; and as that difference will proportionally prevail throughout the whole of life ; so, notwithstanding the cir- cumstances in the manner of living, it will always have its share in producing a difference in the state of the solid in different per- sons at the same period of life. Whilst, therefore, a difference in the state of the solid must oc- casion a difference in the whole of the state of different persons ; so it must be admitted, that a difference in the state of the simple solid must at all times have a share in distinguishing the tempera- ments of men. It being, however, farther probable, that the state of the moving 46 TREATISE OF THE fibres is in some measure modified by the state of the simple solid; so likewise it is probable, that the simple solid, according to its state of density and elasticity, must have a great share in determin- ing the strength or weakness of the moving fibres, and consequently of the whole system, so as in this manner especially to have a very powerful influence in distinguishing the different temperaments of men. It here merits particular notice, that as the state of the simple solid is for the most part likely to be proportionally the same through- out the whole of life; so there is reason to believe that, from inci- dental and sudden changes in the state of the simple solid, diseases will seldom arise. This indeed may possibly be affected by varibus incidental causes: but they are either such as very rarely occur, or such as cannot be applied at once to a considerable portion of the system; and which, for the most part, take effect only when ap- plied for a great length of time. I am persuaded, therefore, that those sudden changes which frequently occur with respect to the debility and strength of the system, cannot be imputed to changes in the state of the simple solid, which cannot suddenly take place, but must be imputed to changes in the state of the moving fibres, quern facile mille res turbant. Dr. Boerhaave gave little attention to the circumstances last mentioned; but whoever studies this sub- ject, will perceive that the illustrious Professors doctrine defibra laxa vel rigida, as explaining the causes of the fibra debilis velfor- tis, will not apply so extensively as he has supposed: and conse- quently, that those powers of changing the state of the simple solid which have been imputed to internal medicines, are seldom to be regarded; or at least never without a number of limitations, to which little attention seems to have been hitherto paid. Article II. Of the State of the Fluids. From the earliestaccounts of physic with which we are acquaint- ed, it appears, that from the most ancient times down to the pre- sent, physicians have been attached almost entirely to the study and consideration of the fluids; and from the supposed state of these, have endeavoured to explain the phenomena both of health and sickness. In this, however, they appear to me to have been unfor- tunate: for, not to mention the imperfection and falsehood of the many speculations, both of Galenists and chemists, which have for- merly prevailed on this subject, I would venture to assert, that the doctrine concerning the fluids is still the most imperfect part of our physiology. Every thing systematical that has been delivered upon it, till within these last forty years, may be totally disregarded: for it is only within the period now mentioned that we have acquired any distinct notions of a fundamental doctrine; or in other words df the state of aggregation in the mass of blood. Even with respect MATERIA MEDICA. 47 to this last, there still remains much doubt and obscurity; but not- withstanding these difficulties I shall endeavour to consider what may be said with regard to the state of the fluids in different per- sons. It may now safely be held, that the mass of blood, or that por- tion of our fluids which fills and flows in the red vessels, and from which all the others seem to be derived, is every where a hetero- geneous aggregate, consisting chiefly and especially of three parts: to wit, red globules, gluten, and serosity: And if it should be al- leged that there are other matters present, as perhaps there may be, I shall in the sequel examine the question; but in the mean while, I believe they may be considered as portions of the three principal parts now mentioned. With respect to these principal parts, it is sufficiently probable that they are in a different proportion indifferent persons: and this different proportion may therefore have a share in giving some difference of temperament; although in what cases this takes place is not easily to be ascertained. That the red globules may be in different proportions to the whole mass, we discern very clearly from several diseases, in which their quantity is evidently and considerably diminished; but what may be their proportion in persons in health, or in what man- ner that proportion is connected with the other circumstances of health, is by no means ascertained by any proper experiments. From several observations on animals whose vessels are easily sub- jected to microscopical examination, it appears that the proportion of red globules is greater or lesser according to the greater or lesser quantity of the aliment or nourishment the animal receives. It is very probable, therefore, that the quantity of them in the hu- man blood may be affected by the same circumstances: But still this does not aid us in determining the question with respect to persons in health, who take in nourishment in proportion to their several bulks ; and whether the effect of nourishment be determin- ed by the quality, as well as by the quantity, is not ascertained. It appears to me that, if at all, it is not affected much by the qua- lity of nourishment, unless the difference of that quality be very considerable. It appears also, that the proportion of red globules is as great in the animals living entirely upon vegetable aliment, as it is in those who live entirely upon animal food, or as it is in man, who lives partly upon the one and partly upon the other. Many attempts have been made to estimate the proportion of the quantity of the crassamentum to that of the serum in the ex- travasated human blood: but hardly any of the experiments yet made afford a certain conclusion. The apparent proportion of the two masses is very fallacious ; being very much varied by the cir- cumstances which determine the concretion of the cruor to take 13 TREATISE OF THE place sooner or later, and by the time which is allowed to pass from the time of concretion to that at which the proportions are examined. It is now indeed well known, that these circumstances vary the separation which takes place; and it does not appear to me, that in any of the estimates which have been made, due atten- tion has been given to the effect of those circumstances. When Dr. Holler, in his Prima? Line*, paragraph 138, gives this judgment; "In massa sanguinea media pars, et ultra, cruoris est: in robore valido serum minuitur ad tertiam partem; in febre ad quartam et quintamreducitur; in morbis a debilitate increscit;" I am persua- ded that he had judged entirely from the quantities that appear se- parated in ordinary blood-lettings, and had not attended to the dif- ferent quanties that appear in these according to the different cir- cumstances of the blood-letting. In cases of rheumatism, I have seen the crassamentum not equal to a third part of the serum sur- rounding it; and other cases, where the serum did not separate from the crassamentum, to the amount of a fourth part of the whole mass: and from attending to the circumstances of the blood-letting, I have been able to foretel what, in twenty-four hours after, would be the condition of the separation. But even supposing v/e had a a more exact estimate of the serum with respect to the crassamen- tum, or, in other words, of the red globules and gluten taken to- gether, it still remains undetermined what proportion these two last- mentioned matters bear to one another; and consequent!} it is not yet ascertained what is the usual proportion of red globules in the blood of persons in health, nor how far it may have a share in pro- ducing a peculiar temperament. With respect to the gluten of the blood, considered by itself, it is equally difficult to ascertain its proportion either to the whole mass or to the several parts of it. It seems to me to be determin- ed that the gluten, whether combined with the red globules in the crassamentum, or spontaneously separated from the other parts, is the same kind of matter with that which is dissolved in the serum. In what proportion, however, this last may be, is by no means ac- curately determined. There is reason to believe that the serum is always a saturated solution; but at the same time it is probable, that the solvent power of the serosity may be greater or less upon different occasions; and therefore we still want experiments to as- certain the proportion of the whole of the gluten to the rest of the mass. It may readily be admitted, that in healthful bodies, both the red globules and the gluten may be more or less, according to the quantity, and in some measure according to the quality, of the aliments taken in during a given time: but this will hardly enable us to determine what is the proportion in the healthful bodies of different persons; and consequently what share they may have in giving a difference of temperament. It may be presumed, however, MATERIA MEDICA. 49 that with respect to theserosity, the proportion of red globules and of gluten taken together, will be greater or less according to the force of the digestive and assimilating powers in each person; and that these again will be according to the general strength or weak- ness of the system. The proportion of the several parts of the flu- ids, therefore, may be different in different temperaments; but stiU this will not of itself produce that difference. It remains to consider the third portion of our mass of blood; and that is, the serosity; with regard to which, the ascertaining its proportional quantity is equally difficult. It must be equally so with respect to the ascertaining the proportions of the crassa- mentum and the serum; because the proportion of serosity may be presumed to be the same with that of the serum : and there- fore, till the latter can be more exactly ascertained than it has yet been, we must endeavour to do it by considering those causes which may be supposed to produce in greater or lesser quantity the matter contained in the serosity. In attempting this, we shall lay aside a consideration that might readily present itself, and which is, that of the quantity of liquid taken into the body. This certainly does occasionally increase the quantity of serosity: but as I believe the excretions in healthful bodies are always increased according to the quantity of liquid matter present in the blood-vessels; so I suppose that a greater quantity of liquid occasionally taken in, will soon pass off by the excretions, and therefore will occasion no steady difference in the proportion of serosity in the healthful state of different persons. We must therefore seek for some other cause of the difference in the proportion of the serosity. With this view, it appears, that the digestive and assimilating powers of the animal oeconomy are fitted to prepare, from the aliments taken in, a fluid suited to the purposes of that oeconomy, particularly to the nourishment of the solid parts of the body; and such fluid, whilst in a condition fit for its purpose, we presume to be bland, mild, and nowise noxious and hurtful. At the same time, it is probable that these same fluids are not long stationary in that condition; but in consequence of a certain process constantly going on, are changed into such a state, that if the change was to go too far, and the changed fluids at the same time to be retained in the body, they might prove to it extremely noxious, and even pernicious. It is the change now mentioned that we suppose to produce the serosity, which, although suited to some purposes of the oeconomy, is yet at the same time neces- sary to be constantly thrown out of it; and is therefore what affords the ordinary excretions. From this last circumstance of the sero^ sity being fitted in proportion to its quantity to be thrown out by the excretions, we presume that its proportion in the whole ma?s Vol. I. G 50 TREATISE OF THE is seldom for any length of time to any degree of excess. Still, however, its proportion may be different in different persons; and this difference may have a share in giving a difference of tempe- rament. It may be alleged, indeed, that the animal process which produces a serosity may be in different degrees of force in dif- ferent persons; and consequently that the serosity may be pro- duced more or less quickly, as well as be of a more saline quality, in one person than in another: so that in this manner, by a diffe- rence in the quantity and in the quality of the serosity, a difference of temperament may be produced. 'That this is possible, cannot be denied; but I do not know the circumstances in which it takes pla„e, nor the external appearances whereby it may be discovered. It has indeed been commonly enough supposed, that the blood is In a more saline state in some persons than in others; and this may be the case, but we have no proper experiments to ascertain the quantity or condition of the saline matter in the blood. It has been imagined, that the saline state of the serosity may be dis- covered by certain appearances on the surface of the body: but with respect to these, the conclusion is fallacious; tyecause it can be rendered probable, that these appearances often depend more upon the state of the skin itself, than upon the state of the fluids passing through it. Upon the whole of this inquiry into the state of the blood with respect to its aggregation, or with respect to the state and pro- portion of the several parts which compose it as an aggregate, it seems not only to. be uncertain how far these circumstances give a difference of temperament; but, on the contrary, it seems probable, that they never do so in any considerable degree. Notwithstanding all this, ever since chemical reasonings have been admitted into our physiology, that is, ever since the time of Paracelsus, physicians have considered our fluids as distinguished by the state of their chemical mixture, either in the whole of the .mass of blood, or in the several parts which compose it as an heterogeneous aggregate. It is, however, in the latter view only, that is, with respect to the several parts, that we can chemically consider the subject; and here it will be readily acknowledged, that till very lately, much frivolous, hypothetical, and false reason- ing has prevailed in the chemical doctrines respecting the nature and state of our fluids. Even at present, physicians have hardly- come to be sufficiently chaste in avoiding such hypothetical doc- trines; and however confident they have been in their chemical reasonings, I am unable to find any thing either clear or certain upon the subject. Not to mention how little we have yet learned of the nature of vegetable or animal substances from their chemi- cal analysis, it is enough to say here, that with respect to some part of the mass of blood, it is by no means ascertained either MATERIA MEDICA. 51 that their chemical mixture is upon different occasions any wise changed, or what change is produced, or in what manner such change is effected. This may be very confidently asserted with respect to the red globules; the mechanical or chemical properties of which are neither of them clearly ascertained; and we neither know how they are formed or produced, nor in what manner they may be chemically changed. With respect to the gluten, I am disposed to make the like as- sertion: for it appears to me, that we neither know how it is form- ed from our vegetable aliment, nor what is precisely the state of its mixture; and therefore we cannot clearly say, a priori, how it may be chemically changed. I do not indeed know of any obser- vations which ascertain its being in any case changed in its sensi- ble qualites. There are indeed cases in which its viscidity and force of cohesion seems to be considerably diminished; but differ- ent explanations of these phenomena may be offered: and however they may be explained, the phenomena seems to take place only in more evident morbid cases: so that we have no just grounds for asserting that any such difference takes place in the temperaments of different men in health. It has indeed been commonly supposed, that the density and viscidity of the mass of blood is different in different persons even in a state of health, and more certainly in the case of disease; and this has been imputed either to the greater proportion of gluten in the mass, or to the greater viscidity or force of cohesion of the gluten that is in due proportion present: but neither the one nor the other supposition has been ascertained by proper experiments. Some experiments, indeed, as those of Dr. Browne Langrish, have been offered for the purpose; but they are evidently frivolous and fallacious. I have said above, that the proportion of gluten in the blood may be increased by the quantity of aliments taken in, and by the vigour of the system in preparing and assimilating these : but it is sufficiently probable, that the proportion of gluten will be suited to the vigour of the system, and therefore produce no morbid state; and although it should have some share in giving a difference of temperament, it will not do this as considered by itself, but only as accompanying the other circumstances of more power in the system. I cannot dismiss this subject without observing, that the suppo- sition of a preternatural spissitude of the mass of blood, or, as it may be expressed, of a lentor, being a frequent cause of disease, has had a great share in almost all the modern systems of patho- logy; but I allege that it has been for the most part hypotheti- cal; and has hardly, so far as I know, in any case been ascertained as a fact. I am disposed to maintain, that the supposition is for the most part improbable. The functions of the oeconomy, depending 554 TREATISE OF THE Upon the constant motion of fluids through many narrow canals, require that those fluids should have a very great fluidity; and ac- cordingly Nature has, for this purpose, provided that a pure water should always make a very great part of the animal fluids. It is also certain, that those parts whose particles might be disposed to unite together, and to form impermeable masses, are for the most part held in a state of solution, and in a very fluid state; or if there are certain parts which are only in a diffused state, these are in very Bin all proportion to the entirely fluid parts: and while the heat and motion of the whole continue, the cohesive matters are kept in a Very minutely divided state, and diffused amongst the more fluid parts; and there is not any evidence of ther separation from those fluids but in consequence of stagnation. There is therefore, little foundation for the supposition of a preternatural spissitude pre- vailing in the mass of blood, or of its proving commonly the cause of disease: And although what I have now said be not suited di* rectly to my present purpose of explaining the difference of temper- ament, yet it has some concern in it; and in an introduction to the consideration of the operation of medicines, cannot be improper. But to return to my subject: I have now endeavoured to show, with respect to the red globules or gluten, that from the considera- tion of their chemical mixture, we can obtain very little knowledge towards the distinction of temperaments. It may, however, be ex* pected, that by means of chemistry we may obtain more from the consideration of the serosity; but how far we can go even in this mat- ter, is to me very uncertain. It is now known very well that the se- rosity of the human blood is a watery fluid which holds dissolved in it, besides a quantity of gluten, a peculiar salt which is hardly known, or at lea9t is not distinctly perceived to be in any other part of nature besides that of animal bodies. We know also, from the excretions which we presume to be afforded by the serosity, that there exists in it also a quantity of oily matter; but of what particular nature that is, or in what proportion it is present, or in what manner it is combined with the other parts, we do not know with any precision; and therefore cannot say in what measure the consideration of this oily part may serve to ascertain the different Slate of the fluids in the different bodies of men in health. We may, I think, neglect the consideration of the oily part of the blood; but the saline part may seem to deserve more attention. i here is ground to believe, that besides the peculiar saline matter above mentioned, there are a number of other saline matters pre. sent in th«r serosity; but of what nature precisely, or in what pro- portion, remains unknown. To give an example'of this, we know jjow that there is in the urine of every person, probably derived Horn the serosity, an acid, that upon certain occasions gives a con- MATERIA MEDICA. 53 vretion in the urinary passages, and which, separated from the urine, puts on the appearance of an earthy or stony matter. This, however, has been learned only lately from the analysis of such urinary concretions as have become a disease; and the discover}', while it now enables us to correct some parts of our system, serves at the same time tosheNv how ignorant we were with regard to the state of the human fluids. From these considerations of the several matters which we can perceive to exist in the mass of blood, it will appear that there is little ground for distinguishing the different temperaments of men by the different state of their mass of blood. It is indeed very pos- sible, that a different state in this respect may take place in dif- ferent men; but to what degree, or by what external marks it may be perceived, in ascertaining either the one or the other, physi- cians have hardly yet gone any length. Without entering thus into the consideration of the different states of the serosity, it may be imagined there is a grosser view, that may be taken for distinguishing the different state of the flu- ids in different persons. There is in the human body, as living always in part upon the vegetable aliments, a power whereby these aliments, after being some time in the body, are considerably changed in their nature and qualities, being changed into animal fluids; which are in seve^ ral respects considerably different from the vegetable matters that were taken in. How this change is effected we do not exactly know; and the only circumstance that tends somewhat towards the illustration of it, is, that a change of vegetable matter, nearly analogous to this which happens in the human body, is made by its being subjected to putrefaction: and though we cannot distinctly perceive in what portions of the fluid, more especially in what man- ner, or to what degree, this is carried on in the body; we may pretty safely conclude in general, that the animal process is a part of the putrefactive fermentation. At the same time we observe, that after the animal process has brought the aliments into that state which is suited to the purposes of the animal oeconomy, or into the proper state of animal fluids, these are not long stationary in that condition, but are constantly advancing towards a putrid state; and that these degenerating and degenerated parts are what chiefly form the saline or earthy ingredients of the serosity, which, with a part of the fluid, are constantly passing out of the body by the several excretions. In this view, wc can perceive that the animal fluid may in its composition be more or less prone, and more or less advanced to- wards the putrescent state; and that by these circumstances the fluids may be different in the consistence of the whole mass, or in the chemical qualities of the serosity: but till the changes in these 54 TREATISE OF THE respects have proceeded to a morbid state, we can hardly perceive them when in a lesser degree, or say how far they can, or actually have, a share in distinguishing the temperaments of men in health. From the several remarks we have now offered respecting the serosity, it clearly enough appears, that there is a portion of the mass of blood which is always in a saline and acrid state ; and no- thing has been more common among physicians than to suppose that an acrimony of the fluids is a frequent cause of disease. It is very possible that it may be so, and upon many occasions it certainly is so; but it appears to me that the supposition has been too rashly and too frequently admitted, and that it has been for the most part purely gratuitous, without any proper evidence of it in fact. The possible species of acrimony have been little understood, and several of them altogether erroneously supposed. Others of them, though possibly occurring,have not been shownreally to take place in any unusual quantity; and the phenomena adduced in proof of them may be commonly explained from other causes, and are certainly often produced by causes of a different and even contrary nature. With respect to the various acrimony which we have allowed to be constantly present in the serosisy, it is probable, that upon dif- ferent occasions it may be in greater or lesser quantity; but for this very reason of its being constantly present, we must conclude that it does not stimulate the system very strongly. This happens partly from these acrids being constantly diffused in other mild fluids, partly from the arterial system not being sensible to such a stimu- lus, and partly from the acrids stimulating the secretory and excretory organs to a larger excretion, whereby they are by one or other excretion immediately thrown out of the body. From these considerations, I conclude, that a spontaneous and noxious acri- mony does not frequently arise; for the greatest part of mankind pass their lives without feeling any of the effects that might be im- puted to it: and although there are some instances of its opera- tion, these are very rare, and commonly in consequence of unusual and violent circumstances in which the body has been placed. With respect to acrid matters introduced into the body from without, there is no doubt that many of these are sufficiently pow- erful in disordering the system: but there are certainly also many thrown in that have no effect at all: for not to mention the various precautions which nature has taken to prevent their reaching the mass of blood, I think it is only necessary to observe, that even when in the mass of blood, they are rendered innocent, by their being joined with, and diffused in, the serosity, and with it soon thrown out by one or other of the excretions; so that some of the most acrid, as mercury and cantharides, show their effects only in the secretory or excretory organs. Upon the whole of this subject, therefore, I would conclude that MATERIA MEDICA. S3 the supposition of an acrimony, as the cause of diseases has been too frequently admitted in our modern pathology: and that it ought not to be admitted, .unless when the causes and existence of it are well ascertained. To conclude, I will not deny that the state of the fluids may have a share in distinguishing the different states of the body both in health and in sickness: but at the same time I must maintain, that .we know little of the manner in which it may have this effect: that our theory of the human fluids is still very incomplete and imperfect; that while in this condition it has been employed too rashly and too largely in every part of the system of physic; and that we have little temptation to do this, as it is highly probable that the state of the fluids depends very much upon other circum- stances of the constitution, which are more fundamental, and more powerful in determining the several conditions of it. Article III. Of the Distribution of the Fluids. The third circumstance by which we suppose the temperaments of men may be distinguished, is the different state of the distribu- tion of the fluids, and also the different state of the balance in this respect between the several parts of the system. It is in the first place evident, that it is chiefly by the action of the heart that the blood is propelled into the several vessels of the body: for although the action of the arteries contributes to promote the motion of the blood, and although upon certain occasions the action of the arteries in particular parts may be increased or di- minished, so that the momentum of the blood in particular parts is promoted or abated without any change in the action of the heart; yet it is presumed, that in the ordinary state of men in health, the action of the arteries is exactly in proportion to the action of the heart in distending them; and therefore that we may hold the action of the arteries as given, and consider the heart alone as the moving power. The action of the heart, therefore, taking place, the distribution of the blood into the several parts of the body will be in propor- tion to the capacity of the vessels, and in proportion to their den- sity or resistance in the several parts. Of this we have a clear ex- ample in the gradual formation of the body from its first begin- ning to its full growth; during which the parts are successively evolved, some of them attaining sooner than others their full growth, owing, as it appears to me, to the different state of the capacity and resistance of the vessels at the different periods of life; which, again, is probably determined by the state of the ori- ginal stamina. This makes a considerable difference in the state of a man at dif- ferent ages, during the gradual growth of the body; and it appears So TREATISE OF THE more especially with respect to the head, which, for several pur- poses of the animal oeconomv, is first evolved, and comes first to its full size. This certainly happens from the vessels of the head being, in respect of capacity and density, suited to that end; and consequently in the first part of life, the blood is determined in a proportionally greater quantity into the vessels of the head than into other parts of the system: and it is sufficiently probable, that this proportion is greater as the animal is nearer to its origin, and continues greater till the body attains its full growth; after which, however, it continually decreases as the animal advances to that period when it may be supposed to cease. When the body has arrived at its full growth, we very gene- rally find a symmetry and exact proportion established in the size and bulk of the several parts which fall under our observation; and we may then suppose the distribution of the blood to be suited exactly to that proportion. This indeed takes place with great uni- formity in the most part of men: but I still deem it possible, that a disproportioned capacity in certain parts may occur in certain men, and subsist in them through the whole of life. Accordingly, it has been commonly observed, that men of large heads, and large in proportion to the length of their bodies, are more liable to a plethoric state of the vessels of the head, and to the diseases de- pending upon it. I have also remarked in several instances, that men having their feet and hands shorter than in the usual propor- tion to the rest of the body, were more liable to a plethoric state of the lungs. ^ This leads me to observe, that of the proportions of the capa- cities of the several parts of the body influencing the distribution of the blood, one of the most considerable is, the difference of the capacities of the vessels of the lungs, and of those of the system of the aorta. It is especially discovered by the size of the thorax with respect to the other parts of the body; and this may be con- sidered as occasioning a considerable difference in the constitu- tions of men. What effects it has in disposing to certain diseases, is well known to physicians. Upon this subject of the distribution of the blood, it is particu- larly to be taken notice of, that there is a certain balance between the force of the heart, and the resistance of the extreme vessels by which the perspiration is thrown out. It is probable, that upon this, the state of that excretion in different persons very much de- pends; and which, perhaps, mav be illustrated by this/that the re- sistance of the extreme vessels seems, in some cases, to be so great as to diminish the perspiration, and in consequence the appetite. Accordingly the circumstance of men of considerable bulk, and tolerably full habit, having less appetite, and taking in less food, than others of the same bulk usually do, in my opinion may be ascribed to the weakness of the heart with respect to the extime MATERIA MEDICA. $7 vessels; and on the other hand we find men of a moderate size, and of a lean habit, take in very largely of food; which I think must be imputed to the force of the heart being in them, great, with respect to the resistance of the extreme vessels. With regard to the balance between the heart and extreme vessels, we cannot fail to remark, that although the interruption or diminution of perspiratibn is often owing to cold constricting the vessels, and increasing their resistance to the action of the heart; yet it is at the same time evident, that it frequently may be owing to the weakness of the heart not pushing the blood with due force towards the surface of the body, mat this last is rendered more liable to be affected by cold. This disposition to be affected by cold may take place not only occasionally, as it may in most persons, but seemingly it subsists in some through a great* part of/ life, and therefore may be considered as distinguishing the diffe- rent conditions and temperaments of men. Of all the differences occurring with respect to the distribution of the blood, there is none more remarkable than that of the pro- portion of the quantity in the arteries and veins. It is now ascer- tained, that this is different at different periods of life, from the difference occurring in certain circumstances of the arteries and veins at those different periods: for it is now known, that the coats of the veins have a greater proportional density in young animals than in old; and therefore the resistance being greater in the veins at the one period than the other, less blood will be received into the veins, and more will be retained in the arteries. This differ- ence of the quantities of blood in the arteries and veins manifestly occurs in the ordinary progress of life: but it is also probable, that in some persons the same difference, to a certain degree, takes place through the whole course of life, and gives a constant and considerable difference in the temperaments of men, as I shall mention more fully hereafter. Article IV. Of the different Proportion of Solid and Fluid in the Body. A fourth circumstance producing a difference of temperament, is the different proportion of solid and fluid in different persons. That this proportion varies at different periods of life; that in young persons the solids are less dense and the number of vessels is greater; and that consequently the proportion of fluid to solid is greater in young persons than in old, there can be no doubt: while, on the other hand, the quantity of solid is constantly increasing, and the number of vessels diminishing through the further course of life; so that these circumstances in old age are all of them en« tirely reversed. These conditions, therefore, are ever varying in the progress of life, and at the different periods of it, may be sup* Vol. I. H 56 TREATISE OF THE posed to be suited to the ceconomy: but at the same time, there are circumstances which vary this matter, independent of age. In the first place, as we have already remarked that the density of the simple solid is determined by the state of the original sta- mina, so the conditions of the system by which the change we have mentioned is produced, may be supposed in some measure to be determined by the same circumstance. In consequence of thisr the solids throughout the whole of life may be more dense in pro- portion to the size of the vessels; so that the proportion of fluid to solid, may be different in different persons of the same age, and in this respect, throughout the whole of life give a difference in the temperaments of men. In examining this subject, it is necessary not only to take into view the quantity of solid and fluid compared together on the whole, but to consider also the manner in which they are applied to one another. As the solids are formed into hollow tubes or vessels, through which the fluids are in constant motion, we must consider to what degree the vessels are filled by the fluids moving through them. In this view, it is evident that by the blood moving more slowly as it recedes farther from the heart, the vessels containing the red blood are constantly stretched or distended in every dimension beyond the size they would assume if no stretching power was applied to them; and this is what may be called a plethoric state of the system. Such a state is necessary not only to the evolution of the system, and consequently during the growth of the body, but throughout the whole of life it is requisite to the action of the vessels, and to the due tension and action of perhaps every fibre of the system. This, however, may be different in different per- sons at the same period of life; so that the vessels may be stretched more or less beyond their natural capacities. In infancy, the solids are lax and yielding, and the vessels can bear to be stretched more than they commonly are: but as from that period the density and resistance of the solids are perpetually increasing, so the tension of the arterial system is constantly approaching more and more to what it is able to bear, till at length the force of the heart can no longer extend the arteries at all, and a greater quantity of blood is thrown into the veins. In this condition matters remain through the rest of life; but at the same time both kinds of vessels remain in a plethoric state. From this view of the subject, it will appear that the human body, for the purposes of health and the proper exercise of its functions, is constantly in a plethoric state; but it is still supposed, that upon occasions it may be more or less so, and may be to such an excess as to produce either a disease, or at least a stronger ten- dency to disease. Indeed it is possible, that throughout the whole of life, the quantity of blood, and consequently the fulness and tension of the vessels, may in some persons be in a greater pro- MATERIA MEDICA. 59 portion than in others, and thereby have a share in distinguishing the temperaments of different men. This last supposition has been universally admitted, and proba- bly is well founded, although I find it difficult to determine cer- tainly when it does really take place. It may perhaps in general be determined by the fulness of the pulse, the apparent size of the vessels on the surface of the body, the ruddiness of the complexion, and the general succulency of the habit. With respect, however, to the latter circumstance, we are apt to be deceived by our not being able in many cases to discern whether the plumpness of the body is owing to the fulness of the blood-vessels, or to the quan- tity of oil in the adipose membrane. The causes of both are very much the same; and it is only when the fulness of the habit takes place to a considerable degree, that we can with any certainty ascribe it to obesity, rather than to plethora or a fulness of the blood-vessels. This necessarily leads me to take notice of the different state of the adipose membrane, as giving a considerable difference in the constitutions of men. The different states of the adipose mem- brane are for the most part abundantly obvious; and the effects of obesity are often sufficiently observable: but upon what internal state of the body, or upon what modification of the oeconomy, it always depends, is not easily to be ascertained. It may be sup- posed in general to depend upon the quantity of nourishment, and in particular upon the oily quality of the aliment taken into the body. But although it certainly does often, ceteris paribus, de- pend upon these, yet at the same time we are certain it does not always depend upon these alone, and that in producing it many other circumstances may concur. It seems to me very possible, that the aliment being given, the digestive and assimilating powers may often produce fluids more or less disposed to admit of a more or less ready separation of oil, and consequently of its secession into the adipose membrane; or that, on the contrary, the same powers may produce fluids in a more saline state, and in which the oily parts are mixed in such a manner as to render them more ready to pass off by the excre- tions. It is well known, that an active circulation which power- fully supports the excretions, is also powerful in preventing the accumulation of oil in the adipose membrane, and that this indeed happens in many persons without any assistance of bodily exer- cise; but we know also that this accumulation of oil is especially prevented in those who take a great deal of such exercise; because this not only supports and promotes the excretions; but gives occasion likewise to the constant absorption of the oil which had been before deposited in the adipose membrane. Whether a condition in the mass of blood disposing it to pro- duce a copious serosity, may not be a means of increasing the absorption of oil for the purpose of involving an increased acrL 60 TREATISE OF THE mony, I cannot positively determine; but this seems to be very probable, because we find emaciation to be the consequence of a morbid acrimony prevailing in the fluids, as is evident in cases of scurvy, syphilis, and cancer. To all these causes increasing or diminishing the fulness of oil in the adipose membrane, and which, in cases of obesity or lean- ness, may allow us in general to judge of the state of the system, and in particular of the state of the fluids, we must add a conside- ration which relates to the functions of particular parts. The secre- tion of oil does not seem to me to be yet clearly explained; but in general it may be supposed to depend upon a peculiar oganiza- tion in the secretory organ, or in the cellular texture receiving it; because it manifestly takes place in some parts of the body more than in others. For example, it takes place in the omentum more than in the mesentery; and it is often found in preternatural quan- tity, or in greater proportion, in certain parts than in others: so that we must suppose it to be occasioned by some peculiar cir- cumstances of those parts; and may therefore presume, that in the organs concerned in this business over the whole body, there is a peculiar constitution which, independent of all the others we have mentioned, has a great share in giving that state of obesity, of of leanness which often marks a difference in the temperaments of men. At the same time, the cause of this is not yet well ex* plained. Before concluding this subject, it may be proper to observe, that although a plethora or the fulness of the blood-vessels, and obesity or fulness of the adipose membrane, are very different circumstances, yet it is probable, that the fulness of the adipose membrane does not always compress and diminish the size of the blood-vessels, and gives a plethora ad spatium, which has often the effects of the plethora advolumen; and I have frequently remarked, that while persons of a fat habit may require evacuations of blood, yet at the same time they bear them worse than persons of a lean habit do. Article V. Of the State of the Nervous Power. A fifth circumstance that may serve to distinguish the different temperaments of men, is the different state of the nervous power. As we have already said, that the motions of the human body very generally begin in the motions of this power, and that the motions which commonly follow it depend upon the existence and State of the same power in the other parts of the system; so this power may be considered as the prime mover in the animal oecono- my ; and therefore the different states of it must unquestionably have a chief share in distinguishing the temperaments of different men. Its effects, however, in this respect, have, till very lately, been but little taken notice of. The general doctrine of the tempers MATERIA MEDICA. 61 ments, as depending upon the state of the moving powers, has in- deed been delivered by several writers; but there are none of them who have prosecuted their enquiries so far as to ascertain those different states of the moving powers which may especially pro- duce the difference of temperaments. I shall now attempt this sub- ject; but, fully aware of the difficulties that attend it, I shall sug- gest what I have to offer with a great deal of diffidence. The different states of the nervous system may, I think, be re- ferred to three heads; according to the different state of its Sensi- bility, its Irritability, and its Strength. As the motions of the nervous system are most commonly ex- cited by bodies acting upon the sentient parts; so I shall begin with considering the sensibility of the system. Of Sensibility. We have before defined sensibility to be that condition of the living body, whereby it is capable of being affected in a peculiar manner by the impulse of other bodies on certain parts of its ner- vous system; and which are therefore properly named its Sentient parts. The extent of the sentient parts, although perhaps it may not be yet entirely, is, however, pretty fully, ascertained; and that in ge- neral the sentient parts are the nerves, and every part into the composition of which nerves enter, so as to be exposed to the im- pulse of other bodies. We are not, however, concerned here in any dispute upon this subject; having to consider only the degree of sensibility that may be in common to the whole of the sentient parts, and how far that may be constantly different in different persons. In considering this, we can perceive pretty clearly that the sen- sibility of persons is different at the different periods of life; and that it may be occasionally varied by the temperature of heat and cold applied, by the application of stimulant or narcotic powers, by the state of sleep and watching, and by some other conditions of the body. All these causes occasionally changing the state of sen- sibility, may deserve much attention in pathology: But I omit them here, and enquire only after those permanent states that may give a different degree of sensibility to different men at the same 'period of life, and modify the operation of occasional causes throughout the whole of it. In this enquiry, I shall consider sensibility as it may depend either upon the state of the sentient extremities, or upon the state i of the sensorium. With respect to the first: In so far as these extremities are the organs of peculiar sense, their sensibility may appear different ac- cording to the different state of the organ conveying and transmit- ting the impulses of external bodies to the proper sentient medul- lary extremities; and in this way the sensibility'of different organs may be very different in the same person: but these differences we S2 TREATISE OF THE at present neglect, and enquire only into the different states of sen- sibility in the proper sentient medullary extremities, which may be in common to the whole of the sentient parts of the same per- son, but may be different in different men. This difference mav, I think, depend either upon the different mobility of the nervous power, or upon the different degree of tension in the nervous extremities. I here presume with some confidence, that the motions occur- ring in the nervous system are the motions of a subtile elastic fluid somehow connected with their medullary substance; and I suppose that this fluid may have its density and elasticity in a certain pro- portion to one another, but this varying in different persons, and in the same person at different periods of life. From hence it will follow, that as the elasticity is greater with respect to the density, the mobility of the fluid will be greater, and the body in which it takes place will have a greater degree of sensibility; and on the contrary, that a lesser sensibility will result from a greater density with respect to the elasticity. That such a difference in the proportions of elasticity and den- sity does actually take place, may be readily concluded from what happens in the course of life, where we can distinctly perceive that the sensibility is gradually diminishing as the density of the simple solid is increasing: and if, as we have said above, the ori- ginal stamina give a different state of the density of the simple solid in different persons, and that proportionally through the whole of life, we shall have no difficulty in supposing that the same cir- cumstance will give a difference in the proportional density and elasticity of the nervous fluid, and therefore a difference of its sen- sibility. It is much in illustration of all this, that the sensibility is evidently less, according as the strength of the system following the density of the simple solid is greater in different persons, as well as at the different periods of life. The difference of sensibility may therefore depend upon the different condition of the nervous fluid inherent in the medullary substance: and that it is liable to be in such different conditions, we learn from the different causes of the difference of sensibility mentioned above; some of which, such as narcotic powers, or heat and cold, affect the sensibility of the nerves, even when en- tirely removed from all connection with the other parts of the sys- tem. A second circumstance determining the state of sensibilitv, seems to be the degree of tension that is given to the extremities of the medullary fibres in all the several organs of sense. To ex- plain this, I suppose that the motion of the nervous fluid is an os- cillatory motion in an elastic fluid, and that the most part of im- pressions made upon the organs of sense are made by the impulses of the oscillatory motions of other elastic fluids; and if all this be just, it will be evident that the motions excited in the nerves by MATERIA MEDICA. 65 impulses upon their extremities, will be more or less considerable according as these extremities are under a greater or lesser degree of tension. For giving this necessary tension, nature seems to have provided, by distributing a very copious ramification of blood-ves- sels among the medullary fibres that are properly the sensorium in every organ of sense. It is no where more remarkable than in the retina of the eye; and that the tension of the blood-vessels must give a tension to the medullary fibres thus intermixed and coherent with them, is sufficiently probable. That the increased tension of the blood-vessels has an effect in increasing the sensi- bility of the eye, is well known from many cases of opthalmia, or, as I may otherwise express it, in the cases of afflux of blood into the vessels of the eye; in which the sensibility of the retina is in- creased to a prodigious degree. The increased sensibility both of the eye and ear that commonly attends phrenitis, is readily ex- plained in the same manner; and some other illustrations might be given to the same purpose. I had a case in which the feeling of a hand was lost: and it was afterwards clearly perceived, that the loss of feeling was owing to a palsy of the brachial artery, whose pulsations gradually ceased from the wrist to the arm-pit; whence I judged, that the loss of feeling was to be imputed to the want of blood and tension in the papillae of the skin, into each of which we know a branch wof an artery enters. It will appear, therefore, that the sensibility of the extremities of the nerves depends in some measure on the degree of tension given to them by the blood-vessels constantly intermixed with them: and as we have said, that the constitutions of men are dif- ferent by the difference of their plethoric state; so the difference of their sensibility may be merely on this account greater or less. It has been already observed, that the constitution of the ner- vous fluid corresponds in some measure with the other marks of strength or weakness in the system; and this I suppose to take place in every person through the whole of life, and therefore to afford a proof of its depending on the state of density in the ner- vous fluid. Before dismissing the subject, I think it necessary to explain a case of occasionally increased sensibility that may occur in any person or at any period of life. It is the increase of sensibility •n occasion of any unusual increase of debility. In order to ac- count for this, we suppose the whole of the nerves, or the whole ©f the medullary substance of the nervous system, to be every where pervaded with the subtile elastic fluid above mentioned; and that this elastic fluid will always bring its several parts to a balance with one another, so as to become of the same density in every part. At the same time it is highly probable, that in the brain, as being the principal seat of this system, and to which all 64 TREATISE OF THE the other parts are in some measure united, there is a common centre of motion and power; from whence, in consequence of cer- tain circumstances, the nervous fluid is determined with greater force, and perhaps in larger quantity, into some parts than into others. This is what 1 would term the Action or Energy of the Brain ; and it is particularly evident in the operations of the ner- vous power in the case of voluntary motions. It is most probably a certain degree of this energy which constantly supports the fulness in every part of the nervous system; and it is also pretty plainly this which supports the inherent power of the moving fibres.— Indeed it is equally probable, that the same energy supports the fulness and density of the nervous fluid in the sentient extremi- ties. And from all this, it appears to me that we may readily understand why the weakened energy of the brain, as not sup- porting the usual density in the sentient extremities, should pro- duce a greater degree of mobility, and consequently of sensibility. It is in this manner I would endeavour to account for the in- creased sensibility accompanying so many cases of debility : but it is to be observed, that in certain cases this weakening of the density of the nervous fluid in the sentient extremities may go to excess, and destroy sensibility and sense altogether. This doctrine of the energy of the brain being, in a state of health, constantly extended every where to the sentient as well as to the moving extremities of the nerves, may be illustrated from remarking that when, upon any occasion, the energy of the brain is gradually failing, the effects of this every where appear from the loss of sense and motion, happening first in the parts most distant from the brain, while they are found to subsist longer in these parts which are nearer to it. % We have thus considered the state of sensibility as depending upon the state of the sentient extremities: but I have mentioned that it may also depend upon the state of the sensorium commune; and which, therefore, now requires our attention. Before entering particularly upon this, it may be stated as a question, Whether the state of the nervous cords transmitting motions from the extremities to the sensorium, may not affect the sensibility of the system ? And on this subject it might be sup- posed, that the state of the membranes enveloping the nervous fibres in their course, as well as the state of the cellular texture and blood-vessels laid in these envelopements, and seemingly every where interposed between the several nervous cords, should, according to the different circumstances of these interposed parts, render the conveyance of the motions of the nervous fluid from the extremities to the sensorium more or less free and forcible. It is indeed sufficiently probable, that the state of these circumstances may have effects in this matter; but we hardly know the cases in MATERIA MEDICA. 65 which they operate, and still less how far these circumstances are permanently different in different men. Supposing, however, the motions propagated from the extre- mities to the sensorium to be quite unaffected in the course of the nerves, our question then must be, How far the effects of these motions in producing a sensation are affected by the state of the sensorium itself ? With regard to this question, it may, in the first place, be presumed that the constitution of the nervous fluid, with respect to the density and elasticity, will be the same of the senso- pium as in the extremities; and therefore, so far as it depends upon this constitution, the sensibility will be in the same degree in the one as in the other. It is likewise equally probable, that a certain degree of tension in the medullary substance of the brain given to it by the fulness of the blood-vessels there, will also have the same effects on sensibility as I nave alleged in the case of the extremities. As, however, the state of tension in the vessels of the brain may, upon certain occasions, be greater than in the sentient ex- tremities of the nerves ; so this state of the sensorium may be a cause of greater sensibility, while the force of the motions propa- gated from the sentient extremities remains the same as before. Nothing indeed is more evident than that the energy of the brain, that is, its action in determining the nervous power into the rest of the system, depends very much upon the fulness and ten- sion of its blood-vessels; and it is therefore to me probable, that the degree of sensibility in the sensorium will in some measure depend upon the same circumstance. It may perhaps be started as an objection to this, that a certain excess of fulness in the blood- vessels of the brain, seems to have the effect of destroying sense altogether ; and that any preternatural fulness mighthave, in some measure, the effect of impairing the sensibility of the sensorium.-— The first part of this is indeed true; and I dare not assert that a certain degree of fulness may not render the motions of the ner- vous power less free, and thereby impair the sensibility of the sensorium: But still this will not destroy the opinion otherwise sq well supported, that while the motion of the nervous power re- mains in a certain measure free, a certain degree of fulness is necessary to the energy of the brain, and therefore that a certain degree of it may increase sensibility. We have thus found, that sensibility, so far as it depends upon the constitution of the nerves and nervous fluid, will be the same in the sensorium as in the sentient extremities. We have like- wise found, that an increase of the sensibility of the system may arise from an increase of tension in the blood-vessels of the brain, as manifestly happens in the case of phrenitis and some other diseases: and there is yet to be mentioned a state of the sen* sorium, which, in another respect, affects the sensibility of the system. Vol, h I 6ft- TREATISE OF THE Every body knows that the most part of sensations arising riv the sensorium are accompanied with what is called a Reflex Sen- sation, that is, a sense of agreeable or disagreeable in the simple sensation; and the circumstances of this have a great share in determining the effects of the sensation upon the system. This I take to be entirely a function of the sensorium, which, according to its different conditions, is fitted to increase or diminish the state of reflex sensation. That the condition of the sensorium is upon different occasions different in the same person, is sufficiently ob- vious ; and it appears to me no less obvious, that however it may- be varied on different occasions, there is a character or tone in these respects runs throughout the whole of life, and is a circum- stance very much distinguishing the different temperaments of men. It is indeed difficult to ascertain the condition of the senso- rium that disposes it to have agreeable or disagreeable sensations more or less readily, or in different degrees excited in it ; but though this cannot be done, yet it is very proper to mention it as modifying the sensibility of the system, and therefore of great influence in the pathology of physic, and in distinguishing the moral characters of men. Having now treated of the sensibility of the nervous system, I shall proceed, in the next place, to consider its irritability; which may have a great share in distinguishing the temperaments of men. The general idea of irritability has been already mentioned; and we have likewise observed, that this property belongs only to certain fibres of a peculiar structure and conformation fitting them for this purpose. Of Irritability. In what I am to offer upon this subject, I abstract entirely from the force with which the contractions of moving fibres may be performed, which by some may be comprehended under the title of Irritability; but at present I consider only the readiness or fa- cility with which the contractions of moving fibres are excited.— It is very probable that certain circumstances of this conformation may be so different in different cases, as to give different degrees of irritability; but both of the general structure, and of the varie- ties of it which may occur in particular cases, I am entirely igno- rant. Our late physiologists have supposed that there is a degree of greater irritability in certain muscles and moving fibres than in others; and particularly, that it is greater in those of the heart, the alimentary canal, and diaphragm, than in those of the other parts of the body. But whether this be owing to any peculiarity in the structure of the fibres in those more irritable parts, or merely to the power of habit, which by repetition seems to give a greater irritability to every fibre of the system, may be justly MATERIA MEDICA. €7 •& question. It does not appear to me that we have evidence of any peculiar structure in the fibres of the heart, or other supposed more irritable parts; and at the same time, as we know them to be most constantly under the most frequent repetition of their con- tractions, I am persuaded that their seemingly greater irritability, or rather the persistency of their irritability, is owing entirely to the power of habit. Presuming, therefore, that we do not know the circumstances of the moving fibres themselves, which might give them in cer- tain cases a greater degree of irritability, we must seek for the Causes of this in some general circumstances of the system. On this subject, the most obvious conjecture is, that the irritability of the moving fibres depends upon the same causes with the sensibi- lity of the system. Many observations prove that these two quali- ties or conditions are commonly in the same degree in many per- sons ; and it is probable that the jesser density of the nervous power, which renders it more moveable in the organs of sense, may also render it such in the organs of motion. It seems to happen ac- cordingly in young persons, in the female sex, and in all persons naturally or occasionally weak. This leads to the supposition that irritability and sensibility are in the same degree, and depend upon the like causes in every per- son: and as the contractions of moving fibres produced seem to be commonly in proportion to the irritation applied, which is so often a certain sensation; so it might be supposed that a general irrita- bility being given, the state of it with regard to particular con- tractions might be neglected, and these contractions be referred entirely to the state of sensibility. This certainly may be judged to be often the case: but it ap- pears to me that we must not suppose it in all cases; because it seems evident that sensibility and irritability are not always in the same condition in the same person. I conclude this from observ- ing that these two qualities are often under different laws. With respect to sensibility, it is welt known that the force of impressions in exciting sensation is by repetition constantly diminished; where- as, by a like repetition of motions, the readiness with which these motions are repeated, or what may be called the irritability of the parts, is as constantly increased. Thus, in certain cases where mo- tions are frequently repeated by the application of the same im- pression, sometimes the one of the laws mentioned takes place, and sometimes the other; so that sometimes to produce a repeti- tion of the same motion, the force of the impression employed must be constantly increased; and in other cases the motion may be repeated though the force of the impression be constantly di- minished. These are cases with which physicians are well ac. TREATISE OF THE brain; so this alone may be considered as determining the strength of every system. The question, however, upon this arising, is, What gives a stronger energy of the brain in one person than in another? The answer is, that it probably depends upon the state of the medullary fibre containing a nervous fluid of greater density in one person than in another. Indeed it is rendered very probable by this, that in certain diseases of the brain, as in mania, the strength of the system is commonly increased to an uncommon degree; while at the same time we find a great change to have happened in the me- dullary substance of the brain, by its becoming of a more dense substance than usual. Having thus explained the cause of strength in general, it is ne- cessary further to explain how, agreeably to these principles, the state of strength comes to differ in a considerable degree at the different periods of life. That from the beginning of life to a certain period, the strength of the body should be constantly increasing, will be readily ex- plained by the increasing density of the simple solid, and with that the density of the nervous fluid in the medullary fibre. This, however, has its limited period; for although the density of the solid is still considerable, and even going on to increase, yet the strength of the system does not increase beyond a certain de- gree; and, on the contrary, is from a certain period constantly declining. This remains to be explained; and may be attempted in the following manner. We have said that the nervous fluid has the properties of elasticity and density combined in a certain propor- tion ; but that this proportion is constantly varying in the course of life. In the beginning, the elasticity is great in proportion to the density; but while the cause of any increase of elasticity is not known, the increase of density, from what we have said before, is evident and certain; and accordingly with that the strength of the system is constantly increasing. If, however, at a certain period it shall happen, that the density shall be increased to such a degree that it is not moveable by the same impressions on its elasticity as are necessary to excite a strong vibration, the strength of the sys- tem can increase no further; and, on the contrary, according as the density is constantly increasing, the force of the energy of the brain must be perpetually diminishing, and with that the strength of the system continually declining. This is agreeable to the phenomena. In the beginning of life, sensibility depending upon the mobility of the nervous fluid, is considerable; but as life advances, it is constantly diminishing, whilst the strength of the system is still increasing: and after a certain period,- while both the elasticity is farther diminished and MATERIA MEDICA. the density farther increased, the strength that can be exerted must be continually declining. This perhaps may be illustrated by some other considerations. In the beginning of life, the force of the heart is strong with re- spect to the system of arteries; and the latter accordingly become stretched outj and the body grows in bulk. This, however, we know, by the increasing density of the arteries, goes on more and more slowly till it stops altogether. Whilst the force of the heart is constantly filling and distending the arterial system, we may suppose the elasticity of the nervous fluid to be supported in every part of the system; and while the density is at the same time increasing, the strength of the body, by the tension and fulness of the arteries, will be supported and in- creased, as we have explained above. But we have also observed above, that the exertion of the ener- gy of the brain requires the fulness and tension of the vessels of that organ; and that its energy will be supported and increased by the general fulness of the arterial system. The increasing fulness of this, however, has its limits both from the density of the arteries becoming too great for the force of the heart, and from the resist- ance of the veins becoming gradually diminished. To explain this latter circumstance, we must remark, that, from the experiments of Sir Clifton Wintringham, it appears, that in the beginning of life, the density of the coats of the veins, and consequently their resistance to the reception of blood from the arteries, is propor- tionally greater with respect to that of the arteries, in young ani- mals than in those that are older: but the density of the arteries, by the action of the heart distending and pressing them, is con- stantly increasing; while the same power not being applied to the veins, their density is not proportionally increased. From this it must happen, that the density of the arteries constantly increasing will come at length to be proportionally greater than that of the veins, and consequently throw a greater proportion of blood into the latter; and after a certain period, the density of the arteries still increasing and throwing a greater proportion of blood into the veins, the fulness of the arteries themselves will no longer increase, but will rather be further diminished. As we have, however, said above, that the vigour of the system depends much upon the ful- ness of the arterial system, so, as soon as this last ceases, the for- mer can go on no longer to increase, and will be rather gradually diminishing. Here, therefore, is another cause of a period being put to the in- creasing vigour of the system, and at the same time a cause assigned of its thereafter constantly declining. It is sufficiently probable, that both these causes take place together at the same time of life; and with great reason it may be supposed to be nearly at the age of th irtv-five. The whole of this subject might be further illustrated, by show- Vol. I. K ft "TREATISE OF THE ing that the phenomena, in the decline of life and in old age, may be explained upon the principles we have laid down ; but I have not room for such discussions in this work* I have no\v considered, Under five heads, the chief circumstances of the animal oeconomy, and have endeavoured to point out the different conditions in which these may upon different occasions be found: and in attempting to assign the causes of these condi- tions, I have shown in what manner, and upon what occasions, they may be different in different persons. Of Particular Temperaments. It has thus been fny ehdeavbUf tb lay some foundation for dis- tinguishing- the temperaments of men : but these temperaments, as has been already observed, are not to be distinguished by at- tending to anyone of these chief circumstances alone; for the state of any of these is commonly combined with a particular state of all the others ; and it is only by a combination of the particular states of the chief circumstances in the same person, that the tem- peraments are to be properly distinguished. To explain this, we presume, that in arty one person a particular state of the simple solid is pretty constantly fcotnbined with a particular state of the fluids, with a particular state of the distribution and proportion of these, and all these with a particular state of the nervous system; and as such a combination may be formed in another person, but consisting in a difference of the particular states of each of the chief circumstances, this will give a different temperament in these two persons. So far therefore as we can find such combinations to be steadily formed in any particular person, we shall be able to as- sign his particular temperament. It must, however, be acknowledged to be uncertain, how faf certain states of the chief circumstances of the oeconomy are stea- dily connected together, and therefore how far we can extend our doctrine of temperaments to a great number of different men; but at the same time, it is only by presuming upon a certain steadiness of these cbmbinations, that we can go any length in explaining the difference of temperament* The ancients very early established a distinction of tempera- ments, which the schools of physic have almost universally adopt- ed ever since, and appears to me to be founded in observation. I am very much of opinion, that we can perceive a combination of a particular state of the chief circumstances of the oeconomy to take place very steadily in certain persons, and thereby to form at least two of the temperaments assigned by the ancients. Accordingly, the circumstances in which these two temperaments seem to con* sist, we shall now endeavour to explain: and I shall hereafter con- sider how much farther we may proceed. In doing this, it will be proper, in the first place, to mark out the several external appearances that concur in the same person; MATERIA MEDICA, fs and from which concurrence taking place in many different per* sons, we are led to presume in these, one and the same combina- tion or temperament. One to be particularly mentioned, is that temperament which the ancients, and which physicians at all times since, have distin- guished by the appellation of the Sanguine. In this, the external appearances are the following. The hair soft, and never much curl- ed, is of a pale colour, or from thence passing through different shades to a red; the skin is smooth and white; the complexion ruddy; the eyes commonly blue; the habit of the body soft and plump; after the period of manhood, disposed to obesity, and at all times readily sweating upon exercise; the strength of the whole body is moderate ; and the mind sensible, irritable, cheerful, and unsteady, Before going further, it is necessary to observe, that as no ex-* act measure can be had of the different degrees in which the qua- lities we are to mention take place, I suppose a middle state very nearly ascertained by observation; and I am unable to give any other measure of qualities than merely by marking them as below/ or above the middle state. Upon this footing I would explain the sanguine temperament as consisting in the following state of the several chief circumstances of the oeconomy. I suppose the simple solids to be lax; the mass of blood to be of a moderate consistence; the red globules and serum to be in large proportion; and the serosity to be of mode- rate acrimony, I presume the heart to be active, and rather strong with respect to the s>7stem of blood-vessels; the quantity of blood in the arteries large with respect to that in the veins; and the quantity of fluids in the whole body large in proportion to the quantity of solid; the state of the nervous system to be sensible and irritable, but in every state readily changeable. This tempera- ment is most exquisite from the time of puberty to that of man- hood ; but continues its character in some measure throughout the whole of life. This temperament is liable to hemorrhagy, inflam- mation, and hysteria; and with the ancients made the temperament turn calidum et humidum. The other temperament distinguished by the ancients, which I Can characterise most distinctly and explain most clearly, is thai; which has been very constantly named the Melancholic. In this, the external appearances are the following. The hair is hard, black, and curled; the skin is coarser, and of a dun colour, with a corresponding complexion; the eyes very constantly black; the habit of the body rather hard and meagre; the strength considera- ble; the mind slow, disposed to gravity, caution and timidity, with little sensibility or irritability, but tenacious of all emotions once excited, and therefore of great steadiness. In this tempera- ment I judge the simple solids to be firm and dense; the mass of blood to be of a thicker consistence ; the gluten abundant; the recj 76 TREATISE OF THE globules and serum in moderate quantity, and the serosity more acrid; the heart rather torpid, but strong; the quantity of blood in the veins large with respect to that in the arteries; and the quantity of fluids in the whole system moderate in proportion to the solids; the state of the nervous system to be, as expressed above, by the state of the mind, that is, less sensible and irritable, but strong and steady, and disposed to admit the reflex sensations of sadness and fear. This temperament is most completely form- ed in advanced life; but the characters of it appear often very ear- ly. It is liable to melancholia, hypocondriasis, maelena, and hae- morrhois ; and with the ancients made the temperamentum frigid- urn et siccum. These are the two temperaments we can the most clearly distin- guish; because the}- arc almost in every respect the opposites of each other. With respect to both, I think some illustration may be obtained, from considering what happens to every person both in the body and the mind during the progress of life. Of these changes I have already spoken pretty fully, when treating of the strength and weakness of the nervous system. From the circumstances there pointed out, it will appear, that those which chiefly determine to a sanguine temperament, occur especially in the first part of life; and that those which determine to the melancholic, as certainly oc- cur in the after parts of it. Accordingly, from the effects we may conclude to the causes, especially when at the same time the exist- ence of such causes is clearly ascertained; and therefore we may venture to assert, that the changes which happen in the course of life do well illustrate the doctrine laid down respecting these two temperaments, the sanguine and melancholic. A further illustration to the same purpose may be drawn from the consideration of the sexes: for it is obvious, that the circum- stances of the sanguine temperament, both in the body and in the mind, appear more prevalent in the female sex; while a greater density and less flexibility of the simple solid, with proportional greater density and less mobility of the nervous power, make the character of the male sex approach nearer to that of the melan- cholic. I have thus endeavoured to explain the different states of the hu- man body, by referring them to two general states or tempera- ments, which not only serve to distinguish the most part of men through the whole of life, but also to distinguish the different sex- es, and likewise the state of particular persons as they pass through the different ages of life. Our doctrine therefore, will apply very extensively; but perhaps it may not seem to be very readily appli- cable to that great variety which would appear to take place in the human constitution. With a view, therefore, to attempt some explanation of this va- riety, we shall remark, in the first place, that it may in some MATERIA MEDICA. iM measure depend upon the two temperaments, which we have supposed chiefly to prevail, being seldom perfectly formed; or, in other words, upon the particular state of the circumstances in which they consist, being seldom found in the most complete degree. For example, it is seldom that in the sanguine, the sim- ple solid is the most lax, or in the melancholic the most rigid, that is compatible with health. There is reason to suppose, that from the medium state of density- and firmness in the solid, there may be various intermediate degrees between the most lax upon the one hand, and the most rigid upon the other; and supposing that with each of these intermediate degrees there is united a corres- ponding state of the nervous power, there may then be so many intermediate and varying temperaments, neither completely san- guine nor melancholic, though always approaching to the one or the other. This may explain, in some measure, the varieties in the temperaments of men, but it may be justly doubted if it will account for the whole. It will therefore be proper, in the second place, to observe, that it is doubtful if the chief circumstances of the oeconomy are always in the same proportion to one another that has been above supposed. For example, we have supposed that the density and the mobility of the nervous power are always in a certain propor- tion to one another: but this is not very certainly the case; and if we may suppose, as seems to be allowable, that in two persons, the density being equal, the mobility may be greater in the one than in the other; so that, if this should happen, it will be ob- vious that it might give a more exquisite formation of the san- guine, or a more moderate state of the melancholic temperament. In this way, it is possible, that with a certain degree of density greater than usual in the sanguine, there may be a mobility greater than in proportion to this, we shall then have a middle tempera- ment between the sanguine and the melancholic, and perhaps what the ancients meant to denote by the title of Choleric; that is, of more strength than in the sanguine, and of more irritability than in the melancholic. It is possible also, that there may occu* a simple solid more dense than usual in the sanguine, and at the same time from a more humid state of greater flexibility than iu the melancholic; and if, along with these, there be an analogous state of the medullary fibre of less mobility and elasticity in pro- portion to the density, we shall then have that temperament which the ancients expressed by the title of Phlegmatic; that is, with less sensibility and irritability, but with more strength and steadiness, than in the sanguine, and at the same time with more laxity and more mutability than in the melancholic. In the whole of this discussion, we have considered the state of the nervous power as chiefly modifying the temperaments of men; and more readily enter into this supposition, because we presume the state of the nervous power to be almost always attended by T8 TREATISE OF THE a corresponding state of the simple solid, and that both these together pretty constantly modify the state of the fluids, both with respect to their quality, their proportion, and distribution. Of these latter circumstances, however, constantly following the state of the simple solids and of the nervous power, I am by no means certain. As we observe, that at different periods of life there is a difference between the arteries and the veins, as to the circumstances of density and capacity; so it is possible, that some difference in these respects may be established in the original sta- mina, and may therefore in some degree run throughout the whole of life, and thus vary the state of the fluids. It is also possible, that there may be conditions of the original stamina determining a difference in the strength and activity of the heart with respect to the capacitv of the blood-vessels; or, on the other hand, the state of the heart being given, there may be a difference in the density and resistance of the sanguiferous system. In all these cases, there may arise a difference in the quality, proportion, and distribution of the fluids, and thereby a further variety in the temperaments of men: and thus perhaps we may account for the difference of stature, bulk, and proportion, of the several parts of the body in different persons. All this might be illustrated more fully; but perhaps we have insisted long enough upon what may by many be thought perhaps too much depending upon conjectural reasonings. It no doubt may, in some respects, be liable to this imputation; but I should fain hope that it may serve to lay the foundation of speculations which must be pursued before we can explain the important, and therefore necessary doctrines concerning the temperaments of men. On this subject it is very requisite to remark further, that the consideration of the operation of medicines is not only concerned with the general state or temperaments of the human constitution, but also very much concerned with the peculiar conditions which take place in particular persons, or in particular parts of the body; and which conditions are seemingly neither depending upon, nor necessarily' connected with, the general temperaments. Of Idiosyncrasies. These conditions are what physicians have called Idiosyncra- sies. The term has been confounded with that of temperaments; but I mean here to express by it those conditions of certain per- sons whereby certain functions of the whole or of particular parts of the body are affected by applications made to them, very dif- ferently from what these functions are affected in others, and very differently from what they are in persons seemingly of the same general temperament. Of these idiosyncrasies, the greater part of them seem to me to consist in a preternatural degree of the sensibility or irritability of MATERIA MEDICA. 79 certain parts of the system, or in a peculiar sensibility or irritabi- lity of the whole body, or in particular parts of it with regard to '.ertain applications, and to those only. Of such idiosyncrasies, those that have been the most taken no- tice of are those which occur with respect to the effects of taste and odour. Tastes are of considerable varietv; but they are re- duced to certain classes and orders, in which the most part of men are so well agreed, as to shew that the operation is nearly the same in all of them. This certainly happens with respect to the simple sensation; but with respect to the reflex of agreeable or disagreeable, this is often considerably different in different per- sons, and shows that there is room here for an idiosyncrasy which accordingly takes place; and there are many instances of it in the records of physic. The instances, however, of a peculiar aversion in particular persons to certain odours, are much more frequent. The records of physic are full of them; and examples of them are known almost to every body. The sensations arising from odour seem to be more various in different men than those arising from tastes; so that mankind have hardly established any other distinction of the former than that of agreeable or disagreeable. Subdivisions have been attempted, but with no consent of mankind, so as to be expressed with any precision in common language. The sen- sation, therefore, is probably much varied in different men, and gives room for idiosyncrasies, which accordingly appear without our being able to refer them to any particular classes or orders of odours; and the effects are not less remarkable by the opera- tion of the same odour upon different persons, than by its being so powerful in its degree, producing syncope, hysteria, and epilepsy. These peculiar effects of sensations are manifestly extended to the alimentary canal. In this, and particularly in the stomach, the sensibility is not correspondent to the general sensibility and irri- tability of the whole system: for there are instances of strong persons moved by very small doses of emetics; whilst, on the other hand, there are seemingly weakly persons who are not moved but by very large doses of the same. There are instances of sensibility in the stomach that are pecu- liar to certain persons, and appearing in few others. But I must acknowledge, with regard to several of these idiosyncrasies, it is not easy to determine whether their effects depend upon an im- pression made upon the nerves of the stomach, or upon a modifi- cation which these substances give to the fermentations and solu- tions that take place there. For example, if fresh honey gives pains of the stomach to certain persons, as this is obviated by boiling the honev before it is taken into the stomach, it may be a 80 TREATISE OF THE doubt whether this volatile part of fresh honey operates by an im- pression upon the nerves of the stomach, or by exciting a more active fermentation there. The acescent fermentation which occurs always in a greater or lesser degree, is manifestly more or less rea- dily excited in different persons; for we know many persons who take in acids and acescents in large quantities, without any ap- pearance of a stronger acescency being excited, while I have known certain others from a very small quantity of acescents taken in, have the strongest marks of a morbid acescency immediately produced. We know so little of the gastric fluid, and of its operation on different substances, that it is very difficult to explain the idiosyn- crasies which take place in certain persons and not in others, with respect to milk, oils, shell-fish, and some other substances. One of the most remarkable is this, that the white of egg, one of the mildest substances in nature, and readily digested in the stomachs of almost all men, cannot however be taken in, even in small quantity, by certain persons, without immediately occasioning much pain and sickness. In any attempts to account for these peculiarities, it ought to be kept in view, that the stomach is not only affected by sensations depending upon impression, but likewise by those which depend upon consciousness, or a perception of the state of its own action; and that undoubtedly many of its sensations are of the latter kind. It does not seem necessary to enter upon the consideration of the idiosyncrasies of the intestinal canal, as they are to be ex- plained from the same degree of sensibility that may be peculiar here as in the stomach. What farther may arise from a peculiar state of the bile or other fluids poured into the intestines, we can- not pretend to judge. The various state of the alvine excretion depends upon many different causes which there is no place for considering here; but it is most likely that some of these causes may be more considerable and peculiar in certain persons than in others, and give an idiosyncracy in that respect. A torpor, or slower motion of the intestinal canal, is especially to be suspected. We have thus endeavoured to mark out the various causes of idiosyncrasy; and although perhaps we may not have done it completely, yet it is hoped enough has been said to shew, that in the employment of remedies a: physician must be directed by the consideration of idiosyncrasies as well as by the general tempe- rament. In the case of any person, therefore, occurring to a physician for the first time as a patient, particular inquiry should be made respecting the idiosyncrasies which may prevail in his constitution; hkI if he himself should happen to have had no experience of 1 be effects of particular applications, the idiosyncrasies of hi3 pa- MATERIA MEDICA. 8! rents should next be inquired after; for idiosyncrasies are very often hereditary. We have thus attempted to point ovt the various states of the human constitution that ir*y be f°und more constantly different in different persons; but » w^ be proper now to remark, that these constitutions may be aI*iously modified by those circumstances of climate diet exercie> anc*tne ^^e' to which men may be exposed in the course of l-^ an<^ which it is well known have a great pow- er in changing ae natural constitution into one not only very dif- ferent but ne*iaPs even opposite. It is therefore well known that a physician in Practising upon the human constitution, either for preserving health or curing diseases, must not only consider the temperaments and idiosyncrases which nature has originally given to the constitution, but must also consider the accidental states of it whi'h may have been produced by the circumstances and man- ner o'Ufe. Jc is, however, not my business here either to explain those va- rious accidental states, or to assign their causes; although it might be proper enough to lay a foundation for that doctrine by explain- ing the powers of custom and habit in general, as I formerly endeavoured to do it in my lectures on the materia medica. It does not, however, appear to me necessary to do it now, because for a pretty full information on this subject, I can refer to a Dis- sertation de Consuetudine, published some years ago by my son, Dr. Henry Cullen. To conclude what we have to offer respecting the operation of medicines, it is proper now to remark, as I have said above, that in considering this subject it is very necessary to attend to the sympathy and consent which take place between the several parts of the human system; and although we cannot prosecute this consideration fully here, we must not omit taking notice of one very general case of very great influence in almost the whole of the doctrines of the materia medica, as this particular sympathy is concerned in the operation of the most part of medicines, and ex* plains the operation of many which is otherwise difficult to be un- derstood. This is the operation of medicines upon the stomach, from which motions are often propagated to almost every distant part of the human body, and peculiar effects produced in those parts, whilst the medicine itself is only in contact with the stomach. The stomach is the part by which the most part of substances in- troduced into the interior parts of the body generally pass ; and it is endued with a peculiar sensibility, which renders it ready to be affected by every substance entering into it that is active with re- spect to the human body. Every thing, therefore, of this kind in- troduced into the stomach operates almost always there, and for the most part only there. It is'now, however, v."'1.1 l.nown to phv- Vol. T. T. 82 TREATISE OF THE sicians, that the most considerable instance of the sympathy »Vc»* tioned above, is afforded by the stomach, s0 connected with almost every other part of the system, that notions excited there are communicated to almost every other part-,f tne body, and produce peculiar effects in those parts, however ditant from the stomach itself. This indeed is very well known: but Vjat the effects of ma- ny medicines which appear in other parts of tw DOdy are entirely owing to an action upon the stomach, and thawne most part of medicines acting upon the system act immediate., Up0n the sto- mach only, is what has not been understood till ve.7 lately, and does not seem yet to be very generally and fully perccve(j by the writers on the materia medica. It will therefore be prop,r here t« say in what manner this doctrine may be established. 1st, That medicines showing considerable powers with respect to the who\e system, act especially or only on the stomach will appear from all those cases in which the effects appear soon ifter the substance has been taken into the stomach, and before they c&n be supposed to have gone further into the body, or to have reached the mass of blood. Thus, Sir John Pringle, from the sudden ope- ration of the Peruvian bark in preventing the paroxysms of inter- mittent fevers, properly concludes, that it cannot be by its antisep- tic powers with respect to the fluids, but by a certain operation im- mediately upon the stomach. See Diseases df the Army, Appen- dix, p. XXV. 2dly, As medicines are commonly in the first place applied to the stomach; so all those of volatile, active, and penetrating parts, must immediately and especially act upon the stomach: and from this consideration, as well as from the suddenness of their effects which commonly appear, we may conclude their action to be upon the stomach only. Accordingly, I conclude that the action of the volatile alkali, and some other saline substances, is upon the sto- mach alone, and very rarely by any antiseptic powers with respect to the fluids. 3dly, Though medicines do not to the taste or smell discover any volatile or active parts, yet if their effects depend upon the change which they produce in the state of the nervous power, it is hardly to be doubted that they operate only upon the sensible and irritable parts of the stomach. This I conceive to be the case of opiates and of most other narcotic powers, whose substance is known to remain in the stomach long after they have discovered their effects in the most distant parts of the system. Athly, If there are medicines supposed to act only when they come in contact with the parts they are supposed to act upon, and that a certain quantity is necessary to be applied to these parts; and further, if such medicines are either thrown into the stomach in small quantity, or are of a nature to be slowly dissolved there, so that they cannot be supposed in sufficient quantity to come in MATIRIA MEDICA. 83 contact with the parts hey are destined to act upon, whilst howe- ver their effects appearn these parts; it must, I think, be conclud- ed, that these effects dtend entirely upon the operation of those medicines upon the stoncn. This, if I mistake not, applies to the case of most vegetable aringents, and perhaps to the fossil also, whose effects, and espe^ly their sudden effects, upon distant parts of the system, can qy be accounted for by their operation upon the stomach. ^ Sthly, Another circumstlce leading us to suppose that medi- cines act immediately uporthe stomach, and by their operation there, affect the rest of the syern, is the consideration of all those cases where they affect the vstem very generally, while at the same time they act both suddtty and m small quantity, and there- fore in circumstances which cmot allow us to suppose that they are conveyed in substance to th^,arts in which their effects appear. Thus, as has been observed abo^ medicines which act very gene- rally upon the nervous system, oap0n particular parts of it remote from the stomach, cannot be s,pOSed to be transferred in sub- stance to the whole, or even to th particular parts of that system; and therefore must necessarily be)Upposed to act in the stomach only. Not only, however, with re&ect to the nervous system, but also with respect to the sanjuiferou, any very general effects pro- duced there, as for example a sweating excited universally over the whole body, can be produced n. otherwise by internal medi- cines excepting by such as act on tie stomach, and from thence communicate a stimulusto the heart and arteries. In many cases of increased evacuation, it is indeed p'etty evident that the me- dicines exciting the evacuations are ac.ually conveyed and appli- ed to the secretories >* excretories d the parts concerned; but this cannot possibly b supposed with regard to sweating, not only from the small quar'ty of medicine employed, but perhaps also from tlv nature of t'e excretion, which is certainly not depending upon jiands and tfcir excretories. 6tl&i Anothereircumstance inducing us to suppose medicines to ar- only on thf stomach, is that of their being capable of being chaged by the tssimilating powers of the stomach and intestines; fojsuch medicines, if they act at all, must act immediately upon thir entering intc the stomach, or before they are changed by di- gestion. It is true, with respect to vegetables, and also certain animal substances, it ii often a certain portion of them only that can be subjected to our digestive powers, while the medicinal part of the same is hardly affected; and therefore it may be alleged, that their operation on the interior parts is not prevented by the powers of digestion. This indeed does certainly sometimes happen: but still as digestion breaks down very intirelv the texture of vegetables, and evolves the several parts of them more entirely than they were in the entire vegetable, it thereby gives them an opportunity 64 TREATISE OF TIE of acting immediately upon the stomach and even may thereby prevent their activity from reaching beyod this organ. ^ 7thly, Another circumstance which onfines the operation ol many medicines to the stomach, is thersuffering a change there, if not by digestion at least by mixture. # # It appears to me very clear, that \A animals who take in a quantity of vegetable aliments, and t^refore in man there is an acid, and commonly in considerable entity, very constantly pre- sent in the stomach, It is therefore r^bable, that all alkaline sub- stances are more or less neutralizedlere J and that consequently, if they act at all as naked alkalines^ey can act only upon the sto- mach before they are neutralized.^ appears, however, that alka- line substances frequently prove ywerful medicines with respect to the remote parts of the system; a^ l think it must be conclud- ed that their effects must be im^ed to their being changed into neutral salts in the stomach, andperating in the other parts of the system as neutrals only; or per/ps their operation may be that of their changing the nature of of fluids, by their abstracting a con- siderable portion of the acid ^ich should have entered into the composition of these fluids. 7 On this subject of the chages which substances undergo in the stomach, it is to be observedihat the*crid of the stomach operates in this respect in two ways. 1st, The acid may be applied to compounds, consisting of an alkali, and another part wh'ch has a weaker attraction to the alkali than the acid of the stonuch. In sucl case, the acid of the sto- mach is joined with theilkali, and thro>3 loose the substance be- fore joined with it, so tlat the compound can no longer act in the form in which it was thiown into the stmach; ant? this I think happens with respect to ill soaps taken nto the stomach; and which therefore cannot hav? any of the effets which th»ir sapona- ceous form has been supposed to produce wi\ respect to vur fluids. Another effect of a like resolution by the ^cid of the tomach, is, in the case of neutral salts formed of an alali with the^c'id of tartar; which, with respect to alkali, seems tthave a weaer at- traction than the acid of the stomach. It is the-efore that \e a-e so often disappointed of the operations of soluble tartar; and f -ve are not, it must be imputed to the neutral formed of an aka with the acid of the stomach, being as powerful a laxative as la formed of the acid of tartar, 2d/y, There is another case in which the a-id of the stomsh acts, and that is when it is applied to certain earthly and metalc substances, which are not soluble in our fluids, and are therefo-, with respect to our bodies, perfectly inert; but by having the acl of the stomach applied to them, they are often changed into ve^ active medicines ; as we know with respect to the magnesia alb, aiul to several preparations of antimony and mercury. MATERIA MEDICA. 85 CHAPTER II. Of the several Means of learning the Virtues of Medicines. V V E have already said, that mankind very early became ac- quainted with the medicinal virtues of some substances not em- ployed in diet; and we can easily conceive in what manner such knowledge might be acquired, although#we cannot apply our con- jectures on this subject to particulars, and hardly at all to the many particulars that seem to have been very early employed by the practitioners of physic. It may naturally be supposed that these practitioners, intent upon increasing the number of remedies, might, by accidental observation, by randqm trial, or as guided by some analogy, discover new remedies, and thus increase their number, and retain those especially which experience seemed to confirm. Upon this footing it has been alleged, that the numerous reme- dies mentioned by Dioscorides and other ancient writers, were entirely the fruits of experience. But from what we have said in our History, and what we shall hereafter say respecting the fal- Jacy of experience, it will be very evident, that as to most of the medicines employed, experience has had a very small share in establishing the virtues which have been commonly ascribed to them. Those disappointments in practice which have so frequently occurred from following the ancients, have very properly engaged modern physicians to seek for means not only of ascertaining more exactly the virtues of the medicines in use,, but likewise for inves- tigating the virtues of substances before untried. For this purpose the chemists made the first attempts; and Paracelsus introduced the absurd notions of astral influences and of signatures; while succeeding chemists have suggested the utility of a chemical analysis. The two first of these have been now long ago absolutely exploded, though their effects have not yet entirely disappeared in the writings on the materia medica. The third means of a chemical analysis, though not entirely useless, does not go a great way for the purpose we are enquiring after. The means which at present are more especially resorted to and cultivated, are those taken from Chemical Examination, from Botanical Affinity, from Sensible Qualities, and from Experience; and the application of each of these I shall now consider with all possible attention. Article I. Of the Use of the Chemical Resolution, in investiga- ting the Virtues of different Substances. When the employment of chemical remedies became first con siderable in the hands of Paracelsus and his followers, it was 86 TREATISE OF THE accompanied with such visionary and absurd theories, as quite confounded, and greatly corrupted the doctrines of the materia medica; but in progress of time "chemistry corrected its own errors, and has come at length to be of the greatest utility in im- proving the materia medica. It has done this, by ascertaining more exactly the qualities of the medicines before known and em- ploved; and in particular it has not only relieved the materia me- dica, by rejecting the inert and superfluous, and by marking the degree of qualities in similar substances, but it has directed to a more judicious choice cff these. Besides thus correcting and im- proving the ancient materia medica, it has certainly given a valua- ble new one, by the many new productions which it has discovered, and by the preparations it has invented or improved. Almost the whole of the saline substances taken from the three kingdoms, are the fruits of chemistry; and the inflammable matters, except the expressed oils and a few fossil substances, are also the produc- tions of the same art. Such have been the advantages obtained from chemistry in af- fording many, and some of the most efficacious particulars of the materia medica; and to the choice and proper use of the whole, an accurate knowledge of chemistry is absolutely necessary. It has, however, been also supposed, that this art has actually been, or might be, useful in investigating the virtues of vegetable and animal substances; although it does not appear to me to have been in this particular successful. What has been called the Che- mical Analysis, or the distillation of substances without addition, has not answered the expectations entertained of it. After many very competent trials, it is now agreed, that such an analysis affords no correct nor certain information concerning the consti- tuent parts of mixts; and the application of this kind of resolu- tion, therefore, is now entirely, or at least very much neglected. The chemical resolution now attempted, is that which is suppo- sed to separate the parts of mixts without changing or much alter- ing their nature. Thus, by a distillation of plants with water, we obtain their oils very entirely separate from their other parts, and in such condition as we suppose them to have existed in the living plants. By the application of different menstruums, under different degrees of heat, we suppose that we separate as soluble in these different menstruums, parts which existed in the same state in the entire plant; although such a supposition in many cases is to be doubtfully admitted, as in the sequel we shall have occasion to remark. But however this may be, we must here observe, that by these practices it is seldom that we discover virtues unknown before, and commonly only find out in what part of the substance, the virtue otherwise known more especially resides. By such resolution, indeed, we may upon some occasions find a virtue, that in the concentrated state in which it is obtained, is more MATERIA MEDICA. 87 considerable than it was as diffused in the entire plant; and some* times we may seem thereby to find an entirely new medicine: but I hardly know any instances of this, or of our thus investigating virtues not known before. It is possible indeed, that by our find- ing virtues lodged pretty constantly in parts separated by peculiar menstruums, we may have an analogy leading us to suppose like virtues in the substances which we find to be extracted by like menstruums; but this analogy is very seldom applicable. F'or example, although we should find the purgative virtue of plants to be commonly residing in the resinous parts of them, we cannot conclude that a plant which yields a resin to a spirituous men- struum is therefore of a purgative quality; and I will venture to assert, that the analogy drawn from chemical resolution goes but a very little way in investigating virtues. Here, however, it would be improper to omit acknowledging the great utility which has been derived from the labour that has been bestowed in examining the various subjects of the materia medica by the solution of them in the different menstruums. These labours have certainly ascertained the proper pharmaceu- tical treatment of many substances, and have thereby very much improved our knowledge of the materia medica, especially with respect to the preparations and compositions which form so con- siderable a part of it. I have thus acknowledged the general utility of these labours, and shall have occasion in another place to say, to what extent they are more particularly useful. Article II. Of the Use of Botanical Affinities in ascertaining the Medical Virtues of Plants. It has happened, I think unfortunately for the materia medica, that the botanists have deemed it incumbent upon them not only to distinguish plants from one another, as was their proper business, but also to point out their medical virtues; a task to which they were often very unequal. They have, however, commonly at- tempted it; and have done it in the most imperfect manner; for they have commonly compiled merely from preceding authors with very little choice or judgment, and have thereby only multiplied useless and erroneous writings. This is truly the state of their labours on particular subjects; but the latter botanists have thought of much more extensive application of their science; as they have attempted to apply it verv generally to ascertaining the virtues of vegetables. When the botanists found that vegetables, by a similarity in the parts of their fructification, might be arranged under certain genera, orders, and classes, this arrangement established what I call their Botanical Affinities. This affinity has been shown to apply in a considerable degree to a great nnmber of vegetables, 88 TREATISE OF THE though not yet to the whole of them; but wherever it has been applied to orders and classes, so as to show a very great simila- rity and affinity amongst all the several species comprehended under them, these are properly considered as natural orders or classes. After these natural orders came to be properly established, the botanists came to perceive that where a great botanical affinity took place, there was generally also a remarkable sameness or affinity, amongst the several species with respect to their medical virtues. This in general was well founded; and such a medical affinity does actually take place, not only in the species of the same genus, but also to a great degree in the species of those orders and classes which may be properly considered as natural. This gives an ana-^ logy whereby we may very often presume that an untried vege- table is of the same nature and qualities with those of the same genus and order to which it is related by a botanical affinity. This is truly to a certain extent just, and applicable with some advantage; but it is by no means so universally applicable as the botanists would seem to insinuate, as there are every where many exceptions to be found. Even in the species of the same genus, there is often a great difference of qualities in the different species. The cucumis melo is very different in its qualities from the cucumis colocynthis. In the natural orders, the exceptions are every where still more considerable. In some of these orders, which consist for the most part of the mildest vegetables, there are sometimes those of a deleterious kind; and in certain orders, which consist of the most active and powerful substances, there are^ those of a very inert and mild kind. The lolium temulentum among the gramina is an instance of the first assertion; and the verbascum among the Lu- rid* or Solanacea, is an instance of the second. Another observation to be attended to in employing the general analogy is, that though the plants of the same order may have a great resemblance in the general quality, they have this in such degrees, as by no means to admit of an indifferent choice for the purpose of medicine. A further observation, and of still greater importance, is, that although there is some resemblance in the qualities of the plants belonging to the same order, yet in the several species the resem- blance is not only seldom exact, but more commonly there is a peculiar modification in each: and very often with the quality be- longing to the order, there is associated another, which is totally different either from that, or from any other of the order, and sometimes of a dangerous kind; so that the heedless practitioner might be very much deceived in trusting to a botanical affinity alone.-r-It still farther merits attention, that though plants Qt MATERIA MEDICA. 89 the same natural order have commonly the qualities belonging to the order similar in all their several parts, yet this is by no means universal. Plants in general have the qualities of their several parts considerably different, so that the root is often of a very dif- ferent quality from that of the leaves or seeds; and the resem- blance that may be in the fructification, which especially establishes their botanical affinity, is by no means to be extended to all the several parts of the plants agreeing in that affinity. In their seve- ral parts, the common quality may not only be in very different degree, but in some of the parts there may be a widely different and even a contrary quality. From all these considerations, it will readily appear, that the botanical affinity of plants, though it maybe of some use in inves- tigating their medical qualities, cannot be applied to ascertaining these virtues but with a great deal of caution; and never can afford any certain conclusion without examining at the same time their sensible qualities ; nor even then, except when the supposed medical virtue is confirmed by actual experience on the human body. Article III. Of the Consideration of the Sensible Vitalities of Substances, as pointing out their Medical Virtues. Another means proposed forjudging of the virtues of different substances is, by attending to their sensible qualities of taste, smell, and colour. As we have already remarked that the operation of medicines is chiefly on the nervous system, so that as the sensa- tions of taste and smell depend upon an action of certain sub^ stances upon the nerves of the tongue and nose, and their effects are very often from thence communicated to the rest of the body; so it may in some measure be presumed, that those actions on the organs of taste and smell may be communicated to the whole of the nervous system, or may shew an analogous power with respect to the system when applied to the other nervous parts of it. Upon this, indeed, I rest so much, that I presume very confi- dently to give it as a very .general rule, that those substances which do not at all affect the taste or smell, and even those which affect these organs in a slight degree only, may be considered as inert and useless; and that all such substances should be rejected from the lists of the materia medica, excepting a very few, which, though without sensible qualities, may, on this very account, be of a nourishing, emollient, or demulcent quality. Although physicians have not sufficiently attended to this gene. ral rule, they have, however, at all times, from substances being endued with sensible qualities, presumed upon their activity in the human body; and from the state of their sensible qualities have formed a judgment of their medical virtues. It has indeed almost always happened, that from a similarity of taste and smell Vol. I. ' M yo TREATISE OF THE in different substances, physicians have been ready to suppose a similarity of virtues. Such a supposition, indeed, is in many instances well founded: but it has been carried too far; as a similarity of taste and smell in different plants has been supposed to point out with some ex- actness the same medical virtues. Sir John Floyer, David Aber- crombie, Hoffman, and several others since their time, have, upon this plan, given systems of the whole materia medica. In the sequel, I shall have occasion to make many applications of the general doctrine, and shall endeavour to show how far it may be justly carried: but at the same time, it is very proper here to be at some pains in pointing out the fallacy that attends the universal application of it. In the first place, there is a considera- ble difficulty in ascertaining the difference of tastes in different substances. There are some, such as the acid, the sweet, the bit- ter, and the styptic, which can be very well distinguished from one another, and about which mankind are generally agreed: but there are many other tastes which cannot be comprehended under any one general head. It appears to me that some general heads have been attempted, if not improperly, at least to very little pur- pose^Thus it has been common to make a general class of tastes under the title of Acrid: but this term expresses the force of im> pression rather than any particular sensation; and it has always comprehended substances of otherwise very different qualities, which we shall consider more particularly afterwards under the head of Stimulants. Another title employed with no better success, in forming a class of tastes, is the Nauseous; which is manifestly too general, as comprehending many which in general have a disagreeable, but at the same time a peculiar taste; in other words, one different from any another, and therefore not to be brought under any general title. It is obvious, likewise, that the class of nauseous tastes comprehends many substances of very different virtues; and this must always give an insuperable difficulty in arranging virtue according to taste.—Besides the general tastes, which we have said are tolerably well ascertained, there are many combina- tions of these, which give a variety of tastes not to be exactly ascertained, nor always, so far as we yet know, to be taken as a mark of particular virtues. But further, when we have collected a number of substances under any one of the general classes of tastes, we find the indi- viduals possessing very different degrees of the same quality, and thereby of very different powers. In many instances, indeed, where the quality of the class is prevalent in a plant, it has at the same time joined with it other qualities which give it different virtues from those of the general class. It is needless, however, to insist further here on the fallacy of the general doctrine; because we shall have frequent occasion hereafter to take notice of it, and to MATERIA MEDICA. 91 point out the many exceptions with which it is to be received.— Bodies which give out a strong scent, whether agreeable or disa- greeable, seem to be peculiarly fitted to act upon our nervous system: and some very powerful medicines are remarkable for this quality. Linn&us, however, carries the matter too far, when he maintains, that odorous bodies act upon the nerves only, whilst sapid bodies act upon the muscular fibres only; for it is evident that sapids act also, and sometimes very powerfully, upon the nerves.—Whatever may be in this, I go on to observe, that the judging of the virtues of plants from their particular scent, is liable to still more fallacy than the doctrine of tastes. Scents are of greater diversity than tastes: and it is still more difficult to re- duce them to any general classes. Indeed it does not occur that any other general division can be made of them, than that of the agreeable and disagreeable. It is true that each of these compre- hend a great variety, but not to be assorted with any precision un- der general heads. Linneus has attempted this; but it is enough to look at his general titles, and his enumeration of plants under each, to perceive that they give no precise ideas, nor point out any common qualities, but what arise from the general terms ol" agreeable and disagreeable; and that even these are considerably diversified in respect of power, and very often show different effects according to the difference of the persons to whom they are applied. The analogy, therefore, afforded by odours is of exceeding little use in illustrating the materia medica. Linnaeus, when he alleges that the virtues of medicines may be known from their sensible qualities, does, besides the taste and smell, suppose that the colour likewise may give some indication of virtues; and accordingly he has the following paragraph: " Color pallidus insipidum, viridis crudum, luteus amarum, ruber acidum, albus dulce, niger ingratum indicat." But nobody possecs- ed of the smallest knowledge of plants can miss to mark so many exceptions to each of these, as to perceive that the attempt to establish such general positions is extremely frivolous and useless. Article IV. Of acquiring the Knowledge of the Virtues of Medicine by Experience. An experience of the effects of substances upon the living hu- man body, is certainly the only sure means of ascertaining their medical virtues. But the employing of this experience is ex- tremely fallacious and uncertain: and the writers on the materia medica abound with numberless false conclusions, which are how- ever supposed or pretended to be drawn from experience. Such, indeed, is the state of this matter, that nobody can consult those writers with any success or safety, unless he is prepared with a great deal of scepticism on the subject; and it has been owing to want of discernment in this matter, that the writers upon it have compiled one after another so many particulars that are frivolous 92 TREATISE OF THE and false* It may be useful, therefore, to students, if we here point out the many mistakes and falsehoods which seem to have been drawn from pretended experience. The first instance to be given of this, is with respect to those supposed remedies, which, both from their nature and from their being placed at a distance from the human body, cannot be sup- posed to have any action upon it. Such are the various charms, superstitious practices, sympathetic powers, and inodorous amu- lets, which have been formerly employed. These are indeed in the present age very generally neglected; but it serves sufficiently to show the fallacy of experience, that formerly those remedies had numerous testimonies in their favour. Mr. Boyle thought he had seen with his own eyes the operation of the sympathetic pow- der: and he had the testimony of divers physicians and other sober persons in its favour. It is not necessary at present to give other instances of this; but if it were proper to do it, we would refer to the second volume of the Acta Naturae Curiosorum, Ob- servation 195, a collection of old women's tales, countenanced by the publication of them by a learned society within these forty years. Here is a specimen, Art. xxi. Lactis abundantia et defectus. u Pro certo affirmarunt mihi nuper matronse binee prudentes et honestae se in seipsis efficaciam seminis nigellse multoties expertas esse; quod nempe retro appensum lac abundans discusserit, an- trorsum autem auxerit." It is indeed to be regretted, that such remedies are not yet every where sufficiently exploded, when we find so eminent a practitioner as the late Mr. De Haen showing some faith in the verbena employed as an amulet. But a person who, like him, believed in magic, must have been exposed to every superstitious fancy. Another instance of false experience I would give, is with re- spect to the virtues imputed to several substances, which, though taken into the body, pass through it quite unchanged, and are ab- solutely inert, as they are neither soluble in our fluids, nor endued with any qualities that can operate upon either the solids or fluids of our bodies. Such are the various Silicious bodies, from moun- tain crystal to the gems or precious stones which have formerly had a place in our dispensatories; and which, though now'ex- punged from the British, do still hold a place in many others. Their virtues are still supposed and mentioned by materia medica writers; and when the late Mr. Vogel supports the virtue of moun- tain crystal from his own experience, I have no doubt of his having been deceived in his experiments. To give a third instance, whenever to substances obviously inert, or such as have little power in changing the human body, and such as are every day taken into it in considerable quantity, with- out producing any sensible change, we find considerable effects imputed, it may be held to be a mistaken experience. Thus, when the excellent Linnaus tells us that he preserved himself from MATERIA MEDICA. 93 the gout by eating every year plentifully of strawberries, I am persuaded that he was deceived by a mistaken experience. It is indeed surprising that this eminent person should have been ex- posed to such a fallacy; but in the writings on the materia medica, there occur hundreds of such fallacies under very respectable names. In almost all the writings upon this subject, many virtues have been imputed to substances either absolutely inert, or possessed of sensible qualities in a small degree only. These virtues, indeed, are often supposed upon a pretended experience; but practition- ers have so clearly discovered the fallacy of this, that now for a long time past they have been neglecting more and more these in- ert and impotent substances. The catalogues of the materia medi- ca have been constantly diminishing in the successive editions of our dispensatories; and it has been chiefly by the omission of those useless substances. This, however, in the most part of them, has not gone so far as perhaps it might have done; and here a long list might be given of such as seem to be improperly retained: but we abstain from this at present, as we shall have occasion to do it more properly with respect to most of the particulars hereafter. A fourth instance of false experience, is when medicines are said to have cured diseases, or to have corrected circumstances of the body, which never existed. An example of this is, when me- dicines are said to have corrected an atrabilis; a state of the fluids, which all the reasoning of Dr. Boerhaave cannot persuade me, to have ever taken place in the human body. It seems to have been a pure hypothesis of the ancients, who were by no means in a condition to judge properly of such matters. I am inclined to judge in the same manner with respect to the lentor or preternatural spissitude of the fluids, so commonly sup- posed by the moderns. That no such morbid spissitude can ever oc- cur, we would not positively assert; but there is hardly in any case evidence of its having actually taken place: and it is probable that in ninety-nine cases of a hundred in which it has been sup- posed, it is a mere hypothesis. Considering both this and the false theory with respect to the operation of the medicines supposed to cure it, there can be little doubt in asserting, that it affords many instances of a false experience adduced by writers on the materia medica. Another example of the same kind occurs with respect to alex- ipharmics, so frequently mentioned. For, not to mention the doubts that might be raised, in many cases of fever, concerning the exis- tence of a morbific matter, and the doubts also with respect to the cure of fevers as depending upon the expulsion of such matter, it may be alleged, that not only the doubtful existence of their object, but also the want of any clear evidence of their operation, gives every reason to believe that the alexipharmic powers reported by 94 TREATISE OF THE writers, are, for the most part at least, instances of a false expe- rience. A fifth instance of a false experience adduced, may be found in many cases where a disease does actually take place; but where the operation of the medicines supposed to cure it, is, so far as we yet know, extremely improbable. One example of this seems to be the supposed solution of a stone in the bladder by medicines taken in by the mouth. It is very doubtful if any such medicines are yet known to physicians: but not to enter into the disputes that have lately occurred, and which may still subsist among physicians upon this subject, it is very probable that in many instances of such a pow- er, reported both by ancient and by modern writers, they afford many examples of a greatly mistaken experience. Under this head may be mentioned the reports of the effects imputed to medicines, which, though not impossible are, however, from our late experience, rendered very improbable, at least in the many instances in which they have been alleged. An example of this, which may be given, is with respect to medicines supposed to promote the menses in the female sex. That there are medicines having such a power, is hardly to be denied; but practitioners have been often disappointed in the employment of the medicines said by the writers on the materia medica to have had such a power; and I have had many of the most eminent practitioners of these days giving me this report. There is, however, hardly any virtue more frequently ascribed to medicines than this in the materia me- dica writers; and it may therefore be asserted, that in few cases those writers have had it ascertained by any proper experience. Another example of the same kind that may be alleged, is with respect to medicines said to promote urine. That there are medi- cines of such a power, every body knows; but at the same time every practitioner will allow that it is an effect which he often fails of producing, though employing the remedies recommended lor that purpose by materia medica writers: and it may be sus- pected, that in very many of the instances in which they ascribe this virtue to medicines, they have proceeded upon a false expe- rience, or perhaps upon none at all. But if the emmanogogue and diuretic powers have been so of- ten falsely ascribed to medicines, this will be more readily admit- ted to be the case with respect to those alleged to promote the birth of children; and more certainly still with respect to those said to expel the secundines or dead foetuses. Such medicines have entirely lost their credit with modern practitioners: and if an overweening partiality to the ancients, who so frequently report such virtues, can believe that they were guided by experience, there can be little doubt in alleging that they have given us nume- rous instances of a false one. MATERIA MEDICA. 95 A sixth instance, and a very fruitful source of false experience, is, when effects that do really take place, are imputed to medicines employed, while they are truly owing to another cause; and par- ticularly when effects imputed to medicines do truly proceed from the spontaneous operations of the animal oeconomy, or of na- ture, as we commonly speak. It is hardly necessary to give as an instance of this, the exploded opinion concerning the reunion of fractured bones, which was formerly supposed to be promoted by certain medicines ; but is now universally considered as an instance of false experience, as the effect is now judged to be entirely the operation of nature. This perhaps might have been passed over; but it would not have been so proper to omit taking notice of an instance of the same kind which is still to be found in almost every materia me- dica writer. It is the imputing to medicines taken in by the mouth, the power of promoting the cure of wounds; and accordingly a very great number of vegetables are still mentioned under the title of Vulneraries. This virtue seems to be very often ascribed to medicines, when hardly any other could be ascribed to them. It seems to be very generally supposed at present, that the cure of wounds is entirely or chiefly the work of nature; and, if acci- dental circumstances should not occur to hinder it, that nature will constantly do the business. So far are British practitioners persuaded of this doctrine, that it is extremly unusual for any of them to employ any internal medicine under the title of Vulnera- ries, or to proceed upon the supposition that any internal medi- cines can assist in the common cure of wounds. It is indeed pos- sible, that a certain flaccidity of the parts affected, may retard the suppuration of wounds, or may dispose them to gangrene; and in such cases our practitioners employ internally the Peruvian bark; but it is the only vulnerary they use. And although in the list of vulneraries given by writers, there may be some medicines which might have an operation analogous to that of the bark, yet I be- lieve this was not at all perceived by the practitioners who formerly employed them: and it is very7 probable, that the most part of the particular vulneraries recited had little power of any kind; and certainly nothing was to be expected from the injudicious and ab- surd compositions that were offered under that title. In how many instances the effects of the operations of nature have been falsely imputed to the operation of medicines, need hardly be said. From the first beginnings of physic to the present day, it has been generally supposed that many diseases are cured entirely or chiefly by the operations of nature; and that many7 of the cures supposed to be effected by medicine are often effected by- nature alone, or perhaps either by accidental occurrences taking place in the animal oeconomy, or by certain external circumstan- 96 TREATISE OF THE ces which have accidentally occurred; and therefore, that in in- numerable instances the effects of medicines pretendedly founded on experience are often mistaken and false. How often this has happened, or how often it has occasioned mistakes in the writings of the materia medica, it is not necessary to say here. It will, how- ever, be allowable to take notice of one instance, that has, I believe, occurred in almost every writing upon the subject. This is with re- spect to the jaundice; a disease taken notice of in all ages, but whose nature has been understood only in very late times, and so lately that even Dr. Boerhaave understood it very imperfectly. It seems to be now very generally agreed, that the disease is never owing to the interrupted secretion of bile, but always to the after interruption of its passage from the liver to the duodenum. Whether the jaundice may be produced by a reabsorption of bile that has been copiously poured into the intestines, as some physicians have thought, I would not positively determine; but am disposed to believe, that the interruption of its passage already mentioned is very universally the cause of jaundice, by the reab- sorption or regurgitation of the bile accumulated in the biliary ducts passing into the blood-vessels. The interruption mentioned may be owing to different causes; but it is sufficient to our present purpose to remark, that in ninety-nine of a hundred instances of the disease, the passage of the bile is interrupted by biliary concre- tions formed in the gall-bladder, and falling down into the ductus communis; and that it has especially been in cases of this kind that various medicines have been supposed to cure the jaundice: but all of them may perhaps be considered as instances of false experi- ence. We know of no medicines capable of dissolving biliary con- cretions, that can be conveyed into the bodyr so as to reach these concretions, as they exist in the ductus choledochus communis; and of a hundred medicines which have been reported to have cured the jaundice, there is not one of them that we can conceive to have either the power of dissolving the concretion, or of expeding its passage into the duodenum. These reports, therefore, of their curing fhe disease, may be considered as so many instances of a false experience. They have been commonly owing to the fallacia causae pro non causa. The membranes of the human body readily admit of a gradual and considerable extension; and therefore the coats of the ductus choledochus often suffer such a dilation as to allow biliary concretions to pass into the duodenum. When this happens, it very soon puts an end to the appearance of jaundice. If, however, at the same time, a person labouring under the dis- ease had been for some time using a medicine recommended for it, the cure is imputed to this; though, for the reasons given above, it could not truly have any share in it. A seventh instance of false experience is that which has arhcr! MATERIA MEDICA. 97 from mistakes concerning the nature of diseases, which, though similar in certain circumstances, are, however, in their nature considerably different. Thus, in materia medica writers, there is nothing more common than the mention of the same remedy for the cure of diarrhoea and dysentery. As astringents they may be useful in the former; but in the latter, especially in its beginning, they are not only useless, but improper and pernicious. When, therefore, they are reported from experience to have cured the latter, it seems to have been either from supposing a case of diarrhoea to be that of a dysentery; or, at least from not attend- ing to the circumstances of the case, and from giving that as a general remedy, which is adapted only to one particular circum- stance of the disease. This is a mode of writing on the materia medica, which has introduced great confusion and many perni« cious mistakes into the practice of physic. The eighth and last instance of false experience that I shall mention, is that which has arisen from mistakes concerning medi- cines. Thus, modern writers have ascribed virtues which they have copied from Dioscorides, to medicines which are very dif- ferent from those to which the ancient writers had ascribed them, though still vouched by the pretended experience of the moderns- From this view of the many7 instances of false experience ad- duced by writers on the materia medica, and which instances are to be found in almost every writer on the subject, it will appear that these writings are for the most part a compilation of mistakes and falsehoods, against the imposition of which a student should be very much on his guard. It indeed requires more knowledge, discernment, and experience, than the student at the time he com- monly enters upon his study can possibly have. But it may be of use to inspire him with general doubt and diffidence; and it is hoped, that the remarks we have taken the liberty of suggesting, may be in some measure useful both to teachers of the materia medica, and to physicians engaged in the practice of physic. Before dismissing this subject, it is incumbent upon me to ob- serve, that the writers upon the materia medica have reported the false experiences mentioned, chiefly from their mistaken judg- ment, and rarely under any consciousness of falsehood. But it must, however, be acknowledged, that this last has also unhappily taken place, and that many facts have been obtruded upon the public bv persons conscious of their being false. This has hap- pened sometimes from an attachment to particular theories, which their authors have desired to maintain, and have therefore often supported by pretended facts and experiments. Sometimes the same effects have been produced by an attachment to a particular method of cure, or to particular remedies which their authors supposed they had discovered or invented, and which they have often supported by facts, which perhaps their prejudices have nade them suppose to be true, but which thev have admitted Vol. I, K 98 TREATISE OF THE without rigorous examination of their truth, and sometimes con- scious of their falsehood. This leads me to observe, that a very fertile source of false facts has been opened for some time past. This is, in some young physicians, the vanity of being the authors of observations, which are often too hastily made, and sometimes, perhaps, very entirely dressed in the closet. We dare not, at present be particular: but the next age will discern many instances of perhaps the direct falsehoods, and certainly the many mistakes in fact, produced in the present age, concerning the powers and virtues of medicines. I have now said enough of the falsehoods which have prevailed or may further prevail, in writings on the materia medica. But, upon this subject of the investigation of medicinal virtues by experience, I must still remark, that there are several kinds of experiment which have been not very fitly employed for the purpose. One is, the giving the substances to brute animals, and observing their effects upon these. This is a very proper measure in the investigating the powers of all untried substances, and may give a proper caution with regard to the trial of the same upon the human body; but it can go no farther: for it is well known that the effects may be very different in the two subjects, as some substances act much more powerfully, and others more weakly, upon the human body, than upon those of brutes: and therefore we can draw no certain conclusion from the effects of substances upon brute animals, till they are actually tried upon the human body. Another mode of experiments for ascertaining the virtue of medicines, has been by mixing them with the blood immediately drawn out of the vessels. This has given us some knowledge of the nature of our fluids, and of the effects of some substances mixed with thtm in this manner. Perhaps some general conclu- sions may be drawn from these experiments. But materia medica writers have often drawn conclusions from thtm, without attend- ing to the difference that may arise from the changes which many substances undergo in the first passage:,, before they are mixed with the blood; and without considering the difference between the quantities applied in th se experiments to a small portion of the blood, and of the quantities that can possibly be introduced by the mouth, and which are to be diffused in the whole of the mass of blood. In consequent* of this, many erroneous judgments have been given by writers on the materia medica; as 1 shall men- tion hereafter on the subject of the particular medicines with re- spect to which these false judgments have been given. A third mode of experiment, employ eel for investigating the virtues of medicines, has been by ejecting them into the veins •f living brutes: and such experiments have been frequently made, but have afforded very few conclusions or certain instruc- tion. Whatever are the effects of substances applied in this man- MATERIA MEDICA. 39 ner, they must be very different from what they would be if in- troduced into the body by the mouth; when, by the changes they may suffer in the first passages, and especially from the dilution and diffusion which they necessarily undergo there, they cannot possibly have the same effects as when injected into the vessels. It is proper also to remark, that the effects which have generally occurred in consequence of injections into the vessels of brutes, and particularly the coagulation produced by almost every thing thrown in, will, it is believed, long prevent our trying this mode of the application of medicines to the human body. With respect to both these modes of experiment last mentioned, it must be observed, that the result of the experiments reported is often so contradictory, and such want of chemical knowledge has so often appeared in making the experiments, that at present very few conclusions can be drawn from them. We have now finish-/d the several subjects which seemed neces- sary to be considered as an introduction to the study of the ma- teria medica; but before entering upon the particular subjects of it, I think it still requisite to say a few words concerning the plan most proper for a treatise of this kind, or the order in which the several subjects of it may be most properly arranged. CHAPTER III. Of the most proper Plan for a Treatise on the Materia Medica. A HE order in which the several subjects of the materia medica have been considered, has been very different in different writers; and which is the most proper, has been disputed about, while many are of opinion that it is of little consequence, which of them is followed. It has generally been thought proper to follow a plan in which the subjects are, according to a certain affinity, brought together, so that a number of them might be for the purpose of medicines considered under the same view. Thus, Dr. Boerhaave considered them in the order of the botanical system he had formed; and Linnxus in the order of his own; in which he is fol- lowed by Bergius. But it will, however, be obvious, that as no botanical system in every part of it collects plants by their natural affinities; so it will only be when such systems have many natural classes and orders, that they will collect the subjects of the ma- teria medica, that are at the same time connected by their medical qualities; and that consequently this principal object cannot be obtained throughout the whole of any system. It has accordingly been thought proper to follow the botanical affinities, in so far only as these can be thrown into natural orier,-. 100 TREATISE OF THE and this, therefore, has been attempted by the learned Murray, so far as he has yet proceeded: but from what we have said above, with respect to the imperfection of the botanical affinities in point- ing out a similarity of medical virtues, it will appear that this plan will not always unite subjects in the latter point of view: and when we consider, that there are yet many plants which do not enter into any natural order, these must be disposed of in an arbi- trary manner, and probably in an unconnected state. It must be owned, however, that though the scheme of botanical affinities does not entirely answer the purpose, yet it will still go a certain length, and ought not to be neglected in the subdivisions of any general plan that may be assumed. It has been supposed by some to be a very eligible plan to unite the several substances, as they happen to be related by their sensible qualities; and this method Cartheuser and Gleditsch have attempted. This certainly may have its use; but from what is said above, respecting the imperfection of this scheme for inves- tigating virtues, it will appear that it will not always unite subjects that ought to be united under the same view: and it will be found, that in the authors mentioned, who have executed it in the best manner possible, the desired effect is by no means produced. From the difficulty of rendering any of these plans tolerably ex- act and perfect, some writers have deserted all of them, and thought it best to throw the several articles into an alphabetical order, as Newman and Lewis have done. If, however, there can be any advantage from bringing subjects of some affinity together, this alphabetical order is the most unfit for the purpose, as by separating similar substances, it must be perpetually distracting to the student. It can therefore have no advantage but that of a dic- tionary, in referring readily to any particular subject that may be enquired after. But this advantage can be obtained in every plan by means of an index, which cannot be sayed even in an alphabeti- cal work; as the different names under which the same substances are known necessarily require an index comprehending all those different names. Similar to those of the alphabetical order, are those plans which, after arranging the several articles of the materia medica according to the part of the plant employed, as roots, leaves, &c. have thrown these again into an alphabetical order, as Alston and Vogel have done. But it is obvious that this establishes no con- nection between the subjects that follow one another, and can ha- - rat.„£ wi iave no advantage over the alphabetical order. Further, by sepa ating the consideration of the several parts of vegetables,' it wil "*h separate subjects that ought to be considered together, and II occasion unnecessary repetition. *,7n?r,r:'ert?,ng 'dll l^e difFt're»t P^ns, it will, I think, app, Ifeat as the study of the materia medica is truly the study of ear, of the MATERIA MEDICA- 1QI medicinal virtues, so the plan that arranges the several substances according to their agreeing in some general virtues, will be the best adapted to acquiring the knowledge of these, and will most readily inform the practitioner what different means he can employ for his general purpose. It will also inform him how far the seve- ral similar substances may differ in their degree of power, or how- far, from the particular qualities assigned to each, he may be di- rected or limited in his choice. As it seems proper that every practitioner ought, as far as pos- sible, to practise upon general indications; so it is evident that his study of the materia medica is especially to know the several means that can answer these. Such a plan, therefore, must be the most proper for giving a student instruction; and if while medi- cines are arranged according as they answer general indications, the particulars be likewise thrown together, as far as possible ac- cording to their sensible qualities and botanical affinities, this plan will have the advantage of any other that has been proposed for presenting together the subjects that ought to be considered at one and the same time, and give the best means of recollecting every thing that relates to them. Such is the plan I am to follow: and I am particularly willing that this treatise of the materia medica should be considered as giving a therapeutice, or methodus medendi, from which part of the medical system, the materia medica cannot properly be separated. It may indeed be alleged, that as the therapeutice must be founded on a particular system of physiology and pathology, so it must be liable to all the errors and fallacies of these. But every treatise on the materia medica which refers the virtues of medi- cines to general indications, must be exposed to the same objec- tions: and though we cannot presume to say, that our plan in this respect shall be without mistakes; yet our general plan in most of its parts being nearlv the same with most other systems, we trust it shall not be very faulty. And as it is a principal purpose of this treatise to render the methodus medendi, or the establishing of general indications, more correct, and better adapted to the parti- culars of the materia medica, than it has hitherto been; so it af- fords a particular reason for our following this plan; which in general is very much the same with that of Dr. Boerhaave in his treatise De Viribus Medicamentorum, and such as has been follow- ed by several late authors, as Spielman, Loesecke, and Lieutaud. In following this plan, I shall have occasion to employ some general terms in a sense different from that of other writers: and, therefore, that I may be afterwards more easily understood, it is judged necessary here to give some explanation of these terms: and at the same time, as I shall be frequently obliged to mention also the terms employed bv other writers, it is judged necessary i-Vwise to explain in what sense these are to be taken. iO~ GENERAL TERMS OF THE To do this properly, I think it may be of service to students of the materia medica, if some pains shall be taken here to explain the whole of the general terms employed by writers on this subject.— In doing this, I shall, with respect to each term, endeavour to say in what sense it has been commonly or particularly employed ; with what propriety it has been used; why I do not employ it; and very often why it should not be employed at all. For this pur- pose, I shall throw the whole of the terms into an alphabetical or- der, and thus give a dictionary which I hope may be useful and convenient for persons entering upon the study of the materia me- dica. In doing this, it seems proper and necessary to give the ap- pellations as employed by Latin writers; and if upon any occasion the explanation of an English term is sought for, it will be readily found by the help of the index placed at the end of the whoje work. DICTIONARY OF THE GENERAL TEEMS, EMPLOYED BY WRITERS ON THE MATERIA MEDICA. A ±\_ BLUENTI A, Abluents. Medicines suited to wash off from the ex- ternal or internal surfaces of the body, any matters improperly adher- ing to them. They are either water or other fluids, which can act by their fluid quality, and may be in the form of lotion, gargarism, or in- jection. The term of abluent is seldom employed, and more commonly that of Abstergent or Detergent; and under these titles are commonly mentioned medicines which not only by their fluidity wash off adhering matters, but such also as are supposed to do it by their power of resolv- ing and loosening the cohesion of the adhering matters. In this sense, however, these terms are too general, and therefore ought not to be em- ployed: and when they have been employed with respect to the inter- nal parts, it has generally been upon a false supposition of their power of resolving viscid substances, which we shall hereafter endeavour to show to be commonly mistaken. ABORT1VA, Abortives. Medicines capable of occasioning an abor- tion in pregnant women. These medicines have been otherwise named Amblotica and Ecbolica; and they are commonly supposed to have also the power of promoting the natural birth, of forcing off the placenta, and even of expelling a dead foetus. These last mentioned powers, though frecjuently ascribed to medicines by the ancients, seem to me, and perhaps to most physicians of these days, to be imaginary, and ac- cordingly such medicines are now hardly ever employed. There is little foundation for supposing the power of any medicines to be spe- cifically determined to the uterus; and seemingly there are no other MATERIA MEDICA. 103 abortiva than such as produce their effects by a violent general opera- tion. ABSORBENTIA, Absorbents. Dry bodies suited to suck liquids into the pores. In this general sense, the term is now very seldom em- ployed ; and is almost strictly confined to certain earths suited to take acids in their pores, and at the same time to destroy their acid quality. They will be considered hereafter under the title of Antacida. ABSTEUGENTIA, Abstergents. See Abluentia. ACOPA. Medicines, and particularly unguents, suited to take off the lassitude induced by exercise and labour. The term may be em- ployed for some general measures to this purpose; but I know of no medicines suited to it, except by a general quality, and therefore would admit of no such title to be applied to medicines. ACOUSTICA. Medicines suited to cure deafness, or other defects of hearing. This is an instance of those general terms which have con- founded the materia medica and the practice of physic. As deafness or any other disease, may depend upon different causes, and such as may require different and even opposite remedies, students cannot be pro- perly instructed, unless remedies are pointed out as suited to the parti- cular cause and peculiar circumstances of the disease. It is possible, indeed, that a practitioner may have found a deafness relieved or cured by a certain remedy, when he could neither ascertain the state of the disease, nor the operation by which the remedy was useful; and I would not refuse to mark such facts: but while matters are on that footing, they can only lead to a random empirical practice, which every body knows has been not only useless but frequently hurtful. Such ge- neral terms, therefore, as acoustics, serve to mislead rather than in- struct, and should never be employed. AGGLUTINAN IT \, Agglutinants. Medicines suited to cement and reunite soft parts preternaturally separated, and therefore employed in wounds and ulcers: but our British surgeons neither know such me- dicines, nor employ any supposing them to be such. They suppose the business to be entirely the work of nature, and their own function to be only the removing any impediments that may occur to that. The term of Agglutinants has also been employed byQuiNCY, and perhaps some others, for medicines suited to supply the vacuities form- ed by the abrasion of the solid parts, either produced by the constant motion of the t.uids over them, or perhaps by the motion of the solid parts upon one another; but the supposition of the disease is upon a very doubtful theory, and the supposition of the operation of the medi- cines is not less so. If the term has any foundation at all, it must be upon the same with that of nutrient; and there is no propriety in em- ploying a doubtful theoretical term. ALEXIPHARMAC \. A exipharmics. Medicines supposed fit to preserve the body against the power of poisons, or to correct and expel those taken into the body. The same are mentioned also under the titles of Alexiteria and Aa'idota; and upon the supposition of their being fitted to expel the poison of animals, also named Theriaca. In our history of the materia medica, we have said that the study of poisons and of antidotes appeared very early among the physicians of Greece and Rome, and continued to be a great part of their study so 184 GENERAL TERMS OF THE Jong as the Greek physic lasted; from whence the number of antidotes and theriacas so frequently mentioned in those ancient writers. We have likewise in the same place taken notice of the injudicious compo- sitions by which the ancients attempted the correction of poisons, and with respect to which hardly any body at present doubts of their having been as unsuccessful as they were injudicious; and therefore it may now be said that the terms were very improperly employed. The modern physicians, however, and particularly the Galenists, adopting very much the ideas of the ancients, have therefore continued their medicines: and the moderns have further transferred the notion from the case of poisons evidently taken into the body, to the case of noxious powers frequently taken in from contagion, or otherwise ari- sing in the body. With regard to these, therefore, they have supposed that the cure of the disease arisng from them was to be obtained by the correction and expulsion of the morbific matter: and the medicines suited to this purpose they have often given under the titles of Alexi- pharmics and Alexiterials. How little foundation, however, there is for the greatest part of this theory, I have endeavoured to show in another place. See First lines of the Practice of Fhysic. And whatever may become of my general doctrine, I cannot perceive that the medicines given under the titles of Alexi/iharmics and Alexiterials are any ways peculiarly suited to expel morbific matter. In so far as they are anywise suited to that purpose, they are diaphoretics or sudorifics: and as generally stimulant and heating medicines, they are to be employed with great caution. The terms of Alexipharmic and Alexiterial should therefore be expunged from the writings on the materia medica: for though the medicines enumerated under these titles may be truly useful, their being given under the false idea which the general terms imply, may induce an erroneous practice; and in former times they generally did establish that pernicious practice which cost Dr. Sydenham so much pains and trouble to correct. ALEXITERIA. See the title of Alexipharmaca above. ALLIOTICA, more commonly named Alterantia, Alteratives. Medicines suited to change the condition of the mass of blood, parti- cularly from a morbid to a sound state, and frequently employed for medicines suited not only to correct but to clear the blood from certain impurities supposed to remain in it. With what propriety and in what sense, the term may be employed, we shall in the sequel have occasion fully to explain. ALOEDARIA et Aloetica, Aloetics. Compound medicines which receive aloes as a principal ingredient. ALOEPHANGINA. Medicines formed by a combination of aloes and aromatic. ALTERANTIA. See above Alliotica. ALVIDUCA, Openers of the Belly. Medicines suited to promote the natural evacuation by stool, otherwise named Laxantia, Laxatives. The propriety of such terms, and the limits to be set to them will be fully considered hereafter, in our treatise on the materia medica, under the title of Cathartica. AMBLOTICA. See above, the title Abortiva. MATERIA MEDICA. it>5 ANACATHARTICA. Medicines purging upwards, and some- times employed for emetics, sometimes for salivants, but most com- monly implying, according to the original sense in which the term was employed by Hippocrates, Exfiectorants, or medicines promoting the ejection of matter from the lungs, whether mucous or purulent.— With what propriety and strict meaning the term may be employed, will be considered hereafter under the title of Expectorants. ANALEPTICA, Restoratives. Medicines suited to restore the force of the body when lost, and sometimes employed with respect to stimulants, but more commonly with respect to those substances which supply a deficient nourishment. As a term, however, attended w ith some ambiguity, it should not be employed at all. ANAMNESTIC A. Medicines supposed to improve the memory, or to restore it when lost. A general title which seems to have no foun- dation at all, or although it had, would as too general, be very impro- perly employed. See Acoustics. ANAPLEROTICA. Medicines supposed to supply the loss of substance in the whole, or in particular parts ; as in wounds or ulcers. In the former case, it is improper, as of no defined operation; and in the latter case, the surgeons know well how improperly such a gene- ral term is employed. ANASTOMOTICA. A term of the same meaning with that of Aperientia; which see hereafter. When, however, the term Anasto- motica is especially employed, it implies medicines suited to open the extreme orifices of blood-vessels. AN,ODYNA, Anodynes. Medicines suited to relieve pain. It might be a general term, comprehending every means of relieving pain, and so far might be faulty; but as now generally employed for those means only which relieve pain by diminishing or destroying sensibility, it may be allowable. ANTACIDA, Antacids. Medicines suited to correct and neutralize acids. Of how many different kinds these are, and to which of them the term is properly applied, we shall endeavour to say hereafter in our treatise, in which the term again occurs. ANTACRIA, Antacdds. Medicines suited to correct acrimony, either in the whole system or in particular parts of it. To what medi- cines this title is properly applied, we shall say hereafter in the follow- ing treatise. ANTALKALINA, Antalkalines. Medicines suited to correct alka- line salts, or alkaline matters in the whole body, or in particular parts. In what sense the term of Antalkalines may be properly employed, we shall explain hereafter under that title in the materia medica. ANTAPHRODISIACA, or Antaphroditica. Medicines sup- posed to check or extinguish venereal diseases. It is doubtful if there be any medicines of specific power for this purpose; and if there be remedies or medicines which have these effects, it is by answering par- ticular indications, under the title of which only they ought to be men- tioned, and not under a general term of no defined operation. ANTASTHMATICS. Medicines supposed to cure asthma, or in general to relieve difficult breathing. With respec'. to this and all the Vol. L O iwb GENERAL TERMS OF THE other titles in which the word anti, connected with that of a particular disease or morbid function, is employed, the same observation is to be made that was mude above under the title of Acoustic. The meaning of the terms in which the word anti is employed may be commonly understood; but for the sake of the unlearned I shall repeat them here, with a short explanation of their meaning. ANTEMETICA. Medicines suited to cure a preternatural vomit- ing. ANTHELMINTICA, Anthelmintics. Medicines suited to poison worms in the alimentary canal, or to expel them from thence. As we cannot always distinguish whether our anthelmintics operate in the one way or in the other, and as several of them may be supposed to operate in both ways at the same time, the general term may for the most part be retained; though it is to be desired that we could distinguish be- tween the proper anthelmintics and the violent purgatives. ANTHYPuCHONDRlACA. Medicines suited to cure hypochon- driasis. ANTHYPNOICA. Medicines suited to dispel sleep. AN'I ICAHECT1CA. Medicines suited to cure cachexy. ANT1COLICA. Medicines suited to cure the colic. ANTIDIMCA Medicines suited to cure giddiness. ANTIDOTA, Antidotes. Medicines suited to oppose or destroy the power of poisons taken into the body. see above Alexipharmaca. AN 11DVSENTERICA. Medicines suited to cure dysentery. ANTIf EBRIL1A. Medicines suited to cure fever. ANTfHECTICA. Medicines suited to cure hectic fever. ANTIHYSTERICA. Medicines suited to cure hysteria and hyste- ric diseases. ANTILOIMACA. Medicines which preserve against the plague. ANT1LYSSUS. A medicine suited to cure the rabies canina in men or in brutes. ▼ ANTINEPHRITICA. Medicines suited to cure the gravel, or other diseases of the kidneys. ANT1PAR \LYTICA. Medicines suited to cure the palsy. ANTIPHARMACA- Medicines suited to resist poisons. ANTIPHLOG1ST1CA. Medicines or remedies suited to resist, di- minish, or cure, inflammation, or an inflammatory state of the system. ANT1PHTHISICA. Medicines suited to resist and cure phthisis or consumption. ANTIPLEUR1TICA. Medicines suited to cure pleurisy. ANTIPoDAGRICA. Medicines suited to cure the gout. AN1IPYRETICA. The same with Antifebrilia. ANT1QUARTIUM. Medicines suited to cure quartan fever. ANT1SCOLICA. The same with Anthelmintica. ANTISCORBUTICA. Medicines suited to cure scurvy; but fre- quently applied particularly to medicines of the class tetradynamia. ANT1SEPT1CA. Medicines suited to resist or correct putrefaction. ANTISPASMoDICA Medicines suited to cure spasmodic affec- tions. A title certainly faulty as a general one; but it is difficult to re- duce it to the particular operations comprehended under it. We shall, Uowcver, endeavour to do this afterwards. jMATERIA MEDICA. lor ANTITOXICA. The same with Antipharmaca and Antidota. ANTIVENEREA might be the same with Antaphrodisiaca; hut for the most part is only employed for medicines suited to cure the hies venera, or some of its symptoms; and as too general it is certainly improper. APERIENTIA, Aperients. Medicines suited to open obstructed pas- sages, and particularly to open and restore suppressed excretions or evacuations, and most commonly applied to medicines suited to open the vessels of the uterus, and thereby to excite the retained, or to re- store the suppressed, menstrual flux. The term, therefore, as variously employed, but with respect to different cases and to different manners of operating, is, without specifying the particular case and operation, extremely improper. It has farther been too often employed with re- spect to certain medicines, whose power of answering the purpose pro- posed is extremely doubtful. APHROD1SIACA. Medicines supposed to be suited to excite the venereal appetite, or to increase the venereal powers. 1 do not know that there are any medicines of specific power for these purposes; and therefore the term seems to have been for the most part improperly employed. APOCRUSTICUM. The same with Repellent. APOPHLEGMVITZONTA, Apophlegmatizantia, and Apq- phlegmatic a. Medicines suited to excite the excretion of mucus from the schneiderian membrane: and they are of two kinds; as the evacua- tion is made from the nose, when they are named Errhines; or as the same is made from the mouth, when they are named ilasticatorics. ARCHEALIA. Medicines supposed to be agreeable to the imagi- nary archeus in the system of Van Helmont. It is a term which has been adopted by the Stahlians upon the most imaginary and visionary loot- ing, but is not likely to be more heard of in the writings of physicians. ARISTOLOCHICA. Medicines suited to promote the evacuation of the lochia in child-bearing women. The propriety of such a term will be considered hereafter under the title of Menagoga, in its proper place. ARTER1 AC A. Medicines suited to relieve the diseases, or promote the functions, of the aspera arteria or trachea. A term conveying no precise meaning, and therefore improper. ARTHR1TICA. Medicines suited to cure the diseases of the joints. particularly the gout. It is a term of so vague and of so undetermined a meaning as to be altogether improper. ASTRINGENTIA, Astringents. Medicines suited to increase the cohesion, and produce some contraction in the simple solids and mov- ing fibres of the human body. Their manner of operating, and their effects, will be more fully considered hereafter in their proper place. ATTENUANTIA, Attenuants. Medicines supposed to diminish the consistence of the animal fluids, either by dividing coherent masses, o: by diminishing the size of the larger particles. With what propricU any medicines can be supposed to do this, will be considered hereafter ; and I expect to show that the supposition is false, and the term there- fore improper. 103 GENERAL TERMS OF THE ATTRAHENTIA. Medicines supposed todraw the fluids in greater quantity than usual towards the part to which the medicine is applied. A power that may be fairly supposed in certain medicines; but will be more properly expressed by a term pointing out the operation by which the medicine produces its effect. B. BASILICA. A quackish term applied to medicines supposed to be of noble or royal power; but as such terms are suited to deceive, and commonly have deceived the world, they are therefore unworthy of public societies. BECHICA. Medicines suited to relieve a cough ; which as they may be of various kinds, the general term may mislead, and is therefore improper. BEZO ARTICA. Medicines supposed to have the virtues of bezoar, chiefly those of expelling morbific matter. As these, however, sup- posed peculiar to that substance, were imaginary and ill-founded, so the extension of the term to other substances or preparations is fallacious and improper. C. CALEFACIENTIA. Heating medicines or those which increase the heat of the body. Whether there are any of this quality that act otherwise than by increasing the motion of the blood, and therefore by increasing the action of the heart and arteries, will be considered here- after under the title of Stimulants. CARD I AC A, Cordials. Medicines suited to increase the action and vigour of the heart. This is the strict meaning of the term: but it has been extended to every means of increasing, and especially to those of suddenly increasing, the activity of the system; in which case the term may not have the necessary precision. CATAGMAT1CA. Medicines suited to assist the reunion of frac- tured bones. A power which is not certainly known to exist in any me- dicines whatever, and therefore the term is falsely employed. CATHiERETICA. Medicines suited to cleanse foul ulcers; but as the operation of the different medicines employed for this purpose is not always the same, nor their different operation well explained, the propriety of the general term may be doubtful. CATHARTICA. Medicines suited to increase the evacuation by stool. The various operation of these, and therefore the various appli- cation of the term, will be considered hereafter in its proper place. CAUSTIC A. Medicines suited to destroy the mixture and texture of animal substances. As a metaphorical term taken from'the operation of actual fire, it is not strictly proper; but as now universally employ- ed, it may still be allowed. CEPHALICA. Medicines suited to relieve or cure the diseases of the head. However frequently employed, such a general meaning is enough to shew the absolute impropriety of the term. It has been pro- posed to limit it to a more precise meaning, and to apply it to such me- dicines as have the power of increasing the energy of the brain, and the activity of the nervous system ; but it has been applied in this manner without any proper distinction and precision; and till we can do this, {ht; term would be better laid aside. MATERIA MEDICA. 10S CHOLAGOGA. Purgative medicines supposed to evacuate especi- ally, or as the language iselectively, bile; but as such a peculiar power in any medicine cannot be clearly ascertained, the term has been pro- perly long ago laid aside. CICATRIZANTIA, Cicatrisers. Medicines suited to induce a cica- trice, or new skin upon wounds and ulcers. As it is extremely doubtful if such a power in any medicine exists, the propriety of the term may be justly questioned. CONSOLIDANTIA. Medicines suited to give firmness and union to growing parts in wounds and ulcers. COSMETIC A, Cosmetics. Medicines supposed to improve the beauty of the face, or to restore it when any how lost. The indication is to be answered by medicines of different, and even contrary qualities; and therefore the general term is improper, and as such it has done much mischief. D. DEMULCENTIA, Demulcents. Medicines suited to correct acrids, or to obviate the irritation arising, or that may-arise, from them. What are the medicines that may answer this purpose, we shall consider hereafter. DEOBSTRUENTIA, Deobstruents. Medicines suited to remove obstructions which have taken place in any of the vessels of the body. As a general term it is improper; and as commonly employed for me- dicines which are supposed to remove the obstructions depending upon a matter filling up the vessels, it is commonly upon a false foundation, and therefore absolutely improper. DEOPPILANTIA, Deobstruents. Supposed to act in the manner last mentioned, and therefore upon a very doubtful foundation. DEPILATORIA. Medicines suited to make the hair fall off from the places upon which it grows. DEPURANTIA. Medicines supposed to correct or evacuate the impurities which upon any occasion prevail in the body; but as no such specific power can be supposed in any particular medicine, the general term is groundless and extremely improper. DIAPHORETICA. Medicines suited to excite or promote the in- sensible perspiration usually made from the skin. The term has often been employed for medicines suited to excite or promote sweat: and there are perhaps no exact limits to be put between the diaphoretica andsudorifera; or, so far as there is, the diaphoretica are employed for those medicines which promote the evacuation only in the insensible form. DIAPNOICA. A term more strictly employed for medicines which act in the more gentle manner we have just now said of the diapho- retica. DIGERENTIA and DIGESTIVA. Medicines supposed to pro- mote the production of a proper, or, as the language commonly is, a laudable pus, in wounds and ulcers. There are certainly various medi- cines which seem to answer this purpose; but whether they directly contribute to this, or only correct those circumstances which impede the operation of nature, is a little uncertain ; and therefore it is doubt ful whether the general term proper be or necessary. 110 GENERAL TERMS OF THE DILUENTIA, Diluents. Medicines which increase the fluidity of the blood, by increasing the proportion of fluid parts in it. This is the precise idea of diluents; and if the term be applied to substances, which by other means increase the fluidity of the blood, it seems to be very improperly employed. DISCUT1EN 1IA, Discutients. Medicines supposed to dispel tu- mour or hardness The operation of such medicines seems to be of different kinds, and therefore the general term should, if possible, be avoided. DIURETIC A. Medicines suited to promote or increase the secre- tion of urine. A term to be more fully considered hereafter. E. ECBOLICA. A term of the same meaning with Abortiva. LCCOPROTICA. Purging medicines of the gentler kind, or strict* Iy, medicines which promote the natural evacuation by stool. EMETICA. Medicines which excite vomiting. To what different substances the term may be applied, will be considered hereafter in our treatise of the materia medica. EMOLLIENTIA. Medicines which diminish the force of cohesion in our simple solids, and therefore soften and diminish the hardness and rigidity of the parts to which they are applied. Their manner of operating, and how far they operate on the moving fibres, is to be con- sidered more fully hereafter. EPISPASTICA. Medicines which draw the fluids more copiously into the parts to which they are applied, and therefore strictly a term of the same meaning with that of attrahentia; but as the effect of the epispastica is commonly that of exciting blisters, the term is often em- ployed for those of vesicantia and vesicatoria. EPULOTICA. A term of the same meaning with that of Cica- trizantia. ERoDENTIA. Medicines which destroy the texture of our sim- ple solid, and render a part of them therefore ready to be separated from the rest, in the manner to be hereafter more clearly explained. ERRAINA. Medicines suited to promote the evacuation of mucus from the internal membrane of the nose. The term is to be more fully considered hereafter. ESCHAROTICA. A term of the same meaning with that of Ero- dentia ; or how far different, will be considered hereafter. EV \CUANTIA. Medicines suited to promote the natural excre- tions, or in any other way to draw fluids out of the body. EXPECTOR \NTIA. Medicines suited to promote the excretion or rejection of mucus or pus from the lungs. What extent may be given to the meaning of this term, will be considered hereafter in its proper place. F. FEBRIFUGA. Medicines suited to prevent or cure fever. A term which, however properly it might have been formerly admitted, can- not now be employed but in a vague and undetermined meaning, and therefore most improperly. G. GALACTOPHORA. Medicines supposed to increase the produc- MATERIA MEDICA. ill tibn of milk in the human body, and to determine it more copiously to the breasts of females. As we cannot perceive that any medicines are possessed of such a quality, we must judge the term to be without foundation, and therefore improperly employed. H. HEPATICA. Medicines supposed to be suited to cure the diseases of the liver; but as I do not know of any medicines which either can be particularly directed to that viscus, or which have any power of pro- moting the motion of the fluids in it, or which are possessed of any quality and specific power of promoting the secretion of bile, we judge the power of such medicines to be imaginary, and the term absolutely improper. " HUMECTANTIA. Medicines suited to moisten the solids of the body, and therefore of nearly the same meaning with Emollientia, as we shall explain more fully hereafter. HYDRAGOGA. Medicines supposed electively to carry off water by stool. What foundation there is for supposing any purgatives pos- sessed of such a power, we shall consider hereafter under the title of Cathartica. HYDROTICA. A term of the same meaning with that of Sudori- fica, or Sudorifera. HYPNOTIC A. Medicines capable of inducing sleep. Whether there are any medicines which have this power, but by a more general operation, and therefore to be marked by a more general term, we shall consider hereafter under the title of Sedatives. I. IMMUTANTI A. Of the same meaning with that of Alterantia. INCIDENTIA. Medicines supposed to divide, or as it were to cut through the particles of our fluids, or to separate any number of these particles preternaturally cohering together. A power of medicine, which, as mechanical, I take to be quite imaginary, as we shall endea- vour to prove hereafter, when we shall consider the power of medicines acting upon the fluids. INCRASSAN IT \. Medicines supposed to have a power of thick- ening the consistence of our fluids. How far there is a foundation for the use of such a term, or in what sense to be understood, we shall consider hereafter. INDURANTIA Medicines supposed to harden the solid parts. How far, or in what sense, such a power in medicines can be supposed, shall be said hereafter under the title of astringents. L, LACTIFUGA. Medicines supposed to have the power of dispelling milk collected in the breasts of females. It cannot be readily admitted that any medicines have a specific power in this respect; and if there be any that can produce the effect, it must be by a more general opera- tion, and by the terms adapted to that the vis lactifuga should be ex- pressed. LAXANTIA. A term that maybe employed in the same sense with that of Emollientia; but the term is now more commonly em- ployed for those medicines, Angl. Laxatives, which in a gentle man- ner promote the evacuation by stocb 112 GENERAL TERMS OF THE LENIENTIA. Medicines suited to abate irritation and its effects, and particularly by correcting the quality of the irritating matter. LITHONTR1PTICA. Medicines supposed to dissolve stony con- cretions existing in the urinary passages. It is still, I think, a question whether any medicine given by the mouth, has such power: and although I would not with any confidence determine against the possi- bility of such a power, I must acknowledge that I am very doubtful if there be any such; and I am certain that in most instances it has been falsely supposed by writers on the materia mediCa. M. MATURANTIA. Medicines supposed to favour the production and complete formation of pus in inflammatory tumours. There are cer- tainly means which may be employed for favouring these operations of nature; but as it cannot be admitted that any medicines are endowed with any specific power to this purpose, the term as applied to medi- cines seems to be quite improper. MEL AN AGOG A. Medicines supposed to have a power of elec- tively carrying off atribilis by stool. Though we should admit with the ancients and Dr. Boerhaave, the existence of such an humour, we would refuse to admit such an elective quality in any purgative, and therefore the propriety of any such term; but the objection to this be- comes much stronger when we can deny the existence of any such humour in the body. MENAGOGA and Emmenagoga. Medicines suited to promote the menstrual flux in women, or to excite and restore it when retained or suppressed. We cannot absolutely deny such a power in medicine, and therefore the use of the term; but I would have it cautiously ad- mitted, as I am of opinion that in an hundred instances it has been employed without reason. More of this, however, hereafter in its pro- per place. MUNDIFICANTIA. Medicines suited to clean ulcers from any impurities adhering to them. The meaning of the term is nearly the same with that of detergentia and cathaeretica, and the most general term is always the least proper. ^ N. NEPHRITICA. Medicines suited to cure the diseases of the kid- neys. A term, as too general, absolutely improper. NERVINA. Medicines suited to relieve the diseases or correct the disorders of the nervous system. The obscurity that still attends the mode of the operation of medicines upon the nervous system, might excuse this term; but it seems to be more general than necessary, and we shall never get the better of the obscurity mentioned till more pre- cision is attempted upon the subject. NUTRIENTIA. Substances suited to be converted into the fluids and solids of the body. O. OBTUNDENTIA. Medicines suited to cover and blunt the acri- mony of the fluids. With respect to the propriety of the term, see the article Demulcentia in our after treatise. OBVOLVENTIA. The same with Obtundentia. ODONTALG1CA. Medicines suited to relieve the tooth-ach MATERIA MEDICA. ll.i This, and the three following terms, as too general, are absolutely im- proper. ODONTICA. Medicines suited to relieve the diseases of the teeth. OPHTHALMICA. Medicines adapted to the diseases of the eyes. OTICA. Medicines suited to the diseases of the ears. P. PANCHYMAGOGA. Medicines suited to evacuate by stool hu- mours of all kinds. PAREGOR1CA. A term of the same meaning with that of Ano- dyna. PECTORALIA. Medicines suited to the diseases of the breast.— Employed in that general sense it is absolutely improper, and has cer- tainly led to abuse. As it is at present commonly employed in the same sense as the term of Expectorantia, it perhaps might be allowed ; but certainly the latter term, as more precise, ought to be the one com- monly made use of. If the Pectoralia may, with Mr. Lieutaud, be of three kinds, Demulcentia, Astringentia, and Resolventia, it will be very obvious that the general term may be liable to much abuse. PHAGED-/E.NICA. Of the same meaning with Erodentia. PHLEGMAGOGA. Medicines supposed to have an elective power of evacuating pituitous matter by stool. See above the title Cholagoga. PNEUMONICAand PULMONIC A. Medicines adapted to the dis- eases of the lungs. Terms which, like other vague and general ones; should certainly be avoided. PSILOTHRA. A term of the same meaning with Depilatoria. PTARMICA. Of the same meaning with Errhina. R. REFR1GERAXTIA. Medicines suited to diminish the heat of the body. The propriety and precise meaning of the term will be consider- ed hereafter in the article of Sedantia. REPELLENTIA, Repercutientia, and Reprimentia. Medi- cines suited to diminish the influx of the fluids into the parts to which the medicines are applied, or to drive backwards the fluids already in these parts. Terms, however, in whatever sense employed, too general, and therefore improper; but they will be considered more fully hereaf- ter under the article of Astringents. RESOLVENTIA. A term employed in the same sense as that of Discutientia, for medicines suited to remove those external tumours supposed to depend upon obstruction; but so far as employed either ex- ternally or internally, they are supposed to have their effects by de- stroying the cohesion of concreted fluids. The term appears to be em- ployed upon a very uncertain foundation. RESTAUR ANTI A. A term for medicines suited to restore lost strength; but commonly applied to those which restore that loss of strength depending upon the waste of fluids, and in that sense nearly the same with the term of Nutrientia; which we see above. ROBORANTI \, Sircngiheners. Medicines suited to strengthen the body, and therefore to restore the strength when it has been lost. As a general term it may be improper; but as it is rommonlv employed for Vol. I, P Ill GENERAL TERMS OF THE medicines which increase the tone of the moving fibres, it may be al- lowable. RUBEFACIENTIA. Medicines which applied to the skin produce a redness, and excite some degree of inflammation on it. See the fur- ther consideration of this under the title of Stimulantia in the materia medica. S. SARCOTICA. Medicines suited to produce or to favour the growth of the flesh in wounds and ulcers As the power of any medicine to thiB purpose is very doubtful, the propriety of the term must also be so. SEDANTIA, Scdutives. Medicines suited to diminish the motions, and power of motion in the body. What medicines may be compre- hended under this title, will be considered hereafter in its proper place. SIALAGOGA. Medicines suited to excite and increase the secre- tion of saliva. A title to be considered more fully hereafter. SISTENTIA. Medicines adapted to diminish or suppress increas- ed evacuations. A term manifestly too general and improper. SOMNTFERA and Soporifera. Terms of the same meaning with that of Hypnotica. SPLENETICA. Medicines supposed to relieve the diseases of the spleen. See our reflections upon the term hepatica, which are more certainly applicable here. STERNUTATORIA. Medicines fitted to excite sneezing. STIMUi.AM 1A, Stimulants. Medicines fitted to excite the action of moving fibres, and in general the active powers of the system. A general term, admissible and necessary in our treatise on the materia medica, in which the various operation of such medicines is particu- larly explained. STOMACHIC A. Medicines suited to excite and strengthen the action ol the stomach. I have been at a loss to determine how far this term, so frequently employed, could be properly rejected; but I am persuaded it ought to be so, for the same reason as other too general terms. SUPPURANTIA. A term employed with respect to inflammatory tumours, in the same sense with that of Maturantia, and equally impro- per; bit it is also employed with respect to wounds and ulcers, for me- dicines suited to produce pus in these: but as any specific power in medicines to this purpose can hardly be admitted, the term in this sense must be improper. T. TEMPERANTIA. A term of loose and uncertain meaning; some- times used in the same sense as the term Refrigerantia^ for medicines suited to diminish the heat, and thereby the activity, of the system; sometimes in the same sense as the term demulcentia, for medicines suited to correct or cover the matters which give irritation; and some- times, according to Mr. Lieutaud, for medicines which carry noxious and irritating matters out of the body: but after thus observing that it may he employed with such different meanings, it cannot be doubted that this term is one of the most vague and improper MATERIA MEDICA. 115 general terms. Whoever reads the work of Mr. Lieutaud will find, that the use of this term frequently occasions much ambiguity. THERIACA. Medicines suited to resist or to obviate the effects of poisons from the bites of venomous animals. A term introduced by the ancients upon a very false supposition, and continued by the moderns upon no better grounds, in the same sense as the terms of Alexipharmaca and Alexiteria. But with the absurd compositions which have so long disgraced our pharmacopoeias, and to which the term has been applied, the term itself should also be rejected. THORACICA. Medicines adapted to the cure of the diseases of the thorax. A term as faulty and improper as the terms of Pectoralia and Pulmonica; upon which we have observed above. TRAUMATICA. Of the same meaning with the term Vulne- raria; which see below. TYLLOTICA. Of the same meaning with the term Catagmatica; which see above. U. UTERINA. Medicines suited to cure the diseases of the uterus. A term too general to be admitted. VULNERARIA. Medicines suited to favour and promote the cure of wounds. As the cure of wounds must be very entirely an operation of nature, the surgeon has hardly any other employment in this busi- ness than to avoid or remove the circumstances vvhich might impede the operation of nature. When such circumstances occur with respect to recent wounds, it is very doubtful if any internal medicines can be of use to obviate or remove them; and at least it is not probable that the medicines given under the title of V ulneraries can have any effect to this purpose. It is therefore that the surgeons of Britain omit entirely the employment of such medicines; and it is surprising that foreign surgeons do still employ them, and the absurd compositions of them, which have been proposed. It is also surprising, that even late wri- ters on the materia medica should so frequently continue the use of an indefinite and commonly ill founded term. It is indeed possible that the Peruvian bark, and other analogous substances, may in some cases be of use in mending the weakness of the system, and therefore the flac- cidity of the parts affected; and perhaps in other cases some internal medicines may be of use; but they should be mentioned as answering a particular indication, and by no means under the indefinite term of Vulneraries. Having now explained my terms, I think it proper to present a ge- neral view of the whole subject of my Treatise in the following Table; and to supersede repetitions which might otherwise be afterwards ne- cessary, it may be proper to give a methodical Catalogue of the parti- cular aliments and medicines of which we are afterwards to treat. In both these parts of my work, it is for obvious reasons necessary to em- ploy the appellations of the Latin language. 116 MATERIA MEDICO TABULA GENERALIS, In qua Mtdicamenta ad Capita qutedam secundum indicationcs morborum curatorias quibus respondent, referuntur. MATERIA MEDICA constat ex ("Nutriments, quae sunt, | CM, Sect. I. <^ Potus, S. II. | et qux cum his assumuntur Condimenla, S. III. IJMedicamentiSj quae agunt in Solida. fSimplicia. IAstringentia, Cap. I. Tonica, C. II. j Emollientia, C. III. Erodentia, C. IV. <| l_Viva. Stimulantia, C. V. Sedantia, Nurcotica, C. VI. Refrigerantia, C. VII. Antispasmodica, C. VIII. ,Fluida. ' Immutantia. fEluiditatem. J Attenuanlia, C IX. j Inspissantia, C. X. [_Misturam. Acrimoniam corrigentia. In genere Demulcentia, C. XI. In specie Antacida, C XII. Antalkalina, C. XIII. Antiseptica, C. XIV. _Evacuantia. Errhina, C. XV. Sialagoga, C XVI. Exficctorantia, C. XVII. Emetica, C. XVII I. Cuthartica, C. XIX. Diuretica, C. XX. Diaphoretica, C. XXI. Menagoga, C. XXII. P. I. P. II. 117 CATALOGUS RERUM SPECIALIUM EX QUIBUS CONSTAT MATERIA MEDICA. Secundum ordinem Tabulae prxcedentis et quibus singulis apponuntur: imo, No- men Pharmaceuticum, sive quo in pharmacopoeis publicis et in Pharmacopo- larum officinis plerumque insignitur. 2do. Nomen Botanicum, sive plantarum genericum et specificum triviale in Systemate Linneano nunc autem ad paginas Systematis Vegetabilis Linneani ab illustr. Andrea Murray, aim. 1784, editi relatum, ubi nomen speciticum cum differentia specifica inveniri potest. 3tio, Nomen Anglicanum. PARS I. NUTRIMENTA. SECTIO I. C1BI. Ex Vegetabilibus. Fructus. A. Fuuctus. a. Acido-dulces recentes. Drupacea. Cerasus, Prunus Cerasus, Syst. Vege- tab. apud Murray, pag. 463, Cherry. Prunus, Prunus domestica M. 463, Plum. Malum Armeniacum, Prunus Armeniaca M. 463, Apricot. Malum Persicum, Amygdalus Persica M. 462, Peach and Nectarine. Pomacex. Malum hortense, Pyrus Malus M. 466, Apple. Pyrus hortensis Pyrus communis M. 466, Pear. Aurantium, Citrus Aurantium, M. 697, Seville orange, China orange. Limonium, Citrus Medica M. 697, Lemon. Senticosa. Fraga. Fragaria vesca M. 476, Strawberry. Rubus idaeus, Rubus idxus M. 475, Raspberry. Ribesia. Ribes rubrum, Ribes rubrum M. 242, Red currant. Ribus nigrum, Ribes nigrum M. 243, Black currant. Grossularia, Ribes Crossularia M. 243, Gooseberry. Uvse vitis, Vitus vinifera M. 244 Grapes. b. Acido-dulces siccata. Uvae passx majores, Vitus vinifera M. 244, Raisins. Uvae passae minores, Vitus vinifera apyrena Linn. spec, plant, var. /3. p. 293. Dried currants. Caricx, Ficus caraca M. 921, Fig. Dactyli, Phoenix dactylifera M. 983, Date. 118 CATALOGUS Fructus. c. Cucurbitaceet. Cucumis, Cucumis sativus M. 869, Cucumber. Melo, Cuminis melo M. 869, Melon. B. HerBjEOlERACEjE Atriplex, Atriplex hortensis M. 909. Orache. Beta, Beta vulgaris M. 262, Beet. Spinacia, Spinacia oleracea M. 886, Spinage. Valerianella, Valeriana locusta M. 80, Lamb lettuce. Siliquoscc. Brassica, Brassica oleracea M. 60f, Colewort and cabbage. Nasturtium hortense, Lepidium sativum M. 586, Garden cress. Nasturtium aquaticum, Sisymbrium Nasturtium M. 594, Water cress. Semiflosculose. Cichorium, Cichorium Intybus M. 722, Succory. Endivia, Cichorium Endivia M. 722, Endive. Dens leonis, Leontodon Taraxacum M. 715 D;.ndelion. Lactuca, Lactuca sativa M. 713, Lettuce. tJmbellatte. Celeri, Apium graveolens M. 292, Celery. Herb* Oleracea. Petroselinum, Apium Petroselinum M. 292, Parsley. Capituts. Cinara, Cynara Scolymus M. 728, Artichoke. Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis M. 332 Asparagus. C. Radices. Siliquoste. Raphanus, Raphanus sativus M. 603, Radish. Rapum, Brassica Rapa M. 601, Turnip. Umbellata. Daucus, DaucusCarota M. 277, Carrot. Pastinaca, Pastinaca sativa M. 290, Parsnip. Sisarum, Sium Sisarum M. 284, Skirret. Semifosculosa. Scorzonera, Scorzonera Hispanica, M. 711, Viper's grass. Tragopogon, Tragopogon porifolium M. 710. Salsafi. Alliacee. Allium, Allium sativum M. 322, Garlic. Porrum, Allium porrum M. 321, Leek. Cepa, Allium Cepa M. 323, Onion. Cepa ascalonica MATERIA MEDICA. 119 Radices. Allium ascalonicum M. 323, Shallot. Scorodophrasum, Allium Scorodophrasum M. 322, Roccambole. Farinosa. Battatas, Solanum tuberosum M. 224, Potatoes. Salep, Orchis Morio M. 808, Salep. D. Semina. Cerealia. Hordeum, Hordeum valgare M. 125, Barley. Avena, Avena sativa M. 122, Oat. Secale, Secale cereale M. 125, Rye. Millium, Panicum miliaceum M. 106, Millet. Triticum, Triticum hybernum M. 126, Wheat. Oryza, Oryza sativa M. 345, Rice. Maiz, Zea MaysM. 841, Maize. Cerealibus affinia. Sago, Cycas circinalis M. 925, Sago. Fagopyrum, Polygonum Fagopyrum M. 379, Buck wheat. Castanea, Fagus Castanea M. 859, Chesnut.. Semina. Legumina, Pisum, Pisum sativum M. 660, Pea. Faba, Vicia Faba M. 665, Bean. Phaseolus, Phaseolus vulgaris M. 656, Kidney bean. Nuces oleosa. Amygdalus, Amygdalus communis M.462, Variat dulcis, amara, Sweet almonds, Bitter almonds. Avellana, Corylus Avellana M. 859, Filbert. Cacao, Theobroma Cacao M. 696', Chocolate. Juglans, Juglans regia M. 858, Walnut. Pistachio, Pistacia vera M. 884, Pistachio nut. Sepiaritc. Olivae, Olea Europoea M. 57, Olives. E. Fungi. Agarius campestris M. 975, Common esculent mushroom. Phallus esculentus M. 978, Morell. Lycoperdon tuber M. 981, Truffle. Sectio II. Potus. Aqua et aquosa. Potus fermentati. Cerevisia. Vinum. Sectio III. Condimenta et CONDITA. Aromata et acria. 120 • CATALOG US Quadrufiedia. Saccharo, sale, vel aceto Condita. II. Ex Animalibus.* A. QUADRUPEDIA. a. Lac, Fbeminx, Asinx, Equae, Vaccx, Caprx, Ovis. b. Carncs. Pecora. Bos, Bos Taurus Linn. Syst. Nat. 98, The ox, Ovis, Ovis Aries L. 97, The sheep. Caper, Capra Hircus L. 94, The goat. Cervus, Cervus Elaphus L. 93, The hart, stag, or red deer. Cervus, Cervus Dama L. 93, Buck or fallow deer. Cervus, Cervus Capreolus L. 94, Roebuck. Glires. Lepus, Lepus timidus L. 77, The hare. Cuniculus, Lepus Cuniculus L. 77, The rabbit. Bellunlium nomina systematica ad Li sibique referuntm-. Aves. Dunghill fowl. Phasianus, Phasianus colchicus L. 270, Pheasant. Gallo Pavo, Meleagris Gallo pavo L. 268, Turkey. Pavo, Pavo cristatus L. 267, Peacock. Meleagris, Numida Meleagris L. 273, Guinea hen. Perdix, TetraoPerdix L. 276, Partridge. Coturnix, Tetrao Coturnix L. 278, Quail. Lagopus, Tetrao Lagopus L. 274, Ptarmigan. Tetrao rufescens, Bonasa Scotica Brisson. Or nith. p. 199, Scotis, Moorfowl, Anglis, Redgame or Grouse. Tetrix, Tetrao Tetrix L. 274. Black cock, or black game. Urogallus, Tetrao Urogallus L. 273. Cock of the mountain. Anseres. Anas domestica, Anas Boschas L. 2C.i, Common duck. Querquedula, Annas Crecca L. 204, Teal. Anser domesticus et ferus, Anas Anser L. 197, Tame and wild goose. Anser Bassanus, Pelicanus Bassanus L. :\ Solan goose. ir.x\ ^vs^ma Naturae anno 1766 editj'.rr. MATERIA MEDICA. 12) Avee-. Alca, Alca Tordo L. 210, Razorbill or marrot. Larus, Larus tridactylis L. 224, Kittiwake. Grallx. Scolopax, Scolopax rusticola L. 243, Woodcock. Gallinago minor, Scolopax Gallinago L. 244, Snipe. Arquata, Scolopax Arquata L. 242, Curlew. Tringa, Tringa Squatarola L. 252, Grey plover. Charadrius, Charadrius pluvialis L. 254, Green plover. Rallus, RallusCrexL. 261. Land rail. Passeres. Columba, Columba Oenas L. 279, Pigeon. Alauda, Alauda arvensis L. 287, Lark. VOLUCRUM OVA. C. Amphibia. Amphibia reptilia. Testudo, Testudo Mydas L. 350, Tortoise. Rana, Rana esculenta L. 357, Frog. Amphibia serpentia. Vipera, Coluber berus L. 377, Viper or adder. Amphibia nantia. Batis, Amphibia. Raia Batis L. 395, Skate. Clavata, Raia clavata L. 397, The thornback. D. Pisces. Anguilla, Murxna Anguilla L. 426, Eel. Anarhichas, Anarhichas Lupus L. 430, Wolf-fish, or cat-fish. Gadus, Gadus Morhua L. 436, Cod. Gadus iEglefinus L. 435, Haddoc. Gadus Merlangus L. 438, Whiting. Faber, Zeus Faber L. 454, The doree. Pleuronectes, Pleuronectes Rhombus L. 458, Turbot. Pleuronectes Solea L. 457, The sole. Pleuronectes Flesus L. 457, Grey flounder. Perca, Perca fluviatilis L. 481, Perch. Scomber, Scomber Scomber L. 492, Mackrel. Salmo, Sal mo Salar L. 509, Salmon. Esox Lucius L. 516, The pike. Glupea Harengus L. 522, Herring. Clupea Encrasicolus L. 523r Anchovy. Cyprinus Carpio L. 525, Carp. Vol. 1. Q 12: CATALOGUS Pisces. Cyprinus Trinca L. 526, Tench. E. Insecta. Cancer, Cancer Pagurus L. 1044, Common crab. Cancer Gamarus L. 1050, The lobster. Cancer Astacus L. 1051, The crayfish. Cancer Squilla L. 1051, Vermes. The prawn. F. Vermes. Pectunculus vulgaris, Cardium edule L. 1124, Cockle. Ostrea, Ostreaedulis L. 1148, Common oyster. Mytilus, Mytilus edulis L. 1157, Common muscle. PARS II. Adstringentia. A. Ex Fossilibus. Bolus, Argilla, Bole. Creta, Calx Creta, Chalk. Alumen, Alumen commune schisti, Alum. Metallica. Ex Ferro: Hxmatites, Rubigo, Vitriolum viride. Ex Cupro: jErugo, Vitriolum cxruleum. Ex Plumbo: Cerussa, Saccharum saturni, Lithargyrus, Minium. Ex Zinco: Calaminaris, Tutia, Vitriolum album. B. Ex Vegetabilibus. a. Scnticosx. Agrimonia, Agrimonia EupatoriaM. 447, Agrimony, MEDICAMENTA. Ex Vegetabilibus. Alchemilla, Alchemilla vulgaris M. 166, Ladies mantle. Argentina, Potentilla Anserina M. 477, Silver weed. Caryophyllata, Geum urbanum M. 480, Avens. Fragaria, Fragaria vesca M. 476, Strawberry. Rosa Rubra, Rosa Gallica M. 474, The red rose. Quinquefolium, Pentaphyllum, Potentilla reptans M. 479, Cinquefoil. Tormentilla, Tormentilla erecta M. 479, Tormentil. b. Stellata. Aparine, Galium Aparine M. 151, Goose grass. Galium, Galium verum M. 150, Ladies bedstraw. Rubia, Rubia tinctorum M. Madder. 152, MATERIA MEDICA. 153 Ex Vegetabilibus. c. Vaginales. Acetosa, Rumex Acetosa M. 348, Sorrel. Hydrolapathum, Rumex aquaticus M. 347, Great water-dock. Oxlapathum, Rumex acutus M. 346, Sharp pointed dock. Bistorta, Polygonum Bistorta M. 376, Greater bistort. Rhabarbarum monachorum, Rumex alpinus M. 347, Monks rhubarb. Rhaponticum, Rheum Rhaponticum M. 385, Rhapontic. d. Cryptogamia. Filix florida, Osmunda regalis M. 927, Flowering fern. Lingua cervina, Asplenium Scolopendrium M. 932, Harts-tongue. Trichomanes, Asplenium Trichomanes M. 941, Maidenhair. Filix, Polypodium Filix mas M. 937, Male fern. Equisetum, Equisetum hyemale M. 925, Horse tail. Muscus pyxidatus, Lichen pyxidatus M. 963, Cup-moss. e. Cortices. Malicorium, Punica Granatum M. 462, Pomegranate kind. Fraxini, Fraxinus excelsior M. 918, Ash bark. Querci, Ex Vegetabilibus. Quercus Robur M. 858, Oak bark. Lignum Campechense, Haematoxylum Campechia- num M. 398, Logwood. Gallx, Quercus Cerris M. 858, Galls. f. Fructus acerbi. Cydonia, Pyrus Cydonia M. 467, Quinces. Mespila, Mespilus Germanica M. 466, Medlers. Mora, Morus nigra M. 851, Mulberries. Pruna Silvestria, Prunus spinosa M. 463, Sloes. Sorba, Sorbus domestica M. 465, Wild service berries. g. Succi inspissati. Acacia, Mimosa NiloticaM. 917, Acacia. Terra Japonica, Mimosa Catechu M. 916, Japan earth. Sanguis Draconis, Pterocarpus Draco M- 641, Dragon's blood. Kino, Gurami rubrum astringens, Kino. h. Adstringentia varia ad certa capita non referenda. Anchusa, Anchusa tinctoria M. 186., Alkanet. Balaustia, Punica Granatum M. 462, Balaustines. Hypericum, Hypericum perforatum M.701 124 CATALOGUS F.x Vegetabilibus. St John's wort. Salicaria, Lythrum Salicaria M. 446, Loose strife. Millefolium. Achillea Millefolium M. 778, Milfoil or yarrow. Myrtus, Myrtus communis M. 461, Myrtle. Plantago, Plantagb major M. 155, Plantain. Polygonatum, Convallaria Polygonatum M. 334, Solomon's seal. Viscus quernus, Viscum album M. 883, Misletoe. Uva Ursi, Arbutus Uva Ursi M. 408, Bear's berry. II. Tonica. Gentiana, Gentiana Iutea M. 267, Gentian. Cursuta, Gentiana purpurea M. 267, Cursuta. Centaureum minus, Gentiana Centaureum M. 268, Lesser centaury. Quassia, Quassia amara M. 401, Quassy. Simarouba, Quassia Simarouba M. 401, Simarouba. Trifolium palustre, Menyanthes trifoliata M. 194, Marsh trefoil or buck bean. Faba St. Ignatii, lgnatia amara M. 227, Jesuit's bean. Tonica. Fumaria, Fumaria officinalis M. 637, Common fumitory. Chamamxlum, Anthemis nobilis M. 776, Chamomile. Tanacetum, Tanacetuin vulgare M. 742, Tansey. Absynthium, Artemisia Absynthium M. 744 Wormwood. Abrotanum, Artemesia Abrotanum M. 743, Southernwood. Lupulus, Humulus Lupulus M. 886, Hops. Scordium, Teucrium Scordium M. 527, Water germander. Serpentaria Virginiana, Aristolochia Serpentaria M. 824, Virginian snake-root. Arnica, Arnica montana M. 768, Leopard's bane. Cortex Peruvianus, Cinchona officinalis M« 213, Peruvian bark. III. Emollientia. Aqua, Aqua cum farinosis vel muci- laginosis infusa vel decocta. 1. Ex Vegetabilibus. a. Columniferx. Althxa, Althxa officinalis M. 624, Marsh mallow. Malva, Malva Silvestris M. 625, Mallow. b. Farinosa vel mucilaginosa. Cannabis semina, Cannabis sativa M. 886, Hemp-seed. MATERIA Jix Vegetabilibus. Cydoniorum semina, Pyrus Cydonia, M. 467, Quince-seed. Foenugrxci semina, TrigoneHa Monspeliensis M. 69i5, Fenugreek seed. Lini semina, Linum usitalisaimum M. 302, Linseed. PsylHi semina, Plantago Psyllium M. 156, Fleawort seed. c. Oleracea. Atriplex. Atriplex hortensis M. 909, Orache. Beta, Beta vulgaris M. 262, White and red beet. Bonus Henricus. Ghenopodium Bonus Henri- cus M. 261, English mercury. Spinacia, Spinacia oleracea M. 886, Spinage. d. Emollientia varia. Alsine, Alsine media M. 298, Chickweed. Branca ursina, Acanthus mollis M. 580, Bears breech. Melilotus, Trifolium Melilotus M. 687, Melilot. Parietaria, Parietaria officinalis M. 908, Pellitory of the wall. Saponaria, Saponaria officinalis M. 416, Soapwort. Veibascum, Verbascum Thapsus M. 219, Mullein. Radix liliorum alborum, Lilium candidum M. 324, IEDICA. 125 Ex Vegetabilibus. White lily. Cepx coctx,' Allium Cepa M. 323, Onion. e. Oleosa. Olea expressa blanda. 2. Ex Animalibus. Lac, Butyrum, Adeps, Axungia. Spermaceti, Physeter macrocephalus L- 107, Spermaceti. IV. Erodentia sive Corro- siva. Acidum concentratum, Vitriolicum, Nitrosum. Costicum commune acerri- mum, Lixivium causticum inspissa- tum Ph. Ed. Strong caustic. Causticum commune mitius, Lixivium Causticum cum cal- ceviva Ph. Ed. Common caustic. Causticum commune fortius, Calx cum Kali puro Ph. Lond. Strong London caustic. Causticum Lunare, Acidum nitrosum argento junctum, Lunar caustic. Vitriolum cxruleum, Acidum vitriolicum cupro junctum, ; Blue vitriol. jErugo, Acidum vegetabile cupro junctum, Verdigrise. Butyrum antimonii, Acidum nuriaticum antimonio junctum. 126 CATALOGUS Erodentia sive Corrosiva. Butter of antimony. Hydrargyrus acidis variis junctus, Preparations of quicksilver. Arsenicum album, Arsenicum nudum L. S. N. 107, Arsenic. V. Stimulantia. A. VERTICILLAT^E.. Betonica, Betonica officinalis M. 535, Betony. Lavendula, Lavendula Spica M. 530, Lavender. Melissa, Melissa officinalis M. 542, Baum. Majorana, Origanum Majorana M. 541, Sweet marjoram. Origanum, Origanum vulgare M. 541, Wild marjoram. Marum, Origanum Syriacum M. 541, Syrian herb ma^tich. Rosmarinus, Rosmarinus officinalis M. 68, Rosemary-- Hyssopus, Hyssopus officinalis M. 529. Hyssop. Hedera terrestris, Glechoma hederacea M. 534, Ground ivy. Mentha, Mentha viridis M. 532, Mentha spicata Hudsoni Flo- ra Anglica, Spearmint. Mentha piperita Mentha piperita M. 532, Peppermint. Pulegium, Mentha Pulegium M. 533, Pennyroyal. Verticillata. Satureia, Satureia hortensis M. 528, Savoury. Thymus, Thymus vulgaris M. 542, Thyme. Serpyllum, Thymus Serpyllum M. 541, Mother of thyme. Salvia, Salvia officinalis M. 68, Sage. B UMBELLATE, Anethum, Anethum graveolens M. 290, Dill. Angelica, Angelica Archangelica M. 284, Garden angelica. Anisum, Pimpinella Anisum M. 291, Anise. Carum, Carum Carvi M. 291, Caraway. Coriandrum, Coriandrum sativum M. 287j Coriander. Cuminum, Cuminum Cyminum M. 285, Cumin. Foeniculum, Anethum Fceniculem M. 291; Sweet Fennel. Pimpinella, Pimpinella Saxifraga M. 291, Burnet saxifrage. C SILIQUOS,£. I ochlearia, Cochlearia officinalis M. 588, Scurvy-grass. Erysimum, Erysimum officinales 596, Hedge mustard. Nasturtium, Sisymbrium Nasturtium M. 594, MATERIA MEDICA. 127 Sitiguosa. Water cresses. Raphanus rusticanus, Cochlearia ArmoraciaM. 583, Horse radish. Sinapi, Sinapis nigra M. 602, Mustard. D. ALLIACEjE, Allium, Allium sativum M. 322, Garlic. Cepa, Allium Cepa M. 323, Onion. Porrum, Allium Porrum M. 321, Leek. E. CONIFERS. Abies, Pinus Abies M. 861, Scotch fir. Pinus, Pinus Silvestris M. 860, Pine. Juniperus, Juniperus communis M. 894, Juniper. F. Balsamica. Terebinthina Veneta, Pinus Larix M. 860, Venice turpentine. Terebinthina communis, Pinus Silvestris M. 860, Common turpentine. Balsamum Canadense, Pinus Balsamica M. 860, Canada Balsam- Balsamum Copaibx, Copaifera officinalis M. 409, Balsam of Copaiba or Capivi. Balsamum Peruvianum, Myroxylon Peruiferum M. 395, Peruvian balsam or balsam of Peru. Balsamum Tolutanum, Toluifera balsamum M. 398, Balsam of Tolu. G. Resinosa. Guaiacum, Guaiacum officinale M. 396, Gum guaiacum. Myrrha, Myrrha, Myrrh. Ladanum, Cistus Creticus M. 497, Labdanum. Styrax calamita, Styrax officinale M. 409, Storax. Styrax liquida, Liquidambar Styraciflua M. 860, Liquid storax. Benzomum, Croton Benzoe M. 863, Benjamin. H. Aromatic a. Cinnamomum, Laurus Cinnamomum M. 3 8 3, Cinnamon. Cassia lignea, Laurus Cassia M. 383, Cassia bark. Nux Moschata, Myristica Moschata M. 493, Nutmeg. Macis, Myristica Moschata M. 49 f. Mace. Caryophillus, Caryophillus aromaticus M. 496, Cloves. Pimento, Myrtus Pimenta M. 462, Jamaica pepper or All-spice. Canella alba, Canella alba M. 443, Wild cinnamon. Cortex Winteranus, Wintera aromatica M. S07\ Winter's bark. Cascarilla, Croton Cascarilla M. 863, Cascarilla. 128 CATALOGUS Aroniatica. Piper, Piper nigrum M. 74, Black pepper. Capsicum, Capsicum annuum M. 226, Guinea pepper. Zingiber, Amomum Gingiber M. 50, Ginger. Cubebx, Piper Cubeba siv'e Caudatum M. 74, Cubebs. < ardamomum minus, Amomum Cardamomum M. 50, Cardamom. Zedoaria, Kaempferia rotunda M. 51, Zedoary. Serpentaria Virginiana, Aristolochia Serpentaria M. 824. Virginian snake-root. Ginseng, Panax quinque folium M. 920, Ginseng. Acorus verus, Acorus Calamus M. 339, Sweet-scented flag. I. Acria. Arum, Arum maculatum M. 828, Cuckow pint. Persicaria urens, Polygonum Hydropiper M. 377, Water-peper or arsmart. Pyrethrum, Anthemis Pyrethrum M. 576, Pellitoria of Spain. Staphisagria, Delphinium Staphisagria M. 503, Staves acre. Sedaviia. VI. Narcotica. a. Rhaadcs. Papaver, .Yarcotica. Papaver somniferum M. 490, White poppy. b. Umbellata. Cicuta, Conium maculatum M. 278, Hemlock. Cicuta aquatica, Cicuta virosa M. 286, Water hemlock. c. Solanacea. Belladonna, Atropa Belladonna M. 221, Deadly night-shade. Hyoscyamus, Hyoscyamus niger M. 220, Henbane. Nicotiana, NicotianaTabacum M. 221, Tobacco. Solanum, Solanum nigrum M. 224, Night-shade. Stramonium, Datura Stramonium M. 22*, Thorn apple. d. Varia. Lactuca virosa, Lactuca virosa M. 713, Strong-scented lettuce. Lauro Cerasus, Prunus Lauro-Cerasus, M. 462, Cherry bay. Laurus, Laurus nobilis M. 383, Bay. Camphora, Laurus Camphora M. 383j. Camphire. Thea, Thea Bohea M. 495, Thea viridis M. 496, Bohea and green tea. Crocus, Crocus sativus M. 83, Saffron. Nymphxa, Nymphxa alba M. 491, MATERIA Narcotica. Nymphxa lutea M. 491, Water lily. e. Vinum. Alcohol. VII. Rbfrigerantia. Acida quxcunque diluta, Sales neutri ex acido quovis prxter muriatico cum alkali quovis juncto, Sal terrestris ex acido cum plumbo juncto, Aqux minerales salinx, Borax, Alumen, Plantarum fructus herbx et radices acidi, Lactis serum, Lac ebutyratum. VIII. Antispasmohica. 1. Ex Fossilibus. Ambra, Ambra Ambrosiaca L. S. N. 207, Ambergrease. Succinum, Succinum electricum L. 108, Amber. Petroleum, Bitumen Petroleum L. 109, Rock oil. 2. Ex Veoetabilibus. Herbafatida. Artemisia, Artemisia Vulgaris M. 744, Mugwort. Atriplex fcetida, Chenopodium Vulvaria M. 262, Stinking orache. Cuminum. Matricaria, Matricaria Parthenium M. 744, Feverfew. Pulegium. Ruta, Vol. I. MEDICA. 129 Antispasmodica. Ruta graveolens M. 397, Rue. Sabina, Juniperus Sabina M. 894, Savin. Gummifatida. Asafoetida, Ferula Asafoetida M. 2£1, Asafcetida. Ammoniacum, Gum ammoniac. Galbanum, Bubon Galbanum M. 285, Galbanum. Opopanax, Pastinaca Opopanax M. 290, Opopanax. Sagapenum, Sagapenum. Tacamahaca, Populus balsamifera L. M. M. 600, Tacamahaca. Camphora. Radices Graveolentes. Poeonia, Pceonia officinalis M. 502, Pceony. Valeriana sylvestris, Valeriana officinalis M. 80, Wild valerian. Fuligo ligni. Olea essentiala. .£thera. Olea empyreumatica. Alcohol. 3. Ex Animalibus. Moschus, Moschus moschiferus L. 91, Musk. Castoreum, Castor Fiber L. 78, Castor. Sales alkalini volatiles, 130 CATALOGUS Antispasmodica. Ammonia Ph. Lond. Volatile alkali. IX. DlLUENTIA. Aqua, Aquosa blanda. X. Attenuantia. Aqua, Alkalina, Sales neutrij Sapones. Dulcia, Saccharum, Mel, Glycyrrhiza, Fructus siccatx. XI. Inspissantia. Acida, Alcohol, Demulcentia farinosa et mu- cilaginosa. XII. Demulcentia.. a. Aifperifolix. Consolida major, Symphytum officinale M. 187, Cumfrey. Cynoglossum, Cynoglossum officinale M. 186, Hound's tongue. b. Mucdaginosa. Gummi Arabicum, Mimosa nilotica M. 917, Gum Arabic. Gummi cerasi, Prunus Cerasus M. 463, Cherry-tree gum. Gummi Tragacantha Astragalus Tragacantha M. 685, Gum Tragacanth. Amylum, Ex tritico vel aliis farinosis, Starch. Ichthyocolla, Acipenser Sturio L. 403, Isinglass. c. Gdatinx ex rebus animalibus. d. Oleosa blanda. XIII. Antacida* Lapides calcarix, Creta, Magnesia alba, Testacea, Corallium, Corallina, Cornu cervi ustum, Sales alkalini fixi, Sales alkalini volatiles, Calx viva. XIV. Antalkalina. Acida quxcunque supra inter refrigerantia enumerata. XV. Antiseptica. Sales acidi omnes supra inter refrigerantia recensiti, Sales alkalini turn fixi turn vo- latiles, Sales neutri ex acido quovis cum Sale alkalino vel cum terreis juncto, Plantarum partes acidae, Olera acescentia, Saccharum, Mel, Plantse Siliquosx vulgo anti- scorbutica dictx, Plantae alliacex, Astringentia, Amara, Aromatica, Olea essentialia, Camphora, Gummi Resinae, Crocus, Radix Contrayervae, Radix Valerianae sylvestri§, Opium, Decoctum capitum papaveris albi, Vinum et liquores fermentati, Alcohol. XVI. Errhina. Mitiora. Beta, Betonica, Majorana. Acriora. Asarum, Asarum Europxum M, 444 MATERIA MEDICA. 13! hlrrhina. Asarabacca. Euphorbium, Euphorbium officinale M. 449, Euphorbium. Ilelleborus albus, Veratrum album M. 902, White hellebore. Iris nostras. Nicotiana. Ptarmica, Achillea Ptarmica M. 777, Sueezewort. Pyrethrum, Turbith minerale. Hydrargyrus acido vitriolico junctus. XVII. SlALOGOGA. Externa masticatoria. Angelica. Caryophylli. Imperatoria, Imperatoria Ostruthium M. 289, Masterwort. Nicotiana. Piper. Pyrethrum- Interna. Hydrargyrus. XVIII. EXPECTORANTIA. Hedera terrestris. Hyssopos. Marrubium, Marrubium vulgare M. 537, White horehound. Pulegium. Enula campana, Inula Helenium M. 766, Elecampane. Iris Florentina, Iris Florentina M. 88, Florentine Orrice. Nicotiana. Scilla, Scilla maritima M. 328, Squill. Expectorantia. Tussilago, Tussilago Farfara M. 755, Colt's foot. Petasites, Tussilago Petasites M. 75 ft, Butterbur. Benzoinum. Styrax calamita. Balsamum Canadense. Balsamum Tolutanum- XIX Emetica. 1. Ex Fossilibus. Cuprum, Hydrargyrus, Antimonium, Zincum. 2. Ex Vegetabilibus., Asarum. Erigerum, Senecio vulgaris M. 756, Groundsel. Ipecacoanha, Psychotria emetica M. 314, Ipecacuanha, Nicotiana* Scilla. Sinapi. Raphanus rusticanus. Sales alkalini volatiles. Amara. XX. Cathartica. 1. Mitiora. Acescentia. Fructus acido-dulces recentes. Cassia Fistularis siccatx. Cassia Fistula M. 393, Cassia of the cane. Tamarindus, Tamarindus Indica M. 81, Tamarind. Dulcia. Saccharum. Mel. Manna, Fraxinus Ornus M. 918, Manna. 132 CATALOGUS Cathartica. Radices dulces. Olera blanda. Rosa damascena, Rosa centifolia M. 474, Damask rose. Viola, Viola odorata M. 803, Sweet scented violet. Polypodium, Polypodium vulgare M. 935, Polypody. Serum lactis. Lac ebutyratum. Olea expressa blanda ex Vege- tabilibus. ex animalibus. Sapo albus Hispanus. Sinapi nigrum. Sulphur. „ SaUna* Tartarus. Alkalina fixa, Magnesia alba. Sales neutri. Aqux minerales salinx. Amara. Bilis animalium. Balsamica* 2. Acriora. Aloe, Aloe perfoliata M. 337, Socotrine and hepatic aloes. Rhabarbarum, Rheum palmatum M. 385, Rhubarb. Seneka, Polygala Senega M. 640, Rattlesnake root. Genista, Spartium Scoparium M. 644, Broom. Sambucus, Sambucus nigra M. 295, Common elder. Ebulus, Sambucus Ebulus M. 295, Dwarf elder. Ricini Oleum, Cathartica. Ricinus communis M. 865, Castor oil. Senna, Cassia Senna M. 393, Senna. Helleborus niger, Helleborus niger M. 519, Black hellebore. Jalapium Ph. Lond. Jalapa Ph. Edin. Convolvulus Jalapa M. 301, Jalap. Scammonium, Convolvulus Scammonium M. 200, Scammony. Rhamni baccx, Rhamnus Catharticus M. 232, Buckthorn berries. Gambogia, Gambogia Gutta M. 490, Gamboge. Nicotiana. Helleborus albus. Colocynthis, Cumus Colocynthis M. 869, Bitter apple. Elaterium, Memordica Elaterium M.868, Elaterium. Metallica. Ex Auro, Ex Argento, Ex Hydrargyro, Ex Antimonio. Emetica. XXI. Diuretica. a. Umbellata. Petroselium, Daucus, Fceniculum, Pimpinella. Eryngium. b. Stellata. Aparine, Rubia, c. Varia. Alkekengi, MATERIA MEDICA. Diuretica. Physalis Alkekengi M. 222, Winter cherry. Bardana, Arctium Lappa M. 723, Burdock. Dulcamara, Solanum Dulcamora M. 223, Bittersweet. Gramen, Triticum repens M. 127, Quickgrass. Varia. Lithospermum, Lithospermum officinale M. 185, Gromwell. Ononis, Ononis spinosa M. 651, Restharrow. Arum. Asarum. Asparagus. Digitalis, Digitalis purpurea M. 562, Foxglove. Enula campana. Genista. Nicotiana. Persicaria. Ranunculus. Ruta. Sabina. Senega. Scilla. Amara. Balsamica. Siliquosx. Alliacex. Ex. Animalibus. Cantharides, Diuretica. Millepedx, Sales acidi. Sales alkalini fixi, Sales neutri, Sapo albus Hispanus, XXII. Diaphoretica. Calendula, Calendula officinalis M. 791, Marigold. Crocus. Dulcamara. Opium. Camphora. Contrayerva. Serpentaria. Salvia. Scordium. Guaiacum. Sassafras. Senega. Moschus. Acida vegetabilia- Alkali volatile. Sales neutri. Olea essentialia. Olea empyreumatica. Vinum. Alcohol. Antimonium. Diluentia. Hydrargyrus. XXIII. Menagoga. Aloe. Gummi foetida. Plantx fcetidae. Crocus. Castoreum. Ferrum. Hydrargyrus. A TREATISE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. 11AVING thus finished all that seemed necessary by way of introduction, we now proceed to enter more directly upon our sub- ject, and shall divide our work into two parts ; the one treating of aliments, the other of medicines: The former being, as we have said, such substances as are suited to supply the matter, whether solid or fluid, of the human body; and the latter being- such as have no such property, but are capable of variously chang- ing the state of the body, and particularly of changing the state of disease into that of health. It is true, indeed, that this last mentioned purpose may often be obtained by a certain manage- ment of alimentary matters, wrhich thereby become medicines and subjects of the materia medica ; and we shall have frequent occa-, sion to view them in this light. But still it will be also proper to consider them separately; and we shall begin first with treating of the aliments. PART I. OF ALIMENTS. CHAPTER I. OF ALIMENTS IN GENERAL. E have already said that aliments are those substances which, taken into the body, are fitted to afford and supply the fluid and solid matter of it. On this subject it might be supposed at first sight, that these aliments should be distinguished according as they are fitted to supply the mattter of the solid or of the fluid parts ; but upon further consideration, the marking of such a dis- tinction will not be found necessary. It is sufficiently evident with respect to the alimentary matters taken into the body, that if they be in a solid st,ate, they must, in order to their distribution and proper application, b'e by the powers of the animal oeconomy con- verted into a fluid form: and as it is also obvious that this does constantly take place ; so it will readily appear that the matter fit- ted to form the solids makes always a considerable portion of the fluids. It is the production of these last, therefore, that we are first to account for; and I expect that in doing this we shall be able to account also for the production of the matter suited to form the solids. w MATERIA MEDICA. 135 When we consider the whole of the fluids of the bod<-, they ap- pear to be of many different kinds; but we can particularly dis- tinguish those that are pretty constantly in the course of the cir- culation, which we call the common mass, from those that are found in other vessels than those concerned in the circulation. These, however, being all of them, as we presume, drawn from the com- mon mass, and therefore originally of the same matter, only some- what changed by the secretory organs through which they pass ; so we shall omit considering them any further here, and shall en- quire at present onlv into the nature and production of that mat- ter which forms the circulating or common mass. To this purpose it is to be observed, that besides elementary wa- ter, which always mikes the largest portion of the human fluids, the next considerable part of the common mass is what we have^ named the gluten or coagulable lymph. This I consider as the chief part of the mass, because I suppose it to be that part of it which gives the matter of the solids, or the permanent constituent parts of the body, and which, from the beginning to the end of life, are constantly receiving a further accretion and increase. That the gluten is that part of the fluids which affords the matter of the solids, is sufficiently probable from this, that in all its qualities it verv nearly resembles the solid matter of the body, while in any other part of the fluids there is no such resemblance. Therefore this gluten we hold to be the chief part of the fluids ; and consider- ing how much of it is diffused among tire other fluids, and how- much of it is dissolved in the serum or serosity, it is certainly, next to the water, the largest portion of the common mass. It may consequently be viewed as that into which the aliments, so far as they are nutritious, are converted; and therefore maybe consi- dered as the proper animal fluid. Under this title, we shall here- after speak of it; or, to avoid all ambiguity, I shall frequently call it the animal mixt. In order to account for the other matters that appear to be in the common mass, we must observe, that when this animal mixt is fully formed, it does not long remain stationary in that condition ; but seems to be constantly, although perhaps slowly, proceeding to a putrid or putrescent state ; as we know that if fresh aliment be not constantly supplied, the whole of the fluids will in no long time become very putrid. In this progress, as in other processes of putrefaction, we find the mild and perfectly neutral substances changed into a saline state of the ammoniacal kind; and this sa- line matter being washed off from the entire gluten, by the water which constantly accompanies it, seems to form the serosity of the common mass. It is this again which nature, in order to prevent an undue accumulation of it, has provided for being carried out of the body by the several excretions, and that in the proportion necessary to preserve the health of the system. 136 TREATISE OF THE We thus find that the portion of the common mass, which is termed the serosity, and which seems different from the gluten or animal mixt, is however formed from this, and does not therefore lead us to suppose any other supply of alimentary matter than what is necessary to that. To account for another portion of the common mass, we must remark, that the animal fluid is considerably different in its quali ties from he vegetable matter of which it is often entirely formed, and that this vegetable matter, after it has been taken into the body, is thus changed by the peculiar powers of the animal oeco- nomy. This change, however, is only gradually and slowly made; and it is not completed till the aliments and chyle made of them are taken into the blood-vessels j and probably even in these, it requires some time to be finished. From hence we may perceive that a portion of the common mass is always for some time in an unassimilated state: and we have thus a view of the common mass as being made up of three several parts; the one being a portion of unassimilated matter, which is to be formed into the animal mixt; the second being the animal mixt completely formed; and the third being formed from that mixt in its pro- gress towards putrefaction. Although, therefore, the matter may be seemingly different in its different states, we find nothing to lead us to doubt of its being always made of the same alimentary matter. As it appears probable that the whole of the circulating or com- mon mass consists very entirely of the matters just now mention- ed ; so we are disposed to conclude that a different kind of ali- ment is not necessary to form the fluids from that which is neces- sary to form the solid parts of the body. In admitting this, however, a difficulty will occur from our observing that there is a portion of the common mass, and that also constantly, present in it, which is peculiarly different from the gluten in any of the states of it which we have mentioned. This portion of it is that of the Red globules; the formation of which, from any state of the gluten, cannot, so far as I know, be explained; and it might therefore be supposed, that a peculiar kind of alimentary matter afforded this peculiar portion of the blood. It may possibly be so; but so far as I am acquainted with the subject, we do not know any part of the alimentary matters that seems adapted to this purpose: and as the red globules seem to be commonly in the same proportion to the gluten, and, the vigour of the constitution being given, that the quantity of both is in proportion to the quantity of the same kind of aliment taken in; so we may presume that the red globules, by certain powers of the animal oeconomy, are made of the same aliment as the gluten. Again, therefore, I conclude, that there is no ground for supposing the aliment supplying the fluids of the com- MATERIA MEDICA. 3^7 m'on mass to be anywise different from that which is fitted for sup- plying the matter of the solids. Another question, however, might still arise, which is, Whe- ther any of the secreted fluids, found out of the course of the cir- culation, but necessary to the animal oeconomy, require an ali- ment different from what is necessary to form the fluids of the common mass in the manner we have supposed ? The negative of this we cannot, indeed, assert; but can justly say, that the af- firmative is a gratuitous supposition without any proof. Indeed, while we can account for the production of the common mass from the aliments taken in, and at the same time pretty clearly perceive that the whole of the secreted fluids are drawn entirely from that mass, it will be with greater probability supposed, that the secreted fluids are, by the wonderful power of secretion, formed out of the common mass by a combination of the different states of that, or of different secretions, than that any of them are for- med of peculiar aliments. Upon the whole, therefore, I again con-, elude, that the solids, and the whole of the fluids, are formed out of one and the same kind of aliment. To ascertain exactly what that common aliment is, or if as- certained, to explain how it is adapted to its purpose, may per- haps go beyond our power: but in all such enquiries upon an ana- lytical plan, it may be of great advantage to simplify the question as much as may be, and to begin at least writh reducing the enquiry to the fewest questions possible. Upon this plan, therefore, I enter upon the general question, What are the proper aliments of the human species ? In answer to this, we know in general from experience, that the human ali- ments are taken entirely either from other animals, or from ve- getables, and that no part of them, excepting water, is taken from the fossil kingdom. The substances employed are seemingly va- rious ; and in order to know the greater or less fitness of the in- dividuals, it is requisite to consider in general how animal and ve- getable matters are suited to give nourishment to the human body.' With respect to the former, the most part of the matter taken from animals is so nearly of the same qualities with the matter ©f the human body, that there is little difficulty' in supposing that the animal matters taken into the human body, as aliments, are perfectly well suited to this purpose, and require only the means ©f solution and mixture, with very little change of their qualities. It is true, indeed that in many of the animal substances we take in, the likeness of qualities to those of the human body is not air ways exact and complete; and we shall hereafter have occasion to take notice of this: but in the meanwhile, all of them agree so much in the qualities which chiefly characterise the human fluids, that we may presume on their being a matter so nearly the same. that the former mav be verv well suited to supplv the latter. Vol. T. S 138- TREATISE OF THE To supersede, however, any further anxious enquiry upon this subject, we may remark it to be highly probable, that all animal matter is originally formed of vegetable; because all animals ei- ther feed directly and entirely on vegetables, or upon other ani- mals that do so. From hence it is probable, that all animal sub- stances may be traced to a vegetable origin; and therefore if we would enquire into the production of animal matter, we must first enquire in what manner vegetable matter may be converted into animal ? And this question relates especially to the human body ; the nourishment of which is in a great measure immediately taken from vegetables. In attempting this, we shall find that the conversion mention- ed is the effect of a peculiar power in the animal oeconomy; which, it must be acknowledged, is by no means clearly or fully under- stood. We shall, however, make some steps towards understanding it better; and to this purpose there is one step absolutely necessa- ry, which is, to determine amongst the seemingly great variety of vegetable matter, which is the kind that is especially, or perhaps only, fitted to be converted into animal ? Or if this question, as thus put, be too general, it may then be to determine, what are the vegetable substances chiefly fitted for being converted into the substance of the human body ? Nothing is more evident than that every vegetable, or every part of any one vegetable, is not suited to this last mentioned purpose; and therefore it is necessary, both for the sake of the general question, and also for the particular purpose of the materia medica, to determine as well as we are able what vegetables, and what part of them, are most fit for the nourishment of the human body. In pursuing this "enquiry, it is to be remarked, in the first place, that for the most part those vegetables are rejected from the list of aliments, that are imbued with any strong odour or taste; and at least of the sapid, all except the acid and sweet are excluded. To this perhaps there are a few exceptions; as when the odorous *pr sapid part is in small proportion to the rest of the vegetable substance; when the odorous or sapid parts are such as pass quickly out of the body again by the excretions; or when they are such as admit of their qualities being entirely changed by the powers of digestion in the first passages. Such exceptions, however, hardly affect the general doctrine ; which is very much confirmed by this, that several vegetables, which in their acrid state are unfit or even noxious, by being deprived of their acrimony by culture, by blanch- ing, by drying, or by boiling are rendered quite proper: and if there shall still be exceptions not to be accounted for in any of these ways, I would maintain, that such acrid substances are ad- mitted and taken in as condiments rather than as nutriments This consideration of the exclusion of acrid matters 'from among our foods, is to be applied m this manner. As the acrid MATERIA MEDICA. 13y odorous, or sapid parts, seem for the most part to be the peculiar matter of particular vegetables, and to be even but a small portion of these, seldom diffused over the whole, but deposited in certain parts of them only; and as this is more especially the case in those vegetables which are taken in as food; so we from thence conclude, that besides these peculiar matters, there is in the most part of vegetables a considerable quantity of matter, which, for reasons to be given hereafter, is manifestly in common to almost the whole of the vegetable kingdom. This we shall speak of as the common matter of vegetables; and having laid aside as above the peculiar, it is in the common matter that we are necessarily led to seek the vegetable substance that is suited to the nourishment of the human body. Whilst from this consideration it appears that a great portion of vegetables is of an alimentary quality, at the same time it is from daily experience evident, that certain vegetables contain a greater portion of this alimentary matter than others, and that certain parts of vegetables contain more of it than other parts of them. It is therefore further necessary to enquire after the particular substances of vegetables, or the particular parts of them that may- be considered as the alimentary matter especially adapted to the human body. In attempting this, it must, in the first place, be observed, that contrary to what others have supposed, I cannot discern that any portion of matter is to be found existing in any vegetables directly fitted to supply the animal fluid. This, however, as we have al- ready said, is seemingly, together with water, the foundation of all other fluids in animal bodies; and particularly, that from which the nutritious matter applied to the increase of the solid parts is, by the powers of the oeconomy, formed and prepared. It is this animal fluid, therefore, that our vegetable food is to be converted into ; and it seems to be a matter formed not from anyone kind, but by the powers of the animal oeconomy, from various kinds of vegetable matter. Accordingly, when we are to say that certain parts of vegetables are alimentary, we mean only to say, that they are matters fitted to enter into the composition of the proper ani- mal fluid. In studying this subject, it appears that the matter of vegeta- bles, whether in the whole or in the different parts of them, fitted to form the animal fluid, is an acid, a sugar, and an oil. These three substances I shall now consider more particularly; and shall first endeavour to show that they truly enter into the composition of the animal fluid. Article I. Of Acid. That this is a part of the common matter of vegetables which proves alimentary, will be readily admitted, because it appears in the whole substance of many of our vegetable foods, and particu- 140 TREATISE OF THE larly is frequently very copious in vegetable fruits. In these, in- deed, it is commonly combined with more or less of sugar ; but from what happens in the progress of the maturation of fruits, which is often the change of an acid into a saccharine matter, it is to be presumed that an acid enters largely into the composition of su- gar, and is thereby, as will be shown hereafter, a necessary ingre- dient in the composition of animal fluid. It may perhaps be al- leged, that it is only such an ingredient as being a part of sugar; but it seems probable that it is also 'such in its separate state. It seems, indeed, sufficiently proved, that every kind of vegetable aliment, except the purely oily, is capable of an acescent fermen- tation ; and that every such aliment soon after it is taken int» the stomach of an healthy person, undergoes such a fermenta- tion ; whereby an acid is always more or less evolved. At the same time it must be allowed, that as in the further progress of the aliment this acid disappears very entirely, without being ever again evident in the mass of blood; so its having entered into the composition of the animal fluid can hardly be doubted: and if this appearance and disappearance of acid constantly takes place, we may, I think, conclude from it, that an acid, purely as such, is a necessary ingredient in the composition of the animal fluid. The same thing appears likewise from this, that acescent sub- stances are so far a necessary part of the human aliment, that without these the animal fluid advances much faster and further towards a putrid state: and it appears more clearly still from this, that when the fluids have proceeded too far in their putres- cency, so as to form a disease such as I take the scurvy to be, we know that this state is especially cured by the taking in of acescent aliment. It may perhaps be cured by every kind of such aliment; but still it is done most effectually by those in a very acid state, either produced by nature, as in lemons, or by ve- getables converted by art into an acid state, as in sour kraut. In the use of these, as there is no evidence of their acting otherwise, they must certainby operate by entering into the composition of the animal fluid, and by rendering it of a less putrescent kind. It is upon the whole, therefore, extremely probable, that a vegetable acid in every shape is a proper and necessary part of the human aliment. It is, however, proper to remark here, that this conclusion respects the native acid of vegetables only; for we have reason to believe that the several fossil acids do not enter into the com- position of the animal fluid, not only because they readily pass unchanged by the excretions, but because even in the circulation they continue separate from the other parts of the blood, so much as to irritate ulcers and issues; and lastly because they do not dire the scurvy. How it maj- happen with respect to the phosphoric acid, the MATERIA MEDICA. 141 acid of borax, of amber, and some others, we do not very certainly know; but I am inclined to be of opinion, that all these just now mentioned are precisely in the condition of the solid acids. It is to be suspected, also, that it is the same with regard to certain acids that may be called vegetable; such as the acid of tartar, the dis- tilled acid as it is obtained from ta*r, and even that it is so likewise with respect to the fermented acid or vinegar, when taken in large quantity. If the latter, as has been alleged, is found to increase coughing, it would show that it remains in a separate state, and thereby stimulates the bronchia: but it is likely that this happens only in consequence of its being taken in very large quantity: for it is very probable, from its being so largely employed in diet by a great part of mankind, that it enters even in large quantity into the composition of the animal fluid. Upon the whole, therefore, it would appear that the alimentary quality of acid is confined to the native acid of vegetables, as it is produced in them by nature, or as it is evolved from acescent vegetables, or from sugar in the stomach. Upon this occasion, what notice is to be taken of the aerial or mephitic acid, I am not well determined to say. Article II. Of Sugar. The second kind of vegetable matter which we have said may be supposed to be alimentary, is sugar. Whether this in its pure saline state, and taken by itself, without any mixture of oleagin- ous matter, can prove alimentary, seems to me very doubtful: but that even when approaching very nearly to a saline state, as it is in the sugar-cane, it may prove alimentary, is presumed from what happens to the negroes upon our sugar plantations, who are observed to grow plump and fat when, during the expression of the canes they take a great deal of the cane-juice. The same conclusion may be drawn likewise from this circum- stance, that the people of warmer climates live much upon fruits, whose substance in a great part consists of sugar; and I think it evidently appears that these fruits are more nourishing in propor- tion as they contain more of sugar. That sugar enters for a large share into the nourishment of men, we may know particularly from hence, that figs, a very saccharine fruit, were anciently the chief food of the Athletse or public wrestlers. That the roots of those vegetables that are especially alimentary contain a great deal of sugar, we learn from Mr. Margraafs ex- periments, which show that a great deal of pure sugar may be ex- tracted from them; and it can hardly be doubted that a great part of their nutritious power depends upon this ingredient in their com- position. The best proof, however, of the nutritious quality of sugar, or of its being a chief part of alimentary substances, is, that a great proportion of sugar is contained in all farinaceous matter. This 142 TREATISE OF THE appears from its being involved in the most part of the farinaceous seeds by their germination or malting. And lastly, that all ali- mentary vegetables do for a great part consist of sugar, we may presume from their being universally liable to a vinous or acetous fermentation; the subject of which is probably in all cases a sugar. The affinity between saccharine and farinaceous matter appears particularly from this, that several fruits, which, at a certain peri- od of their maturation, are chiefly saccharine, are in their further progress often changed to a farinaceous state. The germination of seeds, therefore, and the maturation of certain fruits, fully prove the mutual convertibility of sugar and farina into one another. While we thus endeavour to show that farinaceous substances contain a large proportion of saccharine matter, it is to be observed that the farinaceous seeds are, of all other vegetable matters, the most powerful and nourishing to men, as well as to domestic ani- mals ; and hence the Farina Alibilis of Dr. Haller. This nutri- tious quality he indeed imputes to a mucilaginous or gelatinous matter which appears in them upon their being diffused in wa- ter ; and it is possible that their nutritious quality may in part de- pend upon this: but at the same time, from what we have just now said of the composition of farinaceous matter, it will appear that this vegetable mucilage or gelatina consists for a great part of sugar; which therefore, may still be the basis of its alimentary part. We allow it, however, to be also probable, that farina con- sists of another matter, which may be supposed to give the whole its gelatinous appearance in solution, and probably also to render the whole a more proper, complete, and powerful nourishment to the human bod\T. This other ingredient of farina is probably an oil of the mild and unctuous kind that is got from farinaceous seeds by expression; and is therefore commonly named by the general title of an Expressed Oil. Article III. Of Oil. This leads us to consider wdiat we suppose to be the other part of vegetable aliment. If farinaceous matter prove, as I have al- leged, the most nourishing of vegetable aliments, it is equally evident that the most oily of vegetable seeds are the most nourish- ing of the farinacea; and from hence it will be sufficiently pro- bable, that oil, such as the expressed we have mentioned, makes a considerable part of our vegetable aliments. Here, however, it may be imagined, that oil enters into the composition of the animal fluid only as it is a part of farina, or as it happens to be mixed by nature with other vegetable matter; and that, as it is taken in, wrhether from animals or vegetables in a separate state, it affords only the oily matter that is necessary to be constantly present in considerable quantity in the bodies of animals, not for their nourishment, but for certain other purposes of their cEconomy. MATERIA MEDICA. 143 We cannot, however, enter into this opinion: for we are per- suaded, that even the oil which is taken into the body, in the form of a pure oil, though entirely separate from other vegetable mat- ter, does truly in a large proportion enter into the composition of the animal fluid; and that oil, therefore, may be considered in the strictest sense as a fundamental part of the human aliment. We are of this persuasion, how much soever neglected by phy- siologists, from the following considerations. 1st, We observe that oil, both from vegetable and animal sub- stances, is daily taken in as a part of diet by the people of all na- tions, and often in large quantity, without increasing obesity. It appears likewise that this oil does not remain separate from the other fluids of the alimentary canal, but it is very accurately dif- fused in the chyle ; which may be considered as a step towards a more intimate mixture. 2dly, That such a mixture actually takes place is very probable from this, that no chyle appears in the left ventricle of the heart, nor in the arteries and veins which carry the blood which had passed through that ventricle. If there be some instances of such appearance, which have been alleged, they are certainly, however, very rare, and probably morbid. Zdly, Not only no chyle, but neither does any oil ever appear in any part of the mass of blood, nor ever in any part of the human body, till it appears in the cellular or adipose membrane, into which it is probably brought by a peculiar secretion. It has indeed been alleged, that oil has sometimes appeared on the surface of extravasated blood or serum ; but in all such instances, we pre- sume it to have been a preternatural appearance: For in the many- hundred instances in which I have looked upon the human blood, I have never met with any appearance of that kind; and whilst oil is so constantly and copiously taken into the bod}-, nothing can account for the absence of its appearance, but the supposition of its having undergone an intimate mixture of it with the other parts of the blood. Some physiologists have been fond of finding the red globules of the blood to be an oily matter; and in certain conditions these may appear to be inflammable: but a fluid readily, equally, and permanently diffusible in water, cannot be properly considered as an oil. A fourth consideration that leads to suppose the oil taken in, to be intimately mixed with the other parts of the animal fluid, and to make a considerable pare in the composition of it, is this, that the oil, which is often copiously laid up in the adipose mem- brane of healthy animals, is again, upon various occasions, ab- sorbed and taken into the course of circulation. Some of these occasions are manifestly those states in which a great degree of acrimony prevails in the mass of olood, as in scorbutic, siphylitic, hectic, and other such cases ; and while it is highly probable that 144 TREATISE OF THE the purpose of such absorption is by the oil to cover the acrimony of the animal fluid, it must prove at the same time that this admits of an intimate mixture with the oil. As the want of food is a principal occasion of the absorption mentioned, this affords a proof that such absorption is a means of supplying aliment, or at least of covering the acrimony which upon the want of aliment is ready to take place. Upon either sup- position, it affords a proof that oil unites very intimately with the other parts of the blood: and, upon the whole, there can be little doubt that oil taken in, either in its separate or united state, is a part, and a considerable part, of the human aliment. We have now endeavoured to determine that there are three kinds of vegetable matter which separately, or rather as united to- gether, afford the proper aliment of man; and we are disposed to say there are no others: but it has been, and still may be, by many suspected, that there is a fourth species of vegetable matter which should be taken into our accounts; and that is the mucila- ginous part of vegetables. It seems indeed to be very well ascertained, that gum Arabic, the most simple and pure mucilage, is an alimentary matter; and and as a gelatinous matter is commonly supposed to be the form in which our nutritious juices is applied, it maybe supposed that this mucilage of gum Arabic is to be considered as a simple substance, and in the same form directly applicable to the nourishment of the body. Perhaps it may be so; but many objections may be raised against the conclusion. At present it will be enough to say, that the gum mentioned is not a simple substance, but a com- pound of acid, sugar, and oil, and that thereby only it becomes nutritious. In its powdery form it resembles farina; and a further analogy may be drawn from hence, that salep in its entire form resembles very exactly the gum, and in its powdery form comes still nearer to the appearance and properties of a farina. The conclusion of a similar nature in these substances will be still more readily admitted, when it is considered how nearly the amylaceous part of farina resembles the salep and gum in a pow- dered state; and it may be readily admitted, that the only diffe- rence between gum Arabic and farina may be a little difference in the proportion of the several parts composing each. It ma}' be supposed, therefore, that gum Arabic, and other such mucilagi- nous matters may be like farina, chiefly composed of sugar and oil, which the vegetable oeconomy may combine in different pro- portions, and under different appearances, which we cannot either imitate or explain. This further remark is to be added, that gum Arabic contain? a portion of sugar seems probable from the experiment which shows, that an acid exactly resembling the acid of sugar may be extracted from the gum, by a process like to that which extract* the acid from sugar itself. MATERIA MEDICA. 145 It is again, therefore, concluded, that the vegetable matters affording aliment or acid, sugar, and oil, Avhich in diet mav 'e taken in, sometimes in their separate state; but may also, as th y are more commonly, and perhaps more properly, be taken in a combined state; and in the latter case, either as they are com- bined in vegetable substances by nature, or as they are joined toge- ther by the cook in the preparations of diet. Some time ago we should have rested in this conclusion; but the experiments of Beccaria, confirmed by Kesselmaier and many others, have discovered a substance in certain vegetables, which probably make a part of the nourishment which they afford. Al- though this peculiar matter has hitherto been discovered almost only in wheat, it is probably also in some proportion present in the other farinacea; as these are all of them coagulable and nou- rishing, and many of them are nearly if not as much, nutrient as wheat is. But however this may be, the discovery of Beccaria can amount to this only, that besides the parts we have assigned, there may be in certain vegetables a substance that makes a part of the aliment they afford; and justly indeed, as this newly disco- vered matter in its nature approaches more nearly to the nature of animal substance than any other part of vegetable matter we know of: but with all this we cannot find that this discovery in- validates our opinion of the chief part of the aliment afforded by- vegetables being afforded by acid, sugar, and oil, to be com- pounded by the powers of the animal oeconomy. Besides the consideration of alimentary vegetables with respect to their constituent parts, there may be another general conside- ration of them proper here, and that is with respect to their being of different degrees of solubility in the human stomach. What may be the power of the gastric menstruum, or the causes of its different power with respect to different substances, is not well ascertained: but we now know that it is different in different animals, insomuch that in many carnivorous animals it has little power with respect to vegetable matters ; and that in phytivorous animals it has little power with respect to animal substances. See Stevens De Alimentorum Concoctione, Edinb. 1777. Although in the human stomach the gastric menstruum seems commonly to have power with respect to both animal and vegeta- ble matters, it is, however, probable, that upon different occasions its power is in a different degree with respect to these different substances ; as it seems at certain times to dissolve the one more readily than the other. What this depends upon, or under what different modifications it may appear, we cannot at present ven- ture to determine. At present it seems further necessary to remark, that with re- spect to perhaps every human stomach, the powers of it in gene- ral being given, there is a difference in the solution of different Vol. I. T 140 TREATISE OF THE substances, arising entirelv from the different texture of these Thus it appears, that apples and melons are less readily soluble than strawberries and raspberries; that full grown cabbage is less soluble than collyflower; and a like difference may be observed with respect to many other vegetable substances, as we shall here- after take notice of more particularly. In the mean time it may, in illustration of the whole, be in general observed, that in many vegetables there is a different solubility in the different parts of them ; so that in one and the same, while a certain part of them is entirely dissolved, another part of them passes off by stool in a very entire state. Thus as many fruits consist of a tender pulp inclosed in a firmer membrane or husk, so the solubility of the whole will depend uppn the proportion of these parts: and as in the matura- tion of fruits their pulp goes on increasing, while their membranes are constantly growing thinner and tenderer; so in many instances the solubility of fruits taken in an entire state will commonly be in proportion to their maturity. In illustration of this subject of the solubility of aliments, it may be remarked, than in so far as the arts of cookery render the texture of aliments more tender, it renders them in proportion more soluble in the stomach. At entering upon this subject, I should have observed, that we have a particular proof of the more ready or difficult solubility of different substances in the stomach. There are men who are occa- sionally, and many who are veiy frequently, liable to a rumina- tion, or the bringing up by an eructation a part of the contents of the stomach. These parts are frequently somewhat entire portions of vegetable or animal matters, which are manifestly of a firmer texture than the rest which had been taken down, and have not therefore been so readily dissolved. From the rarefraction of their air not entirely extricated, they float near to the upper orifice of the stomach, and are therefore most readily brought up. I have known several persons liable to this rumination, and from them have learned, that certain substances are more commonly brought up than others, and some at a longer time after eating than others; and both circumstances seem clearly to depend upon the different degrees of solubility in these substances. Having now finished the general consideration of alimentary matters, I proceed to the consideration of particulars. CHAPTER II. OF PARTICULAR ALIMENTS. V V r. jre to consider these under the separate titles of Meats and Drinks: and by the first we mean whatever, whether solid or liquid, may be considered as alimentary in the sense explain- MATERIA MEDICA. 147 ed above ; and by the second, what is especially, and almost only, fitted to give liquidity to the aliments, and supply the water ne- cessary to the body. It is indeed true, that the liquids employed for that purpose may often also introduce nourishment: but under the title of Drinks, we shall consider the matter only as it affords a liquid. The particular alimentary matters shall be considered under the two heads of Vegetable or Animal: but to these I shall subjoin the consideration of Condiments, which, though not alimentary, yet, as always taken in along with these, and giving a particular modification of them, they will be most properly considered im- mediately after the consideration of the proper aliments themselves,. SECT. I. OF VEGETABLE ALIMENTS. X HE nature of vegetable aliment in general I have already con- sidered very fully; and am now to consider the particular vegeta- bles or part of vegetables in which it is to be found: but in the whole of this, we are to mention these parts of diet only which are well known and commonly employed in Britain. We have arranged them, in the first place, as they are taken from the diffe- rent parts of plants; and at the same time we have endeavored, wherever we can, to mark the botanical affinities of the plants from whence they are taken. We have attempted also to arrange the several vegetable aliments according to the quantity of nourish- ment that each of them affords; beginning with those of the least, and proceeding to those which afford the greatest proportion of it: but in this respect we cannot execute our plan with any great de- gree of exactness and precision. Having thus settled as well as I can the circumstances of order, we enter upon particulars ; and first of the Fructus Horaei or Sum- nicr Fruits, or, as they may be properly named, the Acido-dulces. A. a. Fructus Acido-dulces, or Summer Fruits. The particulars to be considered here are enumerated separately in the table given above ; but they have all of them so many qua- lities in common with one another, that it will be proper to consi- der these common qualities first, and afterwards what may be pe- culiar to any of the particulars. They are all of them useful in quenching thirst, which they dp partly by their cooling quality, and partly by their stimulating and 'hawing forth a liquid from the mucous excretories of the mouth and fauces. Taken down into the stomach, they have the same ef- fect there ; and sometimes further, by correcting putrcscencv, they remove a powerful cause of thir-*f. 148 TREATISE OF THE In the stomach, our fruits give to the sensible parts a stimulus that excites appetite; and at the same time the}' prove refrigerant, and diminish the action of the sanguiferous system. This effect is from the stomach communicated to the rest of the system; and this, joined with their antiseptic power, renders them of the great- est utilitv in even- kind of febrile disorder. Their power in this respect has been taken notice of by every writer on the subject; but whether they may be useful also in diminishing the tension of the system in other cases, is not determined. Van Swieterfs ob- servation of the effects of a large quantity of cherries in the cure of a maniac, and some other observations of the like effects of a large quantity of fruits, in certain melancholic cases, look like such a power. These effects, indeed, may be imputed to the con- stant diarrhoea which such large quantities of fresh fruits produce ; but we are at the same time well persuaded of their general re- frigerant and sedative power: and to this we ascribe their effects in the cases mentioned; in which opinion we are strongly con- firmed by their power in producing dyspepsia and atonic gout. The same consideration also leads us to believe that in many cases they may favour the coming on of intermittent fevers, as Galen has alleged. There may indeed be many instances of their being used without their having had that effect; but it will still be cer- tain that fresh fruits often show a debilitating power, which may certainly favour the operation of marsh effluvia, in bringing on agues, and readily occasioning a return of them when they had seemed to have ceased. The effects hitherto mentioned, depend especially upon the acid present in the composition of fruits, and which acid we have as- serted above to enter in a certain proportion into the composition of the animal fluid. It therefore becomes necessary in the stomach; but it may be there in excess, may increase the acescent fermen- tation which happens there, and may thereby give occasion to the production of more acid than the other fluids of the stomach can properly involve. In this manner, therefore, they may give occa- sion to all the disorders of an excess of acidity in the stomach, which i hvsicians are very well acquainted with. The acidity taken in, or naturally produced, always subsists in a certain measure in the stomach; but carried into the intestines is there mixed with the bile, by which it is more entirely involv- ed : and as we know that acid united with the bile takes off its bitterness, it is probable that acid fruits taken in are often useful in obviating the disorders that might arise from the redundancy of bile, and perhaps from the acrid quality of it. On the other han!, however, if the acids are in greater quantity than can be or are, properly corrected by the bile present, they seem, by some union with that fluid, to acquire a purgative quality, that gives a diarrhoea, and the colic pains that are ready to accompany the operation of every pargative. MATERIA MEDICA. 149 From the involution of acids, which even happens in the sto- mach, and more completely in the duodenum, we must perceive that, as we have maintained above, they are mixed with the hu- man fluids ; and the same also renders the other part of our doc- trine probable, that they enter for a part into the composition of the proper animal fluid, to be thereby rendered less putrescent than it would otherwise be. Acids indeed are universally ac- knowledged to resist putrefaction ; and hence the instinct of man leading him to the use of these fruits in warm climates, in warm seasons, and in every other circumstance that is known to in- crease a tendency to putrefaction. The state of the fluids in the scurvy maybe disputed about: but the remarkable effects of vege- table acid and acescents in the cure of this disease do not allow us to doubt of their manner of operating, and therefore of the nature of the disease. We have hitherto taken notice* almost only of the acidity- of the fruits we are considering: but that acidity is perhaps always ac- companied with more or less of sugar; and thence*perhaps more readily runs into a fermentation, by which their acidity, and all the effects of it mentioned, are greatly increased; and it is by the same fermentation that an unusual quantity of air is extricated, and gives occasion to the flatulency of the stomach and intestines with which the use of those fruits is so commonly accompanied. We often find, however, in fruits, the acidity accompanied with, or changed into, such a quantity of saccharine matter, that both from the reasons given above, and from universal experience, our saccharine fruits must be considered as particularly nutritive, and that also in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain. In what manner sugar enters into the composition of the animal fluid, or how it acquires the qualities it puts on in these, I cannot very clearly explain; but we can have no doubt that it does so in fact; and we are well persuaded that the saccharine matter, as well as the acid, has a share not only in obviating the putrescency of the animal fluid, but also of correcting it when it has gone too far. It is therefore justly supposed, that the resisting putrefaction and curing the scurvy are virtues in common to the whole of the summer fruits we are treating of. We have now mentioned the qualities that can be properly ta- ken notice of as common to the whole of these fruits ; but there are some others mentioned by writers on the subject. Thus those that are accompanied with an agreeable odour are said to be cordial and analeptic. There powers, however, in these respects are too inconsiderable to be mentioned; but I do not say so of the sapo- naceous and dissolving powers which are ascribed to them. Upon this subject it is to be remarked, that the blood of phyti- vorous animals is perhaps more dense and cohesive than that of the carnivorous; and therefore it is difficult to determine what ia,o TREATISE OF THE is the effect of aliments in this matter: but I shall consider it more fully hereafter, when I shall consider in general how far the state of the fluids can be changed, either by aliments or medi- cines. The qualities we have taken notice of in fruits have their effects chiefly in the first passages: even the changes they can produce in the mass of blood are all of them, if I mistake not, begun in the same first passages; and how far they have peculiar effects in the course of the circulation, I cannot well determine. We believe they have a tendency to increase the saline state of the blood ; and therefore it is very possible that when they are taken in larger proportion than usual, they may shew diuretic powers ; but we judge that such appear only when fruits carry along with them a large proportion of water, as in the case of the Watermelon. Having thus considered the qualities in common to the whole of the summer fruits, the peculiarities of each will be best explain- ed by considering what happens to the most part of them in the progress of their growth and maturation. Thus, the most part of fruits, upon their first discovering any succulency, have that more or less acerb: but upon their succulency being advanced, their is more acidity evolved, and less acerbity is perceived. As the growth of fruits advances, if they are such as are capable of ac- quiring sweetness, this appears more and more, while the acerbity and acidity are constantly diminishing, and sometimes in there state of perfect maturity, a full and almost unmixed degree of sweetness prevails. With these changes of their juices, it is to be remarked, that at the same time fruits suffer a change in their texture. At first they are firm and dense: but as their succulency advances, they are constantly becoming more soft and tender; and with their maturi- ty they acquire the most succulent and tender state they are capa- ble of. In the most part of fruits, we can distinguish between the softer pulp and firmer cortical part; and in the progress of their maturation, we find their pulp, in the innermost parts, con- stantly increasing, while the firmer and external cortical part is constantly diminishing. After fruits have in these respects of their juices and texture acquired their maturity, they suffer some fur- ther changes, to a farinaceous or to a putrid state, which I cannot explain: but as these changes hardly give any qualities to be ta- ken notice of, either in diet or medicine, I shall not attempt any account of them. Having now taken notice of the changes that may happen to many individuals, the peculiarities that may take place in the several genera and species may be readily distinguished. Thus some fruits remain constantly in an acerb state, while others advance to a more pure acidity, hardly acquiring any sweetness. A third kind advances to a sweet state, still retaining more MATERIA MEDICA. 151 or less of their acidity; while others retaining little or none at all of this, acquire a full sweetness. Upon these circum- stances, as they take place in particular fruits, both the diaetetic qualities and medicinal powers of each may be ascertained by a little experience of the taste in all the several states of growth and maturity they are capable of. It is to be further observed, that as the qualities of fruits, as ali- mentary, depend almost entirely upon the quantity of saccharine matter thev can acquire, and this upon the greatest degree of ma- turity they can arrive at; so this will often depend upon the soil they grow in, and upon the climate and sun they have been ex- posed to. It is also to be remarked, that as the full evolution of their saccharine matter is the most perfect state of alimentary fruits; so whatever contributes to this, may be considered as giving them their utmost perfection: and therefore when in cer- tain climates fruits cannot be allowed to remain upon their re- spective trees to acquire their due maturity, this, however, may be supplied: if fruits, when taken from a tree, can be preserved from frost or other cause of corruption, the process of maturation still goes on, and will go on to a more perfect degree in evolving the saccharine matter, and in giving a greater tenderness of tex- ture. This is not always to be promoted by external heat applied ; but in some cases it may: and we find that certain fruits when taken from their trees, if laid in heaps, so as by a certain fermen- tation to become heated, they by this sweating, as it is called, lose their acerbity, and acquire more sweetness than they would have otherwise had; and it is to the purpose of diet to observe that by the application of an artificial heat in boiling, baking, or roast- ing, acerb and unripe fruits have their saccharine matter much more evolved, and the effects of their unripe state very much pre- vented ; particularly, as by these practices a great deal of their air is extricated and dissipated, they are less disposed to an acescent fermentation. It belongs also to the business of diet to remark, that persons do often take in unripe fruits in considerable quantity; and much has been said of the danger attending such a practice; which is certainly in some measure well founded. The firmer texture of these unripe fruits is more difficultly dissolved; they remain therefore long in the stomach unmixed with the other fluid: and they are therefore liable to acquire a greater degree of acidity, and to give all the disorders that may arise from that in too great abundance. There are indeed stomachs whose gastric liquor ma) obviate all this; but certainly in many cases it may fail; and there- fore the taking in of unripe fruits is always hazardous, and may be very hurtful. We can hardly omit here saying what may perhaps be under- stood from what has been said already, that though fruits in their ripest, be at the same time in their most perfect, state, they may, 152 TREATISE OF THE however, even in this state, be taken in, in too large quantity; and in that case, being in over-proportion to the quantity or pow- ers of the gastric liquor, they may go too far in an acescent fer- mentation, and give all the disorders that may arise from too acid fruits: and that this will especially happen from fruits which have still in their ripest state a large proportion of acid in their compo- sition. Having now said so much of the common qualities of summer fruits, I can have few observations to make on the qualities of particular kinds. These I have said will depend on the acerb, acid, or saccharine matter, in their constitution, whether that depends upon their specific nature or upon their state of matura- tion ; and in all cases to be readily7 ascertained by experience in tasting. For the sake of young students, we shall more particularly observe, that the Drupaceae, or stone fruits, have commonly a larger proportion of acid with respect to their sugar than some other fruits: and therefore in their recent state they are common- ly and justly supposed to enter more readily- into a noxious fer- mentation, and to produce these consequences of morbid acidity, cholic, and diarrhoea, which we have mentioned above. This is especially, and perhaps justly, supposed with respect to the cherry and plumb kind, and we believe maybe equally supposed with re- spect to the peaches produced in the open air in Britain; but we are disposed to judge the apricot in these respects to be the safest of the drupaceous tribe. The Pomacese, when duly ripened, or when their immaturity is corrected by artificial heat and proper additions, may have all the common qualities of other summer fruits, but in their recent state, being seldom duly ripened in this climate, the firmness of their texture renders them slowiy dissolved, and ready to contribute t© an excess of acidity in the stomach. This vice happens more readily with respect to Apples than to Pears, as we can at least have some species of the latter more mellow and tender. In the case of a dyspeptic stomach, I have known apples a long time af- ter they had been taken down, brought up again by eructation in the same masses they had been swallowed, and that even after two days. Aurantium. This with the Limonium, I have inserted here amongst the Pomacese, though not with strict propriety, as the fruit is not a pomum. But in this instance, I have followed the learn- ed professor Murray, who under the title of Pomaceae has given not only the Poma, but also the Drupae and Bancae. How far this is proper, I will not determine : but for my purpose of consider- ing the dicetetic qualities of fruits, I thought it fittest to distinguish their botanic affinities as far as I could: but I could not find a more proper place for the Aurantium and Limonium than that I have given them here. MATERIA MELllCA. 153 Both these plants, in their leaves and flowers, and in the ex- terior coTtical part of their fruit, have various medicinal qualities; which, according to my plan, are not to be mentioned here ; where' I am to consider only the qualities of the j uice of their fruits, the only part of them employed in diet. The juices of these fruits we consider as purely acid, to be more easily collected in large quantity than from almost any other fruit; and therefore they are more frequently than that of any other em- ployed. Wherever an acid is indicated and admissible, they an- swer every purpose which we have proposed above for acids in ge- neral, whether in the mouth and fauces, or in the stomach and in- testines. They certainly enter into the composition of the animal fluid; and accordingly much experience has pointed them out as the most useful both in preventing and curing the scurvy. They are of two kinds. One in which they are more purely acid, with very little saccharine matter joined to them: the other is that in which a considerable portion of sugar is joined with the acid; by which it may be considered as in some measure nutri- tive. This, however, is little attended to; and they are seldom employed as a nutriment. This only is to be remarked, that the China or Sweet Orange has, in a certain degree, every quality that can be ascribed to any of the fructus acido-dulces. These are the virtues of these acids: but it must be observed, that wherever acids can be hurtful, these, either in undue quan- tity, or in dyspeptic stomachs, are as readily noxious as any other. On the whole of the subject, I have only further to observe, that as the fruits mentioned are the fruits of a season, it is often ne- cessary to preserve their juice in its entire acrid state for some length of time; and for this purpose various measures have been proposed. What may be done by congelation I cannot determine, as it is very rarely that this climate allows of the experiment. The practice by evaporation, or the making it into a rob, has been that most commonly employed, and has been much commended by many persons ; but in many trials which I have made, I could not exhale it to such a consistence as would preserve it without addi- tion, without my finding the acid a good deal changed. It acquires an acerbity and stypticity that does not allow it to be readily dif- fused in water; and I suspect it is not so readily miscible with the animal fluids as in its entire state. From Forster's observations in the voyage round the world, it was not found useful either in preventing or curing the scurvy; which perhaps maybe accounted for, partly by the concentration bringing it nearer to the state of the fossil acids, or possibly by the dissipation of some volatile parts, perhaps a portion of xrial acid; both of which circumstances may render it less fit for the cure of the scurvy. I have therefore Vol. I. U 154 TREATISE OF THE had a bad opinion of the acid exhaled to a thick consistence; and judge the best way of preserving its virtues to be by a diligent de- puration of it from its mucilaginous part, and putting it up in close vessels without putting any oil on its surface, which is ready to be acted upon bv the acid, and gives a disagreeable taint to it. What in our catalogue are put under the title of Scnticosx, as their tender substance is easily dissolved, and that in their ripe state they do not exceed in acidity, are justly reckoned the safest of summer fruits. If the large annual use of Strawberries could pre- serve from the gout, we should seldom find the inhabitants of Edinburgh affected with that disease. But though they use that supposed preservative very largely, we find them as often and as severely affected with the gout as the inhabitants of other places who do not use the same. Under the title of Senticosx I had for- merly set down the Cynosbatus, as it still retains a place in some dispensatories ; but after much attention, I cannot find that the best kinds of this various fruit possess any peculiar qualities that should introduce them either into diet or medicine. Of the Ribesia, there is a considerable difference between the Ribesia, strictly so called, or currant, and the Grosularia or goose- berry. The former has always a large proportion of acid; and though it should be more sweet, as the smallness of the berry does not easily allow it to be taken without the husk, it is a less safe fruit: whereas the Grosularia, as commonly containing a larger proportion of sugar, and as it may be easily taken without the husk, affords a safer, and generally a very safe, fruit. To the Ribes 7iigrum some singular virtues have been ascribed ; for which, upon repeated trials, I have not found any foundation. The Vaccinia duly ripened, though retaining a good deal of aci- dity, are commonly easily digested; but the most agreeable spe- cies, the oxycoccus, or craneberry, is still safer in its preserved than in its recent state. Uvae Vitis. Every- body knows that the Grape, according to somewrhat spe- cific in the nature of particular kinds, according to the soil it has grown in, the sun it has been exposed to, and its different degrees of maturation, is in very various condition; and the qualities there- fore of it in its different states are to be judged of by the princi- ples laid down above. But I think we may assert that Grapes, which contain a large proportion of sugar, are, if taken without their husks, the safest and most nutritive of summer fruits. Of the fruits hitherto mentioned, except the vaccinia, I have considered them only as in their recent state; but it is proper to take notice of them also, as they are often used in a dried state. In this state their watery part, and perhaps their acid and air, is « MATERIA MEDICA. 1 j*> ir; )art abstracted: and therefore their powers are in a more con- centrated and perhaps improved state. Of these dried fruits, the Prunes, as they contain a great deal of the acid .they originallv had, ave more of a laxative quality than the other dried fruits. Sugar, and therefore saccharine fruits, have all of them somewhat of the same quality. But we are persuaded that the laxative quality of fruits is commonly to be attributed to their acid conjoined with the bile, as above alleged. Of Passulae Majores or raisins, as very purely saccharine, they may be considered as considerably nutritive, and that in propor- tion as they are more entirely saccharine. The Uvae Apyrena;, or corinthiacae, otherwise named Passulx minores, as having more of acid, are therefore with the nutritive quality of the raisin more laxative. The Date of the best kinds is a very saccharine fruit, and their nutritious quality is well ascertained by the experience of many people who live upon them almost entirely. Those which come to us have, besides their nutritive, no peculiar quality of astringent or demulcent that I can perceive. Dried Figs are a fruit containing a large proportion of sugar; and by the experience of many people, considerably nourishing. They are perhaps more so, that their sugar is united with a large portion of a mucilaginous matter, which we always suppose to be of an oily nature, and therefore contributing to a nutritious qua- lity. The mucilaginous nature of Figs has given occasion to their being considered as demulcent; and both these and the dates have been much employed in pectoral decoctions, and for moderating the acrimony of the urine in nephritic cases ; but we shall here- after show, that the power of demulcents, both in these and other substances, is a very doubtful matter. In the mean time we are clear that the materia medica has lost nothing by our dispensa- tories omitting the Sebesten and Jujubes, dried fruits, somewhat of the same nature with the dates and figs, and formerly used for the same purposes. To the consideration of the dried fruits, it is proper to subjoin the consideration of fruits in their preserved state; which is com- monly done by means of some boiling, and afterwards adding to them a quantity of sugar. In this state they preserve sometimes their acid, and always their acescent and nutritive qualities; but both by the boiling employed, and the sugar added, they are per- haps less liable to acescency; and by the latter circumstance their nutritive qualities are certainly increased.. Some fruits are preserved by being laid in brandy, or other ar- dent spirit; but this hardly preserves in them any of their original qualities. Their acescency is entirely destroyed; and they are rendered absolutely unfit to be employed as nutrients. To conclude the subject of fruits, we shall consider a question 15b Treatise of the which has been frequently stated, and that is, Whether recent fruits are most safely and usefully taken before or after a meal or the use of other food ? The answer seems to be very obvious. In dy- speptic stomachs, or these which do not easily or powerfully over- come acescency, the taking in of acescents must be less safe before a meal than after it. In the case of stomachs powerful in the di- gestion of acescents, these may be commonly taken safely before meals, and possibly often with advantage, as they may excite ap- petite and favour digestion. In the most part of stomachs, fruits in moderate quantity are safe after meals ; and when these have consisted of much animal food, the use of fruits is generally proper, though in certain dyspeptics the large use of them may not be al- ways safe. The use of the dried fruits is certainly safer than that of the recent before meals; but even the dried fruits cannot be taken in that condition with sufficient safety by the dyspeptic. As I am well persuaded of the nutritious quality of dried figs, I can hardly believe, with Linnaeus Amxn, I. 136. that a large quantity of these can be taken before a meal without any diminution, and rather with an increase, of appetite. With respect t© the use of fruits, there is still a question to be mentioned. In many countries, particularly in Britain, both re- cent, boiled, and preserved fruits, are often taken with milk : and this practice has been condemned by Spielmann; but as I judge, without reason. In this country, the practice is almost universal, without our observing any mischief arising from it. Such expe- rience is the most secure foundation for concluding that the prac- tice is not hurtful; but it may be further added, that the supposi- tion of the consequences arising from it is not well founded. It is supposed they may arise from the coagulation of the milk in the stomach: but this happens to perhaps every portion of milk taken down into it; and therefore certainly happens for the most part without any bad consequence. Further, however, we judge the milk may be useful by involving a portion of thevacid, as it has been often found to be a cure for heartburn. If it happens, as commonly, that the oily part of milk is employed, it is probable that the coagulum will not be very firm, and also that the acid will be more properly and fully involved. As we are persuaded that the animal fluid is always formed of acid, sugar, and oil, so I judge the mixture of these in diet to be not only allowable, but very pro- per ; and therefore that cream with strawberries, and butter with apple-pye make a very proper diet. Before going further, it is to be remarked, that in treating of the above alimentary substances, we have not followed the me- thod of other writers on the materia medica, who, upon the oc- casion of mentioning substances as alimentary, do at the same time mention the medical virtues of the other parts of the vege- table from whence the alimentary matters are taken. This, how- MATERIA MEDICA. 157 ever, appears to be distracting the student's attention; and we have avoided it, resolving in another, as we judge a more pro- per place, to take notice of the medicinal qualities that may be in the whole, or in the parts, of alimentary vegetables ; and shall now, in considering the rest of the alimentary substances, keep to this measure. After the fructus acido-dulces, the next set of vegetable ali- ments to be mentioned, are the fruits of the Cucurbitaceae. This order, as we observed above, by no means shows the power of botanical affinity in giving the same medical virtues to every fruit of the same order; but these in our list, which are the chief of the alimentary substances taken from this order, are of a very similar nature with one another. They are not supposed to be very nourishing; but may be truly more so than is imagined: for though in the state in which they are employed, their .sensible qualities do not promise much, I judge their substance to be of the nature of the farinacea, which are to be hereafter mentioned as the chief of vegetable aliments. All of the Cucurbitaceae, by a certain maturation, are changed into a farinaceous substance; and Scopoli informs us, that the sub- stance of the pompion is employed by some people in the making of bread; and that one part of that substance, with two parts of wheat-meal, may be employed for that purpose. The Cucumber, as commonly employed in its unripe state, is perhaps in that condition not very nutrient; but it is so much so as to make a considerable part of the aliment of many persons in warm climates and seasons: and its aqueous, cooling, and acescent quality, render it a very proper summer aliment. The firmness, however, of its texture, occasions it often to be long retained in the stomach: whence it frequently occasions acidity and flatulency, and is therefore properly accompanied with some of the condimenta. The Melon in its ripe state discovers some sw-eetness, and may therefore be more nourishing. On the same account, however, it comes nearer to the qualities of the fermentable fructus acido- dulces ; and as at the same time, from the firmness of its texture, it may often show the effects of two great acescency, moderation is necessary in its use, especially by dyspeptic persons; and I think it is commonly rendered safer by the addition of sugar and aromatics. Some writers have mentioned its diuretic effect; but I cannot find these from the Melon to be more than from other aqueous food. If Sanctorius found melons to diminish perspiration, they might thereby indeed increase urine, as he also observed; but all this I would impute to their refrigerant rather than to their direcdy diuretic powers. I have found no evidence of Melons stimulating the kidneys; and the account given by Dr. Arbuthnot of their giving bloody urine, is a single fact, and seems to be extravagant. i5» TREATISE OF THE B. Folia et Caides Plantarum. Of the leaves and stalks of plants, used as aliments, I have set down only a few, as of these kinds of plants few afford much nu- triment ; and in the list of nutrients given by writers, I find many of them which, both from their qualities and from the quantities in which they are employed, cannot be considered as nutrients so properly as condiments ; and to that place I refer them. Of the nutrients, I have set down a few under the title of Olera- ceae ; having in view their botanical distinction, rather than the meaning of the term Olera, as formerly employed. Of the leaves mentioned, and several others that might have been added to the list, they are all of them mild and almost insi- pid substances, w-ith hardly any sweet or mucilaginous taste to dis- cover a nourishing quality; but they are acescent and fermentable, and therefore must contain some portion of sugar. They contain however, so little, that they are justly supposed to be among the weakest nutriments. For the table, they are properly chosen by the tenderness of their texture ; and therefore the Spinage is just- ly preferred, and is now almost the only one of these oleraceae em- ployed. If the plant to which we give the name of Malva is the same to which the ancients gave that appellation, I think they made a bad choice in employing it as one of the olera; for it has hardly more mucilage than the spinage, and cannot by any boiling be brought to be so tender. The oleraceae are commonly said to be laxative: but they arc no more so than any other vegetables capable of fermenting in the stomach, and that are taken into it in large quantity. After the oleraceae I have set down the Brassica, which, though I have distinguished it by its botanical order, is one of those which have been commonly named Olera, and is one of those which were anciently, and are still at present, in the most fre- quent use. I have marked it as one of the Siliquosa, for the sake of observing, in proof of our general doctrine of vegetable aliments being those most free from acrimony, that the brassica is the most free from that peculiar acrimony which distinguishes all the other plants of the class of Tetradynamia. It is accordingly the only plant of the class whose leaves are employed as nutriments: and this circumstance of the mildness, fulness, and considerable sweet- ness of its juice, with the bulk in which it is produced, will readily shew why it has been at all times so much employed as an ali- ment. One species of the brassica, designed by the trivial name of Brasskfi Oleracea, is supposed by culture and other circumstances to have been brought to be of many varieties which put on very various appearances, and all of which, for the purposes of the table, are cultivated in most ef the countries of Europe.— MATERIA MEDICA. 159 Whether the plants under these different appearances are different species, or varieties of one species only, I leave to be determined by the botanists; and whether they be of the one kind or other, I leave the more nice and accurate, distinction of them to the men of that science. I am to speak only of those I am well acquainted with, and whose distinction I believe to be very commonly known and universally established over Europe. In all the varieties of the Brassica Oleracea, I take the ali- mentary qualities to be very much the same. It is indeed possible they may differ in the quantity of it which they severally afford: but this I have not been able to ascertain with any precision. As all of them may be considered as a supplemental provision only, I believe they are seldom to be chosen by the quantity of nourish- ment they afford; and I think they are to be chosen as a part of diet by the tenderness of their texture, and by the fulness and sweetness of their juice. It is probable that on many occasions the}' are chosen by the bulk in which they may be produced, and by the facility with which they may be reared and preserved in certain soils and climates. Upon the first ground, the Collyflower and Brocoli are to be cho- sen, as the most tender, most easily digested, and least flatulent. Of all these kinds of which the leaves are especially employed, the Brassica Sabauda, or Savoy, appears to me to be sweeter and more tender than any of the others I am acquainted with; and in the Savoy, I hold the central and upper .leaves gathered pretty closely together, to be by much the tenderest portion of the whole plant. Those kinds of the Brassica, whose leaves, after a certain tim£ of their growth, are gathered in greater quantity, and more closely, into a firm and globular head, are named Brassicae Capiattae or Cab- bage, affording the greatest bulk of product, and perhaps the great- est quantity of nourishment. As all the Brassicae seem in a pretty firm texture, and in a very fermentable juice to contain a great quantity of air, the}7 are all noted for producing flatulency in the bowels. As the youngeiJ plants are the most tender, so they are the least flatulent; and as the formation of cabbage requires a longer time in growing, so cabbage requires a firmer texture, and is noted for producing more acescency and flatulency than any other kind. Cabbages are by their colour distinguished into two kinds, the white and the red; and the latter is found to be of the sweeter and tenderer kind. Since I first wrote the above, I have become acquainted with a species of Brassica that I was not acquainted writh before. This is what has been called the Brassica Gongylodes, which, till I raised it in my own garden, was not, far as I can learn, known or produced in Britain. It is distinguished by its having on the upper part ©f its sulk a swelled part, or spheroidical tuber, which 160. TREATISE OF THE within a firm cortical part is formed of a substance of the same nature with that which forms the medullary part in the stalks of cabbage and other kinds of colewort. This medullary part, when freed from its rind, and very well boiled, is of a tender and sweet substance, and certainly is considerably nourishing, and appears to me to be less flatulent than the cabbage. It is firmer in its con- sistence, and sweeter than the turnip; and though the hardness of its bark may render it unfit to be reared for the purpose of feed- ing cattle, I am of opinion, that under proper mangement it may afford a delicacy for the tables of men. I have thus given the choice of the several species of the Bras- sica, so far as I am acquainted with them; and believe the princi- ples I have made use of will apply to every other species, when their nature and different states are properly known. We have only to remark further, that as we have said just now, that the whole of the species contain a great deal of air, they may be rendered fitter for diet by having a great deal of that air extri- cated and dissipated before they are employed in food. This gives us an opportunity of observing, that our vegetable aliment of all kinds contains a great deal of air, which disposes them more to acescency and flatulency; and which they are more disposed to produce, as they are of a firmer texture, or as they are further advanced in their growth. The extrication, therefore, of a great deal of this air, before they are taken into the stomach, is always of great service in obviating the tendency men- tioned. We have mentioned this particularly on the occasion of cabbage, so frequently accused of acescency and flatulency, but which may, by very long boiling, be rendered almost as safe as the tenderest vegetable. For the most part it may be rendered as safe as the collyflower, to which our cooks, for the sake of the fi- gure it is to make upon the table, seldom give the boiling that is necessary to render it duly digestible. Besides the boiling mentioned, there seems to be another means of extricating the air of cabbage, by subjecting it to a fermenta- tion, as in the preparation of Sauer Kraut; a preparation so nam- ed in Germany, where for many ages past it has been a common part of diet. This preparation has now been described in several books which are in every bodyr's hands, and therefore need not be re- peated here; and in this place it seems only to be necessary to say what are its qualities. As the matter has been subjected to an active fermentation, so a great deal of acid is evolved in it; and after what we have said above of acid as an alimentary mat- ter, it will be readily allowed that sauer kraut may be considered as such. But as the whole of the matter is not thus converted, but that a great portion of the saccharine matter of the cabbage still remains in it, so it will be still more readily allowed, that MATERIA MEDICA. 161 this preparation may be considered as alimentary, and well .suited to the purposes to which it has been especially applied, that is, the obviating and curing the scurvy. Another set of the leaves, or rather stalks, of vegetables, which are considered as alimentary, are set down in our catalogue under the title of the Semiflosculosa, to which order they belong. They are lactescent plants; and like the whole, or at least most part, of that kind, have a considerable acrimony in their juices. These here pointed out are indeed less acrid than most other lactescents; but even of these here mentioned, it is still the Lactuca or Lettuce that is most commonly employed, as having in the species of it employed the least of that acrimony that is pecu- liar to the order, and especially at the early period of its growth at which it is taken. In this state, it hardly discovers any thing sweet or mucilaginous in its juice ; and therefore may be suppos- ed to give little nourishment, especially in the raw state in which it is commonly taken; but when boiled, it proves more sweet and mucilaginous, and therefore may be supposed to go farther as a nutriment. Even in its raw state, as acescent and refrigerant, it is properly enough combined with animal food; but upon the same account in most persons it requires the condiments that are usually taken along with it. Of the other Semiflosculosa, the Succory and Endive, especially the latter, make frequently a part of our food ; but they are hardly ever taken while they contain their peculiar acid juices, and only when by the arts of blanching they are deprived of these. But even their blanched parts are left in possession of the juice in com- mon to vegetables; which, as wre have said above, is always of a fermentable nature, and therefore consists of a saccharine and nu- tritious matter. I have to say the same things of the Taraxacum, or Dandali- on. Whatever medical virtues in its natural state this maybe pos- sessed of, which for the reasons above I do not enquire after here, it can only be employed as a part of aliment when deprived of these medicinal qualities. It is in this state only as it first arises out of the earth, and more especially when its first shoots are be- come of some length, by their rising out of mole-hills or other loose earth. After the Semiflosculosa which are chiefly employed in a blanch- ed state, I have set down the Umbellate, for the sake of introduc- ing a frequent article of diet, the Celeri. This is a portion of* the Apium graveolens sive palustre; and what may be the medical or noxious qualities of this plant, it is not our business here to deter- mine, as it is enough for our present purpose to say, that the Ce- leri is never employed as an alimentary matter but when it is de- prived of its peculiar juices by being blanched: and in this state it is, on the footing of the other blanched plants, an alimentar} matter sufficiently mild and perfectly safe. With respect to it, Vol. I. X 162 TREATISE OF THE however, in this state, it is to be remarked, that it is never so en- tirely deprived of its acrimony as not to retain more taste, and a more agreeable taste, than the other blanched plants ; and upon this account it is more generally used at table. Although even in its blanched state, retaining a little acrimony, if it be very well boiled in water or broth, it becomes a tender mucilaginous, and therefore a nutritious, substance. After the leaves and stalks of plants, I have inserted in my cata- logue an alimentary matter, which, though it cannot be said to be- long to the leaves or stalks of plants, is so much of an herbaceous nature, that it could not be properly mentioned in any other place. —This is the Cynara, which I have set down under the title of the botanical order of Capitatae, because I believe there are some others of the same order which might be mentioned; but I men- tion only what I am acquainted with, the Scolymus Cynara, or Ar- tichoke. It is hardlv necessary to say, that of this acrid plant the only alimentary part is the receptacle of the flower, and the portions of that which we pull away from it, in pulling away the separate squamae of the calvx. The whole of this receptacle, even in its recent state, is of very lime acrimony, and by being boiled in wa- ter is rendered perfectly mild. In its boiled state it is of a ten- der texture, somewhat sweet and mucilaginous, and therefore tolerably nourishing; but it is not remarkable for any other quali- ties that I can perceive ; and its interrupting sleep, if ever happen- ing, is certainly not constantly its effect. / After the alimentary leaves and stalks, and after the artichoke, which I consider as akin to these, I have set down in my cata- logue what may be considered as a part of a stalk, that is, the first shoots or turiones of the Asparagus. There are some other plants, whose turiones, though they belong to" acrid plants, are said to be mild and eatable, like those of the asparagus ; but they do not ap- pear to belong to any one order of plants, and I am not acquaint- ed with the particulars. The shoots of the asparagus, or at least a portion of their up- per parts, Avhen boiled in water, are very tender, somewhat sweet and mucilaginous, and therefore presumed to be considerably nourishing. When eaten in any quantity, they- always soon after imbue the urine with a peculiar odour, which did not appear in tlie asparagus before it was taken into the body. This has given occasion to an opinion of the power of the asparagus, with respect to both the urine and urinary passages; but though frequently at- tending to the phenomenon mentioned, I haAre never found that at the same time the quantity of the urine was increased or its quali- ty anyAvise changed. Odours may arise from a A-ery inconsiderable portion of matter, and give no certain proof of that matter's being in large quan- MATERIA MEDICA. 163 tity present, or of its being very active, except in persons of pecu- liar idiosyncrasy. I am therefore disposed to be of opinipn, that asparagus cannot commonly do either good or ill in the urinary passages. The instances given by Schulzius and Bergius of bloody urine, occasioned by eating asparagus, are certainly very unusual facts, and not to be applied to any extent: and if Boer- haave and Van Sweiten judged that upon some occasions they had observed the eating of asparagus to hasten on fits of the gout, I suspect some fallacy in their observation; for I have knoAvn many instances of a negative to it. C. Radices, Roots. The roots of plants commonly contain more nutritious matter than their leaves; and the experiments of Mr. Parmenticr in his Recherches sur les Vegetaux Nourissants, show that a great num- ber of roots never before thought of as esculent, do hoAvever con- tain a quantity of farinaceous matter, which may upon occasion afford an aliment. I shall not, however, take any particular no- tice of those that require such a preparation as he proposes and describes ; because I believe the farinaceous, or, as he calls it, the Amylaceous, matter extracted from these roots, is exactly the same from Avhatever root it has been extracted, and the same that may be extracted from other substances with much less labour.— I am here, therefore to take notice only of those roots commonly employed as food in this country, in the state in Avhich nature pre- sents them to us, and hardly requiring any other preparation than the ordinary one of the kitchen. Siliquosa. The two first marked are taken from this order: in all of which, as already observed, there is found a peculiar acrimony. The Raphanus or Radish, has commonly a large quantity of alimentary substance, in proportion to its cortical part, in Avhich only the peculiar acrimony of the order is lodged. It may there- fore be eaten, as it commonly is, in its recent state, with the whole of its cortical part; and for which especially it seems to be taken, as it may rather serve as a condiment to its acescent substance, and which therefore seldom proves flatulent. It does not, how- eArer, seem to be A-ery nourishing. The Rapum or turnip affords a much larger quantity of mild pulp in proportion to its cortical part, in which only the peculiar acrimony of the order is lodged. As this cortical part can be en- tirely separated without much trouble, it is very general!}' the pulp only that is admitted into our diet. It is a Avateryand tender sub- stance, and therefore is easily digested, and occasions litde flatu- lency. It has some sweetness; but it does not seem to contain much nourishment in proportion to its bulk. Margraaf could not extract any sugar from it; and Bergius observes that it affords very little amylaceous matter It is of two kinds, distinguished 164 TREATISE OF THE by their colour of white and yellow. The latter we have become acquainted Avith in this country only of late. It is of a more sweet and mucilaginous taste, and therefore is seemingly more nutritious than the white. As it has also another property of being more hardy in sustaining the winter, it is likely to come into the most general use. The botanists have given us two different species of roots nnder the titles of the Brassica Napus or Navexv, and the Brassica Rapa or Turnip; and both the gardeners and farmers are very well ac- quainted Aviththe distinction; the former being most cultivated in France, and the latter more commonly in' England. With what advantages the one or other maybe preferred, I cannot clearly de- termine. But to me they seem to differ only in the form of the root; and I can find no difference in their qualities to be taken notice of here. Both the kinds are much employed in feeding cat- tle : and as they are given to them with the cortical part, it is al- leged that the\- are ready to communicate an odour and taste of a disagreeable kind both to the flesh and milk of cows ; but this does not seem to be constantly the case. And I think it is worth ob- serving, though foreign to this place, that the milk of cows is not always affected by turnip; and perhaps only when some portion of the decayed leaves of the plant are given along with the root. Umbellate. Dancus. This is a root of very frequent use ; and though it does not readily yield a grained sugar, yet it yields a great deal of sAveet or melliginous juice, which gives a strong mark of its nutri- tious quality. In this root there seems to be a quantity of muci- laginous matter Avhich preArents it from yielding a grained sugar; but at the same time undoubtedly contributes to its being nutri- tious. Experiments on brute animals shoAv the Carrot to be nourishing in a considerable degree; and it is certainly so to man, affording a tender and not very flatulent food. The effects of these roots in poultice, and of the seeds of the plant as a medicine, will be considered in another place. Pastimaca or Parsnips. Experiments on brutes show these roots to be considerably nourishing. They have a considerable sweet- ness in their taste; and they manifestly contain a great deal of mu- cilage ; Avhich, though it prevents their yielding much of a grained sugar, by no means detracts from their nutritious quality. A pe- culiar taste Avhich remains in them even after boiling, is disagree- able to a great many persons. Whether this peculiar taste in the skirret and parsnip is accompanied with any diuretic quality, we will not positively determine'; but we have not upon any occasion perceived it. Sisarwn. The roots of this plant in their recent state seem to be of a firm consistence ; but by boiling in Avater they are brought to be very tender. Mr. MargraaJ found them to yield a large propor- MATERIA MEDICA. 165 tion of sugar: and Mr. Bergius found them to afford a quantity of amylaceous matter; and on account of both they are consider- ably nourishing and not very flatulent: but on account of a pecu- liar taste approaching to that of the parsnip, which remains in them even after boiling, they are not in such general use as might be expected. With respect to these roots, the obervation of Mr. Bergius, that their saccharine part does not go along with the amylaceous when this is separated, may deserve notice; as it may lead to some enquiries and speculations relative to the nutritious parts of vege- tables. Semiflosculosa. Of this order there are two alimentary roots, the Scorzonera and the Tragopogon, by the gardeners commonly called Salsafi. These roots resemble one another both in their alimentary and medici- nal qualities as much as they do in their botanical characters. They are lactescent roots, but with a singular mildness in their juice which has a little sweetness ; but neither by that nor by any other sensible quality do they give marks of their being very nou- rishing. When boiled, they are sufficiently tender, and do not prove very flatulent. Their medical virtues, if they have any, shall be taken notice of in another place. In the mean time, I must ob- serve my being a little surprised at the otherwise judicious Ber- gius recommending the treatise of Fehr de Scorzonera, which appears to me to be a very frivolous work, and of no audiority. Alliacea. Of this tribe we have a set of roots of much more activity than these last mentioned, and by that being of more importance as medicinal than as nutrimental. Of these roots, the Garlic, Roccambole and Shallot, we suppose to be employed as condiments rather than as aliments. They in- deed truly contain alimentary matter; and when the Garlic in certain climates is produced Avith less acrimony than it is with us, it may perhaps properly enough make a part of diet. Of this order they are the Porrum and Cepa that are most com- monly employed as alimentary matters, and afford indeed a large proportion of it. This appears especially in their boiled state, in which their acrimony is exhaled, and they show, with some sAveetness a large proportion of mucilaginous matter. Even in their recent state, and especially Avhen young, their acrimony is not so strong as to prevent our vulgar from taking them as a con- siderable part of their food. By our better sort of people, it is the onion only that is taken in its young and recent state, but hardly in larger quantity than may be considered as a condiment, Deprived, however, of their acrimony by boiling or roasting. they are used by all ranks more largely. It is, hoAvever, so diffi- cult to deprive them entirely of all peculiar taste, that I have 106 TREATISE OF THE ltnoAvn many persons Avho, from a particular idiosyncrasy, cannot kear them even in a boiled state. The acrimony of the Alliaceae is very nearly of the same na- ture with that of the Tetradynamia, and they have therefore the same diuretic quality: but this, with respect to both orders, is to be considered in another place. To the list of roots, I haA-e here added the Batatas or potatoes, or the roots of the Solanum Tuberosum, now become in almost every country of Europe, and especially in our OAvn, an impor- tant article of diet. I shall, however, consider this root as en- tirely a farinaceous matter; and as it may be proper in the first place to consider these farinaceous matters in general, I shall after- wards take up the consideration of particulars, and among the rest that of the Potatoes and others. D. Semina, or the Seeds of Plants. These are in general and chiefly nutritious, as containing a farina or farinaceous matter; and as such they make the most considerable part of the aliment of men over almost the Avhole of the earth. This has led Dr. Haller to introduce the term of Farina Alibilis, and to mark it as the chief part of our vegetable aliment. To avoid, however, the inaccurate idea that might arise from this, we haAre taken some pains above to show that farina, or that pow- dery substance which is found in nutritious seeds, is a compound matter, consisting chiefly of sugar and oil. These, indeed, are often so blended together into what may be called a neutral sub- stance, that the properties distinguishing the two ingredients can hardly, or at least, rarely, be perceived in the compound. Although it is not in our poAver to explain in what manner the vegetable oeconomy forms the various compounds it produces, nor to account for the appearances these productions put on, yet Ave judge it to be shoAvn above, that the compound Ave name Farina is truly such as we here suppose it; and that by marking the appearances or experiments which show more or less of the saccharine or oily mat- ter in the several seeds, we may in some measure ascertain their several qualities. Upon this plan we now proceed to treat of par- ticulars. We refer the several farinacea to three different heads, under the titles of Cerealia, Legumina, and Nuces Oleosa; Avhich though not quite exact, is sufficiently so with regard to the most part of them. By this assortment, we think they may be distinguished as they contain more or less of saccharine and oily matter, or as they are in proportion to one another. In the Cerealia, we suppose the sugar to be large in proportion to the oil; in the Legumina, the oil to be somewhat larger in proportion to the sugar; and in the Nuces Oleosse, the proportion of the oil to be still greater. At the same time we believe it will be found, that in the several fari- naceous seeds the nourishment they afford is in proportion to the oil they contain. MATERIA MEDICA. 167 a. Cerealia. Under this title are commonly put the seeds of the several gramineus or culmiferous plants that are employed as the food of men. It is, we believe, justly supposed, that the seeds of the Avhole of this order contain a farinaceous matter of a simi- lar nature, and that our choosing those to be here enumerated is merely from the size of their product, Avhich allows them to be more easily collected in considerable quantity, or perhaps from their being more easily cultivated in certain soils and climates. This in the main may be just; but there is some difference in the qualities of the Cerealia here enumerated, Avhich Ave must now take notice of. Hordeum, Barley. In the species of this there is some difference, according to the number of seeds in each row of the ears; and hence the Hordeum Distichum, Tetrastichum, and Hexastichum: and this difference is attended Avith some difference in the size and plumpness of the grain, but with no difference of qualities that Ave can perceive. We have observed above, that all the Cerealia by their germi- nation have their saccharine matter evolved, and therefore more readily subjected to a vinous fermentation. This seems to take place more readily, perhaps more fully, in barley than in any other of the Cerealia; and therefore it is the grain from whence very universally our Beers and Ales are prepared. Whether barley actually contains a greater proportion of saccharine matter than the other Cerealia, or merely differs from them by that matter's being more readily evolved, Ave dare not determine: but from the circumstance of its ready evolution, it appears probable, that the barley contains in its farina a smaller proportion of oil than some other grains, and upon that account is less nourishing than those others. This is confirmed by the experience of our vulgar, who sometimes live on barley, and sometimes upon oats. In some higher parts of this country Avhere they raise much barley, and therefore live more upon it, it is common for them to purchase a quantity of pease to mix with their barley, in order to render their bread and other food more nourishing. The same is confirmed by experiments on brutes, who are not .found to be nourished equally by the same quantity of barley as of oats. Barley is employed as a part of diet both in its unmalted and in its malted state. In the former, however, almost only, it is em- ployed as a common aliment; and I do not know that there is any experiment or observation which shows that barley in its unmalt- ed state is a more antiseptic aliment than any other grain. Of late, hoAvever, Ave have learned, that in its malted state, its saccharine matter, extracted by infusion in water, and given as a part of diet, proves remarkably antiseptic. I have no doubt that this is to be imputed to its acescent quality as a saccharine matter. It is long 168 TREATISE OF THE ago since I pointed out sugar as an alimentary matter, and as be- ing fitted for obviating the putrefactive tendency of the animal fluids ; and it Avas from this hint that Dr. Macbride, as he himself informed me, first proposed the employment of Avort for prevent- ing the scurvy. I am still persuaded that a plain sugar may be employed for this purpose ; but I shall hereafter observe, that su- gar cannot be employed alone in large quantity with the same safety as when it is accompanied Avith some farinaceous or oily matter, Avhich renders it more ready and proper to enter into the compo- sition of the animal fluid. A decoction of barley, or, as it is called, barley-water, is a drink employed in many diseases; and it is not unworthy the attention of the physician to direct the proper preparation of it. Accordingly the London and Edinburgh colleges have both given their direc- tions for this purpose. The particular scope of their directions is, that as the decorticated, or as it is called pearl barley, is by long keeping liable to get a mealiness upon its surface, which is ready to become musty, the barley should by repeated ablutions, be well freed from the mealy part on its surface before it is subjected to decoction. Secale, Rye. Hoav this grain turns out in malting, I have not had an oppor- tunity of learning, as the culture and employment of it is rare in this country; but as in the northern countries of the continent it is frequently employed for affording an ardent spirit, there can be no doubt of its containing a due portion of sugar. By the large quantity of mucilage, three-fourths of its Aveight, that it affords by decoction in water, it may be presumed to be sufficiently nourish- ing. But its not affording any milkiness to water triturated with it, shows that its oil is under a peculiar combination : and if there be a due portion of oil in it, it is difficult to explain why this grain, of all the other Cerealia, should be the most readily acescent. This indeed might seem to detract from its nourishing quality; but the experience of the northern countries of the continent sufficiently establishes it. It is little employed as an aliment with us: and the people unaccustomed to it, upon occasionally taking it, generally find it laxative; Avhich is readily explained by its acescency. With respect to the nature and effects of the Secale Cornutum, I must leave it to be determined by the study of many late writers upon the subject. Rye is so little cultivated in this country that I have had no proper opportunity of exaiftining the matter myself; and can only say, that though there are several people of this coun- try Avho take rye pretty constantly as a part of their diet, I have neA-er known or heard of any peculiar disease arising among them. Milium, Millet. This is so little used in this country-, that I have had little op- MATERIA MEDICA. 169 portunity of judging of its qualities. It has some SAveetness, but does not discover much acescency, and seems to be easily digested. That this or any other ,of the Cerealia binds the belly, I will not believe upon the authority of Hippocrates himself. Oryza, Rice. This is a grain Avhich has long been the farinaceous ailment of the greatest part of Asia, and has now for a long time been em- ployed as an aliment in Europe; but its peculiar qualities are not easily ascertained. It has little SAveetness, is not readily acescent, nor readily subjected to fermentation. From these circumstances, and as at the same time it is by the testimony of all Asia sufficiently nourishing, Ave would judge that its oil, though very intimately united Avith its saccharine part, is, however,#in good proportion; and I would judge it to be more nourishing than any of the grains already mentioned. Upon what grounds Spielmann supposes it to be less nourishing than barley or rye, I cannot perceive. Its nu- tritious matter is not attended Avith any noxious quality that I can discern; and therefore the notion that has sometimes prevailed in this country, of its being hurtful to the eyes, seems to be with- out foundation. It has been supposed among ph\ sicians to be pos- sessed of some drying or astringent quality; and has therefore been commonly employed in diarrhoea and d\-sentery preferable to other farinacea. But this opinion also I take to be groundless: for it does not give any mark of astringent quality with the vitriol of iron; and if it has ever been found useful in diarrhoea, it must, as Spielmann properly judges, be owing entirely to its demulcent power; which, however, is not stronger in it than in several others of the farinacea. Avena, Oats. This is a farinaceous food used by many people in the northern parts of Europe: but it is especially the food of the people of Scotland, and was formerly that of the northern parts of England; countries which have always produced as healthy and as vigorous a race of men as any in Europe. The meal of this grain discovers little sweetness; and rather when a little toasted gives what we call a kernel taste, approach- ing to that of the nuces oleosae. In its sound state it is entirely without any bitterness; which Spielmann and some other Avriters have alleged to be in the bread made of it. It discovers no more acescency than the other farinacea; and when malted is readily subjected to fermentation, and affords an ale Avhich, though sel- dom made very strong, is very agreeable and without any bitter- ness. The nourishing quality of oats, both with respect to men and brutes, is in this country very well known; and I use the same reasoning with respect to its saccharine and oily parts, as I did above Avith respect to Rice. With respect to it, physicians and the vulgar have fallen into contraiy opinions ; but both of them, as I judge, mistaken. The former, especially the French, speak of it Vol. I. Y li-o TREATISE OF THE as refrigerant: but it is merely so as being a vegetable alimetit not heating. The vulgar, and especially the great vulgar of Eng- land, from its being ready to give some heartburn, or sense of heat at stomach, have supposed it to be heating; and from a mis-' take with regard to the state of diseases, have supposed it to give cutaneous affections, not more frequent in Scotland than in other countries ; and which indeed arise from no particular aliment, but always frOm a contagion communicated from one person to ano- ther. With respect to the heat perceived at the stomach, it is OAving to the acescency which oaten bread, commonly unfermented, is liable to occasion; and I have frequently found, that unfermented bread of wheat meal Avas equallv liable to give the same heartburn and sense of heat at stomach. Where a decoction of oatmeal, or water-gruel, is in request, I think it proper to mention here in Avhat manner it may be rendered most agreeable. An Ounce of oatmeal is sufficient to make two quarts of water-gruel. The meal is to be put into three quarts of soft cold water, and set over the '".re. The meal is to be constantly stirred among the Avater till it boils; and then it is to be alloAved to boil till a third Of the water is boiled aAvay. The decoction is then to be poured through a linen cloth into a bowl a little larger than sufficient to contain it. In this bo\yl it is to be left to cool: and when cooled it will be found to separate into tAvo parts, one of them a mealy cloud or sediment, and the other a very thin and clear liquor. The latter is to be care- fully decanted or poured off for use. To render this more agree- able by the addition of sugar, acids, or aromatics, or to impreg- nate it with medicinal substances, I leave to the judgment of the nurse or of the physician, Zea, Maize. This is entirely an American grain, affording a farina of the best quality, and largely nourishing both to men and brutes, as the experience of America has fully ascertained. The ripe seeds arc of a hard substance, but may be broke doAvn into a very fine meal. This has little sweetness, and no acidity that I can perceiAre« By itself, and even with yeast, it does not ferment so well as to give a light bread; but added in pretty large proportion to Avheat meal, it may be made into a very perfect bread. Triticum. Wheat. This is the farinaceous food most generally used by the better -oi i of people over the whole of Europe, excepting the very north- ern parta in which it cannot be produced; but even there it is imported for the use of persons of" condition. It has this advan- tage, that it can be formed into a more perfect kind of bread than any other of the Cerealia that we knoAV of; and before going fur- ther, it seems proper to take this opportunity of saying something or bread in general. When food is taken into the mouth, it is often necessarily de- MATERIA MEDICA. l?l taincd there, in order to be subjected to a proper manducation j and even Avhen it is of so soft a kind as not to require that, it cer- tainly conduces to digestion that such food be detained in the mouth till it is divided into small parts, and at the same time in- timately mixed Avith the saliva. For this purpose of detaining food till it is subjected to a due manducation, it will be evident that no measure can be more proper than the taking in along Avith our different foods a quantity of dry, friable, and nearly insipid matter. Such a matter is bread, in itself also nutritive: and we might say more with respect to the propriety of its use; but it is enough to remark in proof of its being particularly suited to the purposes of the human oeconomy, that, very universally, mankind are impressed with an instinct to employ it* While the farinacea are distributed so universally over the face of the earth, and have become the chief objects of culture, they are very generally made into bread ; and as generally a portion of them is taken into the mouth along Avith almost every morsel of other foods. That this is a general instinct, and suited to the purpose of the human ceco- notm', is Avell illustrated by this, that the Laplanders, in want of the vegetable farinacea, make a powder of fish-bones, and employr it made into a bread. This is the general idea of the purpose of bread, which is very universally made of vegetable farina. But as it Avould be inconvenient to employ this in its powdery state, so it is brought into a coherent mass by Avater, and this again is brought into a dry and friable state by a proper application of heat, or what w-e call baking ; and by all this rendered filter to be divided and taken in separate morsels. Bread may be prepared of any of the farinaceous substances already mentioned; but in many cases the bread so prepared is less dry and friable, less miscible therefore Aviththe saliva and with our other foods, and perhaps less Avholesome than might be desired. Mankind, therefore, have studied and found out a means of cor-r reeling these faults and imperfections of the bread made of meal and Avater alone ; and this they have found to be by subjecting the paste of meal and water to a certain degree of acescent fermenta- tion before it is again dried or baked into a bread. Under this fermentation it is found, that the mealy paste has a large quantity ©f air extricated, probably exhaled ; but as a quantity of it remains still diffused, the mass is swelled into a large bulk, and Avhen the heat is applied, the bread formed is of a more spongy texture, more tender, friable, and more readily miscible Avith the saliva and with our other foods. These qualities give the most perfect bread: but the most com* plete fermentation cannot be given Avith equal success to every kind of farina. Most of the kinds huherto mentioned made into a moist paste, and kept in a Avarm place, Avill enter.into some a e?- 172 TREATISE OF THE cent fermentation: and this fermented portion added to another quantity of the same paste, will communicate some fermentation to the Avhole, which Avhen baked, will give a bread of a lighter kind than could have been formed of unfermented paste. In some Other cases also, Avhere the fermentation of the paste alone does not succeed so well as might be desired, it may be assisted by an ad- dition of yeast, or lees of ale ; but even this does not give with any of the farinacea, excepting wheat, a very perfect bread. It is there- fore Avith wheat meal only, without any foreign ferment, and by its spontaneous fermentation alone, that the most perfect bread can be obtained. That this is the peculiar property of wheat ap- pears from hence, that even those farinacea which by themselves cannot by any art be brought to afford a perfect bread, yet, by be- ing joined with a certain proportion of wheat, may along with this be brought into the state of perfect bread. This peculiar property of wheat was observed very long ago; but the cause of it Avas not perceived, whilst wheat seemed almost in every respect to possess only the qualities in common to most of the other farinacea. It was about the year 1728 that Beccaria of Bologna discovered something in the constitution of wheat very different from Avhat he could discover in any other of the farinacea. This is a glutinous matter which remains after the amylaceous part is Avashed off; and Avhich has the properties of animal substances, very different from the properties of the other part of the wheat, and from those of any other vegetable farina yet known. This dis- covery has been since confirmed in every respect by many other philosophers and chemists of Europe ; and it is now published in so many writings, and so commonly known, that it does not seem necessary to enter into any further detail concerning it here. We have introduced the mention of it chiefly to say, that it is probably this part in the constitution of wheat that renders it fitter for a spontaneous fermentation, and by perhaps a peculiar mode offer- mentation, to form wheat into a more perfect bread than can be made of any other farinaceous substance taken entirely by itself. That this is the effect of the glutinous part of wheat, appears very probable from hence, that by the addition of a portion of this glu- tinous part of Avheat to other farinacea, they can be brought into a more perfect bread than they could by any means be brought to without such addition. We have thus explained the peculiar property of wheat in being fit to give a more perfect bread than any other farinaceous sub- stance ; but wherein it otherwise differs fom these, we dare not determine. Since the discovery of Beccaria, most physiologists, except Mr. Panncntier, have been of opinion, that on account of its containing a matter approaching to the nature of animal sub- stance, it should afford to animals a greater quantity of nourish • MATERIA MEDICA. 173 ment than an equal weight of these Avhich do not contain any such matter. This, however, is not quite certain: for though by the operations of Beccaria, a glutinous matter cannot be separated from the other farinacea in the same manner as from wheat, in which, even in the grain, it seems to lie separate from the other substance of it; yet it may, notwithstanding, be present in the other farinacea in a more diffused, and therefore more inseparable state. The coagulable nature of the other farinacea by heat, as a property belonging to animal substances, gives some presumption of their containing something of this kind ; and it does not appear certain that wheat gives more nourishment to men, or other ani- mals, than some other of the farinacea do. In short, till experi- ments shall have determined this, we are disposed to conclude, that the property of wheat, which has rendered it so generally employed and preferred, is merely its superior fitness for afford- ing a more perfect bread. While Ave are upon this subject of bread, it seems veiy proper to enter upon the discussion of an opinion which in modern times has very much affected our reasonings concerning the qualities of the farinacea employed in diet. The discovery of the circulation of the blood naturally led physicians to consider obstruction as a principal cause of disease; and Avhile they Avere ignorant of, or inattentive to, the other possible causes of obstruction, they Avere ready to suppose a certain state of the fluids to be the chief cause of it. This gave occasion to the Cartesians to introduce the doc- trine of a lentor; and which, from the application of it Ave have now mentioned, has prevailed in our pathology ever since. We are not here to consider Avhether it be well or ill founded; and are only to take notice of a mistake Avhich it has occasioned with respect to the use of farinaceous matters in diet. Dr. Boerhaave having given the glutinosum pingue as one of the simple diseases of the fluids, has assigned as the first cause of this, the use of the farinosa non fermentata: and his learned commentator has taken up the opinion, and repeated it, though not always Avith consis- tency, in many parts of his Avork. In entering upon the conside- ration of this, we are willing to OAvn that a farinaceous substance formed by fermentation into a perfect bread, is the most whole- some condition in which farinaceous matters can be employed as a part of our food; and Ave are also ready to allow that the unfer- mented farinacea taken in immoderate quantity, especially at a certain period of life, or in dyspeptic stomachs may be the cause »f disease: but all this seems to ha\'e been exaggerated; for the morbid effects of unfermented farinacea are truly rare occur- rences ; and indeed the same unfermented farinacea are for the most part very Avell suited to the human oeconomy. HoAvever considerable the use of fermented bread may be, the use of unfermented farinacea is still A-ery great and considerable 174 TREATISE OF THE amongst almost every people of the earth. The whole people of Asia live upon unfermented Rice ; and I belieA-e the aboriginal Americans, before thev became acquainted Avith the Europeans, employed, and for the most part still employ, their Maize in the same condition. Even in Europe, the employment of unfer- mented bread, and of unfermented farinacea in other shapes, is still very considerable ; and Ave are read}- to maintain, that the morbid consequences of such diet are very seldom to be observed. In Scotland, nine-tenths of the loAver class of people, and that is the greater part of the whole, live upon unfermented bread, and unfermented farinacea in other forms; and at the same time I am of opinion, that there are not a more healthy people any Avhere id be found. In the course of fifty years that I have practised physic amongst them, I have had occasion to knoAV this ; and hardly have met Avith a disease of any consequence that I could impute to th< use of unfermented farinacea. Physicians Avho represent these as a noxious matter, must at tht same time acknoAvledge, that in every country of Europe it is often used Avith perfect impunity. To obviate, hoAvever, the conclusion I would draw from this fact, they allege, that it is only safe when used by robust and labouring people ; but we give it in this coun- try, not only to the farmers' labouring sen'ants, but to our seden- tary tradesmen, to our Avomen, and to our children; and all of the latter li\>e and groAV up in good health, except a very feAV dyspep- tics who are not free from complaints, which those also are liable to who liA^e on fermented Avheaten bread. What may happen to children Avho from their birth are fed v.-ith pap instead of mother's milk, I cannot determine, because I have not had occasion to ob- serve such a practice. In this country, our children have hardlv "any other food except their mother's milk for the first five months of their life ; but after that period, or perhaps sooner, oatmeal pottage, with coav's milk, is gradually introduced as a part of thei; diet. After their being Aveaned they are put upon this very en- tirely : and the bad consequences of it at either period Ave have never perceived. From all these considerations, it will appear that a great deal too much has been said of the noxious effects of unfermented fari nacea. I have said above, that it Avould surprise modern phvsi- cians to find that Celsus (who like other ancients can hardly be in the Avrong) should say, that unfermented was more Avholesome than fermented bread. I am ready to alloAV that he Avas in thr wrong: but I am disposed to suspect that it happened from his observing that the loAver people, who lived on the unfermented, Avere generally more healthy than those of the better sort, Avho lived upon fermented bread. We have thus offered some reflections on the several Cerealia strictly so called, that are used in this country ; and must now vav a little of several farinaceous subst-mc *s Avhirh are not of the MATERIA MEDICA. irs tribe of Gramina, but very much of the same farinaceous nature Avith these. Fagopyrum, Buckwheat. This is so little used as an aliment in this country that I have hardly had any opportunity of studying its effects ; but from all appearances, it has the common quality of a farina. The common employment of it by the weaver sIioavs its mucilaginous nature ; and in feeding poultry it appears to be considerably nourishing. Sago, or Sagu. This in our catalogue Ave have referred to the Cycas circinalis; but Avhether properly or not seems uncertain: and it is not neces- sary for us to determine the matter more exactly here, as we be- lieve it is obtained from different trees, which thogh somewhat dif- ferent, afford one and the same kind of substance, such as we have it imported under the name of Sago. It comes to us in a granulated form of a farinaceous matter, which bA- being boiled in water is resoh-ed into an insipid almost transparent jelly. Its gelatinous state points it out as a nutrient matter: and Ave are assured that it is much employed as such in the East Indies, and that in some parts of that country it makes a great part of the food of the inhabitants- The A-alue Avhich the Japanese put upon it appears strongly from the account given of it by Thunberg in his Flora Japonica, under the article of Cyvas re- voluta.—u Drupae comeduntur a Japonensibus; medulla autem caudicis, supra modum nutriens, imprimis magni xstimatur; asse- verant enim, quod tempore belli frustulo parvo vitam diu protra- here possunt milites; ideoque ne commodo eodem fruatur hostis extraneus, sub capitis poena vetitum est, palmam e regno Japonico educere." We have no experiment to determine the proportion of nourish- ment which it affords in Europe; but must think it considerable: and as a matter readily soluble, it is properly in this country giA_en as an aliment to weakly persons. Salep, or the Root of the Orchis Mario. The preparation of this root, by Avhich it is brought into the state of a farinaceous poAvder is now Avell knoAvn. As brought to us from Turkey, it is supposed to be formed from that species of the Orchis above set doAvn; but from Mr. Moult's account in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. lix. it may be formed from se- A'eral other species of the same genus; and I have seen it prepared in this country from the Orchis bifolia, as pure and perfect as any that comes from Turkey. In either case it is an insipid substance, of Avhich a small quantity by a proper management converts a large portion of Avater into a jelly. This gelatinous quality presumes it to be nutrient; but Ave knoAV of no experiments that ha\re ascer- tained the degree of its nutritious quality, and Ave judge it to have been greatly over-rated. 176 TREATISE OF THE The demulcent qualities both of this and of the preceding arti- cle Avill be considered hereafter. It is now proper for me to consider another farinaceous root, as I promised to do after considering the other farinacea. This is the Potatoe, or Roots of the Solanum Tuberosum. This root, by a proper drying, is readily brought into a farinaceous powder that has every property of the Cerealia, except that it affords no gluten or animal matter, as wheat does. It affords a large proportion of an amylum, precisely of the same nature Avith that of wheat, or of any other of the Cerealia. Its nutritious quality in general is noAV ascertained by the experience of all Europe; as in almost every part of this it makes a considerable portion of the food of the vul- gar. As, hoAvever, potatoes contain such a considerable proportion of Avater, amounting to one half or more of the whole weight, they cannot be supposed to give, in proportion to their bulk, so much nourishment as the Cerealia do. In compensation, however, of this, their watery texture renders them of easy solution and diges- tion in the stomach; and I think they are less liable to become acescent or to give heart-burn than the unfermented Cerealia. Whilst the Potatoes are nourishing, as we have said, they are without any noxious quality that I can perceive; and I am sur- prised to find it has cost Mr. Parmentier so much trouble to en- gage many of the philosophers of his country to approve ofth e use of this root, while the vulgar, by the sure guide of experience, are universally reconciled to it. To confirm this I do not think it necessary to employ any other chemistry than what is mention- ed above. As the people of this country do not put so much value on fer- mented bread as those of some other countries do, so we have hardly thought of making Potatoes into a fermented bread. But Avith the vulgar they frequently answer the general purpose of bread taken in their boiled state, in Avhich they are often found to be dry and mealy. The other modes of cookery proper for introducing this root into diet, are now sufficiently knoAvn; and whoever would enquire mere, curiously into this may consult Parmentier and Bergius. Castanea, the Chesnut. As this fruit affords no oil by expression, I could not as I had formerly done, insert this article among the Nuces Oleossc, and have been a litde uncertain where to place it; but I can find no place more proper for it than here, after the Cerealia and other farinaceous matters Avhich resemble these. The chesnut has a good deal of SAveetness, which is more evolved by heat applied; and its saccharine nature is sufficiently evident from the fermentable nature of its juice. Though it give's no oil by expression, yet from the oil that is manifest in the MATERIA MEDICA. 177 1 the Fagus Sylvatica, it may be supposed to be in this also, aU though it happens to be more intimately united with the saccharine part. Both together form a fairnacebus matter which can be made into bread, and treated in every manner that the other farinacea can be. Its nutritious qualities are Avell known to the people in the southern parts of Europe, amongst many of Avhom it is often the chief and almost the Avhole of their food. It is said to be of difficult solution and digestion; and from the firmness of its tex- ture, this might be suspected: but as said above, this quality is more frequently suspected to be hurtful than it ought to be. b. Legumina, Legumes or Pulse. These terms have not been accurately applied ; but Ave Avould strictly confine them to the fruits of the papilinaceous plants; to the capsule of which, of a determined structure, the botanists have now affixed the term of Legumen. In entering upon this subject, we cannot help beginning with art observation, which, though seemingly not connected with our trea- tise of materia medica, is not altogether foreign to it. It is this, that the seeds of the legumina are a farinaceous substance, afford- ing an alimentary matter, upon the same principle as the cerealia and farinacea in general do: and these two substances, the cerealia and legumina, make the greatest part of the vegetable aliment em- ployed by men. They are therefore very universally the objects of the farmer's culture: and it is agreeable to observe how well these two orders of plants, the Culmiferae and Papilionaceae are particularly adapted to that purpose. Whilst the culmiferae, raised upon the same soil for several years successively, exhaust and ren- der it barren, so that without rest or manure, its fertility cannot be maintained; but if instead of repeating upon the same soil the crops of the culmiferae, these crops are alternated Avith crops of the papilionaceae, the fertility of the soil may be preserved without rest or manure for many years together. This I know from experi- ence ; and it shows how Avell these two objects of the farmer's cul- ture are adapted to his purpose ; and that, while farinaceous mat- ters in general are the alimentary substances required, nature has given them of two different kinds, to favour the cultivation of both. This observa ion, though of the utmost importance, is not al- ways properl}- observed by the farmer j but it was very anciently perceiAred, and in general observed. Hence Virgil: Aut ibi flava seres mutato semine farra ; Unde prius laetum siliqua quassante legumenf Aut tenues foetus viciae, tristisque lupini Sustuleris fragilcs calamos, sylvamque sonantem. The other ancient writers on husbandry always mention the leguminous crops as ansAvering the purpose of maniue : anal the • Vfn milk is draAvn from the female animal that affords it, if no coagulating poAver is applied to it, and it is alloAved to remain at rest for some time, it has a part spontaneously separated", Avhich floats upon the surface of the Avhole; appears of a thicker consistence than what remains below, and is manifestly of an oily and unctuous nature. This is commonly khOAvn under the name 6f Cream: and though the separation of it will take place in close vessels, it takes place more quickly and completely if the surface of the milk be exposed to the air; and in larger quantity if it be exposed by a large sur- face, over Avhich a gentle stream of air is constantly passing. The influence of the contact of air appears further from this, that as fche cream first formed interposes a dense layer between the air and the body of the milk, more cream can be obtained from a given quantity of milk, if, as soon as a layer of cream is formed, it be taken off from the surface, arid thereby a new surface be freely exposed to the air. It seems also to be a measure for expeding and increasing the separation of the oily part, if the milk soon after it is drawn front the animal, be made to boil over the fire. By this a great quantity of air is detached from it; and the intumescence of the milk^ which always appears upon this occasion, shews that the whole body of the milk is in every part of it greatly agitated. The theory of this effect of boiling is not very evident; but it seems to depend upon this, that the oily parts of milk are very minutely diffused among the different parts of it, and connected with them by the attraction of adhesion: but as the attraction of the oily- parts to- wards one another should be still greater than tOAvards the other parts of the milk, it is perhaps only necessary by some agitation of the whole to bring the oily parts in contact with one another, in order to unite them together, and thereby make them separate themselves more readily and copiously. I expect this will be found to be the theory of the manoeuvre by which butter is commonly procured from cream, as will be mentioned hereafter. The separation of cream is much affected by the state of the milk in its progress tOAvards the other separations that are to take place. As after some time milk becomes acid, and not long after is coagulated into one mass; so, as the acescency proceeds, tbe separation of the cream is in some measure interrupted, and MATERIA M£DICA< 187 upon the coagulation taking place it ceases altogether. It is there- fore that as the acescency and coagulatipn are hastened in Avarm, and retarded in cold weather; so, according to the state of the weather, the production of the cream is greater or less. As thunr der, and a certain disposition in the air to produce that meteor, is found to hasten the acescency and coagulation of milk ; so this ex- plains the effects of thunder, and of a certain state of the airhpon the separation of cream. The proportion of the oily part in milk depends upon different circumstances in the state of the animal affording it. There is un- doubtedly in certain females a peculiar constitution disposing them to give a greater proportion of oil in their milk than other animals of the same species do, though both the one and the other be pre-, ciselv in the same circumstances. What this depends upon is not (dearly perceived. Itniay, and certainly in some measure does, de- pend upon the peculiar constitution of the animal: but it appears most frequently in animals bred in particular places, as the Isle 01* Alderney? the climate and soil of which I do not exactly knoAv; but we are certain that it is constant in animals bred and reared in mountainous countries, such as the mountains of SAvitzerland and the Highlands of Scotland. The constitution, hoAvever, of animals being given, A-ariqus other circumstances give a different proportion of the oil in their milk. It is commonly greater as the age of the animal is more advanced, or as the animal is longer after its delivery; and espe- cially it is greater as the soil of the pasture ground is drier, or as it has betm for more years in pasture; and, on the contrary, as the soil is moister, and as the herbage is more succulent, the propor- tion of oil is diminished. The proportion of the oily part of milk being thus ascertained, Ave have next to observe, that as it is at first separated in the form of cream, this, besides the proper oily part, ahvays contains a cer- tain quantity- of both the coagulable and Avatery parts of the milk. From these the oil is to be separated by an agitation Avhich Ave call churning; and by which it is obtained in the form of what we call butter. The theory- of this operation Ave have hinted above; and as the process succeeds without the escape pf air, or other mark of any fermentation, and succeeds under the admixtures of various substances, it is probable that it depends upon the agita- tion alone operating in the manner Ave have said: and the theory of it seems to be confirmed by its explaining at the same time the effects of boiling, which, in the Devonshire practice, alloAVS butter to be procured from cream with much less agitation than is in other cases necessary. As Ave have now considered the means by which the oily part of milk is obtained very much in its separate state, it is time to con- sider its nature and peculiar qualities. This oil, in its recent state, is very much of the nature of 188 TREATISE OF THE die expressed and unctuous oils of vegetables and that of animal fats, both in its sensible qualities and as examined by a chemical analysis. Butter is more consistent than the most part of vegeta- ble oils, OAving Ave suppose to a mucilaginous matter adhering, which seems also to adhere to those oils ; but here probably the mucilaginous or caseous part of milk adheres more firmly on ac- count of the acid of milk also adhering. Butter, like the other mild and fat oils, is liable to a change whkh w-e call Rancidity, in which it acquires a peculiar odour and taste, A'enr commonly knoAvn, and^ as quite sui generis, not to be described. Wherein such a change consists, is not yet Avell explained. It seems to de- pend upon the change, not in the proper oil, but in some of the matters adhering to it: for butter not well freed from butter-milk more readily becomes rancid than thatAvhich is more entirely sepa- rated from it; and butter by being melted and freed from a de- posit Avhich it makes on being kept in a melted state for some / time, may be thereby preserved from rancidity; and in that case also it becomes of a more fluid consistence: all which, I think, implies, that it is more pure oil than it Avas before. What is the nature of the matter Avhich may be thus separated from butter, and is the proper subject of rancidity, it is difficult to determine : but that it is in part an acid, I judge from the ran- cidity's being promoted by the adherence of butter-milk ; and from hence also, that rancid butter readily corrodes copper, Avhich it did not in its recent state. Along Avith this acrid there is mani- festly also a mucilaginous matter; and it seems to me, that in both these matters together a fermentation takes place, and giA'es the rancidity in question. This peculiar fermentation, hoAvever, is '■-.till little understood ; and till it is better knoAvn, Ave cannot find, Avhat is A-ery much to be desired, the means of obviating the ran- cidity of butter, and of other fat oils. In the mean time, the only means Ave knoAv of, that may be employed for butter, is the sepa- rating its acid and mucilaginous parts, and the application of sea- salt. If Ave employ a very perfect salt of this kind, we need to employ only a small quantity of it; and if at the same time Ave assist its antizymic poAver, by adding a small proportion of nitre and sugar, Ave ma}- thus preserve butter very long in a condition fit to be used as an aliment. After the oily, i am noAv to consider the Coagulable part of milk. In a few days after milk has been taken from the animal that affords it, the cream is in that time separated from it, and the remainder is spontaneously coagulated into a soft but somewhat consistent mass, comprehending the watery parts of the milk, Avhich are ahvays at the same time in an acid state ; and indeed this acid state almost always precedes the coagulation of the whol*\ In some time after the coagulsiion is formed, the water}' part MATERIA MEDICA. * 189 separates from the properly coagulated, so that this may be col- lected more entirely by itself; and in that state it is frequently used in diet: but it is never collected, or attempted to be brought into a solid form, so as to get the appellation of Cheese. The spontaneous coagulum of cream, is sometimes employed to give a species of cheese. But every other species of cheese is made by an artificial coagulation ; that is, by the addition of a coagulat- ing matter, either to entire milk immediately after it is draAvn from the animal affording it, or to milk after the cream has been separated from it, but before the spontaneous coagulation has come on. The coagulating matter employed for this purpose is named Runnet; and it is commonly produced by filling the fourth stomach of a calf Avith milk, Avhich is there coagulated ; and the stomach, with this coagulum included, is preserved for use in salt and Avater. The ordinary management and employment of this I need not take notice of; but it is very proper to observe, that the ordi- nary preparation of it has given occasion to a supposition, that the coagulating poAver of it depended upon the acidity that was found in the stomach of the calf, and communicated to the milk that Avas poured into it. But Dr. Taxing's experiments shoAV clearly that the coagulating poAver of runnet does not depend upon that acidity; but is a quality residing in the substance of the stomach itself, as Avell asi n the stomach of many other animals, and in mam' other instances the most remote from any suspicion of adhering acidity. These experiments indeed leaA-e us much at a loss in judging upon Avhat the coagulating power of runnet, and of many other sub- stances which may be employed as such, do really depend: and the Avhole of this business must be left uncertain till more experi- ments shall be made. In the mean time, it is enough to our purpose to observe, that the cheese, Avhich is used as an aliment, is ahvays made by the use of the ordinary runnet; and therefore that nothing distinguishes the qualities of the cheese made, but the kind and qualities of the milk of Avhich it is prepared, and the various circumstances and practices Avhich take place in the pre- paration of it. But before entering upon the consideration of the several species of cheese, I must say something of the nature of ebeese in general. A quality belonging to every species of cheese is, that it is liable to putrefaction; and by this it maybe said that it approaches to the nature of animal substances. This opinion is confirmed by the matter of Avhich cheese is formed, being, like animal sub- stances, coagulated by acids, alcohol, and heat. It is true, that the tA\ o latter, and even the mineral acids, do not act upon the coagulable part of milk in the same circumstances and in the same manner as they do upon the serum of animal blood; but still they do act upon milk in a manner that shows a great similarity of the tAVO subjects. The animal n.iuae of cheese is especially con- 190 TREATISE OF THE firmed by its yielding in distillation a volatile alkali. Ihn indeed is a disputed fact; but I assume it upon the authority of eminent chemists, and upon actual experiment made under my oAvn eye. A pound of skimmed-milk cheese, not in the least affected by putrefaction, yielded in distillation, first, a very- pure water, very slightly acid; secondly, a liquor which effervesced strongly Avith the mineral acids; and, thirdly, there came over an alkaline salt, concreting every Avhere on the inside of the receiver; and, in the fast place, an empyreumatic oil. Upon the whole, therefore, I conclude, that cheese, or the coagu- lable part of milk, is very much of the nature of animal substances. And if we shall adopt the common opinion, that milk is especially formed of the chyle or newly taken-in aliment, we shall readily perceive that this must be ahvays blended with the lymph Avhich it meets with in its passage through the lacteals and thoracic duct; and we shall then also admit, that this lymph makes a part, and particularly the coagulable part, of milk, We judge, therefore, that milk is properly supposed to contain a portion of animal matter; and at the same time, that the milk of animals feeding wholly, or for a great part, on vegetables, may be justly supposed to be an aliment of an intermediate kind betAveen vegetable and animal. This is our doctrine Avith respect to cheese in general; but it is hoav to be remarked, that cheese, as employed in diet, is of very different kinds, We have said already that cheese is hardly ever made of the substance formed by the spontaneous coagulation of milk, and at least only in the case mentioned above. In all other cases, cheese is formed of curd produced by the application of runnet: and the cheese thus produced is distinguished in the first place by the condition of the milk it is made of. Thus the runnet may be applied to entire milk, as it is drawn from the animal affording it; or it may be applied to that milk after it has been previously deprived of its cream; or it may be applied to the cream separated from the Avatery parts of the milk; or it may be applied to a portion of entire milk, to which is added a quantity of cream taken from another portion of the same milk: from which especially a considerable difference of cheese may arise from the different proportion of the coagulable and oily parts in the milk employed. Lastly, the milk employed may be that of one animal only; or it may be a mixture in different proportions of the several milks employed in our diet, but especially those of cows, goats, and sheep, "the only milks from which cheese is pre- pared in this country. Besides these differences of cheese, arising from the state and quality of the milk employed, there are many other differences arising from the various practices employed in preparing it; as by the different circumstances of the coagulation; by the manage- ment of the coagulum or curd; by the pressure given to it; by MATERIA MEDICA. 191 the salting and drying; and by- the manner in Av-hich it is after- wrards presented. These considerations will show the very great variety of cheese as it is presented upon our tables: but I am not able to explain all the causes of this variety; and it does not ap- pear necessary to attempt it, as they relate more to oeconomy- and taste than to our present purpose of considering it as an alimen- tary matter.—This Ave shall consider after we haA'e treated of all the several parts of milk ; and at present shall touch only- upon a curious question Avith respect to the variety of cheese. Cheeses are commonly distinguished by the different districts of the country producing them, and in many of Avhich they are often of a peculiar kind. From what has been already said, it Avill readily appear that the practices of different countries may differ very considerably, so as to give a different state of the cheese produced; and for the sake of the particular qualities they may possess, or at least for the purpose of accommodating them to particular tastes, it might be desired that the practices of different countries should be ascertained, so that they might be occasionally imitated. This, hoAveA^er, is extremely difficult; and the reason of it seems to be, that when in any manufacture the circumstances of the materials, and the practices employed in Avorking upon them, may be greatly- varied, it must be almost impossible for any tAvo persons Avho have not often operated together, to take exactly the same measures in every step of a long process. Having thus suggested Avhat seemed to be proper at present concerning the caseous part, it remains noAV to consider the third ingredient in the composition of milk ; that isj the Watery part, or, as it is commonly called, the Whey. A pure elementary w7ater is always a very considerable part of milk, as appears when we consider it according as it is either spontaneously or artificially separated from the other parts of the milk, or Avhen after it is separated Ave examine it by evaporation, applying such a gentle heat as can hardly volatilize any other mat- ter but the pure Avater. In such cases, both from Hoffman's and from Voting's experiments^ it appears that the Avater is at least seven-eighths of the Avhole milk. From hence it may be observed, that milk is ahvays to be con- sidered as a very liquid aliment; but it is at the same time to be remarked, that this is not equally applicable to the different kinds of milk: for although the proportion of oily and coagulable parts be considerably different in different milks, yet the proportion of the watery part is not so much varied. The residuum of four ounces, after evaporation, of cows' milk is very nearly the same ; as in the former it is three drachms and thirty-four grains. The Avatery part separated from the other parts of milk is dif- ferent according to the state of the milk from Avhich it has been 192 TREATISE OF THE separated: but under Avhatever circumstances separated, this wa- tery part is always found to hold dissolved in it a quantity of mat* ter which is different in kind, and different in proportion, accor- ding to the state of the milk at the time of the separation of the Avatery part. When the Avatery part is taken from neAv milk coagulated by runnet, and Avhen we especially name it Whev, it ahvays contains diffused in it a considerable quantity of the oily and caseous parts, Avhich by certain practices can be again separated from it. When whey is separated from skimmed milk, or that which has been previously deprived of its cream, it still contains a quantity of the caseous part, but less of the oily. When the Avatery part of niilk is separated from the oily by churning, Ave name it Buttermilk; and it contains a large proportion of the caseous part, Avith very little of the oily. Lastly, the watery part may be separated either from entire or from skimmed milk, in consequence of spontaneous coa- gulation ; and in this state it is ahvays acid, and at the same time is the most entirely freed from both the oily and the caseous parts* In these different states, the qualities of the Avatery parts of milk as an aliment shall be taken notice of hereafter.—Having thus mentioned the different states in which Ave obtain the Avatery part of milk, Ave iioav return to consider it in that state in Avhich Ave most commonly employ it, that is, as it is obtained from entire milk, in consequence of its coagulation by runnet. In this state it is different according as the milk is taken from different animals, and not ahvays in proportion to the contents of the several milks in their entire state. Thus, as cows' milk seems to contain a lar- ger proportion of oil than that of goats, it might be supposed tha! the Avhey of cows' milk should contain more oil than that of goats' r^T. • but ths contrary appears to me to be the case : and it seems to u.peud upon this, that the oil of goats' milk does not so readily separate itself from the Avatery parts as it does from that of coavs, but remains more tenaciously adhering to it, and therefore to be more copiously separated with the Avhey. Besides the oily and caseous parts AVhich Ave have mentioned to be always contained in Avhey, it contains also a saccharine matter, Avhich may be separated from it by various processes practised ei- ther on the milk or on the Avhey, and now very commonly knoAvn. The matter obtained by these processes is a genuine sugar, and differs from that of the sugar-cane only by its having some of the oily or caseous parts of milk adhering to it, but from Avhich it may, by repeated solutions and crystallizations, be entirely freed, and thereby be brought to the same degree of purity as any other su- gar---Whey, as containing this sugar, is capable of a vinous fer- mentation, and consequently of affording by distillation an ardent spirit.—It is by the presence of the same sugar that Avhey/ so rea- dily enters into an acescent fermentation, and becomes acid in MATERIA MEDICA. 193 the several circumstances mentioned above. It appears that this acid, by being kept for some time, becomes more considerably acid, and probably an acid of a peculiar kind ; though, so far as I yet knoAv, it has not been chemically examined. Having noAV considered the several parts of which milk in gene- ral consists, it will be proper, in the next place, to enquire in what proportion these pi*its are to be found in the several milks employed in the diet of men in this country. These milks are those of ewes, goats, cows, mares, Avomen, and asses ; the three former being those of ruminating, the three latter of non-ruminant animals : a distinction which I mark, though I cannot explain in Avhat manner the circumstances of ruminating or not ruminating affects the state of the milk. To mark in these milks the proportion of the several parts, I folloAv the experiments of Dr. Toung; and, according to him, the proportions of the caseous parts is in the order I have just noAV given them, greatest in the first and less in the following, and that in the order above stated. It is evidently considerably greater in the ruminant than in the non-ruminant animals. In the former it may be pretty exactly ascertained; but in the latter Avith much more difficulty: and it appears to me that many more experiments than have yet been made are necessary to ascertain the circum- stances which affect their coagulation, and consequently the pro- portion of their caseous parts. The proportion of serous parts, as might be expected, is men- tioned by Dr. Toung to be inversely that of the caseous part in the order above mentioned, as will appear from his Table, page 59. But it might be supposed also that the serous parts should be in the same proportion as the Avatery parts found by evaporation: but Ave doubt if the experiments on this subject be sufficiently ex- act ; for there is some difference in the account Dr. 2~pung gives of the residuum after evaporation of the several milks, at the end of Sect. 3, of Chap. viii. from the particular experiments given in the former part of his Avork. The proportion of the oily part is greatest in the milk of eAves, next in the milk of cows, and less in that of goats; but I judge It difficult to determine this, as the oily part of goats' milk does not so readily separate itself as in that of cows from the other parts. In the non-ruminant, women's milk seems to contain more oil than the milk of mares or.asses : but this does not seem to de- pend so much uppn the difference of constitution as upon the dif- ference of diet; for Avomen commonly take in more of oily matter than mares or asses do: and I knoAV from experiment that the proportion of oily matter is much diminished by their being con- fined strictly to a vegetable diet. We have thus stated the proportions of the several parts of milk in the several kinds of it, nearly as it has been ascertain^ by experiments already made; and the proportions here assigned. Vol, L B b 194 TREATISE OF THE may, I trust, be assumed, in any reasonings we may enter into upon this subject: but before quitting the subject we must observe, that in comparing the milk or milks of two different animals, the experiments already made cannot be of the utmost exactness ; for as the milk of every individual is varied by peculiarity of consti- tution, by the age of the animal, by the distance of time from delivery, and by the difference of diet; so in comparing the milk of two different species, unless the two individuals are taken ex- actly in the same condition Avith respect to the circumstances just noAV mentioned, the result cannot afford any general rule with respect to the two species. I give an example: though ewe's milk commonly affords more cream and butter than that of cows, yet I believe there may be found an Alderney coav whose milk will give more cream and butter than that of any eAve. The same consideration will perhaps account for some diffe- rence that is to be met with in the experiments of Dr. Ferris from those of Dr. Toung, with respect to mares' and womens' milk: and it is to be remarked, that womens' milk is more varied by the state of diet than that of any other animal whose milk we employ; and particularly that this renders the rank which womens' milk holds in the tables of Toung and Ferris to be a little un- certain. Having thus considered milk in general, and also in the several kinds of it, we may now proceed to consider in what manner this liquor is produced in the female sex. The question might first be. How it happens to appear for the first time in a certain circum- stance of the female body, that is, immediately after the produc- tion and delivery of their offspring? But we choose to delay this question till Ave shall have first considered in what manner it is produced during the whole of the time that the female continues to afford it. The common opinion on this subject is taken from the seeming resemblance of the milk to the chyle, into which our aliments taken into the stomach and intestines are always converted before they pass into the blood-vessels: and from this resemblance it has been supposed that the chyle, without being mixed Avith the other parts of the blood, is directly carried to the mammae of fe- males, and appears there in the form of milk. This doctrine, hoAvever common, Ave cannot admit of; and think it is founded upon, and has in its turn produced, several errors in physiology. In the first place, Ave cannot admit that the chyle, after passing into the blood-vessels, remains for any length of time unmixed with the other parts of the blood: and in the observations Avhich assert its having been found soon after the taking in of aliment appearing in a separate state, I judge there has been much mistake, and that some other appearances of%he blood have been mistaken^ lor chyle % as we knoAV to have MATERIA MEDICA. 195 happened in many instances ; or if it be possible that in certain eases the appearance of chyle has been real, it is certainly not the ordinary course of the animal oeconomy; for there have been in- numerable instances of blood drawn from the veins at various in- tervals after the time of taking in of aliment, Avithout its exhibiting any such appearance. It is indeed almost impossible that it should take place. The chyle does not pass into the subclavian vein but in a great length of time ; and therefore in a small quantity only at once, and is therefore immediately blended Avith a large propor- tion of blood. The diffusion increases as the whole, is carried to the right ventricle of the heart; and in this, as well as in the sub- sequent passage through the lungs and left ventricle of the heart, the whole is acted upon by powers which must blend and diffuse the chyle in the most minute and intimate manner amongst the parts of a higly-coloured fluid. This must render it almost impos- sible, that in any part of the arteries or veins the chyle should af- terwards appear united in one mass, and of its OAvn proper colour, unless it could be shown that upon the stagnation of the blood, there Avas a power disposing the chyle to separate itself from the other parts of the blood ; which is not alleged: nor could it possi- bly have existed without showing an appearance of chyle in many instances of extravasation, when, however, it certainly does not. The supposition, therefore, that milk is especially afforded by the chyle in the same condition as it is received from the thoracic duct into the blood-vessels passing to the mammae of females, and there giving the same matter and qualities we perceive in milk, is very ill supported by the notion of the chyle's remaining separate from the other parts of the blood for some time after it has been taken into the blood-vessels. How much soever of the aliments recently taken in we may find going to the production of milk, Ave shall find it very improbable that chyle takes that course in the same form and in the same crude state in which it enters the blood-vessels: and we shall find it much more probable that milk is produced in the mammae of females by the peculiar, though mysterious powers of secretion. But although milk be not the same fluid which passed from the thoracic duct into the subclavian vein, there are many arguments which lead us to suppose that the matter of milk is chiefly afford- ed by the matter of the chyle, or of the alimentary matter last taken in. These arguments, however, are commonly employed very incorrectly, and carried too far. One argument employed upon this subject is, that the peculiar odour of the aliments last taken m often appears in the milk which is soon after secreted i and this, although it is in several instances true, is by no means universally so: for I have known many instances of nurses taking in a quan- tity of odorous matter without its appearing in their milk ; and even if the appearance more universally took place, I cannot hold 196 TREATISE OF THE it as a proof of any considerable portion of the aliments taking that course. Certain odours are wonderfully diffusible, and often appear Avhen no great quantity of matter affording them is present in the same place* And Ave might here employ the same reason- ing as Ave did before Avith respect to asparagus in the urine ; and therefore argue, that the odour of aliments being perceived in the milk secreted soon after, affords no proof that much of the matter of the aliment had taken that course. But it is alleged further, that other qualities often appear in milk, Avhich shoAv that a great portion of the particular matter of the aliments had contributed to the production of that fluid. This may perhaps in some instances be Avell founded; but I suspect that the facts alleged to this purpose have been much exaggerated. It has been, for example, alleged, that purgatives given to a nurse have affected her suckling. But Dr. Toung, although intent upon the enquiry, never found this to be so: and I am certain that in fifty instances that I have knoAvn, the child Avas not affected by purgatives given to its nurse; and though in some instances it should have been so, considering the subtle and small portion of matter in Avhich the power of purgatives often resides, I would still think it a weak proof that a great part of the aliment constantly took that course. That the particular qualities of aliments do not affect the milk secreted after their beingtaken in I know from this, that many nurses take in considerable quantities of intoxicating liquor, and are themselves intoxicated by it; but I have not known any instance of the intoxicating power being communicated to their suckling. One of the strongest arguments for proving that the aliment lately taken in contributes especially to the production of milk, seems to be, that the quantity of milk secreted is ahvays conside- rably and immediately increased upon the taking in of aliment; and that if aliment at any time has not been duly taken in, the secre- tion of milk is evidently diminished. All this is true ; but it ap- ptars especially with respect to the liquidity of the aliment: and that a quantity of liquid taken into the bod> should increase every secretion will be readily understood; and particularly that it should Hicr.-ase the secretion of milk, which consists of such a large pro- portion of Avater, is sufficiently obvious. Every body knoAvs that the enabling a nurse to afford a large quantity of milk, depends much more upon her taking in a large quantity of drink rather than of solid food. HoAvmuch the secretion of milk depends upon the supply of liquid, I have learned from a particular phenome- non. I have knoAvn nurses who have been for the time quite free from thirst; but upon a child's being put to their breast, and be- ginning to suck, they were immediately affected with a conside- rable degree of thirst. This I would consider as an institution of nature, shewing the supply of drink to be especially necessary to the MATERIA MEDICA. 197 supply of milk. Upon the whole, therefore, I cannot find the in- crease of the secretion of milk by the taking in of aliment to be any proof that much of the solid matter of the aliments, or any entire portion of the chyle, goes immediately to afford that secre- tion. I have thus endeaA-oured to correct the mistaken notion of the chyle, such as it Avas received into the blood-vessels, affording im- mediately and very entirely the matter of milk. But although I have rejected some, and endeavoured to weaken others of the ar- guments employed upon this subject, I do not mean to reject en- tirely some of these arguments from our consideration. After all I have said, milk, besides water, contains a portion of other mat- ter ; and Ave must say from Avhence this is drawn. The 'oily and coagulable parts may be draAvn by secretion from the mass of blood in almost any state of this ; but besides these parts, there is a saccharine matter which very rarely appears in any part of the mass of blood, and may Avith confidence be presumed to be af- forded by the saccharine matter of our vegetable aliments, Avhile they remain for some time unassimilated to the proper animal fluid. I OAvn there may be a fallacy in this reasoning; as the disease ■of diabetes has shoAvn that the poAvers of the animal oeconomy can either produce or extract from our aliments a larger proportion of sugar than usual, and also preserve it longer in an unassimilated state: so we do not Avell know Avhat. effect this poAver may have upon the secretion of milk, till Ave shall meet with Avhat has not yet occurred that I know of; that is, a woman in milk affected with diabetes. Laying aside, hoAvever, this speculation, throAvn in here as some- what curious by the way, I go on to say, it is sufficiently probable that the saccharine matter of milk is taken from the saccharine mat- ter of vegetables, as it has recently been taken in, and yet remain- ing in an unassimilated state: for we every day observe that the quantity of milk in the breasts of Avomen is increased by the tak- ing in of vegetable aliments. That the taking in of vegetable ali- ment is absolutely necessary to produce such an acescent milk as Ave commonly find in the breasts of women, Ave learn very clearly from Dr. Toung's experiments upon bitches. A bitch fed Avith vegetable aliments alone, afforded a milk acescent and spontane- ously coagulating, like that of the ruminating animals; Avhereas the same bitch for a little time fed entirely with animal food, af- forded a milk manifestly alkaline, and not spontaneously coagu- lating. The application of this in practice Ave shall consider hereafter; but for the present it is enough to observe, that these experiments plainly shoAv that in animals, such as women, using a promiscuous diet, the state of the milk produced will be very much more acescent or alkalescent according to the general cha- racter of the diet: but in animals■ n ;ing a vegetable diet alone, I 198 TREATISE OF THE • can hardly conceive any other difference to arise than that of a greater or lesser quantity; and we do not imagine that any sub- stances purely medicinal can in that respect have any effect. The organs of secretion in animal bodies are curiously adapted to one specific secretion ; and so much to that alone, as hardly to admit of any other matter unsuitable to that, to pass through the organs of it. There are indeed instances of these organs trans- mitting matters which should not make a part of their proper secretion; but these exceptions are so much fewer than might be expected, that they only serve to confirm the general rule. We have just now several instances of the breasts of Avomen rejecting matters not suitable to form milk, sufficient to show that the com- mon supposition of the ready passage of such matters to the mam- mae must be ill founded. The goat is a multivorous animal: and some vague notions have been formed of the qualities of its milk and whey from this variety of its food ; but I can say from much experience, that a difference in the state of its milk is very rarely to be observed: and upon the whole Ave would allege, that the projects of Gait n and Hoffman for impregnating the milk of cows or asses with medicinal substances, are improbable and frivolous attempts tOAvards refinement. The general qualities of milk, and the different states of it which may take place in the several species of animals, or even in the same individual at different times, being now considered, we pro- ceed to Avhat is especially our business here, to treat of the use of milk as an alimentary matter. In entering upon this subject, what first presents itself is the use of milk as the proper nourishment of the new-born animals of the class of mammalia. In what manner it is adapted to the Avhole of these, I dare not attempt to explain ; and must confine myself to the consideration of the new-born offspring of those animals which afford the milks employed in the diet of this country, and very much to the consideration of Avhat relates more especially to the human species. The first production of milk being always at the same time Avith the production of the offspring, and Avith this of the organ affording milk provided Avith teats, or parts suited for sucking, and the neAv-born animal being instinctively directed to, and instructed in, sucking, leaves no doubt that the milk produced is particularly intended for, and adapted to the nourishment of the neAv-born off- spring ; and w-e are now to attempt explaining more particularly how it is adapted to that purpose in the human species. On this subject the physiologists have satified themselves very easily, in saying, that as chyle affords milk, so milk affords chyle Avithout the assistance of the digestive organs, Avhich, as they have not been before exercised in it, may not be immediately prepared for their function. But as we have shown that the former posi- MATERIA MEDICA. 199 tion is not true, so we judge the latter to be no better founded. It seems probable that milk does not enter the lacteals in the same state in which it had entered into the stomach: for it appears that milk taken into the stomach is by a runnet applied to it always coagulated there; and therefore needs the solvent power of the gastric fluid to bring it again into a fluid state: and it appears also probable, that milk becomes more or less acid in the stomach: and therefore that a certain combination with animal fluids is neces- sary to put it into that condition Avhich chyle is always in when it enters the lacteals. Milk, therefore, taken into the stomach does not by itself become chyle ; nor is it by its being already prepared chyle that it is fitted for the nourishment of new-born children. We must, therefore, seek for another answer to our question : and there seems to be one very obvious, though not hitherto taken notice of by the physiologists. Whilst the foetus or beginning animal remains in the womb of the mother, the Avhole of its fluids are the same Avith those in the vessels in the womb from Avhich they are drawn, and are therefore as fully in an alkalescent state as the human ceoconmy admits of. But Ave knoAv also, that even in adults this state of the blood, unless it were obviated by the excretion of the more alkalescent parts, and by the taking in of fresh and less alkalescent aliment, would soon pass into a vitiated and dangerous state. But the blood of a new-born child is in the condition disposed to such a change; and it is therefore necessary to give it a supply of aliment, and of aliment not quite alkalescent. Vegetable aliment in this vieAV might seem suited to the purpose; but it is probable that an ali- ment of this kind would neither be suited to the powers of diges- tion nor immediately accommodated to the state of the infant ves- sels, adapted hitherto to a fully alkalscent blood. An intermedi- ate nourishment, therefore, that may introduce the change by de- grees, seems to be necessary; and such an intermediate aliment is milk. We do not discern with any precision the different states of the alkalescency in the blood of different animals; but we presume that it is more considerably alkalescent in the entirely carnh'Orous animals than it is in the human species, living partly on animal and partly on vegetable aliments. A certain loAver degree than of the most alkalescent state of the blood seems to be suited to the functions of the human oeconomy; and from hence it is that man is instinctively directed to the use of vegetable aliments. For purposes, however, Avhich Ave cannot clearly explain, the vessels of the foetus are first fiiled with as fully alkalescent blood as they are in those of adults. But to bring the blood into, and preserve it in, that state which is best suited to the functions of the human oeconomy, it Avas necessary to introduce a vegetable aliment into the infant; and accordingly AAre find, that even for 200 TREATISE OF THE the first years of life, health is best provided for by a large pro- portion of vegetable food. So considerable a change, hoAvever, could not be safely made in an infant but by degrees; and there- fore for some months of infancy such a mixed aliment as that of milk was most proper. All this is confirmed by our experience of the inconveniencies that have attended all the attempts to intro- duce very early the large use of entirely vegetable aliment. We have thus endeavoured to explain Avhy milk is especially suited to the nourishment of neAv-born children; and hardly any body has ever doubted of it, but the so frequently Avhimsical Van Hel- mont. Of late Mr. Brouzet has bestOAved an attention on this opi- nion of Van Helmont, Avhich appears to me to be equally frivolous and ill founded. While milk is judged to be the proper nourishment of new-born animals, there can hardly be a doubt that to every new-born ani- mal the milk best adapted to it must be that of the species it be- longs to, and consequently that of the mother Avho had immedi- ately produced it. The reasonings on this subject employed by Mr. Brouzet ap- pear to me very unsatisfactory, and often erroneous; but as his opinions have not, so far as I know, prevailed among the learned, it does not seem requisite to bestow here the time and pains that might be necessary to correct them. How long this nourishment is the best adapted to infants, it is difficult to determine; but the very purpose of multiplying the spe- cies sIioavs that nature has set some limits to it. So far as Ave can trust our observations on the human species, Ave find inconvenien- ces from either too short or too long nursing: and it appears to me that either less than seven, or more than eleven months, is ge- nerally hurtful; so that the ordinary practice of nine months seems to be Avell founded. From some accidental circumstances this mea- sure may be safely varied; but Avhat are the circumstances of the infant's constitution that require it to be varied more or less, has not that I know of, been properly ascertained. The making it someAvhat longer than the usual term is the safest; but I am per- suaded that long nursing contributes to increase the disposition to rickets: and wherever children are sknv in their teething, it seems improper to protract their nursing. Having thus determined, as Avell as we can, the length of time that it is proper to employ the mother's milk, another question arises, Hoav long it is proper to employ that alone, or hoAV soon it is proper to employ an aliment of another kind? It has been already observed, that the very early introduction of vegetable aliment is improper: and we are persuaded that it cannot be introduced with safety for some months after the birth; but for how long precisely Ave dare not determine. From my OAvn observation, I am led tl think that hardly in any case it should be introduced till five month- are past; and even after that period, that it should be increased bv MATERIA MEDICA. 201 degrees only to the time of weaning, so that at this last period no, considerable change may be made. Further, it relates to this subject to observe, that in some in- fants even the mother's milk is not properly digested; and par- ticularly, that it becomes more acid than it should, and thereby produces disorder in the infant. How this is to be obviated or cured, it would be very desirable to say; but I do not find myself enabled to do it very clearly. It is not indeed always easy to per- ceive Avhat is the cause of the disorder, whether it be the state of the nurse's milk, the state of other nourishment given at the same time, or the state of the child's stomach. With respect to the first, it might be perhaps suspected that a too acescent diet given to the nurse might be to blame: but I have not perceived this; and I have observed the disease to happen as often to the sucklings of nurses Avho took a good deal of animal food, as to those of nurses Avho lived more entirely upon vegeta- ble aliment: and I have knoAvn that when the disease was at- tempted to be cured by giving the nurse a larger proportion of animal food than usual, this has not ansAvered the purpose. With respect to the second cause, I am persuaded it is some- times to blame ; as I have observed that in several instances the disease happened to children Avho had been soon put upon the use of vegetable aliment; which produced an acid different from that of milk, and more difficult to beobyiatedor corrected by the digest tive powers of the infant. With respect to the third cause, as I have observed the diges-: tive poAvers of some infants capable of overcoming the faults both of milk and other aliment, so I have no doubt that in others the Aveakness of these powers is often the cause of the disorder we are treating of: but Avhen even this is the case, I find it difficult to discern that the fault is in the digestive organs alone; and can only suppose it Avhen other marks of debility in the Avhole system are to be perceived. One mark of weak organs of digestion may, I think, be coagulated milk passing Avith the child's stools. From this uncertainty Avith respect to the causes, it must be difficult to say in general hoAV the disease is to be cured; and it must be left to skilful practitioners to judge of tbe causes in partir cular cases, and to direct their practice accordingly. Upon the subject of the chief use of human milk, it remains only to say Avhat may be most proper to put nurses in the best condition to afford milk in the greatest plenty, and of the most proper quality. To this purpose I need not say, that if a nurse is chosen of a sound constitution, whatever in general is proper to preserve health is the chief, perhaps all, that is necessary to make her a good nurse. What are the measures in general proper for this purpose, it is not requisite to say; and the only particular that Ave are engaged to consider here is, that after having said so Vol. I. C c 21 r2 TREATISE OF THE much of the connection betAveen the diet employed and the milk produced, that we should determine as Avell as we can what is the most proper diet for nurses. To ascertain this, Ave may observe, that the milks employed by the human species are all taken from animals living Arery en- tirely upon vegetable aliment; and therefore that a milk produced from that is sufficiently well suited to the human oeconomy: but that ij is the best suited to it may be doubted from hence, that the milk destined to neAv-born children is the milk of women, who are capable of employing and do commonly employ, a mixed diet of animal and vegetable matter; from Avrich it might be inferred, that a milk afforded by such a diet Avas the best suited to the hu- man oeconomy even in the infant state. If, hoAvever, it be considered, that Avomen's milk contains as much vegetable matter as any other, and that nature has appointed it to be employed at a time Avhen the chief purpose seems to be the introducing a vegetable matter, the use of a diet alloAvable, and perhaps necessan', at other times, does not afford an argument for its being proper upon this occasion. I might say a great deal to show that the barman oeconomy, ex- cept in a feAV instances, does not absolutely demand the use of animal food; that in fewer instances still does it demand it in large proportion; and that for the most part the health of the hu- man body is best preserved by a large proportion of vegetable food. So from all this I think it will readily follow, that the health of women during the time of their nursing may be safely sustained by the use of vegetable aliments alone. From the employment, therefore, of animal food by the human species, there arises no argument for the necessity or propriety of a Avoman's taking animal food during the time of her nursing. I allege it to be a matter of experience, that supposing the quan- tity of liquid to be the same, nurses living entirely, or for the greater part, upon vegetable aliment, afford a greater quantity of milk, and of more proper quality than nurses living upon much animal food. This I \enture to assert from the observations of fiftv years; during which time, I have known innumerable in- stances of the healthiest children reared upon the milk of nurses living entirely upon vegetable aliments ; and I have known many instances of children becoming diseased by their being ted by the milk of nurses Avho had changed their diet from entirely vegetable to the taking in a quantity of animal food. Nav, I have known instances of childrens' becoming disordered from a nurse's mak- ing a single meal of an unusually large proportion of animal food. If it be the purpose of nature, as it seems to be, to ghre infants milk of an acescent kind in pretty large quantity, Dr. Toung's experiments on bitches serve Avell to shoAv hoAV necessary a vege- table aliment is for that purpose; for these experiments inform us, that by feeding a bitch upon animal food alone, not only the MATERIA MEDICA. 2Q3 quality of it Avas greatly changed, but the quantity of it also dimi- nished. To these arguments in favour of the employment of vegetable aliments by nurses, an objection might be made from Avhat has been said above of the morbid acidity that sometimes occurs in the stomach of infants, and Avhich may sometimes be imputed to an unusual acescency in the nurse's milk, arising perhaps from the acescency of their diet. The possibility of such a case shall not be denied; but Ave are persuaded it is a very rare occurrence—^ Indeed such is the poAver of the anim;:l ceconomy to change the quality of acescents to an alkalescent state, that I believe the ex- cess of acescent aliments, or even of acidity produced from them, is never discerned beyond the primse vix, except in the supposed case of milk. Even here, hoAvever, it cannot be certainly said that it ever goes beyond Avhat the oeconomy requires: for an acid was never found in recent milk; and in the case of nurses, it may be pre- sumed that, as in other persons, the quantity of gastric and intes- tinal animal fluids, and the quantity of lymph that is ahvays mixed with the chyle, is such as, joined Avith the action of the lungs, will always prevent any great excess of acescent matter prevailing- even in the milk. It seems to me highly probable, that Avere it not by the poAver of secretion, the saccharine and acescent matter Avould not appear there. From these considerations, and from the fruitlessness of a change of diet tOAvards correcting the suspected acescency of a nurse's milk Avhich I have experienced, I am per- suaded that the noxious acidity Avhich often appears in the sto- machs of children is never to be imputed to the acescent diet of the nurse, but to some of the other causes mentioned above. Together Avith these considerations I shall beg leave to suggest another in favour of the A7egetable aliment oi nurses ; at least against their large use of animal food. It appears to me, that in nurses, for a certain length of time, the determination of the blood to the uterus and ovaria is suspend- ed; so that during that time neither menstruation nor conception take place. We knoAv, notAvithstanding, that in some nurses both these states occur; and I am persuaded that the}- most readily take place in habits naturally plethoric, or rendered so by the large use of'animal food. It is, however, generally and probably upon observation judged, that both menstruation and conception are ahvays incompatible Avith the proper condition of a nurse; and therefore to avoid these inconveniencies, it seems proper for nurses to avoid animal food altogether, or at least to take it very sparingly. This suggests an observation that will be proper before Ave con- clude this subject. In the earnestness I have just noAV expressed in recommending vegetable aliment to nurses, I had chiefly in vieAV the state of hired nurses; who being frequently taken from the ko4 Treatise of the loWer class of people, and Avho had been for the Avhole of their life before fed by vegetable food alone, so I had ahvays observed bad Consequences from their being put upon animal food. But I must observe here, that it is possible that hired nurses may have been before partly in the use of animal food, and that with respect to sirh, there may be an exception to the taking aAvay such food en- tirely i 1 he exception, hoAveA^er, that I intended especially to mark here, is Avith respect to AA-omen of condition who may choose to nurse their OAvn children. Such Avomen have pretty certainly been accustomed to animal food, and perhaps to a large proportion of it; and I should not think it by any means safe to take it aAvay from them entirely; but it Avould be Arery necessary to diminish the quantity of it a good deal, and more or less according to for- mer habits. It how remains to consider the use of milk as an aliment for adults. It is seldom that the milk of Avomen, or of asses and mares, is employed for the Avhole, or ev-en for a great part, of diet; but when they can be employed in sufficient quantity, there is no doubt of their being sufficiently fit for the purpose, though certainly af- fording a Aveaker nourishment than an equal quantity of the milk of ruminant animals. It is the milk of the latter, and especially that of coavs, that is employed in this country; and it is almost only Avith respect to this that I have had sufficient opportunities of making observation, so as to treat of it properly here. As the different parts of Avhich milk in general consists are all of a nutritious quality, and probably better suited to the purpose by "their being introduced in a very liquid form; so coavs' milk Commonly contains so much nutritious matter as to render it a very proper aliment: and Ave know that it is often sufficient for the Avhole of the nourishment of a man, and at least in many instan- ces that it can serve for a very considerable part of it. While it is thus in general suited to the nourishment of men, it seems to be equally fit for them at every period of life except for a feAv months of infancv : Avhen, though cows' milk has on certain Occasions ansAvered the purpose, yet from Avhat has been said above, it does not seem in any case quite so fit as the milk of wo- men.—-At every other period of life except that last mentioned, there can be little doubt of cow-s' milk being a sufficiently fit nou- rishment ; but it may be more or less so at different periods. The younger children are, Avithin the bounds mentioned, it seems to be the more fit; as at the same period, for the reasons gh-en above, that vegetable aliment is necessary: but as it is doubtful if the human ceconomy can be properly supported by vegetable aliment alone; so Inilk, as affording a proportion of alkalescent matter, will be proper- ly joined with it: and avc know instances of a numerous people Avho are sustained in a condition fit for all the functions of life by milk and vegetable aliment alone—-There can be no doubt, therefore, of the MATERIA MEDICA. 205 propriety of rearing children in the same manner. I believe it is hardly ever necessary to give children under the age of puberty any quantity of animal food; and Ave have innumerable instances in this country of children reared to the most perfect health and strength without the use of it, except the small quantity of it that is given by an egg, and this very sparingly and seldom bestOAved. On the other hand, I have often observed that animal food much employed under the age of puberty, has very hurtful effects, par- ticularly in giving irritability and an inflammatory disposition to the system. We are indeed of opinion that a certain portion of animal food is intended by nature, and is very Avell suited to the human constitution; and in cold climates at the period of life Avhen men are to be engaged in the laborious business of life, that animal food is then especially proper, and perhaps necessary, Avhile at the same time that milk may be less sufficient for the pur- pose. Hoav long this state may continue I dare not determine; but Avhenever the poAvers and vigour of life begin to decline, as Ave are persuaded that the alkalescent state of the fluids is ahvays increas- ing as life advances; so the more this happens, Ave are inclined to think that the more plentiful use of milk and vegetables, may be again introduced. It appears indeed clearly enough, that milk in a certain propor- tion, is an aliment very Avell suited to every period of life, and might be constantly employed except in certain persons Avhose stomachs do not seem to digest it properl}'. From what cause this happens, it is difficult to determine. In every stomach milk is coagulated; but in certain stomachs it seems to be coagulated more firmly than in others, and in that state to resist the solvent powers of the gastric fluid: and Ave have had instances of this in Avhich milk taken into the stomach Avas after many hours re- jected by vomiting in large curdled masses. What this depends upon I do not know, nor have indeed learned how it is to be reme- died.—In other cases we have found that milk was more ready to become acid in certain stomachs than in others; and there is lit tie doubt that in these also a coagulation takes place: but as avc knoAV that milk spontaneously coagulated, or coagulated by acids, is often taken down with perfect impunity; so it appears to me that the coagulation Avhich is here joined Avith acidity has little or no share in the disorders Avhich IoIIoav. These disorders from the acescency of milk are the same, though perhaps not so violent as from acescent A^getables ; and the cau- tion that some have expressed for avoiding the combination of milk with acescents in diet, is Avithout foundation; for I have knoAvn innumerable instances of its being practised Avith perfect safety. Milk is certainly hurtful by its acescency in no other case but where the stomach is preternaturallv disposed to an acescent fur- L^06 TREATISE OF THE mentation; Avhen indeed it mav be hurtful, and like other aces- cents aggravate the disease. It is, however, to be observed in faA our of milk, that Avhen the serous part of it becomes acid in the stomach, the oily and caseous parts are particularly fit for re- absorbing and uniting with the acid tOAvards forming an animal fluid: and it is upon this account, if I mistake not, that for the most part milk is of easy- digestion, and soon fills the lacteals with chyle. Oi* its fitness to unite Avith acids Ave have this proof, that milk, Avhen coagulated by acids, has that acid ahvays joined to the coagulated part; and in the first appearances of spontaneous coa- gulation, the acid Avhich is formed nearly at the same time is ahvays intimately united Avith the coagulated part. It is in proof of this that I have knoAvn mam- instances of heartburn, from aci- cidity prevailing in the stomach, immediately cured by a draught ii fresh milk. Having thus suggested Avhat relates to milk as an aliment, it may be proper also to say a little of it as a medicine, as I shall not have another opportunity of doing so in this Avork. It has been mentioned above, that though milk as taken in is not chyle, yet it is readily, and perhaps more readily than any ether aliment, formed into a proper chyle ; and therefore Avhere- cver the digestive organs are Aveak, milk may more certainly than any other matter supply nourishment to the body. Upon this account milk is a restorative medicine in all cases of emaciation and debility, at least in all cases Avhere the digestive organs are not affected in a manner that renders them unfit for the digestion of it. Not only, hoAveArer, in a Aveakness of the solids, but also in every case of A'itiated fluids, milk may be supposed to be a remedy. In- deed there can be no doubt of its affording a supply of animal fluid of the most perfect kind; that is, a fluid that has no ten- dency to increase the alkalescency or acescency of the mass cf blood and is rather fitted to correct both of these tendencies Avhen they happen to prevail. At the same time, as by its liquidity it passes readily by the excretions, it can hardly give too full a state of the sanguiferous system; and while it carries nourishment enough to obviate too empty a state of the same, we may conclude it to be fnted to give the quantity of fluids the best adjusted to the svstem. Whilst milk is thus fitted to give both in quality and quantity the most perfect state of the fluids, if Ave consider that all foreign matters introduced into, or vitiated fluids generated in, the body, are suited to make a part of the serosity, and thereby to pass oft by die excretions, Ave shall readily find that milk employed for some length of time may not only be a means of correcting, but ma/ also give occasion to the expelling, of every fault that has *.n. i! place in the fluid* 1 nis doctrine may be held in general to be very true ; but we MATERIA MEDICA. 207 must allow that there may be exceptions to it. If the fluids shall have been vitiated by a ferment added to them, as seems to be the case in the lues venerea, and frequently also, as Ave judge, in can- cerous cases, Ave find that milk may often moderate the violence of the disease, but will by no means cure it, unless some means of correcting and expelling the ferment be at the same time employed. There may be other cases also, in Avhich there may be supposed an acrimony diffused in the fluids, Avhich milk may not be found sufficient to correct, and therefore to cure the disease. In such eases, hoAvever, Ave suppose that the disease does not consist in the acrimonv of the fluids alone, but in a faulty state of the gene- ral system, or in the-functions of some particular parts, Avhich gives occasion to the stagnation and corruption of the fluids ; and such seems to be the case in many cutaneous affections which milk does not cure. There is one disease in Avhich a particular acrimony is supposed to prevail, and there are symptoms of it Avhich support that sup- position ; but milk does not prove the cure of it. This is the scro- phula, Avhich often appears in children living almost entirely up- on milk: and in many cases I have been persuaded that it Avas rather aggravated by the large use of milk in the diet of the per- sons affected. The disease indeed appears to me to depend upon a certain state of the lymphatic system Avhich Ave do not under- stand ; but we can say from experience that milk does not seem to have any poAver in correcting it. From Avhat has been said, it Avill be allowed that milk may be a remedy in many and various diseases; but it will be proper here to take particular notice of certain diseases tOAvhich milk has been supposed to be particularly appropriated. The first I shall mention is the phthisis pulmonalis: and Iioav milk is adapted to many cases of this Avill not be difficult to find. However w-e may explain the origin of this disease, I Avould main- tain that it never discovers its peculiar symptoms Avithout disco- vering at the same time a phlogistic diathesis in the Avhole sys- tem. But as milk affords a less quantity of gluten, and a less alka- lescent fluid, than any entirely animal food ; so it must be of ser- vice in obviating a phlogistic diathesis, and may in time take off the tendency to it entirely. By this means it may moderate, and perhaps cure the disease. These effects may be obviated by milk of any kind; but it av ill be correspondent Avith our doctrine to re- mark, that it Avill be most effectually obtained by the milk of the non-ruminant animals; and of these by the milk of av-;es or mares more ccrtainlv than by that of Avomen. Possibly there may be cases in Avhich the purpose ma}- be obtained by the use of Avhey more certainly than by milk of any kind. It has been a common opinion, that the milk of Avomen is bet- ter suited to the purpose than that of any other animal; but I duubt of this, as this milk has a larger proportion of <>;! in it than 208 TREATISE OF THE that of asses or mares ; and considering Iioav seldom it is that a quantity of Avomens' milk sufficient for an adult can be obtained, the use of asses' milk seems to be the more certain practice. While I thus find the use of milk to be a remedy of phthisis pulmonalis, by its being fitted to obviate and remove a phlogistic diathesis, it may be asked Avhy a nourishment more entirely vege- table might not be still fitter for the purpose ? This doubt it is difficult to solve: but to do it as Avell as I can, I shall obseive, that though possibly it may be true that a more entirely vegetable nou- rishment might be a more certain remedy, and that there are many examples of its success alleged ; yet it may not be ahvays the pro- per remedy, as there are cases of phthisis pulmonalis, Avhich, though attended Avith phlogistic diathesis, are at the same time attended Avith a weakness of the digestive organs with respect to purely vegetable aliments. It may be also observed, that though a phthisis may be very constantly attended Avith phlogistic diathesis, it is at the same time often attended with a state of great debility; and it may be dangerous to increase that too much, as a diet purely vegetable might do. But as I have not had an opportunity of determining these matters by any exact and decisive experiments, I must leave it to the judgment of others to determine positively whether a milk diet be universally, or even very generally, the most proper remedy of a phthisis pulmonalis. I must quit the subject with this observation, that it will be difficult to determine universally with regard to this matter; as it is pretty certain that the cases of phthisis pulmonalis are more varied in their origin and circum- stances than physicians have either perceived or explained. Another disease to Avhich it is alleged that milk is the proper remedy, is the gout. It Avill not be wondered that disputes have arisen upon this subject, when Ave consider Avhat different opinions have been maintained Avith respect to the nature of the disease, and that every difference on this subject mav give a different opinion Avith respect to the propriety of remedies. I shall not here venture to decide betAveen these different opinions, nor enter into any of the disputes that have arisen upon the subject; but shall deliver the doctrine that appears to me the most probable, and submit u to the judgment of others. It seems to me that the gout ahvays begins in a plethoric ha- bit, and that it is supported and made ready to recur by the same; and consequently that if a man never used animal food, he Avould neA'er have the gout; and that this is commonly the case, is strongly confirmed by this, that there is hardly an instance of men, Avho have been reared, and Avho have lived very entirely upon a milk and A-egetable diet, ever having the disease. To this consideration may be joined that of the many instances of men who by accident have been reduced to Ioav living, and been cured of the gout, Avith which before they had been long afflicted. To MATERIA MEDICA. 209 apply this to our present subject, we shall observe, that as milk can never give a plethoric habit, so we believe that a diet consist- ing chiefly of milk will save a person from ever being attacked Avith the gout. As Ave knoAV, hoAvever, that in the plethoric habits liable to this disease, a certain degree of vigour and a certain firmness of tone in the whole system, particularly discovered by the state of that in the stomach, is necessary to produce the in- flammation of the extremities, the necessary crisis in such habits ; so various disorders may be occasioned in such persons by dimi- nishing the vigour and tone of the system. Accordingly it is pos- sible that a milk diet, more especially as a change from one more nourishing, may have that effect: and I am therefore of opinion, that for entirely preventing the gout, it is necessary that a milk diet be entered upon early in life, before the gouty diathesis be formed. But if, after the gout has come on, a milk diet is to be employed for a cure, it must be in persons of entire vigour only ; and there are ii^tances of its being employed in such Avith advan- tage and safety. In gouty persons, hoAvever, advanced in life, and who are liable to a loss of tone, there may be much danger in at- tempting a milk diet; but at the same time I must say, that as milk is not so weak a diet as one entirely of vegetables, so the former will always be more safe than the latter. It has been alleged by many, that for preventing or curing the gout, a milk diet for life was necessary, but that employing it strictly for one year was sufficient. It is possible that at a certain period of life it may be so, by taking off the disposition to a ple- thoric state, Avhich, after a certain period of life, is not ready to return : but this is certainly precarious ; for there are many instances of persons who had, for curing the gout taken to a milk or vegeta- ble diet for some time, and after being relieved by it, had re- turned to a fuller diet; Avhich not only brought back the gout Avith more violence than before, but occasioned also various dis- orders in their bodies: and I am persuaded, that after an abste- mious course for some time, it can hardly ever be safe to return to a free and full diet. Several physicians have proposed milk as a remedy in all febrile diseases ; and I have already remarked, that a diet of milk with- out any animal food joined with it, is often used both in obviating and correcting a phlogistic diathesis prevailing in the system, and consequently any febrile state connected with it. But Aye must noAV observe, that when a pyrexia or fever is fully formed, the use of entire milk is an ambiguous remedy. In cases of continued lever, I have seldom found entire milk to be a grateful beverage; and it hardly quenches thirst. In most cases, I have observed it to prove disagreeable to the stomach, and often to excite the thirst it was intended to remove. This I have observed in formed fevers of all kinds, Avhether inflammatory or putrid. In fever, there seems to be in the state of the stomach, somewhat unsuitable V>t. I. Hd 21© TREATISE OF THE to the proper digestion of milk. Wherein this consists I cannot clearly explain; but from much experience I am certain of the fact. In spite, therefore, of the general and promiscuous com- mendations above mentioned, I never prescribe entire milk in any case of fever ; and more especially as milk in its more liquid and acid states, is more agreeable, and seems to ansAver better eveiy purpose that can be proposed. After thus considering the use of milk in general, as alimentary or medicinal, it mav be proper to consider what choice is to be made of the different milks that may be employed; and this may be determined very shortly. WTherever the purpose is to introduce much nourishment, and Avhere there is no hazard of favouring a plethoric state, the milk of the ruminating animals is ahvay to be preferred, provided only that the digestive organs of the patient are quite sufficient for the digestion of it. Upon the other hand, Avhen the purpose is to obviate and dimi- nish a plethoric state and phlogistic diathesis, it will be most proper to employ the milk of the non-ruminant animals, and espe- cially Avhen at the same time the organs of digestion may be sus- pected of weakness. To conclude this subject, it remains for me to say, in Avhat manner entire milk may be most properly employed: And there can be no doubt that for eAreiy purpose it Avill be most proper in its most recent state ; and certainly before it has proceeded to that separation of its parts to Avhich it is disposed. Most physicians, and particularly Dr. Boerhaave, have supposed that it cannot be exposed for any length of time to the air, without exhaling a vola- tile and highly valuable portion of it: but no person has been able to give any clear proof of any such exhalations taking place, or to show the nature of it. In the mean time, they have used this ar- gument for supposing it, that it is on this account that, in the prin- cipal use of it, the nourishing of infants, nature has appointed it to be draAvn from the breasts by sucking; thus providing that it should have no communication Avith the air till it Avas taken into the stomach of the young animal. This argument, hoAvever, like many others, taken from our judgment of final causes, is falla- cious. In the brute creation, Ave do not perceive that any of them are instructed, or could practise, any other means of drawing milk from the udders of the female, or of communicating it to their offspring, than this of sucking; and though the human species are capable of some artificial means to this purpose, I am well per- suaded that it is impossible by any artifice to draw the Avhole of the milk from the breasts of a Avoman except by an infant's suck- ing ; and that this is the reason for the institution of nature in this respect, Avithout implying that milk suffers any hurtful change from its being for a short time exposed to the air. To render it still more clear that milk cannot be hurt by the loss MATERIA MEDICA. 211 ^r any volatile parts, Ave are pretty Avell assured by this, that many nations are in constant practice of giving a certain degree of boil- ing to their coavs' milk immediately after it is drawn from the coav, and this Avithout their finding that the qualities of the milk, for any purpose that it can be applied to, are in any manner in- jured. On the contrary, they find, that by boiling the milk is less disposed to acescency, probably in consequence of its being bv boiling deprived of a considerable quantity of air that might have been favourable to that fermentation. Another part of our subject yet remains, Avhich is, to ascertain the alimentary or medicinal qualities of the several parts of milk Avhen employed in their separate state; but Avhat Ave have to ob- serve Avith regard to this shall be mentioned very shortly. Butter, or the oily part of milk, has precisely the same quali- ties as are to be found in the other expressed, or, as they are call- ed, Fat Oils, Avhether taken from animals or vegetables: and the use of all of them, as employed either in diet or medicine, Ave shall have occasion to consider in another place. The only ques- tion that might particularly occur here is, Whether the oih part of milk is most safely employed in the state of cream, when it is joined with some portion of the caseous and serous parts, or Avhen it is more entirely separated from these in the state of butter. I cannot be positive in ansAvering this question; but it appears to me, that a quantity of oil in the state of cream will be more easily- digested than an equal quantity of the oily part in the state of but- ter. Some difference, hoAvever, in this matter may arise from the difference of- stomachs more or less disposed to digest oils : and I have knoAvn persons who could digest cream better than they could butter. Another difference in this respect may also arise from the stomach being more or less disposed to acidity; and in the more acescent stomach, cream may be more offensive than butter. The caseous or coagulable part of milk is certainly a great, if not the greatest, part of the nourishment Avhich milk affords; and therefore taken by itself must be considered as a Arery nourishing matter. Even Avhen taken as^ produced by spontaneous coagula- tion, though then very much separated from the oily part, it may be considered as nutritive. But when an artificial coagulation has been practised upon neAV milk, and when-therefore the oily part is joined Avith the caseous, it must be considered as containing nearly the AvTiole of the nutritious matter of the milk it is taken from ; and if the coagulum is taken without the whey being sepa- rated from it, it certainly contains the Avhole, and will be as easily digested as fluid milk taken in. It is therefore a matter of indif- ference, both Avith respect to digestion and nourishment, Avhether milk be taken in its fluid or in its recently coagulated state. When the coagulum has the Avhey separated from it, it then be- comes a more nutritious substance than the milk it Avas taken from, 212 TREATISE OF THE but Avill probably be of more difficult digestion than cither that or the entire coagulum just now spoken of. Whilst, however, the coagulum, from Avhich the whey has been in a great part sepa- rated, remains still in a humid state, that is, with a portion of the Avhey still adhering to it, it will be of more easy digestion than Avhen that humidity is more fully taken away, and the whole mass pressed more closely together is brought into the form of cheese. Cheese in its dried state is, as Ave have said above, in very vari- ous condition: but its qualities in these different conditions may be readily perceived. When it is made from milk previously de- prived of its cream, it may be still a very nutritious matter, but of \-erv difficult digestion, and fit only for the most robust persons: iancl even the difficulty of digestion may diminish the nourishment which it might otherwise haAre afforded. Cheese made of entire milk must be a still more hourishing substance, and I believe of much easier digestion, and cheese made of entire milk, Avith a portion of cream taken from other milk ad- ded to it, Avill be still more nourishing, and hardly of less easy di- gestion ; as the oily parts every where interposed between the parts of the gluten must render the adhesion of this less firm. As cheese is often made of cream alone, the qualities of this will be ixalilv understood from what has been just now said, We have likeAvise mentioned above, that cheese is not always made of cows' milk only, but also of the milk of ewes or goats, and often a portion of the two latter added to cows' milk. In all these cases, as the milk of ewes and goats contains a larger proportion both of the oily and caseous parts ; so in proportion as these are employed, the cheese becomes more nutritious, but at the same time of more difficult digestion. As cheese is employed not only when recent and fresh, but also under various degrees of a certain corruption it is liable to ; so by this it acquires neAv qualities : and according to the degree of cor- ruption, it becomes more acrid and stimulant, partly from the acri- mony it has acquired by corruption, and partlv by the great num- ber of insects that are very constantly generated in it in that state. In this corrupted condition, cheese can hardly be taken in such quantity as to be considered as alimentary ; and in Avhat measure or manner it may be, as is commonly supposed, considered as a con- diment influencing the digestion of other food in the stomach, I cannot clearly explain. With respect to cheese, there is yet one particular to be men- tioned, and Avhich is to remark, that it is often eaten after having been toasted, that is, heated over the fire to a considerable degree ; Avhereby a portion of its oil is separated, Avhilst the other parts are united more closely together. I know many persons who seem to digest this food prett}- Avell; but it is certainly not easih- digested by weak stomachs : and for those Avho can be hurt by indigestion, or heated by a heavy supper, it is a very improper diet. MATERIA MEDICA. 213 Many people, especially the poor in mountainous and pasture. countries, use milk very much in a coagulated state. There is a particular manner of employing it; which, for aught I knoAv, is peculiar to Scotland, and, as I judge, deserves to be taken notice of.—The preparation of it is as folloAVs. A portion of skimmed milk is put into a wooden \ressel, deeper than Avide, and Avhich has a hole in its bottom stopped up with a peg, Avhich upon being taken out will allow a liquor to be drawn out of the vessel. This vessel is to be set in another that is Avider and deeper, and in which, therefore, the smaller vessel may be surrounded Avith boil- ing Avater. When this is done, the vessels are alloAved to remain for one or two days, more or less, according to the state of the weather; after Avhich time the milk is found coagulated, and the Avaterv part separated from the coagulum has subsided to the bot- tom of the vessel. This acid water is then draAvn off bAr the aper- ture above mentioned; and the small vessel being again stopped up, it is again set in the larger vessel, to be surrounded Avith boil- ing water as before. After matters have remained in this state for tAventy-four hours longer>, it is found that more of an acid water has been separated from the coagulum; and this Avater being draAvn off as before, the coagulum, now of a pretty thick consistence, is stirred and agitated pretty briskly by a wooden stick; and in this •condition it is presented upon our tables. This dish, during the Avhole of the summer in Scotland, is often used by the middling rank of people, and is well knoAvn at Edin- burgh under the name of Corstorphin Cream, and is denominated from the neighbouring village, in which it is especially prepared. It is brought to market in all the considerable towns of Scotland. It is an aliment tolerably nourishing; and by the quantity of acid still retained in it is moderately, but gratefully, acid and cooling. I have frequently prescribed it to phthisical patients ; and neither in these, nor in any other persons, have I knoAvn any disorders oi the stomach or intestines arising from the free use of it. After having thus considered every thing relating to the case- ous part of milk, there remains to be considered Avhat Ave marked above as a third part in the composition of all milk, and Avhich is its watery part. This we shall consider first as in the state of butter-milk produced in the manner above described. This is commonly procured from milk after it has been kept for some time, and has become more or less acid: but it may be procured from very recent milk ; and in this case the butter-milk is not acid, and only- differs from en- tire milk by the oily part being taken aAvay. In this state it is still tolerably nourishing; and being often more easily digested than entire milk, I have frequently employed it in phthisical cases Avith more advantage than I could do either the entire milk or the Avatery parts of it in a more acid state. It is in this last state, however, that it is most common!} employed; and it is highly 214 TREATISE OF THE useful in all cases where the refrigerant poAvers of milk are requi- red. As the longer it has been kept it seems to have its acidity increased, so it proves more powerfully refrigerant. Some have imagined that in certain cases it might be dangerous : but unless Avhen drank in very large quantity, or when the body is very warm, I have not perceived its bad effects; and in the last case, it is probable that cold Avater Avould have done the same mischief. With respect to the acid of butter-milk, or other acid states of the Avatery part of milk, it is worth observing, that such acid does not increase the acescency of the stomach, or occasion the flatulency that recent vegetable acids and acescents commonly do; and there- fore it is employed more safely than these for dyspeptic persons. The state in Avhich the Avatery part of milk is chiefly employed, is that of whey, strictly so called. As this is separated from en- tire milk, and from a coagulum produced by runnet; so, besides a saccharine matter, it always contains a portion of the oily and caseous parts, and in consequence is a nutritious fluid. It is, hoAV- ever still less so than entire milk ; and therefore when a plethoric or phlogistic state of the fluids is to be obviated or corrected, it 3eems to be fitter for the purpose than any entire milk, though it may be doubtful if the Avhey of the milk of ruminant animals may* not be as nutritious as the entire milk of the non-ruminants. Whey, hoAvever, is chiefly to be considered on account of its peculiar ingredient of sugar; which, by its being afforded by this and so many other alimentary substances, must be considered as of the most salutary nature Avith respect to the human oeconomy. It is by- this, or by the acid which it is changed into, that it must be considered as peculiarly suited to obviate the phlogistic and too alkalescent state of the human fluids: and as whey can be commonly taken in greater quantity than any entire milk, it may in many cases of disease be a more effectual remedy. It is only upon this supposition of its being introduced in larger proportion, that I can understand the so-much-commended virtues of the su- gar of milk; for Avhen this is purified to a certain degree, I can- not perceive that it differs from the sugar obtained from the sugar- cane or other substances; and when employed in its impure state, I cannot conceive that much virtue can be supposed to be given to it by the small portion of the other parts of milk Avhich may be adhering to it. Hitherto we have considered Avhey as taken in before it has un- dergone any acescent fermentation; but it is frequently taken in its acid state, as a part of, or along Avith, alimentary substances : and in this state rnust be viewed as less nutritious, and chiefly as an acid only useful for the purposes above mentioned. It is noAV, hoAvever, to be observed Avith respect to the qualities of whey, that from its disposition to acescency in certain stomachs, it may suffer this change to a noxious degree, and shoAv the flatulency and tther circumstances attending the cases of morbid acescency. It % MATERIA MEDICA. S15 is by the same saccharine quality that it proves a laxative; but whether this depends upon its retaining its entire saccharine state, and in that state stimulating the intestines, or that it depends upon the acid produced from it mixed Avith the bile, Ave shall have occa- sion to consider in another place. Article II. Of Animal Food, strictly so called; that is, Food con* sisting of the whole, or of part, of the Substance of Animals. The solid and fluid parts of the mammalia are so nearly of the same nature with one another, that the fitness of all of them for nourishing any of the other Avho live on animal food, and there- fore the fitness more or less of all of them for nourishing the hu- man species, can hardly be doubted of, and is very Avell established by much experience. In considering, therefore, the mammalia as affording aliment to man, we have only to examine the greater or less fitness of the several orders, genera, and species, for that pur- pose. This Ave shall do, in the first place, by considering those qualities of animal food, by Avhich it is more or less fitted to be an aliment to man ; and aftenvards Ave shall enquire how far these qualities are to be found in the particular species of animals com- monly employed for this purpose. That quality of animal substances fitting them to be aliments, which first deserves to be mentioned, seems to me to be the de- gree of solubility in the human stomach. The solution of food in the stomach may be assisted by manducation; but certainly de- pends for the most part upon the poAver of what is commonly called the gastric juice, Avhich nature has provided as a solvent to a cer- tain degree of the several solid or consistent matters taken doAvn into the stomach. This solvent, hoAvever, as Ave have observed above, is of greater or less poAver in different animals; and so it seems to be in the different individuals of the human kind. Hoav far this may depend upon different states of the gastric fluid in different men, Ave have not yet been able to discern, but in all of them it seems to be materially different, according to certain conditions in the ali- ments taken in, and particularly from these giving it a different degree of solubility; and which are therefore to be especially in- vestigated. The condition especially giving more or less of solubility, is the different firmness of texture Avhich appears in animal sub- stances : and this again is different in the different species of ani- mals according as these are either very entirely carnivorous or phytivorous; the substance of the former being more dense than that of the latter. This, joined with some other considerations, explains Avhy the former are hardly ever, and the latter so gene- ralh-, employed as aliments to man. It may be supposed that this difference in the density of the substance depends upon the nature of the aliment Avhich these different sets ©f animals employ; and 216 TREATISE OF THE therefore that even those Avho employ a food partly animal and partly a egetagble, should be of a more dense substance than those Avho live entirely upon vegetables. This, however, does not ap- pear to be strictly the case; for the substance of the bull is more dense than that of the dog. 2dly, In the phA'th-orous animals the density of the substance is different in the different genera and species by an institution of nature, of Avhich the* cause cannot be assigned; but the fact is very evident, as the density of beef is cateris paribus always greater than that of mutton. Sdly, In the same species the density is different according to the sex; the substance of the male being always more dense than that of the female. In the male sex, however, castration at an early period of life makes a considerable change; as it prevents the animal from acquiring the same density of substance which it would have acquired had the genitals remained entire. Castration has also the effect of disposing the animal to grow fat, which, as we shall say- presently, has an effect in rendering meat more soluble. A-thly, In the same species the density of its substance is different according to the age of the animal; and as the density of every animal is ahvays increasing as the animal advances in life, so young meat is universally more soluble than old: and this goes so far, that in many species we employ only the young, and hardly eve* the older animals in diet. There is, however, a difficulty which occurs here. Although from their texture young meats are more soluble than old, and appear to be so in decoctions with water, yet in some stomachs the young meats are more slowly digested than the old; and thus in some persons veal is more sloAvly digested than beef, and lamb than mutton. Indeed Dr. Brian Robinson has given us this singular fact, that in one person he found chicken to be more sloAvly dissolved than any other animal food. What this is OAving to, is difficult to determine. Whether in cer- tain stomachs very much disposed to acescency, the solution of animal meats may not be delayed by that acescency, and thai in such stomachs the most alkalescent foods will be most easily di- gested ? And as we shall s'ay in the sequel that the older meats are more alkalescent than the7 younger, this may perhaps account for the difference mentioned, that sometimes occurs in the digestion of them. We are disposed to think that it does so, because it is observed that the difficult digestion of young meats happens espe- cially in the most acescent stomachs. Another cause of the difference of digestion mentioned may in some cases be the more gelatinous nature of young meats than of old: and this seems to have a share ; for I find the jellies of all animal substances, though extracted from old animals, to putrify more slowly, and Avith more previous acescency, than the recent juices of animals. It may not be improper to observe also here. MATERIA MEDICA. 217 that in acescent stomachs, liquid aliments, though extracted from animal substances, are more difficultly digested than solid meats. Does not this happen from the liquidity favouring acescency ? 5thly, In animals of the same species, sex, and age, the flesh of individuals is of greater or less density as they are fatter or leaner. In lean animals, the fibres of which their flesh is composed are more closely compacted together, while in fatter animals these fibres are more separated by a cellular texture filled with oil; and the flesh of the latter, therefore, is not only rendered more soluble by the laxity of its texture, but also as Ave judge by the quantity of oil which enters into the substance of the fibres. Sometimes, however, it happens, that fat meats are of more difr ficult digestion than those that are leaner: but this arises from the fat in those meats being collected in masses separate from the fleshy fibres ; and in such cases the difficulty of digestion arises from the difficulty of digesting a large proportion of oil; Avith respect to which, indeed, we shall say hereafter, the poAver of dif- ferent stomachs is very different, 6thly, In the same animal the solubility is different in the dif- ferent parts of it. Of the fleshy parts connected by a looser cellu- lar texture, the solution readily takes place ; Avhereas of the mem- branous parts in the tendons and ligaments, in which that texture is more closely compacted, the solution is more difficult. 7thly, In meats in other respects of the same qualities, their solubility is greater according as they happen to be further ad- vanced towards putrefaction. It is Avell knoAvn that putrefaction to a certain degree destroys the cohesion of all animal substances ; and the tendency to this, if it be not prevented by the want of air, by cold, or antiseptics, applied, begins as soon as the animal dies. It is for this reason that meats recently killed are not so soluble as those that have been kept for some time. There is, however, a period in the progress of putrefaction, at which meats become un- fit for the human oeconomy: but it is difficult to determine the limits of this ; for there are certain stomachs to which meats, Avhen any approach to putrefaction is discoverable in them either by their taste or smell, are highly offensive; while there are many stomachs in which meats highly tainted are readily digested; and perhaps more readily than fresher meat. 8thly, Not only are animal substances more soluble as they are more advanced tOAvards putrefaction, but they seem also to be sq according as they are more disposed to suffer that change, or, as I would otherwise express it, as they are more alkalescent. It is very probable that this is not only different in different ani- mals, but also in individuals at different times; although we find it difficult to distinguish the different degrees of it, or to assign the causes of these. In many cases it seems to depend upon an insti- tution of nature, giving more of this quality to one genus or spe- cies of animal than to another, Avithoat our being able clearlv to Vol. I. E e 218 TREATISE OF THE explain the causes of this: but the natural constitution of the ani- mal being given, Ave can often mark the circumstances AA'hich in- crease or diminish this quality and disposition in individuals ; and it will certain!}' be of use to ascertain these as well as Ave can. The state of it seems to be according to the age of the animal, according to the diet it Ih'es upon, and particularly according to its habits of more or less exercise. As an alkalesency is the peculiar disposition of the animal oeco- nomy, so it is probable that this increases as life advances: and as Ave have given above some reasons for believing young meats to be less alkalescent than old, so there are seA-eral marks of the fluids becoming more acrid as life advances; and therefore that the alkalscency of animal substances may be in general according to the age of the animal. With respect to diet, there can be little doubt that the alkales- cency of the animal fluids will be greater or less according to the difference of *bod on Avhich the animal lives ; and accordingly- that it is manifestly greater in the entirely carnivorous, than it is in the entirely phytivorous, animals: and this, as I have said before, Ave take to be the reason or instinct determining the former to be so rarely, and the latter so commonly, the food of mankind. With respect to those animals that live sometimes on a vegeta- ble and sometimes on an animal diet, Ave have a clear illustration in the experiments of Dr. Toung on bitches, serving to shoAv the influence of animal food in giving alkalescency to the animal fluids. Of the quadruped kind there are none employed in the diet of this country Avhich give us an opportunity of marking the effects of such a difference of diet; but probably some difference might arise from their living upon grain, or more entirely upon grass: and in the bird-kind there is probably a considerable difference from the bird's Ihing more upon animal food or more upon A-e- getables ; as Ave shall more particularly take notice of in the se- quel. Lastly, The alkalescency of animal food seems to depend upon the animal's being more or less in the habits of exercise. As it is sufficiently probable that the alkalescency of the animal fluids is in some measure produced, and ahvays increased, bv the activity of the circulation: and as this therefore is greatly increased by exercise, so it is probable that animals, the more they are in the habits of exercise, will have their fluids in a more alkalescent state : and this is confirmed bA- eAery other means Ave have of judging of this matter; as Ave shall say more particularly here- after. To conclude this subject, it may be supposed, that the alkales- cency of the different animal substances might be determined by tlie different proportion of Aolatile alkali, Avhich might be obtained from them by distillation: but to this purpose feAv or no expert- MATERIA MEDICA. 219 ments have been made on the different alimentary substances ; and although it is probable that some difference might be found, yet from several trials made by us, the difference is so inconside- rable, that it Avill be difficult to ascertain it Avith much precision, and therefore to apply it to the present subject. .HefJdes considering animal aliments bv the difference of their solubility, as Ave haA-e done, they may also.be considered by their being more or less perspirable. Sanetorius's account of mutton, and KeilPs account of oysters, ml/ht lead to an opinion, that the difference in this respect is considerable; 'but De Garter found neither the one nor the other fact confirmed by his experiments. It is, however, still highly probable that aliments, and even animal aliments, are different in this respect; and the matter deserves to be examined by experiment. I am indeed very much surprised iliat more observations on this subject had not occurred to Sanc- torius, and other persons who have been engaged in experl.Vi eras upon perspiration. But I must OAvn from the experiments I have myself made, that the difference is commonly so inconsiderable, and so many other circumstances may at the same time concur to vary the state of perspiration, that it Avill be ahvaAS difficult to de- termine what depends upon the aliment alone.—In the mean time, I Avould reason in this manner: As they are the alkalescent parts of the animal fluids that form the excretions, we are persuaded that cateris paribus the different animal aliments will be perspira- ble in proportion to their alkalescency, as determined above: and so far as experiments in this Avay can be trusted, our opinion is confirmed by experiment; and particularly that the old., or, as I call them, the more saline, meats, are more readily perspired than the young and gelatinous. The last consideration I haA-e to offer Avith respect to the ali- ments taken from quadrupeds, is, that they differ according to the quantity of nourishment they severally contain ; Avhich, Iioav- ever, Ave find to be a matter difficult to determine. It might be supposed that it Avould be according to the quantity of soluble matter, and therefore of the extracts obtained b\r the solutions Avhich Ave practise out of the body: but this Ave cannot readily admit of, Avhen we consider and believe that the gastric juice can dissoh-e the Avhole of the substance of the several aliments more entirely, certainly more quickly, than can be done by any applica- tion of boiling water; and therefore Ave are of opinion that the quantity of nourishment in the several aliments Ave are consider- ing, is to be estimated by the quantity of animal matter in each of the several kinds that is soluble by the gastric juice, and Avill therefore be according to their respective densities. We have supposed that the aliments Avill be more or less quickly dissolved by the gastric juice according to the degrees of solubi- lity in each, as determined by the circumstances above mentioned; but Avhether there are any limits set to the poAvers of the gastiie 220 TREATISE OF THE juice, Avifh respect to its more or less complete solution ol all the parts of the substance which it anyAvise dissolves, Ave cannot posi- tively determine. The gastric juice of the human stomach does not dissolve the bones or cartilages of animals; and perhaps it dissolves the more firm and membranous parts less completely than it does the fleshy; and it seems to be the latter only which it dissolves very entirely. Whether it makes any decomposition even of these, as decoction in Avater does, and therefore leaves some portion of their earthy parts undissolved, I wrould not posith-ely, determine: but such a decomposition seems to me very improba- ble ; and therefore would conclude as above, that the quantity of nourishment in any meat Avhich the gastric juice entirely dissolves, is in proportion to the quantity of animal matter which it contains. Upon this ground I Avould conclude, that in equal weights of beef and veal, notwithstanding Avhat appears in their decoctions, there is more nourishment in the former than in the latter; and our ex- perience in the feeding of animals Avho *ake in such food, is cer- tainly in confirmation of this. What difference may arise from the more alkalescent and perspirable state of the one, and from the more gelatinous and less perspirable state of the other, I leave to further consideration. To conclude the general consideration of aliments taken from quadrupeds, I must say a little of their effects in general on the human constitution. The first effect to be taken notice of, is their giving, in the same proportion taken in, more nourishment than any ve- getable aliments do. The latter can afford, as we have said, the Avhole juices of an animal body, but certainly not in proportion to the quantity of them taken in; Avhilst wiimal substances that can be entirely dissolved in the gastric juice seem in proportion to that quantity to be entirely convertible, as the expression is, in succum et sanguinem. If at the same time they are in the smallest quantity less perspired, they must greatly increase the plethoric state of the blood-vessels. Animal food, therefore, is ahvays ready to induce this state ; and in growing bodies, such food will always favour, and probably- hasten, the growth: and although in adults^ exercise and other means, by supporting the excretions, may pre- vent its having this effect, yet it will ahvays have a tendency to produce a plethora ad volumen. Moreover, as animal aliments for the most part introduce a greater proportion of oily matter, they are ready to occasion a larger secretion of oil into the adipose membrane, and thereby produce obesity; which, Avhen consider- able, must straiten the sanguiferous vessels, and consequently produce a plethora and spatium. Animal food having thus a considerable tendency to fill the blood-vessels, so it must support the constant tension of these, and thereby in my- opinion give a greater degree of strength to the Avhole body; and from the doctrines laid doAvn above on the sub- MATERIA MEDICA. 221 ject of irritability, it will also readily appear, that animal food is likely to increase the irritability of the system. It deserves to be particularly attended to, that as the balance betAveen the several parts of the system may- not always be exact, so the plethoric state may be greater in one part than in the other; and thus if it happens to give a greater tension to the vessels of the brain, it may dispose to epilepsy; or if it happens to give an increased tension to the vessels of the lungs, it may dispose to asthma. More particularly, if it be considered, that in all full sys- tems, the lungs must always be most exquisitely filled; and that nature has provided that the vessels of the brain should ahvays have a due degree of tension: so it will be readily understood why these two parts of the system must ahvays be readily affected" by every unusual fulness of the sanguiferous system, and from the general irritability at the same time induced, may give occasion to many particular diseases. It is also to be observed, that when animal food gives a general fulness of the blood-vessels, if the balance between the arteries and veins be not exactly adjusted, an undue proportion may take place; and if more than usual is retained in the arteries, it may give occasion to arterial hemorrhagy; or, if a greater quantity of blood than usual is throAvn upon the veins, it may produce an overcharge either in the system of the vena portarum, or in the venous system of the head; and Avhat consequences may arise from either of these circumstances, I need not explain. Some of our readers may perhaps judge, that a great part of what I haAre now said might have been left to be understood from the general doctrine of Plethora: but both because I think that general doctrine has not been ahvays Avell understood, and be- cause it was my business to explain the effects of animal food, I thought it necessary to shoAv that its effects are especially to give a nicer balance in several respects to the system, and thereby give a disposition to many diseases which might be avoided by a more temperate use of such food. It deserves also to be remark- ed, that though a proper measure of such aliment, with an exercise suitable to it, may render it long consistent Avith health; yet as the constant use of it gives a nicer balance to the several parts of the system, so every unusually large indulgence in it must be extremely- dangerous. This leads me to take notice of Avhat perhaps I should have be- gun with; that is, to mention the effects of animal food, as it is im- mediately taken into the stomach: but I still think it will be more proper after what I have said. We are of opinion, that ever}- kind of food taken into the sto- mach, as soon as it sets this organ to work, increases the action ot the heart, and occasions a frequency of pulse; and if we mistake not, by the energy of the brain s being thus directed to the heart and stomach, a torpor in the animal functions, both of sense and 222 TREATISE OF THE motion, is induced, and often to a degree of sleepiness. These ar»- the effects of food soon after it is taken into the stomach : and it seems also manilest, that these effects are more considerable from animal than from vegetable food. It seems also equally manifest, that the feverish state during digestion is in proportion to the al- kalescency of the animal food taken in, and that the degree of torpor induced, and the continuance of the feverish state is more or less according to the quantity of food taken in, and according to its being more or less readily soluble by the gastric juice. From these considerations, the Avhole phenomena of digestion. with respect to the system, may be explained; and, upon the whole, that although animal food may be admissible by the human ceconomy-^-and in certain circumstances of that it may be proper and even necessary—and therefore, that in many cases, it ma}' be consistent with health; yet that for the most part, a small portion of it only is necessary; that the very temperate and sparing use of it is the surest means of preserving health, and obtaining long life ; Avhilst the large use of it tends to the production of diseases, and to the aggravation of those that from other causes may inciden- tally come on. We are much disposed to remark, that the opinion of an an- cient writer, though not Hippocratet;, Avas Avell founded. He as- serts, that the best means for preserving health is nunquam sati- ari cibls, et impigrum esse ad labores; and Ave believe that this Avas meant especially Avith respect to animal food. We must also observe, that an othenvise sage ancient, has in our opinion given a rule of the most pernicious kind. When Celsus says, with re- gard to eating, Modo minus, modo plus justo assumere, the rule may be allowed ; but when he says, Et semper plus dummodo hunc eoncoquat, he gives a xt ry fallacious test of Avhat is safe, and, in general, a yen- dangerous rule. Before I leave the subject of animal food in general, I must Much a question that I think especially relates to it; and that is whether sleeping after a full meal be suitable to the health of the human oeconomy ? if Ave are to trust to the institution of nature in the brute creation, and suppose that their instincts are generally suited to Lie health of their ceconomv, it Avould appear that sleep after eating is suited to favour their digestion: but Avhether they maybe suited to the human ceconomv mav be doubtful. The pro- pensity to sleep after eating is commonly the same in man as in brutes ; and I am persuaded that, in elderly persons after a mid- da}- meal, it may in some degree, be indulged; but I am equally persuaded from my observation and experience, that a full supper, immediately before going to bed, is generally hurtful. Whether this happens in those persons especially avIio take two meals of animal food every day, or that a long sleep alter sucli a meal, dur- ing which, not only the animal, but also the natural and vital func- MATERIA MEDICA. 223 'ions should have a great deal of rest, is the cause of the bad con- sequences Avhich often follow, we cannot positively determine. The solution of this and many such questions is much embar- rassed by this, that errors in the conduct of Avhat relates to health, Avhen moderate in their degree, do not immediately shoAv their ef- fects ; and only after a long time, in consequence of frequent re- petition, Avhen from our gross ignorance of the animal ceconomv, Ave do not perceive and readily mistake the cause of the disease then arising. Having thus considered the qualities of the aliments taken from quadrupeds in general, Ave must next endeavour to say Avhich of those qualities prevail, and how they are diversified in the several genera and species. The first on our list is the Bos or Ox kind. The flesh of this is the most dense of all the quadrupeds ; and hoAV far that density- goes in preventing solubility, Ave haA'e an instance in the bull, Avhose flesh is seldom chosen as a part of our diet. The flesh of the female sex is of a much more soluble nature, and sufficiently fit for nourishment ; but we commonly prefer the castrated ox, in Avhich the fat is better mixed, and as more alkalescent, the flesh is more sapid ; and, unless it be from a very old animal, is generally to be preferred. The chief difference of aliment in the ox kind, is that which appears betAveen the old and young; the flesh of Avhich last is named Veal. This, as less dense, appears in our decoctions to be more soluble ; and in consequence of this, gives more of a gelati- nous extract than the flesh of the adult; but it is not therefore, more nutritious ; as the gastric juice dissolves more than the Ava- ter in our decoctions.—In young animals, the softer texture de- pends upon there being little difference betAveen the muscular fibres and the cellular texture interposed between them. But this state is limited to a certain period of their growth. In veal it is Avhen thev are under tAvo months old; for after that, and some- times before it, the muscular fibre becomes more distinguishable, and the whole substance becomes less tender. Why veal gives a more gelatinous decoction than the older animal, Ave shall endea- vour to explain hereafter. Ovis, or the Sheep kind. These afford a dense substance, but less so than that of the ox kind. The difference of sex has the same effects here as in the ox kind; and more clearlv here the flesh of the castrated animal is universally preferred. In this spe- cies, a circumstance to be taken notice of more than in any other, is, that the meat of this animal is more sapid, and seemingly more easily digested at a certain advanced period of life, than Avhen it is younger. Mutton under two years old, is less sapid and more difficultly digested than Avhen it is several years older; and it seems to be in its greatest perfection at the age of five. This Ave ascribe in part to it- alkalescency, jjrear.r at that period 224 TREATISE OF THE than Avhen it is younger; but especially to the proportion in Avhich the cellular texture filled Avith oil is to the solid fibres between Avhich it is interposed. How far these circumstances take place, as some suppose at a period of life still more advanced, Ave cannot determine; but are persuaded it must have its limits, as the den- sity of the solid increasing as life advances, may, at a certain pe- riod very much diminish its solubility. With regard to the Sheep kind, I hold that the same difference takes place between the young and old; that is between Lamb and a full grown Sheep, as in the cow kind between veal and beef. With respect to Lamb, there is a particular management that may take place. If the lamb is allowed to suck its mother for six months or a little more, it becomes an aliment more nourishing and digesti- ble than that of a lamb of the same age that had been weaned as usual at two months old. Capra, or the Goat kind, is more dense and insoluble than that of the sheep, partly from its nature, and partly from its food and exercise; so that even the flesh of the castrated kind is seldom admitted where any delicacy of aliment is studied. Sus, the Sow kind. The peculiarity of the aliment taken from this genus consists in the quantity of oily matter which is here ac- cumulated in the adipose membrane separately from the muscular parts, and that in greater proportion than in any other of the quad- rupeds we employ in diet. We have said above, that the oil of animals enters for a great part into the composition of the animal fluid, and is therefore a directly nutritious matter, and is further necessary for many pur- poses of the animal oeconomy, to be laid up in the adipose mem- branes of the human species. We hold it, therefore, for certain, that the flesh of quadrupeds is a more nutritious, and a more pro- per aliment, as it contains a greater portion of oily matter, pro- vided only that this is no more than the digestive organs can pro- perly assimilate. In this respect Ave find the digestive powers, as observed above, to be very different in different persons. In some, the power of assimilating oily matter is very great; while in others it is extremely limited; and frequently in the same persons it is different at different times. Whether from Avant of habit, from accidentally excited aversion, or from peculiarity of constitution, it is, that many persons of Scot- land do not admit of pork or bacon in their diet, or digest it easi- ly, I do not know: but certainly they are in greater number than in our neighbouring country of England. In those who do admit of it, it proves an easily digested and very nourishing food. In this species there is the same difference as in others between the flesh of the young and of the adult animal: and here the difference turns upon the flesh of the pig or young animallDeing ahvays less fat than that of the adult; and is therefore more digestible to many persons who cannot digest the flesh of the adult. As in other spe^ MATERIA MEDICA. 225 cies also, there is some difference from the sex; and the same dif- ference in the castrated male and one that is entire: but it appears that these differences are less considerable than in any of the other species of quadrupeds. It is to be remarked also, that this spe- cies affords a food prepared in a manner that cannot be applied to any other; this is w-hat is called Brawn; a substance not readily soluble ; but, in such stomachs as can dissolve it, affording a great deal of nourishment. What is properly the BraAvn, seems to con- sist chiefly of the adipose membrane closely compressed; so that much of the oil is squeezed out, while the cellular texture remains so closely united as to form a transparent substance. Cervus, the Venison kind ; for to this genus the term Venison is most properly and strictly applied. There are three species em- ployed in the food of this country; viz. the Stag, the Fallow Deer, and the Roe. They are all Avild animals and much exercised: they are, therefore, alkalescent; and though of a dense substance, yet at a proper period of their age, and being of tolerable fatness, they are sufficiently soluble and nourishing. The Stag kind, as much exercised, are of the most dense sub- stance, and perhaps most alkalescent; and therefore most sapid to many persons; but as the fallow deer are most commonly better fattened, they afford a more soluble meat. The Roebuck in its flesh seems to be of the tenderest sub- stance ; but as more rarely of much fatness, is perhaps less rea- dily soluble. Lepus, the Hare. As this animal is wild and much exercised, its flesh is dense and not easily soluble; but from its nature and exercise it is an alkalescent food, and is therefore more easily- di- gested, and proves tolerably nourishing. As it is an object of chace, and often only killed after long exercise, it is therefore often much deprived of the oil that should be in its cellular tex- ture ; and is then more difficultly digested than Avhen it is suddenly- killed. Cuniculus, the Rabbit; a species of the same genus with the hare, but by nature, and from its being little exercised, it is of a very different quality; still hoAvever of such a dense substance that we hardly ever employ the adult or older animal. The young are of a tender and Avhite substance, and afford an aliment very rea^ dily digestible, and considerably nourishing. The mention of the white flesh of the rabbit leads me to take notice of Avhat perhaps I should have spoken of before; the dif- ference between the AA'hite and red meats, which Avas long ago marked by Dr. Cheyne. This difference certainly depends upon the greater number of red arteries, and therefore upon the larger quantity of red globules interposed between the muscular fibres in the one case than in the other. As it is probable that the red glo- bules of the blood are considerably alkalescent, it will folloAv, that the red flesh is more alkalescent than the white, agreeable to Avhuail kind. Of the former there is a great variety; but how far they differ as ali- ments, I am not exactly informed. I am, however, persuaded that it is not in any considerable degree. The partridge of this coun- try is of a much tenderer substance than the pheasant: and though also less alkalescent than that, it is from its exercise more so than the domestic fowl. From thence its qualities as an aliment may be readily understood, as may also those of the Quail, which are very nearly the same.—The partridge and quail are put by Lin- nans under the genus of Tetrao: and agreeable to the rules of natural historv, they may be so placed; but certainly with a view to their qualities as aliments, they may be properly distinguished. The Tetrao Urogallus, and the other Tetraones pedibus hirsutis, are of different qualities from those of the partridge kind, or the Tetraones pedibus nudis---Of the Tetraones pedibus hirsutis Ave have four species in Scotland. The Cock of the Mountain, a spe- cies formerly frequent in this country under the name of the Ca- percailzie, is now almost entirely lost. The other three species are, the Black Cock, or the Tetrao Tetrix cauda plena: the third is the Red Game, not known to Linnaus, and is, I think, the Atagas of Buffon: and the fourth is the Ptarmigan, which I take to be the Tetrao lagopus of Linnaus and the Gelinotte d' Ecosse of My. Buffon. All these species seem to have a common quality. The three first are naturally of a tender substance; and they are still more so from their alkalescence, which is considerable. From both cir- cumstances, they are sapid and agreeable to most persons; but at the same time must be considered as a considerably stimulant food. The Ptarmigan is a drier food, less tender and less sapid than the other three species. A second order of the birds affording aliments is that of the Ansetes, or the Water- fowl. The most noted for its bulk and figure is the Cygmis or Swan, but its flesh is firm and solid, and of so difficult solution and diges- tion that it is little employed as a food. The Anser domesticus, or Tame Goose, is of qualities approach ing to that of the sAvan ; but as less exercised, and living much on vegetable aliment, is of a more tender substance: but Avas it not for its alkalescency, it would be still a substance of difficult digestion. Upon this account the Anas Domestica, as living more upon ani- mal food, is still more alkalescent and of more easy solution. Of both these species, the young animals, of a more viscid texture, are more sloAvly digested than those somewhat more advanced. Of each species, there is a tame and a wild kind; and the latter, as of more alkalescency, are more easily digested than the others. Of this anserine tribe there are a great number, besides those enumerated, that afford aliment, and are much of the same qua- MATERIA MEDICA. 229 lities with those already mentioned. With respect to most of them, as they are sea-birds and live upon fishes, they are more alkalescent, and very often on that account are tender and of easy digestion. They are commonly of a strong odour, and of a rank fishy taste, and from thence to many persons highly disagreea- ble: but to others, to whom their odour is not so offensive, their sapid and tender flesh is highly agreeable, and generally proves of very easy digestion. These circumstances are particularly ap- plicable to the peculiar Scottish food, the Solan Goose; which to many indeed, even of this country, is highly offensive and entirely- rejected; Avhilst to many others it is in the highest degree of favour. The next order of birds to be taken notice of is that of the GralU, Avhich comprehends a great number of species of very dif- ferent qualities ; and I cannot find that any one quality can be found in common to the whole order. As they are birds of more or less exercise, they are accordingly of a firmer and less soluble substance: and as many of them are sea-birds, living very en- tirely upon fishes, they are considerably alkalescent, and in their flavour and taste come near to the nature of the anserine kinds, who resort to the same places and live upon the same diet. The effect of exercise on the particular parts of an animal ap- pears in birds of this tribe, the Woodcock and Snipe, in which the muscles of the breast, much exercised in flying, are of a firm and less soluble texture; while the legs, little exercised, are more tender. We are now come to speak of the fourth order of birds afford- ing aliments, which is that of the Passeres ; a very numerous tribe, to which as alimentary we can assign no common quality: and Ave have too little experience of particulars to distinguish the va- riety that may occur here. There is one genus among those most frequently used, that seems to have peculiar qualities different from most of the other passeres. This is the Columba; a genus, of which seAreral species might, I believe, be used if we could obtain them in their young state; but Ave are only well acquainted with Avhat is in common use, the columba domestica. We take this in its very young state, before it has had any exercise, and in Avhich state only it is suf- ficiently tender. But nature, independent of food or exercise, has made it of a very alkalescent quality, from Avhence it is ten- der; and even in its youngest state, from the same quality, it is a heating food. Of the other passeres I can only say, that almost all of them, when they are taken in their fattened state, are sufficiently tender and easily digested; and according to their diet on grain or worms, are more or less alkalescent. I have thus finished Avhat I had to say of aliments taken from the class of birds; and must here take notice of a very parti .iJar' 230 TREATISE OF THE kind of aliment afforded, and only afforded, by this class ; and that ls Eggs As me substance of these is Avhat affords a matter pecu- liarly suited to the formation of the young animal, it must be con- sidered as containing a large proportion of nutritious matter: so any quantity of it, taken into an animal body must be supposed to introduce a large proportion of such matter. This we might suppose to require no preparation in the adult body it is taken into, to fit it for the purpose of nourishment: but this does not happen to be the case ; for we, for the most part, take into the human stomach the Avhite of egg in its coagulated state ; and even when taken in in its liquid state, the first change that happens to it there is its being coagulated: so that in all cases it must be again dissolved by the peculiar power of the gastric juice, probably for the purpose of its being mixed with other matters ne- cessary to constitute the proper animal fluid. Digestion is a mysterious business, Avhich we do not, in all its circumstances, well understand; and therefore Ave cannot at all explain the singular fact of the white of egg even in very small quantity, whether in its liquid or coagulated state, proving con- stantly the occasion of much sickness in the stomach of certain persons, Avhile in the most part of other men it is an agreeable and readily digested food. It is indeed surprising what a quantity of egg may be digested by some persons; but I am persuaded that in most persons this poAver is very much limited, and that a smaller bulk of this than of any other food will satisfy and occupy the digestive poAvers of most men. At the same time I must ob- serve, that egg Seems to me to he a less alkalescent food than almost any other animal substance, and during its digestion to be less sti- mulant.* Whether egg has more or less disposition to render the body plethoric than other species of animal food, I cannot from want of experiment, properly determine. With respect to the particular qualities of the eggs of different birds, and whether they are in any case considerably different, I cannot clearly determine; but I am disposed to think they are very little so ; and I am certain that in many instances the pecu- liar odour and taste of the flesh of the bird is in no degree com- municated to their eggs. For example, in certain sea-foAvl, Avhose flesh is of the rankest odour and taste, their eggs are as free from taste and smell as the eggs of our domestic foAvl. EA'en in the lat- ter, we can observe some c ifference in the taste of the yolks, and in the density of the Avhites; which seems to depend on the food the animal lives on. But these differences are very slender: and whether other causes may give like differences in the eggs of dif- * The substance, however, when it is not applied to its proper functions of nourishing a chick, is liable, while vet in the shell, to a peculiar putrefaction; and when eaten in that condition, is highly offensive to the stomach; and when U 19 o a high degree, it becomes very noxious. MATERIA MEDICA. 231 ferent birds, I cannot positively assert; but in certain different birds the colour of the yolks and the density of the coagulated Avhites, are somewhat different from one another. The yolks, hoAv- ever, are still yolks: and the whites are still so much of the com- mon nature of Avhites, that their difference, as aliments, is hardly to be assigned. § III. Of Aliments taken from the class of Amphibia. By Linnaus this class is divided into three orders : of Reptiles, Serpentes, and Nantes: but Ave are here to take notice only of the two first; which in their structure, oeconomy, and qualities, have a manifest affinity with one another, and are very different from those of the Nantes. These, though they have some similarity in their oeconomy Avith the Reptiles and Serpents, are so much other- wise of the nature of fishes that they are, in every consideration of them as aliments, to be separated from the former, and joined Avith the latter. Of the Reptiles, the most noted, and first to be taken notice of, upon account of its being so much esteemed as an aliment, is the Tortoise. The flesh of the sea-tortoise, the only one I am acquaint- ed with, is a white meat very much resembling that of the young quadrupeds ; and from this we judge that the difference between the nourishment afforded by the one and the other cannot be great. It appears from the experiment of Mr. Geoffroy, that the tortoise affords less gelatinous matter in solution, and less volatile alkali in distillation, than the flesh of quadrupeds; and consequently in equal quantities may be somewhat less nourishing and stimulant: but as it affords a gelatinous solution, and is upon this account less perspirable, it may be still very considerably nourishing, and the gelatinous parts of its substance may be particularly such. The flesh of Fr#gs, Avith the use of Avhich Ave are little acquaint- ed in this countiy, seems, from the anal} sis of Mr. Geoffroy, to be, both in solution and distillation, of the same qualities Avith that of the tortoise, though, as less gelatinous, to be therefore less nou- rishing. But however that may be, their qualities are in no Avise peculiar; and I cannot find any foundation for introducing them into bouillons or broths in that nice proportion in Avhich they are frequently prescribed in France. The qualities of the Lacerta Guana, though frequently employed in the West-Indies, we are little acquainted with; but supposing their qualities to be much the same with that of the other reptiles, though the lacerta was omitted in my catalogue, it seemed proper to mention it here. Of the Serpentes, as alimentary, I am acquainted only with the common Viper, or Coluber Berus of Linnaus. The flesh of this has been supposed to be of peculiar qualities; but I cannot find any foundation for this. The flesh of the viper gives out in de- coction the same substances as the reptiles above mentioned, and y 232 TREATISE OF THE very much of the same qualities as the decoctions of the quadru- ped and bird kind. In distillation, the viper gives out a quantity of volatile alkali; but not of any different qualities, as formerly supposed; nor, as Dr. Mead imagined, in any greater quantity or proportion than what is obtained from most other animal substances. That the viper, therefore, has any very peculiar qualities as an aliment, Ave do not perceive ; and that it has any peculiar powers as medicinal, we cannot find the slightest foundation for supposing. We must therefore consider the supposition of either its alimentary or me- dicinal qualities, as a mark, among others, of the weakness and folly of the ancients, and equally of their modern followers. \ IV. Of Aliments taken from the Class of Fishes. On this subject writers commonly begin with marking fishes as different according as they inhabit rh-ers, fresh-water lakes, or salt waters: but I cannot find any foundation for the distinction, as I cannot find any steady general character to be given to them as they inhabit those different Avaters, or any distinguishing quality that does not in some instances take place in each of them.—We are therefore to consider fish in general as distinguished from the three classes of animals already treated of; which we shall ge- nerally speak of under the appellation of Meats ; and the difference here is v-ery considerable. When Ave began to speak of aliments as taken from quadrupeds and birds, Ave remarked that the similarity of substance and (eco- nomy in those animals to that of man, gave little difficulty in sup- posing that the former might be alimentary with respect to the latter; but here, Avith respect to fishes, there is no such analogy to direct us ; and it Avould be difficult to determine a priori, that the substances of fishes must prove alimentary to man. They have indeed several properties in common Avith other animal substances, as that of yielding a volatile alkali in the first part of their distilla- tion, and that of their being putrescent. But these circumstances Avould hardly be enough to point them out as alimentary substances to man; and therefore the proof of this rests entirely upon experi- ence, which has shoAvn them to have been at all times, and in every part of the earth, employed successfully as aliments. It is said, that in some parts of the earth there are people who live entirely upon this kind of aliment; and it is certain that with many peo- ple it is the chief part of their food. In such cases it appears to be perfectly sufficient for all the purposes of the human oeconomy; and whether it is in any case insufficient or less fit for these pur- poses, we shall consider presently, when we shall have first consi- dered the differences that appear betAveen the substance of these and that of the hot-blooded animals. There is certainly some difference in the firmness of the sub- stance of different fishes: but it is never so considerable as it is in MATERIA MEDICA. 233 the three classes of animals above treated of; and it is curious to observe, that although fishes are long-lived animals, yet the differ- ence of firmness of texture at different ages is seldom remarkable. It is also to be remarked, that although the substance of fishes is putrescent, and at length becomes entirely putrid, yet their putre- faction is with different circumstances from that of the hot-blood- ed animals. This, hoAvever, has not yet been studied by the che- mists ; and I am unable to say what are the different states of it in its progress, and therefore how far it affects them as an alimentary matter. I cannot truly perceive that it renders it more soluble, or much more irritating to the system, as it does in the case of the meats above treated of. There is, hoAvever, a case, in which certain fishes, independent of the state of their putrescency, give a singular irritation to the system. It is during their digestion in the stomach that certain fishes are ready to occasion a considerable efflorescence upon the skin; sometimes in certain parts of it only, but sometimes over the Avhole body; sometimes Avith a considerable febrile disorder, but at other times with very little. It is seldom of very long dura- ration, and commonly passes away by the time that the matter is entirely digested and passed out of the stomach. In some cases I have had it immediately removed by a vomit, bringing up the con- tents of the stomach. By all this it appears, that the phenomenon depends upon an operation of the stomach, and not upon any matters being mixed with the blood: and it maybe a question, Whether it depends upon an operation upon the nerves of the stomach communicated to the skin, or upon the operation of the substance of fish deter- mined more particularly to operate upon the surface of the body ? This leads to a question, How far the substance of fish is an ali- ment more or less perspirable than that taken from the hot-blooded animals ? I took notice above of Sanctoriush opinion of the per- spirabiiity of mutton, and of Dr. Keill's opinion of the perspirabi- lity of oysters, which are a substance somewhat similar to that of fishes: and though I observed that De Garter's experiments had not confirmed either of these facts, yet I allowed that the matter might, and deserved to be, a subject of farther inquiry. By Avhat experiments I have been able to make, it appears to me that the substance of fishes is an aliment somewhat less perspirable than that of meats. In the comparison of these two kinds of aliment, the circum- stance that especially demands our attention, is the quantity of nourishment they severally afford. The common opinion is, that fish afford a weaker nourishment than meat does: and Dr. Haller found himself Aveakened by a fish diet, and alleges that persons are generally Aveakened by a Lent diet; and the observations of Pechlin seem particularly to confirm this. But there maybe much fallacy in these observations; as the weakness alleged may be ow- Vol. I. ' G g 234 TREATISE OF THE ing more to the quantity of vegetable aliment employed at the same time than to that of the fish. I have known several instances of persons Avho felt no weakness from a Lent diet Avhen a great deal of fish was taken ; and Ave have several instances of vil- lages inhabited almost only by fishers, and Avho therefore live Very- much upon this sort of aliment, but in Avhom no diminution of health or vigour appears. It Avill therefore be very doubtful if fish afford much less nourishment than meat does; and I am persuaded that, if any, the difference is very inconsiderable. Whilst I make these observations on fishes as an aliment in ge- neral, I wish I could distinguish the different qualities of particu- lar fishes: but I find it difficult to speak clearly or positively upon the subject, as no experiments that I knoAv of have been made to determine the matter. It appears that some difference Avill arise from the difference of texture; and that the tenderer and more gelatinous kinds, as occurs especially in the cartilaginous fishes, will be more easily digested, and more nourishing, than those of a firmer and drier texture. It has been alleged, that fishes, as having less oil in their substance than our meats have, should be therefore less nourishing; and this is alleged Avith some probabi- lity: but hoAV far it goes, it is difficult to determine: for in many fishes the quantity of oil in their substance is inconsiderable: and I Avould venture to lay it down as a truth, that the oily fishes give an aliment less easily digesed, more irritating to the system, but at the same time more nourishing than the leaner. We seem to havre examples of this in eel, salmon, and herring: and Avith regard to the last, I might have observed, when speaking of the nourishment afforded by fish in general, that our herring-fishers, living for some length of time upon this aliment alone, suffer no loss of strength, and seem rather ahvays to be much fattened by this diet. I can hardly say more on the alimentary qualities of fishes, not having had the opportunity of experience with respect to the great number and variety that are employed as aliments. I can find very feAV experiments that have been made to ascertain their dif- ferent qualities ; and it appears to me that they have been chosen by their taste rather than by any proper experience of their nutri- tious qualities. From some experiments it appears that the aliment taken from fishes is less perspirable than that taken from the hot-blooded ani- mals ; but I believe that more experiments will be necessary to ascertain this matter more exactly. § V. Of Aliments taken from Insects. Of this numerous class Aery feAv are employed as aliments in this part of the Avorld: and I can hardly take notice of any but cer- tain of the Crustacea, as the Lobster, Crab, Prawn, and Shrimp, which are those only that are seen very frequently upon our tables. The Crustacea are indeed of much greater variety; and perhaps MATERIA MEDICA. 235 many of them, in other parts of the Avorld, may be used in diet: but they neither come within my plan limited to British aliments, nor have I any proper acquaintance Avith those others. With respect to the Lobster and Crab, I am of opinion that they hardly differ in any quality from one another; and that it is only the more elegant appearance of the lobster that makes it appear much more frequently than the crab upon our tables. The substance of both gives out in decoction a considerable quantity of matter: but this does not determine the quantity of nutritious matter to be greater than Avhat may be extracted by the gastric fluid hv.ni other substances Avhich do not give out so much in decoction; and the smaller proportion of volatile alkali that is obtained from their entire substance or from their extract, makes me presume upon their containing less of animal substance than the flesh of quadrupeds, birds, or even of the amphibia. With respect to them as aliments, Ave are disposed1 to conclude them to be much of the nature of the most part of fishes. They particularly approach to the nature of many of these, in being with-- out oil, or in having it in very small proportion; and therefore, in my opinion, affording less nourishment. They appear to be of more difficult digestion than the most part of lean fishes. With respect to their digestion there is someAvhat peculiar often happens, as I have knoAvn several instances of persons Avho could not take even a very small quantity of lobster or crab Avithout bet- ing affected soon alter with a violent colic, and sometimes Avith that same efflorescence on the skin Avhich, as Ave said above, often happens from eating salmon or herrings. In both cases, I believe it happens especially from the idiosyncrasy of particular persons; and Iioav difficult that is to be explained, will appear from Avhat Ave said above on the subject of Eggs. § VI. Of Aliments taken from the Class of Worms. Several of this class are used as aliments, but not many in pro- portion to the number of species which the class comprehends. I shall mention those only Avhich come upon our tables here ; which is the circumstance that has given me the opportunity of being ac- quainted Avith them. They are chiefly the animals included in the Testacea. The Bi- valves afford several; the chief of Avhich is the Oyster. This in its fresh and raAV state, is of easy digestion; but in its boiled or roasted state more difficult, and often very much so. The oyster seems to be considerably nourishing, and it may be more so, be* cause it is not readily perspired. Dr. James Keil in his experi- ments, found oysters not only difficultly perspired, but that they even prevented the perspiration of other aliments. Sanctorius may be supposed to say the same thing, Aph. 438.; but it seems to be difficult to make any thing of his opinion, Avhen he reckons the Ostracea among the flatum gignentia. De Gorter positively as- serts, that in his experiments the imperspirability of oysters did 236 TREATISE OF THE not appear; but from some trials I have made, I am disposed to judge, that oysters are less readily perspired than some other foods. The other Bivalves chiefly employed in this country, are the Mussel and Cockle; neither of them, as being of a firmer substance, are so easily digested as the oyster; but in other respects they are seemingly of the same qualities. The mussel is reported to have, upon several occasions, pro- duced very noxious effects, and given occasion to a suspicion of its being, in certain circumstances, poisonous, or of its carrying a poisonous matter along with it into the stomach. As, hoAvever, Ave do not meet Avith such accidents in this country, though the mussel is very frequently and largely employed in our diet, I am at a loss to judge of this matter. No writer that I know of has determined the nature of this poison, or of the state of the mussel that renders it upon occasion noxious ; and I am ready to suspect that most of the instances of this disorder imputed to mussels, de- pend either upon an unusual large quantity being taken, or upon an idiosyncrasy in certain persons, rendering them liable to be af- fected by mussels, in the same manner as Ave have said certain others are by salmon, herring, and lobster. Of the Univalve Testacca, the chief is the Snail, Cochlea poma- tium. This is of a tender substance, and therefore easily digested; and from its gelatinous state it is supposed to be very nourishing. I verily believe it to be so; but in what proportion is not ascertain- ed. They are commonly employed upon the supposition of their nu- tritious qualities in cases of emaciation ; and they have been often, in that view, employed in cases of hectic fever.—In materia me- dica writers, they are constantly mentioned as refrigerant; but nothing can be a greater mistake, for they are still animal sub- stances ; and nothing of this kind can be refrigerant, though some of them may be less heating than others. As all the animals found in univalve shells Avhich are employed as aliments, are of the same genus, I believe what Ave have said of the snail may be applied to all the others. We must own in- deed, that Ave have not had a proper opportunity of observing the difference: but, in the mean time, are persuaded that it is very inconsiderable. The Cookery of Meats. We have noAV finished our enumeration of the aliments taken from both vegetables and animals ; but in order to judge still more exactly of their effects taken into the body, it will be proper to consider, as well as we can, what changes they undergo by the cookery they are subjected to before they are taken into the sto- mach. This consists chiefly in the application of heat; and Avith very ftAv exceptions, this is applied more or less to the Avhole of animal MATERIA MEDICA. 237 substances. It is, indeed, in the business of aliments by this espe- cially, that man is distinguished from all other animals, Avho take food as nature offers it; and at least, I knoAv of none of the brute creation that practises any art of preparing their food by subject- ing it to heat. If they use any food so prepared, it is only such as has been prepared by the artifice of men. How far any part of our vegetable aliments is necessarily sub- jected to heat is not certain; and I do not recollect any species of vegetable substance that may not be taken in its raw state by men of tolerable health and vigour. But, at the same time, the Avhole of them are upon occasion subjected to a preparation by heat; and men's being directed by instinct so universally to this practice, implies, that in many cases it is proper, and attended with some advantages. These advantages seem to be, in the first place, that the most part of vegetable substances are thereby rendered more soluble in the human stomach. The only doubt that can arise Avith regard to this is in the case of vegetable substances, to which, in their crude state, a boiling heat is immediately applied and thereby in many of them a coagulation is produced ; in consequence of which they seem to be rendered less soluble in water than they Avere before: but this does not seem to have any effect on their solution in the stomach. Whether the difficult solution be obviated by some degree of fermentation that necessarily takes place in the sto- mach, or by the powers of the gastric fluid, it is not necessary to determine ; as it remains certain that the action of heat sepa- rates in some measure the small particles of bodies ; and thereby renders them more readily separable by the solvent poAvers of the stomach. In the second place, the application of heat separates and dissi- pates the volatile parts of A-egetable substances, which are seldom of a nutritious nature, and, in many cases, have a tendency to prove noxious. In the third place, the application of heat to a certain degree, extricates and dissipates a considerable quantity of air that in the natural state of vegetables is always fixed in their substance ; and it is probable in this way especially that heat contributes to the dividing and loosening the cohesion of the small parts of vegetable substances. It is certainly in this way, by dissipating a large por- tion of the air, that vegetables are rendered less liable to fermen- tation, and less liable to produce that flatulence which is upon occasion so troublesome in the stomach and intestines. On Avhat occasions especially these preparations by heat are proper and ne- cessary, we have frequently hinted above on the subject of parti- cular aliments: and it is o^ly necessary to obseive further, that as the heat m^y be employed in two ways, either in a humid or in a dry form, we are of opinion, that the former is always better suited than the latter to all the purposes above mentioned. 238 TREATISE OF TIl£ The■cookerv of animal substances also consists chiefly in the application of'heat. It is, indeed, possible that some practices, previous to that application, may be considered also as parts of cookery, particularly salting, drying, and pickling. These practices, however, are merely useful for the purposes of domestic econo- my, as preserving meat from putrefaction, before it be subjected to heat, for a longer time than it could be preserved Avithout such means. We are, at the same time, of opinion, that these practices can neArer increase the nutritious qu'dity of meat, orf render it even of more easy digestion. Drying certainly-brings the solid parts of meat more closely together, Avhich must render it of more difficult solu- tion. The addition of salt, Avhich stimulates the stomach, may seem in some cases to promote digestion: but this must be Avhen the salt is added in small quantity, and when the meats preserved by it are taken in moderate quantity only. For when meats haA-e been long salted they are hardened, and rendered in proportion less soluble in the stomach ; and a large quantity of salt accom- panying them, is certainly hurtful to the system. There is one preparation of animal food Avhich is made without- any addition, and this, by its being kept for some time before it is subjected to cookery, longer or shorter, according to the season and nature of the meat, but always till it has made some advance tOAvards putrefaction. The tendency to this seems to take place from the moment that life is extinguished in the animal; and the ailoAving it to take place to a certain degree renders the meat more easy of solution in the stomach; and if the putrescency is in a moderate degree only, it does not seem to hurt the nutritious qua- lity of the meat. HoAvfar the putrescency may be properly carried, I cannot determine : but certainly it may be different according to the constitution of the person. There are persons Avho seem to suffer no inconvenience from meats, though in a very putrescent state: but although there are persons who can digest tainted meats, that is, meats having the taste ancf odour Avhich Ave knOAv to arise from putrescency; yet I knOAV many others in Avhom the digestion is much disturbed by the smallest quantity of meat tainted by putrescency. But how- ever all this may be, we are clearly of opinion that the keeping of meat for the purpose mentioned above should never go far; for very certainly every advance in meats tOAvards putrescency, renders them more ready to increase the spontaneous tendency of the animal fluids to that state Avhich Ave take to be always hurtful to the human constitution, as it • both favours the coming on of diseases, and aggravates their symptoms and danger when they do come on. We come noAv to consider what is properly the cookery of ani- mal substances, or the preparing them by the application of heat, MATERIA MEDICA. 239 This is of two kinds, as it is applied in a humid form in boiling and stewing ; or in a dry form, in roasting, broiling, and baking. Boiling is properly the exposing of meat to the heat of boiling wcter, while it is immersed in this for some length of lime. By diis joint application of heat and moisture, the texture is certainly ren- dered more tender and more soluble in the stomach ; and it is only in this way that the firmer parts, as the tendinous ligament- ous, and membranous parts, can be duly softened, and their gela- tinous substance duly extracted. With respect to the parts of animal flesh that are of a tenderer texture, the effects are different according to the degree of boiling that is applied to them. A moderate boiling may render their tex- ture more tender without diminution of their nutritious quality; but if the boiling is extended to extract every thing soluble, the substance remaining is certainly less soluble in the stomach, and at the same time much less nutritious. But as boiling extracts in the first place the more soluble, and therefore the saline parts ; so the remainder, after boiling, is in proportion to the length of that, less alkalescent and less heating to the system. Boiling is commonly practised in open vessels, or in A'essels not very closely covered: but it may be practised in digesters, or ves- sels accurately and tightly closed: and in such vessels the effects are Aery different from Avhat they are in open vessels. As Ave can hardly employ any other degree of heat than that of boiling water, the water in the digester is never made to boil, so there is no exhalation of volatile parts: and although the solution is made Avith great success, and may be to any degree required, \et if that is not carried very far, the meat maybe rendered very tender, Avhile it still retains its most sapid parts; and this kind of cookery will-give always the most desirable state of boiled meat. Boiling in the ordinary Avay may be considered as different ac- cording to the proportion of Avater applied. If a small quantity only is applied, and the heat in moderate degree is continued for a long time, this is Stewing, and has the effect of rendering the tex- ture more tender, without extracting much of the soluble parts: and this, therefore, leaves the meat more sapid, and sufficiently nourishing. The other application of heat is in a dry form", or Avhen the meat subjected to it is in a dry form, or nearly so ; at least it is without the addition of Avater or other fluid that may dissolve any part of its substance. This application of heat is again of tAvo kinds, as it is in close vessels or as it is exposed to the free air. The first is Baking; and though commonly in this practice the cover of the meat is only of paste, any considerable exhalation is prevented, and the retention of the juices under application of heat renders the meat more under: and in all cases Avhen the heat applied loosens, and in some measure extricates, the air without 240 TREATISE OF 1HE exhaling it, the substance is rendered more tender than when with any other application an exhalation is alloAved. In Broiling an exhalation takes place : but as the heat of a na- ked fire is more nearlv applied, the outer surface is in some mea- sure hardened before the heat penetrates the Avhole, and thereby a great exhalation is prevented, AArhile the whole is rendered suffi- ciently tender: but this kind of cookery is especially suited to meats that are chosen to be eaten a little rare. Nearly a-kin to this dressing is that of Frying; but as in this the meat is cut into thin slices, and laid in a vessel which is in- terposed betAveen the meat and the naked fire, the heat is applied more equally to the Avhole substance. But as the part of the meat lying next to the bottom of the vessel Avould be suddenly har- dened by the heat, it is ahvays , necessary to interpose- some fluid matter. When this, as most commonly it is, is of an oily matter, as a strong heat applied to such matter is ready to render it em- pyreumatic, or at least less miscible with the fluids of the stomach; so all fried meats are less easily digested than those of any other preparation, except that sometimes the same may happen to baked meats, to which an oily matter, and that only, is added to avoid the too drying heat. It is obvious that the preparations of stew- ing and frying may be frequently joinedtogether; and according to there being more or less of the one or other, the effects may be judged of. The manner of applying heat yet to be mentioned is the fre- quent one of Roasting. In this, as by a proper artifice an equal application is taken care of, the effect of heat in rendering the meat more tender is certainty obtained; and though a considerable exhalation is made, it is almost only of a watery humidity. This indeed Avould take place to a very great degree, and render the meat again more insoluble, were it not that large masses only are subjected to this operation, and that thereby the outer surface is first condensed, and prevents the exhalation from the interior parts. At the same time, an oily matter is commonly and repeatedly ap- plied to the outer surface, Avhich prevents both much exhalation and any great hardening of the outer surface, till the heat has pe- netrated the whole, and rendered it sufficiently tender. From all Avhich the effects of roasting, and the proper conduct of it, may be understood. Having thus explained as well as we can, the chief parts of cookery, and their effects as consisting in the application of heat, Ave have only to observe, that meats, as presented upon the table differ further only, by the difference of sauces, or humid matters, which are employed to obviate the dryness of meats, and to render them more agreeable to the taste. The sauces have for their basis oily matter, or strong gelatinous extracts from other meat; and both these rendered more agreea- ble by the admixture of some other alimentary matters, and more MATERIA MEDICA, 241 poignant by the addition of various condiments; the effects of which in the stomach and mass of blood will be understood from Avhat Ave are presendy going to say of them. CHAPTER III. OF DRINKS. LJ NDER the titles of Aliment, Food, or Meat, I comprehend every thing, whether solid or liquid, that can serve for supplying the solid matter of the human body: and under the title of Drink, I comprehend every liquid that is fit to supply the watery parts both of the solids and fluids. How much water enters into the composition of the fluid, and even the solid, parts of our bodies, is well known; and it is equally well knoAvn that the same water, by various means, is in continual dissipation and waste, and consequently that a constant supply of such liquid is absolutely necessary to the support of the system. That such a supply may be duly made, nature has given the appe- tite of thirst, which leads to the taking in of drink. The drinks we take in are seemingly different matters; but the supply mentioned may be made by pure elementary water alone j and that all the drinks which supply the necessary liquid, do it only by the quantity of elementary water they severally contain, will, Ave suppose, be readily allowed. Our drinks, therefore, may be considered as of two kinds ; one consisting of water alone, such as nature affords it; and another whose basis or principal part is such natural water, but with certain additions made to it by na« ture or art. SECT. I. OF SIMPLE WATER. JL HIS, so far as I know, is the only liquid taken in under the appetite of thirst by the Avhole of the brute creation; and from thence it may be presumed to be the liquid in general very well suited to the animal oeconomy. That it is sufficiently suited to man, will appear clearly from the great part of mankind, who, during the course of their lives, take in no other. It is true, indeed, that men in their infancy take milk from the breasts of their mothers; and there are some people who take much milk through the course Vol. I. Hh 242 TREATISE OF THE of their lives: but there are certain nations who have no domestic animals to afford this, and therefore for drink must depend upon water alone; and the state of health in those persons who, from various causes take water only, shows that this is perfectly well suited to the purposes of the human oeconomy. Simple water, therefore, that is, such as nature affords it, is without any addition the proper drink of mankind. But though I have used the title of Simple Water, it must be remarked that nature hardly ever affords water perfectly simple, Avithout its being more or less impregnated with some other matters; and upon this account a distinction has been made of the natural waters, as being from different impregnations more or less proper for the use of man. How far this distinction is to be prosecuted, I dare not determine; but I am much disposed to establish this doctrine, That it is not to be prosecuted Avith much nicety, be- cause we are of opinion, that every natural water which has no impregnation sensible to the taste or smell of a person of com- mon sensibility drinking it, is very well fitted for the drink of mankind. Still, however, it is observed that certain waters which have neither taste nor smell, are however, discovered to have certain impregnations that may be considered as less salutary to mankind than more simple, or what may be called more pure water. This may be supposed to take place especially in the waters dis- tinguished as Hard and Soft. The former are impregnated with a portion of selenites, or other earthy matter, which renders them improper for such purposes of domestic oeconomy, and might be supposed to render them less salutary than purer and softer waters to the human constitution. Without entering, however into any nice disquisition upon this subject, it will be enough to say, that the softer waters, when in our choice, are to be prefer- red : but at the same time we cannot discover that the harder waters, even when they have been very much and constantly em- ployed, have been very evidently hurtful; at least we can find no good or clear evidence of the bad effects that have been ascribed to them. I lived for many years in a large city in which the Avaters very universally employed were very hard: and although softer Avaters were Avithin their reach, the most part of the people used only the hard. But among these people I found no endemic diseases ; and at least none that I could impute to the Avater they drank, and cer- tainly none that I did not find as frequent in a city which I have also practised in for many years, whose inhabitants very univer- sally used no other than a very soft water. Physicians have entered into still nicer distinctions of common waters ; and have distinguished them as they are Spring Avaters, Pit-well waters, River waters, or Lake waters: but there seems to be little foundation for distinguishing these from one another. MATERIA MEDICA. 243 Uncommon impregnations of some of them may upon occasion take place; but we believe such will always be apparent enough to prevent their being used: And with regard to their common state, it is still enough to say, that no impregnations which are not sensible to the sight, taste, or smell, are of so much con- sequence as to deserve our attention and choice, in their em- ployment. On this subject it would be thought strange if I should omit to mention Rain and SnoAV water, about which so much has been said. We have, however, only to say, that although these are per- haps the softest and purest of all common waters, yet I cannot perceive that in their use they give any advantage above others: and, on the other hand, we are persuaded there is no foundation for supposing some of the particular bad effects of snow-Avater that have been ascribed to it. We conclude the whole subject with remarking, that the nice and accurate examinations that have been made of the state of what I call Simple or Common Waters, were very commendable; but noAV they are made, they do not lead me to think that much nicety is necessary in the choice of them: and with respect to the bad effects imputed to many of them, we do not find there is any foundation for supposing that any of them can produce scro- phula, fatuity, or other diseases alleged to be endemic in certain countries. The consideration of mineral waters belongs entirely to another place. SECT. II. Of Drinks, whose Basis is Water, but to which Additions have been made by Nature or Art. X O be employed as drinks, various additions have been made to water: as the acid juices of fruits, farinaceous matters, aroma- tics, tea, coffee, and other vegetable substances. In so far as these, though joined with water, retain their peculiar qualities, the qua- lities of the drink made by such additions, must depend upon the quality of the matter that has been added to the water. But as the qualities of these matters have either been treated of already un- der the title of Aliments, or are to be treated of hereafter under that of Medicine, it is not necessary here to consider further the nature and qualities of such drinks. FERMENTED LIQUORS. There are, however, substances which, joined with water, make the liquor undergo a considerable change, by its being subjected 244 TREATISE OF THE to a vinous fermentation: and as liquors thus prepared are em- ployed as drinks in every civilized nation, they properly become objects of our particular attention, and are therefore to be consi- dered here. These fermented liquors may be mentioned in the first place as of two kinds: one of them, prepared from the juices of fruits, and which, from the appellation of the principal species, we name Wines; the other, from a substance extracted by water from cer- tain seeds or roots, Avhich Ave name Ales: and Ave begin with the consideration of the former. On this subject we do not think it necessary to give the general doctrine of vinous fermentation, which we suppose to be com- monly knoAvn. Here we shall only say, 1st, That Ave take it to be now Avell ascertained, that sugar, or substances containing it, and these so far only as they contain it, are the subjects capable of being changed by fermentation. 2dly, That by fermentation the sugar is variously changed, and particularly that in part it is con- verted into alcohol, Avhich I need not here define ; and that it is the juice of fruits in consequence of fermentation impregnated Avith a portion of alcohol, that properly and strictly constitutes a Wine; and that it is the state of this, with some other matters originally in the subject, more or less modified by the same fer- mentation, that gives wine all its different forms and qualities. By its sensible qualities and other properties to be discovered in it, wine is found to be in different conditions: and it is our chief business here to take notice of these, and to investigate their causes, So that we may better ascertain the effects of particular wines both in diet and medicine. To this purpose we would allege, that, in general, the different condition of wines depends parti}' upon the nature of the matter subjected to fermentation, and partly upon the circumstances oc- curring in the conduct of this. With respect to the first, the chief difference that occurs is in the quantity of sugar it contains ; and it seems only necessary to con- sider this as it occurs in the juice of the grape, from which most generally wine is prepared. The botanists commonly suppose that the vine is a plant of one species only; and that the diversity which appears in its fruit, points out to them only so many instances of a variety, that by different causes may be produced in the same species. For aught I knoAV this may be just. As the vine is propagated by cuttings, the same variety may steadily continue to appear; and the cuttings having been taken from vines in different condition, Ave may have a variety of fruits, in which a difference in the na- ture of the subject may continue to appear: which, however, we still suppose to be always determined by the quantity of sugar they severally contain. MATERIA MEDICA. 245 This quantity, however, in any grape, may be varied considera- bly by different circumstances. And, 1st, the kind of grape being gh en, the quantity of sugar it contains may be different by the soil in which it grows, as this is more heavy or light, the latter giving less juice ; but this more perfectly ripened, and therefore containing a greater proportion of sugar. 2dly, It may be more or less saccharine according to the cli- mate in which it grows. It is heat that gives maturity to fruits : and therefore to the production of the saccharine matter they con- tain. And Avith respect to the grape, it may be confidently said, that, within certain bounds, the more heat the grape is exposed to, the more maturity it acquires, and the more saccharine matter it Will contain. It is asserted, that a certain temperature of climate is necessary to give the greatest perfection to the grape; and that this is from the twentieth to the fiftieth degree of latitude on each side of the equator. This perhaps is not yet, by accurate obser- vations, exactly determined: but it is pretty certain, that Avhile be- yond fifty degrees, the ripening of grapes is commonly imperfect, it is ahvays more readily so as the climate is, within the bounds mentioned, nearer to the equator. Sdly, The saccharine matter of the grape will be ahvays greater as the fruit is allow-ed to acquire more maturity, by remaining long on the tree where the climate allows of it. 4>thly, It is to be observed, that the saccharine juice of the grape is often accompanied in the same fruit by acid and acerb juice; which may be considered as both diminishing the quantity of sac- charine matter, and rendering it less fit for fermentation: and this happens both from the original nature of the grape and from its not attaining a full ripening. If the ripening, therefore, be not complete, as Ave knoAv that all fruits ripen by degrees, and very often Avhen the juice of the fruit in its central parts is fully ripen- ed, there is an acid and acerb juice still remaining in their cortical parts or husks; so we find, that, according to the manner of the expression, of the juice, it comes out in a different degree of fit- ness for fermentation. What Aoavs upon a light pressure only, is a more purely saccharine juice ; while that flowing, in consequence of a more forcible expression, is always less sweet; and according to the greater force employed, more acid or acerb. These are the circumstances of the grape, which, according to their state, may give considerable difference in the condition of Avines. In the second place, we suppose the difference of wines to de- pend upon circumstances in the conduct of the fermentation. This at first is active, and somewhat violent throwing up a great deal of the matter to the surface of the whole: but after a certain time, the hrisk intestine motion becomes much less ; and instead of throwing up matter to the surface, allows what had been for- merly thrown up to fall down to the bottom. After this, however, 246 TREATISE OF THE some fermentation continues, though in a more slow and inactive manner, Avhich may continue for a long time ; and its doing so is necessary to a more complete assimilation, and therefore to the formation of a more perfect wine. In this process, the quantity of fermentable matter being suffi- ciently large, the more active the first firmentation is, within cer- tain bounds, the greater quantity of alcohol will be produced, and therefore a strong wine ; and the longer the slow fermentation is protracted, the more perfect will be the Avine, and the more free from all other matters adhering to it. But if either the first active fermentation be hurried, or the second fermentation pushed too far, the Avhole of the wine, or a part of it, will be converted into a vinegar of very different qualities from the wine, or from the parts of it Avhich still retain that nature. From this view of the fermentation, it will readily appear, that what is frequently considered as wine,-and such indeed as are most of the Avines in use, it may contain three different matters. 1st, A portion of must, or unassimilated matter. 2dly, A portion of a proper wine, or in which, by the fermentation, a quantity of alco- hol is produced; and 3dly, A portion of vinegar produced by too acth'e or too long protracted fermentation. These different matters will appear more or less copiously at the different periods of the fermentation. At an early period, and in what may be called a new wine, the must will be most abundant. As the period of fermentation advances, the proportion of genuine wine will be more considerable; and if the fermentation has all along been properly managed, a vinegar will not appear but in very old \vine; and from the proportion of these several matters, the qualities of Avine depending upon the period and state of fermenta- tion, may be properly ascertained. NeAv wines are especially liable to a strong degree of acescency Avhen taken into the stomach, and thereby to occasion much flatu- lency and eructations of acid matter. The uneasy sensation of heartburn or of violent pains in the stomach from spasms, is there- by also often produced: and the same acid matter passing out of the stomach, is liable, by a mixture with the bile, to produce pain- ful spasms or colics in the intestines, and to excite violent diar- rhoea. . Ripe and perfect Avine, unless there is a fault in the stomach taking it in, is not liable to have these effects ; and by the alcohol it contains, it is fit to strengthen the stomach, and to promote a regular digestion. By the same alcohol also, it is fit to stimulate the whole system, and proves thereby cordial and exhilarating; but by the same matter taken in larger quantity, it becomes intoxicat- ing and a powerful sedative. Wines containing a portion of vinegar have thereby a propor- tion of their alcohol destroyed, and thereby the stimulant power of the wine lessened. At the same time, though the vinegar be less MATERIA MEDICA. 217 liable to a hurtful acescency in the stomach than the unfermented juices ; yet if there remains any such unfermented matter in the other parts of the wine, or otherwise accidentally present in the stomach, the vinegar or acetous acid may, by exciting an acetous fermentation, occasion very violent disorders, and often more vio- lent than those arising from spontaneous acescency. We have thus endeavoured to explain, in what manner wines may be in different conditions according to different circumstances in the conduct of their fermentation. But we are far from being able to apply these distinctions to the Avines in common use; as we are not sufficiently acquainted with the various practices em- ployed by the makers of wine in different countries; and much less Avith the various artifices employed by merchants or wine- dealers, to hide and disguise the real state of wines. Instead of entering upon these, we shall endeavour to say, how in some mea- sure the nature of wines may be judged of by some of their sen- sible qualities. . Wines are of somewhat different odours; but what qualities these different odours point out is by no means ascertained. In general, the peculiar odour of any wine being strong and vivid, always implies both the most perfect and the most entire state of such Avines, provided always that this is examined in wines of some age, as new wines under a more active fermentation may give out a more striking odour ; this, however, to be distinguished by the experienced from that of a perfect wine. With the e circumstances of odour are much connected the briskness or flowering in the cup of Avines, which always shows their being still under some active fermentation ; and for the most part that there has been a quantity of acid present in the original juice. . There are, however, wines very well ripened, and in which there is no active fermentation subsisting, that notwithstanding will upon a fresh application of air, and some agitation in being poured out, readily flower in the cup; but their being in no improperly active fermentation, will readily appear by the flowering passing again im- mediately away. With regard to tastes, some Avines are considerably acid; and this must be owing to their having been made of juices containing much acid and little sugar: and for Avhich reasons they are wines containing little alcohol. But it i§ to be observed of such wines, that many stomachs are fitied to obviate their acescency; and as the acid in some measure obviates the stimulant poAver of alcohol, if such Avines are not directly refrigerant, they are at least less heating. . We have mentioned above, that wines may appear acid Irom a quantity of vinegar iormed in them: But this kind of acidity will be veiv re* lib, distinguished by the freshness accompanying the former, ana tne vapid taste frequently attending the latter. 24S TREATISE OF THE Many Avines are remarkably SAveet, and maybe so from different causes. It sometimes depends upon the original sweetness of the grape, not to be entirely obliterated by any fermentation; and by a complete fermentation, the same may be made into the most perfect Avines. The SAveet wines, however, may be ahvays sus- pected of retaining a portion of unassimilated matter, especially when the active fermentation has been industriously checked: and unless these circumstances are compensated by a large proportion of alcohol produced in them, they will always be ready to shoAv the effects of unassimilated matter remaining in them. Wines may be more rough, and somewhat styptic, or more soft and smooth to the taste. The former commonly accompanies the acid wines, and may be owing to the original acidity or acerbity of the fruit: but most commonly it is owing to the juice of the husk taken out by too strong expression; and that even from grapes otherwise containing a great deal of saccharine matter. It is a quality that renders wines more astringent; but unless as depending on the causes disposing it to much acescency, it is otherwise innocent. It appears always most considerable in new Avines, and is much smoothed by a long protracted fermentation. Hence soft and smooth wines, whilst they show both the original juice to have been free from any acerbity, they presume also the most perfect fermentation We have now only to take notice of Avines that are distinguished by their colour; which, as it is so frequently given by art, ren- ders us very uncertain of the qualities that would have been in the colourless liquor. So far as the red colour of wines is Avithout the addition of colouring matter, I believe it is ahvays taken from the colour of the husks subjected to the first fermentation of the juice; and therefore gives to these juices, and the Avine made of them, some degree of roughness and astringency: and if the conduct of the fermentation is otherwise the same, it is only in this quality of a slight astringency that we can perceive red Avines to differ from white. It is, however, possible that as Avines are at first intended to appear white or red, that they may be subjected to a different management in the fermentation, and thereby may differ more considerably in a manner I am not acquainted with. We have thus endeavoured to point out the different condition of wines, and to assign their several causes: and we might noAV make some remarks on the Avines that are made from the juices of other fruits than that of the grape ; as those of apples, pears, cher- ries, and also of those made in imitation of Avine from sugar or honey. But Ave are persuaded, that the principles laid down with respect to the wine made of the juice of the grape, will apply to all the other kinds mentioned: and we have now only to say somewhat of the other principal species of fermented liquors which are called Aks. MATERIA MEDICA. 249 Fermented liquors affording alcohol may be made from the roots of several vegetables : but these, so far as I knoAV, have not been mad into potable liquors: and those liquors, or what I call Ales, have only been prepared from farinaceous seeds. These, by melting, or bv exciting and conducting their germi- nation to a certain degree, haAre ahvays a sugar evolved, and ren- dered evident in their farinaceous substance ; and this saccharine matter, extracted by Avater subjected to a fermentation analogous, and very similar, to that of wines, gives our ales containing a quan- titA- of alcohol. They have, therefore, in general, the cordial, ex- hilarating, intoxicating, and sedative qualities of wine. These ales, like Avines, are found in A'arious condition, depend- ing partly upon the quantity and condition of the saccharine mat- ter employed, and partly upon the management of the fermentation theA- are subjected to. Ale may be prepared from any of the Cerealia. Barley has been chiefly employed, and Ave think properly, as its germination is most easily conducted ; and that under its germination, it gives out its sugar most readily and in greatest quantitv: and though the other farinacea may be employed, it is alleged, that they Avould severally give an ale of a different quality. This, hoAvever, we judge to be without foundation ; and are persuaded, that the ale prepared from other farinacea, Avould not shoAV any essential differences from that of barley. Spielman says, that ale prepared from oats is bit- ter : but I have seen it often prepared from that grain without any bitterness, and proving in every respect a very perfect ale; hardly to be distinguished in any quality from that made of barley. Noav, hoAvever, to speak of ales made in the ordinary manner, the\- Avill be stronger or weaker according to the quantity of the saccharine matter employed in them: which will be more or less according to the quantity of well-ripened farina in die barley em- ployed ; according to the more or less exact conduct in malting of it; according to the proper and complete extraction of the sac- charine matter bv water; and Avhen a large portion of water has been necessarily employed for a more complete extraction, accord- ing to the dissipation more or less of a quantity of the superfluous Avater.-—These are the circumstances, according as they are ma- naged, which give strength or Aveakness to ales; and Avith respect to their other qualities, they will depend upon the conduct of the after fermentation. The infusion of malt or Avort, as it is called, is not so well dis- posed to fermentation as the juices of fruits, and therefore requires a ferment to be added to it; and that being added, the conduct of the fermentation is very much the same Avith that of wines; at first, very active, and altvr wards sIoavIvprotracted for a long time ; but however managed, it is very doubtful if the ale ever can be rendered so perfect and complete as in the tuse of ayuu. It is Vol. I. I i 250 TREATISE OF THE probable, that in most ales, there is a large portion of unassimi- lated farinaceous matter, Avhich therefore renders ales more nou- rishing than wines ; but, for the same reason, ales, cateris paribus, are more liable than Avines to acescency in the stomach. It is com- monlv supposed, that the viscidity of Avorts is never entirely cor- rected bv the fermentation ; and therefore that ales are more likely than Avines to fill the A-essels of the human body with viscid fluids: but I am persuaded that this deserves little attention; as it is probable that the poAver of the gastric fluid, and of the fermenta- tion Avhich happens in the stomach and intestines, reduces the Avhole nearly to an equality in respect of fluidity. These are the observations 1 have to make with respect to alos in general; and Avith respect to the various conditions that ales may be in, I expect theA' Avill be readhV understood from Avhat Ave have said above on the differences of wines, as depending partly upon the difference of the fermentable subject, partly upon the dif- ferent conduct of the fermentation, and especially7 upon the differ- ent period of fermentation at Avhich the liquor is taken. On the subject of drinks, it is proper for me to observe, that in- stead of fermented liquors, Avhich have their qualities chiefly from the alcohol the} contain, it has been common to separate the alco- hol, and in its separate state to employ it in the composition of our drinks. It is often so employed by the addition of Avater alone ; sometimes joining a little sug>r, and sometimes joining both sugar and a portion of acid, for the most part of the juice of lemons; and this composition makes the liquor named Punch. It is not necessary to prosecute this diversity here ; for it is enough to our purpose to say, that alcohol, separated from the fermented liquor in which it is produced, is ahvays a more stimulant, inflamma- tory, and narcotic matter, than Avhen it Avas blended Avith the other parts of the fermented liquor. The dilution of it Avith water alone may moderate these qualities, but not in any great degree: and the blending it with sugar, and the juices of fruits, may do it still more, but never entirely. In these practices, it is common to employ the alcohol as it is diversified, by the different fermented liquors from Avhich it is draAvn: and thus diversified, it may carry along with it certain oil}- matters, which render it more agreeable to the palate, perhaps to the stomach of particular persons: but I would maintain, that these different states of it in arrack, rum, brandy, or malt-spirit, do not differ from one another in the essential qualities of alcohol, and very rarely in their effects on the human constitution. MATERIA MEDICA. 251 CHAPTER IV. OF CONDIMENTS. J\ LTHOUGH these are not properly alimentary matters, or become ingredients in the composition of the animal fluid, et as they are taken in Avith the proper aliments, and modify the r'ig s- tion and assimilation of these, they are properly treated of in this place. The}- are of two kinds, saline and acrid, having this acri- mony for the most part residing in their oily parts. O' the first, the chief is sea-salt: and it is especially employed for pres rving meat before it is employed in diet for a longer time than it could be otherwise preserved from putrefaction. For this purpose it must be applied in large proportion, and so incorporated with the substance of the meat, that it cannot be again Avashed out before the meat is employed in diet. It hap- pens, therefore, that when salted meats are employed in that condi- tion, the salt is often taken in large quantity, and diffused in the mass of blood. If the salted meats, however, be taken in mode- rate quantity only, the salt has the effect of exciting the poAvers of digestion; and such meat is often more easily digested than en- tirely unsalted meats are.—But when salted meats are taken in large quantity, and make the greatest part of the diet, the salt in- creases greatly the saline state of the blood, and induces all the symptoms of scurvy. This indeed of late is a doctrine disputed: and it Avould not be proper for us to enter into the controversy here; but if it were, Ave are persuaded that our opinion could be well supported, and that the arguments on the other hand might be shown to be fallacious and false. If it should be found that the serum of the blood in scorbutic persons proves antiseptic, as has been alleged, this may imply- that such serum is in itself not putrid, and Avhich indeed is not necessarily to be supposed in scurvy: but such serum cannot cer- tainly proye antiseptic, but bv its containing a larger proportion than*usual of saline matter. Nothing can appear to me more ex- traordinary than Dr. Lind's assertion, that the serum of the blood in scorbutic persons is not anywise acrid to the taste; for in num- berless trials, I have ne\rer found the serum of the blood in ihe soundest persons without an acrimony discoverable by the taste: and if the saline efflorescence on the surface of the body, Avhich Dr. Huhne takes notice of, be common, as I believe it is, in scor- butic persons, it is an irrefragable proof of the saline state of the blood in such persons. Having thus mentioned the effects of a large proportion of sea* salt introduced into the body, it is, hoAveA-er, to be obseivvd, ihat a certain quantity of it is necessan. to the human oeconomy T\ns appears from the desire of salt being an instinct universal in the ^•ft TREATISE OF THE human species, and from its i eing universally what gives relish to almost every kind of food. This relish of salt is an institution Of nature, the efficient cause of Avhich we cannot explain; but Ave presume very confidenth-, that it is adapted to serve mme be- neficial purpose in the oeconomy, although Ave do not Avell under* stand either the cause or the purpose of this. We can perceive very clearlv that it proves a stimulus to the stomach, and may thereby promote its action, and therefore the digestion performed there. But this still does not sufficiently ex- plain its being so constantly necessan-. We might think of its an- tiseptic poAvers which might be useful in the human oeconomy; but its poisonous quality in carnivorous animals, and the utility of it in the phytivorous, turns us off entirely from all our views of Its antiseptic poAvers in the ordinary use of it. On the contrary, We might take up Avith the late Sir John Pringle's opinion, that though in large quantity applied it is antiseptic, yet in small quantity it has contrary effects. This, however is a doctrine not yet Avith me so Avell established that I can venture to apply it, or find that it will obviate the difficulties occurrihg upon this Subject. On this subject of saline condiments, it seems proper to ob- sen-e, that nitre is frequently employed and joined with sea-salt as an antiseptic in preserving meat for some time before it is employed in diet. As nitre in every proportion is a poAverful antiseptic, \/e haA-e no doubt of its answering the purpose men- tioned : but as it is commonly used in small proportions only, Ave believe the particular effects of it in the human body are not to be perceived. Another saline substance employed as a condiment, is sugar. The qualities of this, as a nutritious matter, w-e haA^e spoken of aboA-e; and the qualities of it as a medicine Ave shall speak of hereafter. We have now to consider it as a condiment onh-; and in this vieAV it is certainly antiseptic, and is therefere properly em- ployed in preventing the putrefaction of animal substances. It is also frequently applied to vegetables ; but the preparation of boiling, Avhich is commonly necessary in order to their being impregnated with the sugar, for the most part dissipates their vola- tile and active parts: so that such are the condita, except a few that contain a large proportion of a more fixed aromatic substance, that none of them can be considered as any thing else than a mass pf sugar. This is often applied to the acid and acescent fruits ; and when applied in the consistence of a syrup, it preserves them for a long time from any fermentation, but it does not destroy their aces cency: and when such Preserves are taken into the stomach, the si:g;«r introduced along a\ ith them renders them much disposed to an acescent fermentation. MATERIA MEDICA. 253 in the quantity that sugar is commonly employed, either for improving the relish of seA-eral kinds of food, or for correcting -heir acidity, it can only be hurtful by its acescencv in the sto- mach, and can hardly make any proper part of the mass of blood. Although the experiments of the late ingenious Dr. Stark, are hardly decisive on this subject, I am ready, hoAvever, to believe, that if it is taken in very' large quantity, and in greater proportion than it can enter into the composition of the animal fluid, it may increase the saline state of the blood, and may induce various dis- orders. Another saline condiment, yet to be taken notice of, is that of vinegar. It is a powerful antiseptic, and mav be employed in se- veral Avays for preserving animal substances from putrefaction: and if Ave may believe what Avas said above Avith respect to acid in general, as entering into the composition of the animal fluid, Ave must consider vinegar as a vegetable acid that may be employed or throAvn into the body with more safety than the fossil acids, though these are in experiments out of the body more poAverful antiseptics. Animal food preserved by vinegar is hardly ever so much impregnated with it as to be rendered less digestible or less nutritious. It renders it only less putrescent; and therefore it is a condiment of animal food that is in every respect suited to the hu- man constitution. Vinegar is also employed in the preservation of vegetables from every fermentation, whether acescent or putrefactive. The vege- tables so preserved are called Pickles; and a great variety ot ve- getables is employed in making such. But the boiling that is commonly required dissipates so much of the volatile and active parts, that the peculiar qualities of the vegetable hardly ever re- main; and almost the Avhole of our pickles mav be considered as having no other quality but that of the vinegar they are impregna- ted Avith. This is certainly, as other acids are, often useful in exciting the action of the stomach, and thereby promoting appetite and diges- tion ; and if it be duly prepared by a very perfect fermentation, it Avill check rather than favour the acescency of vegetable matters in the stomach. This is an advantage Avhich it has over the native acid of vegetables, Avhich very often in the stomach runs into an acescent fermentation, and readily also excites it in other sub- stances there. It is, however, still to be remarked, that acids, and especial!} vegetable acids, although in a certain quantity they mav e xcite the action of the stomach, yet in a larger quantity, and in certain sto- machs, they prove truly refrigerant, and considerably Aveaken the tone of the stomach, so as thereby to prove hurtful in the gout and some other diseases. These are the several condiments of th'" saline kind; and we have said diat there is another kind taken from the vegetable king- 254 TREATISE OF THE dom, Avhich I haA-e put under the general title of Acrids, but which again mav be divided into two kinds: the one, of aromatics imb'u d Avith peculiar and pretty strong odours; and the other, of more simple acrids embued Avith little peculiar odour. The arom uics are such substances as contain a large proportion ©f essential oil. Thev may be considered as especially of two kinds; those produced in the torrid zone, containing an oil <"f greater spe- cific gravity than Avater, but of some volatility-, and at the same time acrid and inflammatory as applied to the sensible parts of our bodies.—The other aromatics are those afforded chiefly by the verticillated or umbelliferous plants ol Europe. They are of less specific gravity, and of less acrimony, but of more volatility. The Avhole of the essential oils are more or less antiseptic.— Camphire, which I consider as of the number, is in this respect the most powerful; and the whole of the essential oils seem to have the same quality, as approaching to the nature of that. The camphire, however, as disagreeable both in taste and odour, is riot, that I knOAV of, employed as a condiment; while the others, from their agreeable odour, are the most frequently. Thev are employed in two ways: first as antiseptics, and joined Avith the saline matters above mentioned, for preserving meat from putrefaction before it is to be employed in diet; or, secondly, they enter into our sauces, and are taken in with our food, either to render these more grateful and sapid, or by the stimulus they give to the stomach, to assist in digestion. One special purpose may be, that their volatile parts, by mixing Avith the air arising from the aliments, they may excite the action of the alimentary canal, and assist in the expulsion of the air distending it. With respect to this purpose, the qualities of the several aromatics will be taken notice of hereafter, when they are to be considered as medicines. Wnh respect to them as condiments, Ave have only to observe further, that in moderate quantity they may promote digestion, and prove carminative ; Avhich shows that they are most properly empioved with a vegetable diet: but as in large quantity they are stimulant and heating to the system, they are not necessary Avith animal food; and their frequent repetition renders an increase of their quantity constantly necessary, and thereby they certainly weaken the tone of the stomach. B-sides the aromatics, the acrid substances employed as condi- ments are esp eialiy taken from the class of tetradynamia, and thev are chiefly the mustard and horse-radish. They are chiefly empioA'ed as taken in along Avith our food; and they certainly stiin.ilu.'the stomach and assist digestion; and further, as they evid. ndy promote perspiration and urine, they obviate the pu- trescent tendency of the system. This has been so much re- mark d, that the vegetables of this class, as fraught Avith this peculiar acrimony, are justly denominated Antiscorbutic. It will MATERIA MEDICA. 255 readily appear, that from the quality mentioned, these substances are as Avell suited to be used Avith our animal food as the aroma- tics are to be the proper condiments of our vegetable aliments. Akin to the tetradynamia, and containing an acrimom' nearly of the same quality, are the plants of the garlic tribe.—Those of the milder kind, as the onion and leek, and especially Avhen deprive d of their acrimony, afford a great deal of nutritious matter; and so far as these, wi;h the eschalot and others, are taken in as condi- ments, they are extremely safe and proper. The more acrid of this genus, as the garlic, is almost only employed as a condiment: anti Avhere the odour and taste can be admitted, it certainly stimu- lates the stomach very strongly, and promotes digestion. As pro- moting perspiration and urine, the whole of this order of plants are, Avith the tetra.ynamia, properly joined Avith our animal food, and justly also reckoned among the antiscorbutics. Amongst the condiments, there is one sometimes employed Avhich I cannot refer to anv general head; but its odour, resem- bling in some degree that of the garlic I have been just noAV speak- ing of, reminds me of it in this place. This is the Asafoetida, which in the countries producing it, is of a less disagreeable odour, and much emploA-ed as a condiment; and to such persons of this country as can admit of its odour, it proA'es grateful to the taste, and useful in promoting digestion. Of the more simple acrids, the first that deserves to be mention- ed is the Capsicum: Avhich is Avithout odour or particular taste, and is so readily diffusible, that it joins agree abh- and conveniently with any other condiment or sauce. It seems to stimulate the stomach and promote digestion, and taken in largely is certainly amo igst the most heating of the condiments. Th. se are the chief of the condiments ; but theA- are seldom employed singly, but variously combined to form a variety of sauces added in the kitchen or upon the table. What commonly makes the foundation of these, is Avhat is called Ketchup. This is properly, in the first place made of mushrqpms, under a certain fermentation, probably putrefactive; and after it has undergone this, a variety of aromatics are added, as may be agreeable to the taste of particular persons. What the a\ hole derh'es from the mushrooms, I cannot perceive ; and think the ketchup, and many other compositions, daily presented to the public, may all be con- sidered as combinations of salt, vinegar, and aromatics : and from hence I think their qualities may be understood. Another famous sauce and condiment is what is called Soy, Avhich Ave have only as imported from the East Indies. By the best accounts I can find, it is a preparation from the seeds of p particular species of the dolichos. It appears to me to be prepared by a particular fermentation of the farina of this seed in a strong lixivium of common salt. Its taste is chiefly saline, with very lit- 256 TREATISE OF THE, &c. tie aroma; and its peculiar qualities, different from the other com- binations mentioned, I cannot perceive, I conclude this article of condiments Avith observing, that the whole of our seasonings consist of salt, vinegar and aromatics, combine d together: and if they are taken only in the quantity ne- cessary to render the food more sapid, they may increase the ap- petite and favour full eating; but they can hardly otherwise do harm, unless when the aromatics are taken in such large quantity as to Aveaken the tone of the stomach in the manner Ave have men- tioned above. AFTER perusing what has now been said upon the subject of Aliments, some of my readers may perhaps allege, that in marking the difference of aliments, more nicety has been expressed than was necessary, as the most part of mankind do not either feel or perceive the effects of those differences of diet. It is indeed true that the generality of mankind do not perceive the differences of diet very nicely; because man is of a nature suited to a great variety of func- tions, and therefore to a great variety of states and circumstances, and among the rest to a great variety of aliments. To this the human oeconomy is particularly well suited ; and the common saying of Sanis omnia sana, to a certain extent, is well founded; but this does not super- sede all attention to the choice of aliments. Men are still of different constitutions Avith respect to their powers of digestion, nor less different with respect to the irritability of their system, and are consequently variously affected by the same aliments; and this so much as to have produced the vulgar observation, that One man's meat is another man's poison. This indeed does not apply in many cases, and only very remarkably in the case of the idiosyncrasies, which occur in many parti- cular persons. With respect to the most part of mankind, the different effects of aliment are not very remarkable ; and though some excesses may take place, they are often transitory4and unheeded : but it would be of consequence for men to know, that repetition may in time render these effects considerable and dangerous. It were well, therefore, that mankind were aware of the tendency which every kind of diet has to produce effects either immediately, or after repetition, unfavourable to health. It would, however, be difficult to give to the bulk of mankind the neces- sary instruction on this subject: and it would hardly be necessary to render it v fry universal; as it is not in many cases, and only in particular persons, that diseases arise from errors in diet. But it is absolutely necessary that physicians who have the whole of mankind as objects of their attention, should stud\ this matter; with- out which they cannot either perceive the causes of diseases, or direct the means of obviating them. In this business, however, I have often found physicians very deficient, from their great ignorance of the nature of aliments, and of the princi- ples which should lead to the proper and necessary distinction of them. To sup ply this deficiency, and to give the necessary instruction, the foregoing Treatise has been attempted ; and though in some particulars it may be both imperfect and mistaken, I flatter myself that it gives the necessary principles more fully and justl;, than they had been given before; and at least points out the necessary specula- tions that must be entered into for ascertaining the nature of aliments more ex- actly. In all this I cannot have been too minute; and I cannot be of more services than by engaging physicians in a minute study of the subject. END OF VOL. I. A TREATISE or THE MATERIA MEDICA. BY WILLIAM CULLEN, M. D. ?UOFE3SOH OF THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. THIRD AMERICAN EDITION. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY MATHEW CAREY. "OiD BY KIMBER, CONRAD AND CO.;—B. AND T. KI r E ;— BIRCH ASP SMALL. ;—SAMUEL F. BRADFORD ;--C AND A. CO \ I AD AND CO.;—THOMAS DOBSON ;—W. W. WOODAVABDj AND JAMES HUMPHREYS. Jan. 1. 1808. CONTENTS OF VOL. II. PART ii. OF MEDICINES. CHAP. I. Page Of Astringents in general, .... * 1 Particular Astringents, ...... 8 Vegetable Astringents, . . . . . 17 CHAP. II. Of Tonics in general, ....... 30 Particular Tonics, or Bitters, ... • . 40 CHAP. III. Of Emolients in general, ...... 66 Particular Emolients, . . . ... . . 70 CHAP. IV. Corrosives, ........ 77 CHAP* V. Of Stimulants in general, . . . . . . 74 Particular Stimulants, ....... 82 CHAP. VI. Of Sedatives in general, . . . . . . 124 Of Narcotics in general, ...... ibid Particular Narcotics,.......128 CHAP. VII. Refrigerants in general, . . . . . . 183 Particular Refrigerants, . . . . . . 186 CHAP. VIII. Antispasmodics in general, ...... 200 Particular Antispasmodics, .....206 Of the Action of Medicines upon the Fluids, . 220 CHAP. IX. Diluentia, ••„..,.. 223 CHAP. X. Attenuantia, ».«•»••• 226 iv CONTENTS. Page CHAP. XL Inspissantia,........233 CHAP. XII. Demulcentia, ........ 234 CHAP. XIII. Antacida in general, . . • • • • • 237 Particular Antacids,.......238 CHAP XIV. Antalkalina,........240 CHAP XV. Antiseptica in general, . * • • • • 241 Particular Antiseptics,......242 CHAP. XVI. Errhina,.........246 CHAP. XVII. Sialagora, .....--• 249 CHAP. XVIII. Expectorantia in general, ...... 257 Particular Expectorants, . . . . • • 259 CHAP. XIX. t Emetica, » . . • • • • • 261 CHAP. XX. Cathartica in general,......278 Particular Cathartics, . . . . - . 284 CHAP. XXI. Diuretica in general, ..... • 307 Particular Diuretics, . . . . . • 311 CHAP. XXIL Diaphoretica in general, • . . . . . . 321 Particular Diaphoretics, ...... 326 CHAP. XXIII. Menagoga, ... . . * . . 329 Particular Emmenagogues, . . • - 331 A TREATISE, &c. CHAPTER I. OF ASTRINGENTS. ASTRINGENTS are such substances as, applied to the hu- man body, produce a contraction and condensation in the soft solids, and thereby increase their density and force of co- hesion: If they are applied to longitudinal fibres, the contrac- tion is made in the length of these ; but if applied to circular fibres, they diminish the diameters of the vessels or cavities which the fibres surround. The operation of astringents in general, in condensing the solids, appears from their use in the tanning or making ot lea- ther, in which they are so frequently employed. The same operation also appears from their antiseptic poAver, which seems to depend upon their preserving the firmness and cohesion of the animal substances to which they are applied, for a much longer time than the firmness would have continued in these substances without such application. By what means astringents produce the contraction of the so- lid parts of animal bodies, is not very evident. It does not seem to be by introducing a matter into their substance; and in some cases it seems to be rather by absorbing and abstracting their fluid parts. In some cases, Avhere the substances applied are such as coagulate the fluids of the human body, as acids and alcohol, Ave can readily understand Iaoav the same should con- dense and contract the solids formed of the same fluids which those matters coagulate. It does not, hoAvever, appear that o- ther astringents, void of acidity, act in the same manner; and their operation must be referred to an attraction taking place betAveen these astringents and the particles of the animal solid. In forming a table of medicines according to their several ope- rations on the human body, it seemed proper to distinguish them as they operate upon the simple solid, which is much of the same nature in the dead as in the living body; or as they operate upon the sensible and moving solids, which have their qualities and poAvers only as they exist in a living body. This distinction, on many occasions, will be necessary and useful, but Ave cannot fol- low it throughout; and on these occasions, Avhere the medicines at the same time operate upon both the simple and liA-ing solid, the consideration of their operation cannot be taken separately. This is the case Avith respect to our present subject, as astrin- gents often operate upon the solids of both kinds.—This indeed has not been always observed; and it has been commonly sup- posed, that astringents act more upon the simple than upon the Vol.. IL •* 9 TREATISE OF THE living solid: and therefore, that they act almost only on the parti to which they are immediately applied. A very U arned physi- cian in Avriting on hemorrhagy, has this expression: " I do not lay any great stress upon the use of internal astringent remedies, because it does not appear likely,.from reasoning, that they should do any sen-ice : and I ;un far from being convinced by experi- ence that the\r ever do, except perhaps in hemorrhagies of the primse vise." Heberden in Med. Trans. Vol. II. 432. This, hoAV- ever, I cannot hold to be just; and by the corrugation and con- striction of the Avhole mouth and fauces, Avhich happens from a small portion of astringents being applied to a small part of the tongue, I hold it to be demonstrated that astringents act upon the sentient nerves ; and therefore that the astringent effects may be communicated from one part to very distant parts of the bo- dy. The same conclusion appears clearly to be formed from this, that astringents taken into the stomach show their effects in other parts of the body so quickly, that they can hardly be supposed to have passed further than the stomach itself; and therefore their sudden effects in distant parts must be ascribed to an astringent power communicated from the stomach to those other parts. It may, indeed, be alleged, that the astringent matter is in some cases carried further than the stomach and into the course of the circulation: but it must still be observed that in many of those cases the quantity of matter introduced is so small, that when again diffused in the mass of blood, and equally distributed to the different parts of the body, it is obvious, that the portion of it applied to a particular part cannot be sufficient to produce any effect upon it; and therefore the effects which appear must be ascribed to the general operation on the stomach. Of all this doctrine, and particularly of the propagation of astringent power from the stomach to other parts, we haAre a strong proof in this, that some of the most simple astringents taken into the stomach v'ery soon after prevent the recurrence of a paroxysm of an in- ermittent fever, Avhich implies a very general operation on dis- ant parts. As it is, therefore, established, that astringents act upon the mo- ing fibres, as avcII as upon the simple solid, it will be readily con- eived, that to their operation on the former, their most consider- ble effects on the living body are to be ascribed. As they contract he moving fibres, and increase their force of cohesion, they must iicrease their contractility, or what I call their tone ; and they re therefore, often properly named Tonics; and upon the same- round are fitly enough named Strengthened or Roborants ; hich under these titles Avill be more fully considered hereafter. The matter of astringents has been variously judged of, and enerally supposed to consist of acid and earth. In the ;*stringents fan acerb tasti, such a composition seems to be evident; and le supposition is confirmed by observing that an astringent qua- tv is produced by certain combinations of acid and earth-as \v MATERIA MEDICA. 3 ■the case of Alum. We must not, hoAvever, conclude this to be*a general proposition; as in many cases a combination oi acid and earth produces matter of very little astringent poAver, as happens in the case of acids joined with calcareous earths; and in one case an acid joined Avith absorbent tv.rth, as in magnesia alba, produces matter of a purgatiA'e quality. We cannot therefore ad- mit of this general proposition, that astringents are formed by a combination of acid and earth. With respect to the greater part of the vegetable astringents, the presence of an acid is by no means evident; and it is certain, that in the greater part of them, the quantity of acid is not so much as to saturate the earthy or other parts of the matter in their composition: for the Avhole sub- stance of the astringent appears still to be apoAverful absorbent of acids capable of abstracting them from other substances Avith Avhich they are joined, as we shall show more fully presently. This leads me to say in Avhat manner we discover an astringent quality to be in certain bodies. In the 1st place, we discoATer it most certainly by their effects on the human body, and that by the taste they give in the mouth; a sense of constriction not only in the parts Avith Avhich they come immediately in contact, but also in the whole of the internal sur- face of the mouth and fauces. This sense of constriction is dif- ferent from different substances; and I believe its degree may be taken as a mark of the poAver which such substances may exert as astringents in the stomach, or other parts of the body. In the 2d place, we discover an astringent quality in bodies by their being applied to a solution of green vitriol, in Avhich they produce a black colour. This we suppose to be OAAring to the astrin- gents abstracting the acid of the vitriol from the iron it was be- fore joined Avith; and that therefore the iron falls down in the form of a black powder. I shall not insist further on the theory of this operation, but shall endeaArour to apply it to our purpose. As experiments shoAv that astringent substances applied to the solution of Aritriol, produce more suddenly a black colour, and that of a greater degree of blackness, in proportion to the other marks they give of their astringency, so Ave may employ this ex- periment to determine the power of astringency in different sub- stances. For this purpose the learned Bergius, in his late Trea- tise on the Materia Medica, has given us his experiments of the application of almost every vegetable substance to the solution of green vitriol; and I haA e much reason to believe, that his ex- periments liuve been accurately made and faithfully reported. From them, I think Ave Jearn Avhat I have just now alleged, that the astringent poAver is in proportion to the suddenness av ith Avhich they strike a black colour, and to the degree in Avhich they pro- duce it. Hv this the learned author points out Avhat substances are the most poAverful astringents; and in like manner, Avhat are the weaker kinds of the many a-, hich former! a- entered promiscuously into our lists of astr':igents; and I shall 'hereafter make use o,t 4 TREATISE OF THE his experiments in determining the astringent poAver of particu- lar substances. But before I enter upon this, I think it proper to observe here, that every substance Avhich strikes a black colour Avith a solution of green vitriol, is not to be considered as an astringent; for it may happen that a small proportion of astringent matter may be present in substances in which a matter of contrary quality truly prevails; and there cannot be a stronger instance of this than in the herb Malva, the juice of Avhich strikes some black colour: and from the experiments of Bergius, it will appear that the same happens with respect to many other vegetable substances which have not been nor cannot be, considered as astringent matters. A second observation to be made is, that certain astringents, which otherwise give proof of their astringent power, do not strike a black colour with the solution of vitriol, or do it more Aveakly than in proportion to their astringent powers. We have an instance of this in the juice of quinces, and some other acerb substances; which is probably owing to this, that the astringent matter in these substances is saturated with the acid that is already present in them. What judgment, concerning the nature of \regetables, may be formed from the different colours which are produced by them when applied to the solution of vitriol remains yet to be inquired into. The general effects of astringents on the human body are ex- pressed aboAe in the definition ; but in what different states of the body, that is, in what diseases they are to be employed, is yet to be said. In all cases of general debility they may be supposed to be useful; and in the state which has been called a Cachexy, and Avhich often forms the beginning of dropsy, the preparations of iron formed by a combination of the acid with that metal has been employed Avith much benefit: but I do not know of any other simple astringent, that in the same case has been employ- ed with advantage. In one case, their poAver in taking off the atony of the system is Aery remarkable, and that is in the case of intermittent feArers.—In another place, in my First Lines of the Practice of Physic, I have shoAvn that the recurrence of the paroxysm of intermittent fevers depends upon the recurrence of a state of atony in the system, and that the paroxysm is pre- vented by various means of obAriating the reccurence of that atony: and a frequent experience has showed the poAver of astrin- gents in this respect. It is true, that, even for this purpose their tonic powers are much increased by their being combined Avith bitters, as we shall explain in another place; but in the mean time, as the most simple astringents frequently answer the pur- pose, it does not prevent our perceiving that astringents by themselves are capable of increasing the tone of the moving fibres over the Avhole bodA\ MATERIA MEDICA. 5 Astringents are considered as especially useful in restraining excessive evacuations; and, in the first place, hemorrhagies, or the evacuations of red blood ; and I have no doubt of their be- ing fitted for this purpose, or their truly answering it ; but I must own, that there is no practice in which I have been more frequently disappointed than in the employment of astringents in the case of hemorrhagy. I ascribe my failure to this, that though astringents taken into the stomach give some increase of tone over the whole system; yet they are not powerful enough for producing such constriction in distant parts, as may be suffi- cient for overcoming the increased impetus of the blood in the vessels. This, however, I Avould assert with respect to certain astringents only, and allow that there may be in the different kinds more or less power of propagating their effects from the stomach to distant parts, as I shall endeavour to take notice of when treating of particular astringents. On this subject I imagine it is proper to observe, that the dif- ferent effects of astringents will depend on the nature of the hemorrhagy to which they are applied. Hemorrhagies may depend upon the increased action of the vessels forcing an open- ing or rupture in their extremities, or the same disease may de- pend upon a loss of tone in the extremities of the blood vessels, allowing them to be opened without any increase in the action of the vessels; and merely by the ordinary, or perhaps even a less than usual, impetus of the blood in them. In these two kinds of hemorrhagies the effects of astringents must be different. In the former, they may not only be ineffectual, but may be actu- ally hurtful, by increasing the tone and action of the vessels; and it is only the latter case to which they are properly adapted, and can be useful, as will be better understood from the doctrine con- cerning Menorrhagia, which I have delivered in my First Lines of the Practice of Physic. Astringents are also employed in restraining the excess of se- rous evacuations; and are therefore employed in the case of di- arrhoea. Here their efficacy is evident; and will be readily ac- counted for by their being immediately applied to the parts af- fected. But it is extremely necessary here to take notice of an error very generally prevailing in writers on the materia medica in their relating the virtues and powers of astringents. They very generally mention the Adrtues of astringents as equally a- dapted to diarrhoea and to dysentery; but I maintain that these two diseases are very different from one another: so that Avhile diarrhoea consists in an increased evacuation from the exhalents and excretories on the internal surface of the intestines, Avhich may be restrained by astringents applied, the dysentery consists or depends upon an increased constriction in a considerable por- tion of the intestinal canal, which must be increased by the ap- plication of such astringents. This is now Avell understood; and practitioners Arery universally observe, that astringents are TREATISE OF THE not only ineffectual, but very hurtful in dysentery; and therefore Ave assert, that the marking of astringents as'equally adapted to both diseases is a pernicious error. ' Beside diarrhoea, astringents are said to be suited to the re- straining of other serous evacuations ; but I must say, that in practice I haAe been as much disappointed in these cases as in the case of hemorrhagy : and upon the same ground, that the effects of astringents taken into the stomach are not propagated so powerfully to distant parts as to produce the constrictions re- quired in them. This I have had occasion to observe with re- gard to the Leucorrhcea, or Fluor albus. F^or the cure of this disease, I find forty remedies recommended by writers- on the materia medica; but I have met Avith forty cases of it, in which not one of those remedies were of any service. I belieAe the most part of practitioners have had occasion to observe the same inefficacy of internal astringents in the case of gleets, or serous eAracuations from the urethra in males; and therefore will judge with me, that materia medica writers have been much too liberal in ascribing virtues to astringents in those cases. How far a distinction is to be made in those cases, with respect to different astringents, I shall consider hereafter. It may be supposed by some, that there is an analogy between those cases of increased serous evacuations, and the excessive discharge of a serous fluid from ulcers; and, therefore, that to remedy this, internal astringents may be employed. I believe the propriety of this measure may be well founded; but at the same time, it does not appear that the good effects in these ca- ses depend upon a constriction produced on the extremities of the A'essels pouring out the fluids, so much as upon restoring the tone, perhaps the inflammatory state of the vessels, that is ne- cessary to the production of laudable pus. In mentioning the general effects of astringents, I must not omit the ir singular power of relieving the symptoms which attend the presence of a calculus in the urinary passages. Among the dissertations of De Heucher, formerly a professor at Wittemberg, then- is one under this title, Calculus per adstringentia pelltfndtis, In this he sIioavs, that almost at all times, and by the most emi- nent physicians, astringents have been employed in calculous cases.—He is, indeed, intent upon shoAving that astringents have been employed in promoting the excretion of calculi; but I pre- sume that, in the cases in Avhich these remedies appeared suc- cessful, the calculus matter Avas only supposed to be evacuated, because the patient Avas relieved from the symptoms that he for- merly laboured under. But we now knoAV that these s\rmptoms may be relieved withoutthe stone's having been dissolved or eva- cuated: and among other medicines that may operate in this manner, astringents may, I believe, be reckoned. A proof of this appears in the use of the leaves of the Uva ursi; which not only from the experiments of the late De-Haen, but also from my MATERIA MEDICA. oavii, I have found to be often powerful in relieving the symp- toms of calculus. This plant is manifestly a powerful astringent: and in what manner this, and other astringents are useful in the - cases mentioned, may be difficult to explain; but I shall offer a conjecture on the subject. I suppose their effect to depend upon their absorbing acid in the stomach. Their powerful attraction of acid Ave have mentioned above : and that thereby they may be useful in calculous cases, is rendered probable by this, that the medicines which of late have been found the most poAverful in relieving the symptoms of calculus, are a variety of alkalines, which are known to do this without their acting at all in dis- solving the stone. When we have thus said in Avhat diseases astringents are use- ful, it is proper to remark, that materia medica Avriters mark them as useful in a disease in which we would allege, both from theory and experience, that they are of no use at all; that is, in the case of hernia, which in our opinion does not depend upon any laxity of the intestinal canal, but upon the laxity of the containing teguments ; to which we belieAre the operation of in- ternal astringents can hardly reach. After mentioning the diseases in which astringents are suppo- sed to be useful, it is proper for me to observe that they are im- properly employed in restraining evacuations, Avhether of blood or of serous fluids, when these evacuations can be truly consi- dered as critical, or as necessary to relieve a plethoric state of the system, except when the evacuations proceed to an excess that hreatens to be in danger of inducing death, or at least of induc- ng a great and dangerous debility. In such cases, the judicious >ractitioner will balance betAveen the consequences to be appre- tended; but we cannot miss to remark here, that the Stahlians, nd other German physicians, by supposing plethora and caco- hymy more frequently than they exist, have limited the em- loyment of astringents too much. Astringent matter is very generally present in the vegetable ingdom, and sometimes in all the different parts of plants ; •ut most frequently in their barks, sometimes in the roots, mort arely in their leaA'es, and more seldom still in the flowers : hough there are exceptions to all of these as general rules. With respect to the pharmaceutical treatment of astringents, 'e in the first place observe, that they are most useful when the-* re taken in their entire state, and Avhen given, as the common :nguage is, in substance; and we are persuaded that the gastric ^quor extracts thein more powerfully than any other menstruum re could apply. It is, hoAveA'er, on many occasions, proper to mploy them in a liquid form; and for that purpose the}' have >een treated by distillation, infusion, and decoction. Astringents very rarely consist of odorous or volatile parts. They are very universally of a fixed nature, and nothing rises 'rom them in distillation Avith Avater; and even in those case1- 8 TREATISE OF THE Avhere their odorous and volatile parts arise, it is found that no part of the astringent quality is at the same time communicated to the distilled water; and therefore the distilled waters drawn from astringents formerly kept in the shops, were on that ac- count absolutely inert. Astringents are properly enough treated by infusion, and readi- ly yield their qualities either to an aqueous or spiritous men- struum. The extract obtained by water is in larger proportion than that obtained by spirit: but that the astringency is greater in the one than in the other is not certainly determined; and the choice of the infusions is made rather according as the men- struum is more or less adapted to the purpose of the medicine, than by any consideration of the astringent power extracted by it. Astringents are also treated by decoction in water; and in this way a stronger impregnation can be obtained than by infusion : but it appears to me that the astringent matter is extracted in a more entire state of infusion, and that in decoction there is al- ways some decomposition takes place ; with what effect, howe- ver, on the substance as a medicine, Ave cannot certainly deter- mine. HaAring thus treated of astringents in general, I proceed now to give some remarks on the particular astringents that have been or may be employed, and that in the order of the general catalogue of medicines that has been prefixed. PARTICULAR ASTRINGENTS. BOLUS RUBRA. The bolus armena stood in our dispensatory lists long after Ave had ceased to import any such substance from the east; but it is noAV entirely omitted in our British catalogues. A number of similar earths, under the titles of Terrae Sigil- latse, or sealed earths, still hold a place in foreign catalogues; but they are noAV entirely neglected in Britain, and we retain of the bolar earths, the Bolus Gallica only. This, however, I expect Avill also be expunged; for I cannot perceive in it any sort of medicinal quality. Applied to the tongue in a diy and powdery state, by absorbing the moisture of the part, they give some sense of austerity and astringency; but upon a more complete diffusion, that entirely disappears ; and as they are not soluble in any of the animal fluids, I cannot believe in their exerting a- ny astringent poAver even in the alimentary canal. I have never found them of any use; and I must have better authority than that of the late Dr. Hill, to make me believe that they have ever been of service in diarrhoeas and dysenteries. See Hill's Materia Medica, page 180. These earths discover no alkaline part in their composition that can be dissolved by vegetable acid; and therefore they cannot be useful as absorbents of acid in the stomach; and much less do they discover any acid that can be the foundation of Dr. Boerhaave's character of Lau- MATERIA MEDICA. 9 datissimae boli. See Aph. 88. at the end of the paragraph. Nor can I find any foundation for the opinion of his commentator, Van Swieten, page 128, that by correcting putrid matters, they are useful in dysenteries attended with much putrescency. CRETA. . Many physicians Avould introduce here this and many other absorbent earths, as they suppose these, Avhen combined Avith. acids, to prove astringent: but so far as I can judge by the sen- sible qualities of such compounds, their astringent quality is ve- ry inconsiderable; and the effects of absorbents in inducing cos- tiveness, even when used very largely, we have not observed. Their effects, either in this way or in curing diarrhoea, if truly observed, Ave Avould abscribe rather to their correcting acidity than to their astringency. See what I haAre said aboATe on as- tringents in general. ALUMEN. I do not think it my business here to give any account of the practices by Avhich this substance is produced from several fossil matters, as this has been done already by seAeral writers more scientifically than I could; nor do I think it necessary, after Mar- graaf, to give any -account of the peculiar part of Clay, that, with the vitriolic .acid, enters into the composition of alum. It is enough for me, that this is a substance very Avell knoAvn; and that in the same state in which it is employed in various arts, and as commonly exhibited in our shops, it is sufficiently pure and fit for the purposes of medicine. Here Ave consider only its use in medicine, and chiefly as an astringent of the most poAverful kind. It is used both internally and externally. With respect.to its internal use, I am surprised to find that it seems not to have been employed Avith other astrin- gents in diarrhoea. Some Materia Medica Avriters indeed, men- tion its being suited to cure this disease; but I huA*e not met Avith any practical Avriter Avho prescribes it in such cases. Go- verned like other practitioners by imagination and habit, I have seldom employed it; but I haA'e employed it so much as to make me judge that in diarrhoeas it may be used with advantage. It has been given internally, chiefly in the cases of hemorrha- gy from the lungs or from the uterus. In tne ease of haemoptysis I have not found it useful; and this I believe happened from the haemoptysis being ahvays an active ha-na-rrhagy, in Avhich astrin- gents seem to be always hurtful. But in mer.urrhagia, and other uterine haemorrhages, which often d^rxnd upon a laxity of the Aessels of the uterus, it may be of service ; and Ave have often found it to be so. It should be given at first i:i small doses, as it is ready to irritate the stomach; and in seA'eral instances I have found it rejected by v-T.v.iting; and Avh: t is more extraordinary, 1 have knoAvn large doses of it operate as a purgative. In ur- gent cases, hoA\eA'jr, the closes must be rV t: yrv repeated and Voi. IT. B 1© TREATISE OF THE increased, for it has been only from large quantities given, that its effects have appeared to be considerable. We begin by giv- ing it in doses of five grains; but have gone the length of a scru- ple, and have given such a dose several times in a day. Alum has been frequently employed in the Fluor albus, and particularly on the recommendation of Dr. Thompson, Medical Essays, IV. 38.; but I have been very often disappointed of its effect. It was strongly recommended by Dr. Mead for the cure of diabetes: but in our hospital the serum aluminosum has been frequently employed in diabetes Avithout success. Among the other remedies of int rmittent fevers, alum, join- ed A^ ith nutmeg, has been mentioned; and the analogy, with other tonic powers, renders it a probable remedy. I haAre tried it by giving a large dose of it an hour or a little more before the coming on of a paroxysm; and in some instances it has prevent- ed this: But both the alum and nutmeg were disagreeable to the stomach, and prevented a repetition, a, hen more agreeable and more certain medicines were at hand. Sine, the time that Helvetius Avrote Des pertes de Sang, and proposed alum as a specific for the cure of these, it Avas long common to employ alum in the form proposed by Helvetius; that is, as fused Avith a certain proportion of Sanguis draconis, sup- posed to be an astringent: but as this is a medicine not soluble in the human fluids, and therefore absolutely inert, it has been justly rejected. If, as Dr. Lewis supposed it to be, more slowly dissolved in the stomach, and therefore introducing the alum more gradually, it might be proper; but Ave are persuaded that the Sanguis draconis rather prevented the operation of the alum altogether: and if the sIoav introduction is to be studied, this may be obtained by smaller doses than even those above mentioned. The Edinburgh college have thought proper to continue the title of Pulvius Stypticus, that our practitioners had been long accus- tomed to; but they have added a more valuable astringent than the dragon's blood, that is, the gum Kino, which does not make in colour or dose, a medicine different from the composition formerly kept in the shops. Alum is more frequently used externally than internally, "par- ticularly in gargles, in relaxation of the UATula,and other SAvellings of the mucuous membrane of the fauces, Avhen there is not at the same time any acute inflammation present; but I have knoAvn it employed in eveiy state of the cynanche tonsillaris Avith some advantage. In many persons Avho are liable to be aiL-cted with this sAvelling from slight applications of cold, we have known the disease prevented, or soon removed, by the use of a decoction of oak bark, to a pound of ay hich half a drachm of alum and tAvo ounces of brandy Avere added. The same gargle, Avithout the spirits, is useful in the case of spongy swelled gums and Ioomj Jeeth, from scurvy or other causes. Alum is also useful in curing the opthalr.ua ire:nibn.n'_u uin, MATERIA MEDICA. 11 and seems to me more powerful for this purpose than either Avhite vitriol or sugar of lead. It is commonly employed in the form of coagulum alurninosum ; but I have found the solution in Avater to be still more effectual, employing from two to five grains of alum to an ounce of Avater. Burnt alum has been much employed as an escharotic for con- suming proud flesh in ulcers; but it is not near so powerful as the preparations either of mercun- or copper. FERRUM sive CHALYBS, Iron or Steel. The term Mars, introduced by the Chemists, is very frequently employed. Both titles stand in the catalogue of the London College: and in preparing the rubigo, they seem to have preferred the ehalybs: but on what foundation Ave cannot perceive. We suppose it to be quite indifferent whether the one or the other is employed, out if we Avere to give any preference, Ave should think it due iv, the iron in its soft malleable state, or in Avhat we call Forged Iron. As iron, like all other metals, in its solid and entire state, is not active Avith regard to our bodies, Avithout being corroded or dissobved by saline matters, so we judge it to be rendered acth'e only by being combined Avith acids. It has been common enough to give the entire metal, brought by filing into a fine poAvder, and Avith very good effects, as a medicine. This, hoAvever, Ave do not consider as any exception to our general rule: for Ave are persuaded that there is constantly present in the human stomach a quantity* of acid capable of dissolving iron; and we hold this to be a proof of it, that Ave neArer kneAv iron given in its metallic or slightly corroded state, without producing a blackness in the stools, Avhich to us always presumes a previous solution of the iron in acids. As this combination Avith acids is necessary, so physicians and chemists have dh'ersified this combination a hundred Avays: and Ave do not knoAv a preparation of iron for the purpose of medi- cine that has not been prepared by a combination Avith acids, or by bringing the iron into a state that rendered it readily soluble by the acid of the stomach; and Dr. Lewis Aery properly ob- serves, that Prussian blue, though truly containing a quantity- of iron, as it is not soluble in any acid, is the least promising of all the medicinal preparations. I do not think it necessary to enumerate here the A-arious pre- parations that have formerly stood, or still stand, in our dispen- satories, as they all agree in the same medical virtue, and are only proper as convenient for being exhibited in different forms. The Edinburgh college have endeavoured to make an improve- ment in preparing a spirituous tincture, as the tinctures of that kind formerly prepared, Avere liable in keeping to let fall a por- tion of AA'hat they had dissolved, and of thereby becoming con- stantly weaker the longer they Avere kept. The college, as taught by Dr. Black, have obviated this, by ordering the tincture to be made of the squama' ferri, as a portion ©f iron deprived of its> 12 TREATISE OF THE phlogiston, and therefore entering into a more strict union with the acid. Iron combined with acids becomes an astringent substance ; and upon its astringent and tonic powers its medicinal virtues entirely depend : for by increasing the tone of the vessels it in- creases their vigour and activity. We do not think it necessary here to take any notice of the doctrine of Menghini, concerning the iron constantly present in the blood of animals, or the manner in Avhich it is introduced into it. We think it is enough to say, that his experiments both on men and brutes, show clearly that iron introduced into the stomach, and acting there, has the poAver of increasing appetite, and the vigour of the circulation. Physicians formerly supposed that iron had a double power pf sometimes increasing and sometimes restraining eAracuations, and fancied that different preparations possessed these different powers: but in this they Avere mistaken; as we have maintained aboAre, that every preparation soluble in acids has the same astringent and tonic poAver ; and the Croci which Avere distin- guished as aperient or astringent have commonly neither the one nor the other quality. It is, however^ still true, that the same preparation, as Dr. Lewis has judiciously observed, may sometimes exert an aperi- ent and sometimes an astringent poAver, according to the state of the body it is applied to. If, for example, retention of menses depends upon a weakness in the vessels of the uterus, chalybeate medicines, by invigorating the force of the vessels, may cure the disease, and may thereby appear to be aperient: and, on the contrary, in a menorrhagia, when the disease de- pends upon a laxity of the extreme Aessels of the uterus, iron exhibited, by restoring the tone of these Aessels, may show an astringent operation. By considerations of this kind, the inutility or propriety of the medicinal preparations of iron may be determined. In all cases of active haemorrhagy, they must be hurtful; and in cases of haemorrhagy from external violence, I would judge them to be useless, if not hurtful. In cases of a general flaccidity, as it is frequently marked under the title of Cachexy, and in all cases of evacuations from laxity, Avhether sanguine or serous, they are likely to be the most effectual remedies. We are persuaded that the good effects of the preparations of iron haAre been often missed by their being given in too small doses. The saline preparations, in large doses, are ready to irritate the stomach; and both on this account, and on some other considerations, it may be always proper to begin with small doses, and to increase them by degrees: but Ave have often found, that no great benefit is to be obtained but Avhen large quantities, ei- ther by the size of the doses, or by the long continuance of them, have Lkv:i throAvn in. We have found the simple rust a~ MATERIA MEDICA. 1* effectual as any other preparation, and Ave have always found the stomach bear it better than any other. We begin with a dose of five grains, but increase it gradually to what the stomach easily bears. We have been informed of its being ghren to the quantity of six drachms in one day; but we have hardly found any stqmach that would bear the third part of that quantity with- out much sickness. I think the stomach commonly bears it better by some aromatic beingjoined Avith it. CUPRUM, Copper. By the chemists, Venus. I have no doubt of putting this metal into the list of astrin- gents ; for though it possesses very strongly stimulant poAvers, which often prevent our perceiving its astringency, yet we can, by employing the milder preparations of it, or perhaps by pre- paring it so as to take aAvay the whole of its stimulant quality. obtain its tonic effects. The late Baron Van Srvieten tells us, that he had met Avith a preparation of copper, in Avhich the stimulant powers of it had been entirely taken aAvay ; and Avhen taken into the stomach ex- cited no nausea, but excited a certain thrilling formicationem over the whole body, extending to the very points of the fin- gers ; and this medicine had proved useful in epilepsies, Avhich I think is the same thing as if he had said it possessed, a tonic power. I have not yet discovered the method of making such a preparation of copper; and therefore I employ either a small dose of the blue vitriol or a combination of copper with sal am- moniac, which I consider as a milder preparation than the com- bination of the copper Avith an acid. I give the blue vitriol in the dose of a quarter or half a grain according to the age of the person ; and in repeating the medicine tAwice a-day, I increase the dose to Avhat the stomach avill bear Avithout A-omiting, but allow it to go so far as to occasion some sickness and even nau- sea. This medicine continued for some time, has proved an use- ful tonic in certain cases of epilepsy and hysteria. On some occa- sions it has proA'ed diuretic : and on some others anthelmintic. The combination of copper Avith an ammoniacal salt, I learned from the Acta Natures curiosa: and first introduced it into the practice of this country ; and it noAV stands in our dispensatory under the title of the Cuprum ammoniacum. In many instances it has proved a cure of epilepsy, and thereby discovered its as- tringent and tonic poAver. It is employed in the same manner as I haATe said above of the blue vitriol, by beginning Avith small doses of half a grain, and increasing these by degrees to Avhat the stomach Avill bear. I find it commonly more manageable than the blue vitriol ; and in many instances ha\ e carried the dose to fiA'e grains, and in some still further. In many cases it has proved a cure of epilepsy; but in many others it has entirely failed in being such. When, in the course of a month, it has not shown any good effects, I desist from its further use, as 1 suspect that large quantities of copper introduced,may, like lean- 14 TREATISE OF THE prove hurtful to the body: and therefore, in cases of periodical epilepsy, after giving the medicine constantly during one inter- val, if the disease still continues, I afterwards give the medi- cine only for some days before an expected accession : and in this manner I have had success. In using preparations of copper, Ave must consult the various writings on the use of copper-A'essels in the kitchen, There have noAV been many published, and are well knoAvn. The facts they haAre related proA^e beyond a doubt, that copper introduced into the body to a certain quantity may prove very mischieArous, tho' its violent effects may not at first appear ; but AAThen they do appear, they haAre been often fatal. What quantity of it is ne- cessary to render it poisonous, I cannot exactly determine; but I know, that used in considerable quantity, in such doses as have been mentioned above, it has not discovered its deleterious ef- fects : but at the same time, I am so well persuaded of its dele- terious tendency, that it seemed imcumbent on me to give the caution I have just now mentioned; and its escharotic poAvers Avhen used externally, sufficiently confirm my suspicions. The escharotic poAvers of the preparations of copper have been knoAvn and employed from the most ancient times for cleansing foul ulcers, and bringing them to discharge a laudable pus; but since the introdution of the use of mercuiy in the 16th century, the preparations of this have been more commonly employed. The operation of copper and mercury seems to be very much the same ; and whether the one is preferable to the other, I cannot determine: but in some cases I have found the copper succeed, Avhen the mercury before employed had appeared less effectual; but Avhether this depended upon any peculiar poAver in the one substance more than the other, or upon the different degree of acrimony in the different preparations employed, I am at a loss to determine: but think the surgeons ought to attend more par- ticularly to this subject. When the preparations of copper are applied to an entire sur- face, they manifestly discoArer an astringent power ; and upon that footing they have been injected into the urethra in gonorr- hceas and gleets; with what propriety it is not my business to de- termine here, the question being Avith respect to astringents in general, and not Avith respect to copper in particular. The astringent poAvers of the preparations of copper have es- pecially appeared in the application of them to the eyes; and Ave have knoAvn a Aveak solution of verdegris useful in restraining inflammation: but it is so ready to prove irritating to that sensi- ble organ, that a great deal of nicety is necessary in the employ- ment of it; and Ave seem to have a milder preparation in the aqua sapphirina. It is, however, absurd to order this prepara- tion in such a manner as to alloAv the strength of it to be liable to much uncertainty; and the Edinburgh college haA-e properly ordered it so as it may be brought to a standard. It has com- MATERIA MEDICA. 15 monly been supposed, that the aqua sapphirina was suited to take off specks or opaque spots that appear upon the cornea, and which has been supposed to imply an escharotic power; but this cer- tainly is seldom the case; and it seems to act only by an astrin- gent power, diminishing the impetus of the fluids in the ATessels which terminate in the opaque spot. In another respect, the operation of the preparations of cop- per upon the eyes may be mistaken. It has been common to in- troduce a portion of verdegris into the ointments which, in cases of ophthalmia, are applied to the edges of the eye-lids; and this may be supposed to be on the footing of astringents: but as the ap- plication is especially employed in cases of the ophthalmia tarsi, in which there is almost always some excoriation of the tarsus, it is probable that the verdegris acts here as an escharotic. PLUMBUM, Lead. Saturn. The astringent poAvers of the saline preparations of this me- tal are not sufficiently ascertained; but at the same time it is equally well known, that all these preparations, and the vapours exhaled from the metal itself, or its calces, introduced into the body, discover a sedative power extremely noxious to the hu- man system. It is therefore difficult to determine how far we can employ the astringent and tonic operation of this metal, and be at the same time secure against its deleterious poAvers, espe- cially as these deleterious powers do not always immediately discover their operation, and very often only after they haA'e long remained latent and unheeded in the body. Thus, Dr. Huntdermark, formerly a professor at Leipsic, in the appendix to the 7th Arolume of the Acta Natura: Curiosa, has given us a dissertation de sacchari saturni usu interno salu- tari: and I have no doubt that the learned professor had, upon some occasions, found the saccharum saturni moderate the acti - vity of the system in feA'ers ; for it appears that other prepara- tions of lead had formerly been employed in fevers by other practitioners : but hardly any body iioav will think that Dr. Huntdermark, or those other practitioners, Avere sufficiently a- Avare of, or attentive to, the consequences to be apprehended ; and therefore that they could warrant us in any case against these being Aery mischievous. This seems to be so much the case at present, that hardly any practitioner -will now think of employing any preparations of lead as internal medicines: but in proportion as the favour for these has declined, that for its external use has greatly increased. We are, howeAer, at a loss to determine positively, what is its operation, or to explain in many cases Avhei e its effects are evi- dent, how the supposed operations could produce them. It v:> the writing of Mr. Goulard, of Montpelier, that has raised the?" doubts. It is difficult to deny facts positively asserted; but Ave find in Goulard's writings, so many facts not confirmed by our own experience, so many marks t i" partiality to the n.edicinc he. 16 TREATISE OF THE recommends, and so much frivolous theory by which he sup*- ports it; that his credit with me is indeed very little. lam much of opinion, that nobody can consult him Avith safety, with- out attending to the very judicious and ingenious criticism pub- lished on the subject by Mr. Aiken, of Warrington; and I am disposed to leave my readers to be most properly informed of the virtues of lead applied externally in lotion, poultice, or oint- ment, to Mr. Aiken's Avork. I have only this to observe, that Mr. Aiken seems disposed to think, that the saline preparations of lead externally applied, never enter into the system in such quantity as to affect the general system in the same manner as they commonly do Avhen introduced by the mouth, or when the vapours of lead are applied. But Dr. Percival has given us a fact that may lead us to believe, that Dr. Aikerfs opinion is not well founded: and we judge it to be very probable, that though lead applied to the entire surface can hardly enter in such quantity as to be noxious to the system; yet that when applied to an ulcerated surface capable of a promiscuous absorption, it may be taken in such quantity as to affect the general system. ZINCUM, Zinc. That the saline preparations of this metal act as astringents,, Ave know very well from the operation of Avhite vitriol, so very frequendy applied to the eyes. It has been used in different pro- portions ; and Avhen in large proportions, it certainly proves very irritating: but itmay certainly be used with great safety in a great- er proportion than that of two grains to the ounce of Avater, as it is in the aqua vitriolica of the last edition of the Edinburgh dispen- satory ; and the London college seems to be of that opinion. The fiores zinci, as a matter liable to be corroded by the acid of the stomach, and thereby rendered active, have been lately, upon the authority of the late excellent Dr. Gaubius, introduced into frequent practice as an antispasmodic, or as I consider it, as an astringent and tonic. They have noAV been frequently em- ployed here in epilepsA, hysteria, and some other spasmodic dis- eases, as the chorea, and others. In epilepsy, they never an- swer Avith Dr. Gaubius himself; nor have they, that I knoAv of here, though given in much larger doses than he seems eA'er to have employed. In my own practice, I have not found them ot remarkable benefit, nor do I find my felloAV-practitioners giving a more favourable report; and in consequence the employment of them in practice here becomes less and less every day. In remote parts of the country, in Avhich the fiores zinci Avere not to be had, I haA-e frequently prescribed the vitriolum album; and in some cases with as good effect as in any of those in Avhich I had employed the fiores zinci. We cannot dismiss the subject Avithout observing, that from the experiments of Mr. Hcllot, it appears clearly, that zinc introduced into the body in a certain quantity, may prove a violent poison; and I leave it ay ith pnuti- MATERIA MEDICA. 17 tionersto consider Avhat caution this should give in the large or long-continued employment of zinc as a medicine. VEGETABLE ASTRINGENTS. These are a very numerous set; and in the indigene plants of Britain an astringent quality is very general. Formerly a great number of them were employed in medicine, and as such stood in our dispensatory lists: but the astringent quality is in different plants in very different degrees ; and those in which it is Aveak have been of late neglected in practice, and for that reason omitted in our lists. For the same reason, perhaps, I might omit them here ; but both because their being omitted in practice is not ahvays well founded, and because they still re- main mentioned in materia medica Avriters of the latest date and best reputation, Ave shall think it necessary to take notice of some of them, if it were for no other purpose than to prevent stu- dents from being misled by the materia medica Avriters they might otherwise consult. In arranging the vegetable astringents, as in every other class of medicines, I have thrown them together, as far as I could, according to their botanical affinities; that is, as they belong to the natural orders, as these are established by Linnaeus, or by professor Murray. Where that could not be properly done, I have done it by their sensible qualities, and some other analo- gies ; all Avhich will appear from the catalogue prefixed, and Avhich will give a clear view of the order in Avhich I am to pur- sue my subject. I begin the present with considering the natu- ral order of the Senticosae; and taking these in the alphabetical order of the names under which they stand in pharmaceutical lists, I begin with AGRIMONIA. This is noAV omitted both by the London and Edinburgh col- leges, but in no other lists that I have observed. It is still in eArery materia medica writer; and these haAre always, and do still favour it with more attention than we think it deserves. It has some astringent poAvers ; but they are feeble, and should n«t hold the place of many which Ave knoAv to be more powerful in every intention in Avhich it has been, or could be, employed. If Ave did not know well the disposition of the most judicious Avriters on the materia medica to repeat after others, we should be surprised on finding Dr. Haller, and professor Murray, re- peating after an author of so little credit as Chomel, that he had cured a schirrous liver by means of agrimony; and it seems e- quallv frivolous in Spielmann to tell us, that Forrestus had by agrimony broke down a stone in the bladder, and brought it a- way in pieces Avith the urine. I may haAe frequent occasion for such criticisms; but I doubt much if mv readers Avill haA'e patience to admit of them. Vol. II. C 18 TREATISE OF THE ALCHEMILLA. I have inserted this for the same reasons I inserted the above,! though this has still less than that pretensions to a place any where ; and I do not believe the authority of Baldinger will a- gain bring it into use. ARGENTINA. The leaves of this entitle it to a place in a list of astringents; but their qualities are Aveak, and they are therefore properly neglected in practice. Upon the credit of Tournefort, I have tried them in the fluor albus, but without success. I did not, in- deed, always join with them, as he did, the broth of crabs; but in some trials even Avith this my success Avas no better. The roots are very different from all those of the same order. The) are more succulent, and haA e much sweetness, with some a- stringeney, but Avithout any of the rank flaA'our of parsnips, with which they haAre been frequently compared. From their sac- charine state, Ave might presume upon their being nutritious ; and they have been often eaten Avhen boiled, and on some occa- sions have supplied the Avant of other aliment. See Lightfoot's Flora Scotica. CARYOPHILLATA. The root of this is considerably astringent, with some aroma when it has been recently raised in the spring-season and from a dry soil. The sensible qualities of this root are not, hoAvever, so great as to lead us to suppose its powers in the human body to be very consiserable. But see hoAv Ave may be decehred in this re- spect. A Danish physician, supported by the testimony of some of the most eminent physicians of that country, has represented the roots of the caryophillata as a powerful remedy in inter- mittent feA^ers : and besides enumerating many cases in which it had alone made a cure, he enumerates several in Avhich it made a cure Avhen the Peruvian bark had failed: and these ex- periments have been confirmed by that of other physicians in Germany and Sweden, particularly by Weber, professor at Kiel. This is all very strong, and hardly any one at first sight Avould doubt of it: but some scepticism is to be admitted in such cases. It is acknoAvledged even by Buchave and Weber, that this root failed in several instances Avhere the Peruvian bark proved a re- medy. The Swedish experiments have not been so favourable as those of the Danes and Germans to the credit of the caryophil- lata. With the former in very feAV instances it succeeded, and in very many it failed. Considering the fallacy of experience, and particularly the fallacy of the experiments given us by the inven- tors of new medicines, we must be doubtful of those made by the partizans of the caryophillata, till further experience, free from the prejudices of the day, shall have been made, or till we shall have had a sufficient opportunity of making experi- ments for ourselves; which, from the scarcity of intermittents in this city, we have not yet had an opportunity of making. MATERIA MEDICA. ag FRAGARIA. The fruit of this plant has been, and will be, considered in another place. The virtues of the leaves and root, though the same with those of the order, are too inconsiderable to be taken notice of any where. QUINQUE FOLIUM. This is a plant supposed to have been known to Hippocrates, and employed by him, as it has been frequently since by others, in the cure of intermittent fevers. On the same footing as other astringents, we can readily admit of this ; but the sensible qualities of the quinquefolium do not lead us to think that it is to be preferred, or that it is even equal to other plants of the same order. ROSA. This is of many different species, and the materia medica writers have treated of many of them in particular: but we can find little foundation for this; and it appears that those Avriters, from their partiality to a fragrant floAver, have bestOAved more attention upon the Avhole genus than their medical virtues de- serve. All the species discover an astringency, which, agreea- ble to the principles of Linnaeus on the subject of colours, is most considerable in the red rose, and in these, as in their most au- stere state, before they are quite blown. But even in their most perfect state, the astringency is not so considerable as to give much efficacy in practice. The infusum and tinctura are ele- gant preparations ; but their effects depend more upon the vitri- olic acid added to them than upon the power of the roses. With respect to the roses, the syrupus e rosis siccis is perhaps more poAverful than the tincture. The practice has been to prepare this syrup Avith hone}' rather than sugar; but we cannot £nd any advantage to arise from the honey. The last edition of the SAvedish pharmacopoeia orders the mel rosaceum to be made without boiling; but that diminishes the astringentpoAver of the medicine: and the pharmacopoeia Danica neglect this poAver altogether, when they order the medicine to be made Avith the distilled water. Vinegar can hardly be impregnated with the astringent quality of the roses ; and Ave think the ace- tum rosaceum to be hardly of more poAver than the simple vinegar. The A'irtue of roses is supposed to be found especially in the consen-e made of them; and it'is sufficiently probable that they Avill have the greatest effect when they are given in substance, and in considerable quantity. Some strong testimonies are given of their effects in phthisical cases; and it is not improbable that astringents internally given may contribute to the cure of cer- tain ulcers : but we must own that it is in few instances only that we have seen the considerable effects of the conserve of roses in cases of phthisis pulmonalis : and in the cases in which we have supposed it useful, it has ahvavs been joined with a diet of milk and farinacea, and gentle exercise in the open air. &> TREATISE OF THE So that it Avas uncertain hoAv much Avas to be imputed to the roses: and this we think Avas also the case Avith Cruger, living upon barley-water and Avheaten bread alone. We are clearly of opinion with professor Murray, that a smaller proportion of sugar Avould improve it as a medicine; that instead of three parts of sugar to one of roses, as in our dispensatory, it Avould be better Avith an equal part only, as in the Swedish; with one and a half, as in the Russian ; or at most with two parts as in the Danish pharmacopoeia. If any of the species have any purgative quality, it is very in- considerable ; and the syrup prepared upon this supposition does not at all deserve the place it has so long had in our shops. The cordial and analeptic poAvers so often celebrated in roses, are entirely on the footing of other grateful odours, to be taken no- tice of elsewhere. The fruit of the rosa silvestris is commonly taken notice of under the general title of Rosa; but that is not agreeable to our plan, and must be taken notice of elsewhere : but there is a pro- duction of the rose-plant, a fungus or gall groAving upon it, knoAvn under the name of Bedeguar, which belongs to the title of astringents, as it is possessed of and celebrated for its astrin- gent power; but it has hardly yet got a place in our dispensato- ries, and we are quite unacquainted with its poAvers. TORMENTILLA. This root, by its sensible qualities, and by its striking black with green A'itriol, appears to be one of the strongest astringents of this order ; and therefore it has been justly commended for e\-ery A'irtue that is competent to astringents. I myself have had several instances of its virtues in this respect; and particu- larly I have found it, both by itself and as joined with gentian, cure intermittent fevers; but it must be given in substance and in large quantities. STELLATE APARINE, This formerly stood in our dispensatory lists, but is noAV omit- ted in all those in Avhich any correction has been attempted, and seemingly with great propriety. We expect, however, that at least materia medica Avriters will excuse us if we repeat any facts Avhich have been asserted : and therefore I inform my readers that Girolamo Gaspari, a physician at Feltri, published at Ve- nice in the year 1731, a small volume under the title of Nuove et eruditi Osservazioni Mediche: in Avhich he tells us he had em- ployed the aparine in scrophulous tumours and sores with great success, and that he had heard of others Avho had done the same; but this practice has not been taken notice of, or con- firmed by any other writers that I know of; and in so^ne trials that I have myself made, it h:\<-. been of np service. MATERIA MEDICA, 31 GALIUM. The flowers of the Galium lute urn have an agreeable odour and their taste very gentle, acid and astringent; but I am un- certain if Avhat grows in this country is the same with what grows elseAvhere. The acidity and astringency of our plants is very inconsiderable; and no pains Avhich Dr. Toung or I could take, found them to coagulate milk; and Bergius, in the Swe- dish plant, neither found any acidity, nor found it in three seve- ral trials to coagulate milk. He tells us also, in contradiction to Borrichius, that in distillation it afforded no acid; but I ima- gine his experiment was different from that of Borrichius, as this Avas Avithout addition, whilst that of Bergius was with the addition of Avater. In the latter kind of distillations, an acid does not immediately arise, as it does in the former from almost every A^egetable; and if Borrichius found an acid arise more readily from the galium than from the acetosa, we would ascribe it to the succulency of the latter, as plants give out always first their more purely aqueous parts. With respect to the virtue of the flowers of the galium in epilepsy, though it has been asserted by several, I am very- doubtful of their power; and in several trials they have entirely disappointed me. RUBIA TINCTORUM. The sensible qualities of this root do not give any favourable opinion of its medical virtues; and till lately it has not been much employed in practise: but Avithin these fifty years, it has become remarkable for its effect in giving its colour to the bones of animals who are fed upon it. This, with its giving colour also to the milk and urine of animals, shoAvs that its colouring matter is carried into the mass of blood in considerable quantity, and distributed through every part of the system; and if Ave can suppose any active powers in such a matter the circum- stances mentioned would lead us to believe, that a matter se largely applied might be a very poAverful medicine. We do not, however, find, that these powers have yet been ascertained; and the effects that large quantities of this root given to the brute ani- mals have in producing great disorders in their system, must ren- der us doubtful of its general salutary tendency. That it may promote urine^ Ave can believe from the testimony of many au- thors ; but at the same time from my own experience I can as- sert, that, in many trials for this and other purposes,, such an effect is not constant, nor has ever occurred to me. As to its poAver and utility in the cure of the jaundice, though it Avas employed by Sydenham, and formerly by the Edinburgh college, Ave pay no regard to it; considering the fallacy Avhich has so generally taken place Avith respect to the medicines em- ployed in this disease. As it takes so readily to the bones, it is speciously enough supposed that it might particularly operate iipon these; and accordingly it has been recommended as a re- *>'o TREATISE OF THE medy in rickets, particularly by some French Avriters, who arc with me of very doubtful authority-. It does not, however, seem to have been known to the Italian practitioners, nor to Dr. Boer haave, nor to his commentator: and in several trials we have seen made with it, its effects have not at all been evident. Of late it has come into some repute as an emmenagogue; and I have recehred some testimonies of its effects as such from some physicians of this country, Avhose judgment I very much respect; but in all the trials that I have made Avith it, it has failed: and I knoAv of other practitioners in this country, who after several ineffectual trials made Avith it, have now entirely deserted its use. V AG I N A L E S. ACETOSA. The acid juice found in the leaves of this plant is to be con- sidered in another place; and it is the root only that can have a place here. This has some astringency, but too little to be employed in practice where so many more poAverful are rea- dily to be had. LAPATHUM. Under this title the leaves and roots of a number of different plants have been employed; and in their qualities and virtues approach nearly to one another. In the leaves there is more or less of acid, which we are to consider in another place; and in their roots there is more or less of astringency, which gives them a place here. Which of them are the most powerful astringents, we find it difficult to determine. Dr. Alston's account of the hydrolapathum is very strong, and appears to be well founded; but we know little of their employment in practice. The laxa- tive quality supposed to be in some of them, we know from trial to be very inconsiderable; and the virtues of the oxylapathum for the cure of the itch, we knoAV also from trials to be none at all. The decoction may, like that of other astringents, be use- fully employed in washing old ulcers; but the lapathum does not appear to have any peculiar poAver in this respect. BISTORTA. This, both by its sensible qualities and by the colour it gives with green vitriol, and by the extracts it affords, seems to be one of the strongest of our vegetable astringents, and is justly commended for every virtue that has been ascribed to any other. As such we have frequently employed it, and particularly in in- termittent fevers, and in larger doses than those commonly men- tioned in materia medica writers. Both by itself and along Avith gen- tian, we have given it to the quantity of three drachms in one day. Formerly the rheum stood in our list in this place; but as it is hardly ever employed for the sole pupose of astringency, and ahvays or chiefly for its purgative quality, I have iioav referred it to what I think its proper place- MATERIA MEDICA. 23 FILICES. These comprehending what have been called the Capillary plants, form a natural order in botany ; and in medicine, shoAv the power of a natural order, by having very much the same virtues. I have set down only two or three which had lately a place in our dispensatory lists, though in most of those of later date they are omitted. ASPLENIUM. The several species of this shoAv a slight astringency; for which however, they do not deserve to be employed. In other res- pects they show no active poAvers : and there is nothing more ridiculous than their haA'ing been so long considered as pectorals. FILIX MAS. The root of this plant has been long celebrated as an anthel- mintic, but its sensible qualities do not promise much; and as it has hardly ever been employed but Avith some drastic purgatives, it is therefore to me still doubtful if it has any specific power in killing worms either of one kind or another. We more readily enter into this opinion, because in several trials of it made in this country in cases of worms, the stomach bears considerable quantities of it without any uneasiness ; but Avhen ghren by itself it had no sensible effects. ACERBA. I have set doAvn a number of fruits that agree in their sensible qualities; which are such as lead me to giAre them a place here among the astringents. They might also have had a place amongst the nutrientia; but they are Aery seldom brought to our tables; and if at all employed, it is in medicine, as astringent substances. This country affords feAV of them ; and therefore of seA'eral of them I have no exact knowledge of their qualities: but this country affords one of the most poAverful of the Avhole, and that is the Prunus Silvestris, Avhich I have often found an agreeable and useful astringent. It Avas formerly prepared as an inspiss- ated juice ; but as in that state it is less soluble and less readily active, the preparation of it has been properly changed into the form of a conserve ; but I must remark that in this, both Colleges have, in my opinion, employed a larger proportion of sugar than is any Avay necessan'. SUCCI INSPISSATE Under this title I had formerly set doAvn tAvo particulars, the Acacia and Hypocitus, which are noAV no longer known in our shops ; and they seem to be properly neglected ; as by the ac- counts given of them they seem to have no peculiar properties ; and their poAver as astringents is no greater than Avhat we can find in other substances more Avithin reach. TERRA JAPONICA. The production of this drug, formerly not well ascertained, is uoav put beyond all doubt by the labours of the ingenious Mr. J{er. See Louden Medical Observation*^ vol. a-, p. 148. This 24 TREATISE OF THE substance is still frequently employed in practice, entering into several officinal compositions ; and we judge it, Avhen genuine, to be a powerful astringent: but whether it is so much more powerful than several British substances, as to engage us to em- ploy this brought from a distant country, and very liable to be adulterated, we cannot positively determine. Mr. Ker informs us, that this substance forms a considerable part of an ointment very much used in Indostan. The other in- gredients of that composition are considerably astringent; and the whole leads me to make this reflection, that astringents are more frequently useful and necessary in ulcers than our surgeons have commonly thought; and that the use of them so frequently ' commended by materia medica Avriters, is not upon such a slight foundation as I have formerly been ready to imagine. SANGUIS DRACONIS. This I have left standing in my list, because it remains still in all our dispensatory lists, though it seems very doubtful if it de- serves a place. As it is absolutely insoluble in watery menstru- ums, it may be doubtful if it be soluble in the animal fluids; and though it may be dissolved in spirits, and thus introduced into the stomach, the aqueous fluids which it meets with there, must immediately precipitate it into an inert substance. We are there- fore, upon the Avhole, clear that it should be expunged from our materia medica list. See what we have said above in the article of Alum upon the subject of the Pulvis Stypticus. KINO. This is a new acquisition to the materia medica; and it has been adopted by the Edinburgh college as an officinal, but by no other college that I yet know of. We are informed by Dr. Fothergill, that it is a gum which exsudes from incisions made in the trunks of a certain tree cal- led Pau de Sangue, growing in the inland parts of Africa; but the botanical account of this tree we have not yet met with. Both by its sensible qualities, and its striking black with a solution of green vitriol, we have grounds for supposing it is a powerful astringent: and we have found it prove to be such in several instances of diarrhoea. I am informed also by a good hand, of its having been useful in some uterine hemorrhagies, particularly those after child-bearing. In some cases of fluor albus I have been disappointed of its effects when employed by itself; but the Edinbugh college have properly joined it with alum in the pulvis stypticus : and this composition proves one of the most poAverful astringents I have ever employed. We are clear that, in making the tincture, the kino may be taken in larger proportion than it is in the dispensatory. As we have this gum, it is in large proportion soluble both in watery and spiritous menstruums. The brandy tincture ordered by the Edinburgh college is a sufficiently agreeable and poAverful medi- MATERIA MEDICA. ' 25 cine ; but in many cases the menstruum prevents its being giy* en so largely as it may be in substance or in Avatery infi sjons. CORTICES. The astringent quality of vegetables is more frequently lodg- ed in their barks than in any other part of them; and there are perTiaps very few barks of a hard consistence, in Avhich there is not more or'less of an astringent quality. This quality, howe- ver, is often joined Avith others of a more active kind, Avhich prevent their being used as astringents ; and I haA-e therefore set down in my list only a feAV in which a simple astringency prevails, and that of a powerful kind. CORTEX GRANATORUM. The strong styptic taste of this bark, and the black colour it strikes Avith green vitriol, shoAv sufficiently its astringent poAver; and it is commonly supposed to be among the strongest of this kind. As at the same time it gh-es out such a large portion of its substance to water in infusion or decoction, it seems to be particularly fit for affording a liquid astringent; and I have fre- quently found it particularly useful in gargles, in diarahcea, and in external applications. That it is so powerful an astringent, internally used, as to be more dangerous than others, I cannot perceive ; and that it has ever, had the poAver of suppressing the menses in females, seems to me very doubtful. CORTEX QUERCI. This is the bark that is considered as the most poAverful of the vegetable astringents: and its universal use and preference in the tanning of leather renders the opinion very probable. Ac- cordingly it has been much employed as an astringent medicine, ?.nd commended for every virtue that has been ascribed to astrin- gents, either internally or externally employed; but except its degree of power, it has no peculiar qualities to distinguish it from other astringents. I haAre frequently employed the decoc- tion Avkh advantage in slight tumefactions of the mucuous mem- brane of the fauces ; and in several persons liable upon slight ap- plication of cold to a prolapsus uvulae, and acynanche tonsillaris. In many cases, this decoction, early applied, has appeared use- ful in preventing those disorders Avhich other vise A\rere wont to *rise to a considerable degree. I haAre indeed almost constantly joined a portion of alum to these decoctions ; but I haA-e fre- quently found that a solution of alum alone;, of the strength it could be cnnvenier/!y employed in, did not prove so effectual, I have employed the oak bark in poAvder, giving it to the quantity of half a drachm every tAvo or three hours during the ;-\rennissions of a fev^r ; and, both by itself and joined Avith camomile dowers, h.e.v prevented the return of the paroxysms orintermittents.' Alt these virtue •, in a conciderable degree, are found to belong *o the cupulr.\ or srr-y cup, Avh-^h embraces the bottom of the ■'.corns. ' V"i.N. ^ 26 TREATISE OF THE GALLiE. Although these substances are the Avork of animal, Ave consider them as entirely of a vegetable nature, and put them here im- mediately after the oak bark, as they are an excrescence from the same tree, and a substance of the same qualities Avith the bark '.ve have been just now treating of. It is supposed to be the most powerful of vegetable astringents ; and I am ready to be- lieve it to be so, though it has not been employed so often, or in such h Aariety of cases, as many others have been. About the beginning of this century, in some parts of France, the Gallae had got a reputation for the cure of intermittent fevers ; and it Avas pointed out as a proper object of attention to the Academy of Sciences; who accordingly appointed Mr. Poupart to inquire into the matter. His report may be seen in the memoirs of the year 1702. It amounts to this, that in many cases the galls cured the inttrmittents; but that it failed also in many cases in Avhich the Pe- ruvian bark proved effectual. Bergius is of opinion, that the prac- tice with the galls is very mischievous ; but in employing them with gentian or other bitters, I met with no bad consequences. In this country, of late, a particular use of galls has prevailed. Finely powdered, and mixed Avith eight times their quantity of hog's lard, l«hey are made into an ointment: which, applied to the anus, has been found to relieve hemorrhoidal affections ; and Ave have known some instances of its being useful. As, hcweA'er, it has been more frequently employed by the vulgar than by the advice of our physicians and surgeons, we can- not say how far it has been uniA-ersally safe ; but so far as I can learn, it has not been commonly hurtful: and there is reason to believe it to have been certainly useful in the cases of Exania, that is, in cases of a topical rather than of a s\stematic affection. VISCUS. Though it is pretty certainly established that the misletoe does not differ in its qualities from a difference of the trees on which it grows, yet, if it was to be mentioned at all, I thought best to do it in this place, as it is almost ahvays, the viscus quernus that has been pointed out by writers. Although, upon the recommendation of Colbatch, this plant was not very long ago in high repute for the cure of epilepsy, his facts have so entirely lost their credit, that it is entirely o- mitted, both by the London and Edinburgh colleges. As still, hoAvever, remaining in the lists of several of the lately improved pharmacopoeias, we have given it a place here. It is, hoAvever, only to say, that from its sensible qualities, and from several trials made with it in practice, it seems to be a substance of ve- ry little power in medicine. I am surprised at Dr. Holler's quoting so many authors for die accounts of its virtues; and humbly think that he might not only hceve omitted the reports of its effects against the power of witchcraft, but also many of the others which he quotes. MATERIA MEDICA. 2f LIGNUM CAMPECHENSE. This wood is of a considerably astringent quality, and its use in dyeing is a sufficient proof of it. It has not, hoAvever, been employed except in the case of fluxes, and is alleged to have been very useful in dysenteries: but Ave judge this to have been at the end of these only, Avhen the disease was in the state of di- arrhoea; for'it was from the employment of this very medicine in the beginning of dysenteries, that I learned what mischief arose from the use of astringents in the beginning of that disease. It is employed in decoction or in extract; and it was in both. shapes that I observed it to have the effects just now mentioned. Dr. Alston has given this opinion, that if the lignum campechense be useful in fluxes, it is not by its astringency: but upon what that opinion Avas founded I cannot perceive ; for it is certainly an astringent, and I cannot discover any other quality in it by which it can be medicinal. In the table of medicines which I made out for my lectures on the materia medica, and ayhich Avas published with the spu- rious edition of those lectures, after throwing the astringents in- to assortments as Avell as I could, I set doAvn a number oi sub- stances which I could not refer to any general heads ; and I was then, like many other persons, treating of the materia medica, willing to multiply my subjects : butnoAv, not Avillingto admit any but those of some poAver and efficacy, I have omitted a great number of my former list; such as the Anchusa, Brunella, Hy- pericum, Plantago, Sanicula, and Sednm, as not deserving a place here. Some of the others, as the Millefolium and Uva Ursi, I refer to other titles; and therefore of my former list there re- main only the feAv folloAving to be taken notice of here. BALAUSTIA. These flowers discover no other quality than that of astrin- gent ; but they sheAV this in a considerable degree. I am how- ever, of Bergius's opinion, that they are less poAverful than the bark of the fruit. LYTHRUM. This had been hardly known as a medicine till the late Dr. De Haen published his experience of it, in his Ratio Medendi. His testimony in its favour is veiy strong, and it is confirmed by some others. Mark, hoAvever, the fallacy of experiment: Professor Murray found it useful in the case of lientery ; but in Other cases it seems frequently to have failed : and Heuerman, in employing the flowers, found it rather to increase the diar- rhoea, and otherAviseto raise so much disorder, that he ceased to employ them. From the sensible qualities of the whole, either Avith respect to astringency or mucilage, I would not expect much from it; and, from some trials made, I have no opinion of its efficacy. After thus enumerating particular astringents, I have set down in my list some general titles of medicines that haA'e a 28 TREATISE OF THE place elsewhere, but which may be, or are supposed to be, useful as astringents. And, in the first place, ACIDS, as Astringents. Acids have a very Aarious and complicated operation, ac- cording to their different degrees of concentration, which will be considered Avhen we come to treat of them in their proper place; and here we are only to view them as they belong to our present title of astringents. Acids, under a certain degree of concentration, as they co- agulate the fluids, so they harden the solids composed of these, and thus prove astringent. Whether, hoAvever, the astringency which they shew even in a very diluted state, depends upon their coagulating power, I dare not assert ; for they certainly shew it in a state in Avhich they do not coagulate the fluids. Although, from the effect of vinegar upon the lips, we can readily discover their astringent power, yet hoAv this is consistent Avith a stimu- lant power, Avhich the same state of acid always shows, Ave cannot readily say, but shall consider it hereafter. The astringent power which acids exert upon the vessels of the skin is supposed to go deeper, and to affect the subjacent muscular fibres so far as to be useful in recovering the relaxa- tion and Aveakness that takes place in the case,of sprains. I be- lieve, however, that their operation in this case is only by a com- munication from the vessels of the skin, to those of the subjacent parts; by which they are useful in preventing the afflux of fluids to the parts, and the tumour that Avould thence arise: and it is in this manner that they are particularly useful in contusions. The acid commonly employed for these purposes is vinegar: but whether a more concentrated acid might pot be employed, I cannot certainly determine. From some trials, howeA-er, I am disposed to judge that the fossil acids under a certain degree of dilution, might be employed Avith advantage. ... In another Ariew, acids are supposed to act as astringents, as they are employed internally for restraining hemorrhagy: and practitioners have frequently found them in this manner useful. But considering the quantities in which only they can be,intro- duced, as Ave cannot suppose that they are so distributed -in the mass of blood as that they can act as astringents upon the open blood-vessels; and therefore their effects here must be ascribed to their refrigerant power, to be considered more fully hereafter. Although not mentioned in my present catalogue, there are some titles given in that annexed to the spurious edition of my lectures which it may be proper to repeat here. AUSTERE WINES. This title only lead me to observe, that acids, joined to astringents, produce.the qualities of austere and acerb; and in certain cases seem to increase the astringency. Wines, there- fore, which have some austerity, are justly supposed to be more ^astringent than the smooth and sweet wines. From hence ther'. MATERIA MEDICA. 29 may be a choice of Avines in certain cases of disease; but the astringent poAver of Avines can neA^er be considerable, and must be generally counteracted by the alcohol that is at the same time present. It is therefore that, to obtain the astringent virtue of wines, they must be exposed to such a heat as may dissipate their alcohol Avhile their astringent matter remains; and thus what are called Burnt Win^s, joined with the aromatic astrin- gency of cinnamon, sometimes prove an useful medicine. BITTERS, as Astringents. Bitters certainly do sometimes show the effects of astringents; and therefore I judge it proper to mention them here: but how far they are, or in what manner they act as, astringents, I refer to be considered in my next chapter, which is to treat of tonic medicines. SEDATIVES, as Astringents. Every body knows that sedatives, and particularly opium, are employed in restraining excessive evacuations: and therefore this has been supposed, and frequently spoken of, as an astrin- gent. Certainly, hoAvever, neither in opium, nor in any other narcotic sedative, can any astringent quality be discerned; and there is hardly any doubt that their operation in restraining ex- cess! Are evacuations is entirely by suspending the irritability and action of those moving fibres, whose increased action produced the evacuation. How far they are properly employed in place of the proper astringents, I shall consider hereafter, under the title of Sedatives. There is another kind of sedatives, which are frequently em- ployed for restraining excessive haemorrhagy, and might there- fore also be considered as astringents. These are the several neutral salts, and particularly nitre; all of which I am to consi- der hereafter, under the title of Refrigrants. In the mean time it will be plain, that their operation in restraining haemorrhagy, cannot be ascribed to any astringent quality, Avhich they do not in any Avay discover; but must.be owing to their general poAver of diminishing the activity of the sanguiferous system, which av? shall consider in its proper place. UA.LSAMICS, as Astringents. Balsamics have been employed for restraining the eAacuationr that occur in gonorrhoeas, gleets, and fluor albus; and there- fore shew the effects of astringents. It Avillbe obvious, hoAvever, that they do not effect this by.any proper astringent poAver: and in Avhat manner they do it, I sh;'! cndeaA'our to explain in its proper place hereafter. 30 TREATISE OF THE Chapter II. OF TONICS. A HE treating of these here breaks in upon our general plan of considering separately the medicines which act upon the simple solids, and those Avhich act upon the nerves and moving fibres; but I have found that such a plan could not consistently, or Avith advantage, be every a\ here followed; and that in some instances it would be better to consider medicines by the affinity of their effects, rather than by their manner of operating. It is this that has led me, after considering astringents, to treat here of tonic medicines; which, by giving firmness and strength to the whole system, and thereby to peculiar parts, have an ef- fect analogous and similar to that of astringents : and I shall have occasion to observe, that by the astringent and tonic poAver com- bined, some of the most valuable purposes of both are with great- er certainty to be obtained. We enter, therefore, noAV upon the consideration of tonics: and shall, in the first place, enquire a little into their manner of operating; in the next place, consider the effects that are in com- mon to a great number of them; and, in the third place, treat of the pharmaceutic treatment and administration which may ah so be in common to many of them. After all this, I shall enu- merate the chief of the substances that may be referred to this head, in order to determine in Avhat degree they possess the ge- neral properties, or what may be peculiar to each of them. We have already taken pains to show, that the tone of the mo- ving fibres may depend partly on the mechanism of these fibres, but probably also upon the inherent power or state of the nerv- ous fluid, as particularly modified in those fibres. If this last position be well founded, it will folloAv, that, whilst on different occasions the tone of the moving fibres may be stronger or Aveak- er, this may depend upon the state of the nervous poAver in the moving fibres being for the time different; and as this power may be acted upon and variously changed by substances applied to the body, Ave may alloAv that there are substances, Avhich, applied to the moving fibres, may induce that state of the nervous power upon Avhich their tone depends. Astringents, we have observed, often prove tonics with regard to the moving fibres; and it will be readily presumed, that they have that effect by acting upon the solid part of the fibre: but Ave shall find, that there are tonic medicines Avhich discoA'er no astringent quality; and therefore their action must be upon the inherent poAver. These are the substances which are especially to be called To- nics : and I noAV proceed to enquire what these substances pro- perly are. With respect to this, it appears pretty clearly, that the tonic MATERIA MEDICA. 31 power of substances is chiefly the same quality that gives them their bitter taste: for, excepting the astringents, I know no other substances possessed of tonic power, but the bitters. These in- deed have frequently other qualities combined Avith the bitter; as that of aromatic, saline, narcotic, purgative, or otherwise va- riously stimulant: and these other qualities are often so preva- lent in the composition of certain substances, as to prevent our employing their bitter quality as a tonic: but Ave can, upon ma- ny occasions, distinguish the bitter from all these other quali- ties, and find that the purest bitter, or what is free from all other qualities, is possessed of a considerable tonic poAver: and there- fore we conclude, that except in so far as astringents may be such, the proper tonics are the bitters, and perhaps these only. We go on, therefore, now to consider them as such. Bitterness is a simple perception that cannot be defined, but must be referred to a matter of experience in which mankind are commonly agreed. What is the nature of the substances posses- sed of it, in a.chemical vieAV, Ave cannot determine, or at least Ave can only in a negative way distinguish it from other matters. Thus Ave can say, that bitterness does not depend upon any vol- atile parts, for the purest and strongest bitters have no smell; and if there are some bitters Avhich give a smell, that again is com- monly lost on drying, Avhile the bitter taste and quality remain entire—In another vieAv, the bitters are Avithout A-olatile parts ; as the purest kinds of them give out in distillation no essential oil: or if some of them do, the oils are without bitterness, and show very clearly, that the bitterness of the entire substance did not depend upon the essential oil in their composition. We learn also, otherwise, that bitterness does not depend upon any such oil in the composition of their substance; as some of the strong- est bitters are quite free from any acrid or aromatic quality. Neither can I find any thing distinctly saline in the composi- tion of bitters. There are hardly any of them which to our taste discover any saline matter, except in a few substances, in Avhich some acid happens to be conjoined; but the strongest bitters are absolutely free from any such quality: and so far are acids from entering into the composition of the bitter, that Ave shall hereaf- ter show the combination of acid to have a tendency to destroy the bitter quality. With respect to any other saline matters to be alleged in the composition of bitters, it is true, that by particu- lar processes, saline matters can be extracted from bitter sub- stances ; but as these saline substances are not extracted, but produced by a destruction of the original mixture, and as no- body has shown that the saline matters are in any certain pro- portion to the bitterness of the subject, or that they modify it in any certain manner, we cannot make use of any such analysis in explaining the natural composition of bitters. Upon the Avhole, I must allege, that in a chemical vieAv, Ave cannot explain the nature of bitters. It is a composition si:I ge- 32 TREATISE OF iHE neris, that we can in many cases distinguish from all others : and if in any case Ave have learned to change its condition, it is from particular experience, and not from any knowledge of its constituent parts. * Before Ave enter upon Avhat experience has taught in this re- spect, it Avill be proper to consider the A'arious purposes in me- dicine to which bitters may be applied. And as in this vieAv the bitters, in their operation on the human body, have many of them the same qualities and virtues in common, Ave think it may be useful to consider, in the first place, what these com- mon qualities are. First, then, the most obvious operation of bitters is, that being taken into the stomach, they increase the appetite for food, and promote the digestion of it. But we take it for granted, that these functions depend upon the tone of the muscular-fibres of the sto- mach ; and therefore may suppose that the improvement of these functions depends upon an increase of tone in those fibres. And farther, as loss of appetite and indigestion can often be distinctly perceived to occur from a loss of tone in the stomach; so bit- ters, as they are often effectual in curing these disorders, may be presumed to do it by restoring the tone of this organ. The correcting the acidity and flatulence of the stomach, may be ascribed to the power of bitters in checking acescent fermen- tation, which they do out of the body: and the relieving the sto- mach from abundant mucus or phlegm, as it is called, may be ascribed to the poAver of bitters in dissolving \-iscid animal fluids. As it is, however, probable that both the preA-alence of an aces- cent fermentation in the stomach, and a superabundance of mu- cus in it, are commonly owing to a loss of tone : so the correc- tion of those disorders may be ascribed more properly to the to- nic power of bitters, Avith respect to the human body,. than to their chemical qualities. There is, then, hardly any doubt that bitters are poAverful to- nics Avith respect to the stomach ; and there being as little doubt that the state of the stomach is commonly communicated to the other parts of the system : so it is sufficiently probable, that by an improvement of digestion, the vigour oi the system may be in general improved: and that also the tone, and consequently the activity of the Avhole of the moving fibres, may be increased. It has been commonly supposed, that bitters are useful in re- solving visceral obstructions: and if they shall be found to be so, I would maintain that the) have no considerable operation upon the state of the fluids; and therefore that their effects in curing visceral obstructions must be ascribed entirely to their tonic. power; although it may not be improper, by the Avay, to re- mark here, that in all cases Avhere I could find the existence of visceral obstructions Avell ascertained, I have seldom or never found any benefit from bitters, though largely employed. On the same occasions that materia medica writers recom- MATERIA MEDICA. 33 mend bitters as useful in visceral obstructions, they particularly recommend and extol their use in the jaundice: but that the judgment of these writers in this matter is fallacious, Ave haAre endeaA-ored already to show. In speaking of the poAver of tonics in resolving visceral ob- structions, we must observe, that upon the tonic poAver of bit- ters, in strengthening every where the extremities of the vessels, is founded their utility, so frequently reported in the cure of dropsy. As this disease so frequently depends upon a loss of ' tone in the Avhole system, which gives the state of cachexy, and thereby that laxity of the exhalents which constitutes the hydro- phic diathesis; so if such a state does not depend upon some con- siderable and fixed visceral obstructions, it is obvious, that our tonic bitters may be of great service, may obviate a coming on dropsy, or even cure it when formed. It has been alleged, that bitters sometimes operate as diure- tics. And as the matter of them appears to be often carried to the kidneys, and to change the state of the urine, so it is possible that in some cases they may increase the secretion: but in many trials we have never found their operation in this way to be ma- nifest, or at least to be anyAvays considerable. In one situation, howeA-er, it may have appeared to be so. When in dropsy, bit- ters moderate that exhalation into the cavities Avhich forms the disease, there must necessarily be a greater proportion of serum carried to the kidney; and thereby bitters may, Avithout increas- ing the action of the kidney, seem to increase the secretion of urine. That the tonic power of bitters in the stomach is communica- ted to the other, and even the most distant parts of the system, appears strongly from their being a cure of intermittent fevers, and a special means of pre venting the return of their paroxysms. I have explained elsewhere, and need not repeat here my opi- nion, that the recurrence of the paroxysms of intermittent feArers depends upon the recurrence of an atony in the extremities of the arterial system. It is from hence accordingly, that the re- currence of paroxysms is prevented by stimulants and by astrin- gents ; and if the same is also done by bitters, it must be a tonic power communicated from the stomach to the most distant parts of the system. In this case, hoAvever, the bitters do not act as stimulants; for they do not increase the frequency of the pulse, nor the force of the circulation : nor do they act as astrin- gents ; because they do not always possess any such quality; and therefore they must in such cases act purely as tonics. To proAre the operation of tonics in curing intermittents to be an operation on the nervous system, we maintain it to be a com- munication from the stomach; for their effects, after being ta- ken in, often appear sooner than they can be supposed to be car- ried further than into the stomach, and certainly sooner than the Vol. II. E 3* TREATISE OF THE quantity employed can be distributed, so as to have any locaf effects on the parts affected by die morbid state. It may be remarked here, that the effects of bitters are more certainly obtained by their being combined Avith astringents*- which, however, does not derogate from the poAver of the sim- ple bitter; for from my own experience, as Avell as from the re- port of other writers, I knoAv that the most pure and simple bit- ters are often sufficient for the purpose. They are by some Avriters said to have been useful in continue ed fevers. And if these feArers have been of the putrid kind,. and attended with great debility, avc may readily allow the fact; and the same reports of their having been useful even in the plague itself are probably Avell founded. Their use, hoAvever, in continued feArers is someAvhat ambigu- ous, as tonic medicines must promote the phlogistic diathesis of the system; and therefore, Avherever such diathesis prevails, our ■ tonics must be hurtful. Bitters haAre been sometimes spoken of as sudorifics; and though they do not stimulate the sanguiferous system, yet as they invigorate the force of this system, they must determine it more fully to the surface of the body, and probably support per- spiration. But so far as I can perceive, they neA'er occasion sweating, except by the assistance of a sudorific regimen, that is, by their being taken in a very diluted state, considerably warm, and in considerable quantity, Avhile the person lies a-bed, closely co\'ered up. In mentioning the operation of bitters on the stomach, I should have taken notice of their effects when further carried on in the alimentary canal. And with respect to these, it may be observ- ed, that we have ahvays found a large dose of bitters prove pret- ty certainly laxative; and this with the analogy from bile, makes me judge, that bitters, besides their tonic power, have a peculiar power of stimulating the intestinal canal: and, therefore, that they may be useful, as is alleged, in spasmodic colics, or in dis- positions to that disease, and particularly that they maybe useful in dysentery; in which some constriction of the intestines taking place, renders purgatives and laxatives so generally necessary. Another virtue ascribed to bitters is, their proving emmena- gogue; but I have never perceived that they had any specific poAver determining them to the uterus. In case of a chlorosis, their tonic power is certainly useful: but I have never knoAvn that these alone afford a cure. Several writers take notice of bitters in general, and of some of them more particularly, as resolving the coagulations produ- ced by falls and contusions. But as ay e do not believe in their poAver of changing the state of the fluids, so we cannot trust to their operation in this case; and I have not met with any ex- perience to establish it. There remains only one operation of bitters internally em- MATERIA MEDICA, 35 ployed; and that is, their proving anthelmintic, and a poison for worms. There is one instance reported of their even miti- gating the pains arising from a taenia ; but we do not find any account of their ever expelling that kind of Avorm. It is said to be the lumbrici teretes to Avhich they are especially adapted; but from Redis's experiments it appears, that bitters are not an immediate poison to those animals: and Professor Murray pro- perly observes, that if the semen santonicum, according to Bag- hvi's experiments, operates more quickly, it must be by some- thing else than its bitterness that this seed operates. I am un- certain if I have even been possessed of the best kind of this seed ; but must say, that what I have seen has hardly ever ap- peared to me to be a poAverful medicine. After considering, in so many instances, the internal use of bitters, we must observe, that they have also their virtues when externally employed. They haA-e been commended for cleans- ing and healing foul u^-rs; and in that Avay we haAre found them useful. They are certainly antiseptic, though not of the most poAverful kind ; but in checking the progress of gangrene, they have often been useful. They are universally employed in fomentations for discussing tumours: but in cases where the skin is entire, the more pure bitters which have no volatile parts, can hardly be of much ser- vice. It is therefore the bitter, joined with some aromatic parts in their composition, which only can be useful here; and if even these can do much more than warmth and moisture alone, is Avith me A^ery doubtful. The operation of bitters hitherto considered seems, so far as they go, to be tolerably explained. But there is an effect of them still to be mentioned, which gives more difficulty; and that is, their being a cure of the gout thathas been often ascribed to them. The fact is certain ; and there are accounts from the time of Galen to the present, which show that the use of bitters, such, for example, as the Portland powder, continued for some time, has prevented the return of paroxysms of inflammatory gout, which had before, in the same persons, been frequent: but in what manner they do this, is truly difficult to explain. The pathology of the gout under its Ararious states and circum- stances, is truly a difficult subject; and except it be Dr. Stahl and his followers, all other physicians, very universally attached to a humoral pathology, haA-e supposed the gout to depend upon a peculiar morbific matter present in the body; Avhich, however, is neither proved in fact nor explains the phenomena of the disease. In nw First Lines I have given a different vieAv of the sub- ject ; but am afraid that, to the most part of physicians, little at- tenth-e to the motions of the nervous system, I have inArolved the subject in still greater obscurity. I cannot, indeed, obviate this Jiere ; but Avell persuaded of the truth of the general dog- 36 TREATISE OF THE trine, shall try it, by endeavouring to explain in Avhat manner bitters operate in seemingly curing the gout. I believe it to be very evident to every body, that the pheno- mena of the gout have a constant connection with the state of the stomach; and particularly that a certain strength of tone in this organ is necessary to produce a paroxysm of inflammatory gout. At the same time, hoAvever, t am of opinion Avith Dr. Sydenham, that every paroxysm of inflammatory gout is intro- duced by a state of atony in the stomach. Flow this atony gives occasion to the recoA-ery and exertion of tone, I cannot indeed explain ; but as it appears in fact to be so, I Avould allege, that though the previous atony be a necessary step in the series of phenomena, it is only when in a moderate degree, and may be easily overcome by the vis medicatrix naturae; but that if the atony go to a certain greater degree, no inflammatory paroxysm ensues ; and the person remains in that state which I have called the atonic gout; and it seems as if bitters, long continued in use, at mally produce this greater degree of atony, so that they prevent inflammatory paroxysms. This is the explanation I would give of their effects in this way ; but I own it is difficult to explain how bitters, which are otherwise in so many cases the most poAverful tonics, should have in this a contrary operation. Without venturing, ho\veArer, to offer any theory of this, 1 rest upon it as a matter of fact, that bitters actually destroy the tone of the stomach, i dare not de- termine, whether the loss of tone mentioned is produced merely by the repetition of their tonic operation, or by a narcotic quality, which bes been suspected in wormwood and other bitters, and which appears pretty strongly from the poisonous quality that is found in the strongest bitter we ;re acquainted a\ ith; that is, the Eaba Sti Ignatii. I am truly of opinion, that someAvhat delete- rious in the whole of the bitters is to be suspected. But I pro- secute this subject no farther here ; and shall rather enter upon a question of more importance, which is, to determine Avhether this remedy for curing the gout can be safely employed. On this subject it appears clearly, that, from very ancient times down to the present, such a medicine has at different pe- riods been recommended and employed for the gout; and, as al- ways on its first coming into use, it seems to haAre been of ser- vice, it might have been expected, that if it had not in its con- sequences been found hurtful, the use of it Avould haA e been continued Avith every gouty person : so that this disease should have long ago ceased to be one of the opprobria medico.rum. We find, however, that Avhilst at one period it has been in high fa- Aor, at another it seems to haAre been entirely neglected; and this I can only impute either to its oiten failing, or to its being often attended Avith consequences more grievous than the pains of the gout. That the latter was the case, we may presume from the accounts of the ancients, Ayho, though they recommend the re- MATERIA MEDICA. 37 medy in certain constitutions as highly useful, allow that in o- ther cases it had been highly pernicious ; and in this respect I Avould take the account of Coelius Aurelianus, as quoted by Dr. Clephane, to be very general. The effects of it in modern times have been very much upon the same footing. It is possible that several persons may have taken the Portland powder, and other bitters, with seeming great advantage ; but I have not had opportunity to know the sequel of the whole of such persons' lives, so as to say positively how far, in any case, the cure continued steady for a life of some years after, or Avhat accidents happened to their health. But I have had occasion to knoAv, or to be exactly informed of the fate of nine or ten persons who had taken this medicine for the time prescribed, which is two years. These persons had been liable for some years before to have a fit of a regular or very painful inflammatory gout, once at least, and frequently twice, in the course of a year: but after they had taken the me- dicine for some time, they were quite free from any fit of in- flammatory gout; and particularly, when they had completed the course prescribed, had never a regular fit, or any inflamma- tion of the extremities for the rest of their life. In no instance, however, that I have known, was the health of these persons tolerably entire. Soon after finishing the course of their medicine, they became valetudinary in different shapes; and particularly were much affected with dyspeptic, and what are called nervous complaints, with lowness of spirits. In every one of them, before a year had passed after finishing the course of the poAvders, some hydropic symptoms appeared, which gra- dually increasing in the form of an ascites or hydrothorax, espe- cially the latter joined with anasarca, in less than tAvo or at most three years, proved fatal. These accidents, happening to per- sons of some rank, became very generally knoAvn in this coun- try, and have prevented all such experiments since. In illustra- tion and confirmation of all this, see Dr. Clephane's Observa- tions, in London Med. Observ. vol. i. art. 14. Chirurgical Pharmacy, page 341. Halleri Epistola, vol. v. p. 55. and Gau- bius in the Avorks of the Harlem Society, vol. iv. 'Before quitting the subject of the gout, we must remark, that in many writers on the materia medica, reports are to be found of benefit received from bitters in cases of stone and gravel. I have never tried them with that vieAv; but from the affinity that subsists between the gout and stone, I can readily believe, that the bitters that are found for some time to prevent the paroxysms of the gout, may also prevent paroxysms of the stone. After having thus considered the general virtues of bitters, I am to offer some general remarks with respect to their adminis- tration and pharmaceutic treatment. The medicinal part of bitters of every kind may be extracted by either Avatery or soiritous menstruums, and such extractions SB TREATISE OF THE may have the virtues of the substance from which they hate been taken: but I maintain, that hardly in any case they ever have it in the same degree; and that, wherever it can be ad- mitted, the bitter in substance is the most effectual, and in some cases, the only effectual mode of exhibiting it. This every body- knows to be the case with the Peruvian bark; and I have found the same to be the case in all my attempts to substitute other bitters in place of that bark. There are cases, indeed, in which the stomach will not bear ei- ther the bark or bitters in substance; and therefore it becomes often necessary to obtain their virtues in a liquid form; in the management of which, however, several particulars demand at- tention. By infusion in water, and even in cold Avater, bitters give out their virtues; but to cold water they never give a strong impreg- nation, though it be generally the most agreeable to the palate Juid stomach. Warm water, though under the boiling heat, ex- tracts more poAverfully than cold, and the more as its temperature is warmer. With respect to every temperature, this is especi- ally to be attended to, that by infusion, bitters suffer a gradual decomposition ; and consequently the matter extracted is dif- ferent according to the length of time that the menstruum has been applied; so that the temperature being given, what is ex- tracted in the first hours is a lighter and more agreeable matter than what is extracted after many hours infusion. This we have tried Avith several bitters, infusing the same quan- tities of the bitter in the same quantity of water, and setting all of them in the same degree of heat for six, for twelve, for twen- ty-four, and for forty-eight hours. In every experiment, it ap- peared that the impregnation was stronger according to the length of time employed in infusion, and at the same time that the harsh- ness of the taste was sensibly increased. This, howeArer, was re- marked, that the difference of the impregnation Avas not so re- markable in the longer infusions as in the shorter: and therefore the impregnation did not appear in the forty-eight hours so much in proportion stronger than that of twenty-four hours, or so great as that of twenty-four compared with that of six. On the other hand it appeared that the harshness of taste increased according as the infusion was longer; and therefore the harshness of taste was not so much increased from the tAventy-four hours above that of six as it was in the forty-eight hours infusion above that of twenty-four. From all this we conclude, that an infusion of twenty-four hours is sufficient for impregnation, and that little harshness will be produced by infusions of a shorter time ; and therefore a sufficiently useful, and the most agreeable, infusion of bitters in cold water, or even of warm water under the hoih ing heat, will be that of tAventy-four hours, or perhaps less. The London college, in limiting their infusions even of boiling water to a single hour, seem to be more nice than is necessary. The treatment of bitters by cold infusion in wine, is with r«« MATERIA MEDICA, *9 tpect to extraction, much on the same footing Avith the treatment by Avater. It does not appear that wine extracts the medicinal qualities more powerfully than water, or in any instance gives a more efficacious medicine, excepting Avhere the wine concurs in the intention of it as a medicine. It is, therefore, almost only for the purpose of a more agreeable medicine that bitters are infused in wine. A still more powerful extraction is made of bitters by a boil- ing heat; and here also the same difference arises from the length of time employed in decoction. With respect to bitters it is certain that decoction extracts more powerfully than infu- sions : but by dissipating any aromatic parts that were joined with the bitter,and by extracting more of the earthy part, and what may be called a coarser bitter, decoctions are always more disa« greeable than infusions; and therefore Avhat we call extracts, Avhich are ahvays prepared by decoction, are always less agreea- ble to the stomach than the bitter in substance. It appears to me that decoction decomposes the substance of what is extract- ed ; for it is seldom that decoctions do not upon cooling depo- site a part of what they had suspended before, and that also a matter different from the entire substance. What is exactly the nature of the matter impregnating decoction, has not been duly examined ; but we say no more of that here, as it is pretty cer- tain that bitters are never treated by decoction, so as to be either agreeable or very useful medicines. Besides the ordinary treatment by infusion or decoction, bit- ters may be treated by the application of Avater in two other ways. One is, by Avhat I call a Trituration, in the manner of the Comte de la Garaye. In this practice, the substance is broken doAvn into \-ery minute parts ; but so far as I can perceive, with- out any decomposition or division of its constituent parts. The only separation Avhich seems to be made is that of the more soluble from those of a firmer texture; and so far as these more soluble parts possess the medicinal qualities of the subject, they are obtained very entirely, and that in a state more than any other agreeable to the human stomach. They seem to be much in the same state as they are obtained by an infusion in cold water; Avhich by a proper evaporation affords the same sort of matter that is obtained by the Comte de la Garaye's apparatus. In either Avay, Ave may obtain an efficacious and agreeable me- dicine ; but it is to be doubted if the expence incurred in the preparation will ever allow it to come into much use. The other management of the application of water, different. from the common, is that by the use of a digester. Decoctions are commonly made in open vessels, or in Aressels not so accurate- ly closed as to prevent the dissipation of volatile parts; but this can be obviated by the use of a digester: and though in the glass digester Ave employ, the heat applied can be conveniently no aiore than that of boiling water; yet we find the medicinal sub- 40 TREATISE OF THE stances can be abstracted by the apparatus as powerfully as the* decoction, and with this advantage, that the volatile parts which either were a part of the substance that is to be extracted, or were added to it for the purpose of rendering it a more agreea- ble or more effectual medicine. Bitters are universally extracted by spirit of Avine and even by a proof-spirit, not so largely indeed for the most part as by Avater; but in most instances their medicinal parts are extracted more purely: and the tinctures, when they can be employed in tolerable quantity, seem to be more efficacious medicines than any infusions or decoctions in water. With respect to the tincture made Avith a proof-spirit, the same things are to be observed as of those made with Avater, that there is a gradual decomposition of the substance; and there- fore that the tinctures made by a short infusion are more agree- ble than those that haA-e stood longer. It should haA-e been ob- served before, that a spiritous menstruum extracts those bit- ters that have any aromatic joined with them, more entirely and effectually than is done by Avater: but in obtaining the spiritous extract, if this be done by draAving off the spirit by distillation, this advantage is commonly entirely lost. With respect to both the extractions by water and by spirit, this is to be remarked, that the most agreeable bitter is to be obtained by a short infusion: and a stronger impregnation of the same agreeable bitter is only to be got by a repeated cohoba- tion of the same menstruum upon fresh parcels of the same material. This further is to be remarked, that watery infusions, if made tolerably strong, prove very disagreeable ; and the em- ployment of the tinctures with rectified spirit will always be li- mited by the menstruum ; and therefore the tinctures made Avith proof-spirit will always give the most convenient extraction: and I have found that the employing a digester for brandy tinctures makes a more powerful extraction than can be got by- long infusion, and that with very little trouble. Having now said what relates to bitters in general, we pro- ceed to examine how far the general virtues prevail in the par- ticulars of our list, or under what peculiar modifications they arc to be found. PARTICULAR BITTERS. GENTIAN. I begin with this root because I find it to be a most simple and pure bitter, more perfectly free from any of that aromatic or astringent quality which is so frequently conjoined with others: at the same time it is a pretty strong bitter, and has every virtue that has been ascribed to bitters in general, which we have de- tailed above. It has been at all times, and still is, much employed in medi- MATERIA MEDICA. 41 cine: and with respect to its pharmaceutic treatment and admi- nistration, every thing that Ave have said above with respect to bitters in general is applicable to this. There is some variety in the formula ; but the differences are of no importance. Dr. Whyte's tincture has been justly commended : but the virtues of it depend more upon the Peruvian bark than upon the gentian. The febrifuge virtues of gentian have by some writers been made equal to those of the Peruvian bark : but in many cases the gentian alone has fallen short of that. But joined Avith galls or tormentil in equal parts, and gh-en in sufficient quantity, it has not failed in any intermittents of this country in which I have tried it. A medicine has been long famous and much employed in this country under the title of Stoughton's Elixir___The present elixir stomachicum, or tinctura amara of the last editions of the Edin- burgh dispensatory, resembles it very exactly, and I am certain has all the virtues of it. This, hoAveAxr, as Dr. Shaw has advised, may be further improved, by pouring the tincture upon a fresh parcel of the materials in half the quantity of those first employed. There has been some question about the species of gentian most fit to be employed. Thj gentiana lutea is chosen by the British dispensatory; but if in Germany they employ the genti- ana rubra, it will make very little difference. In Nonvay they employ the gentiana purpurea, and perhaps Avith advantage. For some time past we have had the root of this species imported in- to this country under the title of Cursuta, so named from the Norwegian name of it Skarsote. Some persons have thought it a stronger bitter than the common gentian, or root of the gen- tiana lutea; but I know of no experiments made for proving this ; and it appears to me in its sensible qualities to be very much the same with the common gentian. CENTAURIUM MINUS. As this is a species of gentian, it has the virtues of the genus, and has been commended for all the same qualities as gentian or other bitters. The centaury, therefore, is not very scientifical- ly introduced, as commonly done, into the same compositions with the gentians. Professor Murray properly observes, that as an indigenous plant it may be properly preferred to a foreign drug: but I find it inconvenient to employ the centaury: as in an equal weight it takes up more of the'menstruum than the root of the gentian: and if it is to be taken out by expression, it spoils the elegance of the infusion or tincture. Dr. Lezvis has justly observed, that the petals are insipid, or at least have very little bitterness: and it is therefore improperly that the summi- tates are commonly prescribed. It is said that the extract of this plant is less agreeable than that of gentian: but I find no differ- ence between them, and think it should be constantly substituted for that of gentian, as it mav be more cheaply prepared. Vol. II. F 42 TREATISE OF THE QUASSIA. We can find nothing in this Avood but a pure and simple bit- ter. In several specimens I have found the bitterness to be pret- ty strong: but for the most part it is, to my taste, not more bit- ter than the columbo, or even than good gentian. We are o- bliged to Professor Murray for his compilation on the subject of quasia; but after all that has been said by him and Mr. Ebe- ling, we find hardly any virtues ascribed to quassia ay hich have not been to other bitters.----Upon the Avhole, I beln ve quassia to be an excellent bitter, and that it will do all that any pure and simple bitter can do: but our experience of it in this country- does not lead us to think it will do more. And the extraordina- ry commendations given of it are to be ascribed to the partiality so often shown to neAV medicines, and especially by those who first introduce them, and by those who have a connection Avith the country from whence theAr are brought. SIMARUBA. I insert this here, partly because it is a species of the same genus with the preceding article, and partly, but especially, be- cause it seems to be very nearly of the same qualities; for we can perceive nothing in it but that of a pure and simple bitter. The virtues ascribed to it in dysentery have not been con- firmed by my experience or that of the practitioners of this country: and leaving what others are said to have experienced to be further examined and considered by practitioners, I can only at present say, that my account of the effect of bitters in the dysentery, A/ill perhaps explain the virtues ascribed to the simaruba. In dysentery, I have found an infusion of camomile flowers a more useful remedy. MENYANTHES. This is a strong bitter, without discovering either by taste or smell any peculiar acrimony combined Avith it. Its juice strikes a black colour with the solution of green vitriol, which implies some astringency; but the same is not discoA'ered by the taste or any of its effects. We consider it as a very pure bitter; and as it is of a strong kind, Ave suppose it to have all the virtues that have been ascribed to any other bitters; though upon account of its strong taste it is less agreeable than some others. Dr. Alston's observation on this plant deserves to be remarked: " I knew it (says he) to have very remarkable effects in the gout,. in keeping off the paroxysms, though not to the patient's advan- tage." This is to be collated with, and added to, Avhat Ave have said on the use of bitters in curing the gout. This plant has been said to lose its strength by drying; but that seems to be a mistake, for I have often, and most commonly, used it in its dry state with all the advantages I could expect. I have had several instances of its good effects in some cuta- neous diseases, of the herpetic or seemingly cancerous kind. It was taken by infusion in the manner of tea. MATERIA MEDICA. 43 CARDUUS BENEDICTUS. This is a simple and very pure bitter, but not a very strong one ; and has therefore none of the extraordinary virtues that have been ascribed to it. It is said to be extracted most agree- ably by an infusion in cold water; but I find that boiling Avater, if not applied above tAventy-four hours, makes it hardly less a- irreeable, and is much stronger than the former. LUPULUS. This is a pure and simple bitter, though not without some- thing odorous and aromatic in the flowers, which are the parts employed. Their use in preparing malt liquors is well known. The same effect of preserving these liquors for a long time with- out acescency may be obtained by other bitters; but none of them are so agreeable as the hop. This might also be agreea- bly employed in medicine; but we have no particular experi- ence of its use. FABA STI IGNATII. This is the most intense bitter we are acquainted with, and in a very small dose it has the effect of curing intermittent fevers. Whether it operates as a pure bitter, or as having combined Ayith it a narcotic power, I will not determine; but we have mention- ed this in another place as an example of such a combination, and as a ground for suspicion that all the bitters have more or less of a narcotic quality. However this may be, our present subject belongs to a genus of poisonous plants, and is therefore hardly to be employed Avhete any safer remedies are known. FUMARIA. This is not commonly enumerated among the bitters; but it deserves to be so; for this is its only sensible quality: and though it is more disagreeable than many others, it is Avithout acrimo- ny or astringency. It is omitted in the London dispensatory, but retained in ours, and in every odier that I know of. I have found it useful in many cases in \vhich bitters are prescribed; but its remarkable virtues are those of clearing the skin of many disorders. For this it has been much commended; and I have myself experienced its good effects in many instances of cuta- neous affections, Avhich I Avould call Lepra. I have commonly used it by expressing the juice, and giving that to two ounces twice a day; but I find the A-irtues remain in the dried plant, so that they may be extracted by infusion or decoction in Avater; and the foreign dispensatories have j-,i\ pared an extract of it, to which they ascribe all the virtues of the fresh plant. It has been frequently observed with respect to this extract, that after being kept for "some time it shows a crystalization up- on its surface, Avhich is a saline matter of the nitrous kind, and this in much larger proportion than in any of the other bitter extracts. Whether this contributes to'its peculiar virtues, I leave it to the learned to determine. 44 TREATISE OF THE COLUMBO. This is a root that we have become acquainted with with'm these forty years: and since the account given of it by the learn- ed Dr. Percival, it has come to be frequently employed in prac- tice. When first brought into Holland, it Avas introduced as a remedy in dysentery; and both in Holland and in Germany it was employed in that disease Avith much commendation. Dr. Percival informs us that he had sometimes found it useful in dysentery: but he does not speak of it as of much importance in that disease: and so far as I can learn, the employment of it in that Avay has not prevailed in Britain. I find this root to be a strong and agreeable bitter, and have employed it in many instances of dyspepsia Avith great advantage. In stopping vomiting it has frequently ansAvered; but in many it has failed entirely,.and even in cases where there seemed to be a redundancy of bile. With respect to its peculiar poAver of changing the' acrimony, or correcting the putresency of the bile, which Dr. Percival ascribes to it, neither the experiments of Ebeling in his dissertation on the quassia, nor some that I have made, show it to be more powerful than other bitters ; and there- fore do not alloAV me to think it has any specific power in that respect. CHAMvEMELUM. Under this title Ave have two plants whose flowers are em- ployed as marked in our list; and there is some question, which ought to be preferred. The virtues are precisely of the same kind; but I have ahvays judged the Roman or double-floAvering camomile to be the strongest: and if any regard is to be had to the essential oil, this certainly affords the greatest quantity ; and I am informed, that in Avarmer climates where it is a native, the qualities of it are much stronger than with us. These floAvers have been long celebrated as stomachics; and I have found them answer both in poAvder and in infusion the purposes of any other bitters. Before the introduction of the Peruvian bark, they were much employed in the cure of inter- mittent fevers; and our celebrated countryman, Dr. Pitcairn, was of opinion, that their pow-ers in this respect were equal to those of the Peruvian bark. Hoffman seems to have thought them a very effectual, and at the same time a safer remedy. I have accordingly employed them: and, agreeable to the method of Hoffman, by giving, several times during the intermission, from half a drachm to a drachm of the floAvers inpoAvder,have cured intermittent fevers. I have found, however, that these floAvers Avere attended with this inconvenience, that, given in a large quantity, they readily run off by stool, defeating thereby the purpose of preventing the return of paroxysms; and I have found, indeed, that Avithout joining Avith them an opiate or an astringent, i could not com- monly employ them. MATERIA MEDICA. 4* This quality of the camomile in moving the intestines, renders them often useful in flatulent and spasmodic colic; and upon the same ground I have found them useful in dysentery, and ra- ther hurtful in diarrhoea. TANACETUM. Both the herb and flowers have been employed; but the herb is the stronger of the two, and may be employed for any of the purposes of bitters, but does not seem to be near so strong a bitter as camomile and seAreral others already mentioned. It had almost gone out of use, till lately it Avas again brought into practice as a powerful remedy against the gout; and as such was employed by many persons in this country. I was not living in this city when the cases occurred to Dr. Clark, which he mentions in the Physical and Literary essays; nor have I learned what was the fate of these persons afterwards; but I have since learned, or have been informed, of many persons of this city, who have drank of Tansey tea, as a remedy for the gout. Of these, however, I have known several who have taken it without any advantage, and some others who reported that they had been relieved from the frequency of their gout: but I know of none who have employed it in such quantity, or for such a length of time, as might lead me to expect those consequences which I have mentioned before as following the use of the Portland powder. ABSYNTHIUM. This is one of the most famous among the bitter plants, and has been used Avith much commendation for every purpose of bitters. It is an odorous plant, and gives out in distillation an essential oil, Avhich, however, has not any bitterness ; and there- fore cannot be supposed to contribute any thing to the effect of the plant. When indeed it is entirely dissipated in making the extract, this retains all the bitterness of the plant; and, in my opinion, all the virtues depending upon it. Some physicians make a choice among the species, and prefer the Romanum or Ponticum to the Absynthium vulgare. But the Edinburgh col- lege are of opinion, that there is no foundation for this; and that the absynthium vulgare, as the most powerful bitter, is always to be preferred. They have erred, however, in prescribing the summitates ; as I truly find the leaves to afford a stronger bitter than the floAver and tops. In the tinctura absynthii, the college have given an example of the proper treatment of bitters in or- der to obtain a lighter and more agreeable bitter, and at the same time a stronger impregnation. I am of opinion, that they should have employed the same management in other cases; but in the example of wormwood, they have allowed both infu- sions, especially the second, to be for too long a time. The pharmacopoeia Rossica has copied exactly that of Edinburgh; and has A-ery properly directed the other bitter tinctures of carduus benedictus, and centaury, to be made upon the same plan of dou 45 TREATISE OF THE ble infusion. In the pharmacopoeia Danica, the esentia absynthii is too much and injudiciously compounded.—Neither the phar- macopoeia Danica, in adding the zedoary, nor the Swedish, in adding the galanga, to their bitter tinctures, have in my opinion judged very properly. With respect to the absynthium, there is a question, Avhether it is imbued with any narcotic power ? Lindenstolpe, and his commentator Stenzelius, have asserted it very strongly; but there seems to have been a peculiar idiosyn- crasy in the instances they mention; and we should not mind their account, if the same opinion of its narcotic power had not been also delivered by some others. On the other hand, however, Linnceus informs us, that persons taking AvormAvood every day for six months together, observed no such narcotic effects. I have not had an opportunity of ma- king proper experiments : but to me, with Bergius and Gle- ditsch, the odour of wormAvood seems temulent; ns, that is, gi- ving some confusion of head: and formerly, when it was a fa- shion with some people in this country to drink purl, that is, ale in which Avomnvood Avas infused, it was commonly alleged to be more intoxicating than other ales. This effect is improperly supposed to be owing to its volatile parts, for the reasons I have given above; but I am more ready to admit the general doc- trine of a narcotic poAver, as I believe from several considera- tions, particularly from the history of the Portland powder, that there is in every bitter Avhen largely employed, a poAver of de- stroying the sensibility and irritability of the nervous power. To wormwood, as to every other bitter, has been ascribed an anthelmintic virtue ; and this has been supposed to be more con- siderable in the seed of a certain wormwood than in any other bitter ; but of this I haA^e said enough aboAre, when treating of the general qualities of bitters. ABROTANUM. This, as a species of the same genus Artemisia Linnaei, has certainly the same virtues as the other species of it. It con- tains, hoAveAer, less of the bitter, but more of the aromatic; and if it deserves, as Professor Murray thinks, to be more employed than it has been, it must be on account of its aromatic and A-ola- tile parts ; of Avhich, however, the peculiar virtues are not yet well ascertained. These qualities, however, give a probable rea- son for its being frequently employed, as it commonly is, in fo- mentations. There Avere formerly two herbs under the title of Abrotanum in our dispensatory lists, under the improper distinction of Mas et Foemina, but the latter of a different genus, and in every re- spect of inferior virtue, which is noAV omitted in the British dis- pensatories, and indeed in most others. SCORDIUM. This plant has a bitter joined Avith some volatile parts; but neither of these qualities are considerable enough to retain it r* MATERIA MEDICA. 47 the present practice. It was formerly much celebrated as an alexipharmic; but we do not alloAv this to be a term of any clear and determined meaning: and in most instances think it has been an imaginary power, that is not supported by any clear or well ascertained experience. There are two other species of the teucrium, the Chamaedrys and Chamaepitys, which have formerly had a place in our dispen- satory lists; but they are now omitted in that of Edinburgh: and though they still hold a place in that of London and many bther dispensatories, I do not expect to see them brought again into practice, as their qualities, whether as bitter or aromatic, are by no means considerable. They have been celebrated for an- tarthritic virtues, and make a part of the Portland powder; but they are manifestly not the most powerful or valuable part of that composition. When employed by themselves, as they have some- times been, I would make the same remarks with respect to them as I have made with respect to the Portland poAvder, or other medicines that have been proposed for the cure of the gout. ARISTOLOCHIA. Which of the species of this genus are to be preferred, I can- not determine ; and believe the difference betAveen the rotunda, longa, and tenuis, is not considerable; though the latter seems now to be preferred by both the colleges of London and Edin- burgh. They are all of them considerably bitter, Avith more acrimony than in any other of the bitters commonly employed. Its name seems to have arisen from the supposition of its emme- nagogue virtues: and in some cases of retention and chlorosis, as a warm and stimulating medicine, I have found it useful j but in cases of suppression I never found it of any use : and the commendation of it by the ancients, in promoting the lochia, fa- cilitating birth, and promoting the exclusion of the secundines, is very ill founded, and affords a remarkable example of their imperfect knoAvledge; and an example Avhich, if followed, would lead to a mischievous practice. The aristolochia has been long commended as a cure for the gout. It makes a considerable part of the Portland poAvder; and has often been employed by itself in the same manner as that poAvder, to be taken every day for a great length cf time. It has the same power of preventing fits of the gout, and commonly Avith the same consequences ; of Avhich many instances are re- corded by the physicians of Germany. To this purpose I Avould make only one quotation from the late learned and experienced Werlhoff, first physician to his late Majesty for the electorate of Hanover. The quotation is taken from his Cautiones Medicae, page 346 of his works, published by Wichman. After speaking of the power of diet in the cure of the gout, he has the follow- ing Avords:—u Si diaeta minus sufficiat, in declinatione, sed knta longaque nimis, ad maturandam firmandamque intcgritatei.i, et ad pracavendam rsversionem nimis subitam, yeterum ilhe anti- 48 TREATISE OF THE doti amarae tonicse, apud Sennertum, Schneiderum de Catarrhis, Waltherum in Sylva Medica, collectae, quas inter pracipue aris- tolochia; species, rotunda, cava, longa, et clematitis, memorari merentur, experientiam moderatarum laudum testem reperiunt. Brunner de pancr. secund. p. 143. elegante-r, ut solet, et distincte, 1 tincturae,' inquit, l illius antipodagricae ex rad. aristol. longae, aut pilularum, aut pulverum amaricantium usu per annum con- tinuato, paroxysmi podagrici in nonnullis mitigantur, in aliis penitus extinguuntur. Nimirum longo amaricantium usu, acore stomachi emendato, refracto, et attemperato, fructus exinde propullulantes sponte cadunt sua. Sed et nimio amaricantium horum usu fermentum stomachi adeo debilitatem esse memini, ut nonnulli appetitum amiserint, cibos non concoxerint, mortem hinc potius, quam sanitatem, accelerarint, malique et infausti remedii, saevas dederint poenas.' Nempe spiritus vini, sulfure amaricante saturatus, qui opio haud valde absimilis est (de cu- jus abusu pariter noxio, v. idem Brunnerus ibidem, p. 80. seq.) et inflammans insuper, et impense exsiccans, haud satis tutus ita continuato usu videtur. Neque ideo illam ex vini spiritu potulentam tincturam sive infusionem, usurpare pro eo scopo ausim; quum, licet corrigat, et advtrsus paroxysmos roboret ipsum remedium amarum, ignea vicissim et elastica spiritus vi- ni indoles materiei augendae, perturbandae, et visceribus incen- dendis apta est; caeteroqui etiam vino ipso magis incongruens. V. quae de noxa infusionis ejusmodi ex aristolochia longa ha- bent Ephem. Curios. Noviss. A. 3. p. 62. seq. Ipsa vero pul- verum amarorum cumulata assumptio, quamvis moderatiori, pro evtpeeicc et indicatione, usu tuta, stomachum tandtm abusu graA-at, tonumque et digestionem arte nimis diu roborare affec- tando, naturam tandem suam rite agere vel prohibet, vel de- suescere facit; A7el etiam, incenso ultra digestionis vim appe- titu, diaetae erroribus accitis, in coctionis negotio fatiscere pati- tur. Atque haud scio an, perpetuo et nutricio quasi amarae me- dicinae usu, quae in alimentum corpori nata haud videtur, alien- ior tandem ipsis succis nostris crasis imprimi possit: licet id non fiat, si medice utaris, et obtento scopo omittas." Although it may not be easy either to explain or vindicate all the reasonings in this long quotation, yet it Avould have been improper to abridge it, or to refer merely to Werlhoff's works, which I could not suppose to be in the hands of many of my readers; and I am at the same time persuaded, that any per- son w ho has the least disposition to enter into the question con- cerning the use of bitters in the gout, will find, in the above quotation, some illustration and confirmation of Avhat I had be- fore delivered on the subject. SERPENTARIA VIRGINIANA. This, as a species of aristolochia, is placed here ; and it has very much the qualities of the genus : but by certain accidents, this and the other species of aristolochia have been considered as very different. The serpentaria, both in taste and flavour, is / MATERIA MEDICA. 49 more agreeable than the other species : and it is by its sensible qualities of bitterness and aromatic acrimony that Ave can ac- count for the virtues justly ascribed to it. Both these qualities render it antiseptic, and poAverfully to- nic ; and therefore suited to prevent gangrene. The same qua- lities Avill account for its cure of intermittent fevers, especially Avhen combined with Peruvian bark and astringents. By its aromatic acrimony it proves a poAverful stimulant to the system ; and therefore may be useful also in some cases of con- tinued fevers: but as the cure of either intermittent or continu- ed fevers by stimulants alone, is an ambiguous and dangerous practice, so in the former it is only safe Avhen joined with the bark ; and the use of it in continued fevers is to be employed with much caution. The common opinion of its alexipharmic powers, both Avith respect to it and all the others which have gone under the same title, is an incorrect and false notion, liable to much abuse, and Avhich I myself have had occasion to ob- serve. The stimulant power of the serpentaria is especially suited to the Ioav and advanced state of the typhus only; and even then it Avill be more safely joined Avith the bark than employed for its stimulant power alone. It is certainly owing to this ambi- guity in its use, that it is not nearly so much employed in prac- tice as it Avas some forty years ago. CORTEX AURANTII. This by an oversight was omitted in our catalogue ; but must be taken notice of here. Aurantium or Orange. It is a species of the citrus ; and that Avith the lemon, being the species chiefly imported, is that Avhich is employed by us in medicine. The fruit affords an agreeable acid to be mentioned hereafter ; but our business here is only Avith the yellow rind of the fruit. It is properly reckoned among the bitters, and seems to have the virtues common to these ; but Avith its bitter it contains a considerable portion of volatile aromatic oil, very different from any other that is combined with other bitter, except what is found in the lemon. The com- bination of this oil Avith the bitter in the orange-peel, gives it certainly peculiar virtues, that are not, hoAvever, clearly ascer- tained : and it is rarely that this peel is with us employed except in compositions Avith the other bitters, which prevents us from discerning its peculiar virtues. Formerly the unripe fruit, before they came to contain any juice, were employed in the shops under the title ot Aurantia Curaslaventia ; and in that state they contain a stronger bitter than the peel of the grown fruit, though to me they do not show so much of the aromatic as the latter. I doubt much if the Edinburgh college have not done improperly in omitting the Curaso apples Avhich formerly stood in their list. With reject to the virtues of the peel, as at present employed, Vol.. II. G. 50 TREATISE OF THE it is very probable that both by its bitter and aromatic parts it may be particularly useful in restoring the tone of the stomach, when it has been much impaired ; and I have had several obser- vations that justify this opinion. But it does not appear so often as it should, because Ave employ it almost only in its dried state, and in too small proportion; as we take it dried with a part of the Avhite inert substance that is also in the rind of the orange. Although I haAre no particular experience of it, it is probable enough that the orange-peel employed by itself maybe useful in curing intermittent fevers. It is not, hoAvever, so probable to me, that it has ever been useful in moderating, or restraining uterine hemorrhagies; and upon the authority of others I have employed it, but without success: and as the deeoction made according to the prescription by Dr. Whytehad still much bitter- ness, I judge it to be rather hurtful. Here I might mention the lemon-peel as a bitter; but it has less of that quality than that of the orange ; and therefore if it be employed, as it is in the infusion gentiana compositum of the London college, I take it to be on account of its aromatic ra- ther than its bitter qualities. Among the bitters I am disposed to mention the leaves of the orange tree, Avhich have of late been much recommended as a cure of epilepsy. Of these, however, I have had little opportunity of making trials ; and the feAV I have made Avere without success. The sen- sible qualities of those leaves are bitter and aromatic: but in both respects weaker than in the orange-peel; and there is no- thing in them that would lead me to expect any specific virtue. ARNICA. As this plant is not a native of Britain, and we have found some difficulty in procuring it from abroad, I have not been able to make it a subject of my own observation. In this situation I think it safer to refer my readers to writers on the subject, and particularly to Collins'* dissertation upon it, than to give from H them a compilation which must be short, and might be imper- fect. CASCARILLA. I have been uncertain a\ here to place this substance, whether here A\ith the aromatics, or Avith the tonics ; and I am of opi- nion that the latter is its proper place. It approaches to the a- romatics by its essenti.d oil; but its bitter, to be extracted by either water or spirit, is its most considerable part. It avus introduced imo practice in the last century, as a medi- cine ot great value, both in continued and intermittent fevers: and the Slahliaks, fond of .u>\ thing as a substitute for the Peruvi- an bark, ; gainst Avhich they had declared so strongly, received the cascarilla, and employed it much in practice, and have given man\ u :.un:oaies oi its efficacy. t5ut thise testimonies have not been supporter by other practitioners since; and particularly in this country we have found it a very weak substitute for the Pe- MATERIA MEDICA. 51 vuvian bark. Bergius says of it, " Ast fatendum ilium in ipsis febribus parum face re, neque tertianis vernalibus certo mederi.'1 Our experience in this country is suitable to this; and in several trials it has entirely failed. What Bergius adds to the passage quoted, " Sed in hemoptysi saepe prodest," is not supported by our experience. And in hemorrhagies of all kinds, it seems to be rather hurtful, as might be expected from its aromatic and bitter qualities, while it does not in any instance discover an astringent power. It may be allowed to be of tonic and stomachic power ; but even in this way its virtues are not peculiar nor con- siderable : and there is no just foundation for the prejudices which the German physicians have conceived in its favour. CORTEX PERUVIANAS. This is one of the most considerable articles of the materia medica: and as the most frequently employed, so it has been very frequently the subject of Avriting and of much discussion. There is some general agreement amongst the practitioners Avith respect to many of its virtues. But the agreement is not univer- sal : and many disputes still subsist with respect to the circum- stances and manner in Avhich it is to be administered. Upon many of these points it is incumbent on me here to offer my opinion; Avhich I shall accordingly do upon the principles I have already laid doAvn, and as it appears to me to be confirmed by an attentive and often repeated experience. I have an aversion to controversy: and shall not therefore enter into any; more es- pecially with many of the frivolous writers who are to be met Avith upon this subject. As the foundation of the Avhole of my doctrine, I consider the Peruvian bark, which, like other Avriters, I shall commonly speak of under the simple title of the bark, to be a substance in which the qualities of bitter and astringent are conjoined. These are sufficiently obvious, and seem to be universally alloAved. It may also have someAvhat of an aromatic quality; but this cer- tainly is not considerable, and I shall not take any further notice of it. As a bitter and astringent conjoined, I consider the bark as a poAverful tonic. As we have before shown that these qualities in their separate state give tonic medicines, so it will be readily al- lowed, that, conjoined together, they may give one still more poAverful; and as such Ave are now to consider the bark in its ef- fects and virtues, according as these appear in the various cases of disease. The first to be taken notice of is, its operation on the stomach. In many cases dyspeptic symptoms manifestly arise from a loss of tone in the muscular fibres of the stomach; and in such cases as other bitters are, so the bark is a remedy, and one of the most powerful. No body doubts oi its being a tonic with regard to the stomach ; and it is equally Avell knoAvn that the state of the stomach is readily communicated to the rest of the system. It 52 TREATISE OF THE is in no instance, hoAvever, more remarkable than in the cure ol intermittent fevers___That the bark in this case operates by a tonic power exerted in the stomach,! have endeavoured to explain in my First Lines of the Practice of Physic; and have met with nothing in any writing to make me doubt of the truth of my doc- trine. It may, indeed, have its imperfections, and may not suffi- ciently explain the Avhole of that variety of phenomena Avhich may occur in such a diversified and complicated system as that of the human body; but in attempting any general doctrine, we must begin Avith attempting it as adapted to the most general and ordinary course of things. This I hope is done in my doctrine respecting fevers, and of the operation of the bark in the cure of intermittents: nor shall I think it shaken by its not obviously explaining those irregularities that may happen in the course of feA'ers, and in the use of the bark; and especially those pointed out by the indigested views of some practitioners, little aAvare of the many fallacies to Avhich almost every observation upon these subjects is exposed. We proceed,therefore, upon the supposition that the bark pos- sesses a tonic power, and that the action of this poAver in the sto- mach sufficiently explains its operation in preventing the recur- rence of the paroxysms of intermittent fevers; for I see no foun- dation for referring it to any mysterious and unexplained specific power; which, however, some Avriters seem still disposed to main- tain. I hold it to be established as a fact, that both astringents and bitters, in their simple and separate state, have proved often sufficient to prevent the recurrence of the paroxysms of inter- mittent feA-ers: and that they more certainly do it when combin- ed together. Both these facts I have not only from the testimo- ny of the most credible authors, but from particular experiments made by myself for the purpose of ascertaining them : and tho' I should admit what is frequently alleged on this subject, that such remedies are frequently insufficient, I consider it as a fri- volous argument; as a different degree of poAver does not affect the general question concerning the nature of that power. No- body certainly will maintain, that pale bark is not capable of cur- ing agues, because it is not so poAverful as red bark. Having thus established the nature and operation of this me- dicine, Ave proceed to consider the various questions that have asisen Avith respect to the use of it in intermittent fevers. It Avouldnow be superfluous to consider the objections which were formerly made to its use in general. Although these objections had for a long time some Aveight with some of the most eminent practitioners, it is presumed that every doubt and difficulty of that kind is now removed; and \\hilstit is alloAved to be a very- safe and very poAverful remedy, the only questions Avhich remain respecting it are, In Avhat circumstances it may be most proper- ly employed ? The first question that occurs is, At what time, in the course MATERIA MEDICA. 53 of the disease, it may be most safely given ? Dr. Boerhaave's rule for exhibiting the bark Avas, " Cum morbus jam aliquo tem- pore duravit;" and his commentator is at great pains to incul- cate the propriety of this general rule. In this, indeed, both of them follow Dr. Sydenham; but both Sydenham, and Van Swei- ten allow there may be exceptions to the general rule: as when an intermittent affects persons under great debility, or Avhen, for examj£, the paroxysms are attended Avith symptoms of a dan- gerous kind: and in such cases every practitioner will certainly take the first opportunity he can find of exhibiting the bark. This, hoavever, does not touch the general question with re- spect to intermittents, in which there is no prevailing debility, and where the paroxysms are not attended with any dangerous or even unusual symptoms. In such cases the question still remains, whe- ther the bark maybe exhibited without waiting for any repetition of paroxysms ( And I am persuaded that, for the most part it may. Dr. Sydenham's consideration of the fermt ntationis nisu despu- manti, seems to be absolutely without foundation : and I cannot either perceive that there is any morbid matter to be evacuated during the paroxysms, or that the bark can do any harm by sup- pressing any natural excretions, as the Stahlians h^ve commonly supposed. It therefore appears to me, that the bark may be ex- hibited very early in the course of the disease.----This general question, hoAvever, alw ays involves another; Avhkh is, Whether the bark may be exhibited an ithout a certain preparation of the body, that may fit it to receive the bark Avith greater safety? With respect to this, as we confidently suppose that the bark given in moderate quantity is not ready to disturb the natural functions of the animal oeconomy ; so, if these be all in a sound condition, we cannot perceive that any preparation of the body is necessary for the reception of this medicine : It shall only be observed, that to render the stomach more fit to receive the quantity of bark u hich may be necessary, it may be proper, by a gentle Aomit, to free it from accidental indigestion, and to excite its actiAity before the bark is thrown in. In another case also, Avhen, from the circumstances of the sea- son, and from certain appearances, there is reason to suspect any redundancy of bile, it may be proper to evacuate this by a gen- tle purgative. This is the explanation to be given of the com- mon opinion of the necessity of clearing the first passages before exhibiting the bark ; but 1 must bt g leave to maintain, that such preparation is not ahvaj s necessary; and that wherever the state of the disease urges an immediate exhibition of the bark, it may be often dangerous to lose time upon the supposed necessity of previously clearing the first passages ; or at least, when this is done, it Avill ahvays be allowable, and even proper, Avithout Avaiting for the repetition of paroxysms, to put an end to the course of the disease by the use of the bark. Although, Avhen there is no debility in the patient, nor dan- ■■*> TREATISE OF THE gerous symptoms attending the paroxsyms, the exhibition of the bark, in complaisance to popular opinion or medical prejudice, may be sometimes delayed; yet if the paroxsyms seem to be anticipating their periods, and more especially if they are in- creasing in their duration, it will be ahvays advisable to stop the course of them by an immediate exhibition of the bark. There may still, however, be some exceptions to this general doctrine; not only when there are marks of internal inflamma- tion present, but even when there are marks of a general inflam- matory diathesis in the system. This I believe to be always aggravated by the tonic power of the bark ; and in such cases, accordingly, the bark may not only be hurtful, but as I know from experience, will be ineffectual; till, by blood-letting and other antiphlogistic measures, the inflammatory diathesis is re- moved or much abated. This is the explanation of the 762d Aph. of Boerhaave: " Hinc et venaesectio nocet per se semper prodest alias casu, ut et tenuis exactaque diaeta." It is especially in the case of vernal intermittents that a phlogistic diathesis oc- curs ; and therefore that upon this and other considerations, the exhibition of the bark in these may be most safely delayed ; but still it must be allowed that, even in these, it may often be exhi- bited very early. There is another consideration which practical writers have mentioned as a reason for avoiding the exhibition of the bark ; and that is, when there are marks obstructi admodum hujus illiusve vis- ceris.—That there may not be cases of this kind to forbid the ex- hibition of the bark, I have not sufficient experience to determine; but I am well persuaded that it would be very dangerous to ad- mit of any general rule on this subject. I am comdnced that it is in the cold stage of fevers that accumulations of blood are formed in the liver and spleen; that such accumulations are in- creased by every repetition of a cold stage, and consequently by the repetition of paroxysms ; and I am therefore clearly of opi- nion, that even considerable obstructions of the Adscera, if Avith- out inflammation, ought not to prevent the exhibition of the bark in such quantity as may prevent the return of paroxsyms. I am more fully of this opinion, because I cannot perceive in Avhat manner the bark can aggravate the obstruction. Its action as an astringent is very inconsiderable, and is fully balanced by its bitterness, Avhich most physicians suppose to have a resol- vent and aperient power. The question has several times occur- red to me, in the case of persons Avho, having frequently labour- ed under intermittents, had tumours and indurations remaining in the hypochondria, and had, Avhen in that condition, a return of the intermittent fever. In such cases I have freely employed the bark, and never found it increase the affection of the liver or spleen: and in other such cases I have constantly found, that the avoiding the bark, and admitting therefore the repetition of pa- roxysms, brought on disorders Avhich frequently proved fatal.. MATERIA MEDICA. 55 When, from these considerations, it is determined to exhibit •he bark, the next question that occurs is, taking the period as consisting of the intermission and paroxysm, at what time of such period the bark is most proper to be given ? With respect to this, I believe, that when the Use of the bark was first intro- duced, the practice was to give a large dose of it a little before the time of an expected accession: and the efficacy of this prac- tice has given occasion to many to imagine, that the bark em- ployed by these first practitioners was of a superior quality to that commonly employed since. We cannot, however, find o- therwise any proof of this superiority of the bark then employ- ed ; and it is certain that the same pale bark Avhich has been commonly since employed, if given in the same quantity, and at the same time of the period, has shewn very often the same effects. Some eminent practitioners have since opposed this practice ; but Ave are persuaded it has been rather from theory than from observation that they haA-e done so. Although I would not rigorously insist on the employment of a single dose near to the time of accession; yet I am strongly of opinion, that the nearer the exhibition is brought to that time, it will be the more certainly effectual. To explain this, not com- monly understood, we must remark, that the effects of the bark on the human body are not very durable. I have had opportu- nities of observing, that a considerable quantity of bark given, was not sufficient to prevent a relapse in a feAv days after. I haAre likeAvise found, that in quartan fevers, a large quantity of bark given on the first day of intermission was not so effectual in pre- venting the returns of the disease, as a smaller quantity given on the second day. In tertians, supposing a certain quantity neces- sary to be given to prevent the.'return of a paroxysm, Ave have found that, by folloAving the practice of Sydenham, in abstaining from the exhibition of the \0tk for some hours immediately preceding accession, though lilrge quantities had been given be- fore, Avould often fail in presenting it; Avhile, on the other hand, a smaller quantity, given nearer to that time, Avould more cer- tainly ansAver the purpose. In many cases, Avhere the accession happened in the morning, I have found that a large quantity given the day before, if not continued during the night, Avould often fail; Avhen a smaller quantity given during the night, and in the morning, would more certainly succeed. And Avhenever I met Avith tertians Avhich had their accessions at noon or after it, I have thought it unnecessary- to trouble my patients during the time of intermission on the day before, ahvays finding that a smaller quantitA' given in the morning or forenoon after, by being thus brought nearer to the time of accession, was more effectual. From all these observations I am satisfied, that the giving a large dose of the bark immediately before the time of accession is the most proper practice: but as that dose must not be under two drachms of pale bark, so there are some stomachs which 56 TREATISE OF THE will not bear even that quantity, or a larger that might be ne- cessary. It is commonly, therefore, convenient to give smaller doses, but to give them every hour for some, hours near to the times of accession. I have not had much occasion to practise upon intermittent fevers since the use of the red bark became common ; but be- ing well persuaded of the superior powers of this species or va- riety of bark, I think the use of it will particularly favour the practice Ave have recommended, of giving a due quantity of bark as near as possible to the time ot accession. Having thus said all that seems necessary with respect to the use of the bark in intermittent, Ave proceed to s iy that it is equal- ly useful and necessary in remittent fevers. These have been considered by the Nosologists as of a different order from the intermittents; but, as I judge, very improperly. They arise from the same cause ; that is, from marsh effluvia; they pre- vail at the same seasons; and it is common for the intermittent and remittent fevers to pass mutually into the form of one ano- ther. They show therefore the strictest affinity, and found a strong presumption, sufficiently confirmed by experience, that they may be cured by the same remedy. The only difficulty in admitting this was, the opinion which prevailed Aery early Avith respect to the u^e of the bark; that it Avas not to be gh'en during the time of,par6xysms, and therefore not in those fevers which had no intermission. I believe that this opinion Avas in the main well founded and proper, Avith respect to the paroxysms of genuine intermittents : but no other remedy having been found for remittents, the consideration of the ana- logy induced practitioners to employ the bark in these also. And in spite of prejudices, Morton and Torti established the practice; and there is noAV no longer any doubt oi its propriety-. We have only to add, that though I Avouffl^pot rigidly assert ihat the bark can never be sa ely given during*fhe exiceroation orh >t stage of fevers, yet I maintain, with the most part of practitioners, that the time of remission is especially to be chosen; and according as that time is knoAvn Lo be long r or shorter, the doses of the bark are to be as large as the patient's stomach will easily bear, so that a due quanity may be thrown in during the time of remission. Such may be the use of the bark in properly and evidently re- mittent fevers: but the use oi it has been extend d also, espe- cially of late, to continued fevers: and there may still be a ques- tion, In what species, or in what circumstances of these, it may be properly employed: Which we shall endeavour to ansAver as well as Ave are able. When intermittent fevers have changed into remittents, and these have become of a very continued form, or Avhen either this transition has been manifestly perceived, or that, from the place of the patient's habitation, from the season of the year, and from the nature of the prevailing epidemic, there is reason MATERIA MEDICA. 57 ♦o conclude that the feA'er has arisen from the same marsh efflu- via which produce intermittent or remittent fevers in their ordi- nary form ; in such case, fevers, however continued in their form they may then seem to be, may still be considered as of the in- termittent kind, and be treated by the bark, in the same manner that we have shown may be done in remittent fevers of little dis- tinct remission. There are, hoAvever, truly very few continued fevers of this kind which do not, being carefully observed, dis- cover some remissions, and therefore give no proper occasion to a question about the use of the bark, arising from their continued form.—Such a question, hoAvever, occurs with respect to con- tinued fevers of another kind. There is a fever commonly oc- casioned by the application of cold, but perhaps also from other causes, to which we have given the name of Synocha, and which, from its symptoms, Ave judge to be always attended with a con- siderable degree of phlogistic diathesis. In such fevers, agrea- bly to our opinion of the tonic power of the bark, we maintain that it cannot be properly or safely employed. And farther, as the same kind of fever attends all genuine phlegmasiae, that is, pyrexia joined with topical inflammation; so the bark is not ad- missible in any of those. Some writers, indeed, mention its sa- lutary effects in Ararious cases of pneumonic inflammation, and such perhaps may occur. But I never found the bark safe in any such inflammatory affection, except Avhen this was not the primary disease, and indeed only when it was accidentally com- bined with an intermittent, putrid, or nervous fever. That there may be such combinations is well known : and though there may be some degree of phlogistic diathesis present, it may not be in such a degree as*to give the principal indications in the cure of the disease : so, in such cases, the bark may be employed as suited to that principal indication. In one case of an inflammatory disease, the bark has been considered as an ambiguous remedy; and that is the case of a- cute rheumatism. As I consider this disease as especially con- sisting in a phlogistic diathesis, I hold the bark to be absolutely improper ; and have found it manifestly hurtful, especially in its beginning, and in its truly inflammatory state. But it is possible, that after rheumatism has continued for some time, and especially after the use of antiphlogistic reme- dies and sweating, the inflammatory' state may be abated, and the disease, in consequence, admit of considerable remissions, and become a periodical disease. The bark, in such cases, may prove a proper remedy; and I have sometimes found it to be so; but it requires some caution: for in some instances, where even a remission was evident, and appeared particularly by a copious se- diment in the morning's urine, I have exhibited the bark with a bad effect, as the exacerbations became more violent, and the Vol. II. H 58 TREATISE OF THE remissions less considerable, insomuch that I was obliged t« have again recourse to antiphlogistic remedies and SAveating. In another case of acute rheumatism the bark may prove a re- medy ; and that is Avhen the rheumatism is combined with, and makes a part of, an intermittent fever, as that and other phleg- masiae may sometimes be: and here the conduct may be the same as I have already said to be proper in such cases. I knoAv of no other case of acute rheumatism in Avhich the bark may be employed. But there are certain circumstances of the human body, in Avhich pains of the joints resembling rheu- matism may occur, and in Avhich perhaps the bark may be use- ful. So far, however, as I know such cases, they are Avithout any-phlogistic diathesis, and therefore not properly acute rheu- matism. I have met with some cases of hysteric women trou- bled Avith pains and tumours of the joints, so much resembling rheumatism, that I have thought it necessary to try blood-letting: but tho' the blood Avas drawn in the manner most proper to shoAv an inflammatory crust, yet no such crust in any degree appeared, and therefore such cases do not exclude the use of the bark. The question concerning the use of the bark in inflammatory fevers does not give much difficulty. But there is another kind of continued feA-er, in which the question is much more puz- zling. This is the fever arising from a contagion produced'by a certain state of human effluvia. It is this that I have named a Typhus ; and which always puts on a A'ery continued form. It is very commonly attended Avith symptoms of putrescency in the fluids; and ahvays, in some part of its course, with symptoms of a general debility in the system. In the former case they are called Putrid, and in the latter case Nervous Fevers. It is in these that a difficult question arises Avith respect to the use of the bark; and this, considered as an antiseptic and tonic, would seem to be Avell adapted to both cases. But in consider- ing the question, this is to be obser\-ed, that both the putrid and the nervous fevers may be combined, especially in their com- mencement, with a phlogistic diathesis in the system. With this state, as I have said already^, I hold the bark to be incompati- ble ; and therefore judge it to be ahvays improper in the begin- ning of that kind of fever which, in my Nosology, I have named a Synochus. I can by no means concur Avith certain authors, Avho maintain, that in the feA-ers we are speaking of, as soon as the primal viae haA-e been cleared by an emetic and purgative medicine, we may immedi. tdy employ the bark, and trust the cure of the disease entirely to it. I have frequently observed the mischievous consequences of such a practice, from its ag- graA'ating the inflammatory state of the system, and determining to local and fatal inflammations of the brains and lungs. It is perhaps possible, that a typhus of the nervous or putrid kind may be Avithout any, or much of the inflammatory diathe- sis ; and Avhen at the same time the symptoms of debility and pu- MATERIA MEDICA. 59 trescency are not only considerable, but also appear early, I would allow that the bark may be employed very- soon in the course of the disease. This, however, I take to be a very rare case; and my observations lead me to judge, that in the beginning of all putrid fevers, and by the testimony of authors, eAren in the plague itself, that more or less of an inflammatory diathesis some times takes place. We find this to subsist commonly for the first Aveek of our epidemic-fevers; and therefore that it is seldom safe to employ the bark during that period. We commonly7 find that the symptoms requiring its use do not appear till the second week ; and even then, till the symptoms of debility and putrescency ap- pear pretty distinctly, the bark cannot be safely employed. When however, A'ery earh', the symptoms of putrescency appear in any degree, it will ahvays be allowable to employ the bark: and tho' no clear symptoms of putrescency appear, it will be equally pro- per in the second Aveek of nervous fevers, when the symptoms of debility are anywise considerable, and Avhen at the same time the system is very free from any appearances of an inflammatory' state. To sum up the matter, Ave are clearly of opinion, that when fevers can be ascertained to be entirely of the putrid or nervous kind, Avine and bark are the remedies to be depended on ; and that, if either of these remedies have seemed to fail, it has been commonly oAving to the necessary quantities not hav- ing been throAvn in. We must not omit this opportunity of observing, that there are two cases of our epidemic fevers in which the bark is either useless or hurtful. The first is, Avhen, after much head-ach, a de- lirium arises; Avhich is somewhat of the phrenitic kind, increas- ed by taking wine, and is attended with a redness and inflamma- tory state of the ey-es. In such cases, Ave suspect some inflamma- tion of the brain; and dissections have shoAvn it to be so: and in all such I have found the bark manifestly hurtful. Another case of our fevers is, Avhen in their advanced state, Avith much deliri- um, there is much subsultustendinum, with frequent convulsive tAvitchings of the limbs. In Avhatever manner this may be ex- plained, I have found that opium is the proper remedy-; and it is commonlyr necessary to give it in considerable quantity. After treating of the use of the bark in the more simple feArers, we are iioav to consider it in the more complicated, and particu- larly in the exanthematic kind. With respect to these, they are commonly-, and, as Ave may say, naturally, of an inflammatory nature : but in a manner Ave cannot explain, a putrid diathesis frequently appears in them. In their genuine inflammatory condition, the bark is not only an unnecessary, but an hurtful substance : but Avhen any putrid dia- thesis appears, it is absolutely required ; and the distinction of these cases is ahvays to be carefully studied. In the s:nall-pox, from an opinion of the bark being favourable to suppuration, it has been employed eAen during the eruptive m TREATISE OF THE lever; but I have hardly ever observed a case in which it seem- ed to be proper. Allowing the bark, in certain circumstances, to be favourable to suppuration, it does not appear clearly that these circumstances ever occur during the eruptive fever. It is possible that the eruptive fever of the small-pox may be of the putrid kind, in which therefore the bark might be allowable; but I have hardly ever been able to ascertain such a case: and up- on the supposition of its being the case, I have found the exhibi- tion of the bark to be hurtful. In my opinion, it is only after the eruption, that, by the confluence of the pustules and other circumstances, we can discern the putrid diathesis which requires the bark; and when none of these circumstances are present, as in most cases of a distant small-pox, though these be very nu- merous, the bark in large quantity is very hurtful. In the secondary fever, the same distinction is to be observed j and as it is most commonly the consequence of the confluent small-pox, so it is veiy generally of a putrid kind, admitting of the bark: but there is also a secondary fever sometimes happens after a distinct small-pox, which is of the inflammatory kind, to be treated by blood-letting and other antiphlogistic measures; and in Avhich, therefore, the bark would be hurtful. The measles are very constantly and considerably of an inflam- matory nature; and must therefore require still more caution in the use of the bark. I have never seen this disease in Scot- land of the putrid kind; but no doubt there may be such as Dr. Watson has described, and in which the bark would certainly be proper. With respect to Erysipelas, the case is much the same. I have very constantly found it to be more or less of the phlegmonic kind; and in this country have hardly seen it in any degree pu- trid. In erysipelas I have therefore found the bark generally hurtful: but from the account of authors, it appears to me some- times of a putrid nature; although, as I judge, especially, per- haps only, when it accompanies other diseases of a putrid kind; and in such cases the bark may be a necessary remedy. In the Scarlatina, there is generally more difficulty in deter- mining this question. In the species of scarlatina that is proper- ly named Anginosa, and which has been the most frequent with us, there are cases exactly the same Avith the cynanche maligna, in which the bark is the remedy to be depended upon. But 1 maintain that there is a scarlatina, and even a scarlatina anginosa, in which the bark is superfluous, and has been often hurtful. How these cases are always to be distinguished, is difficult to say: but an observing and skilful practitioner, by tie difference of symptoms, and especially by the nature of the prevailing epi- demic, Avill commonly be able to do it. We say nothing here of the miliary eruption, considering it to be always a symptomatic affection, to be treated with or without the bark, according to the nature of the primary fever. MATERIA MEDICA. (yl Among other diseases complicated Avith feveir, the dysentery is to be taken notice of as a disease in which the propriety of using the bark does not seem to be very clearly ascertained. When this disease is of its proper nature; that is, depending chiefly upon a constriction of the colon, and frequently in its be- ginning attended with some phlogistic diathesis, the use of the bark appears to me to be absolutely pernicious. I have indeed said above, that even in this state, bitters, by their laxatiA^e quali- ty, may frequently be useful. But such a quality in the bark is very uncertain; and therefore the analogy of bitters will hardly imply the use of a bitter that may be in this way of uncertain effect, and may be in danger, by its tonic and inflammatory powers, of proving hurtful. In the beginning of dysentery, we judge the bark to be improper: but in the advaned state, when some symptoms of putrescency appear, or when the disease has changed in some measure into the state of diarrhoea, the bark may possibly be employed with advantage. In another case of dysentery, which sometimes happens, that is, when it puts on a tertian type, and may be considered as a part of the tertian fevers at the same time epidemically prevail- ing, the bark tnay become an absolutely necessary remedy. There is another disease complicated Avith fever, in which I find the use of the bark to be someAvhat nice and difficult: and that is in catarrhal affections. In these, arising, as they com- monly do, from cold, an inflammatory diathesis is, I believe, constantly present; and this seems to reject the use of the bark ahogedier. But there are two cases in which it may be admit- ted ; the one is, when the catarrhal affection is combined with an intermittent feArer. And I have often observed the most fre- quent and violent fits of coughing to be joined with the pa- roxsyms, and particularly with the cold stage of such paroxysms. In such cases I not only do not avoid the bark, but fly to it Avith more haste. There is also another case of catarrhal affection in which the bark is of great service. This is in those habitual and frequent- ly returning catarrhs, which depend upon a Aveak and imperfect perspiration by the skin, and this again upon a weaker force in the action of the heart and arteries. In these cases I suppose there is a greater determination to, and a greater than usual ac- cumulation of fluids, in the lungs ; and that these circumstances and their effects are only to be obviated by invigorating the sys- tem of the aorta, for which I hold the bark and riding to be the most effectual means. Another case of complicated fever on which I Avould here remark, is that of haemorrhagy; in which the use of the bark is, in my opinion, very inaccurately ascertained, but may, I think, be determined in this manner. When the haemorrhagy is of the acthre kind, that is, accompanied Avith a phlogistic diathesis, the ''ark is a pernicious medicine: and I have always found it to bv 62 TREATISE OF THE so. Accordingly, as the haemoptysis appears to me to be very uni- versally of th active kind, so I have constantly found the bark to be very hurtful in all the species of it that I have ever met Avith. There are, however, cases of passive hemorrhagy, a frequent in- stance of Avhich occurs in the menorrhagia, win re the disease de- pends upon a laxity of the extremities of the uterine vessels, which are th. refore readily opened by every irritation applied to the sys- tem, or to the diseased part. In such cases, the bark is the most proper, and, Avhen the remote and exciting causes can be avoid- ed, an effectual remedy. Upon this subject tAvo remarks may be made: One is, that though a hemorrhagy may seem to be excited by irritatioe, it is not therefore to be immediately con- cluded to be of the aetive kind, and therefore forbidding the use of the hark. The other remark is, that the bark, in passive hae- morrhagy, eioes not act as an astringent, in which way its poAvers are very inconsiderable, but a tonic, which might be hurtful in any haemorrhagy of the acth'e kind. After mentioning catarrh and hemoptysis, I am, in some mea- sure, necessarily led to say something with respect to the use of the bark ia the Ph.hisis P il n n dis. This diseas is so constant- ly attended with a phl^gstic diathesis, that I in disposed to re- ject the use of the bark in it altogether. There are, however, practitioners who are of a different opinion : but I can assert, that in nine cases often in which I have seen it employed, it pro- ved manifestly hurtful. There are, hoAvever, circumstances of the phthisis we spake of, in Avhich the bark has been useful. I have met with cases in which, a, ith all the symptoms of phthisis, the exacerbations of the hectic Avere marked Avith more or less of a cold stage, and regu- larly at stated periods, commonly quotidian, but sometimes ter- tian. In such cas.s I have given the bark with the effect of pre- venting the return of such paroxysms for some time, and at the same time Avith the relief of almost all the other symptoms of the disease. I never, however, in such cases, made a complete cure : for in spite of large exhibitions of the bark, the paroxysm j in less than a fortnight or three weeks after they had been stop- ped, al\> ay s returned: and tho'they ay ere again and again, by the same means stopped, they returned Avith greater Adolence, an .proved fatal, Avith all the ordinary symptoms of phthisis. As the Phthisis Pulmonalis depends so often upon tubercles of a peculiar nature, Avhich Avith no probability can be resolved by the bark: so this is another reason for my avoiding the use of it in this disease. But Avhether there be cases resembling very ex- actly the phthisis from tubercles, in Avhich hoAvever there are none present, and therefore a mere curable disease, and perhaps ad- mitting the use of the bark, I cannot posstively determine; but am disposed to believe, that there are caces, w ith all the symp- toms of the phthisis pulmonalis, Avithout tubercles, and depend- ing upon a successive formation, and healing again of small vo- MATERIA MEDICA. ©3 Mfiicae; in Avhich case the bark may possibly be useful. In all the cases of convalescence Avhich happen after a purulent expecto- ration, I judge the disease to have been of this kind. To finish my consideration of the use of the bark in febrile diseases, I must next mention the noted cure of gangrene which is frequentlyr, though not ahvays, connected with fever. The theory of this has been considered as very mysterious, but it seems to me that it may- be made very plain. In all the cases in Avhich I have observed the cure of gangrene by the bark, I have found that it was by exciting a degree o. inflam- mation and suppuration around the gangrened part; and that the dead part was by this separated from the living, and thus disposed to be thrown off. This is sometimes, and perhaps might be often, done by an effort of nature; but this is commonly pre- vented by the loss of tone in the gangrenous spreading into the neighbouring parts. It is this, hoAvever, that is prevented, by the bark supporting and invigorating the tone of the neighbouring parts, and producing the inflammation Ave have mentioned. This may serve to explain the different operation of bark in different cases of gangrene. Whenever it arises from causes pro- ducing a loss of tone, and thereby a gangrene in any part, the bark is likely to be effectual in stopping its progress; but Avhere the gangrene arises from the acuteness and violence of inflam- mation in the part, there the bark is likely to be not only inef- fectual but hurtful. The theory of Sir John Pringle may be found to be nearly the same, and might be expressed in the same language Avith that we have employed. In the 39th page of his Appendix, 4to edition, he has the following words : " Thus the bark will fail in a gangrene, if the vessels are too full, or the blood is too thick: but if the vessels are relaxed, and the blood resolved or disposed to putrefaction, either from a bad habit, or from the absorption of putrid matter, then is the bark specific." The Av-hole of the observations I haAre had an opportunity of mak- ing in cases of gangrene, have fully confirmed this doctrine. v. I have noAV concluded Avhat relates to the use of the bark in febrile disorders; and shall next take notice of its use in some chronic cases. But after Avhat I have said above of tonics in ge- neral, and of bitters more particularly, it only remains to say- here, that in the cases to Avhich tonics are adapted, the bark, as one of the most powerful, must be especially proper. There are tAvo diseases seemingly depending on the laxity of the system; and therefore it has been supposed that the bark might be, and it is alleged that it has been, actually useful in the cure of them. These are the diseases of scrophula and rickets. I have no doubt that in both a considerable degree of laxity and flaccidity takes place in the system: but I am v. ry far from thinking that either of the diseases consist alone, or even chief- ly, in this circumstance: and if it was proper here, I could ren- der it probable that these diseases depend upon certain peculiar G4 TREATISE OF THE conditions of the system, which do not arise from, and indeed rather induce, a general laxity of the whole: and I would par- ticularly assert, that what has been said Avith respect to the af- finitv between the tAvo diseases appears to me to be an errone- ous judgment. But Avhatever may be in this, I cannot conve- niently enter into controversy here ; and do not think it ne- cessary, as I must add that in all the instances I have seen, and they are not a few, of the use of the bark in these diseases, I have neArer seen clearly any benefit derived from it. It is much more probable that spasmodic diseases, depending upon a weakness of tone in the system, should be often cured by the use of the bark. Accordingly, it has been much employ- ed in many of these, and particularly in cases of epilepsy ; but in this I have been often disappointed.—When epilepsy de- pends upon organic affections of the brain, I believe no remedy is to be found for it; or when this disease is connected with a phlethoric state, and is excited, as it frequently is, by an occa- sional turgescency of the blood in the vessels of the brain, I think neither the bark nor any other tonic can be properly or safely employed. It is only Avhen epilepsy depends upon a mo- bility of the system that we can expect the bark to prove a re- medy; and in such cases it may have often proved useful: but I have hardly found it to be so; and am of opinion, that the fossil tonics, as chalybeates, cuprum ammoniacum, flowers of zinc, or white vitriol, are always found more effectual. There is indeed one convulsive disorder in which I have found the bark remarkably useful; and that is the chorea, which I believe to depend upon a state of mobility at a certain period of life. In this disease, I think the preparations of copper and zinc cannot be employed with safety so often, or rather so long, as might be necessary; and therefore, that chalybeates and bark are the safer remedies: and we are of opinion that the latter is more safe than the former. In another convulsive disorder, the chin-cough, we know the bark to be often an effectual remedy: but there is some diffi- culty in determining the proper time for its exhibition. Where the disease is yet recent, and the contagion perhaps still acting, it is often hurtful. But Avhen the disease is more advanced, and the force of the contagion is probably gone, and the disease continues by the force of habit only, I am pretty certain that the bark will then soon put an end to it, provided only that no con- gestion has been formed, or continues in the lungs. With respect to asthma, my doctrine must be the same as Avith respect to the epilepsy. When the asthmatic paroxysm depends" upon an occasional turgescence of blood in the vessels of the lungs, the bark is an improper, and may be a hurtful medicine ; but when the asthma depends upon the mobility of the system, as in the hysteric asthma of Sir John Flayer, the bark is an useful remedy; and in some instances I have found it to be so. MATERIA MEDICA. 65 There remain to be mentioned some spasmodic affections, in which the bark has been much celebrated. These are common- ly named Hysteric, and are of very A-arious form. In those ca- ses in which such paroxysms as i h ve described in my First Lines, under the title of Hysteria, appear, I take this to be the genuine form that may be strictly so named; and to be a dis- ease of one determined kind, and occurring perhaps only, at least especially, in females of a sanguine and somewhat pletho- ric temperament. But without prosecuting the histoiy of the disease any farther, I must maintain what I have had conr.rat- ed by experience, that in the form mentioned, the bark is not a remedy adapted to it. There are, however, a great number of ailments Avhich are fre- quently named hy-steric,or more commonly nervous disease s, that are of Aery great diversity; and by their symptoms, not to be brought under any general character. If therefore we are to at- tempt any thing Avith regard to their general nature, it must be by presuming to establish a general cause. This I allow to be an un- certain plan; but I do not know at present hoAV to do better. In attempting this, I would refer the nervous diseases to one or rather two general causes: the one is, a weakness of tone, and thence a mobility- of system, in sanguine temperaments, or in such as are not manifestly- melancholic; and the other is, in melancholic temperaments, a more or less torpid state of the nervous poAver prcA-ailing; in consequence of which, various irregularities in the functions of the nervous system arise. All this Avould need much explanation; but I cannot at- tempt that here : and I do not think myself sufficiently prepared to enter upon it fully. The onhy use I can make of it at present is to saA', that Avherever morbid affections of the chronic kind can be percci\red to depend upon a weakness of tone, and mobi- lity of the system, chiefly appearing in symptoms of dy-spepsia, the bark is likely to prove an useful remedy; but that in the cases of torpor Avith firmness of tone, it is likely to be not only an useless, but eATen a hurtful remedy. The latter I take to be the case, in ay hat I Avould strictly name Hypochondriasis. Of this, indeed, medical people have various notions, but seldom clear or Avell digested: and if some have asserted that they have found the bark useful in cases of hypochondriasis, I suspect they have not properly- distinguished betAveen hypochondriasis and dyspepsia. The latter may be frequently- attended Avith ti- midity, doubt, and despondency: but it may still be a very dif- ferent disease from the proper hypochondriasis. I have thus endeavoured to consider the use of the bark in all the variety of disease in Avhich it may/ be applied, or in Avhich it has been commonhy employed: and upon the subject it remains only to say, in what manner it may be most properly exhibited: but this I think I have done pretty fully on the subject of bitters; Vol. II. I 66 TREATISE OF THE and I have only noAV to saAT, that every thing said with regard to preparation and formula on the subject of bitters, is entirely ap- plicable to the bark. SALIX ALBA. This has been proposed as a substitute for the bark : and upon that account I have set it doAvn here. The testimonies of Stone, Clossius,and Gunzius, are very strongly in its favour: and altho' Ave have not had many opportunities of employing it in intermit- tent fevers, the feAV that have been made, shoAv that it may be in come cases an effectual remedy. The sensible qualities seem to me to be that of a pretty strong, but sufficiently agreeable bitter, ay ith somewhat of stypticity. These qualities persuade me that it is a valuable medicine, and to be as promising a substitute for the bark as any 1 haAre known to be offered. The trials I have made were Avith the bark of the Salix Pen- tandra, taken from branches of a third of an inch diameter, and of four or five years groAvth. I must not, hoAvever, dismiss the subject a, ithout acknowledging that Bergius tells us, thatse\Terai trials he had made Avith this bark in intermittent levers, were always Avithout success. Chapter III. OF EMOLLIENTS. JL HESE are medicines Avhich diminish the force of cohesion in the particles of the solid matter of the human body, and there- by render them more lax and flexible. Their action is most evi- dent upon the simple solid, and they may- possibly also act upon the solid matter of the moA-ing fibres; but except it may be by the heat that is frequently joined Avith them, they do not seem by their chemical qualities, to act upon the nervous poAver. The poAvers Avhich act upon this in diminishing the contractility or tone of the moAring fibres, a, ill be considered hereafter, un- der the title- of Sedatives. The emollients Ave are to treat of here, seem to act upon the parts to Avhich they are immediati ly applied, in one of two ways. The one is, by beiag insinuated into the substance of the solid ; and, thereby diminishing the density of the whole of the mixt, thev diminish its force of cohesion. The other is, when by be- ing insinuated into the interstices of dry particles, they dimin- ish the friction that might otherwise occur, and thereby render the Avhole more flexible. The former seems to be the opera- tion of Avater, the latter that of oil; as Ave shall see more parti- cularly hereafter. The operation of emollients is most considerable in the parts to ay hich they are immediately applied; but as the Avhole of the solid matter of the body is constantly of a preternaturaHy extend- ed state, and as at the same time the several parts are so connect- % MATERIA MEDICA. 67 f strength; and Avhen they are not sufficient to dissolve the more solid parts, they still may be fit to dissolve those more tender fungous excrescences which arise in ulcers. Thus it happens, thut alum having a considerable portion of its watery parts exhaled, and its acid thereby concentrated, is there- by rendered capable of consuming the fungous growth in ulcers. It is, hoAvever, ahvays a Aveak escharotic ; and Ave have a stron- ger kind in the preparations of mercury and copper. Both these preparations are noted for their cleaning foul sores, bringing them to discharge a proper pus, so necessary to their healing; and I ascribe all this to their escharotic power. A specific poAver might, in certain cases, be supposed in the mercurials; but this cannot be supposed in the preparations of copper, which, however, often.answer the purpose as well. In practice the force- of the latter cannot be so well measured or limited as the former; and therefore the dry red precipitate, as less likely to liquify and spread, is commonly the most conveni- ent application. It has been common to mix this with unguin>- ous matters; but this very much diminishes its powers, and is. Atery seldom necessary. Chapter V. OF STIMULANTS. JL3LCCORDING to the plan laid down in our prefixed table, we are noAV to consider the medicines that act more entirely upon .fhe living solid. MATERIA MEDICA. 75 The idea commonly annexed to the term Stimulant, is that of -ti power suited only to excite the action of moving fibres. But I am here to consider stimulants more generally, as exciting the motion of the living principle, whether producing sensation or as producing the action of moving fibres. Very generally, indeed,the motions begin in the former: but it is not necessary, as some have supposed, that they should al- ways'do so; for there are powers, which, directly applied to the moving fibres, excite their action without any previous sensation excited, or without any intervention of the brain ; which appears tlearly from hence, that the motion of moving fibres can be ex- cited so long as the living principle subsists yi them, though they are entirely separated from the rest of the body, and entirely therefore removed from all sense. The operation of stimulants, either in an extensive or more limited vieAv, is difficult to be explained; because our knowledge of the living principle or nervous power, and of the various mo- difications of the different states of its mobility, is still very im- perfect. Some have imagined, that the operation of stimulants might be mechanically explained by the figure ef their particles: but Avhile the Corpuscularian philosophy is at present so much de- eerted, Ave do not think it necessary to take any pains to discuss the fatuities advanced on this subject; and however it may be, it seems enough to observe, that we know in general that the ner- vous poAver may be in different states of mobility, and that there are substances which, applied to the nerves, have a power of in- creasing or diminishing the mobility of the fluid contained in them. The former we name Stimulants, the latter Sedatives. This then is the general idea of stimulants, that they are powers capable of increasing the mobility, and of exciting the motion of the nervous power. Here, however, it is proper to remark, that by the nervous power being acted upon by stimu- lants we strictly mean not only that fluid which is readily move- able in the brain and nerves, but also that fluid which is under a peculiar modification in the moving fibres, and gives them Avhat we name the inherent power. It is fit also to remark here, that in this manner we must distinguish between stimulant and tonic poAvers, which both act upon the same power, and have been commonly confounded together. Although they may mutually increase the effects of each other, theyr are still in their nature and operation to be .considered as distinct and different, though Ave cannot clearly explain wherein the difference consists. Having thus given my general idea of the operation of stimu- lants, I proceed to consider the various modifications of that ope- ration as it is determined either by the circumstances of the .parts of the body to which they are immediately applied, or by the various nature of the substances that may be employed to act. In the first place, Ave shall consider them as they are applied to organs of peculiar sense, ay hich are excited by the impressions 7ff TREATISE OF THE of certain matters only ; or as they are applied to parts which have a sensibility in common Avith the whole of the nervous system, and when their effects are modified by the state of the moving fibres in the parts adjoining. With respect to the whole of the stimulants applied to the or- gans" of sense, we have to remark, that the exercise of sensa- tion is in general a stimulant power; and is a chief means of sup- porting5 the mobility of the living principle in the nervous sys- tem ; more especially in what concerns the animal functions. It relates also to all the cases in which sensation is produced, to remark, that the effects of trie stimulus seem to be in propor- tion to the force of the impression producing them. As a certain degree of this is on many occasions necessary to render them pleasant; so in proportion to the pleasure arising from them, their stimulus is greater: and farther, as all strong impressions give pain ; so in proportion to this also, they are more strongly stimulant. From certain other circumstances, beside that of force, sen- sations are either agreeable or disagreeable; the former being always stimulant; the latter being, as I judge, ahvays sedative, or perhaps indirectly stimulant, as we shall explain hereafter. Of particular sensations, these of light and noise haA'e their Stimulant effects in proportion to their force; or sometimes inde- pendent of that, according to certain circumstances rendering them more agreeable. Odours are very much on the same footing; but have often inore immediate and strong effects on the sensorium ; and to ex- plain that, it may be observed, that with respect to other parts of the system, the medical virtues of many substances seem to de- pend upon their odorous parts; which seem to point out their particular activity with respect to the nervous system. Sapid bodies do not so readily or powerfully affect the senso- rium. But the activity of sapid substances applied to other parts, often corresponds with the force of their impressions upon the tongue. In considering the operation of substances upon the skin, it is siot always easy to distinguish the effects of impressions applied to what is strictly the organ of sense, from the effects of impressions made upon that sensibility which the skin has in common with all the other parts of the nervous system. It seems to be an operation on the nervous papillae of the skin when a certain gentle undulatory motion applied to the skin pro- duces a sense of tickling, which often proves stimulant. It is also chiefly an operation not only upon the same organ, but partly also upon that of the common sensibility; when certain substances applied to the skin produce a sense of itching, which is always stimulant, and often continues till it produces redness and other circumstances of inflammation. These are the observations which I can make on the action of MATERIA MEDICA. 77 stimulants applied to organs of sense: and this in general is to be > remarked, that though we should expect that impressions upon these organs should be especially and only communicated to the brain, and although (which is truly the case Avith all moderate impressions) exciting peculiar sensations, which for the most part act only upon the brain, and little or none at all either upon the organ itself, or upon the parts immediately adjoining to it; yet all strong impressions seem to act very often more on the neighbouring parts than upon the brain or general system de- pending upon it. The action upon the neighbouring parts seems to be especially the exciting of the action of the blood-vessels of the part imme- diately adjoining to the organ of sense. Thus, a strong light excit-s a stronger action in the numerous blood-vessels intermix- ed with the nerves of the retina. What happens in the ear we do not knoAv. But strong odours inflame the internal membrane of the nose : and strong and painful impressions upon the tongue inflame the surface of it. What happens on the skin I have menti- oned aboA'e ; and I gave that as an example of the action of stimu- lants, both on parts which are not organs of peculiar sense, and on those which have only the common sensibility of the nervous system.—Such are also all the internal surfaces, in which there- fore we perceive only the effects of stimulants by their producing inflammation on their surfaces. But Ave are now to consider the operation of stimulants upon the parts that are endued only with the sensibility that is in com- mon to the whole of the system: and we cannot illustrate this better than by marking their action upon the skin. When certain substances are applied to the skin, the first sen- sation they produce is that of heat in the part: and commonly at the same time some redness appears upon the surface, which I take to be a mark of an operation upon the blood-Aressels of the skin. There is frequently, indeed, at the same time, a sense of pricking pain : yet often Avithout that, the effect chiefly consists in an increased action of the vessels mentioned, and Avhich ac- cordingly proceeds to every circumstance of inflammation, as pain, tumour, blistering, suppuration and gangrene. In many- cases, some of these effects are produced in the part, without their being communicated to the rest of the system: and I con- sider them therefore as an immediate operation upon the moving fibres of the Aressels of the skin, Avithout the intenrention of sen- sation, or of any action of the brain. It is indeed true, that in many cases, a sensation arises, and that a stimulus is communicated to the brain: and the symptoms of its increased energy, as a preternatural frequency of pulse, and, in consequence of this, an increase of heat over the Avhole body, is produced. But it is to be remarked, as often happen- ing, that the stimulus communicated to the brain is not in pro- portion to the inflammation produced in the part, which avc have 78 TREATISE OF THE occasion frequently to observe in those paralytic cases in AvhicS we apply inflammatory stimulants to particular parts. These are the general effects of stimulants on the parts to which they are immediately applied: But I am now to mention what is a very important particular of the animal oeconomy, which is, That many stimulants have little effect on the parts to which they are immediately applied, but excite motions in other, and sometimes very distant parts of the body. These motions, however, have commonly a relation to the parts to which the sti- mulus had been immediately applied; and they are commonly such as are suited for throwing off the stimulant matter from those parts. Such are the motions of sneezing, hawking, coughing, vo- miting, and the voiding of urine and feces. In all of these, the motions are excited by an uneasy or painful impression from a matter applied to certain parts: and the motions excited are manifestly fitted for throwing off the irritating matter from these parts. These phenomena have been commonly explained upon the supposition of a certain consent of nerves between those of the parts irritated and of the parts acting; but no particular connec- tion of nerves can be found, that will account for the exciting of these actions, without their exciting at the same time many o- thers ; and it must be referred to an institution of nature which we cannot explain, and can only say, that the motions excited are suited to the general purpose of nature, either to resist and avert injuries from external causes, threatening the animal oeconomy, or to produce certain actions necessary to that oeconomy. Of the latter kind are the evacuations of stool and urine; and of the former are the other motions of sneezing, hawking, coughing, and vomiting. In illustration of this, it may be remarked, that the same ac- tions are produced by stimuli applied to very different parts, if these actions are suited to the purpose, as we may call it, of these different parts. Thus a full inspiration, and a concurring con- traction of the abdominal muscles is produced by a stimulus ap- plied to the stomach, or by an uneasy sensation at the neck of the bladder, or by a like sensation in the intestinum rectum. These may separately excite the full inspiration; not therefore from any particular consent of nerves, but merely from its being necessary to the purpose of nature : and accordingly it is excited, not only on these occasions, but on every other where nature in- tends a strong exertion of strength, to which a full inspiration is always necessary. It is farther to be remarked, that it is the administration of na- ture in the business of the animal oeconomy, Avhich not only ex- cites those motions, but also regulates the force with Avhich they are exerted to be more or less, according as the occasional cir- cumstances may require. Thus, a sensation that excites to an MATERIA MEDICA. 79 evacuation of urine, if the urinary bladder be full, and there is no resistance to the issuing of the urine, the inspiration produced will be to a very moderate degree only: but if there be a resist- ance to the evacuation of urine, the inspiration and other con- current actions are excited to a greater degree, and w ith greater force.—That the business in such cases is directed by the pur- pose of the oeconomy, and not by the consent of nerves, appears further from hence, that is not one set of actions, all of them constantly excited by the same stimulus, but more or fewer, ac- cording to the strength of effort that is necessary. Thus, the sensation exciting an evacuation by stool, according to the force on that occasion to be exerted, produces the action of more or fewer parts of the body. Not only a very full inspiration and a strong contraction of the abdominal muscles are produced, but a contraction, in order to a general tension, takes place in almost every muscular fibre of the body. The fists are clenched, or the hands grasp some fixed body very firmly; and even the muscles of the cheeks are often very- strongly7 contracted. There may seem to be some mystery in all this; but no person will be stumbled with respect to this part of the animal oeconomy who considers the ordinary operation of the will. This does not directly or consciously direct the action of any particular muscle- but willing only an end and purpose, the muscles fitted to exe- cute or produce this end are immediately brought into action. The actions we have mentioned are the effects of stimuli, which we suppose to be powers exciting the motion of the ner- vous power ; and though the effects are determined by the will or propensity, we still suppose the general power of the substance acting, and are therefore Avhat we call direct stimulants. It is noAV, however, to be remarked, that there are motions excited in the body Avithout the application of such stimulants, and by cir- cumstances of a contrary kind ; that is, merely by a sense of dif- ficulty, of resistance, or of debility, in the exercise of functions. Thus, sighing manifestly arises from a sense of difficulty in the transmission of the blood thro' the vessels of the lungs. Cough- ing often arises from the same sensation, without any direct sti- mulus applied to any particular part of them. Vomiting often arises merely from a sense of debility, as Avhen it accompanies a syncope, from causes Avhich cannot be supposed to operate direct- ly upon the stomach : and the vomitings so frequently produced by narcotics seem to me to be more properly explained by a sense of the debility induced by them, than by their affording any di- rect stimulus. We explain in the same manner the yaAvning and stretching Avhich occur to persons coming out of sleep, and on some other occasions, when no other cause can be supposed than a sense of some difficulty in the exertion of voluntary motions. These seem to afford unquestionable proofs of a poAver in the animal oeconomy, to obA'iate and correct certain deviations from thestandard of health; and both these, with the instances given 80 TREATISE OF THE above, of direct stimuli producing motion suited to throx^ ofF matters applied Avhich give pain and uneasiness, or that may prove noxious to the system, concur in shoAving, that there is in the animal oeconomy a poAver to obviate and correct, in a certain degree, every thing not suited to the health of the oeconomy, and which has properly enough been named the Vis Naturae Conservatrix et Medicatrix. After so many evident instances of this, we can hardly doubt of the like powers taking place also in the more obscure internal parts, in many cases of disease which are spontaneously cured by the operations of nature; or, in other Avords, by the sponta- neous powers of the animal ceconomy; and particularly that the state of the circulation is often regulated so as to be excited to a stronger action, merely by- the occurrence of resistance or debi- lity. All this particularly applies to render it probable, that the effect of sedatives, exciting the action of the system, either in general, or of particular parts, mayr be explained entirely by their being effects of a vis medicatrix naturae, obviating injuries which threaten the whole system or particular parts. And to finish this subject, nothing can better show that active powers can be ex- cited merely by a sense of debility, than this, that if a stimulus accustomed to support the activity of the system, happen to be withdraAvn, the sense of debility thence arising produces vari- ous actions in the system, or in particular parts. All these means of exciting the action of the system, or of particular parts, we name Indirect Stimulants. After thus mentioning the operation of stimulants as chiefly applied to external parts, we proceed to consider their applica- tion to the internal; and Avhich is especially by their being taken into the stomach. Here they may operate, in the first place, up- on the moving fibres of the stomach itself, exciting their action for the purposes of digestion ; or to a higher degree, for exciting vomiting, which we shall consider hereafter under the head of EA'acuations: or, in the second place, stimulants may act on the stomach as a peculiar organ of sense. Here it is surely need- less to say hoAv readily and constantly all impressions made upon the stomach are communicated to other parts of the system, and particularly to the origin of the nerves. It is possible that impressions made upon the stomach, with- out the intervention of the brain, may be communicated to se- veral parts of the system, and particularly to the surface of the body, or to parts under disease, and therefore under a state of uncommon irritability; but these are uncommon occurrences, and I cannot readily ascertain, with any clearness, the circum- stances and cases in which these especially occur. I believe the most common and very general manner in Avhich stimulants ta- ken into the stomach operate, is by their stimulus being com ■ municated to the brain; and that by exciting the energy of that, various effects are produced in different parts of the system. MATERIA MEDICA. 81 Upon these occasions the operation may be especially distin- guished, as being of different degrees of force. In some cases, it seems to amount to no more than the increasing of the mobi- lity of the nervous power in the brain itself, and thereby ren- dering the exercise of the intellectual poAvers more free, easy, and active. Probably at the same time, or at least with some higher degree of force, they render the derivation of the ner- vous fluid into the several parts of the syrstem, especially into the nerves of the voluntary functions, mere free and full; with- out, hoAvever, producing any uncommon increase of it in parti- cular parts, to Avhich a will or propensity is necessary. Another case of stimulants applied to the stomach, is, «Avhen the stimulus applied is of a still stronger kind, and in conse- quence, a still stronger impulse is communicated to the brain, and Avhen consequently a stronger exertion of its energy is pro- duced. This, hoAvever, Avithout particular determination, may have no effect upon the animal functions: but as we have said before, that the energy of the brain is constantly exerted in sup- porting the activity of the vital functions of the heart and arte- ries ; so any unusual increase of this exertion may increase the force and frequency of these functions. Thus the effects of certain impressions on the stomach may be to increase the force of the circulation of the blood, and especially its most general determination to the surface of the body; Avhence the heat and SAveating Avhich commonly ensues. Thus the operation of sti- mulants in the stomach, may be distinguished by the different degrees of its force : and this, I expect, will serve as a founda- tion for the consideration of particular stimulants hereafter. The operation of stimulants taken into the stomach is not al- ways exhausted there ; for they are often carried on, Arery much unchanged, into the intestines; and there also operate, in the first place, upon the fibres of the intestines analogous to the like operations upon the stomach. They increase and render more steady the action of the moving fibres : and I have no doubt that the stimulant poAver from the intestines, as Avell as from the stomach, may be communicated to the brain, though it is pro- bable that the stomach is endoAved Avith more sensibility suited to this purpose. The action of stimulants on the intestines to such a degree as to produce purging, I delay considering, as I have done that of vomiting, till I come to treat of evacuations. As many of our stimulants are very little changed in the ali- mentary canal, so they- are carried Avith their entire power into the blood-vessels; and Ave are therefore to consider what maybe their operation there. We judge it to be A-ery little ; 1st, Because they arc there necessarily diffused in a great quantity of liquid, which must very much Aveaken, if not entirely destroy their ope- ration. 2ndly, Because they are there involved in a quantity of viscid fluid ; such as Ave knoAv, in all cases, to Aveaken the action Vol. II. L 82 TREATISE OF THE of stimulants. And lastly, because we believe the internal sur- face of the blood-vessels to have very little sensibility, and therefore little liable to be affected by Aveak impressions. From all these considerations, Ave consider the operation ot stimulants, taken in by the mouth, to be in the blood-vessels very little ; and knoAv of no observation or experiment that leads us to think othenvise. I am of opinion, that any such effects as have been supposed, can be better explained by their operation on the stomach and brain. We still, hoAvever, know that many stimulant matters are car- ried into the blood-vessels, and are carried off by several excre- tions: and as we may justly impute their inert state in the blood- vessels to their beingthere extremely diffused > so, when they are again accumulated, and as it were concentrated in the secretory organs, they may there operate in promoting the different secre- tions. Of this we have many instances ; but I delayr considering them till I shall come to treat of the evacuations they occasion. To give a lull treatise of stimulants, Ave should consider the powers of heat, cold, and electricity; but as not strictly belong- ing to the Materia Medica, Ave pass them over here. Having now considered the operation of stimulants in gene- ral, I have only to conclude the subject with mentioning, that with regard to all of them, they are subjected to the laws of custom; and that, therefore, considered as impressions, their power by repetition is constantly diminished ; but that, consi- dered in their effects, the actions produced by the repetition may become more readily excited, and thereby the power of stimu- lants may seem to be increased. PARTICULAR STIMULANTS. We begin by mentioning those which, with a botanical affini- ty, have much of a common virtue: and in the first place, therefore, the A. VERTICILLATiE. These are a numerous order, many of which haAre their virtue depending upon an essential oil, largely abounding in them, as produced by nature. As, however, the effect of botanical affinity is not complete in exhibiting the same qualities in all of the same order; so those of the verticillatae, which have little or no essen- tial oil, such as the bugula, brunella, and lamium, are neglected as medicines: or if there be some which, with little essential oil, are still retained in practice, it is on account of the bitter and astringent qualities which are found in many of this order. Even of those abounding in essential oil, all are not here enumerated; as, though they have the common qualities, they have them not in a higher, or perhaps not in so high a degree, as those more com- mon in our shops. But to be still more particular, I begin with BETONICA. This, tho' formerly much celebrated, is uoav omitted in the catalogues of the British dispensatories; and in my opinion ve- MATERIA MEDICA. ftS >y justly; as it has the common qualities of the verticillatae in a very slender degree : and I mention it here merely as an exam- ple of Avhat frivolities are repeated after ancient writers, and al- so as an example of very ill-grounded popular opinions which have prevailed not long ago. Antonius Musa, the physician of Augustus Caesar, is said to have given a treatise on botany; in which he has mentioned this plant as a remedy against forty- eight different diseases: and amongst the Italians it has been considered of so great and almost universal Adrtue, as to intro- duce the maxim of Vende la tonica, e compra la Betonica. HEDERA TERRESTRIS. This is another instance of the uncertainty of popular opini- ons, however generally prevailing : and the opinion of the En- glish of the hedera terrestris, seems to me to be no better found- ed than that of the Italians just noAV mentioned. The sensible qualities of the hedera terrestris do not promise much virtue, either in its recent state or in any of its prepara- tions ; and Cartheuser's account of the extract, I suppose to be founded on some mistake ; as the same qualities do not at all appear in the extracts from a recent plant, Avhich we have pre- pared Avith all possible care. With respect tothis plant, the accounts given of it by materia medica writers seem to me to be no better founded than the opi- nions of the vulgar. That it should be powerful in curing ulcers of the lungs, and various cases of phthisis, seems to me very improbable ; and the authority of Simon Paulli, or of the others adduced on this subject, have very little or no weight with me against the consideration of the nature of such diseases, and of the general difficulty of curing them. Its use in calculous cases is not supported by any better authorities, nor with any greater probability: and Ishould have no fear of excess in employing it. Murray, App. II. 177. Dr. Mead's particular manner of employing it, by joining it Avith fermenting ale, appears to me frivolous. In short, in ma- ny cases in which I gave seen it employed, I have had no evi- dence of either its diuretic or of its pectoral effects. In com- mon Avith many other of the verticillatae, it may be employed as an errhine, and in that way cure a head-ache : but noothenvays ■by any specific quality. HYSOPUS. This abounds with more essential oil than the foregoing, and has at the same time more of a warm bitter joined with it. It should therefore be a more active medicine ; but how this acti- vity may be best directed, I am quite uncertain. How the es- sential oils of this, and others of the verticillatae, should be suited to operate particularly upon the vessels of the lungs, I cannot per- ceive. Hysop, however, has always had the reputation of being pectoral; although in many trials I have not seen its effects. Formerly the distilled Avater Avas much employed as a pectoral 84 TREATISE OF THE in this country, in the cases both of children and adults : but the efficacy of it has been so little observed by our practitioners, that it is now omitted in our dispensatory. Its effects in resolving coagulated fluids, for reasons given aboAre, I can hardly admit of; but as the vapour o: essential oils, externally applied, may excite the action of ene blood-vessels, so it is possible that hysop, as well as several other of the ver- ticillatae, may be usefully employed in contusions and other ca- ses of stagnating fluids. It is possible that like applications may be usefully applied to some contusions of the eyes ; but in most instances of the common opthalmia, I have generally found any a\ .amth applied to the eyes to be hurtful. The vermifuge qualities of hvsop are hardly established by the single instance of its effects Avhich Van Rosenstein has given us. LAVENDULA. This contains a large portion of essential oil, of a very grate- ful odour. It is therefore, a\ hether externally applied or given internally, a powerful stimulant to the nervous system; and a- mong the others of this order named Cephalics, the lavender has a Airy good, and perhaps the best title to it. It is to me probable, that it will seldom go further than exci- ting the energy of the brain to a fuller impulse of the nervous power into the nerves of the animal functions, and seldom into those of the vital. It may, howeA'er, be Avith great propriety that Professor Murray has dissuaded its use, Avhere there is any danger from a stimulus applied to the sanguiferous system. It is hoAvever still probable, that lavender commonly stimulates the nervous system only7, and therefore may be more safe In palsy than the Avarmer aromatics: especially n die lavender be not given in a spirituous menstruum, or along with heating aromat- ics, which, howeArer, is commonly done in the case of the spirit- us lavendulae compositus. It is hardly necessary to remark here, what is now so com- monly known, that the verticillated plants we are treating of, ■give out a larger proportion of essential oil, after their being dri- ed for some time, than in their recent state ; but it is not so com- monly observed, that most of them in their first distillation, give out along Avith their essential oil a quantity of mucus or butyra- ceous matter ; and that they may be freed from this, and much improved in their fragrance and virtues, by a second distillation Avith Avater. It is also to be remarked, that all these plants afford a larger proportion of essential oil, according as they are alloAV- ed to groAv to their full maturity, and especially as they grow in light, sandy, or gravelly soils. MARJORANA. This plant also contains much essential oil of a pleasant odour. From hence it has the same cephalic and diseutient qualities with lavender, and which therefore v/e need not repeat here. We have already observed, that many of the verticillatae, snuf. MATERIA MEDICA. S5 fed up the nose, prove poAverful errhines; and in this respect there is none more powerful than the marjorana. On this account, therefore, and on account of its agreeable odour, there is none more frequently or more properly employed than this in our sternutatories. MENTHA SATIVA Contains much essential oil, but of an odour somewhat less agreeable than that of lavender or marjorum. It is therefore less employed as a cephalic: but it acts very poAvertully onthe parts to Avhich it is immediately applied, and therefore consider- ably on the stomach, invigorating all its functions. It acts es- pecially as an antispasmodic; and therefore relieves pains and cholic depending on spasm. It will also stop vomiting depend- ing on such a cause; but there are many7 cases of vomiting, in which it is of no service; and in those cases, anywise depending upon inflammatory irritation in the stomach itself, or in other parts of the body, it aggravates the disease, and increases the vo- miting. Practitioners have thought, and I think justly7, that the infusion of mint in warm Avater agrees better with the sto- mach than the distilled water, Avhich is often somewhat em- pyreumatic. The effects of mint in preventing the coagulation of milk, which have been mentioned in authors, do not appear in my ex- periments : and if it be found useful in resolving indurations in the breast of nurses or of lying-in Avomen, I ascribe it to the discutient virtue of the verticillatae, which we have already men- tioned on the subject of Ivysop. The ancients have transmitted to us an opinion, that mint has the power of Aveakening the powers of venery in men, and this has been repeated by some moderns; but it is very inconsistent with the poAver at the same time ascribed to it, of stimulating the uterus in females. Such an antaphrodisiac power seems impro- bable to me ; because I knew an instance of a man Avho almost every day eat many leaves of fresh mint ay ith his bread and butter, but never found from these any diminution of his ve- nereal appetites; and I have reason to believe that his report Avas true. MENTHA PIPERITA. This plant contains as much or more essential oil than any other species of mint, and is of a more acrid taste, Avith a singular feeling of a cold air, immediately succeeding the chewing or swalloAving of it. There is no doubt of its ansA/ering the pur- poses of any other species of mint; and the water distilled from it is manifestly more immediately antispasmodic and carmina- tive. The same effects are readily obtained by its oil made into an Eleo sacharum, and diffused in Avater. Its qualities are, Avith great probability, ascribed to the camphire, v/hieh the experi- ments of Gaubius shoAv to be largely contained in it. The rec- , aficr.tions which Ave have mentioned on the subject of lavender, 86 TREATISE OF THE as proper for improving the most part of essential oils, is parti- cularly necessary and proper for this of peppermint. What has been called the Essence of Peppermint, seems to me to be no other than the rectified oil dissolved in spirit of Avine. PULEGIUM. This is a species of mint, and has so much the common pro- perties of the genus, that, in my opinion, nothing but the neg- lect of all attempt to establish principles, could have made physi- cians think of this as a peculiar medicine, different from the other species. It does not contain more essential oil than the mentha sativa, and does not discover any of the camphire that is found in the peppermint. It is upon this account that I cannot find any foundation for its peculiar virtues. It has, nevertheless, been considered as an antispasmodic, and of particular use in the chincough: but in many trials of it, I have not found it of any service; and, on the contrary, like every other heating medi- cine, haA-e found it hurtful. Another use of it as an antispasmodic has been commonly asserted; which is, its assisting the menstrual evacuations of the female sex: this, howeArer, I believe to be on no better foun- dation. At the time of menstruation, the sex are often affected %with dyspeptic and spasmodic symptoms in the stomach: and I have known these symptoms relieved by an infusion of the pule- gium, or, as it is commonly called, pennyr-royal tea; but the same relief was obtained more certainly by the use of the pepper- mint, or the mentha crispa, though in none of them any specific power can be perceiA-ed. They have been often tried in the cases of suppressed menses, without any benefit at all. It does not appear to me to be with any discernment when Dr. Haller tells us, that the pulegium, along with steel, is an infalli- ble emenagogue; as it is presumed that, Avith the same assist- ance, he might haA7e found many other plants equally7 powerful. It is not indeed to be doubted, that the several species of mint may, as general stimulants of the nen7ous system, be useful in retentions of the menses: but the account ghren us by Linnaeus of mints producing an uterine haemorrhagy, has probably been OAving to a fallacia causse. ROSMARINUS. In this plant there is much essential oil of a very fragrant kind: ; n.i it has therefore always justly had the reputation of a cepha- be, or as a medicine that gently stimulates the nervous system, but hardly so strongly as to affect the sanguiferous. It is to be remarked here, that these qualities are not to be found in the pe- tala of the floAvers, but only in their calices, or in the leaves of the plant especially those to the extremities of the branches. It is indeed further to be remarked here, that the esssential oil of ihe A-erticillatedplants is commonly to be found more copiously in the calices of the flowers than in their other parts. The es- sential oil of rosemary arises copiously in distillation Avith spirit: MATERIA MEDICA. 87 and it is thus that the celebrated aqua reginae Hungarian, or Hun- gary water, is prepared. It is not made so perfect from rosema- ry growing in this climate, as in that growing in a more southern. It seems to me that our dispensatories have judged ill in pre- scribing the spiritus rosmarini and spiritus lavenduhe to be made from recent plants; as all the odorous verticillatae are improved by some drying, and give out a greater proportion of essential oil. SALVIA. This has been a celebrated plant; and as it contains a quan- tity of essential oil, though not of the most fragrant kind, it may be allowed to have the virtues of the other plants of this order. It has been frequently employed, especially in Britain, as a tea ; but it is ridiculous to allege, as some German Avriters haAe done, that it may be employed as a tea in place of that brought from China; from Avhich, in its qualities it is entirely different. From particular experience I can assert, that though it has not the virtues, neither has it the noxious qualities, Avith respect to the stomach, which the green tea of the Chinese so frequently has. What, hoAvever, are the particular A7irtues of sage, I am a little uncertain. Though it Avere true that the Chinese put a greater value upon sage than upon their oavh tea, it Avould not give me an high opinion of its peculiar virtues. It has been observed before, that popular opinions are not ahvays Avell founded ; and in this, and some other instances, the Chinese do not seem to be Aviser than other people. Sage, especially in Britain, has been much employed as a su- dorific, but, so far as can be perceived, Avith no advantage above the other aromatics of the same order. Many of these employ-- ed in infusion, and throAvn in warm, in pretty large quantity, while the body is covered up very close, w ill all equally7 ansAver the purpose of bringing out sAveat. It may hoAvever be remark- ed, that this method has no advantage aboA-e others that may be employed ; and in some instances have been found hurtful, by stimulating and heating too much. If sAveating is to be employed for preventing the recurrence of the paroxy-sms of intermittent fivers, sage or other verticil- lated plants may be sufficiently effectual. But while we thus take notice of the sage as a sudorific, we must observe that it has also been employed for restraining improper sAveats. F'or this pur- pose Sydenham employed Malaga wine: but VanSwieten found sage infused in Avine or spirits to be a more effectual remedy. Whether the Avine or spirits of Van Swieten Avithout sage Avould ansAver the purpose, as it had done with Sydenham, I, have not ex- perience to determine. The matter, hoAvever, is rendered doubt- ful ; as Van Swieten has found the sage useful in restraining ano- ther immoderate evacuation. The learned Baron had found it useful in restraining the improper continuance of a flow of milx from the breasts of Avomen who had been nurses, after they7 ha J weaned their children; but of this I have not any proper expcri- 88 TREATISE OF THE ence. It would seem, hoAvever, to be supported by the analogy § with mint, Avhich has been said to have poAver of diminishing the secretion of milk both in Avomen and in cows. The poAver of sage in resisting putrefactions, Avhich it has in common Avith mint, and other verticillated plants, may perhaps be supposed to be OAvingto camphire, or somewhat analogous to camphire, in the composition of their oils. TEUCRIUM. Several species of this genus have entered the catalogues of the materia medica: but several of them, as having their virtues depending more upon their bitter than upon their essential oil, we have mentioned above among the tonics; such as the Teu- crium Scordium, Teucrium Chamcedrye, and Teucrium Chamce- pytis; and there remains only to be mentioned here among the stimulants, commonly named cephalics, the Teucrium Marum.. This contains a large portion of essential oil, of a volatile and camphorated kind. By this, its odour is more pungent than most others of the verticillated plants, and has therefore, like many others of this order, an errhine quality, and that the most pow- erful. Although this plant has not performed all the Avonders Avhich Linnaeus reports of it, it may be allowed to be amongst the most powe rful cephalic and antispasmodic of the verticillated plants : and it is to be regretted that it can neither be easily cultivated in this country, nor be imported from abroad in a very perfect state. MARUB1UM. This is a plant which affords a little essential oil, and that with very7 little of the fragrance common to the other verticillatae; for it is more remarkable as a bitter and someAvhat acrid sub- stance. It has had the reputation of a pectoral: but in many trials, its virtues in that way have not been observed; and in several cases it has been judged hurtful. For its use in asth- ma and phthisis, and for its power in resolving indurations of the liver, I consider the authorities of Forrestus, Zacutus Lusi- tanus, and Ghomel, to be very insufficient; and the events they have ascribed to it seem to be very improbable. B. UMBELLATE. Here is a set of plants, of which many7 Avith their botanical affinity have veiy similar virtues; but the analogy is not com- plete, as some of the umbellatae have virtues very different from others of the same order. It is hoAvever alleged, that if the um- bellatae are further distinguished, according to the soil they groAV in, mi analogy will still hoid so far, that those growing in a dry soil are stimulant and somewhat aromatic: Avhilst those groAving in wet and marshy places are sedathre and poisonous plants. This is generally true; although there are some exceptions to it. The conium maculatum, and perhaps some others of the poi- sonous umbellatae, generally groAV in very dry soils ; Avhilst the petroselinum, naturally growing in wet soils, is a salutary plant. The analogy therefore from the soil is not complete; and with- MATERIA MEDICA. 89 out experiment is not to be entirely7 trusted. But as it is gene- rally well founded, I shall here make use of it, and in this place treat only7 of the simple stimulant and someAvhat aromatic umbel- latae, reserving the consideration of the sedative kind for their proper place in the next chapter. AMMI. These still retain a place in the London dispensatory; and from the account of their qualities might deserve it: but as an exotic that we cannot easily7 have in a perfect state, it has been long ne- glected by us, and perhaps justly; as probably its place may be supplied by others which we can more easily obtain. ANETHUM. I should haA-e remarked before, that the virtues of the umbel- latae are chiefly found in their seeds, as containing a large por- tion of essential oil. Their virtues are for the most part antis- pasmodic and carminative in the primae viae; and Avhat virtues they haAre, Avhen carried further into the system, are not Avell as- certained; as we shall observe more particularly ay hen Ave come to speak of the particular seeds or roots to Avhich these A-irmes are ascribed. The seeds of Dill have the common virtues of the order: and the Avaters distilled from them have been much employed in the colics of children by the nurses of England. But it is presumed that more agreeable carminatives can be found : and according- ly it was formerly omitted in our Scottish dispensatory. It was only7 brought into it again upon the recommendation of the late Sir John Pringle, for the sake of some conformity Aviththe En- glish practice: but neither our physicians nor nurses haA-e y7et conformed to it. ANISUM. The seeds of this plant contain a large proportion of essential oil, Avhich gh7es the seeds their grateful odour. Its taste is much less acrid than the oils of the verticillated plants ; some of whichy therefore, are perhaps more poAverfully carminative : but for the same reason, the oils of the umbellatae, and particularly7, of the anise-seed, are safer, and Avhich made into an Eleo saccharum, the most convenient form of exhibiting it, may be giA-en pretty largely. The anise-seed and their oil, as Avell as some others of the um- bellatae, ha\c been alleged to be useful as promoting expectora- tion in some diseases of the breast: but their effects have never appeared to me to be considerable. Another effect of the anise and other seeds akin to them, has been alleged to be the increase of the milk of nurses ; and if it be commonly true, as alleged by Mr. Geoffroy, that the odour appears in the milk, the effect is not improbable ; but I have had no experience of it. ToAvards the end of the sixteenth centurv Ave had a new me- Vol. II. M 90 TREATISE OF TFIE dicine introduced, under the title of the Anisum Stellatum ; but it has not yet obtained a place in the lists of the British dispensa- tories, although it has been received by the Russian, SAvedish, and Danish. Though of a very different order of plants, the cap- sules of the seeds, in odour and taste very exactly resemble the common anise, but are someAvhat stronger. These capsules, so far as y-et tried, as they have the qualities, so they are said to haATe the virtues of the common anise-seeds : but as even these are not in high request, Ave shall hardly think of introducing an exotic for the sake of all the difference.of strength and quality that may be found in it. CARUM. The seeds of this are to most persons more agreeable than those of the umbellatae usually employed. They contain a large proportion of essential oil; and except in some peculiarity of odour, neither the seeds nor their oil differ in their virtues from those of anise. , FOENICULUM. This has the same qualities as the dill, anise, and caraAvay, but in a weaker degree ; and therefore, unless it be for its odour, which to many persons is more agreeable than that of the o- thersvit Avould hardly have a place in medicine. We make a distinction between the foeniculum dutce and foe- niculum vulgare, Avhich, however, are only7 varieties of the same species ; but as the fennel groAving in this country does not pro- duce perfect seeds, Ave mean by the foeniculum dulce, seeds im- ported from a southern climate : we alloAV, hoAvever, the roots to be taken, as they most coirveniently may7, from the plants grow- ing in our own gardens. To both the seeds and roots a diuretic and pectoral virtue has been ascribed ; but in many trials I have never found them to ansAver these purposes. CORIANDRUM. The leaves and seeds of this plant seem to differ A7ery much : the qualities of the former are not so well ascertained as to al- Ioav me to say any thing about them, and I am therefore to speak only of the seeds. These haA7e the common qualities of the other carminatiA-e seeds we have been speaking of; and Avhen well dried are generally very agreeeble. One particular use of them is, that infused along Avith senna, they more powerfully- correct the odour and taste of this than any other aromatic that I have employed ; and are, I believe, equally poAverfulin obvia- ting the griping that senna is very liable to produce. CUMINUM. The seeds of this contain a large proportion of essential oil, and are therefore poAverful carminitives, perhaps more so than most of the others in use; but on account of their more disa- greeable flaA'our are more rarely employed. As I formerly7 observed, that the oils of the A-erticillated plants might be employed in fomentations for discussing indolent tu- MATERIA MEDICA. 91 •^.ours; so it is probable that many of the umbellate may be employed for the same purpose, and particularly in this the cum- min has been supposed useful. PETROSELINUM. The seeds of this still hold a place in the London dispensatory; and haA7e indeed the qualities of the other carminative seeds, but not in so powerful a degree as many others; and there- fore are neglected in the Scottish practice. The roots still retain their place in our dispensatory, and are supposed to be diuretic; but in their decoction, Avhich I haA-e of- ten tried, I have not found such a A-irtue, and possibly because their act'iA7e parts are dissipated by boiling. The herb, as every body knows, is much used at table, and therefore must be supposed to be in general salutary7; but singu- lar accounts are given of its effects by materia medica Avriters : and I dare not contradict them, because I knoAv that in conse- quence of idiosyncrasy, the effects are very different in different persons. With Professor Murray the odour is said to be ingra- tus; with Bergius it is fragrans gratus. To me both the odour and taste have been always A7ery disagreeable, though noAV, in my old age, they are much less disagreeable than they were formerly. PETROSELINUM MACEDONICUM. This is not retained in the lists of the British dispensatories: and I knoAv of no peculiar virtues to be ascribed to it. But of late there have been reports of its singular poAvers in some cases of the Arenereal disease, of Avhich I have had no experience, and must therefore leave to a further time to be properly ascertained. We have thus mentioned the umbellatae Avhich are for medi- cinal virtues chiefly employed in their seeds: and we proceed next to those which are chiefly employed in their root; as, ANGELICA. All the parts of this plant are more or less aromatic; but this quality- is more considerable in the root than in any other part. It is a root gratefully aromatic ; and as possessing all the qualities of the carminative seeds already mentioned, may be employed for the same purpose Avith these: but that it has any peculiar vir- tues withrespectto any particular disease, I cannot perceive; nor can I trust much to the judgment of the Laplanders on this subject. PIMPINELLA. This is.a plant in whose favour Stahl and his followers Avere very much prejudiced. In its root and seed it has the common qualities of the umbellatae already treated of: but these quali- ties in the pimpinella are in no high degree; and neither its sen- sible qualities nor any7 analysis can make us think of it as a medi- cine of any7 value. Dr. Stahl Avas A-aluable for his study7 o! the phenomena of diseases; but neither he nor his folloAvers have shown any judgment in the choice of remedies. Their system 92 TREATISE OF THE gave them a prejudice against some of the most powerful; and those they adopted were feeble and often superstitious. GINSENG. This perhaps does not belong to the umbellatae; but from the doubts that have been raised Iaoav far it differs from an umbelli- ferous plant, the Sion Ninsi, to which the same virtues have been ascribed, I have set it doAvn here. A root under this name, both from China and North America, has now for many years been well knoAvn in our shops. It is a very mild aromatic, with some sweetness: but these qualities are so Aveak,thatnothingbut a popular notion among the Chinese, and the great price put up- on it by them, Avould ever have engaged our attention to it as a medicine. We are told that the Chinese consider it as a power- ful aphrodisias ; but I have long neglected the authority of po- pular opinions, and this is one instance that has confirmed my judgment. I have known a gentleman a little advanced in life, Avho cheAved a quantity of this root eA-eiy day for several y-ears, but who acknoAvledged that he never found his A7enereal faculties in the least improved by it. C. SILIQUOS^E. These are a set of medicines Avhich, Avith a botanical affinity have very exactly the same medical virtues, and are only differ- ent by the degree in Avhich they possess the same power. They have a pungent odour depending on an essential oil, which they7 give out in distillation Avith water, of the same odour with the entire substance; and notwithstanding the seeming volatility of it, this oil, like that of the aromatics aboA-e mentioned, sinks in water. The pungent odour of these substances has given occasion to the supposion of their containing a volatile alkali: and such indeed, by a certain management, can be obtained from them: but manifestly it is not in a separate state in their substance as they are produced by nature. The distilled Avater of scurvy- grass does not effervesce with acids, either of the fossil or A-ege- table kind; does not precipitate earths dissolved in acids, nor produce any- change in the solution of corrosive sublimate. It is sufficiently evident that both the odour and taste of these plants depend upon the oil above mentioned, Avhich is extracted from them by spirit of Avine ; and when carried over Avith this in distillation, affords a very A7olatile and acrid substance of the odour and taste of the plant, leaving behind a mass entirely de- prived of both. The acrimony of these plants is diffused over all their parts; from the leaves it readily passes off by drying or boiling; from the roots also, if minutely broke doAvn, it may be dissipated by the same means. In their seed it is much longer retained; and in both the seeds and roots it is more acrid, and in greater pro- portion than in the other parts of their substance. The parts of these plants Avhich hold a large portion of ac- tive matter, if applied to the skin, soon excite a redness in it: and MATERIA MEDICA. 93 in consequence of a continued application, the redness Avhich first appears arises by degrees to a very considerable inflamma- tion, and at length to excite blisters. These continuing for some days after to discharge a quantity of serum, sIioav the skin still affected av ith an inflammation, which for several days continues to exude an almost purulent substance : and such inflammation and exudation are much later in healing than the like inflam- mation produced by the application of cantharides. The same acrid substance of the siliquosae, taken internally, gh7es a poAverful and diffusible stimulus, Avhich acts strongly on the nervous system; and in larger doses, or frequently repeated, it acts also on the sanguiferous. But its effects in either Avay are not durable, as the matter passes readily to the urinary passage: and increasing the secretion there, it is quickly and entirely dis- charged ay ith the urine, and probably at the same time by insen- sible perspiration. The plants of this class, Avhen their A-egetation, from any cause, ceases, readily run into putrefaction; and in this state, distilled, they7 give out a volatile alkali. It is this circumstance that has given occasion to their being called Alkalescent Plants, and has given occasion to some mis- takes concerning their nature and use. But Ave noAV know that their fermentation may be directed to be of the acescent kind: and there is hardly any doubt, that, Avith their diuretic quality it is their acescent nature that renders them so powerful, both in obviating and curing the scurvy7. Their use in this respect has been long knoAY7n and universally acknoAvledged: and it has been remarked as a bountiful administration of nature, that has pro- vided an abundance of these plants especially in those parts of the globe in which the scurvy more especially prevails. In confirmation of our doctrine concerning the acescency7 of these plants, it is to be observed, that those species which do not abound in the acrid matter peculiar to the order, but Avhich at the same time are very succulent, that such abound in a sac- charine matter, Avhich renders them considerably nourishing, and fitted to become a large part of the animal fluids. It is e- qually a consequence of this saccharine matter, that the same plants may be readily directed to an acetous fermentation; and A\hen preserved in this state, they prove a very effectual means both of obA7iating and of curing the scurvy. These are the general properties of the siliquosae : and the ge- nera and species comprehended under this order have so much the same qualities already mentioned, that it is hardly- necessary to take notice of the particulars. I shall only make some remarks upon a feAV which are in most frequent use, and seem to be of most considerable poAVer. COCHLEARIA. This is the plant that has been most frequently employed in the cure of the scurvy, and has the reputation of being the most 24 TREATISE OF THE effectual. Its sensible qualities being as great, if not greater than any other of this order, are sufficient vouchers of this. The en- tire herb has often been employed, and eaten fresh as a sallad; and it has been made into a conserve Avith three times its weight of sugar; but the virtues are not Avell preserved in this way. The most common practice is to employ the expressed juice ; and this plant makes a chief part of the succi ad scorbuticos both of the London and Edinburgh dispensatories, which afford a very useful medicine. It formerly was an ingredient in the aqua raphani composita of the Edinburgh dispensatory; and still stands in that of the London. But the Edinburgh College being of opinion that the Avhole of its A7irtues are not extracted by distillation, they have noAV omitted that disagreeable preparation. Several foreign dis- pensatories have ordered it to be treated by distillation with spirit of wine; and have thereby obtained a Aolatile poignant spirit, that may proA-e an useful stimulus in several cases. It may pos- sibly be improA7ed by a combination Avith the volatile acid of the tartar, as in the spiritus antiscorbuticus Drawitzii, and in this state may be an useful stimulant in paralytic cases. It may also be employed as a diuretic, and in this Avay also be useful in scur- vy ; but its antiscorbutic virtues in this state are not to be depend- ed upon, and are far short of the virtues of the plant in substance* NASTURTIUM AQUATICUM. This has the common powers of the siliquosae in a considerable degree; and as more succulent than many others, and to be ob- tained more early in the spring season, it has been the most fre- quently employed Avith the cochlearia to give the succi adscorbu- licos, which have so long stood in our dispensatories. Along Avith these, it has been common to join the becabunga: but as this has none of the qualities of the siliquosae, and has no other than that of a simple vegetable juice, the Edinburgh College haAre left it out in the last edition of their dispensatory. It has been ahvay/s the practice to join Avith the juices of the siliquosae a quantity of a native acid juice, formerly that of the acetosa,: and, for the use of the poor, the practice might still be continued with advantage: but the dispensatories have properly enough prescribed the juice of Seville oranges. The addition of acids to the juice of the plantse siliquosae, shoAvs sufficiently that the latter do not operate as alkaline or alkales- cent substances : and I am persuaded that the addition of acids renders the juice more certainly- effectual, by determining them more certainly to an acescent fermentation. It is hardly neces- sary to observe, that as the volatile parts are so readily exhaled in being exposed to the air, that the succi adscorbuticos, Avhen intended to be presen ed for any time, should be kept in close stopped vessels. CARDAMINI. The sensible ciudbiee of this riant, and particularly of its MATERIA MEDICA. 95 HoAvers, are so far inferior to those of several others of the sili- quosae, that I should not have thought of taking notice of them as subjects of the materia medica; but upon the respectable au- thority of Sir George Baker. I think it my duty7 to inform my reaelers, that the floAvers of this plant have been found to be A7ery effectual remedies in various spasmodic affections ; and for fur- ther information must refer my readers to the Medical Transac- tions, Vol. I. art. 19. ERYSIMUM. SeA-eral species of this genus have been taken notice of by materia medica Avriters ; but I am to speak only of the erysimum officinale, and of this, not for the general qualities of the sili- quosae, Avhich it does not possess in any considerable degree, but for a particular purpose to which it has been especially applied, which is the cure of hoarseness. It is in common to almost all. the siliquose plants, that in being swallowed, they stimulate the mucuous glands of the fauces, and thereby7 excite a more copious excretion of mucus. When hoarseness therefore depends, as it often does, upon the interrupted secretion of this fluid, it is ob- vious that the stimulus we speak of may be useful. For this pur- pose, it has been common to employ the Erysimum ; which, hoAvever, has been generally prescribed in an injudicious man- ner, along with many7 other things of no meaning; and the mo3t simple form, of merely the juice of the ery-simum, Avith an equal part of honey or sugar, is certainly the most proper. If the erysimum in this business has any advantage over the other plants of the order, it seems to me to be its having less acrimony than others, Avhich alloAVs it to be more freely and fre- quently used. When the erysimum was not at hand, I have found that the syrup of horse-radish w-ould supply its place: but this syrup must be made A-ery Aveak, otherwise it cannot be fre- quently used or long continued, Avithout rendering the fauces sore and uneasy7. I haA7e found that one drachm of the root, fresh,. scraped doAvn, Avas enough for four ounces of boiling w7atcr, to be infused in a close vessel for two hours, and made into a syrup with double its Aveight in sugar. A tea-spoonful or tAvo of this syrup, sAvalloAved leisurely, or at least repeated tAvo or three times, we have found often very suddenly effectual in relieving hoarseness. BRASSICA. The Ararious species of this employed in diet I have taken no- tice of in my first part. The title is repeated here as a medi- cinal subject; and with this view it is to be observed, that the various species or Aarieties of this genus differ from almost all the other plants of the order, by their possessing less, at least in their leaves, of the acrimony peculiar to it. By this they are better suited to the purpose of diet; and they- are especially fit- ted to this purpose by their greater succulency7, and by their con- taining, as above observed, a large proportion of saccharine iv.ai- re r. 96 TREATISE OF THE Though they are deficient of that acrimony that seems to giv^ peculiar poAver to the siliquosae, and as they7 are called Antiscor- butic plants, the brassica has still very great powers as such : and taken in largely as aliments, they have proA-ed an effectual cure of the disease. This I ascribe to their acescency; and noAV it is Avell known, that if by proper art they arc made to undergo an aces- cent fermentation, and can be preserved, in that state, they are a very effectual means, both of obviating and curing scurvy7. The art of preparing cabbage for this purpose, and making Avhat is called Savr Kraut, is noAV so Avell knoAvn, and described in so many books, that it is not necessary7 for me to insert it here. RAPHANUS RUSTICANUS. The root of this only is employed; and it affords one of the most acrid substances of this order, and therefore proves a poAv- erful stimulant, whether externally or internally employed. Ex- ternally, it readily inflames the skin, and proA'es a rubefacient that may be employed Avith adA7antage in palsy7 and rheumatism ; and if its application be longer continued, it brings on a blister- ing, Avith the effect I formerly mentioned. Taken internally, I have said in Avhat manner its stimulant poAver in the fauces may be managed for the cure of hoarseness. Received into the stomach, it stimulates this, and promotes di- gestion ; and therefore is properly employed as a condiment with our animal food. If it be infused in water, and a portion of this infusion be taken with a large draught of Avarm water, it readily proves emetic ; and may either be employed by itself to excite vomiting, or to assist the operation of other emetics. Infused in wine, and taken into the stomach, it proves stimu- lant to the nervous system, and is thereby useful in palsy; and if employed in large quantity, it proves heating to the whole bo- dy : and hereby it proves often useful in chronic rheumatism, v. hether arising from scurvy or other causes. Bergius has given us a particular method of exhibiting this root, Avhich is by cut- ting it down, Avithout bruising, into very small pieces ; and these, if SAvalloAved without chewing, may be taken doAvn in large quan- tity, to that of a table-spoonful: and the author alleges, that in this Avay, taken every morning, for a month together, this root has been extremely useful in athritic cases ; Avhich, hoAv- ever, I suppose to have been of the rheumatic kind. It Av-ould seem, that in this manner employed, analogous to the use of the unbruised mustard-seed, it gives out in the stomach its subtle volatile parts, that stimulate considerably without in- flaming. The matter of horse-radish, like the same matter of the other siliquose plants, carried into the blood-vessels, passes readi- ly to the kidneys, and proves a poAverful diuretic, and is there- fore useful in dropsy: and Ave need not say, that in this manner, by promoting both urine and perspiration, it has been long knoAvn as one of the most powerful antiscorbutics. MATERIA MEDICA. $7 SINAPIS. The seeds of this are the part only employed: and it has been common for the purpose of medicine, to distinguish two kinds of it, the Sinapis Nigra and the Sinapis Alba; which, though they seem to be of different species, hardly differ in their sensible qualities, and for every person may be indifferently used. This seed contains a volatile part A7ery pungent to the smell and taste. Treated by distillation with Water, it gives out an essential oil which discovers the same acrimony that is found in the whole substance, and shows that the acrimony of this depends upon that. The same substance contains also a portion of mild oil, which may be obtained by expression from the powdered seed, and when this is done, the acrid and active parts are found in the paste that remains after the expression of the mild oil. In these seeds there is a large portion of farinaceous matter, capable of fermentation, under Avhich the volatile oil is more evolved, and shows its activity more readily: hence it is that the fresh powder shows little pungency, and a good deal of bit- terness ; whereas, when it has been moistened with vinegar, and set by for a day, it becomes considerably more acrid, as is well known to those who prepare mustard for the use of the table. This applies also particularly to its external use. Mustard, any Iioav moistened and applied to the skin, will become in time ru- befacient and blistering; but as prepared for the table, is more immediately active than the fresh powder; and therefore we have done improperly in ordering the fresh powdered mustard in our sinapisms, as the table-mustard would be much more quickly effectual. Mustard thus applied externally has all the poAvers of the horse-radish mentioned in the last article ; and I am much sur- prised that the learned Professor Murray should assert, that mus- tard stimulates the system less than the ordinary vesicatories; that is, as I suppose, than cantharides: but to me the business seems quite otherwise. Mustard, in its powdered state, taken in- ternally, has all the poAvers and effects of the other siliquosae ; but they are here more active and poAverful than in almost any o- ther, except it may be the raphanus rusticanus last treated of. A practice, so far as I can learn, first begun in this city about fifty years ago, has been since A7ery frequent. It consists in giv- ing the mustard-seed entire and unbruised, to the quantity of half an ounce, or as much as an ordinary table-spoon will contain. This does not prove heating in the stomach; but stimulates the intestinal canal, and commonly proves laxative, or at least sup- ports the usual daily excretion. It commonly also increases the secretion of urine ; but in this I have found it frequently to fail. In giving it twice a day, as our common practice is, I have not found it to stimulate the system or heat the body. But it must cer- tainly have that effect if it answers in the SAvedish practice, bv Vol. II. N 98 TREATISE OF THE giving it four or five times a-day to prevent the recurrence of intermittent fevers. I trust very readily to the testimony of Bergius, Avhen he tells us that he has in this Avav often cured vernal intermittents : and the more readily, Avhen his candour acknowledges that it is not sufficient for curing autumnal quartans. It will be more readily understood, that the bruised seed, taken in large quantity along with some ardent spirits, may not only be more powerful for this purpose; but also, that such doses may stimulate too much; and, as Van Sweiten informs us, may induce a violent fever. Bergius says, that in protracted and frequently recurring in- termittent fevers, he had joined poAvdered mustard with the Pe- ruvian bark with a good effect. He observes, that under this management, his patients had frequently felt a heat at their sto- mach ; but it Avas without any harm. I cannot finish this subject y\ ithout observing two very differ- ent opinions Avith respect to it. Professor Murray says, that mus- tard gives an agreeable sensation in the stomach, and gives in him a cheerfulness to the mind: "Ita adjuvat cibi concoctionem, ventriculo sensum gratum impertit, mentique certe in memet hilaritatem haud mediocrem, forsitan ex acre fixo quod extrica- tur, conciliat." Linnaeus gives a very contrary opinion : "Nimi- us usus (says he) causatur languorem et tollit laetitiam." I can- not vouch for the truth of either opinion. D. ALLIACE^E. The plants to be taken notice of under this title are all of them species of the same genus : and though there are plants of other genera which have the odour peculiar to this, and may perhaps have someAvhat of its qualities, they have not so much of it as to deserve being taken notice of here. Of the species of allium, several may be treated of as of very similar virtue: but these virtues are most considerable in the Al- lium Sativum of Linnaeus : and therefore Ave are to treat of this in the first place, under the title of Garlic. ALLIUM SATIVUM. The whole of the plant has someAvhat of the same qualities ; but it is the root only that is employed in medicine. This is of a strong pungent odour, and of a veiy acrid taste. These qualities depend upon a very volatile part, ay hich is readily dissipated by drying, if the roots be bruised, and the interior parts be exposed to the air, or by boiling in water. This volatile substance is at. least in part an essential oil, Avhich may be obtained by distilla- tion in the ordinary manner: and like the oils of many of the siliquosae, sinks in water. In all these respects, the alliaceas are similar to the siliquosae, as they are also in virtue, although still Avith some little difference in their chemical qualities. The alliaceae are not so entirely extracted by spirit of Avine as the siliquosae; and though the former are in part extracted, they are not carried over with the spirit in distillation as the latter are. MATERIA MEDICA. 99 Though the qualities of the alliacese are not so readily dissipated by drying as those of the siliquosae are; yet they always, by any drying, suffer some diminution of their virtue ; aftd by urging the drying further, it may be dissipated entirely. In my opinion, Dr. Lexvis improperly proposes the dried garlic to be used in any proportion as a medicine. The medicinal qualities of garlic are.very considerable ; and I take notice of them first as they are externally applied. Garlic, bruised and applied to the skin, readily inflames it; and applied for some time a\ ill raise a blister, as Ave have said of mustard and horse-radish. But the effects of the blistering are not so perma- nent nor so slow in healing from the garlic as from the siliquosae. It may however be a question, Avhether the very diffusible nature of the garlic may not in some cases give a more immediate and considerable stimulus to the whole system than the siliquous sub- stances do. Garlic, taken into the stomach, seems to stimulate this organ and favour digestion, and may therefore be considered as an useful condiment of our food. But both its odour and taste are so dis- agreeable to many persons, that in many cases they are inadmis- sible. But as in w-arm climates it is said to be much milder both in smell and taste, it may in these be more frequently and largely employed. Even in its most acrid state, it is admitted into many of our sauces in small proportion. Its diffusible odour is very readily and largely communicated to the air of the stomach; and therefore affects not only- the eructations, but even the ordinary exhal itions, pretty constantly arising from that organ. It is thereby often dis- agreeable to the persons Avho have eaten it, and more so still to bystanders : but all this may be somewhat corrected by some vo- latile aromatics Avhich have been at the time taken in. The stimulus of garlic taken into the stomach is readily com- municated to the rest of the system, and is certainly heating and inflammatory to the Avhole. In all cases, therefore, in Avhich a phlogistic diathesis, or other irratibility, already prevails, large doses of it may be A-ery- hurtful. It is probable, that from in- stances of its improper use, some authors, imbued themselves with the strongest prejudices against it, have given us too strong assertions of its general baneful qualities: and on the other hand, many, under no such prejudices, have celebrated garlic as one of the most useful medicines. Its stimulus is more readily and quickly- diffused over the sys- tem than that of almost any other substance known. It not only affects the perspiration and secretion of urine, but seems to per- vade every vessel of the system : and Bennet's account of its ef- fects appearing so suddenly in issues is a strong proof of this. By its stimulus being thus diffusible and poAverful, it certainly mav be useful in many diseases; as, AvhereA-er there is a languor of the circulation in any7 part, or Avherever there are interrupted 100 TREATISE OF THE secretions. Accordingly, its diaphoretic and diuretic powers have been often useful in dropsy. Dr. Sydenham found some dropsies cured by garlic alone. From what we knoAv of some of the other species of this genus, there can be no doubt of the allium sativum being a remedy for the scurvy. As taken in any manner, and even as externally applied, it so readily appears in the vapour arising from the lungs, there can be no doubt of its promoting the secretions, and therefore the exhalations, from that organ. Its use, therefore, in pituitous asthma, and even in spasmodic asthma requiring expectoration, will be readily admitted: and I am ready to allow Avhat has been asserted, that even in its external application to the soles of the feet, it has been useful in those diseases. The alexipharmic virtues of garlic have been much celebrated; and so far as diaphoretic and antiseptic poAvers can prove such, garlic has as good pretensions as many others. Even in the plague, Avhich is so commonly attended with alow fever, it is pro- bable enough that it may have been useful: but the virtues which have been ascribed to it, of obviating and resisting conta- gion appear to me extremely7 doubtful. The stimulant powers of garlic, like those of many other sub- stances already mentioned, may be employed for preventing the recurrence of intermittent fevers; and Bergius tells us, that he has seen quartans cured by it. He gives us a particular manner of using it in the following paragraph: " Incipiendum a bulbulo unico mane et vesperi, sed quotidie unus bulbulus super adden- dus, usquedum 4 vel 5 bulbulos sumserit aeger qualibet vice. Si febris tunc evanuit, diminuenda erit dosis: et sufficit postea su- mere unicum vel etiam binos bulbulos, mane et vesperi, per plures septimanas." The same author takes notice of a particular virtue of garlic in the cure of deafness: and I am ready to believe it, as I have myself several times found the juice of onion in such cases very useful. Bergius's manner of using the garlic it will be proper to give in his own words: " In surditate rheumatica saepius leva- men attulit, lenam bombycinam succo allii imbibere, illamque auri intrudere, repetitis vicibus per diem unicum. Meatus au- ditorius inde rubet, dolet et sensibilis fit per diem unum alte- rumque; turn prurit tandemque; desquamatur, redeunte saepe auditu." Garlic, as a medicine, is employed in different forms. Some- times the cloves dipped in oil are sAvallowed entire ; and in this way a number of cloAres may be taken at the same time, without proving Avarm on the stomach, though manifestly acting on the system as diuretic and otherwise. This I take to be the admini- stration of Bergius in the cure of intermittents mentioned aboAre. For persons who cannot swalloAV the entire cloves, they are cut down without bruising into small pieces ; and in this Avay a con- MATERIA MEDICA* 101 siderable quantity, if swallowed Avithout being chewed, may be taken at once, and without proving very warm in the stomach, although it is found to be an active medicine. When the garlic cannot, in any of these ways, be taken in a somewhat entire state, it is to be bruised; and, with powders coinciding Avith the in- tention of the garlic, the Avhole is made into pills: but it is not a very proper formula for long keeping, as the active parts of the garlic are readily dissipated by drying. These active parts are more certainly pr.se rved by infusing the bruised garlic in warm Avater, and after a due infusion making the liquor into a syrup of oxymel, in the manner of the London dispensatory. In this form the garlic is considerably powerful; but cannot be taken in any considerable quantity, A\ithout irritating the fauces, and even the stomach: and in any quantity, in which I could introduce those forms of the medicine, I have been often disappointed of its diu- re tic effects* ALLIUM SCORODO PRASUM. This is the species which in its acrimony comes nearest to the allium sativum ; but I do not know of its being used as a medi- cine, though it might perhaps be conveniently done,, as the bulbs in the flower heacls might be swallowed more easily than the cloves of the allium sativum. ALLIUM CEPA. This contains a very volatile part, which, however, flies off so readily upon the substance being cut into and exposed to the air, that it cannot be directed to any medical purpose. What remains, when this is dissipated, has both in smell and taste a great deal of the acrimony of the garlic: but both in so much a milder degree, that though there can be no doubt of its stimulating the stomach so much as to prove an useful condiment to our food, and though it certainly passes both by perspiration and urine, and therefore may be useful, yet it does not seem possible to find in it an active remedy. Besides the acrid matter peculiar to the genus, it con- tains also a saccharine and mucilaginous substance: Avhich is a nutritious matter, and may in the Avhole of its substance be em- ployed as a useful antiscorbutic. All the species of allium have been by many writers commended as useful in nephritic and cal- culous cases : but they do not seem to act otherwise than as diu- retics ; the use of which, in nephritic and calculous cases, is in general very doubtful. It does not seem necessary to mention the use of onions externally applied in promoting suppuration ; for as they are employed in a heated state, they do not seem to have more power than that of other mucilaginous poultices. The use of their juice in the cure of deafness, by a feAV drops put into the ear at bed-time, I have mentioned above on the subject of the allium sativum. Some other species of allium, as the allium porrum, allium ascalonicum, allium fistulosum, and allium schKiioprasum, are employed in diet, but hardly in medicine; as their qualities are 102 TREATISE OF THE in a less considerable degree than those we have already men- tioned. In diet, the allium porrum affords a large quantity of nutritious matter: and the ascalonicum is conveniently employ- ed as an agreeable condiment, having much less of the odour that is disagreeable in the allium sativum, or even in the cepa. E. CONIFERS. Of this order only two genera, the pinus and the juniperus, are to be taken notice of here; for though there are many other plants that belong to this as a natural order, there are many of them of very different qualities from those Ave are to treat of; or if some of them have somewhat of the same qualities, they have them not in such a degree as to entitle them to have a place in the materia medica of Europe. PINUS. This genus comprehends a great number of species A7ery7 much of the same qualities ; but in what different degrees I cannot ex- actly determine, and I do think it necessary7 to attempt it; for it appears to me that the virtues of all of them depend upon the Turpentine they contain: and it is properly the virtues of this well-known substance which we are to treat of here. This indeed again has been considered as of different species; and it may be alloAved that they are different in the degree in which they possess the general qualities; but I doubt much if this difference is in any7 case so considerable as to affect the purposes of medicine; and I am of opinion that the Edinburgh college have done rightly in taking into the list of their materia medica the terebinthina larigna, or, as it is commonly called, the Veneta, only. An tendency to prevent it, it Avill be broken by those irritations, that is, by the causes of Avatching frequently intervening; or if these do not proceed so far as to excite Avatching, they may ren- der the sleep incomplete, by producing only a partial interrup- tion of thought; and as this exercise of thought, when it is par- tial only, must be irregular, so it must produce that incoherent and inconsistent thinking Avhich Ave call dreaming. According to the degree of the causes, dreams may be mild, and perhaps agreeable ; or, according to the A-iolence of their causes, they may be more turbulent, and with more emotion produced. It appears that, even from moderate causes, they are different; and prove either cheerful or gloomy according to the tone of mind prevailing in the person affected ; but why, from violent causes, they are generally of the frightful kind, I cannot explain. Such are the different states of natural sleep: and when it is over, the effects of it are also different, while there is either a sense of ease from all the irritations Avhich the system was af- fected with before, and Avhen the sleep is said to be refreshing, or there remains some of those irritations that had disturbed their sleep, and therefore give a desire of its continuance. Whether, Avithout any such irritations, the state of sleep does not give a disposition to its continuance, I leave my speculating readers to consider. But, hoAvever they may determine, it will not affect the proposition I maintained above, that the state of sleep induces the state fit for Avatching; since it is evident that a state of sleep subsisting for some time induces a state cf the system more ready to be affected by stimuli of all kinds. Analogous to these different states of natural sleep, and of its consequences, are the states induced by opium. If the system is tolerably free from irritation, opium induces a sleep which would not have spontaneously occurred. Even though some ir- ritations should prevail, if these be moderate, opium, by dimin- ishing sensibility, may induce sleep, and will do it more or less according to the dose employed. In some cases, though the power of the dose employed may not be sufficient to induce sleep, it may be able to take off, or at least to diminish, the causes of restlessness Avhich,had prevailed, and thereby give a tranquility, that, subsisting for some time, is often found equal to the refreshment of sleep. . There are, however, cases in which the irritations of the sys- tem are too strong to be overcome by the force of any moderate dose of opium; and in such cases no sleep is produced; and at the same time the conflict arising between the stimulant irrita- tations and the sedative power of opium, gives a farther irritation to the system, which is often very hurtful to it. Such, however, is ihe force of the sedative poAver of opium in inducing sleep, that MATERIA MEDICA. 131 ; f the dose be large, it will overcome very strong irritations. And it is to be remarked, that the conflict just noAV mentioned, often arises from the dose of opium being too small, and Avhen a larger would have prevailed over the irritations more entirely. The management of this, Avhich is often a difficult matter in practice, must be directed by the nature of the irritations prevail- ing. It appears, that Avhen the irritations are primarily and es- pecially applied to the brain, and not at all to the sanguiferous system, the force of opium may be employed very freely, and to any extent; and in a large dose will ahvays either take off the ir- ritation entirely, or at least for some time suspend its operation; and from thence it appears, that in purely nervous cases, opium may be employed in very large doses with great safety. But I have observed above, that narcotics, and particularly opium, in its first operation, often irritates the sanguiferous sys- tem, and excites the force of the circulation. And, however we may dispute about the causes of this, the fact is certain; and that this, in a certain degree, gives opium the powers of a cordial and exhilarant. On this occasion, it is to be observed, that tho' the action of the stimulant should not entirely prevent the seda- tive power, it often puts it off for some time, to give what we may call the intermediate state of ebriety ; Avhich, according to the balance betAveen the stimulant and sedative power, may ap- pear more or less, or may subsist for a longer or shorter time, and may therefore more particularly explain the operation of opium in different persons and cases. The consideration of the stimulant power of opium will parti- cularly explain, why, in persons in whom the stimulant power is considerable, the effects of a moderate dose of opium, instead of inducing sleep, may7, by the increased action of the heart, appear to prevent it: and this probably may also be a frequent cause of opium's not inducing sleep. It will also be obvious, that in any case Avhen any irritations already prevailing in the system, and preventing sleep, depend upon an increased action of the heart and arteries, the addition of the stimulus of opium, more ready to take place in such cases, must certainly prevent sleep, with all the bad consequences of the conflict above-mentioned. In many cases, however, the sedative power does prevail, and at length induces sleep; the state of Avhich sleep, and its effects, may be understood from Avhat is said above. If the sedative power of opium prevails, not only over the ge- neral energy of the brain, but also over its exertion in increasing the action of the heart, the effects upon the whole may perhaps be salutary. But if the irritation of the heart either continues after the action of the opium has ceased, or be then, from that very action, more easily renewed, the effects may certainly be pernicious. It appears clearly, that the stimulant and sedative poAvers of opium operate at one and the same time; and in no instance more 132 TREATISE OF THE remarkable than in that of opium proving poAverfully sudorific. The increased action of the heart, however excited, has a ten- dency to promote sweating. But every body knows that it is dif- ficult to produce SAveating by the power of medicine purely stim- ulant: and at all times opium has been found to be the most effec- tual of all sudorifics. This, by some, may be ascribed entirely to its stimulant power; but it is highly probable that the sedative poAver, concurring at the same time, by relaxing the extreme ves- sels, renders the sweating a more certain effect, and more con- siderable in its degree. Are not the sweatings which often occur in natural sleep, and particularly the colliquative sweat in hectics, analogous to this, as depending upon an irritation and weakness of the extreme vessels concurring together? Before I finish the operation of opium in general, it is proper for me to consider what changes it may produce in the state of the fluids. It has been very commonly imagined that opium rarefies the blood; but I can find no foundation for this. In ma- ny instances it produces its effects on the nervous syrstem Avhile it is yet in the stomach, and before it can be supposed to have reached the mass of blood, and often before it appears to increase the action of the heart. But e\-en supposing some portion of it to be introduced into the blood-vessels, whilst it is not alleged that it acts as a ferment, we trust to the general principle, that no kind of matter applied in small proportion can have any consider- able effect upon the mixture of a much larger mass. By an argument therefore a priori, I conclude that opium does not rarefy the blood. It is, however, alleged as a fact that it does so; but we maintain that the symptoms which are supposed to be in proof of this, may be owing only, or entirely, to the in- creased action of the heart and arteries, Avhich will often give such appearance without any change in the state of the blood. And if it be further alleged, that after the use of opiates, the vessels are found in a more turgid state, we are ready to admit the fact; but are disposed to impute this to the slower motion of the blood in that case produced, by the weaker action of the ex- treme vessels giving occasion to the accumulation of it in the larger; and that this will appear, especially in the vessels of the head, and in the system of the vena portarum; in both of which the blood is more liable to stagnate in every case of languid cir- culation. With respect to the fluidity of the blood in consequence of the frequent use of opium and other narcotics, we may admit the fact; but we suppose it to be in consequence of a state of the circulation rather than of the effect of mixture ; the experiments adduced in proof of the latter opinion being made on blood draAvn out of the vessels, and with such a proportion of mix- ture as cannot by any means be applied to them while they are in circulation, and therefore that such experiments do not afford any conclusion. MATERIA MEDICA. 133 Having now considered the effects of opium upon the human system more generally, I proceed, in the next place, to consider how these genersl effects are suited to the circumstances of par- ticular diseases: And first, of its employment in continued fevers. The nature of continued fevers was, in former times, little un- derstood by physicians; and I flatter myself that I have some- Avhat advanced the state of our knowledge on this subject: though I must allow that there are several circumstances of continued fevers not yet sufficiently explained and understood. For the general doctrine, so far as I have been able to deliver it, I must refer the reader to my other writings : and must confine myself here to those parts of the doctrine which relate to the use of o- pium in continued fevers. To this purpose we are disposed to think, that almost all our continued fevers arise from contagion, or from certain corrup- tions of human effluvia proving such ; and it is highly probable that those contagions, or matters simular to them, act as sedative powers, and, applied to the human body, produce a debility, which both induces the fever and subsists through the whole course of it, proving the circumstance from which the danger of fever chiefly arises. In this view of the matter, opium, as a sti- mulant to the heart and arteries, may be considered as a princi- pal remedy in fevers: and as such we are disposed, with the most part of our present practitioners, to consider it: but that it is universally such, and in every circumstance of fever proper, we are very far from thinking. In very many of the fevers of this climate, there appears in the beginning of them to be more or less of an inflammatory di- athesis in the system ; and during this state, I hold, and have of- ten seen, the use of opium to be extremely hurtful. It does not then either induce sleep or relieve pain, but aggravates the in- flammatory7 symptoms, and often determines to particular inflam- mations, which prove afterwards fatal. In different fevers this inflammatory state is in different de- grees, and of different duration. In some cases of the most poAverful contagions, it may appear very little: and such cases may very possibly admit the early use of opium. But in most of the cases in which cold so frequently concurs in the production of the fever, Ave suppose that such inflammatory state commonly subsists for the first week of the disease ; and therefore, for that space of time, we hold opium to be a dangerous, and at least an ambiguous remedy. As the disease advances, the inflammatory state generally dis- appears in the second week, and the symptoms of debility become more evident. In this condition opium may be employed and more or less as the symptoms of debility and irritation are more distinctly apparent; but even in this second stage, it is an am- biguous remedy. And if it increases delirium, and does not readily induce sleep, it may be A-ery hurtful: and is therefore to be employed AA-ith great caution. 134 TREATISE OF THE In this advanced state of fevers, there is a circumstance which occurs that we are assured of as a fact, though we cannot well ex- plain it. The cause of fevers gives an irritation to the brain, which is not of the inflammatory kind, but produces convulsive motions of the limbs to a considerable degree: and to this irri- tation it is that we impute the subsultus tendinum, so much taken notice of as occuring in the advanced state of fevers. The same irritation also frequently produces a delirium ; which, as not of the phrenetic and inflammatory kind, we name, the Maniacal. To remove these effects of irritation I find opium to be a sovereign remedy: and it may not only be employed free- ly, but must commonly be given in large doses, and these also repeated every eight hours, unless sleep and a remission of the convulsive motions and delirium shall allow of longer intervals. For some time, how7ever, in the advanced stages of fever, though these symptoms, by the use of opium, maybe much abated, they are liable to recur, unless they are obviated by the repetition of the opiate. There is still another circumstance in the advanced stage of fevers that on this occasion requires to be taken notict of. Though the most part of our fevers arising from contagion may have little general inflammatory diathesis accompanying them, and be on the contrary attended with much debility, there occurs however, from causes not easily assigned, some topical inflamma- tion of the brain, which has frequently appeared upon dissection, after fevers of the most nervous or putrid kind. These topical inflammations, and the delirium attending upon them, do not admit of opium, and all their sy7mptoms are much aggravated by it. The existence, however, of such topical inflammation, is not always easily ascertained; and some suffusion of the eyes is not always a certain proof of it. But we can give no better di- rections for the management of this matter than those given by Sir John Pringle, with respect to the use of wine in the jail fever. These are the remarks I have to offer on the use of opium in continued fevers. Many are fond of a more free use of it than had been common before; and have believed that this was in- troduced by a certain noted teacher and author. But I assert, that I myself Avas the first who freely and largely employed opi- um in fevers, under certain restrictions indeed, which, neglect- ed by other practitioners, have occasioned much mischief. In the cure of intermittent fevers, opium, or some of those compositions of Avhich it was the chief ingredient, Avere very much employed by the ancients. But since the use of Peruvian bark has been introduced, opium has been less employed, and only7 by persons who were prejudiced against the bark. Mr. Beryet, of the Academy of Sciences, Avithout knoAving any thing of Avhat had been done before, has endeavoured to recommend the use of opium; but Avithout showing any understaning of the nature of the disease, or of the remedy he proposes to be em- MATERIA MEDICA. 135 ployed. He has been, therefore, so far as I know, little follow- ed by any practitioners since that time. To judge properly of its use, we must attend to the nature of the disease, which I hope is better understood noAV than it was before. It appears to me clearly, that the recurrences of the paroxysms of intermittent fevers depend upon the recurrence of a state of debility ; and that this is to be prevented either by the use of tonics or stimulants, Avhich may excite the action of the heart and arteries, and support that excitement till the peri- od of accession is over. For this purpose, various means of exciting fever and sAveat have been employed; and there is perhaps no medicine that can be more effectually employed for that purpose than opium. It appears that Dr. Boer haave* s sudoriferum antipyreticum ra- rofallens derived its chief virtue from the two grains of opium which it contained, and which determined it to act as a sudori- fic. Opium alone has been employed, by being given an hour or two before the time of accession; and has prevented the re- turn of a fit without exciting sweat, and merely as a stimulus and antispasmodic. But the consequences of this, as marked by Baron Storck and others, haA7e been sometimes bad: and it seems that the safe and more certain practice will be, to direct opium to operate by sweating. We need hardly say here, that almost every practitioner has found it useful to join opium to Peruvian bark, or other tonics, in the cure of intermittents. Not only in correcting the purga- tive quality of the bark, Avhich sometimes take place, but even where no such purgative quality is to be apprehended, we are certain that a quantity of opium, joined with the bark, makes it sit easier upon the stomach than with certain persons it would otherwise do; and that a portion of it, joined Avith tAvo or three doses of the bark, which are given immediately before the time of accession, enables it, in less quantity than it would otherwise do, to prevent the return of paroxysms. A particular use of the bark in intermittents has not long ago been proposed and practised by Dr. Lind, of Haslar, which is the giving opium in the time of the hot stage of the paroxysms. As I have had no experience of this practice, I cannot either re- commend it, or offer the suspicions I have of its being improper. We proceed, in the next place, to consider the use of opium in inflammatory diseases, in which the practitioners of almost all ages have declared it to be hurtful. And Ave should be much sur- prised if any person engaged in practice for any length of time had not found it frequently to be so. The reason of it is also ob- vious ; for, if inflammatory diseases consist in an increased ac- tion of the heart and arteries with a phlogistic diathesis, Avhich causes and supports this increased action, it is highty probable that every stimulus applied to the system must do the same, and thereby aggravate the disease. But opium, on many- occasions, as we have said already, is a stimulant power; and whoever 136 TREATISE OF THE denies this, as some in writing have done, appears to deny and misrepresent facts admitted by every body else. For my part, I conclude with the utmost confidence, that opium, in general, is hurtful in all inflammatory diseases, and disposed to increase the phlogistic diathesis of the sy7stem. And as all practitioners are agreed that blood-letting affords the most effectual means for the cure of that diathesis, so we are persuaded of the pro- priety of Dr. Toung's general rule, that opium is improper in all those cases in which blood-letting is necessary. But I must allow, as he does, that there may be exceptions, or circumstances in certain inflammatory diseases, that may ad- mit, or perhaps require the use of opium. Such are those cases in which the inflammatory state arises from irritation in a parti- cular part producing spasm and supervening inflammation. Thus, in cases of jaundice, I have found a biliary stone, in passing the biliary ducts, give such an irritation as to produce a considerable degree of inflammatory state in the system : and though I have found it necessary, for moderating this, to employ blood-letting, yet, as I consider the passage of the stone to be chiefly interrupt- ed by a spasmodic constriction of the ductSj I have employed opium for taking off this with great advantage. Similar circumstances have frequently occurred in the case of urinary calculi passing the ureters, in which I have found it necessary- to employ opium and blood-letting at the same time. In like manner, as opium is useful in moderating excretions ; so Avherethe irritation occasions an increase of these excretions, which is attended with affections which irritate the Avhole sys- tem, opium becomes especially useful. Hence it becomes so generally useful in catarrhal affections, and the cough attending them ; and probably it is this analogy that has brought the use of opium to be frequently employed in pneumonic inflamma- tions. It is possible that there may be cases of such inflamma- tions wherein the opium may be more useful in taking off the cough, than hurtful by aggravating the inflammatory state of the system ; but I have hardly met with such cases. And even in the recent state of catarrhs from cold, I have found the early use of opium manifestly hurtful: and in cases of pneumonic inflam- mation I have ahvays found it to be very much so, if exhibited before the violence of the disease had been moderated by repeat- ed blood-letting. When that indeed has been done, I have found the opium very useful in quieting the cough; and I have hardly ever found it hurtful by stopping expectoration. It may suspend this for some hours; but if the glands of the bronchia have been duly re- laxed by bleeding and blistering, theexpectoration after the use of opium always returns Avith more advantage than before. The mucus which had issued before had been poured out from the follicles in an acrid state ; but, by being made to stagnate, it becomes milder, and is discharged in what the ancients called a Concocted State, Avith more relief to the lungs. MATERIA MEDICA. 137 Although we are well persuaded that opium, when it does not procure sweat, is ahvays hurtful in inflammatory diseases ; yet I a in ready to admit, that when it is directed to procure sweat, it may be so managed as to take off the inflammatory disposition of the system, and thereby to cure the most part of inflammato- ry affections. This we certainly learn from the present practice in acute rheumatism, Avhich is often cured by a sweat excited by Dover's poAvder. We consider the disease to be purely of the inflammatory kind, and attended Avith every mark of inflamma- tory disposition: and therefore, Avhen opium, in this disease, is given for the purpose only of relieving pain and giving sleep, we have found it constantly hurtful: but we have always found, that sAveating Avith Dover's poAvder was the most effectual means of taking off the whole of the disease. Before dismissing the consideration of the use of opium in inflammatory diseases, I must observe, that there is a certain state of these in which I judge it to be not only admissible, but often very useful. This is in the suppurating state of inflamma- tion ; and, as soon as a determination to this has taken place, we suppose the phlogistic diathesis of the system to be very much taken off, and therefore that the pain of suppuration may be safe- ly relieved by opium ; as Ave are at the same time persuaded that opium promotes the process of suppuration. The next set of diseases in Avhich I am to take notice of the use of opium, are the Exanthemata : and I begin with observ- ing, that as, in all of these it may be supposed there is an acri- mony diffused over the whole system, and giving some irritation to it; so we are of opinion, that opium, by moderating this irri- tation, may in general be useful; and that therefore it is often more admissible than their other circumstances might seem to alloAV. But, to be more particular, the use of opium, in the small-pox has, since the time of Sydenham, been very much spoken of. In the inflammatory7 state of the eruptive fever, I have always found opium to be hurtful: but as soon as the disease has taken a determination to suppuration, I have always found it employed with advantage. As I had occasion to practice in this disease long before the use of inoculation became common in this coun- try, I always found the practice of Sydenham, in giving an opi- ate once or tAvice a-day, to be extremely useful, especially when, at the same time, much costiveness was prevented by the use of laxative glysters. Since the practice of inoculation became more common, and that by the several means employed, few pustules are produced, I hold the employment of opiates to be unneces- sary and superfluous: but when it happens, even after inocula- tion, that a numerous set of pustules are produced on the face, I still hold the empkyment of opiates to be extremely proper: and when, either in consequence ot common infection or of nr- Voi. II. S 138 TREATISE OF THE oculation, a confluent small-pox is produced, which is always attended with a low and putrid fever, I.hold opium to be one of the most effectual means of supporting the vigour of the sys- tem, and of producing as much of a kindly suppuration as the nature of the disease will admit of. In short, I hold opium to be a very useful medicine in various circumstances of the small- pox: but I Avouldnot assert its absolute utility to be so great, as the late Dr. de Haen, from his enmity to inoculation, has been led to maintain. The affinity that was so long supposed to take place between the small-pox and measles, formerly led practitioners to transfer the practice found useful in the one, to that of the other; and I suspect that even Dr. Sydenham was under this influence in recommending so strongly as he has done the use of opiates in the measles. The measles, however, is purely, and often strongly, an in- flammatory disease, with a strong tendency to pneumonic in- flammation : and I belieA-e that the most part of practitioners, find blood-letting to be the most certain means of obviating the fatal consequences of this disease. In many- cases, therefore, of measles, before bleeding had been duly employed, I have found opium not only to be ineffectual, but manifestly hurtful. It is true, indeed, that the measles are very constantly attended with a cough, for which the only certain remedy is opium: and as this symptom is not only severe, but may be supposed to aggra- vate the disease, the practitioner has a strong temptation to em- ploy opium ; and I am of opinion that it may7 be employed more freely than the inflammatory nature of the disease might seem to admit of. I would, however, have practitioners, from what I have said above on the use of opium in pneumonic inflammation, and now on the present subject, be as much as possible reserved in the use of opium in the measles, till the violence of the in- flammatory state be taken off by bleeding and other antiphlo- gistic measures. With respect to the use of opium in other exanthemata, I have little to say. When the simple scarlatina, and even the scarlatina anginosa, is purely inflammatory, Avithout any ten- dency to a putrid state, I judge opium to be an unnecessary re- medy ; and when the scarlatina anginosa is of the putrid kind, I am persuaded that opium may be pernicious. The next order of diseases to be taken notice of, in which opi- um may be employed, is that of haemorrhagies. From the ma- nifest poAver of opium in restraining evacuations, an analogy has transferred the use of it to haemorrhagies; and both materia me- dica and practical writers have commended its use in such cases; but we are persuaded that there is much fallacy in the testimo- nies that have been given of its good effects. We are well per- suaded, that every active haemorrhagy is accompanied Avith a phlogistic diathesis of the system ; of which Ave have just noAV said enough to shoAv, that in such cases opium is generally hurt- MATERIA MEDICA. 139 fill: and I ha\re had several occasions inactive haemorrhagies to observe its being so. If opium, therefore, is ever admissible or useful in such cases, it must be in those in Avhich the haemorrhagy is occasioned and supported by a particular irritation. Thus, in a haemoptysis, where the blood comes up Avithout coughing, or when the cough attending it only arises in consequence of blood being poured out into the bronchia, as in cases of haemoptysis from external violence, opium is of no service, and often does harm. But there are cases in which the haemoptysis is occasioned by coughing, and appears only in consequence of the returns of coughing: in which cases opium may7, and has been of service. In the maenorrhagia which happens to women who are not pregnant, I have not found opium of service: but in the cases of abortion and of child-bearing, the htemorrhagy very often de- pends upon spasmodic affections; in quieting of which opium may be highly7 useful. There is no disease in Avhich opium has been more fre- quently employed, or found more useful, than in catarrhal affections. These very often depend upon an undue balance of the system, that is, upon a languid perspiration, necessarily pro- ducing a more copious determination of the lungs; and this, as pouring out a mucus, is attended with much coughing. In many persons this is habitual, or is readily renewed upon every slight application of cold ; and in such cases and persons, opium is a sovereign remedy. Whenever, therefore, there is little fever and much coughing, it may be employed very freely, that is, in doses which have sedative effects without heating the system. The peculiar delicacy and irritability which occurred in Dr. G. Toung, does not allow of his experience being admitted in form- ing any general rules. The remarks I have now made, relate especially to habitual catarrhs : but there is a catarrh arising occasionally only from a strong application of cold, almost always attended with a phlo- gistic diathesis of the system, and probably with a more or less inflammatory state of the mucous glands of the bronchia. Such a disease is to be cured by blood-letting, and sn antiphlogistic regimen: and the early use of opium, by confirming the inflame matory state, has proved very hurtful. What 1 haA7e said above, upon the management of the cough, in cases of pneumonic in- flammation, is entirely applicable here, and should correct an abuse that has been too common and very mischievous. Another profluvium in which opium has been much employed, is the dysentery ; the nature of Avhich, till Aery lately, has been very little understood. If I am right in the pathology I have elsewhere endeavoured to establish, it w ill be obvious, that if the present practice of the frequent use of gentle laxatives be the most effectual measure, it will be equally evident that opiates must be commonly hurtful; and notwithstanding the urgency of pain, it is at best a very precarious remedy, and to be avoided as 140 TREATISE OF THE much as possible. This, however, seems now to be so well under- stood by our practitioners, that there is no occasion for my in- sisting longer on it here. I h?ve now considered the use of opium in all those cases in which it is most nice and difficult, that is, in all the various dis- eases of the febrile kind; and Avith respect to others, our Avork will be more easy. In the cotomase diseases, it is obvious that opium can hardly in any case be admissible. In some cases of palsy, attended With convulsive motions, I have known it employed, and Avith success, in relieving those motions, but manifestly, at the same time, aggravating the primary disease. In dyspepsia and hypochondriasis, there often happens pains and spasmodic symptoms, Avhich may be, and for the most part are, relieved by opium. It is accordingly often employed, and it is not easily withheld from such patients; but I have ahvays found the frequent use of opiates in these diseases extremely pernicious. It is by preserving the mobility of the energy of the brain, es- pecially in spasmodic affections of an idiopathic kind, that opi- um has discovered its great powers. In the most violent and obstinate disease of this kind, the tetanus, opium, though often insufficient, has howeA7er been the most effectual remedy ; and it appears that, whatever other remedies have been proposed and alleged to be useful, hardly any of them have been so but when Opium was at the same time employed. But I say no more on this subject, as I expect the enquiries that the Society Royale of Paris are now engaged in, will give us some more light on this subject: and I must also refer to the works of that learned society, for our best instruction on the use of opium in the hydrophobia. In various convulsive affections of the limbs, not accompanied with any stupor, and therefore not to be considered as epileptic, we have frequently found opium of service; but it is not always so: and as I cannot ahvays in different cases assign the causes, or distinguish them by different circumstances; so I cannot de- termine the cases in which it is especially proper. There is a case which I think may be distinguished from all others, which is generally knoAvn under the title of Chorea Sti. Viti. Neither the pathology or practice in this disease is well agreed on among physicians: and we cannot enter into the dis- cussion here ; but can say, from a good deal of experience, that opiates have been very generally useful in the cure of it. On this subject of convulsive diseases, the great question with regard to the use of opium has occured with respect to epilepsy; and it has been variously determined by different authors. The pathology of the disease is in many respects obscure: but Ave can clearly enough perceive that it arises from different conditions of the system; and so far as we can discern and distinguish these, MATERIA MEDICA. 141 we may make some attempts towards ascertaining in what cases of epilepsy opium may be hurtful, and in which it may be use ful. To this purpose, we can observe that it may be produced by large haemorrhagies, or other causes of great debility: but as I have hardly ever met with cases of this kind, I cannot say how far opium may be useful in them. Much more frequently do we meet Avith epilepsy connected with a plethoric state of the system: and in all such cases I am of opinion Avith the most part of practitioners, that opium is ex- tremely hurtful. So far does a phlethoric state appear to me to dispose to this disease, that I am of opinion with Dr. Cheyne, that epilepsies have been more frequently cured by a low diet than by any other means. It is here to be observed, that epileptic fits very frequently occur from an occasional turgescence of the blood in the vessels of the brain: and from frequent trials, I knoAv that opium Avill not prevent such fits ; but, if exhibited, will bring them on a< ith more Adoknce. They are the epilepsies arising from irritation applied to the nervous system, in Avhich opium promises to be useful: and when the return of such fits are anywise periodical, or nearly so, opium given a litde before the times of accession, has been often useful in preventing the recurrence. In many instances, however, the returns of epilepsy are irregular; and in such cases, the frequent use of opium, either by producing an occasional turgescence of the blood, or by increasing the mobility of the system, is often very hurtful. As instances of epilepsy depending upon irritation applied to the nervous system, I consider all those depending upon an aura epileptica to be such: and in several cases of this kind, Avhere the times of accession could be foreseen, and eA'en when the symp- toms announcing it had come on, I have found opium an effec- tual remedy. The late Dr. de Haen has given us Avhat seems to be a singu- lar case of epilepsy, as occurring only in time of sleep, and Avhen the recurrence of the fit was prevented by avoiding sleep: but at the same time this very disease Avas cured by the use of opium. This, as I have said, may seem singular: but it is not so much so as might at first sight appear: for perhaps the greatest number of the cases of epilepsy occur during the night, and during sleep. Jn several such cases, I have noAV frequently found an opiate, ghen at bed-time, prevent their return. 1 have, thus treated of the use of opium in the spasmodic af- fections of the animal functions, and of those of the vital. 1 have to mention only those of the heart in palpitation, and those of the lungs in asthma and chincough. Palpitation is generally a symptomatic affection; and so far as it depends upon spasmodic affections, if the primary disease ad- mits of opium, th,. symptom of palpitation may be cured by italso. In the ease of asthma, when the disease depends, as it often 142 TREATISE OF THE does, upon occasional turgescence of the blood in the lungs, opi- um can hardly be employed with safety; but when it depends upon other irritations, and is purely of the spasmodic kind, opi- um may be employed both to prevent and to moderate fits, with great advantage. Even when the disease is of the catarrhal kind, if it be fit to employ opium to relieve the catarrh, it may likewise be employed to relieve the asthma dependingupon it. But I must conclude by remarking, that in both the spasmodic and catarrhal asthma, I have frequently7 employed opium in moderating the disease ; but have never found it to prove an entire cure of it. With respect to the chincough, we have to observe, that in the first stage of it, and especially when that is attended Avith fever and difficulty of breathing, opium has always appeared to me very hurtful. But when the disease had subsisted for some time, and is in what I call its second stage, and when the fits come most frequently in the night time, I have found opium of great use; and as I judge, it has often contributed to put an end to the disease. In the spasmodic affections affecting the natural functions, opium may have much employment. The pyrosis, frequent in this country under the name of the Water-Brash, and frequent in most countries of Europe, as a transitory illness, has been little taken notice of by physicians; but it is a painful disorder, and a relief from it is often demanded. We have found nothing that gives that relief excepting opium: but this relieves only the present fit, and contributes nothing to preventing returns of it. In colic, the employment of opium is not exactly agreed on. It Avill pretty certainly relieve the pain for some time ; but if the colic has been brought on, or is attended by costiveness, it will certainly confirm the disease, and interrupt the operation of the purgatives, which are absolutely necessary to the cure of it. O- pium, howeA-er, is certainly suited to the cure of every spasmo- dic affection: and if it can be employed so as not to interfere with the operation of purgatives, it may as an antispasmodic e- ven favour the operation of these, and contribute to the cure of certain cases of colic. For this purpose, some practitioners have exhibited the opium and the purgative at the same time. But this has been seldom found to ansAver: and it has always appeared better, in the urgency of pain, to exhibit the opiate by itself; and in four, five, or six hours after, Avhen the power of it Avas somewhat diminished, to exhibit the purgative. In this manner of managing, it is commonly necessary to employ a purgative of a powerful kind, and one that commonly operates soon after its exhibition; and these considerations will, on the one hand, exclude the employment of aloetics, and, on the o- ther, recommend the oleum ricini. In affections of the alimentary canal, of a nature contrary to that of colic, that is, where the action of the canal is preterna- turally increased, as in vomiting, cholera, and diarrhoea, opium is a more undoubted remedy. MATERIA MEDICA. 143 Vomiting is commonly a symptomatic affection, from very various causes ; and in many cases cannot be cured by opium : but the distinction of these cases cannot be entered into here; and I have only to observe, that there are more cases of it than is commonly imagined to be relieved by opium properly em- ployed. It is common with practitioners to exhibit the opium by the mouth : and it is often in such cases immediately rejected again by vomiting, without having any effect in relieving the disease; which must always render the practitioner uncertain to what quantity it may be necessary to repeat the opiate. In all such cases, when the vomiting is not immediately stopped by the opi- ate gh-en, and this is rejected by vomiting, it is extremely im- proper to repeat it in the same manner: and a much surer mea- sure is to throAv the opium, joined with a small bulk of a mild liquid, into the anus; and Avhen thus thrown in, in sufficient quantity, it will as certainly stop the vomiting as if it had been throAvn into the stomach itself. in cholera, the employment of opium, as directed by Syden- ham, is so well understood, that Ave need not say any thing of it here: and I go on to speak of its use in diarrhoea, in which it has not been so frequent as we judge it ought to be. As diarrhoea seems always to depend upon an increased action of the intestines, so, except in a feAv singular instances in which opium proved purgative, we have found it very universally to have the poAver of diminishing, and for some time suspending, the action of the intestines; and therefore very universally of use in the diarrhoea. This indeed may sometimes be a sympto- matic affection, and therefore not to be entirely cured by opi- ates ; and sometimes the disease may depend upon an acrimony which must be evacuated in order to the entire cure of the dis- ease. But still in most cases it seems to be safely employed: for as its operation is not very durable, it will not long interfere with the use of other remedies that may be thought necessary; and it seldom happens that the temporary suspension of the diarr- hoea is of any bad consequence. In many cases we have found purgatives to be very hurtful, and the disease to be more quick- ly cured by the continued use of opium alone. There is no disease in which opium has been more frequently spoken of as a remedy than in hysteric affections: but there is nothing I find more difficult to treat of in a scientific manner. The term Hysteria I would willingly confine to the affection Avhich I have described under that title in my First Lines; but most writers are disposed to extend the meaning of it much far- ther, and to every unusual feeling, or irregular motion, that seems to arise from a mobility of the nervous system. To give any due limits to this idea of hysteria, I find beyond the reach of my skill, and shall not attempt it here: and with respect to my present subject, can only say, that in hysteria, as I Avould define it, and 144 TREATISE OF THE as generally affecting plethoric habits, and depending upon an occasional turgescence of the gcnitil system, I hold opium to be an improper, and commonly a hurtful remedy. But, on the other hand, in all those cases of unusual feeling and irregular motions, not depending upon a plethoric state, but mnifestly upon a mobility of the nervous system, opium is a ve- ry certain remedy. WheneA'er, therefore, these symptoms are in excess, it may be employed, tho' it be difficult to set the proper limits to its use. There are cases in Avhich its tonic and antis- pasmodic powers must be frequently repeated : but it is to be re- marked, that wherever that necessity does not manifestly occur, the frequent use of it increases the mobility of the system, and creates a seeming necessity that readily induces a habit, which again, constantly indulged, has a tendency to destroy the system altogether. In the rabies canina, and in the most violent state of it, the hydrophobia, opium has been employed. But the experiments reported have not been so many as to fix our judgement on this subject; and for what may be said upon it, I must refer my read- ers to the labours of the learned and industrious Societe Roy ale in Paris, who have taken much pains, and employed the most proper means for ascertaining the practice in this disease. In mania, the employment ot opium is nice and difficult. In the appendix to Wepfer's Fiistoriae Apoplecticorum, we have an account of mania being cured by large doses of opium; and it may- be true. But there is no such account of those cases as might serve to specify their peculiar character, so as to enable us to imitate the practice, Avhilst we know pretty certainly that there are other cases w hich do not admit of the same. In several cases of mania we have employed opium ; and in some have found it useful in moderating the violence of the dis- ease : but in other cases we have found it manifestly hurtful: and we have not had so many opportunities of treating the dis- ease as to allow us to distinguish clearly the cases in which it may be proper. We suppose there are many cases of the disease depending upon an organic affection of the brain,, in which no benefit is to be expected from opium. But there are certainly many other cases, in Avhich, from their transitory nature, we can- not suppose any such organic affection, and in which therefore opium may be admissible and useful. If Ave may suppose that such cases depend upon occasional eauses of excitement without inflammation, Ave should judge opi- um to be a promising remedy: but probably it must be given in larger doses than Ave commonly exhibit, and possibly in such large doses as Bernard Huet actually employed. In some trials Ave have found it moderate the disease, and induce sleep: but I have never pushed it so far as to obtain an entire cure; because I suspected that in many cases the disease approached so much to a phrenitis as to render the large use of opium very dangerous. MATERIA MEDICA. 145 We cannot indeed treat this subject Avith so much precision as were to be wished. But other practitioners, having more oppor- tunities of practice, by considering what I have said both here and above on the subject of delirium in fevers, may settle this matter more exactly. There is now but one other disease in which the use of opium is to be mentioned; and with respect to which our opinion will be expected: this is the venereal disease, in which of late opi- um has been very much employed, and with various success. We do not think it necessary to give an account of the different facts reported, and of the different opinions entertained, on this subject, as they are to be found in many books which are in ever ry body's hands: and all that seems to be incumbent on me, is to say what I have learned from my own experience, and from that of my felloAv-practitioners in Scotland. From this we have not learned that opium alone has been a remedy for the vene- real disease. And any experiments that we know to have been made, lead us to conclude, that it is never alone sufficient for that purpose. But from almost every experiment made, Ave are well assured of its being of great use in almost every circum- stance of the disease. It moderates and alleviates every symp- tom : and in many of them it will do this without the assistance of other remedies. We are Avell persuaded that it will almost in every case favour and expede the effects of mercury, either in removing symptoms or in entirely curing the disease. We have only further to re- mark, that the opium in this case seems to operate by obviating the effects of the general acrimony in the system: and this sup- position explains both why large doses of the opium are neces- sary, and why persons bear these large doses in this disease bet- ter than in many other cases. The effects of opium hitherto mentioned are for the most part such as appear in consequence of its being given by the mouth; but we have also had occasion to say, that it may be introduced by the anus into the intestines. And it is proper to remark, that not only in the case of vomiting, but also in many others, it may be introduced in this way into the intestines, and in this way produce all the effects that have been mentioned of its be- ing thrown into the stomach. In some persons there is a peculiar irritability of the stomach with respect to opium, and from Avhence several disorders arise, which are avoided by its being thrown into the rectum. Some practitioners are of opinion, that some effects of opium upon the nervous system in general, as headach and vomiting, which often appear in the morning after a dose of opium had been thrown into the stomach over night, are not so ready to ap- pear after its being throAvn into the rectum. But this seems to de- pend upon the dose in the latter case being Aveaker, either from Voi. II. T 146 TREATISE OF THE the quantity employed, or from the lesser sensibility of the rec- tum. This leads to observe, that the sensibility ot the rectum is so much less than that of the stomach, that it is commonly neces- sary, when applied to the former, to employ at least double the quantity of Avhat w-ould have been sufficient for the latter. Irt the application of opium to the rectum, it is necessary to introduce it in a liquid form, to avoid giving along Avith it any thing that may- in the least prove irritating to the rectum ; and therefore a solution in water is ihe most convenient to be em- ployed in this Avnv. This is farther to be observed, that Ave are sometimes disappointed in this practice by the opiate givster's being rejected soon after it has been given. Hence it is as im- proper to throAV it into the rectum in some cases of diarrhoea and tenesmus, as we said above it Avas improper in th< case oi vomit- , tng to throw it into the stomach. But even though neither die.r- rhcea nor tenesmus be presen:, opiate gh/sters an- som urnes re- jected soon after they have been given. This perhr-,ps may be owing to a peculiar irritability of the rectum in certain persons; but we have found it commonly owing to too great a bulk of li- quid being thrown into it; and therefore 1 auvise that opiate glys- ters be never made of more bulk than that Oi three, or at most four, ounces of liquid, and this, as Ave have said, of a very mild kind. 1 find that three drachms of gum arabic, dissolved in three ounces of water, make a proper and ready preparation for that purpose. We must now add, that opium may be employed not only by being throAvn into the stomach or into the re ctum, but may also" by being applied to the skin. In this case, as opium acts always1 first, as I haA'e said above, upon the parts to A\hich it is imme- diately applied, so it may be often applied to the external parts with some advantage ; and, by diminishing the sensibility of these parts, it may relieve the pain that happens to affect them. We find also, that opium operates not only on the parts to which it is immediately applied, but that without being communicated to the sensorium, it operates to a certain extent on the nerves of th parts adjoining to that which it is more immediately applied to, in diminishing their sensibility, and thereby in relieving their pains. Thus a plaster of opium applied to the temple has often relieved the toothach. In other cases, when it is applied to the skin, Avhether it penetrates by inorganic pores to the viscera of the abdomen, or if it only acts on the teguments, and particularly on the muscles consenting Avith the viscera, we Avould not confi- dently determine ; but we have certainly found the external ap-' plication relieve the pains and spasms of the stomach and intes- tines. The external application has been made under different forms, and I believe it may have effects either in the form of plaster or poultice: but we are very certain that its effects arc most consi- derable Yv^hen applied in a liquid orm. in this form it may be employed as dissolved in water, A/ine or spirit: but v/e presume MATERIA MEDICA. 147 V-hat it will always be most effectual when dissolved in rectified spirit. This u i-t inly most poAverfully extracts the volatile part of opium, upon which its poAvers especially depend: and this same volatile partm.ty be presumed to be the n.ost readily'pene- trating; and therefore the most fit ior external use. Alter thus endeavouring to assign the various poAvers and vir- tues oi opium, we must, in the next place, say someAvhat of its pharmaceutical treatment and exhibition. The former h.;s been very various, and very little upon scientific grounds. We know of no means that can be employe d in operating upon the opium alone that can improve its virtues. The volatile and active p; rts. of it may be ex.racted from the oher parts of its substance by rectified spirit ot wine; but the tincttno. and extract made by this menstruum has the same powers and virtues as the# entire opium, and only differs by being brought into a smaller bulk. It is at the same time iouud, that these preparations are more offensive to uie stomach th die moderate dose oi it, which, during its gradual operation, allows a various re-action of the system. We have a fine illustration MATERIA MEDICA. 163 ♦>f this in Langrish's experiments, in AA7hich, p. 67, he tells us that one ounce of laurel-water will occasion more violent and stronger ronvulions than five or six ounces will do. For this he gives a theory which 1 do not understand: and I think it needs no other than that the larger dose proA-es more immediately fatal. The tendency of the lauro-cerasus js plainly to destroy the mobility of the nervous power, and thereby the vital principle: and, vv hen employed in sufficient quantity, it does this very sud- denly in every animal to which it has been applied, Avithout ex- citing inflammation in the part to which it had been more imme- diately-applied, and without producingany sensible change on the -state of the fluids, if it seems to some persons to coagulate, and to others to render the fluids more thin, we have not taken anv pains to ascertain either of these facts, because there is no proof of its acting directly upon the fluids : and therefore, any changes which happen to appear in thes > must be imputed to a change in the action of the v.ssels, Avhich Ave know has a great power in changing the state of the fluids. We must OAvn, however, that to explain the effects ol the lauro-cerasus in this respect, Ave know yet too little of the changes Avhich the fluids are capable of undergoing by the various action of the vessels. With respect to the sedative power of the lauro-cerasus, it may be remarked, that its operation upon the nervous system is different from diat of opium and other narcotic powers, which, in their first operation, commonly induce sleep, and Avhich i do not find to h ive been eA-er obsen'ed as the effect of the lauro-ce- rasus. AI ay it! e supposed that the animal and vital functions de- pend so much' upon a different condition of the nervous system, that one kind ot poison may act upon one of these functions more readily than upon the other, while another kind of poison may act more directly upon that other set of functions and less upon the former. If there is any foundation for this supposi- tion, Ave might say that the narcotic poisons act first upon the animal I unctions, though their poAver may at length be extend- ed also to the vital; and that the lauro-cerasus, and other poi- sons analogous to this, act more immediately upon the vital functions, witho t shewing any intermediate affection of the ani- m d. if such a speculation may7 be indulged, Ave AY-ould alLge that the poison of the mad dog seems to operate more immedi- ately upon the natural functions than upon either the vital or animal. But Avhether such speculations are to be indulged, or what application they are capable of, we must leave to luture philosophers to judge. The active matter of the lauro-cerasus lies in its most volatile parts, and is therefore readily carried over ay ith Avater or spirit, in distillation; and may be still rendered more active by cohoba- tion, and especially if, Avithout any7 addition of Avater, it is distil- led in balneo marl e. In distillation with Avater, it gives out an essential oil, which, either taken by itself, or diffused, as it may 164 TREATISE OF THE readily be in the distilled water, shoAvs that it contains some of the most active parts of the plant. By7 these operations for obtaining the more volatile parts of the lauro-cerasus, a singularly poAverful poison is obtained ; but the same poAver is also to he found in the entire substance of the plant, with this difference only, that this, to sheAV the same de- gree of power, must be employed in much larger doses than the other. This explains A-ery Avell Avhj7 a portion of the plant, often employed as an article of diet, had not before discovered its poi- sonous quality: and this leads me to remark, that ever since its poisonous qualities haA-e been discovered, it has been proposed to be employed as a medicine, either by employing the volatile part in small doses, or the substance of the whole plant in larger. That a matter of such power in changing the state of the animal oeconomy should, in certain circumstances, prove a medicine, avc can have no doubt: but we haA-e not yet learned to Avhat cir- cumstances of disease it is peculiarly adapted. Its poAver of rendering the blood more fluid is not certainly or universally- proved ; and though it were, as, by7 the reflection we made above, the change that appears is more probably depending up- on the state of the vessels than any direct action upon the fluids ; so Ave hold this state of matters to be too mysterious to admit of any application in medicine. We must further remark, that all judgment, made from the state of the blood draAvn out of the veins to that of its state in the blood-vessels, is extremely fallacious, unless a nice and strict attention is given to the cir- cumstances of the extravasation, and Avhich Ave have not found to be commonly bestoAved. There is a circumstance commonly taken notice of in faA-our of a fluidity7 being induced by the lauro-cerasus, Avhich is, that the blood in several places is found to have passed trom the red vessels into the serous. But as this seems to have happened on- ly- after frequent and strong convulsions, it is with more proba- bility imputed to an increased action in the arteries, Avhich has often this effect of pushing red blood into the serous vessels, than to the increased fluidity of the mass; and it is in the same man- ner that we would account for the fullness of the veins and the emptiness of the arteries, Avhich have been found to be the effects of the lauro-cerasus. To confirm these opinions Avith regard to the fluidity of the blood, and the application of it to medicine, it is only necessary to add, that Avhen the lauro-cerasus is given in such a manner as instantly7 to kill, without occasioning almost any other disorder, there is not any mark of change in the state of the blood, to be perceived. And upon that occasion, that the death is owing to an operation upon the blood, I believe there is no other physiologist in Europe, except the Abbe Fontana, who can imagine. I have made these observations to prevent any rash applica- tion of the lauro-cerasus, from the supposition of its producing a MATERIA MEDICA. 165 fluidity of the blood: and I find no proof of its having been ap- plied, upon that supposition, to any- good purpose; and particu- larly that it has been of use in cases of phthisis pulmonalis, or that it has been of use in resolving obstructions of the liver, seems to be concluded upon too few experiments. Although Ave do not find the benefit of its internal use in re- solving obstructions well ascertained, we are somewhat disposed to belieAre, that its external use may be useful in resohing certain schirrosities. Even this power, however, is not sufficiently as- certained, though we shall hereafter mention some analogies that seem to support it- By another analogy also, I find a virtue ascribed to the lauro-cerasus rendered very- probable. Dr. Brown Langrish tells us, that the lauro-cerasus in his neighbourhood Avas frequently employed in the cure of agues. He unhappily omits the dose, manner of administration, or peculiar circum- stances of the disease. But the experiments of Bergius Avith bit- ter almonds sufficiently confirm the general power of such bitters in the cure of intermittents. We do not find room to say any more on the medicinal vir- tues of the lauro-cerasus : but from its general power, they are certainly probable, and will hereafter, in the hands of a future Storck, be ascertained. To encourage such inquiry, we must remark, that the lauro-cerasus has hardly in any experiment shown any tendency to produce topical inflammation: and in mam- experiments on brutes, though the employment of the lauro-cerasus has been carried so far as to produce various and violent disorders of the system; yet upon withdrawing the exhi- bition of it, the animal has soon after recovered a seemingly en- tire state of health. These may give encouragement to some trials; but i hope it will never be forgotten, that a matter which has so strong a tendency to extinguish the vital principle, is to be employed with the utmost caution. Here, immediately after the lauro-cerasus, it seems proper to mention some articles of the materia medica Avhich contain the same kernel bitter, and which can be extracted from them in such a manner as to shew the same deleterious power: but as they contain it in a less concentrated and weaker state, they are there- fore more readily to be admitted as articles of the materia medica, The first Ave shall take notice of is the CERASA NIGRA. The kernels in the stones of these fruits do certainly contain a like matter avith the lauro-cerasus; and by a certain manage- ment a very powerful poison can be obtained from them. But certainly they do not contain it in the same proportion: and it is a question with me if the distilled water, as formerly extract- ed from black cherries and their bruised kernels, contains it in such a quantity as to engage the colleges both of London and Edinburgh to reject an agreeable Avater from their dispensato- ries. If the kernels are bruised only7 so far as necessary to the A6a TREATISE OF THE breaking of the stones, and at the same time that a good deal more water is added than the weight of the ch rrks, and that less than the whole of this is drawn off, I am persuaded that such a water will be very safe, and particularly in the quantities employed in our juleps. I shall not indeed advise the tamper- ing Avith such a matter in the case of infants: but surely that a matter, under a certain preparation, and in a certain dose, is a poi- son, will not, in the present age, be an objection to its being em- ployed in other circumstances as a medicine. I might here take notice of the flowers and leaves of the peach tree, all of which contain the kernel bitter. But after what I have said of the black cherry, and am to say of the bitter almond, I do not think it necessary to speak of substances which I have not been acquainted with in practice. AMYGDALAE AMARAE. These have been long knoAvn to be a poison Avith respect to many brute animals; and there are some irtstances alleged of their being such to men. We at present understand this from observing that they contain the same peculiar bitter that is found in the lauro-cerasus, and in the other kernels mentioned above. It is alleged that they are not so powerful with respect to men as they are to other animals: and they have, in a certain quanti- ty, been often admitted both in diet and medicine. Their me- dicinal qualities, hoAvever, are, as I have said before, not well as- certained. But there is one virtue, Avhich is, their being a reme- dy in intermittent fevers, that is well established on the authority of the learned Bergius. His manner of administration is the following: he takes tAvo drachms of soluble tartar and an ounce and half ol honey7. These he diffuses in a pound of water; and with this water he makes an emulsion with one ounce of bitter almonds, to be strained in the ordinary manner. Qf this emulsion he gives, during the in- termission, a pound or two every day; and says that, by this re- medy, the recurrence of fits is prevented. He acknoAvledges, indeed, that certain fevers have resisted this remedy, and obliged him to have recourse to the bark : but even then, Avith the de- coction of the bark, he mixes the bitter emulsion. And he says also, that he has seen intermittent fevers frequently recurring, and Avhich had entirely resisted the bark, at length entirely cured by7 the bitter emulsion alone. I have had so little opportunity in this country of practising upon intermitting fevers, or upon any but those which readily yield to the bark, that I have never had occasion to imitate the practice of Bergius. But if I ay ere to haA7e the opportunity, I should certainly proceed Avith some caution in exhibiting such quantities of the bitter almond. The ancients had an opinion, that bitter almonds taken be- fore drinking wine would prevent it from causyig ebriety ; but John Bauhin, from experiments made on purpose, denies them to have this power. MATERIA MEDICA. 167 CAMPHIRE. This is a substance, whether chemically or medicinally con- sidered, of a very peculiar nature. The chemists have subjected it to many experiments, and giv- en us many particulars with respect to its chemical histoiy. But I do not find that they have clearly ascertained its composition: and I cannot indeed perceive that their experiments have any influence in the consideration of it as a medicine. They have given us some instruction in the pharmaceutic treatment pro- per for its most convenient exhibition. But they have not giv- en us any preparation of it that either increases or diminishes its power with respect to the human body. I hold it therefore unnecessary here to enter into its chemical history. This substance, as we have it in our shops, and employ it in medicine, is obtained from a tree now sufficiently known to our botanists, and distinguishe d by the trivial name of Laurus Cam- phora. What we employ is chiefly the grownh ot Japan; though there are several other trees in the East-Indies which afford the same substance. But as I do not know that the camphire ob- tained trom these other trees is ever brought into Europe tor the purpose oi medicine, or, if they are, that they differ in the least from that ay hich Ave commonly employ, 1 do not think it neces- sary tor me to prosecute the natural history of it further ; nor is it anywise proper for me to speak of the manner in Avhich this substance is obtained from the trees affording it; ot the different states in Avhich it is found and transmitted to Europe; or 01 the several operations by which it is brought into that form in which Ave have it in our shops. These are particulars that may be of some curiosity with re- spect to chemistry and trade. But there is certainly no foreign drug so little liable to any variation or adulteration, or that comes into our hands so steadily and uniformly 01 the same ap- pearance and qualities, and therefore requiring less of our ac- quaintance with its previous history. With a view to its medicinal history, it may be proper to re- mark, that since Ave became acquainted with this peculiar sub- stance from the East Indies, the chemists have supposed, that a substance precisely ot the same kind Avas to be found in many European plants. In many instances they have supposed this Aviihout any clear proof. But they7 have certainly, in several in- stances, demonstrated its existence in the clearest manner. It does not, however, seem necessary to enter into any enumeration of those plants ;' because, even in the instances in which the pre- sence oi camphire is most clearly demonstrated, it is even in th^se in such small proportion, that it has not given any modifica- tion ot their ordinary virtues, or that these substances have been employed, or can be employtd, as a medicine, tor the purposes which camphire, in its Separate state, is or may be employed. Attej: setting aside so many particulars that might have entered 168 TREATISE OF THE into a treatise of camphire, it is time for me now to come to my proper business, which is the consideration of camphire as a medicine. This I find to be a difficult task ; as I must encoun- ter the various and contradictory opinions that have been main- tained with respect to it. The opposition of opinions appears strongly from hence, that the controversy has been commonly brought into the single question, Whether camphire be a heating or a cooling medicine with respect to the human body? Or, as I Avould put it in other Avords, Whether.it is a stimulant or a sedative power? The ques- tion has been often attempted to be determined by7 frivolous and ill-founded theories, both on one side and the other; but these shall be here entirely neglected ; as w7e judge the question must be absolutely determined by experiments made upon the human body, assisted however by some analogy, AvhereA-er it can be safely drawn, from experiments on brutes. To this purpose Ave remark, in the first place, that camphire taken into the mouth is of an acrid taste; and though, by its evaporation, it excites a sense of cold air, what remains is a sense of heat in the mouth and fauces: and Avhen taken down into the stomach, it often gives some pain and uneasiness, which we impute to the operation of its acrimony upon the up- per orifice of that organ. These may be considered as marks of its heating quality; and the same are more strongly marked by its application to any ulcerated part, which it always evi- dently irritates and inflames. These are indeed marks of a stimulant power; but hardly any thing corresponding to these appears upon its being thrown into the stomach of man or brute animals. It appears that in the stomach of animals it operates there by a small portion of its effluvia; for when a mass of any bulk has been thrown in, though it has produced considerable effects upon the body, nei- ther the bulk nor the Aveight of what had been throAvn in are found to be sensibly diminished: and in such cases it cannot be doubted that the operation has been entirely upon the nerves of the stomach, and by these on the rest of the system. This operation seems to me to be entirely that of a sedative power; and w-e take its being of that kind on the stomach itself, which occasions the indigestion of food, Avhich has been constantly ob- served to follow its exhibition in any large quantity. The sedative effects, hoAvever, are still more evident and con- siderable in the sensorium. The death of so many animals, sud- denly occasioned by it, in the experiments of Menghin, can be explained in no other way but by the power of this substance, like that of other poisons, in destroying the mobility of the ner- Arous power, and thereby extinguishing the vital principle. It is in illustration of this that it so often operates by first inducing stupor and sleep: and the other symptoms of delirium, furor, and convulsions, can all be probably explained as we have done with MATERIA MEDICA. 169 respect to other poisons, by the struggle that occurs between the force of the sedative poAver and the re-action of the system. But before Ave go further, it is proper to inquire Avhat are its effects on the sanguiferous system. And here at least we can as- sert that it shows in the first instance no stimulant power. I re- gret, that in the account of the experiments on brutes that we have met Avith, there is no mention of the state of their pulse: but I think we have enough of experiments on men to ascertain this matter. The experiments of Hoffman assure us, that the pulse was not rendered more frequent, or the skin warmer, by twenty grains and upAvard of camphire being taken into the sto- mach. The experiments of Griffin and Alexander rather show that the frequency of the pulse Avas diminished by large doses of camphire. To these we may add the experiments of Berger, Werlhojf, Lasonnc, Home, and especially those of Collin. The last, in giving some hundred instances of the exhibition of camphire in large doses, even to the quantity of half an ounce in the course of one day, has not in any one instance taken no- tice of the frequency of the pulse, or of the heat of the body be- ing increased by it. In the case in Avhich half an ounce of cam- phire had been exhibited, the patient was examined by the Ba- ron Van Swieten, and some other physicians, who could not miss to have taken notice of its heating the body, if any such effect had appeared. I myself have frequently given twenty grains of camphire, without t A-.r finding the frequency of the pulse increa- sed by it, and sometimes manifestly diminished. I once had a maniacal patient, a young woman between twen* ty-five and thirty years of age, whom I was resolved to try7 the cure of by camphire: and beginning by five grains for a dose, and increasing it by the same quantity every- evening, I brought it at length to a dose of thirty grains: and that dose, in imita- tion of Dr. Kinnear, I repeated for four nights together. Dur- ing all this 1 never found the frequency7 of the pulse increased; and when the larger doses were employed, the pulse Avas frequent- ly brought to be ten strokes fewer in a minute than it had been before. At the same time, so little change was made in the state of the mania, that I was resolved to give up the trial; but the apothecary, by a gross error in Baddam's abridgement of the Phi- losophical Transactions, Avas led to think that I had mistaken Dr. Kinnear's practice, and had not carried the dose of camphire so far as he had done. Proceeding upon this supposition, he presumed to give forty grains of camphire for the next night's dose. In about half an hour after this had been exhibited, I was sent for to see my patient; who, after beating upon her breast, as if she had felt some uneasiness there, had fallen down seemingly in a faint. She appeared to me quite insensible, with her pulse very Aveak, and hardly to be felt, and her breathing hardly to be ebserved, with a paleness and coldness over her Avhole body. I Vol. II. Y '17t> TREATISE OF THE judged her to be dying. But by holding some spirits of hartshorn to her nose, and chafing her extremities with »; arm flannels, he AA7as so far recovered as to sAvallow a little warm milk, and aft r- wards a little Avarm wine. And by these measures continued lor two or three hours, her pulse and the heat of her lx>dy were a good deal recovered, and she had the appearance of being in a sleep, in which she Avas allowred to continue till morning, Avhen she came out of it by degrees, with her pulse very much in its natural state. At the same time the mania Avas also in the same state as before, and continued to be so for some months after- Wards, when I ceased to enquire after her. Dr. Hoffman gives us the history of a person, who, by mis- take, took at one draught two scruples of camphire, which occa- sioned violent disorder. But the operation was at first like that. in the case above mentioned, a Avakness and paleness of the whole body, which evidently shoAved a sedative operation. From so many experiments directly in point, I shall be surpri- sed if any body shall deny the sedative and assert the stimulant power of camphire : and Avhen I find ^iiarin giving the folloAV- ■rag account: u Vidi enim," he says iin multis, quibus camphor* majori dosi exhibita fuit,pulsum celerrimum,faciem ruber rhnam9 oculos torvos, inflammatos, convulsiones et phrenitidem lelhalem secutamfuisse," I, Avho in a hundred instances of the exhibitioH of camphire, both in smaller and larger doses, never saw such effects produced, must think that either he or I had our senses strangely biassed by preconceived opinions of the stimulant or se- dative poAver of camphire. I am, however, the more disposed to trust to my OAvn senses, because 1 have frequently had my fel- low-practitioners concurring Avith me in the same perceptions. But it is time for me to remark, that all observers are liable to some uncertainty and ambiguity in these matters. I am well persuaded, that in the case of all poisions Avhich do not immedi- ately and entirely extinguish the powers of life, there is a re-ac- tion of the system which has atendency to resist and overcome the poAver of the poison; and that this re-action operates in various ways, sometimes in exciting the action of the heart and arteries, and producing fever; sometimes in exciting the energy of the brain, and producing convulsions ; and probably in other ways which Ave do not clearly perceive nor can explain. But it is enough that such a poAver exists: and that its effects are often so mixed With those of the poison,, as to render it difficult, in most cases, to determine Avhat are the effects of the one or the other, Avhich has certainly occasioned many phenomena to be imputed to the direct action of the poison, which are, however, purely the effects of the re-action above mentioned. We do not, however, venture upon assigning these effects more particularly; as I perceive that they are greatly diversified, ac- cording to a variety of circumstances; as, 1st, the poAver and activity of the poison: 2d, the quantity of it, and as it has been MATERIA MEDICA. 17.1 more or less suddenly introduced ; 3d, the size of the animal to which it is applied; 4th, the constitution of the animal, as more ©r less powerful in re-action; and 5th, according to the time which has been allowed for the operation of these circumstances. This will perhaps r move some of those difficulties which might ©therwise have occurred. It particularly might be alleged in favour of the stimulant pow- er of camphire, that in the animals which have been killed by lu'-ge doses of it, many of the viscera have been found in a very inflamed state. Put 1 cannot allow this to have' been the direct effects of the camphire; for there are no instances of this inflam- ed state appearing in the animals killed soon after the taking in •f the poison. The suddenness of the death, in many cases, occasioned by a direct action on the nervous system, alloAvs of no supposition of previous inflammation. And the sudden recoveries which have Sometimes happened after very large doses, assure us that in such eases no inflammation had been formed in any part of the body. It seems therefore certain, that inflammation is not the direct operation of this substance; and that the inflammation sometimes foymd, as above mentioned, must be imputed to that agitation of the system produced by the conflict that had subsisted for some time between the powers of the poison and of the re-action. It is true that camphire shoAvs a stimulant power in parts of great sensibility, as in the mouth, in the upper orifice of the stomach, and in ulcers where the nerves are laid bare: but there is no proof of its taking place in any other part of the sys- tem : and how little it is disposed to operate in this manner, Ave may judge from hence, that, rubbed upon the skin in the most concentrated state, it produces no redness or other mark of in- flammatory action there: and we shall have occasion to observe below, that it has a special power in taking off the inflammatory state of the subjacent parts. I have thus endeavoured to ascertain the operation of cam- phire in general upon the human body7; and have especially en- deavoured to correct the most common opinion, that of its cale- facient power; Avhich I think has on many occasions perverted the practice. Having thus ascertained the general operation, we are next to enquire what are the diseases to which it is more especially ' adapted. And in doing this, we find it difficult to repeat after practical Avriters, both on account of their different opinions with respect to the general operation, and Avith respect to the pathology of the diseases in which they employ this medicine, as these different opinions very much affect their reports on this subject. It has been much employed in fevers of all kinds, particular,- ly in nervous fevers attended with delirium and much watchful- ness : and in such I have frequently employed it with advantage« 11Q, TREATISE OF THE Some time ago, I often saAV it employed by my fellow-practi- tioners in such cases : and that the good effects of it did not al- ways appear, I imputed to its being used only in small quanti- ties. Since we came into the free use of wine and opium, cam- phire has been little employed in the practice of this country. The use of it, however, has been very7 fully established by some of the most eminent physicians on the continent: among these I reckon the late learned and experienced Werlhoff, Avho often employed it in many inflammatory diseases Avith great benefit, and plainly gives us his opinion in favour of its refrigerant power. The use of this medicine has been especially remarked in pu- trid fevers, of which indeed Ave have not many instances in this country: but from the very remarkable antiseptic pow-ers which it discovers in experiments out of the body, it is very probable that when throAvn into the body in large quantities, so that at least its more subtile parts may be diffused over the a\ hole sys- tem, it may be expected to produce considerable antiseptic ef- fects. Its poAver in resisting and curing gangrene in the experi- ments of Collin, are very remarkable : but Avhether that power be owing to its antiseptic A7irtue alone, or to its operation at the same time on the nervous system, I would not rashly determine. Both from its use in low, or what are called Malignant Fe- vers, and from its antisceptic powers, it is highly probable that it has been of great service in the confluent small-pox. It is also likely that it may be of service in favouring the eruption of ex- anthemata, and of bringing them back to the skin, when from any cause they had suddenly receded ; though I have no parti- cular experience of this. These are the cases of acute diseases in which camphire has been useful: and its use in many chronic cases is equally well authenticated. Whenever diseases depend upon a mobility of the nervous power, and an irregularity of its motions, it may be expected that such a powerful sedative should be of service. Ac- cordingly, many practitioners have reported its virtues in hys- teric and hypochondriac cases: and I myself have had frequent experience of it. In spasmodic and convulsive affections it has also been of ser- vice : and even in epilepsy it has been useful. I have not in- deed known an epilepsy entirely cured by camphire alone: but I have had several instances of a paroxysm which was expected in the course of a night, prevented by a dose of camphire exhi- bited at bed-time ; and eA7en this when the camphire Avas given alone: but it has been especially useful Avhen given Avith a dose of cuprum ammoniacum, of white vitriol, or of the flowers of zinc. Since the report of Dr. Kinnear, in the Philosophical Transac- tions, Vol. XXXV, camphire has been often employed in cases of mania: and I have given above an account of a trial which I had made of it. In that case, however, it was not successful; nor MATERIA MEDICA. 17$ in several other trials has it been more so with me or other practitioners in this country. We have had here lately, in a patient under the care of Mr. Lata, surgeon, a notable example of the use of camphire in a maniacal case, Avhich I think it proper to take notice of here. A young man of sixteen, seemingly of a sound constitution, without any previous cause that could be assigned or suspected, was affected Avith a loquacity very unusual with him. It conti. nued for some weeks, but at the same time with some confusion of head gradually increasing to somewhat of delirium. And these symptoms for some weeks Avent on gradually increasing till the patient became quite maniacal, and so unmanageable, as required his being tied down to the bed. In this state, bleeding, blistering, vomiting, and purging, and every other remedy that could be thought proper, were employed with great assiduity, without any effect however in moderating the disease. It was then thought proper to try camphire. He got it at first in doses of five grains three times a day: and this dose was repeated eve- ry day, and increased by two grains till it came to be above six- ty grains, given three times every day. Whilst the doses were not more than two scruples, they seemed to have no effects either good or bad: but as the doses were farther increased, they came by degrees to give more sleep, and in the intervals of that to render the symptoms of the mania more moderate. And before the doses came to be so large as I have mentioned, his sleep came to be more and more, and his senses came to be in the ordinary state of health; and with very little interruption, from an accident which Ave could not account for, a very perfect state of health has continued ever since, Avhich is now for seven months. This shoAvs clearly enough the power of camphire in mania: and 1 have only to add, that though in several other instances it has not made a cure, it has not, in any instance of a moderate dose, that is, not exceeding half a drachm, occasioned any dis- order in the system: and in several cases it has induced sleep, and rendered the mind for some time more quiet. I observe that De Berger has been more successful: and per- haps the reason of our failure has been our not attending to his admonition. In his letter to Werlhoff on the subject of camphire, he has the following passage: " Multoties hoc remedio in mea praxi utor, pracipue in inflammationibus internis, magno cum successu: et demiror tarn multos medicos ab usu ejus interno ab- horrere. Non diu est, quod pra missis pramittendis maniacum et sanitati penitus restitui. In eo verb momentum pracipuum situm est, ut sufficient edosi et diu satis exhibeatur." This is particularly confirmed by a case given by Joerdens in the Commercium Norimbergense. In several other writers there are accounts of maniacal and melancholic cases cured by the use of camphire. But many of the practitioners Avho report such cures acknowledge, that in many cases it had disappointed their 174 TREATISE OF THE expectations. Whether these failures have been owing to the not employing at the same time nitre, vinegar, and some other remedies which are supposed to contribute much to the virtues of camphire, we would not determine. But Ave are clear that mania is a disease of considerable diversity with respect to its causes, and that there are certain cases of it only to which cam- phire is properly adapted. In cases of an organic affection of the brain, it is hardly to be supposed that camphire or any o- ther remedy can be of use. I have mentioned above, that several practitioners have em- ployed camphire in the most acute inflammatory diseases: and therefore we are not surprised to find that it has been given also internally in cases of acute rheumatism ; and it is said to have been with advantage. We have no experience of it; because we have found another method of cure generally successful. But I take this occasion to mention its external use, as often of great service in removing the rheumatic pains of the joints or mus- cles. This we have often experienced, and have no doubt of camphire having a peculiar power in taking off the inflammato- ry state in cases both of rheumatism and gout. In the case of rheumatism it is a matter of common experience. In the case of gout it is more rare: but I have had the following particular example of it. A gentleman had brought from the East-Indies an oil of camphire, a native substance, which seemed, by its smell and taste, to be no other than camphire in that form, and which I perceive to be mentioned by naturalists as a native sub- trtai^ce, produced by several trees in the East-Indies. This the person possessed of recommended to all his acquaintances as an infallible remedy for gout and rheumatism: and a gentleman who had often laboured under the gout, and then felt the pains •f it unusually severe, Avas persuaded to apply it. He had then the gout exceedingly painful in the ball of the great toe and in- step of one foot. On this part he rubbed a quantity of the oil of camphire; and in about half an hour or a little more he was entirely freed from the pain he had before. In less, however, than an hour after, he had a pain and inflammation come upon the same part of the other foot. As the pain here became pretty severe, he again employed the oil of camphire, and Avith the same effect of soon relieving the pain very entirely. The conse- quence of this was also the same ; for in less than an hour the pain and inflammation returned to the foot that had been first affected: and here again our patient, obstinate in persisting in the trial of his remedy, again applied to the oil, and he had the same success as before in relieving the part affected, and with the same effect also of occasioning a translation. But here the translation being made to the knee, the patient abstained from any farther application of the oil, and suffered the pain of the knee to remain for a day or two, and till it Avent off by some swelling and desquamation in the usual manner. MATERIA MEDICA. 175 This history shows sufficiently the power of camphire in re- lieving the inflammatory spasm and pain of the part chiefly af- fected ; but, at the same time, that it has no effect on the diathesis of the system; and that, when that subsists, as camphire is ready to occasion a translation, it will always be employed in gouty ca- ses with great danger. In cases of acute rheumatism, we have had occasion to remark, that a strong solution of camphire in oil would relieve the pain of the joint for the time chiefly affect d: but it was very often with the translation of it to another joint soon after: and we have therefore long ago ceased trom employ- ing such an application in all cases when an acute rheumatism was very general and strong in the system. It may be supposed that it is analogous to this power of cam- phire in taking off the inflammatory state, that this medicine has been often found so useful in relieving toothach: and I have no doubt that camphire operates by the power mentioned in relieving toothach: but it is also by exciting a copious flow of saliva and mucus from the internal surface of the mouth, that water some- what impregnated with camphire, employed to wash the mouth, has been frequently of service in relieving the disease. However it may be Avith respect to toothach, we have no doubt that the antiphlogistic nature of camphire may be of use in cur- ing ophthalmia: and this gives a good ground for the many at- tempts that have been made to introduce camphire into the medi- cines intended to be employed externally in the cure of ophthal- mia. We have now mentioned many of the virtues of camphire as employed by itself; and must now mention some instances of its peculiar utility ay hen combined Avith other medicines. When combined with drastic purgatives, it is said to moderate their acrimony, and thereby their violent operation. We have not indeed perceived this, and perhaps never tried it in a proper manner: but in the mean time, the respectable authority of Mr. Lasonne, sen. satisfies me that it is Avell founded. Another opinion that has been very general is, that camphire has the poAver of correcting the acrimony of cantharides. In opposition to this, we would not quote the facts given by Dr. Heberden of two several instances in Avhich camphire seemed to occasion strangury; for I must conclude these facts to have been very accidental occurrences ; as I have employed camphire fifty times, even in large doses, Avithout my ever observing its having any effect upon the urinary passages. Mr. Lasonne, sen. has observed, as I have done frequently, that camphire, though gi- ven very largely, never discovers its smell in the urine, Avhilst it frequently does it in the perspiration and sweat. It was formerly a frequent practice in this country to anoint a blistering plaster that Avas to be applied to the back, or other part, with camphorated oil, and this Avith a vieAv of preventing stran- gury from the cantharides. The practice, hoAvever, has been «?n^ 3$Q lai motes digestion. After mentioning so much of the poAver and virtues of acids in general, there remains a question, what are their effects Avhen carried into the blood-vessels, and there mixed with the mass of blood ? As to this I would assert, that the concentrated fossil acids cannot be carried into the mass of blood but in such a dilu- ted state as must destroy entirely their coagulating poAver, and therefore that their effects in that way cannot be supposed or ap- prehended. This necessarily leads to the question, in a. hat state are the fossil acids when mixed Avith the mass of blood ? In answer to this we observe, but for what reasons >ve cannot explain, that they do not enter into the composition of die animal fluid, as we have alleged and maintained above on the subject of acid as an alimentary matter. And here we have only to observe, that as they do not enter into the animal mixed, they make a part of the ferosity; and therefore, in passing with that by the excretions, they may shoAv their stimulant poAver. At the same time, as a part of the serosity, they may7, in passing by the skin, show there some diaphoretic effects, or, in passing by the lungs, shoAv some irritation there; but it is probable that they pass chiefly by the urinary passages, and therefore shew their diuretic poAvers more readily than in any- other Avay. These are the effects of acids in general; and we noAV proceed to consider how far these effects are any/wise varied in the differ- ent species. VITRIOLIC ACID. This is the acid that Ave can have in the most concentrated MATERIA MEDICA. 189 state, and therefore the most fit to be employed as a caustic, or, when properly diffused, as a stimulant. For the latter purpose it is commonly diffused in some unguinous substance; as the hog's lard; but it may be more properly diffused in a liquid oil, as in this it may be more equally diffused than in the thicker matter. When it is to be employed for internal use, it must be largely diluted Avith Avater; and the dispensatories have ordered seven or eight parts of water to be added to one of the concenr trated acid. The proportion of water is not a matter of much nicety : but it is proper for the sake of prescribers that it should be fixed, Avhich, howeA7er, cannot be done without determining the specific gravity of the concentrated acid, Avhich neither of the colleges have done. The diluted acid is seldom employed in any precise dose, but mixed with water, or Avith tinctures or infusions, in such quan- tity as the patient's palate will easily bear. This however is a very inaccurate practice, as it generally occasions the dose of the acid to be too small. In my opinion, it would be better to fix the quantity of acid, and leave it to be diluted to Avhat the pa- tient's palate may require. It has been long a common practice of mixing this acid Avith a quantity of spirit of wine, and in'the mixture infusing some aro- matics ; but this is also a very inaccurate practice, as neither the specific gravity of the rectified spirit, nor of the vitriolic acid, are anyAvise determined. I Avould, hoAvever, take no pains to rectify this preparation, as I could never find the addition of the aromatic to improve the medicine; and Avhile the practiti- oner is always left uncertain with respect to the quantity of acid employed, I have almost always found that this aromatic elixir Avas less agreeable than the simple acid. The simple acid properly diluted, and SAveetened perhaps Avith a little sugar, is generally grateful to the palate, and is of service in quenching thirst. When it is carried doAvn into the stomach, it is useful in curing the nausea Avhich arises from any putrid matters there ; and either by this means, or by its stimulus ap- plied to the stomach, it excites appetite, and consequently7 pro- motes digestion. I have nt ver found that, in any7 quantity, the vitriolic acid mixed with the bile proved laxative, as the vegetable acids so readily do. What may be its effects in the blood-vessels Ave have said enough Avhen treating of the effects of acids in general.— What are the A7irtues of this acid in giving the aether vitriolicu;, we reserve to be spoken of on the subject of antispasmodics. NITROUS ACID. This acid, from its being so commonly employed in chemical operations under the title of Aquafortis, has probably, from the opinion of its corrosive nature, preA7ented physicians from em- ploying it as a medicine. This however was a mistake ; for this acid properly diluted, may be very safely employed and 190 TREATISE OF THE has all the powers and virtues of acids in general. Though the instances are few, there is one in Boerhaave's Nitrum Nitratum, in which the acid is in greater proportion than is necessary to sa- turate the alkali; and I have frequently employed it as a grate- ful and cooling medicine. There is another instance in which the acid of nitre is also employed, and that is in the spiritus nitri dulcis. If this was pro- perly prepared, it should contain no acid: but this is not com- monly the case, and the vulgar practitioners commonly employ it as a diuretic medicine, which it cannot be but by the quantity of acid it contains, and Avhich therefore shows this acid to be frequently and safely employed: but it is hardly necessary to observe, that in this way it can never with any accuracy be em- ployed. The employment of the nitrous acid, as producing aether, shall be considered in another place. MURIATIC OR MARINE ACID. In the last century, Glauber took great pains to introduce the use of this acid, ascribing many virtues to it both in diet and medicine : but in both he Avas extravagant and incorrect, and therefore he has not been much followed. It happened, howe- ver, that physicians employed it a good deal in the diseases of the stomach j and many have been of opinion, that in restoring the tone of the stomach, it operates more powerfully than the vitriolic: but as the latter can be more easily brought to a stand- ard than the other, it has entirely thrown this other out of prac- tice. Although the London College, in the last edition of their dispensatory, have omitted both the simple spirit of salt and the spiritus salis dulcis, yet the Edinburgh College have retained both: and wherever the latter is employed, I consider it as an employment of the acid, for, in the ordinary preparation of it, the qualities of the acid are never entirely destroyed. But the most remarkable instance of the employment of this acid was in the tincture aperitiva mccbii, Avhich Dr. Hoffman informs us was, in the course of the last century, much employ- ed and celebrated for its virtues. Dr. Hoffman informs us that it consisted of a solution of common salt supersaturated with its acid. I haA7e frequently employed it by making a solution of half an ounce of good bay salt in four ounces of water, adding to this two drachms of a well-rectified spirit of salt; and this given in a tea-spoonful or two in a glass of water, 1 have found useful in impnn'ing appetite, and frequently in stopping vomiting. VEGETABLE ACIDS, These I am to consider as of three kinds; the native, the dis- tilled, and the fermented. The native acids are chiefly7 those found in the fruits of plants, sometimes, however, also in the leaves and roots.—They are in different degrees of acidity, and different by the texture of the fruit in Avhich they are lodged : and still more considerably by MATERIA MEDICA. 191 the Various matter adhering to them, both in the fruits and in the juices expressed from these. The effects of these different conditions in the use of them as aliments, I have endeavoured to explain when treating of thern above; but, as medicines, I do not find that I can apply any dis- tinction of them. Although they may be distinguished in a che- mical A7iew, I do not find that I can apply such distinctions to the purposes of medicine; and that, with a view to this, I must con- sider them in general, and merely as acids. In considering them, therefore, as medicines, I must observe, in the first place, their refrigerant power ; and that, especially upon account of the quan- tity in which they may be given, they are the most effectual of any we can employ. As we have said above, that they enter into the composition of the animal fluid, and thereby diminish the putrescent tendency of this, they therefore, as I judge, ob- viate the heat that might otherwise arise ; and it is in proof of all this that they are the most ready and certain cure of the scurvy. The same acids are never in such a concentrated state as to show any caustic or even stimulant powers ; but they show readi- ly the stimulant power which is in the weaker or much diluted acids, so far as they excite appetite and promote digestion: and probably it is by the same power that they excite the urinary ex- cretion. All these powers are to be ascribed to the pure acid that is in this native acid of vegetables; but it is noAV to be remarked, that in all of them, even the most purely acid, there is present a quan- tity of fermentable matter: and if this happens to be in large pro- portion, or even in small proportion, and throAvn into stomachs of an acescent disposition, the acid undergoes a fermentation, which is attended Avith flatulency, a more poAverful acidity7, and all the other symptoms which we term dyspeptic. This does not, however, much affect their refrigerant power, or do much harm to the system, except in those cases of gout and calculus renalis, in which the taking down the tone of the stomach may be very hurtful. It seems to be in consequence of this acescent disposition of the stomach, that a more copious acidity, and per- haps of a peculiar kind, united with the bile, forms a laxative which may occasion more or less of diarrhoea, and the colic pains which so frequently accompany7 the operation of laxatives. DISTILLED ACID OF VEGETABLES. All vegetables, except mushrooms, if these be truly such, Avhen treated by distillation, without addition, give out, in the first part of the distillation, a quantity of acid, and. continue to give out more during the whole of the distillation. This acid is somewhat different according as it is draAvn from different vegetables: but that difference has not been ascertained: and Ave know them even in chemistry7, and more certainly in medi- cine, only by the common quality of acid. This acid has been but little employed as a medicine, and has 192 TREATISE OF THE hardly been remarkable but by its late use in the form of tar- water. In making tar, it is exhaled from vegt tables w hilst they are burnt, in the same manner as in the distillation above-men- tioned ; and accordingly, in the making of tar, an acid ay ater is found in considerable quantity in the same ditches that are pre- pared for receiving the tar during the burning of the y\ ood. In the countries where tar is prepared, particularly in North- America, this acid was accidentally employed as a medicine. It Avas found to prove very useful; and the benevolent and wor- thA- Bishop Berkely being informed of this, was desirous of ren- dering such a medicine very generally known. But as the water collected, as we have said, during the burning of the wood, could not properly or conveniently be obtained in Britain, he perceived that a quantity of the acid remained in the tar as it was imported, and perceived that it might be extracted from it by infusion in Avater. It is such an infusion that gives the ce- lebrated tar-water which has been so often used since. It Avas at first by many persons celebrated as a very valuable medicine; and' from my own observation and experience, I know it in many cases to be such. But, as happens in all such cases, the commendations of it by the patrons and tavourers of it, Avere very often extraA-agant and ill-founded ; and though the persons Avho disparage it had some foundation tor their opini- ons, yet they also told many falsehoods concerning it. Although it would have been difficult, at that time, to balance between these opposite accounts, yet, in the course of sixty years, the matter has found its OAvn balance. The excessive admiration of it has entirely ceased, and the most part of practitioners, trom causes Ave could assign, have neglected the use of it; but mere are still many judicious persons Avho btlieA-e in and employ its A-irtues. In many instances this preparation has appeared to strengthen the tone of the stomach, to excite appetite, promote digestion, and to cure all the symptoms of dyspepsia. At the same time it manifestly promotes the excretions, particularly that of urine; and the same may be presumed to happen in i.mt of others. FVom all these operations it will be obvious, that in ma- ny disorders of the system this medicine may be highly useful. It may be, however, and has been a question, upon Avhat, in the composition of tar-water, these qualities depend: and I have r.o doubt in asserting that it is entirely upon the acid produced in the manner above mentioned. Mr Reid, the author of a dis- sertation on this subject, has rendered this sufficiently probable, from the accounts ot Glauber and Boerhaave, with respect to the virtues of such an acid; and from the opinion of the Bishop of Cloyne, in preferring the Nonvay tar to thatot New-England, as tbe acid part is not taken from the former so entirely as it is from the latter: and he also properly supports it by this, that any other parts of the tar-water Avhich may be found in it, unless carefully separated, are commonly very hurtful. MATERIA MEDICA. Upon the first introduction of tar-water, some physicians were of opinion, that it derived part of its virtue from some oily matter in its composition. But it Avould not be difficult to show, that this, in many respects, is very improbable ; and that, on the contrary, the presence of these oils, as Mr. Reid has particularly pointed out, is frequently pernicious. But, to su- persede all controversy on this subject, I can assert from much experience, that tar-water, as it abounds in acid, and is more free from all oily- matters, is the most effectual medicine: and I hive this clear proof of it, that Avhen, instead of extracting the acid by infusing the tar in Avater, I procured it by distillation from solid fir or other Avoods; and, by taking only the first part of distillation, I obtained the acid as free as possible from all oily matter, I found that by employing this acid as a medicine, properly diluted with water, every virtue appeared that was e- ver found in any tar-Avater. In this practice I found a particu- lar advantage; as I could, by a proper rectification and concen- tration, bring the acid into a small bulk; which being readily portable, is, on occasion of journey7s, or other circumstances, ren- dered A-ery convenient. But it is very necessary to observe here, that this acid, to be rendered a very useful remedy, must be al- ways largely diluted Avith water: and how much the water may favour its operation in tvery respect will be sufficiently obvious. FERMENTED ACiD OF VEGETABLES. - This is the Arell-knoAvn liquor named vinegar,the preparation of which needs'not be giA-en here. As it is found in our houses and shops, it is in different conditions, the causes and circum- stances of which are not well ascertained: and we can only judge of its purity by the sharpness ot its acid taste, and its be- ing free from all others. As this acid is prepared by fermentation, it is ahvays in a di- luted state : and, both for the purpose of medicine and pharma- cy, it has been desired to be obtained in a more concentrated condition. The purposes and the execution of this are various. But the most ordinary practice has been by distillation, which seems to me not to be the most proper; for the distillation can- not be practised aa ithout the acid becoming empyreumatic, which ahvay-s renders it a disagreeable medicine ; and at the same time, by the ordinary practice, the acid is hardly, or not at ail, rendered stronger than it might have been by a proper fermentation. The directions of the London College 1 could never folloAv Avith any exactness : and I have always found, that before the aqueous part be draAvn off, an empyreuma is com- municated to the Avhole liquor. The Edinburgh directions may be exactly executed. But the empyreuma is made very strong, and at the same time the uis- tiiled acid, as I have - .id, is hardly scronger dum it is in good vinegar: and I know ot no advantage that this distilled acid1 has over the other. Vol. II. B b 194 TREATISE OF THE If a concentrated vinegar is much to be desired, there are two other ways of obtaining it. The one is by freezing, which has now been frequently practised in the northern countries of 1 u- rope: and the management of it is prescribed in many books ot chemistry, that I believe are in every body's hands. The other means is by a distillation from any neutral contain- ing this acid, by the addition of a strong vitriolic acid. This gives a very volatile acid, which, by7 its A7olatility, mav be appli- ed to several purposes : and by its being in a concentrated state it may be, by a proper dilution, applied to eA'ery purpose of me- dicine that the fermented acid of vegetables is fit for. It is true that this distilled acid wants some substances which are joined Avith it in vinegar prepared by fermentation; and Dr. Boerhaave insinuates that some A'irtues may be derived from these. I have not, hoAvever, truly perceived them; but allow, that if there be any such advantages to be desired, they may be more certainly- obtained by employing the vinegar concentrated by freezing. After these remarks upon the different management of this acid, I proceed to consider its virtues. It is certainly a refrige- rant power, which we conclude both from experience and from its antiseptic powers: and it has this advantage over the fossil acids, that it can be thrown in, in much larger quantity, and with more effect, as it enters into the composition of the animal fluid. It is grateful to the palate and stomach, and certainly stimulates the latter so far as to excite appetite. By the same stimulant poAver it acts upon the mucuous excretories of the mouth and iau- ces ; and at the same time it seems to act as an astringent on the blood-A'essels of these parts, and proves useful in the inflamma- tory affections of them. When it is carried in large quantity into the blood-vessels, a portion of it passes off by the excretions, and proves manifestly diuretic. It is celebrated also for its diapho- retic and even sudorific Adrtues: and these are commonly ascri- bed to its power of dissolving the fluids. But this, upon the ge- neral principles which will be explained hereafter, Ave must deny: and it it has ever appeared to have this effect, we must impute it to its refrigerant poAvers in the stomach, and its gently stimu- lant powers in the Avhole system, assisted by a sudorific regimen. A singular poAver has been ascribed to this acid, and ihat is, in preventing and curing obesity, justly I believe in both cases; and I hope that I have above explained the theory of it. We have alleged that the oily matters taken into the body do not remain in their oily form ; but are, in the first place, incorporated with the proper animal fluid, and are aftenvards separated by a pecu- liar secretion, and deposited in the adipose membrane. This union of oil with the animal fluid Ave ascribe to the acid taken in as a part of our food: and it will be obvious, that according to the quantity of this, the oil will be more intimately united and fitted to pais off by the excietions, and leave less therefore to be MATERIA MEDICA. 195- deposited in the adipose membrane. But farther, as we have al- leged aboA-e, that the oil already deposited in the adipose mem- brane is again consumed by every acrimony prevalent in the- blood; so a superabundance of vinegar in that mass may have a share in this consumption. This is all pretty Avell ascertained by observations upon the large use of vinegar : but lately a neAV fact has been presented to us. . A gentleman disposed to obesity found, that by his abstaining, from wine, which I take to be the same as abstaining from the fermented acid of vegetables, he lost his fat very considerably^ but returning again to the use of wine, his obesity soon also re- turned, and was again removed by the same means as before. I shall not attempt the theory of this till we shall be farther in- formed of such cases, and more exactly with respect-to the cir- cumstances of them. ACID OF MILK. There is perhaps another species of vegetable acid to be taken notice of: and that is the acid Avhich so often, and in certain cir- cumstances, so constantly appears in the milk of all phyth'orous animals* As, in the milk of the same animals, a quantity of su- gar is constantly present, we may suppose it to be no other than a fermented acid of sugar. But some difficulty occurs oii this sub- ject ; as the fermentation which produces an acid in milk, takes place more suddenly than we could expect it to happen in any solution of sugar; and, as was observed above, continues for a longtime to increase the acidity produced. We are therefore per- suaded there is something peculiar in the fermentation which produces the acid of milk. But what this peculiarity consists in, or what effects it has on the nature of the acid produced, we cannot discover. It may perhaps deserve particular considera- tion, both in chemistry and medicine: but we haA'enot yet learned what application in either way may7 be made of it: and in the mean time can only7 say, that the good effects which the a- cid of. milk can produce, and the noxious qualities it may7, up- on occasion, discover, are the same we have pointed out as ari- sing from the native or fermented acid of A-egetables. A vegetable acid, prepared by fermentation, might still be mentioned, Avhichis that of tartar. But I think it will be more properly considered under the next titjie of Neutral Salts, or af- terwards under the title of Laxatives. We have now mentioned most of the acids that are well known in the practice of phy/sic. But I must own that there are many others which have been sometimes employed, and may, I believe, deserve to be enquired after. But I own that I find the facts too feAv to determine the matter clearly ; and at least that I am too little acquainted with these facts to be able to speak posi- tively on the subject. Of the large list that might.be mentioned, the only one that I am disposed to take notice of is the 19© TREATISE OF THE ACID OF BORAX. This was the invention of the celebrated Homberg: and as he im igined it to be possessed of strongly- sedativ. powers, he gave it the name of the Sedative salt. Upon such an authority it was introduced into practice: and such is the favour for a new medicine, and such are the excuses so readily found for its l-il-' ure, that it soon came to be much employed in France: and Air. Geoffroy having found a cheaper method of preparing it, the government ordered, at their expence, that it should be furnished to all the medicine chests of the army and navy. This certainly gave an easy opportunity of trying its virtues: but we have hardly ever had any favourable reports of these from France, or from any other country of Europe: and it ap- pears that the practice with it has ceased every ay here; and long ago Mons. de la Mettrie has, in disparagement oi our art, ob- served, §hte lesel sedatifn'est pas aussi sedatf qu'autrejcis. To all this I could add my OAvn experience, Avhich has shown me, that eA-en in large doses this salt has no effect on the human body. NEUTRAL SALTS. The next set of refrigerants in my list are the neutral salts: and these, Avith acids, are certainly the refrigerant remedies we Chi; fly depend upon in practice. The refrigerant power s. ems to be in common to every neutral, so fir as we have yet tried them, except those neutrals composed of the muriatic acid and fossil alkali, and perhaps some other acids ay hich carry into the composition of neutrals some other matters of an acrid kind: but these are not Avell ascertained. And we take it for granted that it is of the nature of a neutral salt, composed of an acid alkali, with the exception mentioned, to give a refrigerant substance. This power in these salts is a matter of common experience; and may be presumed from their antizymic and antiseptic powers. But in what proportion it is in the several species, is not exactly ascertained, though Dr. Smith, in his experiments, .has done somewhat to this purpose. In the.doctor's experi- ments it appears, that, except in common salt, some sedative poAver in every one takes place. In these, indeed, composed of the tossil alkali, some stimulant power appears upon their first application. But soon after this, their sedative poAver becomes manifest, by their destroying the irritability of .the parts. After all, however, I cannot apply these experiments so far as to explain the respective powers of these salts as they appear in the practice of physic. It appears h re, that all of them which show a sedative power in Dr. Smith's experi- ments, when thrown into the stomach, produce a disposition to say eat, which Ave refer entirely, as we have explained above, to their refrigerant poAver in the stomach; and in av hat proportion this is, I find it difficult to ascertain. The prejudices of practi- tioners at present e.r in favour o! the iv utral, lormed of the native acid of vegetables, with the fixed vegetable alkali: and MATERIA MEDICA. 197 while this is the most agreeable, I have no objection to its being the most commonly employ ed in practice. But 1 make these observations to show country practitioners, that when they hap- pen to be in want ot hmon juice, they may employ any other acid, except the muriatic, to form neutrals that may ansAver the same intentions: and a very little chemistry v\ill teach them every thing els that may be here necessary. In the time of our last wars upon the continent, our practitioners frequently e mplpy- cd the vitriolic acid, and which was indeed employed in making the original antiemetic draught of Riverius. With regard to particular neutrals, I have a few observations only to make. 1 have said just now, that the vitriol ated tartar may be employed as a refrigerant: and as it is thereby diapho- retic, it is employed in the composition of Dover's poAvder. The sal mirabi'le is almost only employed as a purgative. But that it has refrigerant powers, appears from the intestine s being left, after the operation of this purgative, in a lax and flatulent condition. What is named the secret sal-ammoniac is little employed in practice. But there is no doubt that it is nearly of the same na- ture Avith the common ammoniac. Nitre has been commonly esteemed as the most poAverful re- frigerant; and from Dr. Smith's experiments, as well as from those of Mr. Alexander, it appears to be so. But as all refrige- rants produce a determination to the surface ol the body, and thereby increase the force of the circulation; so after the ope- ration, they prove directly stimulant to the stomach and alimen- tary canal: and in this Avay nitre is as remarkable as any other: and it is therefore, in large doses, very often uneasy and painful to the stomach. When it is, therefore, necessary to continue its operation as a sudorific, it is at the same time necessary to give it in divided doses, and at proper intervals. I do not doubt but the practice of Dr. Brocklesby may be often successful: but I could never find it convenient to imitate it; as I could hardly, or at least seldom, find a stomach that would be.sr half the quantity of nitre that he seems to have employed: and in most cases 1 have been limited in the doses of nitre that I could exhibit. I believe that the employment of nitre, as recently dissolved, will be a more powerlul refrigerant than w hen the solution of it is entirely finished; but I am of opinion that the practice has no advantage to compensate the trouble that otherwise attends it. I have so seldom employed the cubic nitre, that I know little Of its qualities and powers. Of the peculiar power of neutral salts, formed of the muria- tic acid, I have had occasion already to remark, that by Dr. Smith's experiments, common salt, composed of the muriatic acid and fossil alkali, is the neutral which, applied to the mrves or other irritable parts, shows a strong stimulant poAver, and is 198 TREATISE OF THE therefore to be thrown out of our list of refrigerants. Its stim- ulant power seems in part to be owing to the fossil alkali in its composition ; for this alkali, joined with the nitrous or vegeta- ble acids, does also, in the first application to the nerves, in Dr. Smith's experiments, show someAvhat of a stimulant poAver, which however, soon passes away, and they afterwards prove manifestly sedative. These neutrals, therefore, consisting of the fixed A-e- getable or volatile alkali, though formed by the muriatic acid, may be taken into our list of refrigerants ; and their common employment as sudorifics, for preventing the recurrence of in- termittent fevers, is only to be explained upon this ground. The use of the common ammoniac has beenotherwise frequent in practice: but Avhat are its peculiarly useful powers I dare not determine. Its resolving powers, by attenuating or dissolving the fluids, I do not admit of: but that, like other saline mat- ters, in passing by the excretions, they are suited to promote these, may be readily allowed. In being joined with the Peruvian bark, as has been frequent- ly practised, the ammoniac may be of some use as a diaphoretic. But I have not perceived it; and doubt if, in obviating the con- sequences apprehended from the use of the bark, it can be of any service. The ammoniacal salts have been often used externally for the discussion of tumours : and they may possibly give a moderate stimulus to the vessels on the surface, but that they enter the pores, and attenuate viscid fluids, we must very much doubt of. The neutrals, composed of vegetable acids, must be different according to the species of this acid employed. But they are all, in general, refrigerant and diaphoretic, and we know them only in that light. The one most freque.ndy employed, is that com- posed of the native acid and the fixed vegetable alkali, common- ly knoAvn under the name of the Saline Mixture. The acid commonly employed is the juice of lemons : but that only be- cause a quantity of acid juice is most easily obtained from that fruit. I have frequently employed the expressed juice from se- A-eral other fruits, which the country practitioner should know in the case of the want of lemons: and I have frequently employed the juice of apples with equal.advantage. It is hardly necessary that the alkaline salt of wormwood, so frequently employed before, be now used, as the purer the alkali, the medicine is the better. This neutral salt, formed and given in due quantity, is, for Avhat I can perceive, equally refrigerant and sudorific as any other: and has this particular advantage, that it is, or can be, easily rendered more agreeable than any other. In my opinion, it is generally given in too small doses, and at too great intervals: and though giA-,en in large doses, it is not ready, as nitre is, to give uneasiness to the stomach. It is often named the Antiemetic Mixture, and properly; as it is often used in stopping vomiting, especially that MATERIA MEDICA. which arises in febrile disorders, and particularly at the begin- ning of the paroxysms of intermittent fevers. When given in quantity, its diuretic and purgative qualities appear as in the o- ther neutrals. It has been of late a favourite practice to give the saline mix- ture during the act of effervescence: and besides the advantages of introducing a quantity of aerial acid, I am persuaded that the detachment of that acid in the stomach renders the whole of the mixture more refrigerant. The distilled acid of vegetables has not been employed in forming neutrals that I knoAv of. The fermented acid, or vinegar joined Avith the fixed vegeta- ble alkali, has certainly the powers and virtues of the saline mix- ture. But while the neutral formed of vinegar has no advantages over that formed of the native acid, the quantity of vinegar ne- cessary to saturate the alkali gives a bulky inconvenient dose. AV'hether any7 advantage may be gained by employing it in its concentrated states, I have not tried; because I doubt much if any peculiar advantage was to be obtained from them. Both the nathre and fermented acids have been applied to the volatile alkali, to form ammoniacal salts : and I have frequently tried this Aviththe native acid. But I never found that the ammo- niacal salt had any advantage over that formed of the fixed alkali. The application of vinegar to the volatile alkali, which gives the liquor named Spiritus Mindereri, has long been famous in the practice of this country. But if any thing is to be regarded in the quantity of the dose employed, this, in the doses commonly7 given, must be a very Aveak neutral. And as I haA7e never seen any benefit from it, this, Avith the disagreeableness of the empyreu- matic taste of the medicine, has made me omit it in practice al- together. I have known four ounces of it taken at once, and soon after four ounces more, without any sensible effect. This, upon the notion of its being an ammoniacal salt, has been employed externally. But after Avhat we have said on the external use of the common ammoniac, it Avill readily appear that the weakness of impregnation in the spiritus mindereri must render it much less effectual. It is very possible, indeed, that by employing a concentrated vegetable acid, Ave may7 obtain an ammoniacal neutral, of much more force than the spiritus mindereri: and if any one expects any particular benefit from such a combination, he must endeavour to obtain it. But from what we have said on the combination of the native acid Avith the volatile alkali, I cannot expect much benefit from any7 combination of the same alkali Avith the fermented acid in any of its states. After the Neutral Salts, strictly so called, I have set down the Sales Terrestres; and believe that these may all be consi- dered as refrigerants: but I cannot perceive any of them to be more powerful than the proper neutrals. Accordingly, they are little employed in practice: and if they have ever been, this in 200 TREATISE OF THE my opinion must have been upon some false apprehensions both in chemistry and medicine. Of the combination of acids with metallic substances, they are generally acrid and stimulant. Anel there are none of them that can be considered as sedative or retrigerant, excepting th Sal Plumbi or Saccharum Saturni; ot which, 1ioa\ ever, I have & .id enough already on the subject of lead, enumerated among the astringents. Chapter Vlil. rj^ ANTISPASMODIC A. X HIS is the most difficult subject that has occurred to me; and I find nothing to relieve this difficulty in any of the Yvrue.rs who have gone before me. All ot them consider it as an obscure sulject, and so mysterious as hardly to be attempted. This in- deed is in a great measure just: but it ought to be attempted : and Ave hope some light may be thrown upon it, by considering the diseases or morbid affections, for the cure of Avhich the me- dicines named Antispasmodics have been chiefly employed. These in our Nosology, in the third order of the second class of the Neuroses, are, as fully as I could, enumerated under the title of Spasmi: and though there is some difficulty of admitting that title in its most proper and strict sense, yet I could not well avoid it; and I have obviated all ambiguity by the character given of Motus Abnormes. Here also, though it may not be strictly proper, I must employ the term of Spasmodic Affec- tions for the whole of the diseases 1 am here to consider. In the whole of these, the state of contraction makes always the chief circumstance: and I begin Avith observing, that in e- very contraction a nervous poAver has a part. I own that in some phenomena'the inherent power only may be concerned; but these are few and inconsiderable : for even in the involunta- ry motions, and especially when these are exerted in an irregu- lar manner, it is pretty evident that there is ahvays a concur- rence of a nervous poAver; and in the Avholeot my discussions, such concurrence is always to be kept in vh w. On this subject, therefore, the first consideration to be offered is, that the nervous poAver is always derived from the brain, or that it consists in a motion beginning in the brain, and propagat- ed from thence into the moving fitnes, in ay hich a contraction is to be produced. The power by which this motion is propa- gated Ave name the Energy ot the Brain: and we therefore con- sider every7 modification oi the motions produced, as modifica- tions of that energy. With respect to these, it seems to be a laAV of the ceconomv7, that the energy of the brain is alternately excited and collapsed, or that every contraction produced is alternated a\ ith a relaxa- tion. And the motus abnormes, or, as we name them,Spasmodic Affections, stem always to consist in the irregularity of the al- ternation mentioned, as they appear in spasm or convulsion. MATERIA MEDICA. 201 Before going further, it is proper to remark, that these affec- tions take pLe "m one set of functions more than in another. Thus tetanus and epilepsy effect the animal, hysteria the natural, while palpitation and syncope affect almost only the vital func- tions. There is, iaiee d, in all violent cases some preternatural phenomena, in which all the several functions are in some mea- sure affected: but whoever considers the diseases just now men- tioned, Avill perceive that the affection is chiefly and especially in one set of functions only. A conclusion to be drawn from this is, that the energy of the brain is exerted differently, and often separateh, A.ith respect to the several functions, distin- guished by physiologists into animal, natural, and vital. This is a state of the ceconomy Avhich has been little attended to, but is very manifest in the business of sleep and watching, and in the diseases above mentioned. See First Lines, from 1762 to 1765. It is now further to be remarked with respect to the whole, that though the phenomena appear in particular parts, that is, in the organs concerned in the exercise of the several functions, the Avhole of them must depend upon an affection and peculiar state ©f the energy of the brain. It is possible, indeed, that certain motions may take place in particular parts, independent of any change in the state of the brain. But the instances of these are feAv and inconsiderable: and probably they cannot subsist with- out the brain's being brought into that state that might have in- duced them. But however all this may be, it is confidently presumed, that spasmodic affections are often primarily, and always chiefly, af- fections of the brain. This may clearly enough appear from Avhat has been said in general, establishing all motions as necessa- rily depending upon the energy of the brain. But as the propo- sition is of consequence, it may be proper to add some mere par- ticular proofs of it here. One is, that spasmodic affections often arise from applications jto particular parts of the body: but for the most part, the effects produced in other parts cannot be accounted for, but by suppo- sing the intervention of the braii. Such is the case of odours and some other impressions, whose producing spasmodic affec- tions cannot be explained otherwise, or by any consent of nerves. 1'he intervention of the brain, is more especially proved by this, that in many cases, the effects of applications can be prevented by interrupting the communication of the parts affected Aviththe brain, by cutting through or compressing the nerves Avhich form that communication. But farther, that the state of the brain has a very special con- cern in spasmodic affections, the strongest and clearest proof is this, that all these affections, and all the different modes of them, can be produced by passions of the mind; '..hich Ave maintain to be causes operating ahvavs first, and chiefiv in the brain. Vol. II. C c 20B TREATISE OF THE Having thus established, that spasmodic affections depend ve- ry entirely upon the state of the energy of the brain, Ave proceed to consider what that state may be in different cases: and we judge of them, in the first place, as they produce Spasm, strictly so cal- led, or convulsion: and though our total ignorance of the me- chanism that takes place here, will not allow us to go far in ex- plaining it, we shall make some observations, which we hope Avill be useful. In spasm there appears to be a preternatural force exerted in the energy of the brain; as appears both in the degree and dura- tion of the contraction produced. But with a view to the gene- ral laAV above mentioned, it is proper to remark, that even here some alternate contraction and relaxation takes place, as I have pointed out in the First Lines, 1701. In convulsion, which always consists in manifestly alternate contraction and relaxation, it appears, that from other causes than the will, the contractions are performed with more force and velocity than usual: but at the same time, as they are still such as admit of an alternate relaxation, the disease consists in an al- ternation's being produced more quickly than is natural. This hurried ahernation we suppose to depend upon a certain state in the general energy of the brain, which may be determined by cau- ses to be mentioned hereafter, to affect one set of functions more than another, and to produce there the spasmodic affections which these functions are liable to. This perhaps may not appear very clear, and may be consider- ed as hypothetical. But Ave suppose it may be illustrated by some further considerations. The alternation of contraction and re- laxation in the animal functions is commonly regulated by the Avill; and therefore seems to admit some difference in the quick- ness of the alternation and repetition. But it is probable that that difference has its limits set to it by the animal ceconomy, or at least by habit; so that if at any time it is hurried beyond the usual measure, some confusion and disorder is occasioned with the effect on the general energy mentioned above. This seems well illustrated by surprise, or impressions unfore- seen and unexpected, breaking in upon the order and velocity of the train of ideas then going on in the mind: and this Ave know Avill frequently bring on every form of spasmodic affection. Our doctrine seems also to be farther illustrated by the case of stammering; Avhen a diffidence and hesitation interrupting or hurrying the succession of syllables or words, throws the face, and sometimes the whole body, into convulsions ; which may al- ways be avoided, by giving a measure regulating the ve locity in the succession proposed, as is done by the persons attempting it in the manner of a song. From the whole that has been just now said, we think it will appear, that convulsions may be brought on by Avhatever hurries the velocity of the alternations which take place in the energy of the brain. MATERIA MEDICA. 203 It will illustrate the Avhole to observe, that as spasmodic af- fections thus depend upon a change in the manner and order of the motions taken place in the brain, they will occur more or less readily as that manner and order is more or less readily changed, which happens to be different in different persons. That this disposition to admit more or less readily of a change in the state, and whole of the motions dependingupon the brain, is different in different persons, has been often taken notice of: and it has been as universally observed, that in persons of very great mobility in this respect, spasmodic affections are most rea- dily excited, and do most frequently arise; a\ hich seems to confirm very much the doctrine we have delivered. To complete our pathology as well as we can, we are next to consider what it is that determines spasmodic affections to affect one set of functions more than another. It may, in the first place, be a mobility in the energy of the brain, greater with re- spect to one set of functions than to another: and therefore it is that the passions of the mind, Avhich may produce any of the spasmodic affections, do however produce them in one set of functions rather than in another. It is possible, therefore, that the affections produced may de- pend entirely upon the state of the brain. But it seems also probable, that the affections produced often depend upon a con- formation and state of the organs concerned in the functions to be affected, determining the energy of the brain to be directed to those parts. Thus, certain organical affections of the heart itself, or great vessels connected with it, are found to give oc- casion to the spasmodic affections of palpitation and syncope. It is probable that a certain state of the lungs gives occasion to asthma; as we can so often observe, that applications made to the lungs themselves, and not to the brain, bring on the disease. It is equally probable that a certain state of the alimentary canal, induced by a state of the ovaria, determines to the pro- duction of hysteria. It is not easy to determine Avhat particular state of the organs of voluntary motion should give occasion to the spasmodic affec- tions of these. But it is probable, that as the energy of the brain is chiefly exercised in these motions, and Avith such a vari- ety that we may suppose them to acquire a considerable mobi- lity, which, joined with the constitutional condition of the same, may dispose them to be affected by any considerable change of the maimer and orde r of the motions of the brain, and therefore to produce epilepsy, or the chief spasmodic affection of the ani- mal functions: and that any general affection of the energy of the brain is ready to produce this, Ave conclude from its being one ot the most frequent of spasmodic affections, and certainly more frequent than those of syncope, asthma, or hysteria. The scope and purpose of all that Ave have now said, is to esta- blish this general proposition, that spasmodic affections, Avhether 204 TREATISE OF THE they arise primarily in the brain, or in particular parts, do con- sist chiefly, and always in part, in an affection and particular state of the energy of the brain: and the operation of antispas- modic medicines must consist in their correcting the morbid or preternatural state in the energy of the brain, by their correcting either the state of preternatural excitement or collapse, or by obviating the too sudden alternation of these states. , Before, hoAvever, proceeding to a more particular considera- tion of these indications, and of the remedies suited to them, which are strictly to be named Antispasmodics, I must observe, that there are remedies, though not strictly such, Avhich are however suited to cure spasmodic affections, and therefore may Occasion some confusion in the use of terms. The first of these I would take notice of, arc the remedies suited to obviate the predisponent cause of spasmodic affections. We ha\-esaid above, that a certain mobility of the Avhole system gives strongly this predisposition: and therefore, that tonics may be fitted to obviate this : and Avhen the disease depends up- on mobility alone, these may7 be entirely- the remedies of it. But we have seldom found them to prove truly- such ; both be- cause it is difficult to render the operation of tonics sufficiently durable, or because Avhen either the disease depends upon the state of particular parts Avhich tonics do not change, or Avhen it depends upon a plethoric state of the system Avhich tonics have rather a tendency to aggravate, tonics cannot be the proper re- medies. The last circumstance happens often to take place in the cases of hysteria and epilepsy. Another means of obviating spasmodic affections, is by a- yoiding the exciting causes. We have said above, as Avell as in our First Lines of the Practice of Physic, that an occasional turgescence in the blood-vessels of the brain is one of the most frequent causes exciting epihpsy, and perhaps some other spas- modic affections. But it will be obvious, that such exciting cause must be avoided by employing refrigerants, which can- not be considered as antispasmodics. A third case in which the proper antispasmodics may be often superfluous and useless, perhaps hurtlul, is, Avhen the disease does not primarily depend upon a state ot the brain, but arises from a peculiar constitution of certain parts, which is commu- nicated to the brain. In such cases it will be evident that the affection of the brain cannot be corrected till the primary cause is cured: and instances of this kind I have given above, as oc- curring Avith respect to particular functions. Here I shall remark only with regard to one of those instan- ces, as it is the best illustration of the general doctrine, and Avill give me an opportunity of making a particular remark Avith re- spect to it. The instance I speak of is in the case of palpitation, sArncope, tmd pf other irregular motions of the heart. Every practitioner MATERIA MEDICA. 205 knows, that these disorders commonly depend upon an organie affection of the heart, or of the great vessels immediately con- nected Avith it, as aneurism, polypus, or ossifications, Avhich are commonly considered as incurable diseases. Dissections have indeed so commonly discovered such causes, that practitioners are very ready to despair of curing such diseases, and desert all attempts tOAvards it: but I think it may be for the instruction of practitioners to give the following case:— A gentleman pretty well advanced in life, Avas frequently at- tacked with palpitations of the heart, Avhich by degrees increas- ed both in frequency and violence, and thus continued for two or three years. As the patient Avas a man of the profession, he was visited by many physicians; Avho Avere very unanimously of opinion, that the disease depended upon an organic affection of the heart, as we have just noAV said, and considered it as abso- lutely incurable. The disease, hoAvever, after some years, gradu- ally abated, both in its frequency and Aiolence, and at length cea- r.ed altogether: and since that time, for the space of seven or eight years, the gentleman has remained in perfect health, Avith- out the slightest symptom of his former complaint. Besides this, I have had some other instances of palpitation, both A'iolent and lasting tor some length of time : and these es- pecially-, Avith the instances abo\-e mentioned, persuade me that spasmodic affections, though sometimes both A-iolent and durable, ■are not however ahvays depending upon organic and incurable affections of particular parts, but may very often depend entirely on an affection of the brain alone. HaA'ing noAV mentioned seA-eral remedies Avhich cannot be strictly considered as antispasmodics, and having mentioned, though Avith less accuracy, the cases in which the proper antis- pasmodic, may- be useless or superfluous : I proceed to consider those Avhich are more strictly entitled to the appellation. I consider them as to be referred to two heads; the one of Sedatives, and the other of Avhat I Avould still more strictly name Antispasmodics, and Avhich I would judge to be of a quality and operation different from tuose others. With respect to the first, it may seem surprising that opium should not have entered into my catalogue of antispasmodics, Avhilst every practitioner considers it as the chief remedy7 in the most part of spasmodic affections. Their opinion is certainly- just and true: but the consideration of its operation beingoften different from that of the proper antispasmodics, 1 overlooked the matter in composing my catalogue. But it is noAV incumbent on me to observe, that as spasmodic affections are so often begun by an increased excitement of th? energy of the brain ; so, opium being the most poAvcrfiu means of diminishing this excitement, it must very often be the most cer- taia ;.ul ready me ms of >oth obviating a id curing spasmodic af- fections. But at the same time we must remark, that it often 206 TREATISE OF THE fails to answer either purpose. If the increased excitement arise from an irritation applied to a particular part of the body, to the removal of which opium cannot contribute, the disease may con- tinue to recur, although the largest doses of opium have been employed. Thus it happens in tetanus, from wounds whose communications with the brain cannot be intercepted, that o- pium often fails to prove a cure. Another case in Avhich opium may fail, is where the excite- ment of the brain arises from a plethoric state of the sanguifer- ous system, and upon an occasional turgescence in the blood-ves- sels of the brain. In these cases, opium is so far from proving a remedy, that it often is a means of aggravating the disease : and this will explain why it so often fails and does harm in cases of epilepsy and hysteria. It is hardly necessary to observe here ; but as the excitement and collapse of the brain do mutually produce one another, so the spasmodic affections do ahvays consist in some encreased ex- citement, yet this may be begun by a state of the collapse : and therefore, that stimulants, such as the volatile alkaline salts, or certain highly odoriferous substances of a grateful kind, may obviate the coming on of spasmodic affections. The other set of antispasmodics, and which I hold to be pro- perly and strictly such, appear to me to be of two kinds; one of them consisting of a set of substances of a disagreeable odour and therefore commonly named Foetids, both from vegetable and animal substances. The operation of these I take to be in this way; that as all disagreeable sensations are sedative, or means of weakening the energy of the brain, so I conceive that our foetid medicines, by obviating or moderating the increased excitement which begins spasmodic affections, may be the remedies of these. The other kind of antispasmodics appear to me to consist of a highly A-olatile oil, and which,by its A'olatility, acquires a singular poAver with regard to the nervous fluid of animals. These have manifestly the power of obviating or moderating that excitement which begins spasmodic affections, and are thereby the remedies of such. But I conceive them also to have another poAver, which, though I cannot explain, seems to be manifestly that of giving a tone and steadiness to the energy of the brain, so as to prevent those sudden alternations of excitement and collapse in Avhich so many commlsive disorders consist. This may not be quite clear to my readers: and I offer it as a conjecture only, to be farther examined by speculative physicians. Whilst the nature of the nervous power and its several motions are still so imperfectly knowm, it seems to be alloAvable, Avith a proper reserve in the application, to enter into some speculations and conjectures. PARTICULAR ANTISPASMODICS. AMBRA-GRISEA. This is a medicine so little employed in our practice, that it is MATERIA MEDICA. 207 omitted in the list of both colleges. But it still retains a place in all the foreign dispensatories, and by its strong bdour it promises to be an active medicine. I am, however, so little acquainted with it, that I must refer entirely for information on this subject to Dr. LeAvis, who has given its natural and chemical history, as likewise the various formulae in which it has been employed as a medicine. SUCCINUM. This, in its entire state, has been often employed as a medicine; but as it discovers, in that state, no active parts, and is entirely insoluble in our fluids, it must be, as it has always appeared to me to be, an absolutely inert substance: and though still perhaps employed by midwives and empirical practitioners, I believe it to be now entirely neglected by British physicians. Much pains has been taken to obtain tinctures containing the more active parts of amber. But I have never found that any im- pregnations of these tinctures were considerable enough to give an active and useful medicine: and the attempt has been entirely deserted in Britain. The authors of the Pharmacopoeia Gene- vensis have made an imperfect attempt in employing a large pro- portion of rectified spirit of wine; and the Danish and Swedish dispensatories have done somewhat better in employingthe liquor anodynus mineralis, or the spiritus aethereus vitriolatus: and by these menstruums indeed some solution and extractions are made of the amber, but in these solutions I could never discover any virtues but what might be imputed to the setherial spirits. The only active poAvers that can be obtained from amber are to be found in its distilled oil and salt. The latter we have very seldom genuine: and therefore I cannot positively determine its virtues. But when genuine and well purified, they do not pro- mise to be powerful, as I believe they differ little from vegetable acids: and the liquor cornu cervi succinatus, so much spoken of by foreign Avriters, I have never found to be of any efficacy, or a better medicine, than the spirit of hartshorn rendered neutral. by any vegetable acid. The distiUed oil of amber is a more powerful medicine, but not in the state in Avhich it is obtained by a first distillation; and now accordingly-, in all the dispensatories it is ordered to be rec- tified by after distillations. This rectification, however, is vari- ously ordered. The London college have ordered the distilla- tion of it to be repeated three times : but unless they had order- ed, that in eveiy distillation a less and less proportion of the whole Avas to be drawn off, the operation may be inaccurate and very imperfect. The Edinburgh and Swedish dispensatories have done better, in ordering the rectification to be made by the ad- dition of water in the proportion of six parts of water to one of oil: and the Edinburgh college have at the same time judicious- ly ordered that two thirds of the water only should be drawn off at each distillation. This indeed will give a great improvement to the oil: but I have hardly thought it enough to give it th<- 208 TREATISE OF THE greatest possible purity it is capable of. I haA7e employed several distillations Avith water: and have always found, that by repeated distillation the oilbecame of more fluidity and volatility, acquired a more agreeable odour, and proved a more poAverhil medicine. It is"here to be particularly observed, that all very volatile oils become medicines Avhich have been constantly reputed to be poAV- erful antispasmodics. And however their operation may be •ex- plained,'I put the rectified oil of amber into this set of medi- cines, which I have found, in many cases of epilepsy, hysteria, and other spasmodic affections, to be useful. The oil of amber may be given in doses from ten to thirty drops. It is only Avhen amenorrhcea can be considered as part of a spasmodic affection, that the oleum succini shows any emmena- gogue powers. PETROLEUM. Under this title I mean to comprehend all the fossil oils that are found in the earth: and I believe 1 might comprehend, in the same class, the Avhole of the bituminous fossils, astheasphal- tum or bitumen judaicum, and pit-coal. I believe it to be agreed among both naturalists and chemists, that the inflammable part of all these fossils is that fluid, volatile, and very inflammable oil that is named Naphtha; which is found in its separate state in some places of the eardi, or upon the sur- face of the waters into which it has been washed out from their sides or bottoms. The production of it is not accounted for ; but it is pretty certainly a fossil matter that is generated in the earth : and by the admixture of various matters it must meet with there, it puts on various forms, from that of a finer oil to a grosser, and through all the different degrees of a grosser and thicker, till it becomes quite of a solid consistence. It is not necessary for me to prosecute the natural or chemical history of these substances here ; since it is enough for the pur- pose of medicine for me to observe, that while they are in a se- parate, and in any degree in an oily7 or liquid state, the oil re- tains an acrimony that renders it stimulant, and so much antis- pasmodic, as to have been useful in several spasmodic affections. Hoav far the petroleum is improved as a medicine, by having dis- solved a portion of flowers of sulphur, I have not had experience to determine. The petroleum, in many of its different states, may be a medicine, as I haA*e said. But it is always, in every form in which it can be exhibited, a very disagreeable remedy: and I have never found its poAvers to be so considerable as to compensate that inconveniency. The only use of the whole of the bituminous fossils that I can find worth attending to, is this, that in distillation they afford a volatile oil, of the nature of that of amber: and Avhich, by the rectification proposed for that, may be brought to the same degree of purity and A-irtue, and perhaps, in some cases, at less expence. MATERIA MEDICA. 209 FROM VEGETABLES. FOETID PLANTS. ARTEMISIA. This, as a foetid and antispasmodic, seems to be the weakest of the whole set, and justly omitted in the London list; and tho* retained in the Edinburgh, is not known in our practice. This plant has led the learned Professor Murray to give us a valuable compilation on the subject of Moxa. But this does not seem to me to belong to this place, as it seems to be a general and not a particular remedy. The other plant, of the class of Syngenesia, which has entered my list, is the MATRICARIA. This is a plant of more active parts than the former, and may deserve to be more employed than it has been. But it is not re- tained in either catalogue of the British Colleges: and I live seldom had such opportunity of seeing it employed as to enable me to determine precisely concerning its virtues. CUMINUM. The general virtues of this as a carminative and antispasmo- dic, I have given already: but a somewhat more disagreeable odour attending this than the other carminative seeds, has led me to insert it again here ; and I esteem it to be the most antispas- modic of the whole set. I have in my list of fcetids, inserted the pulegium, but very im- properly: and I have said enough to explain my opinion of its powers Avhen I treated of it as one of the verticillated plants. ATRIPLEX FOET1DA. What genus this properly belongs to, I have pointed out in my catalogue. It is a plant of a remarkable foctor, and may be presumed, from that, to be a powerful antispasmodic. Although it is not admit- ted into the list of the London college, it has been frequently employed in this country Avith advantage; not^ however, so fre- quently as might be expected; and it is a plant, in its fresh state, not always ready at hand, and in its dry state it loses all its sensi- ble qualities. It can only be employed, therefore, in its recent State: and the most convenient formula is that of a conserve ; and as it is not ahvays easy to reconcile our patients to it even in that state, it is not employed so often as 1 Avould Avish. RUTA. The first thing to be observed w ith respect to this plant, is, that the herb and seeds give out essential oils in different quantities, and, as I judge, of different qualities. But as it is not marked in what different state of the plant the distillations or extractions have been made, this has produced, in my opinion, the different reports that have been given of the products obtained from this Vol. II. Dd 210 TREATISE OF THE plant, and has also occasioned some different reports of its vrfr tues. The analysis, therefore, is to be submitted to a more accu- rate examination. But in the mean time, from its sensible quali- ties, and my experience of its use, I have no doubt in asserting its antispasmodic poAvers, as employed in its distilled water, in its conserve, or in its extract. The distill d water is to be ta- ken from the plant before it has put forth its flowers, and may be much improved by a cohobation. The conserve, if made as formerly proposed, with three parts of sugar, is a weak and in- convenient formula: but if prepared with an equal part of sugar only, and made in small quantities, so that the plant may be still taken in its recent state, it is an useful antispasmodic. The ex- tract is certainly an useful medicine, and has the approbation of both our colleges. It is possible that it may exert some emmena- gogue virtues, though I have not been so successful in employ- ing them as I could wish. Some other virtues ascribed to Rue I judge to be in common to many7 other plants, and therefore take no farther notice of them here. One virtue particularly ascribed to it, that of resisting con- tagion, or of expelling it Avhen taken in, I hold to be absolutely without foundation: and I hope the reasons for this opinion have been, upon several occasions, already explained. SABINA. This is a plant, which, of all others, gives out the greatest pro- portion of essential oil: and as this oil retains the peculiar odour and taste of the plant, the medicinal virtues of the whole plant may be fairly ascribed to it. But it is a very acrid and heating substance, and I have been often, upon account of these qualities, prevented from employing it in the quantity perhaps necessary to render it emmenagogue. I must own, however, that it shoAV6 a more powerful determination to the uterus than any other plant I have employed. But I have been frequently disappointed in this: and its heating qualities always require a great deal of caution. Of its anthelmintic qualities, or of its powers in healing carious bones, or foul ulcers, I have had no experience. GUMMI FOETID A. ASAFOETIDA. I have put this at the head of the list, as the most powerful of the whole: and Avhen it is in a tolerably recent and genuine state, it is a most valuable medicine. This depends upon the force of its odour, and upon that odour's being of a very diffusible kind, and which I believe therefore penetrates the nerves more readi- ly than any other vegetable odour. All this explains its being a powerful and suddenly operating antispasmodic. Accordingly, I have found it to be the most powerful in all hysteric cases: and when the presence of an hysteric paroxy7sm prevented medicines being taken by the mouth, I have found it, given in glyster, to be yery effectual. When taken into the stomach, it is particularly useful in relieving those spasmodic complaints, which so frequent* MATERIA MEDICA. 211 ly attend dyspepsia: and as it has manifestly a laxative power, it is well suited to relieve the flatulent colics of hysteric and hy- pochondriac persons. It is in some measure suited to relieve the spasmodic asthma. But as the spasm in these cases is of an obstinate kind, I have sel- dom found the asafoetida of much service in asthmatic paroxy-sms. As all the foetid gums seem to be determined to the lungs, and to promote expectoration: so I have found the asafoetida the most powerful for this purpose, and more powerful than the am- moniac so frequently employed. The asafoetida has been at all times considered as an anthel- mintic; and I have no doubt of its being such. But I have sel- dom found it effectual: which, however, I impute to our not ha- ving it in so recent and diffusible a state as Avere to be Avished. The foetid gums have ahvay/s.been commended as emmena- gogues ; and certainly the asafoetida should have the best preten- sions to this power. But whether it be owing to the imperfect state in which we too frequently have this medicine, or to some- what in the nature of the amenorrhoea, I would not positively determine: but this is certain, that I have very seldom succeed- ed in employing the asafoetida as an emmenagogue. The asafoetida is employed in various forms; as it may be gh"- en in its solid form, or may be extracted by either Avatery7 or spi- rituous menstruums, and especially as its virtues rise in distilla- tion with those of the latter kind. In a solid form it seldom acts as a powerful antispasmodic : and therefore, excepting where it is to be joined with aloes or other medicines, I seldom employ it. When it is to be employed as an antispasmodic, and especial- ly where a sudden operation is required, the form of tincture or volatile spirit are the most proper. As the frequent repeti- tion of the same antispasmodic is ready to Aveaken its poAvers, so some variety of formulae, and of combination with other an- tispasmodics, may be necessary. Of the tinctures, I take the tinctura fuliginis to be the least useful: and in my opinion, it is properly omitted by the London College. For the purposes just noAV mentioned, I hold the spiritus vo- latilis foetidus of the Edinburgh College, or the spiritus ammo- nias toetidus of the London, when they can be conveniently given in large doses, to be the most powerful formula: but much of all this must be left to the discretion of practitioners. AMMONIACUM. Of all those enumerated among the foetid gums, the ammo- niac has the least of the foetid odour: and therefore I consider its antispasmodic powers as the least considerable. It is, howe- ver, an acrid and heating substance, which, determined to the lungs, may prove an expectorant: a\ hich is the virtue commonly ascribed to it: but I have seldom found its power very remark- able: and in common practice I have frequently found the mi^- 212 TREATISE OF THE chief arising from its heating qualities greater than the benefit* obtained by its expectorant powers. The ammoniacum has been commonly commended for its pOAYer, externally applied, in resolving indurated tumors. But fin iheory ot this is very doubtful: and 1 have not any clear proof from experience of its h.v.ng any such power. GALBANUM. This is indeed a foetid gum, and should have the virtues of such. But it is neither of a strong odour, nor of diffusible quality, and therefore its virtues are not considerable. By itself it is of little power; but is properly reteined in practice, as affording the venety so requisite in the use of antispasmodics. The London C- 'Uege, in my opinion, have properly given a gum pill, Avithout the asafoetida, Avhich is so often disagreeable to particular persons. Though the Edinburgh college have perhaps given a more ef- fectual medicine, they have missed the advantage of the variety mentioned. The galbanum has been commended for favouring the suppo- ration of inflammatory tumours. But its powers in this way h"Vt never appeared to be considerable : and our surgeons have found that they can execute this businesss more certainly and speedily by the frequent repetition of emollient poultices. OPOPANAX. This is the least disagreeable of the foetid gums, and therefore of the least virtue. In its separate state it is little employed: and properly, as its particular virtues are not ascertained. It is, however, properly retained in practice: as it affords the variety just now mentioned. SAGAPENUM. This is the most active and poAverf ul of the three last men- tioned gums, and has a stronger and more diffusible odour than any of them, It has therefore a better title to be retained in ractice, and comes the nearest to the powers of the asafoetida; ut it is not so suddenly operative and is hardly to beotherAvise employed than as affording a variety. With regard to the last mentioned gums, I have not taken notice of the various means of extracting them ; as they cannot be much improved in their activity by their being treated either by tincture or distillation. TACAMAHACA. The common tacamahaca of our shops should not have had a plac here, not being employed as an internal medicine: and as an external, I cannot perceive its virtues. There is, however, a medicine under the title ol Tacamahaca in Shells, which horn the accounts of materia medica writers, seems to have more ac- tive poAver. It was, therefore, alloAvable to point it out to stu- dents of materia medica. as an of ject of enquiry : but it is yet so little in use, that I myself hav~ had no opportunity of being acquainted with it. MATERIA MEDICA. 215 RADICES GRAVEOLENTES. PAEONIA. This was very anciently, and has been always since, an article of h< materia medica. In our History we had occasion to give a stricture on the subject with regard to Galen; which does nei- ther credit to him nor to the virtue of the medicine. Since thai time, its fate and reputation have been various ; while some commend its virtues, others declare their disappointment in employing it. Its sensible qualities, in its recent state, promise some vir- tue s. But these qualities are very inconsiderable, and at the same time very transitory; so that in the powdered root, the form in which it is most frequently employed, I can hardly perceive them to exist. In the frequent employment of them, I could ne- ver perceive any effect, either in epilepsy or other spasmodic affi ctions. To conclude the subject, it is enough to observe, that both the Edinburgh and London Colleges have now omit- ted it in their lists of the materia medica. VALERIANA SYLVESTRIS. This is a root of more virtue and deserved reputation. It has been almost at all times in esteem, but particularly since the time of Fabius Columna. It has been since much taken notice of and employed in practice, frequently with success, but frequently al- so, particularly in my OAvn practice, without any effect at alh The la:ter circumstance, hoAvever, I impute to this, that the best remedies may often fail in a disease which depends upon a diversity of causes ; and partly to this, that the valerian is fre- quently employ-ed in an improper condition. In the condition we have it, in different shops and at different times, I have found the sensible qualities of it to be very different: and 1 am persuaded, that unless it is taken up at a proper season, and pro- perly preserved, it is often a very inert substance. I do not conclude from its singular poAver with respect to cats, that it must haVe peculiar powers with respect to the ani- mal ceconomy. But I consider its greater or h-ss activity with respect to cats, which is different at different times, to be a test of its acth7e poAvers in general. Its antispasmodic powers in general are A7ery well established: and I trust to many of the reports that have been given of it? efficacy. And if it has sometimes failed, I have just now ac- counted for it, adding only this, that it seems to me, in almost all cases, that it should be given in larger doses than it is com- monly done. On this footing, I have frequently found it useful in epileptic, hysteric, and other spasmodic affections. It seems to be most useful when given in substance : and in large doses I have never found much benefit from the infusion in water. The London college have attempted a tincture strongly im- pregnated : and I have attempted one still stronger, by taking the root in double the quantity, and straining the tincture by a 2U TREATISE OF THE strong expression: and this I have found, in persons who cannot bear a large dose of the menstruum, is a powerful remedy, and suddenly operating. The volatile tincture prescribed by both colleges, is often, as suddenly operating, an effectual remedy, and gives an excellent variety of antispasmodic formulae: but whatever may be the efficacy of the valerian, the menstruum here has certainly a share in ft. I readily believe in the anthelmintic power of the valerian^ but have hardly had any opportunity of perceiving its effects. FULIGO LIGNI. If this had not been retained in the list of the Edinburgh col- lege, I should not have given it a place here : and I judge it to be very properly omitted in that of the London. It is a hetero- geneous mass, that has not yet been with any accuracy analysed, at least so as to ascertain its proper application in medicine: and this is especially uncertain, as on different occasions it is of dif- ferent kinds. It has been retained in the Edinburgh dispensatory, merely, if I mistake not, by the habit that Scottish practitioners have been in, of prescribing the tinctura fuliginis as a variety of the anti- spasmodic formulae; but it is now much neglected by them. And although we cannot deny that the soot may contribute somewhat to the intention of the medicine, yet the tincture ha® never shown to me any power that might not be ascribed very entirely to the asafoetida it contains. OLEA ESSENTIALIA. Although these, for the most part, have been treated of before under the title of Stimulantia, I could not miss to give them a place here, because, as I observed aboAre, they often exert an an- tispasmodic poAver. Their effects in this way are commonly most remarkable in the alimentary canal, and especially where spasm may be supposed to arise from some loss of tone in some portion of the muscular fibres, and Avhen therefore a stimulus, exciting a motion in the other parts of the canal, may be the ef- fectual remedy. The antispasmodic power of essential oils is very much con- fined to these parts, and, excepting in a very feAv particulars, do not show their power with respect to the Avhole system : or, if they do, it is probably7 only where the more general or particular affections depend upon a state of the stomach Avhich may be corrected by the operation of antispasmodics applied to it. It is very generally the effect of essential oils to be stimulating and heating to the system: and therefore, Avhen any degree of phlogistic diathesis prevails in the system, the use of these essen- tial oils is to be avoided. Even in some cases of spasmodic affec- tions of the alimentary canal,though some suspicion of phlogistic diathesis remain, the antispasmodic poAver of essential oils may seem to be necessary: but in such cases it is at least desirable to employ essential oih of the least inflammatory kind. To this MATERIA MEDICA. 215 purpose, I am of opinion that the least inflammatory are the oils of the umbelliferous seeds; the next to these are those of the verticillated plants; and that the most inflammatory of all are those of the aromatics, strictly so called. But all this I leave to be farther examined, and more accurately determined; as the various qualities of the essential oils have not yet been examined with so much nicety as seems to be proper; and to this purpose a particular observation here occurs to me. Camphire is in many respects to be considered as an essential oil: but its operation upon the human body seems to be very different from that of most others. It is a powerful antispasmo- dic with respect to the whole system, without being readily heat- ing to it, as I think I have demonstrated above: and I repeat the observation here, for the sake of remarking, that several of the essential oils approach to the nature of camphire, and con- tain manifestly a portion of it in their composition. It may be therefore supposed, that such camphorated oils may be more powerfully antispasmodic, and at the same time less heating. Such I take to be the case with the peppermint; but Avhether there are any others containing so large a proportion of camphire as to give them the same qualities with this, and different from the most part of the other essential oils, I have not been able to determine. AETHER. This is entirely an artificial substance, formed by a combina- tion of alcohol with a concentrated acid. For a long time we were acquainted Avith it as formed with the vitriolic acid only: but we have since learned, that not only the other fossil acids of nitre and sea-salt, but that also the vegetable acid, may be man- aged so as to form an aether, or an oil of great volatility. Al- though Ave are only very Avell acquainted Avith the vitriolic aether, all of these, formed of the other acids, seem to be endued with the same antispasmodic poAver: and how far this is anywise dif ferent in the different species, is not yet properly ascertained. They are employed in all spasmodic affections, whether of the Avhole system or of the alimentary canal: and the suddenness with which they are diffused, gives them great advantages. They are irritating and heating to the parts to which they are imme- diately applied, in Avhich they resemble camphire; but resemble this also in not being heating to the Avhole system. They resem- ble that also in another respect, in being antispasmodic in the case of inflammatory spasm ; and thus, by an application commonly know7n, they cure headach, toothach, and some rheumatic af- fections. iEther seems also to be endowed with some anodyne virtue; and this, ascribed to the liquor anodynus mineralis Hoffmanni, or, what I take to be the same thing, the spiritus vitrioli dulcis, seems to me to be tolerably well founded. The only other observation I have to make avith respect to arther is, that the vitriolic most commonly employed, is ready to 216 TREATISE OF THE have some portion of the sulphureous acid adhering to it; and that, in proportion to such adherence,the virtues of it are great- ly impaired. To obtain, therefore, a powerful medicine, it is necessary that great pains be taken to render the aether free from all adherence of the sulphureous acid. OLEA EMPYREUMATICA. The empyreumatic oil most noted for its antispasmodic virtues is very7 constantly taken from the empyreumatic oil of anim.ds : and it is, therefore, in its rectified state, named the Oleum Ani- mate. I think it,hoAvever, proper to inform my chemical reader, that an oil of the same volatility and antispasmodic power, as I knoAv from my OAvn experience, may be obtained from the em- pyreumatic oil of vegetables, when treated in the same manner as proposed for that of animals: and it is therefore that, in my catalogue, I chose to give the general title of Empyreumatic. I do not hoAvever allege, that any particular advantage is to be got by working upon the vegetable oil; and therefore I go on to speak of this subject as it is commonly obtained from animal oils. The preparations o*'this oil Yvas formerly, and as particularly delivered by Dr. Hoffman, a very troublesome Avork. But suc- ceeding chemists have found, that the purpose of the whole may be.obtained with less labour and as much success. I shall enter no farther into the history of these labours, and of the various methods proposed, but to remark, that the directions give n in the last edition of the London dispensatory, for the reasons giv- en above, on the subject of the oleum succini, do not seem to be sufficient: and the directions given in the last edition of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, seem to be more perfect and com- plete. The directions given there for the preserving this oil in its perfect state, are particularly proper and necessary. As we said above, what I believe every body apprehends, that it is very7 difficult to explain the operation of antispasmodics in general, I find the difficulty increases as Ave go farther in the con- sideration of particulars. Here I have occe.sion to take notice of a very particular circumstance in this business. We find that a very volatile oil in the several tethers, and a very volatile oil pro- duced by the management above mentioned, from either the fos- sil, animal, or v getable kingdoms, do all prove powerful antis- pasmodics; so it appears tome that their power is very much in proportion to the volatility, to which they are carried: for it is well known, that ay hen thtir volatility, and with that their an- tispasmodic power, is carried to the utmost, they are again rea- dily changed by the contact of the air: and by this their colour, odour, and volatility, are much diminished; and with these changes their antispasmodic power is also greatly impaired. Here then is a singular connt ction between the volatility of oil and our nervous power. But ho»v the former acts upon the latter we do not at all perceive; and particularly, how the former, by the loss MATERIA MEDICA. 217 t\f its volatility, is brought into a state less suited to the cure of spasmodic affections, we cannot clearly discern. We have said above, that these affections depend upon a state of mobility in the energy of the brain: and we Avould now make another step in alleging, that our volatile oils give, for a certain time, a steadiness to the energy of the brain, without destroying its mobility, in the same manner as narcotics do. But after these conjectures, I must pass from the subject, till we shall, by farther observation and reflection, learn more of the nature of the nervous pow er than we do at present.—In the mean time I must remark, that the speculations I have entered into, l&ave taught me somewhat in practice; for in some instances, when I could know exactly the period of an epileptic accession, I could, by giving a full dose of animal oil, prevent such an ac- cession. Sed manum de tabula. EX ANIMALIBUS. MOSCHUS. The production of this in an animal body, we do not pretend to account for: as Ave do not in the least presume, in many other instances, to account for the various and peculiar productions of the animal ceconomy7. The natural history of the animal producing this peculiar sub- stance I must leave to others; as it is of no consequence to our pur- pose to determine, whether it be of the goat or of the hart kind. I would wish to enter into its chemical history: but the chem-* ists have not gone far on this subject. It is a remarkably odori- ferous substance : and this seems to depend upon what may be called an essential oil, as it arises Avith distillation in water. If this may be taken as a proof of the great volatility of this oil, it may be comprehended under the head of those which have their antispasmodic powers depending upon their great volatility. This, Avith regard to musk, must be left to farther speculation and ex- perim; nt: and I must noAV go on in considering it as a medi- cinal substance in its entire state. This I consider as entirely depending upon its being a very odoriferous matter, which in all cases seems to be poAverful in acting upon the nerves of the human body. As, hoAvever, Ave do not yet know any certain means of extracting its odoriferous parts : so the first thing to be remarked with respect to its medici- nal qualities is, that it is more effectual, given in substance, than under any preparation that has been attempted. In substance it is to be given in large doses, from 10 to 30 gr.; and even when these large doses are found to be effectual, thty must be repeated after no long intervals, till the disease is entirely overcome. While I am mentioning the doses of musk, it is proper to re- mark, that these will depend upon the quality of it, which is at different times in very different condition. Whether this is owing, as has been alleged, to a more imperfect condition in the original musk, or to an adulteration frequently practised upon it, 1 cannot Vol. II. E e '318 TREATISE OF THE certainly determine ; but certainly such differences do occur: and I have therefore very often found it to be an ineffectual medi- cine. I judge of it always by the strength of its odour, and in proportion to this only to be an effectual remedy. I was once called to a patient in the night-time, under violent headach and delirium, arising from gout; for Avhich I ordered fifteen grains of musk, but Avithout giving my patient any relief. In the morn- ing, hoAvever, the disease continuing the same, as I had learned Avhere some good and genuine musk was to be had, I ordered a like dose of this, and thereby obtained the immediate relief of my patient.-----From many such instances of the difference of musk, I must inculcate upon all practitioners, that genuine musk is a very powerful medicine; and that they should not doubt of its efficacy on any occasion, Avithout their being certain that the failure Avas not oAving to the imperfect state of the drug. I must add, that the imperfect state of musk is not compensated by7 a larger dose. With such precaution in the choice of it, I maintain that musk is one of the most powerful antispasmodics that we are acquaint- ed with. I have found it, Avith Dr. Wall, to be a powerful reme- dy in many convulsive and spasmodic affections, and in some of a very peculiar kind. I had once a gentleman affected with a spasm of the pharynx, preA-enting deglutition and almost respira- tion. This, when other remedies had failed, Avas relieved by the use of musk, Avhich often shoAved its power; for the disease con- tinued to recur at times for some years after, and Avas only7 obvia- ted or relieA7ed by the use of the musk. Some time ago the musk had the reputation of curing the bite of a mad dog. Dr. Johnston has given us tAvo facts that are very much in faA'our of its power: and I haA7e been informed of an instance in this country, of some large doses of musk having proved a cure, after symptoms of hydrophobia had come on ; but Ave have had no more instances of the same kind, and I leaA-e its poAvers in this way entirely to the judgment of the Societe Roy7ale de Paris. In another disease I can vouch for the poAvers of musk, and that is in several circumstances of the gout. The case given by Mr. Pringle, in the Physical and Literary Essays, Vol. II. art. 12. is Aery much in favour of its virtues: and in several instances of the gout attacking the stomach, I have found it relieved by large doses of musk. I gave above an instance of headach and delirium, arising from the gout, being cured by it: and in the same person I had repeated instances of its power. This person being frequently affected Avith the gout, was liable to have it re- trocedent, and affecting the stomach, the lungs, and particularly the head, in the manner above mentioned: and in many of these instances it was Aery suddenly relieved by large doses of musk, or by these at least repeated after short intervals; tho' at length the great irregularities of this patient brought the disease into a state that resisted all remedies. MATERIA MEDICA. 219 Musk has been employed by some in continued fevers ; and I have had some experience of its use. It seems to be adapted to those cases of convulsive disorder which I have said above are to be cured by opiates: and indeed the success I have generally had with these, has prevented my having further experience of the musk. CASTOREUM. This also is an animal production, the natural history of Avhich the public are well acquainted with. It is a pretty strongly odo- riferous substance,/of the disagreeable kind ; and to this Ave as- cribe its medicinal powers. It is certainly7, on many occasions, a powerful antispasmodic, and has been useful in almost every case requiring such remedies, especially Avhen given in substance, and in large doses, from ten to thirty grains. It has been sup- posed by some to have someAvhat of a narcotic power; but I have neA7er perceived this, excepting where such effects might be imputed to its removing the spasmodic affections Avhich interrup- ted sleep. Its medicinal virtues are best extracted by a rectified spirit, as it is probable that this extracts most poAverfully the odo- riferous oil, upon which the medicinal quality probably depends, The Edinburgh College are of this opinion; but the London College prefer a proof-spirit. The latter may give a medicine to be employed more com7eniently in a larger dose than the for- mer: but neither of them, in my opinion, can admit of doses of much efficacy. Either of them may give a medicine to be sud- denly diffused, and therefore of use in spasmodic affections, but if that be the intention of the practitioner, it Avill be most cer- tainly "obtained by. employ-ing the, compound tincture of castor, as prescribed by the Edinburgh College. SALES ALKALINI VOLATILES. ■ These should liavebeen put above, under the bead of Stimu- lantia • for their stimulant is their most remarkable poAver; and this they shoAv in e\rery dose, Avherever the energy of the brain is Aveakened, and in consequence the action .of^he heart is lan- guid, or requires to be accelerated. In such cases this stimulus is among the safest, as it is ahvays transitory: and Avhen their acri- mony can be covered, so as to pass the mouth and fauces avuIi- out irritation there, they may be given in large doses, from ten to twenty grains." ■'• It is not necessary to observe, that these volatile alkaline salts were formerly drawn from various animal substances, and sub- posed,in consequence, to have peculiar virtues. But now the che- mists have learned, that from whatever substances they may hi extracted, they may be brought to such a de-gree of purity as ren- ders them hardly different from one another.—They^ are still, hoAvever, prepared in tAvo different Avays ; the one of which is from sal ammoniac, which gives the ammonia of the Lonelon Dispensatory-, or the sal ammoniac us volatilis, and spiritus salis ammoniaci of the Edinburgh. 220 TREATISE OF THE These are certainly the purest forms of the volatile alkali, the most free from any adhering animal substances. But while the trade continues of preparing a volatile alkali from the bones or o- th; r solid parts of animals, there Avill come into our shops a salt and spirit that can hardly ever be so pure from some empyreuma- tic animal substance adhe ring: and it is a question Avith me, Whe- ther such an adherence may not give some peculiar quality to the salt and spirit? I believe it does so, and may render it more antispasmodic. This, indeed, cannot go far in any doses of the salt or spirits given to adults: but it may- go much further as employed in the antispasmodic affections of infants. The liquid volatile alkali is commonly employed in its mild state : but by a distillation of the sal ammoniac with quick-lime, the alkali obtained may be in its caustic state.—In this state it maybe readily joined Avith spirit of Avine, and gives the spiritus salis ammoniaci dulcis of the Edinburgh Dispensatory, or the spiritus salis ammoniaci vinosus of the London. The combina- tion affords an excellent menstruum for dissolving the several foe- tid substances employed as antispasmodics ; and renders them more suddenly diffusible, and perhaps of more effect, in all spas- modic affections. The caustic volatile alkali is seldom employed by itself: but if its acrimony be covered while it passes the mouth and fauces, it may be employed Avith great safety. Its chief use, however, is Avhen employed externally; and Avhen smelled at the nose, it gives a more poAverful stimulus than the mild alkali can do. Its acrimony is so considerable, that when applied to the skin, it rea- dily irritates, and even inflames it; and may be so managed as to prove an useful stimulant and rubefacient in may cases. But this requires its being blended with a mild expressed oil, in such proportion as to prevent its inflaming too much: and in this state it may be employed with great advantage, and parti- cularly7 in paralytic cases, Avith more advantage than the acids A\-e mentioned before for that purpose. Practitioners are now well acquainted with the use of this combination, under the name of the Volatile Oil, and find it use- ful in relieving all pains arising from rheumatism, when the skin is not already affected with redness : and it is even useful in relieving pains of the flatulent kind. This combination, to be very useful, requires to be made of one drachm of good caustic alkali to an ounce of the oil: and it may even go, fre- quently with advantage, to double that quantity. Let apotheca- ries observe, that if the alkali does not entirely and intimately unite with the oil, and remain constantly united with it, it is a mark that the alkali Avas not sufficiently caustic. Of the Action of Medicines upon the Fluids. Having now considered and explained, as Avell as we can, the action of medicines upon both the simple and living solid, I am MATERIA MEDICA. 22i next to consider the action of medicines upon the fluids of the human body. The subject has occupied a great part of the writings on the materia medica; but, in my opinion, Avith no advantage.—The doctrines have been often drawn from mistaken facts; from an imperfect view of things; and commonly explained upon mista- ken principles. Whether I shall be able to correct and improve this doctrine, I dare not determine: but it seems necessary to attempt it; and I shall do it as far as I am able. The principles I am to employ, are, perhaps, very well under- stood by some chemical philosophers : but they are still far from being understood by the most part of physicians in any country of Europe, and particularly very imperfectly understood by Avri- ters on the materia medica. It seems, therefore, necessary, to lay down the principles I am now to proceed upon ; allowing them to be corrected and improved hereafter by abler philosophers. The leading principle to be employed is this, that the qualities of bodies, as they appear to us, are especially changed by sepa- ration or combination; that is, by the separation of mixts into their constituent parts, which in their separate state have quali- ties different from those which appeared in the mixt; or by the combination of two or more separate bodies, into a mixt or com- pound, which has qualities different from those which appeared in the separate parts. All this is, in general, obvious; but in order to explain the latter case, Ave must now observe, that nature has established be- tween the small parts of bodies, an attraction, as it is called, or a disposition in a certain contiguity, to run into an union Avith one another, and to remain firmly united together. This disposition, or this attraction, does not however take place betAveen all kinds of bodies ; as there are many Avhich have no such relation; and of two bodies, Avhich have each of them an attraction to a third, the force of this is stronger Avith respect to this third body in the one than in the other, which is called an Elective Attraction. It is by this especially, that the separation of the constituent parts of mixts is obtained; as Avhen to a mixt body, another is applied Avhich has a stronger attraction to one of its constituent parts than they have to one another, the part having the strongest attraction tOAvards the body added, passes to that, and leaves the other AY'ith Avhich it Avas formerly joined, by7 itself: and thus the constituent parts of a mixt may be sepa- rated from one another, whilst a new combination is at the same time formed. To explain the separation of mixed bodies, it is further neces- sary to remark, that the constituent parts of a mixt may be sepa- rated from one another by the action of heat or fire: and taking this into the account, Ave have all the several means of changing the qualities of bodies by separation and combination. In this vienv of the matter it Avill appear, that, beside the action 222 TREATISE OF THE of fire, the only other poAver in nature by Avhich the qualities of bodies are changed, is the relation of attraction Avhich nature has established betAveen different bodies. What that relation depends upon, we have not, so far as I know, in any measure perceived. The smallest ultimate parts of bodies we have not, in any case that I know of, had a sight of, so as to show us any properties or conditions that might account for their several at- tractions, or their repugnance to it, which we call their repul- sion. The suppositions of the Corpuscularian philosophy have been gratuituously assumed; and might perhaps be shown Avith respect to particular bodies, to have been universally false. The late discoveries, shoAving acids to appear often in the form «f an air, should, I think, disturb the notions of the Corpuscula- rians. In short, the Corpuscularian doctrines have never ex- plained to me any one phenomenon of nature: and it appears to be full time for us to give up our assuming them in our explana- tion of the qualities of bodies. Some changes in the qualities of aggregates may be obtained by a mechanical division: but mechanical division divides aggre- gates only into their integrant parts. And I knoAv no instance of such division separating the constituent parts of any mixt that takes place in the ultimate or smallest parts of the aggregate. If mechanical division seems to change the cohesion of aggregates, I maintain it to be always by some relation of attraction operat- ing by solution or mixture. It must in the next place be observed, that Avhere bodies are to be changed by the combination of tAvo different bodies, a cer- tain proportion of the one to the other is ahvay7s necessary to make any considerable change in the qualities of the neAV mixt: and if the portion of the one be very small Avith respect to the other, though this may be equally diffused over the Avhole, yet the changes, in the former qualities of the larger portion, may be very inconsiderable, or hardly assignable. When, therefore, a quantity of matter, small Avith respect to the Avhole of the fluids of the human body, is introduced into it, no considerable change can be made in the larger mass : and this is a doctrine we shall have frequent occasion to employ. It is, however, to be remarked here, that Avhenever it appears that a portion of matter, small Avith respect to the Avhole of the human body to Avhich it is added, has very considerable effects in changing the state of it, that this must be either by the matter's acting primarily on the nervous system, Avhich may be moved by very7 small quantities of matter, or that it must be by the matter's acting as a ferment; Avhich, by acting successively on the several parts, may at length make a considerable change in the Avhole mass. Having thus laid doAvn my general principles, I proceed to treat of the several medicines acting upon the fluids, under the seA-eral titles to Avhich I have referred them in my7 catalogue. I might, as is usually done, and as I have done In my general t:> MATERIA MEDICA. 22J ble, mention them as Alterantia and Immutantia, or as Evacu- antia. But as I have no proper doctrine to deliver under the general head of Alterantia, I proceed to consider the particular state of alteration as the several conditions of it are explained in my general table, and in the detail of my catalogue. Chapter IX. T DILUENT I A. HE fluidity of the blood may be increased in two Avays ; that is, either by increasing the proportion of fluid in it; or by diminishing the cohesion of the other parts. It is the first for which Ave employ strictly the term and title of Diluentia; and the second Ave are to consider in the next chapter, under the ti- tle of Attenuantia. With respect to the first, it is' well known that the ordinary fluidity of the blood is owing to water, which in great proportion is constantly present in it; and that the chief, and perhaps only, means of increasing its fluidity, will be by increasing the propor- tion of Avater in it. We take it for granted, that the blood, in the state in which it is in living bodies, will always readily admit of a further proportion of water to be uniformly diffused in it, and thereby to increase the fluidity of the Avhole. And Ave can- not indeed discover that any other fluid can have this effect, but in proportion to the Avater which such fluid contains. Water- therefore is the proper, perhaps the only proper, diluent; and its effects, as such, I am now to consider more particularly. AQUA. This I formerly considered as a drink, and am now to consi- der as a medicine : and in this light some have justly consider- ed it as very universal. We formerly mentioned the seA-eral qualities of water necessary to render it fit for a drink: and it seems to be enough to say iioav, that the same qualities precise- ly are Avhat render it fit to be employed as a diluent; and as such I proceed to consider its operations. Nature having appointed Avater to be universally the drink of the Avhole animal creation, it is therefore in man the proper ob- ject of thirst: and its first operation is to qUench this appetite, and thereby7 remove a very uneasy sensation, Avhich is often a considerable irritation of the Avhole system.—It does this, not only by its coolness anel simple fluidity, but also by its diluent poAver in dissolving the viscid matters of the internal mouth and fauces. When A\rater is carried doAvn into the stomach, it has therce according to its temperature and quantity, a very various opera- tion. The effects of the former I have mentioned seAeral times ; to be therefore no further taken notice of here: and they are the effects of its diluent poAver only7 which I am noAV to consider. As the most part of mankind tike drink along w-ith their s-nV 22* TREATISE OF THE food, there can be little doubt that a certain portion of diluent drink, and particularly water, favours the solution and digestion of our solid food, and also contributes to the more speedy evacua- tion of the stomach. The quantity necessary for this is very dif- ferent in different persons, and must be suited to the feelings of every individual; but Avith this observation, that a larger pro- portion than necessary, by increasing the distention of the stom- ach, is ready to take off what appetite might otherAvise remain: and it is commonly proper only, after the digestion is over, to throw in a quantity of Avater to finish that business more com- pletely, and to promote the entire evacuation of the stomach. Not only for the assistance of digestion, our diluent is neces- sary, but is also otherAvise to the state of the stomach itself. As the mucuous glands of this organ throw out a large quantity of a heavy viscid fluid, which, remaining in the stomach, gives an uneasy sense of weight, and impairs the appetite; so, in this morbid state, a quantity of water, by diluting and favouring the absorption and evacuation of this mucus, may often be the most certain remedy. It will be obvious, that in consequence of these operations, many and various disorders of the stomach, and of the Avhole system, may be removed by water taken into the stomach. When Avater is carried into the intestinal canal, it will, by mixing Avith the bile, diminish the acrimony of this, and obviate irritations that might otherwise have thence arisen. By diluting the contents of the intestines, it will certainly promote the more entire solution of these, and even by its bulk, favour their pro- gress. But it is to be remarked here, that as water is intended to be copiously7 absorbed here ; so the effects we have just now mentioned will ahvays be less and less as the alimentary mass goes farther on, and will thereby alloAv it to come to a thicker consistence; which will perhaps explain why the drinking of Avater so commonly contributes to a costive habit. At the same time it is to be remarked, that a large quantity of water, pretty quickly thrown into the intestines, may, by its bulk, increase their action, and thereby prove laxative. And I have known many instances of water operating in this way proving an use- ful remedy7, by clearing out the whole of the contents, Avhether natural or morbid, which might be stagnant there. The com- mon people, who commonly take in every thing that is under the name of a mineral water in very large quantities, often ob- tain much benefit from waters of no sensible impregnation, or at least of such impregnation as would have no effect, if it Avas not from the bulk of water Avhich accompanies it. When any unusual quantity of water enters the lacteals or other absorbents, it must contribute to increase the fluidity of their contents, and to expede their motions: and considering how much obstructions in the conglobate glands are to be appre- hended, the increasing the fluidity of the liquor passing them mav MATERIA MEDICA. 225 often be a means of obviating these obstructions, or removing them Avhen formed. The water entering the blood-vessels by the thoracic ductmust, in proportion, increase the fluidity of the whole mass, and is cer- tainly the means by Avhich its fluidity is commonly preserved. It is true, that even an unusual quantity of Avater entering the blood-vessels, enters so slowly7, that it can hardly, before it be again withdrawn, increase the bulk of the whole, or give any unusual distension. But the size of the vessels is commonly so exactly adjusted to the quantity of these, that I am persuaded a- ny unusual increase in the quantity of fluid, though very small, may give some degree of distension, and in some measure invi- gorate the system. This, however, in healthy bodies, or such as are without any obstruction of the excretions, cannot long subsist; for I hold it to be true, that any unusual increase of the quantity of Avater in the blood will immediately pass off by one or other of the ex- cretions : and this passing off very immediately and largely by the excretions, we are now to consider as a principal effect of water taken in. When an unusual quantity of water has been thrown in, and passes off largely by urine, as it commonly passes off almost with- out colour, taste, or smell, it may be supposed that it carries lit- tle of the saline matter of the blood along with it. This, how- ever, cannot be supposed to be entirely the case; but that water, in this Avay,in some measure diminishing the saline matters for- merly present, may thereby obviate and contribute to the cure of several diseases ; and further, although in this way its operation should not be considerable, there is another effect of it to be ta- ken notice of, which is, that the exciting and increasing the ac- tion of the secretory and excretory vessels must always be of considerable use to the system. One other remark is to be made.—Although it is probable that, by the constitution of the oeconomy, any unusual quantity of Avater may be determined to pass off by the excretions, rather than by the internal exhalants, this can hardly be supposed to be so entirely the case, but that some portion of the abundant Avater Avill also pass by- the internal exhalants, and thereby, in some measure, dilute the ordinary halitus and the lymph that is ab- sorbed from it. By7 this means the diluted lymph will pass along its vessels, and be fitter to obviate stagnations that might other- Avise occur there. And Avhether, in this Avay, the large use of Avater may not contribute to the cure of scrophula, I leave my intelligent readers to determine. From this detail of the operation of water, Avhen joined with the effects of its temperature, explained elseAvhere, it will rea- dily appear that the abundant use of it, Avith very few exceptions, may be considered as a very general means both of preserving health and of curing diseases. Vot. II. V f 226 TREATISE OF THE After Aqua, in my catalogue, I have set down the aquasa blanda; by which I mean all those fluids Yvhose parts are chiefly Avater, Avithout the addition of other matters that may either di- minish the diluent qualities of it, or give it peculiar properties : and with these conditions I hold, that all aqueous liquors may have all the poAvers and properties I haA7e ascribed to simple Avater. Chapter X. ATTENUANTIA. X HESE are medicines supposed to increase the fluidity of the mass of blood, and that without increasing the proportion of the water in it, but by an operation upon the other parts of the mass. The employment of this class of medicines seems to me to have proceeded upon the supposition that the preternatural spis- situde of the fluids is owing to the small parts of them uniting to- gether, and diereby forming grosser and more impervious masses. This state of the fluids is supposed to be corrected either by mechanical or chemical means. The first, it is supposed, may be done by a matter attenuating or diminishing the size of the pre- ternaturally grosser particles, or by a matter which divides and separates the parts of these ; and these last are named inciden- tia, a term frequently occurring in writers on the materia medi- ca. On the subject of these operations of attenuating and incid- ing, I would in the first place obserA-e, that the supposition of the cause of the preternatural spissitude of the fluids is upon a mista- ken foundation ; and 1 am disposed to maintain, that there is no evidence of its ever taking place. Secondly, Though the suppo- sition Avas better founded, I maintain, aggreeable to the principles above laid down, that no such mechanical operation can here take place. But, without entering farther into the question, I choose to quote the folloYving passage from the learned Gaubius. Altho' he Avas bred in the Corpuscularian school of Boerhaave, and has himself, in other parts of his work, admitted much of that doc- trine, he had certainly entertained some doubts of its truth and propriety; and with respect to one particular of it, has given us the following passage. In the 300th paragraph of h.s pathology he has the following words: u An et natura humana facultas inest, moleculas, acres, detritis aut intropressis angiitis in spharulas tornando blanditiem crcandi? Non satis constat speciosam ideam aqualiter influidam solidamquc acrimoniam quadrare. Credibilius profecto mixtione chemica (298) magis quam mechunica rotunda- tione id opus perjici." I dare say, the opinion of the mechanical operation of the at- tcnuantia and incidentia will be deserted by every body : and Ave have therefore only to consider how their effects may be account- ed for in a chemical way-. Here, however, we meet Avith much MATERIA MEDICA. 227 difficulty. The change that happens in consequence of the exhi- bition of those medicines, if any at all, cannot be rendered evi- dent in fact; and the theory of any supposed operation is not to be readily explained. What can change the state of the gluten is not well known: and Ave do not know of any matters applied to it out of the body that can dissolve it, except a caustic alkali, Avhich cannot be applied to it as it flows in the vessels. Saline mat- ters as applied to it, Avhen it is drawn out of the vessels, do pre- vent its usual concretion. But these have no effect upon its con- sistence ; for, on a quantity of water being added,the gluten separ- ates from the rest of the mass, and shows the same qualities which it would have done upon any other occasion. I must say- the same thing of the red globules, that Ave do not know of any substances, Avhich, in the body or out of it, can change the state of these ; and therefore Ave do not know of any7 substances which can change the consistence of the blood with respect to the prin- cipal parts, Avhich we might suppose to be the most ready to form preternatural concretions. If, therefore, any such take place, it must be in the serosity. But Avhether ever any such concretions take place there, is not ascertained as a fact: and the supposition is not suitable to a\ hat we knoAv of the serosity, Avhich is ahvays a saline fluid, possessed of a solvent power Avith respect to the o- ther parts of the mass of blood. But however all this may be, if Ave can suppose that there may be concretions, or a disposition to concrete, there may be room for attenuating medicines: and I have set down a list of medi- cines supposed to be of that kind. Of these, the first I have set doAvn is Avater, Avhich perhaps need not haA7e been repeated here; but I mention it to say7, it is pro- bable that this not only increases the proportion of Avater Avhich is always separate from the animal fluid, but that a portion of it may insinuate itself into this, and be a means therefore of di- minishing the force of cohesion in it. The next in my list are the ALKALINA. Supposed to be powerful attenuants: but this does not appear to me to be on just grounds. It Avas originally supposed that they operated by their septic poAvers. But the experiments of Sir John Pringle have entirely exploded this opinion: and as to their otherwise solvent powers, I have already observed that with respect to the gluten, they are none at all: and if they act at all as attenuants, they must act merely by increasing the saline state of the serosity, and therefore in the same manner as the mat- ters I am next to mention do. SALES NEUTRI. These have been universally supposed to be attenuant, but on no certain foundation that 1 can discern. They may7, as I have said already, be employed in preventing the usual concretion of extraAasated blood : but in no experiment do they shoAv any pow- 228 TREATISE OF THE er in dissolving or moderating the cohesion of the gluten. I have alloAved that the saline state of the serosity has a chief share in preserving the fluidity of the Avhole mass: and when the saline matter is in large proportion present, it may give an unusual flu- idity to the whole : but I cannot perceive that any7 such quantity of neutral salts that are commonly employed as medicines, can have such an effect. An ounce of nitre, thrown in par reprises, in the course of tAventy-four hours, Avhile a portion of it is at the same time constantly- passing off by the excretions, cannot pos- sibly be ever accumulated in such quantity as to have any effect as a soh7ent. In the same manner I reason with respect to the o- ther neutrals: and I proceed to consider the next article of SAPONES. Boerhaave was much disposed to extend the idea annexed to this term, seeming to suppose that every combination of saline and oily matters might be considered as a soap. As such a combination, however, takes place in almost every7 natural pro- duction, whether vegetable or animal, it is obvious, that as the qualities and proportions of the ingredients of such mixts must be considerably diversified, the chemical qualities and effects ot them upon other bodies must also be so; and therefore the language of saponaceous must in chemistry be loose and inaccu- rate : and the use of it in medicine must be in the same condi- tion. As incapable of precision, it should not be employed so promiscuously and commonly as it has been done. For the purpose of the materia medica, we must aim at more precision; and I am here to consider only Avhat comes most com- monly and strictly under the appellation of Soap, which is a combination of fixt alkali Avith an expressed oil. The preparation of this has been so frequently described, and is so well known, that it need not be delivered here: and with a view to its che- mical or medicinal qualities, it is enough to say, that it consists in such an exact and mutual saturation of the two ingredients with each other, that a new mixt is formed, in Avhich the quali- ties of the constituent parts very entirely disappear. The alkali loses the acrimony Avhich it had in its separate state: and the oil hoav becomes readily miscible with Avater, Avhich it Avas not at all before: and the perfect state of these properties is the mark of the preparation's being accurate and exact. The medical consideration of this substance first to be entered into is, that soap is ready to be decomposed by any acid, howe- A-er Aveak: and this circumstance, in the quality of soap, is of great Aveight in our judging of its effects in the human body. As in our opinion the human stomach, in its healthy state, is never Avithout some acid present in it; so it is probable that any mode- rate quantity of soap taken into the stomach is ahvays decompo- sed by the acid of this cavity applied to the alkali of the soap: and this goes so far, that Avhen acidity to a morbid degree pre- vail? in th" ftomarh, there is not a more powerful corrector can MATERIA MEDICA. 229 be applied to it than soap: and it is often a more convenient remedy than common absorbents or simple alkalines. When soap is thus decomposed, Avhat effect either the neu- tral formed from it, or the oil separated from it, may have in the stomach, hardly deserves any attention : and what are the effects of its correcting the acidity of the stomach shall be con- sidered hereafter. Upon the supposition that soap is not decomposed in the sto- mach, or that such a quantity is throAvn in as cannot be entirely decomposed there, it may be an object of enquiry to determine Avhat are its effects in different parts of the system. As under a certain management, soap may dissolve the most part of vegeta- ble or animal concretions, a specious foundation has been laid for supposing its attenuant power with respect to the human fluids : and very possibly it may be of use in resolving the vis- cidities that may be supposed to occur in the alimentary canal;. though, considering the diluted state in which it must be appli- ed, its operation cannot be very powerful; and this will apply- more strongly with respect to its effects, as it proceeds farther in the system. In the intestines it has been supposed to be a laxative: but ex- cept when taken in very large quantity, I cannot perceive its operation. When it does happen, it must be owing to the com- mon salt that is employed in its preparation, and which in part adheres to it: for Avhen this is separated, the soap becomes a perfectly mild substance, not likely to give an irritation to parts of the greatest sensibility. It has therefore been a hwolous practice to employ7 soap as a laxative in glysters. It may perhaps be ot some use in softening hardened faeces. But as a stimulus it can act only by its com- mon salt: and a quantity of this may ahvay-s be added with less trouble than the addition of the soap. When soap is carried into the blood-vessels, it may be suppor sed to have some attenuant poAver: but I must hold this to be very doubtful, and it can never be considerable. When we con- sider that it cannot be throAvn in, in any large quantity, and that only in some length of time; and when taken in, as it is much divided and diffused OArer the Avhole mass of blood, we cannot suppose it to be in any7 part of this mass in such quantity or con- centration as could have any- effect in resolving viscid concretions, even out of the body : and therefore Ave must hold the so-much talked-of power of soap, in resolving obstructions, to be very- in- significant. While it has been supposed that soap may be of use in resolv- ing obsructions of the liver, it has been a consequence of that supposition, to judge that it may be useful in jaundice; and as useful in that case, it has been universally recommended by ma- teria medica Avriters. I imagine it, hoAveA-er, to be upon a slight foundation. The arguments I have employed against the rt- 230 TREATISE OF THE solving powers of soap, lead me to think, that it cannot resolve biliary concretions, which it does not even out of the body: and in persons frequently liable to such concretions, I have known the soap employed Avithout any effect. When a jaundice is ac- tually produced by a biliary concretion falling doAvn into the bi- liary ducts, that soap can do any7 thing towards dissolving or pushing on that concretion, is not in the least probable. It is therefore that it has been unreasonably recommended in jaun- dice. But I have frequently employed it; and by its correcting the acidity of the stomach, and in some measure obviating the argillaceous consistence of the faeces, I have found it useful. I must not dismiss the consideration of the internal use of soap, Avithout acknowledging that it has often appeared to be useful to the system : but it has only appeared to me to be so in calculous and gouty cases, which I ascribe entirely to its correct- ing the acidity of the stomach; the explanation of Avhich has been already hinted, and will be more fully considered in the sequel. Nothing has been more frequent than the commendation of soap for external use ; and as it is commonly employed, it seems to be Avell founded. We spoke above of the great benefit of fric- tion employed by means of oil: and as soap also affords a conve- nient medium, so the friction employed with this is often a poAV- erful means of resolving various obstructions on the surface of the body, and at the same time of the subjacent parts. At the same time, as it is convenient enough for admitting the antispas- modic power of camphire, and the stimulant and rubefacient power of essential oils, Ave may readily perceive that soap very properly forms the basis of some powerful external remedies.' DULCIA. In entering upon the consideration of sugar, Avhich I hav-e be- fore represented as an alimentary matter, it naturally occurs to us to remark, that a choice of diet should be the most obvious and certain means of giving the proper consistence, or the other necessary qualities, to the mass of blood. This appears to be just: but the application of it is not so easy as might be imagin- ed. The blood of the phytivorous animal hardly differs from that of the carnivorous ; or, at least, the difference has not been clearly ascertained. What we are more certain of, is, that men live upon Aery different aliments, and at the same time produce blood of no apparent diversity. This also is perhaps not exactly true: but I maintain that physicians have not yet learned to mark the different states of the blood in men of ordinary health. This Avill readily appear from the accounts that have been given of it. See Halleri Elementa, lib. v. sec. 2. art. 8. and consider Avhat we have said above, Introduct. chap. I. art. 2. From all Avhich it will appear, that Ave are not in a condition to determine the effect of aliments upon the state of the blood. It is probable that they give some difference : but it is at the same time pro- i MATERIA MEDICA. 231 bable, that the different state of the blood depends more upon certain differences in the general ceconomy than upon the diver- sity of aliment. I proceed therefore to consider Avhat may be the effect of su- gar, and of saccharine matters, Avhen taken into the body in large quantities. I hope, that Avhen treating of aliments in general, I sufficiently proved that these matters enter largely into the compo- sition of the proper animal fluid, and make a part of the nourish- ment of the body: and from the facts adduced, it is highly pro- bable that they may be taken in Avith perfect safety in very large quantities : and in proof of this, many extraordinary facts are ad- duced. What limits may be set to this, is with me very uncer- tain: but we shall alloAv, that there may be limits in this respect; and that whenever it happens that more sugar is taken in than can enter into the composition of the animal fluid, it must remain in its separate state, and may then be considered as a medicine that may have particular effects on the Avhole of the fluids. Upon this subject it has been commonly supposed that sugar is an attenuant: that is, increases the fluidity of the Avhole mass, and may obviate and resolve concretions that might or do actual- ly happen in our fluids. It may be so: but there is no proof that I know of, given of the fact: and there are no experiments made out of the body that support the opinion. Its antiseptic poAv- ers fully established, are against the idea of its being an attenu- ant. What effects it may have,_when very largely introduced, or Avhen generated in unusual quantity, in the singular case of dia- betes, I dare not determine. The noxious qualities that have been ascribed to it, are neither clearly proved nor ascertained: and the experiments of the late ingenious and industrious Dr. Stark do not appear to me to be anywise complete or conclusiA'e. It remains therefore still to say what are the medicinal quali- ties of sugar, Avhen present in any unusual quantity in the mass of blood. It appears to me that they are no other than that of a mild saline substance, that ay ill readily pass off by the excre- tions, and probably expecle and promote these: and this is the. only medicinal virtue I can ascribe to it. On the qualities of sugar, it was hardly necessary7 to observe, that in certain stomachs it may be disposed to an acescent fer- mentation: and Avhen, from the state and circumstances of the stomach, this happens to be in excess, sugar may have all the ef- fects of other acescents. When sugar is carried unchanged into the intestinal canal, it seems to stimulate this, and prove laxative: and the use of it in glysters is in proof of this. But when taken in by the mouth, its laxative effects hardly7 appear, except when it is taken in large quantity; and then indeed the laxative quality of sugar appears to be considerable. I am of opinion that it is most commonly from its having been brought from the stomach into the intes- tines in an acid state, and Avhen therefore, like other acids, being mixed with the bile, it may like those others induce a diarrhoea. 232 TREATISE OF THE MEL. This is so exactly and entirely a sugar, that I am at a loss to find in it any qualities or virtues different from those of sugar. It may commonly have someAvhat more viscid adhering to it; but Avhat effect this has upon its qualities, I cannot perceive: and Avhatever they are, they may be taken away by clarifying Avith Avhite of egg. Recent honey has a matter in it which in certain persons rea- dily excites an acescent fermentation and spasms of the stomach Avhich are called Colics. What is the peculiar matter here pre- sent, Ave cannot discern : but it seems to be volatile ; as it is rea- dily dissipated by boiling. The effects of the recent honey we speak of, do not take place in every person, and in those only of a peculiar idiosyncrasy : and to such persons honey should not be given Avithout haA7ing been boiled. As I have said that the medicinal qualities of honey are not different from those of sugar, there is no foundation for what might have been necessary in ancient times; that is, for making honey the basis of syrups. The London College still continue the practice ; but for Avhat purpose in medicine I cannot conceive. In my opinion, the Edinburgh College have properly laid it aside, for several reasons. Our country apothecaries Avould not always take the trouble of clarifying their coarse honey: and fine honey is almost always dearer in this country- than sugar. I have said, that I do not knoAv any difference of medicinal quality in sugar and in honey: but I am not positive in this; for I have had some reports of benefit obtained by certain asthmat- ics from the large use of honey: and if it be possible that honey is in any measure disposed to go by the exhalents of the lungs, there may be a foundation for this; but it is not yet ascertained that sugar taken in the same quantity Avould not have had the same effect. In some of the instances reported as above, the honey Avas taken to the quantity of several ounces every day. GLYCYRRH1ZA. . This is a well-knoAvn root, Avhich affords a large proportion of saccharine matter: and when that is abstracted by itself, it does not differ from common sugar, and therefore does not differ from it in any of its medicinal qualities. This is particular with respect to it, that besides its sweet sub- stance, it contains a bitterish disagreeable matter, which, howe- Aer, is only extracted by long boiling: and this therefore directs, that to obtain the sweet, and avoid the bitter, the liquorice should always be treated by slight and short boiling. This practice is now commonly established: and I mention it only to take notice of what has been much observed, Avhich is, that Avhile all other sAveets excite thirst, liquorice takes it off, and was therefore anci- ently named aJW practitioners have of late years depended upon the use of the pro- per alkaline salts ; and as I am persuaded that these, from sever- al considerations, are most effectual in their caustic state, so I have frequently observed the good effects of it in that state, as it has been commonly exhibited in Avhat has been called Chittick's medicine. This, however, has frequently failed: and I impute its failure either to its not being properly administered, or to its not being given in sufficient quantity. 240 TREATISE OF THE In order to relieve the uneasiness arising from calculi, I knoW from much experience, that it is necessary that the alkaline reme- dy should be exhibited in considerable quantity, and very con- stantly. But for this purpose, on account of its acrimony, it is not easy to exhibit the pure alkali, unless some measure is con- trived for covering it in the mouth and fauces. Such a measure might be supposed to be the employing soap: and I have accord- ingly found it, in some cases, employed Avith great advantage. But there are seAeral inconveniencies that prevent the employ- ment of it in large quantity: and though there might be means of obviating these, I do not inquire after them ; as we have found another means of ansAvering our purpose that is commonly very effectual. This is done by saturating a pure fixed alkali Avith the aerial acid. This covers the acrimony, and any thing dis- agreeable in the alkali; which therefore can be taken down into the stomach in large quantity-: and as this acid is readily sepa- rated by the acids so constantly present in the stomach, it allows it to have all the effect in correcting,the acidities of the stomach, that can be wished for; and has now been found by frequent experience to relieve all the uneasiness arising from calculi, more certainly and more completely than any other remedy for- merly tried. The apparatus and measures necessary in making this preparation, are now so commonly known, that I do not think it necessary to insert them here. Chapter XIV. ANTALKALINA. XlAD it not been to give some appearance of system, and from my complaisance to Dr. Boerhaave, Avho treats de Morbis ex Alkali spontaneo, I should not have admitted of this chapter; for I am Ave 11 persuaded, that no alkaline salt, in its separate state, ever exists in the blood-vessels of the living human body. The doctrine of Boerhaave, Avhich I have just mentioned, is, in al- most every part of it, incorrect and erroneous ; and leads to no occasion for the use of antalkalines. And the only occurrence that can require them is a very rare one, that of a pure alkali being thrown in by mistake or accident into the stomach; and the means of taking off its irritation by acids is sufficiently obvi- ous ; only this farther is to be remarked, that as the alkali, in any noxious quantity, cannot have been introduced Avithout hurt- ing the mouth, fauces, and aesophagus; so it is always necessary, in such cases, along Avith the acids, to employ the large use of diluents and demulcents. MATERIA MEDICA. 241, Chapter XV. ANTISEPTIC A. A HAT there is, in the animal ceconomy, a constant tendency to putrescency and putrefaction, is noAV admitted by every physi- cian. The compht- putrefaction cannot, in any considerable portion of the body, take place without extinguishing life: and therefore a competent putrefaction is not a disease of a living body that can be an object of practice. It is the tendency to it which, in any considerable degree, produces various morbid disorders, and requires the utmost skill of our art to prevent. By what steps this tendency proceeds, and in what different degrees it may appear, we do not clearly understand: and therefore, to this tendency7, in all its several degrees, I have given the general name of putrescency: and the medicines suited to moderate and correct this, I name Antiseptics; and have endeavoured to enumerate them in this chapter. The list is taken from experiments made out of the body: and even there they show their power to be in various degree, and manifestly to be more or less suited to application in the living body. But before proceeding to consider that, I must observe, that the state of putrescency in the living body seems to be in dif- ferent conditions, and requiring therefore different remedies. The-one I call the Acute, the other the Chronic Putrescency. The first attends febrile disorders of various kinds; and, if I mistake not, appears, upon occasion, in fevers of every kind. The chemical condition of the fluids in this putrescency, I do not pre- tend to determine with any clearness. But, in my First Lines, on the subject of the Prognostic in Fevers, I have endeavoured to" mark the various symptoms by which what I judge the pu- trescent state of the fluids may be ascertained, and to remedy Avhich our antiseptic remedies are to be applied. The other species of putrescency, which I have called the Chronic, is, as I judge, what appears in scurvy. And altho' the nature and chemical state of the fluids in this disease are not well ascertained, yet I think it enough that, as the symptoms of the disease are well known, and for the most part characteristically determined, I may speak of it as an object of the application of antiseptic remedies, which are often employed in the cure of it with advantage. Of these, in particular, as enumerated m my catalogue, I would now proceed to speak ; but must first make a remark that must in some measure correct the general system. I have said that one state of putrescency is that Avhich especial- ly accompanies febrile disorders: but I believe that the same state may occur without having any fever joined with it. We have seen several instances in which numerous petechia have appeared on the surface of the body, without any tever appearing at th same time. But as with these petechia: there occurs a fetid breath Vol. II. H h SMZ TREATISE OF THE and spongy7 bleeding gums, these, with the petechia?, have been considered as marks of a putrescent state of the fluids. I have known one instance a\ hich seems applicable to our pre- sent consideration: This Avas a woman who lived very constantly upon vegetable aliment, and had not been exposed, so far as could be judged,, to any febrile or putrid contagion, and who Avas, Avith- out feeling any other disorder, affected with numerous petechias over the whole surface of her body. After these had continued for some day7s, without any symptoms of fever, she Avas affected Avith swelled and bleeding gums, with fetid breath and much thirst; and in the course of a Aveek or two more, almost every symptom of a putrid feA'er came on, and in a few days proA7ed fatal. Such cases, with the petechial case above mentioned, seem to show that the human fluids, Avithout fever, and without the causes of scurvy having been applied, may run in a putrescent state: and whether this case may be considered as a peculiar state of putres- cency, I dare not determine; but am, much disposed to think it not much different from the others; and that, indeed, tho' different by its causes, it is much the same with the febrile putrescency. Having thus ascertained these different states as well as I can, I proceed to give some remarks on PARTICULAR ANTISEPTICS. SALES ACIDI. These are universally antiseptic, and may be employed in all cases of putrescency. The fossil acids have not been employed in scurvy with any advantage: and the reason is obvious, as that disease requires a change in the animal fluid, which we have shoAvn above does not admit of an union with those fossil acids. It is therefore, that in this disease the vegetable acids, as capable of such union, are more universally proper, and are accordingly employed with certain success.—In the febrile putrescency, a fossil acid, particularly the vitriolic, has been very generally em- ployed ; and Avhether from its concentrated state it has any ad- vantage, I cannot determine. But as it does not unite with the animal fluid, and is even limited in the quantity in Avhich it can be exhibited, I am persuaded that the. vegetable acid, both by the union it can form Avith the animal fluid, and by the large quan- tity in Avhich it may be given, will be the most effectual. Whether as antiseptics there is any difference between the na- tive acid of vegetables, and the fermented acid in vinegar, may be a question. I am disposed to think, that in cases of febrile putrescency, the latter may7be generally useful, and perhaps more fit than the former. But in cases of scorbutic putrescency, I am pretty certain that the native acid, for reasons already given, will be ahvays the most useful: but the former, as approaching more to an alimentary7 matter, must be fitter in the case of scurvy. MATERIA MEDICA. 243 SALES ALKALINI. TUM FIXI TUM VOLATILES. Experiments out of the body shoAv that these alkalines are truly antiseptic powers. But at the same time it is equally Avell knoAvn that they are constantly imbued with sucli an acrimony, that they cannot by themselves be introduced into the body Avithout acting more by their stimulant than by their antiseptic powers. The Aolatile alkali may sometimes be an useful remedy in putrid fe- vers : but it cannnot, as some have imagined, be given more free- ly7 on account of its antiseptic powers; as it can never be given largely enough to have any effect by these qualities. SALES NEUTRI VEL TERRESTRES. These saline matters, by experiments out of the body, are manifestly antiseptic ; but how far applicable in cases of morbid putrescency7, we are very doubtful. As, in my opinion, scurvy consists in a preternaturally7 saline state of the blood, so I Avould judge that every addition of saline matter must be in some mea-. sure hurtful, and therefore that they are not anyAvise admissible in this disease. In the case of febrile putrescency, no such objection lies a- gainst their use: and they are commonly employed in fevers, both for their refrigerant and antiseptic powers. The former purpose is often obtained by their operation on the stomach: but that their refrigerant power renders them antiseptic, is ve- ry doubtful. But however that may be, lam persuaded that in any quantity in which they can be taken into the body, their antiseptic powers in the blood-vessels can never be considera- ble. An ounce of nitre, exhibited in divided doses in the course of twenty-four hours, can have very little effect on a fermenta- tion going on in the whole mass of blood, or in the serosity, consisting at least of fifteen pounds of fluid. PLANTARUM PARTES ACIDAE. * This need not have been inserted after the general title of Acida: but it was not amiss to point out, that the native acid of vegetables is the antiseptic that can be employed in the largest quantity; and for a reason given above is, I believe, adapted to every species of scurvy. OLERA ACESCENTIA. As these can be introduced largely as an aliment, they are found to be the most powerful and effectual antiseptics that can be employed in scurvy. As I am persuaded, that the most certain means of obviating scurvy is by filling the blood vessels Avith ace->celse : and 1 do it upon the following considerations. Besides the general objections that I have made above, to the doctrine of the attenuantia and incidentia, the par.ieular applica- tion of mercury to the purpose seems to be very ill founded. It has been supposed, that the specific gravity of the particl- s of mercury might give it more than usual force in dividing the co- herent portions of our fluids: but if it be attended to, that as the particles of all bodies, by being divided, have their surfaces so much enlarged, in proportion to their quantity of matter, that the resistance to their passage through other fluids is so much increasedahat the heaviest of bodies, gold, can be so divided as to be suspended in water; and though we cannot precisely deter- mine how much the particles of mercury may be divided in its different preparations, yet it may be confidently presumed, that in all of them they are so rnuch divided as to take off entirely the effect of their gravity. # I knoAv that a grain of corrosive sublimate may be divided m eight ounces of Avater, so that a portion of it may be rendered sensible in every drop of that water. There is therefore no pro- bability of mercury acting upon the fluids by its specific gravi- ty. Whether, however, by its chemical qualities, it may not have effects on the state of our fluids, I cannot be so positive m maintaining; and must candidly own, that its effects in the scur- vy seem to point out some effects of it upon the mass of b food. But however it-may be in this special case, I am persuaded still from what we have said above, and from many circumstances we shall hereafter mention, I conclude that the chief effects ot mercurial medicines are to be ascribed to their general stimu- lus of the system, and especially to their stimulating the vari- ous excretories of it. . f I have observed that mercury may, by the circumstances ol the constitution, or perhaps by the nature ot the preparation em- 252 TREATISE OF THE ployed, be determined to pass off rather by one excretory than another: but in this there is nothing more remarkable than its very constant tendency to pass off by the salivary excretion. It discovers this so readily, that unless diverted by art to another excretion, a very small quantity of it will always take this course. This determination giA-es a problem which has always been considered as a principal one in the consideration of mercury : and the solution of it has been variously attempted. The speci- fic gravity has been again here employed: and upon the suppo- sition of its retaining the direct line in Avhich it is impelled, it is supposed that it will thereby be more certainly determined to the vessels of the head : but as Ave do not admit of the effci t of the specific gravity, so Ave say,that though it '.ere admitted, the application of it here is not founded on a correct anatomy, and that the Avhole of the reasoning on this subject is manifestly fri- volous. I believe that from every consideration, the mechanical ope- ration of mercury will be readily deserted: and we must seek for the solution of our problem from chemical considerations, which, hoAvever, I find to be attended Avith much difficulty. The supposition of its dissolving the blood in such a manner as to render it particularly fit and disposed to pass off more co- piously by the salivary glands, cannot, after Avhat we have said above against the dissolving power in general, be anyAvise ad- mitted : and we must still therefore seek for another solution of our problem. I shall here offer a conjecture on the subject: but as a conjecture only I alloAV it to be received. I suppose that mercury has a particular disposition to unite with ammoniacal salts; and an ammoniacal salt increasing the solubility of corrosive sublimate is to me strongly in proof of this. In illustration of it, I Avould observe, that the union of mercury Avith the ammoniacal salt of the serosity, explains well Avhy mer- cury is so much disposed, and more universally than any other substance we knoAv pf, to pass off by the various excretories of the body. At the same time, if Ave can allow, what is very pro- bable, that ammoniacal. salts pass off by the salivary glands more copiously than by any other excretion, we shall find a reason Avhy mercury, associated with such ammoniacal salt, Avill readily pass to the salivary glands; and being thus applied to their ex- cretories, will produce the salivation that so readily happens. 1 have thus attempted a solution of the problem proposed ; but must obviate some objections that seem to arise to my doctrine. The fcetor of the breath attending salivation is supposed to show 'that some putrid dissolution of the fluids has taken place : but hoAvever Ave may account for that fcetor, Ave must still maintain from Avhat we have said above, that there is no such general pu- trescency taking place. And I must add here, that there are not only no symptoms of putrescency in the other parts of the fluids appearing during the time of the highest salivation; but that MATERIA MEDICA. 253 mercury has no tendency to induce any such state, appears to me from hence, that Avhen the body has been long and largely drenched with mercury, as soon as the irritation of this ceases, there is not the smallest symptom of putrescency, or of any ten- dency to it, appears in the state of the fluids, Avhich on the con- trary immediately appear in their most natural and perfect state. The fcetor, therefore, attending salivation, must be referred to some operation upon the saliva itself; upon which I might per- haps offer a conjecture, but do not incline to offer any more of that kind. However it may be, I think it is probable that the operation of mercury is almost entirely in the mouth : and it is proper to observe, that the business commonly proceedsdn this manner. The operation of the mercury is ahvays first perceived by a dis- agreeable taste in the mouth, which is commonly such as if some preparation of copper had been applied to it. This is always attended with some degree of redness and swelling in the gums and other parts of the mouth. As these symptoms increase, the saliva flows more copiously: and commonly these symptoms of irritation, and the largeness of the salivation, are in proportion to one another; so that there can be no doubt that the Aoav ot saliva depends upon an irritation applied to the excretories of that fluid : and though Ave should not be able to explain thei Avhole of the phenomena attending it, we have no occasion to seek for any other cause of the excretion produced. After these remarks upon the operation of mercury, Ave are led to speak of its effects in Curing diseases: and here nothing more .remarkable presents itself than its peculiar power in cur- ing the venereal disease. How it is peculiarly adapted to this, it is difficult to explain : and the explanation has been attempt- ed in different Avays. Some ingenious men have thought that mercury is an anti- dote to the poison which occasions the disease: and though they have not brought any evidence in proof of this, they have shown that other explanations are so unsatisfying that we are in a man- ner obliged to have recourse to this : and I have lately met with some facts that are very favourable to the supposition. A phy- sician took a quantity of matter from a venereal chancre ; and mixing it with a quantity of Plenck's gummy solution of mercu- ry he applied this mixture to a sound person, but could not find that it produced either a chancre or any other syphilitic symp- tom. This may seem to afford some conclusion; but as I am not acquainted with the circumstances of the experiment, nor have any account of its being repeated with attention, i cannot admit of any conclusion from it; both because it is very possi- ble that the gummy solution might render the mercury inert, without making any change in the nature of it, and because it ,s still liable to all the objections that can be made to the opera- tion of an antidote. *'54 TREATISE OF THE With respect to this, not to mention the difficulties which oc- cur in explaining the application of the antidote to the poison, I think it necessary only to offer one consideration; which is, that if mercuiy be an antidote to the venereal poison, the cure of the disease should be always more or less readily7 finished, according to the quantity of mercury thrown into the body ; and consider- ing how universally the poison is diffused, it should seem that a pretty large quantity of mercury should always be necess ay. But practitioners will hardly alloAv that either of these circum- stances constantly take place: and Ave maintain that the mo* active preparations are most speedy in curing the disease. Whether corrosive sublimate be always the most proper re- medy, may be doubtful. But we maintain, that in many instan- ces it cures the disease by a smaller quantity of mercury than can be done by any other preparation, though the latter intro- duces the mercury in much larger proportion. This, to me, renders it very probable, and almost certain, that mercury does not cure the disease by being an antidote to the poison, but in some other Avay, Avhether we can explain this or not. The most specious argument in favour of mercury's being an antidote, is its being applied to parts of the body in which the venereal poison is accumulated more largely, and its proving readily a cure of the local disease. This appears especially in the case of chancres, which are readily cured by the immediate application of mercury to them. But this does not afford a con- clusion ; for mercuiy in like manner cures many ulcerations in which no venereal poison is suspected. And if anybody should imagine that mercury cures those ulcerations by its being an antidote to the poison they contain, such an imagination must be corrected, when it is considered that balsams, and more cer- tainly copper, will answer the purpose of curing those ulcera- tions'as well as mercury. The cure of chancres, therefore, by the application of mercury, does not necessarily infer its power as an antidote ; nor do I know any other arguments that can be adduced in favour of such an opinion. It was however observed above, that the chief reason for sup- posing that mercury cured by being an antidote, was, that no other good explanation Avas given how it otherAvise cured the disease. But it is incumbent on us to obviate a conclusion Ave do not ad- mit of; and therefore, that Ave should attempt a difficult problem, which is, to explain here in what manner mercury does cure the venereal disease. We are Avell persuaded that it does it by in- creasing the excretions, by which the poison is throAvn out of the body7. In support of this opinion we observe, that Ave have not known any instance of the disease being cured Avithout an excre- tion taking place. It seems commonly to be especially by the mouth: but we ahvays observe, that this excretion is attended with some degree of inflammation of the mouth ; and common- ly it is so much as to affect the whole system, so as to-induce in MATERIA MEDICA. 255 it a phlogistic diathesis. This mark of mercury's stimulating the whole system, with what was said above of its affecting the whole excretories, will sufficiently shoAv, that in its ordinary ope- ration, by its promoting all the excretions, it may thereby evacu- ate every poison that shall happen to be present in the mass of blood, aid may thereby entirely cure the venereal disease. We have said that its chief and most evident operation seems to be in the mouth: but I hold this to be necessary only to show-, that mercury, in an active state, has been introduced into the body: and it does not necessarily imply that the venereal poison passes out of the body more readily by the excretories of the saliva than by any other course ; for when a salivation is excited, there are at the same time marks of the other excretions being excited. And practitioners now know very well, that by a longer continuance of th other excretions, the disease may be cured without saliva- tion; and if th'. re are instances of salivation's being more effec- tual than any other measure, it may imply no more than that, in certain cases, a larger quantity of evacuation is necessary than in certain others. That salivation alone is often not sufficient, I have this proof. —In a venereal patient, a smell quantity of mercury very sud- denly excited a copious salivation, and Avhich continued to be very copious for many days after. By this the symptoms were in some measure relieved. But, soon after, the salivation ceased- and mercury was not further exhibited, but the symptoms re- turned with as much violence as they had shoAvn before: and it was only by a nice management that mercury, exhibited and employed for a long time, entirely cured the disease. I have had also several instances, in the use of mercury, when salivation happened to arise and continue for some time, without the cure being advanced in proportion to those fits of salivation. It is my opinion, that it is the due continuance of the excretions be- ing increased that affords the most certain cure of the disease. This leads to consider the question, if the disease is to be cured by evacuation, why other evacuations, hoAvever diligently em.T ployed, do not cure the disease as Avell as those by mercury? The answer to this may be, that all other evacuations are partial only: they may- largely diminish the quantity of the fluids; but thty7 draw them off by one Avay only, and Avithout being attend- ed with any general increase of excretion. They for the most part diminish all the excretions except that whi/:h is on the occa- sion, by special means, increased; and it is mercury only, that. under proper management, can be employed to increase the w hole excretions at the same time. It seems to be by this peculiar mode of operation that it is peculiarly fitted to cure the venereal disease. * When I have thus spoken of the various operations and effects of me rcurv, it remains to say how ih-.s operations are modified h the'various preparations of it which have been proposed and employed. 256 TREATISE OF THE We have said already, that quicksilver, in its native running state, is absolutely inert Avith respect to the human body; \ ith such straining as may be hurtful to the parts especially concern- ed in the action, and likewise to other parts of the system. When such exceptions do not present themselves, it Avill al- ways be proper to excite vomiting, not only for throAving out the matters as noxious, but frequently also as being ferments to the aliments that are to be afterAvards taken in. The marks of the matter's being noxious by its quality or quantity, are especially the want of the usual appetite ; and of- ten notonly a want of appetite, but a loathing of food: or when aliments are taken in, an uneasiness in the time of their diges- tion, and marks of its imperfect condition ; such as heart-burn, flatulent and acid eructations: and to these may be added fre- quent head-achs. 262 TREATISE OF THE These are the marks of noxious matters present in the sto- mach. They indicate the use of vomiting and the evacuation of the present contents of the stomach, which gives generally more or less of relief. But it is very necessary to be marked, that this relief is seldom very durable as the noxious matters are more fre- quently to be considered as effects than as causes. The produc- tion of them very commonly depends upon a loss of tone in the muscular fibres of the stomach, Avhich is not to be cured by vo- miting, though the effects of it may be relieved by this for a lon- ger or shorter time. They are, however, unhappy who trust to this mode of relief, and have therefore frequent recourse to it; for I am certain, from much experience, that frequent vomiting hurts the tone of the stomach, and often makes the symptoms of indigestion recur more frequently and sooner than they other- wise Avould have done. Upon this subject I judge it proper to remark, that the effects of vomiting, and the degree of disease that required it, are com- monly judged of, both by the vulgar, and even by physicians, though not always fairly, by the appearance of the matter thrown up. For example, there is commonly thrown up a considerable quantity of very viscid mucus : and to this the symptoms of the disease are frequently imputed. It is indeed possible, that an unusual accumulation of mucus in the stomach may be the cause of the want of appetite and other symptoms of indigestion: but not always so justly as might be imagined. The mucous follicles of the stomach constantly pour out a considerable quantity of this matter; a considerable quan- tity of it is to be found in the stomachs of the most healthy per- sons : and the experiments of Mr. Senac shoAv, that there is al- ways a considerable quantity of it in the mucous follicles, which may very readily be squeezed out vrery copiously in vomiting. It is not therefore to be judged that the quantity, and even a large quantity, throAvn up by vomiting, had either previously existed in the cavity of the stomach, or that such a mucus had been the cause of the morbid symptoms, indicating therefore the repetition of vomiting. It has been upon occasions of this prac- tice that I have known repeated vomiting not only to give no durable relief, but rather to increase the supposed cause. The effects of emetics and of vomiting fi*t to be mentioned, are those of evacuating the stomach itself: but it is now to be re- marked that the evacuation goes further; and the duodenum, with a portion of the jejunum, may be, and commonly is, evacu- ated at the same time. The peristaltic motion of the alimenta- ry canal may proceed doAvnwards or upAvards; and when any portion of it acting is, by any circumstance, directed in one way, the next adjoining portion folloAvs the same direction. F'rom this, in vomiting, as the perisjtaltic motion of the stomach is di- rected upAvards: so the motion of the duodenum is directed in the same manner, and pours its contents into the stomach ; from MATERIA MEDICA. 263 which it will appear, that in vomiting, a considerable portion of the upper part of the intestines maybe evacuated, as Ave have alleged. The most clear proof of the inverted motion of the duodenum is, that in vomiting, and especially after repeated vomiting, a quantity of bile seems to be poured from the duodenum into the stomach, and is in consequence thrown out of the mouth. This frequent appearance may depend entirely upon the quantity of bile for the time present in the duodenum: but it probably ex- tends farther. When in consequence of digestion, alimentary matters pass into the duodenum, as it may be supposed that Na-„ ture intends the gall-bladder and biliary ducts should then pour their'fluids more copiously into the duodenum ; so it maybe sup- posed, on this occasion, that bile is poured more copiously into the duodenum, and, in consequence of the inverted motion, more copiously into the stomach, from Avhence it may appear more copiously in Avhat is thrown up by vomiting. If this should not be though sufficient to account for a quantity of bile being frequently throAvn up by vomiting, there is another cause, per- haps one more powerful, to be alleged. In the action of vomit- ing, as the contraction of the diaphragm and of the abdominal muscles concurs at the same time, the av hole viscera of the abdo- men are strongly pressed: this pressure must affect the gall-blad- der and biliary ducts, and occasion them to pour out their con- tents very largely; and thereby especially a large portion ot bile may7 be throAvn up by vomiting. On this subject I must remark, that both the vulgar, and e- ven physicians, have been ready to suppose, that the bile throAvn up by vomiting existed previously in the stomach itself: and in some instances it may have been so. Beit it is more probable that it has been brought from the duodenum, and even from the .gall-bladder and biliary ducts, in the manner we have explain- ed. There is this particular reason for supposing it, that if the bile had been previously lodged in the stomach itself, it might have appeared in the first vomitings as Avell as in the last: but it happens in most instances, that the bile is thrown out by the mouth only after repeated vomitings, and often after repeated strainings in the organs employed in vomiting. After the evacuation of the stomach, the next effect of vom- iting to be marked, is this evacuation of bile, in consequence of the mechanism we have explained; and of what importance this- may be in many- diseases, will be sufficiently obvious. That the stagnations ready to happen in the system of the vena portarum often lay the foundation of the most obstinate diseases, is \yell known :' and therefore, the obviating these by frequent vomitiug is likely to be of much importance to the health ot the system : and indeed I knoAv no means of expeding the circulation in the liver so poAverful as that of vomiting. An effect of vomiting, A\hich, as it may be considerable, de- serves to be taken notice of, is, that the compression which we 264 TREATISE OF THE have mentioned to be given to the liver^ must at the same time be given to the whole viscera of the abdomen; by which the mo- tion of the blood in their vessels, and the whole of the secretions and excretions in every part of them, may be promoted, and thereby diseases both prevented and cured. These effects, however, in the abdominal viscera, are not of- ten remarkable ; but the effects of the same motion in the tho- racic viscera are often evident and considerable. The simultane- ous contractions of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, and the alternate relaxations of those organs of respiration, must va- riously agitate the motion of the air in the bronchia, and thereby expectoration be most effectually promoted. Both by this, and the agitation of the blood-vessels, it will be obvious that vomit- ing may be often useful, as we commonly find it to be, in all ca- tarrhal affections. That it may be also us fnl in many cases of phthisis pulmonalis we readily alloAv ; but that frequent vomiting may citav the disease, we cannot, either from theory or experi- ence, find any7 reasons to believe. Besides these operations on the trunk of the body, vomiting excites the force of the circulation in every part of the system, and may thereby be of much use. But as such increased circu- lation is not durable, and that it commonly becomes languid in proportion to its former increase, so it may be justly doubted if the general stimulus can be commonly of much service. But al- though the general action of full vomhing may not be considera- ble, yet as directed and operating in particular parts, it may be- come of great use. Thus we are of opinion, that there is a spe- cial consent between the stomach and the vessels on the suriace of the body, so that the several states of these are mutually com- municated to one another; Avhence the action of vomiting ex- cites particularly the action of the vessels on the surface of the . body, and may thereby be of use in restoring the tone, and o- vercoming the spasm of the extreme vessels which takes place in fevers. It is here, however, to be remarked, that as the effects of full vomiting cannot be durable, nor its operation be conveniently repeated ; so full vomiting cannot ahvays be employed to pre- vent the recurrence of the atony and spasm mentioned. But as emetics, though e mployed in doses not sufficient to excite full vomiting, may still excite a degree of action in the stomach, and be communicated to the extreme vessels, so as in some measure to restore their tone, and overcome the spasm affect- ing them, they may thus be useful in fevers: and as their ope- ration may be rendered more durable than full vomitings, these nauseating doses may be still more useful.—Upon this is found- ed the present practice in employing emetics in the cure of fe- vers. But as I have explained all this more fully in my First Lin> >, it is not necessary to msisL . aaher upon it here. There is an operation of emetics iurther to he mentioned, MATERIA MEDICA, 26$ Avhich, in my opinion, depends upon their power of determining to the surface of the body; for to this I refer their use in asthma, so much recommended by Dr. Aikenside. I cannot, indeed, say that I have imitated his practice with much success; for in many cases Of spasmodic asthma, £have continued the use of emetics for a long time, without finding that I either prevented the re- currence of fits, or rendered them more moderate when they came. But in some other cases I have found the emetics of be- nefit in both respects ; which, however, happened especially Avhen the asthma was in any degree of the pituituous or catarrhal kind; and therefore the emetics were of more service in the winter than in the summer asthma. Of the effects of vomiting and of emetics, so far as I can judge, it remains only to take notice of their employment in haemorrha- gy, Avhich to me presents a difficult problem. Dr. Brian Robinson, lately of Dublin, has recommended fre- quent vomiting in haemoptysis, and has assured us of its good ef- fects in several cases. Upon the recommendation of so good authority, I tried this reViedy in several cases: and in several I found it might be employed with safety and advantage. But in one case, the vomiting increased the haemorrhagy to a great and dangerous degree : and the possibility of such an accident again happening, has prevented all my further trials of such a remedy. I can, ho Ave ver, conceive that the remedy may be safely em- ployed in many cases, and that really it had, in those in which it was employed by Dr. Robinson, been of advantage, by taking off the determination of the blood to the lungs; as I had in more than one instance found, that the exercise of a carriage, employed to a considerable degree for several days together, took off entirely- a haemoptysis, which readily returned upon the per- son's remaining for a day or tAvo at rest. It is thus that I would explain the effects of vomiting in a hae- moptysis. But this Avas not the theory of Dr. Robinson. He seems to have been of opinion, that during the sickness that in- troduces vomiting, there is a constriction formed upon the ex- treme vessels €very Avhere ; and that by this constriction the hae- moptysis was suppressed. Of the justness of this theory I leave my speculating readers to judge : but Avhat I must add seems to be in confirmation of it. It has been found, and I myself in some instances have found, that nauseating doses of emetics have been of service in several instances of uterine haemorrhagies: and ma- teria medica Avriters have commonly alleged, that small doses of emetics have been employed in many different cases of hs- morrhagv Avith great advantage. Having now mentioned pretty fully the effects of vomiting and of emetics, I am next to consider the several means which may be employed for obtaining these. Vomiting may be excited by very various means ; of which, however, manv of them cannot be employed in practice, and arc Vol.. IL L l 266 TREATISE OF THE therefore, not to be taken notice of here.—Among the means that may be employed, the first I Avould mention, as very gener- ally employed, is filling the stomach suddenly with a large quan- tity of liquid j and it is found that almost any kind of liquid, in large quantity, ay ill have the effect* but that the vomiting de- pends not on the quality, but on the quantity of liquid, appears clearly f,rom hence, that Avarm water, of the most pure and sim- ple kind, is generally sufficient for the purpose. The theory of this frequent operation has not, in my opinion, been well explained.. It seems therefore allowable for me to at- tempt to do it here. As, when meats or drinks are taken into the stomach, it is ne- cessary that they should be retained there for some time, till they shall have undergone certain changes, by operations to be made upon them in the stomach; and therefore, that they may not pass off too soon by the loAver orifice, nature has provided, that on every7 distension of the stomach, the pylorus should be raised up by the longitudinal fibres, which in the small curvature of the stomach pass betAveen its two orifices, and at the same time be contracted by the muscular fibres placed in the duplicate of the coats of the stomach formed near to the pylorus. This constric- tion in ordinary cases is moderate. But we know it can be so strong as to shut up that orifice entirely: and it is probable that this, as seems necessary, should always happen in vomiting. It is also probable, that this contributes to occasion the vomiting; as this constriction of the pylorus must invert the peristaltic mo- tion of the stomach, and direct it entirely upwards, and even to a vomiting. If it can therefore be supposed, as I think it may, that the sudden distension of the stomach, by a large draught of warm water, can induce a strong contraction of the pylorus, we shall readily understand how it produces vomiting, and at least contributes to promote it. Having thus attempted to explain the operation of Avarm wa- ter, which is very much confirmed by what was observed above of the effects of a large bulk of liquid throAvn suddenly into the 3tomach, we proceed to speak of some applications of it in practice. The effect, we have said, may be produced by warm water alone ; but more readily still, Avhen at the same time an emetic medicine is applied to the stomach. These emetics we shall speak of presently: but noAv it is only necessary to remark, that in many cases, when it may be proper to give the emetic in such a dose as of itself might be sufficient to excite vomiting, by the assistance of filling the stomach with Avarm water, small doses of emetics may serve the purpose of evacuating the stomach, and even of obtaining other effects, which we have said may be pro- duced by vomiting.—This shoAvs sufficiently the power and ope- ration of warm Avater employed in the manner we have said: and it is particularly in illustration of the same that several sub- stances of little power in stimulating the stomach, are, however, MATERIA MEDICA. 26r by the assistance mentioned, employed to excite vomiting, such as the infusions of a bitter herb, as chamomile, or carduus be- nedictus. On the same footing it is that certain substances which sti- mulate the stomach more poAverfully, but Avhich, on account of their inflammatory nature, cannot be safely given in such quan- tity as by themselves to excite vomiting, may, by the assistance of Avarm water, and by that only, be employed as very safe and useful emetics. Such are an infusion of the root of horse- radish, or a tea-spoonful of mustard as prepared for the table. These are emetics that can hardly be rendered effectual, or be employed, but by the assistance of Avarm Avater. With that as- sistance, however, they afford a gentle and useful means of ex- citing vomiting. . But Ave must noAV speak of those substances which ol themselves, when introduced into the stomach, can excite this action of it. Of these I have, according to my general plan, set down, in the first place, those taken from the fossil kingdom : but from several considerations I find it proper to begin Avith treating ot those taken from vegetables. ASARUM. This, in ancient times, Avas frequently employed; but since physicians became acquainted Avlth antimonial emetics, it has been very little in use.f though we can say, from our own expe- rience, that it is sufficiently fit for the purpose. The root, dried only so much as to be powdered, proves, in a moderate dose a Kentle emetic. It will commonly answer in doses of a scruple, sometimes in a less quantity: and though green as some authors have proposed, in larger doses, it may be safe.; as commonly a quantity of it will be thrown out in the first vomitings. In re- peated vomitings the whole of it is thrown out; so that it is al- ways a moderate and manageable emetic, and as we judge may be suited to many of the purposes of the ipecacuanha. It ap- pears from writers, that the leaves also have been cotnmonly employed, and perhaps with equal advantage ; but as I did not find it easy to ascertain the dose of these, my experiments have .been only Avith the roots. ERIGERUM. This is a more acrid substance than the materia medica writ- ers seem to have supposed it to be: but from them I have no accounts of it that can lead me to any observation. It has been sometimes by our lower people employed as a P™.^™*"' but I have not had any proper information upon this subject. It is not on that account that it has been inserted m my catalogue; but it was, to direct my reader's attention to the s"^^? of it externally applied, as reported by my learned nend, Dr. Steedman, in the Edn^M^E-^ Vol. II. art. v. It does not seem as yet to be well ascertained what genus of 268 TREATISE OF THE Elants this celebrated root belongs to, or if to one genus only ; ut not being fit of myself to settle this matter properly, I must leave it entirely to the botanical critics. F'or my purpose at pre- sent it is enough to observe, that what for a long time past has been brought into our shops, seems to have been very uniformly the same: and it is this that has been the subject of my observa- tion and experience, and therefore what I am to say now relates entirely to this. This root then consists of a cortical and medullary part: and I am from some experiments persuaded, that it is in the former only that the emetic quality is to be found. In this cortical part it seems to be a resinous matter; and accordingly it may be ex- tracted by spirit of Avine: but at the same time the resinous mat- ter is so intimately blended Avith, and adheres so tenaciously to, the gummy portion, that the emetic quality can be very well ex- tracted by more watery menstruums. Dr. LeAvis advises a men- struum of one part pure spirit, and two or three parts of water. This perhaps may be the most proper: but a thin wine answers the purpose very well; and our Dispensatories have not thought of employing any other* This medicine is employed either in the wine or in the pow- der ; and the latter, as operating in a smaller dose, gives a more manageable emetic: for the poAvder is pretty certainly thrown out in the first vomitings, and therefore ceases to operate, whilst the Avine often adheres longer to the stomach. The medicine in either form proves very certainly emetic ; and the poAvder, to the quantity of a grain, and perhaps less in many persons, can hardly be given without exciting nausea, and perhaps vomiting. Such small doses do not indeed always pro- duce these effects : but as they frequently do, we mention them to shew that small quantities often operate upon the stomach : and the instances of it make me ready to believe the accounts which have been reported of the cure of diseases by very small doses of this medicine. Among these reports I have difficulty in giving faith to those of Dr. Pye, reported in the London Medical Observations, Vol. I. art. 22. whilst he gives no account of the nature of the ipeca- cuanha that he employed, as different from, or of superior power to, that in common use Avith us. In this, though I have often observed in certain persons the effects of small doses above mentioned, yet they are not to be observed in every person: and I can assert, that in nine persons of ten they will hardly appear from doses under five grains. For exciting vomiting, and espe- cially to excite repeated vomitings, Ave hardly depend on any dose under ten grains: and frequently a larger dose is required. It appears to me, that the small doses Avould hardly answer our purpose without the assistance of warm Avater. Larger doses in- deed may be given Avith safety; because,as we have said,they are tommonly thrown out in the first vomitings: but even on $his MATERIA MEDICA. 269 account, they do not ansAver the purpose that may be required of repeated vomiting: and our practitioners commonly find, that to give any powerful or permanent stimulus to the stomach, it is necessary to add to the ipecacuanha some portion of emetic tartar. Ipecacuanha may have all the effects Avhich Ave have above as- cribed to emetics in general; and upon that ground the medici- nal powers of this medicine may be understood. But I shall here make a feAv remarks that more particularly relate to it. We have just now explained why it is not with any certainty suited to give a powerful or permanent stimulus to the stomach: but on this very account for the mere evacuation of the contents of the stomach, it is the medicine that can be employed Avith the greatest ease and safety: and wherever it is proper to employ a moderate vomiting only, as for promoting the passage of a bili- ar\- concretion through the biliary ducts, it is the most proper emetic; as its stimulus may be safe, and at the same time more effectual than the other gentle means of exciting vomiting Avhich Ave have mentioned above. Although ipecacuanha is seldom fitted to produce the effects of strong vomiting, it is, by the mildness of its qualities, adapted to several useful purposes. As small doses of it, not sufficient to excite vomiting, pass over the pylorus, they pretty certainly act upon the intestines, promote their peristaltic motion downwards, and commonly occasion more or less of evacuation by stool: and it is upon this that I suppose to have been founded the formerly celebrated antidysenteric virtue of ipecacuanha. If I am right in my opinion of the nature of dysentery, as I have explained it in my First Lines, it will be evident, a priori that the cure of it, must depend upon the steady support and de- termination of the peristaltic motion of the intestines down- Avards : and it seems to be as certainly proved in fact, that the cure is best obtained by the assiduous use of laxative or purga- tive medicines. From what experience we have had Ave are per- suaded that wherever neither inflammation nor putrescency have taken place, a dysentery will always be readily cured by these means. Whatever explanations have been offered, of the operation ot ipecacuanha in this disease, Ave can find no other admissible or tenable, but that of its laxative poAver: and in confirmation of this, it has been often observed, that ipecacuanha does not an- swer the purpose, unless Avhen it proves more or less purgative; and a confirmation of the same occurs more strongly irom this, that other emetics proving laxative are equally or more effectual. See the learned Sir George Baker, De Dysenteria, p. 2o. There have been manv other virtues ascribed to the ipecacu- anha : but all of them appear to me to depend upon its emetic pow- ers alone, and that they truly may be obtained by the use of other emetics. We might therefore cease from saying more oi this drug: but I shall stiU make a remark or two on some particular uses ot it. 270 TREATISE OF THE It has been particularly commended in the cure ofintermitr tent fevers: and I knew a practitioner who cured these, by giv- ing, an hour before an accession that Avas expected, five grains, or so much as Avould occasion a strong degree of nausea and sickness, without vomiting: and by one or two such practices he was frequently successful. It is true that this may be exe- cuted by tartar emetic : and I recommended the trial of this to the practitioner I speak of. But he assured me, that in several trials he could not easily adjust the dose of this, so as to produce the proper degree of sickness Avithout a omiting, so well as he could do by the other. Dr. Thomson, formerly of Montrose, proposed to cure agues by the employment of emetics given at the time of accession, or at the end of the cold stage: and this practice has also been suc- cessful, and may indeed be executed by tartar emetic : but in trying such practices, I have found the ipecacuanha more ma- nageable than the other, and generally to be more easy to the patient. The mildness and manageable quality of the ipecacuanha has made some physicians endeavour to employ it in continued fe- vers. But we have ahvays observed, that the readiness Avith whigh even small quantities excite vomiting, and are to be thrown out by it, commonly prevented our obtaining that per- manent nausea that we judge to be necessary. To finish my remarks upon this medicine, I have to observe, that, like other emetics, it has been employed in the cure of haemorrhagies. And if their salutary effects, in such cases es- pecially depend upon inducing the first degrees of nausea, I leave it to the ingenious practitioner to judge, whether the small quan- tities in which ipecacuanha will operate, may not render this a Jitter medicine than some other emetics. After the ipecacuanha, in my catalogue, I have set down the Nicotiana: but in treating of this above as a sedative, as I have said all that is necessary with respect to its being employed as an emetic, it seems unnecessary to repeat any thing of it here. The next article is that of SCILLA. This, with its expectorant and diuretic powers, has always joined that of stimulating the stomach and of exciting vomiting. For this single purpose it was sometimes formerly employed; but since the usp of ipecacuanha has become knoAvn, the squills haA-e been more rarely used: and in my opinion they have been justly neglected; as I find the dose of them not to be easily as- certained ; and in a full dose they appear to me to be a harsher and less manageable emetic than the ipecacuanha. We cannot hoAvever pass this subject Avithout observing, that we can never presume upon the operation of squills in any man- ner, Avithout their being given in such quantity as to excite some degree of nausea, a circumstance that renders the squills a dis- MATERIA MEDICA. 27t agreeable remedy; but an attention to it seems to.be always necessary. We have noAV mentioned the vegetable emetics of our cata- logue, that are necessary to be taken notice of here; as to Avhat relates to the use of the Amara, the Sinapi, and Raphaftus Rusti- eanus, Ave have spoken of fully enough above, either as assistants to the operation of warm water, or as by the assistance of that they may7 become useful emetics. Having therefore now considered the vegetable emetics, I am next to take up the subject of the fossil. The first of these mentioned in my list are the preparations of copper. And many of these, as very universally emetic, might perhaps be employed: but they are seldom fit to be safely or properly managed. I have knoAvn the Blue Vitriol employed, but rather as a nau- seating dose in the beginning of fevers, or as a diuretic in drop- sies, than as an emetic fit to occasionTull vomiting: and Avhen it has the last mentioned effect, it is ahvays harsh and unmanage- able, and we cannot perceive that it has any better effects than those of tartar emetic. The effects of it in beginning consump-i tions, we have not had any experience of. Its external use as an escharotic is sufficiently known: but I must observe, that in many ulcerations it has appeared to me more useful than any other: and very lately, in an ill-conditioned and spreading ul- cer, I found it bring on a good digestion, when both mercurials and arsenic had failed.. i With respect to the mercurial emetic, I believe that most of the saline preparations of mercury, if given in large doses, might operate as emetics: but, as in the examples of the corrosive sub- limate, they Avould be employed with very great danger. The mercurial emetic that has been chiefly and almost only employ7- ed, is the turpethum mineral, or mercurius emeticus flavus: but as this must be employed in a very large dose, and always operates in a severe and dangerous manner, I am disposed to assert, that it is never necessary to use it for the purpose it was formerly employed, that is, to excite a salivation; nor that it is ever necessary for removing some obstinate venereal symptoms, such as sAvelled testicles ; as I believe that such symptoms may- be as well cured by safer means. Of the preparations of zinc, the vitriolum album, is that only employed as an emetic. This has been chiefly employed on ac- count of the suddenness of its operation, which is frequently re- quired Avhen noxious or poisonous matters have been acciden- tally taken into the stomach. We do not, hoAvever, always find the Avhite vitriol to be the most convenient for this purpose: for in order to render its effect certain, the dose must generally be large ; and if this is not throAvn out again immediately, it is apt to continue a disagreeable nausea, or even a vomiting, longer than is necessary. 272 TREATISE OF THE I find thtt the purpose of this medicine, that is, a sudden vo- miting, may commonly be obtained by employing a large dose of ipecacuanha, either in powder or in the, vinum; and by 7ol- lowingthis soon after Avith a large draught of warm Avater, im- pregnated Avith chamomile, or rather Avith what is more at hand, a tea-spoonful of table mustard, the business may be commonly very effectually executed. ANTIMONIUM. This, under a certain preparation, affords the metallic emetic noAV most commonly employed. It is one of the safest and most manageable, and may commonly be rendered sufficiently effec- tual for every purpose of emetics. With respect to it, this is first to be observed, that, as produc- ed in the earth, it is a combination of a metallic substance with common sulphur; and while it is in this state, when Ave name it Crude Antimony, it appears to me to be an inert substance with respect to the human body. This, hoAvever, is not \he universal opinion ; and its manifest effects upon horses favours the supposition, that it may have ef- fects also on the human body. Many physicians have adopted the supposition; and particularly the chemist Kunckel alleged, that by levigation brought into a very fine powder, it was useful in se- veral diseases, particularly in rheumatism. After seA'eral trials, hoAvever, of giving a drachm of this powder once or twice a- day for several weeks together, I have not found it of any bene- fit. I kneAv a physician Avho had an opinion of its being useful in cancers: and he gave the poAvdered antimony to two drachms for a dose ; but I could never perceive that any sensible effects, or that any effects either upon the cancerous tumour or ulcer Avere produced. I must OAvn, hoAvever, that in one or two in- stances in Avhich the crude antimony- Avas largely employed, some nausea, and even vomiting, Avere produced; so that I Avas re- strained from carrying the dose farther than I had already done. This indeed, obliges me to acknowledge, that on some occasions, crude antimony may be an active medicine: but at the same time I must allege, that it can hardly eATer be proper to employ such an uncertain medicine as the crude antimony7, when I suppose Ave may obtain the same effects by one of its preparations, whose dose and operation can be more exactly measured. Supposing, therefore, the crude antimony laid aside as at least generally inert, Ave are next to inquire into the means of bring- ing it into an active state. What are the means of giving it ac- tivity, Ave shall endeavour to point out very fully hereafter: but, as in other instances of this treatise, I think it proper to consider first the general effects of it in all its active states. These are universally and constantly its exciting A'omiting, or each a degree of action on the stomach, as is common to other emetics giA-en in such doses as do not excite full vomiting. The medicinal effects of antimony,-therefore, arc all those which avt now observe, that the tinctura jalappse is equally, and perhaps more, fit for the same purposes. SCAMMONIUM. This is a medicine which is offered to us in very different condi- tions, insomuch that I have known different parcels of it at the dif- ference of -200 per cent, in their prices. This must be owing to its frequent adulteration : and as we cannot suppose that our apotheca- nes^re always on their guard against this, the practi«»««» of th« country have not employed this medicine so much as to. allow me property to report its effects. When it is genuine it seems to be an Si purgative ; and though operating in a small dose, it does not seem m be* in proportion violent. With respect to the manner of " as in itPs composition it has a considerable portion of resin, upon which its purgative qualities seem to depend, it may certainly be rendered milder by being triturated with sugar, or crystals of tar- tar as ordered in the dispensatories. But in any form it does not seem £ have anyAdvantage over the jalaps and 1 am persuaded, that Vol. II. Q 4 306 TREATISE OF THE cither by itself, or in composition, it will never come much into the practice of this country. RHAMNUS CATHARTICUS. The berries of this shrub are the only part of it employed : and they may be employed in various states. But the only one known to us, is that of the juice made into a syrup, as ordered in the Dispen- satories. In this state they are powerful purgatives : and, as both griping to the bowels, and heating to the system, they may be con- sidered as of the drastic kind, and accordingly they have been fre- quently employed as hydragogues. In moderate doses they have been employed by our vulgar as a common purgative. But the state of the medicine, with the hazard of its violence and griping, will prevent their being used by refined practitioners. As, however, the violence and griping of this medicine can be commonly prevented, by drinking largely during its operation, of any mild liquid, I have known it frequently used by persons drink- ing goat-whey. GAMBOGIA. This is a powerful purgative •, and has accordingly been long con- sidered as a chief hydragogue. For this purpose, however, it must be employed in a large dose, when it commonly works with violence both upwards and downwards —Upon account of this violent op- eration, we have seldom employed it by itself; but have found, that in a few grains it might be usefully and safely added to doses of jalap and calomel. In this manner I formerly practised with gamboge; but of late I have thought of using it by itself, in the following manner. Ob- serving that it was a purgative which passed through the intestines more quickly than almost any other, I have judged that moderate doses of it might be repeated soon after one another with more safety, and with more effect, than by giving large doses at once. Accordingly, I have given doses of three or four grains, rubbed with a little sugar •, and repeating these every three hours, I have found it operate without vomiting or griping: and at the same time, after three or four such exhibitions, a great dea'. of water was evacuated both by stool and urine. Although I have not yet had much experience of this management, I have no doubt of its being adapted to the cure of dropsy with more ease to the patient than in any other man- ner of exhibiting it. For a long time past the gamboge has been famous over Europe as the fittest and most effectual medicine for expelling the taenia or tape-worm. Of this power, I have had few opportunities, from experience, that could enable me to make any useful observations upon it. And I judge it best to refer my readers to Professor Mur- ray's Apparatus Medicaminum, for the most full and accurate in- formation on this subject. To render my catalogue of purgatives complete, I have in- MATERIA MEDICA. 307 serted here two articles, Nicotiana and Veratrum. Of the for- mer article, and particularly of its purgative powers, as thrown into the rectum, I have treated already; and of the latter I shall say a little here. VERATRUM. The London College, in the edition of their Dispensatory for 1746, as an officinal medicine, gave a tincture of this root. But they have omitted it in their last edition : and I am not surprised at this •, as it is a very poisonous plant, which I would hardly think. of employing even upon the authority of the estimable Conrad Gesner. It is, however, possible that such an active substance may, be useful in certain diseases of the human body. And my very inge- nious and learned friend Dr. Smyth very properly tried it in some cutaneous diseases, which are commonly very refractory. He suc- ceeded in two or three cases; but his experiments have yet been few: and in some of these he made, the operation of the medicine was such as shows that it is to be employed with a great deal of caution. COLOCYNTHIS. This is one of the most drastic purgatives: and I have never em- ployed it but as it stood in certain compositions of the Dispensato- ries. Even these are much less in use than they formerly were. Upon the subject of the piluhe ex colocynthide cum aloe, we made a remark which will also apply to the extractum colocynthidis com- positum of the London College •, and with respect to both, I would now add, that as, in employing the colocynth, these medicines are drastic purgatives of no other peculiar virtues, I suppose Ave may find for them more agreeable substitutes. ELATERIUM. This peculiar substance is variously prepared; and therefore, in our shops, is in different conditions. When properly prepared it is a drastic purgative, which however seems to have been very much employed by Sydenham and Lister in the cure cf dropsy.^ I have not known it employed by itself, and only as being added in a grain or two to other purgatives, as Sydenham and Lister employed it; but what is the effect of it in composition, it is not easy to determine. If Lister's observation, of its being very heating to the body, be well founded, I should not think of employing it at all. CHAPTER XXI. DIURETICA. These are medicines suited to promote the secretion of urine. This is to be done either by increasing the quantity of water in, the mass of blood, or, that remaining the same, by introducing a matter that may be a stimulus to the kidneys. 308 TREATISE OF THE As when any quantity of Avater is taken into the body, we find this commonly, in the course of twenty-four hours, returning to the same weight it was of before; so we conclude that the water thrown in has passed out by the excretions of perspiration and urine. And in general we find it probable that these execretions will be very much in proportion to the quantity of Avater for the time pre- sent in the mass of blood; wherefore if the perspiration be deter- mined, an increase of the water present in the blood will occasion an increase of the secretion of urine, which accordingly commonly happens : and we commonly find that an increase of the quantity of drink is attended with a proportional increase in the quantity of urine secreted. This therefore is the foundation of the first means we have as- signed for promoting the secretion of urine. The quantity of water present in the mass of blood may be different from different circum- stances. But the most part of these circumstances are hardly un- der the direction of our art •, and the only one which is very much so, is the quantity of liquid taken into the body by drinking; which being therefore the chief means in our power of increasing the quantity of water in the blood, may be considered as a chief means of increasing the secretion of urine: and accordingly this increase of drink has always been considered as the chief of diuretics. There are, however, certain states of the body, in which it may be doubtful if thi means of increasing the secretion of urine may be safely employed. It sometimes happens that the water of the blood, instead of passing off by the excretions, is effused into some of the cavities, giving occasion to the well-known disease of drop- sy : and in such a case it may be suspected, that an increase of the water in the blood, made bv an increase of drinking, may increase the effusion mentioned, and aggravate the disease. This suspicion has prevailed so much with physicians, as to lead them, in such cases, to enjoin as much as possible an abstinence from drinking •, and it is alleged that such an abstinence has, in some cases, entirely cured the disease. We Avould not rigorously inquire into the truth of this fact; but from all we have seen or heard, we are confident that it has been a very rare occurrence : and from the many instances we have had of its being attempted with very little benefit, we are not surprised at many physicians being of opinion that it should not be attempted at all. It is an extremely painful measure, as it resists the urgent desire of drink which commonly attends this disease; and it may be al- leged that it is not always necessary, as the tendency to effusion may have its limits; so that the whole of the drink taken in may not run off this way, but that a portion of it may still pass by the kidneys. So far as this happens, the taking in of drink may be a safe measure : and I can assert, that in several cases of considerable dropsy, the quantity of urine voided was nearly equal to the quan- MATERIA MEDICA. 309 ty of drink taken in, which shows that the drinking had been a very proper measure. I wonder, indeed, that the practitioners who have enjoined an abstinence from drinking, have not thought of a means of deter- mining how far this was to be carried; and which certainly might be nearly determined by a comparison of the quantity of urine voided in a given time, with the quantity of drink taken in during the same time. I have frequently made this comparison; and found, that a very entire abstinence from drinking, by diminishing the quantity of urine voided, allowed the secretories of the kidneys to fall into a contracted state, so that the quantity of urine voided was still far- ther diminished, and, as I judged, tended to increase the effusion, and thereby to aggravate the disease. In other cases I found, that when a quantity of drink was taken in, a considerable portion of it passed by the kidneys; and when, as it sometimes happened, the quantity of urine voided was equal to the drink taken in, I conclud- ed that the giving so much drink was a perfectly safe measure. To illustrate this matter farther, I must observe, that the water of the blood carrying the saline matters of it, by the nature of the animal ceconomy, is determined to the excretions, and particularly to the kidneys; and therefore, that drinks impregnated with saline matters, are naturally determined this way rather than by the pre- ternatural effusions mentioned. The fluid poured out by these ef- fusions is nearly insipid ; whilst, though the watery part of the blood is by these withdrawn from the secretories of the kidneys, yet a great quantity of the saline matter of the blood continues to pass this way : and I therefore have been led to give for drinks, not simple water, but always water impregnated with saline matters: and I can assert, that water so impregnated passes more certainly to the kidneys than perfectly insipid liquors. Thus water, impregnated with vegetable acids, is not only more gratefulto the patient than simple barley-water, or water-gruel, but passes always in greater quantity in proportion to the liquid taken in : and it is commonly by attending to this that I have found, even in dropsy, the quantity of urine voided to be equal to the quantity of drink taken in. . I have thus endeavoured to explain some circumstances in \A'hich a total abstinence from drink may be improper : and I have pointed out some in which the giving drink may be a safe measure; whence the avoiding of this should not have been so universal a rule as it has been with the most part of practitioners. 4 In arguing for the exceptions that are to be made from this rule, we have alleged that the taking in of drink is proper, especially when we can find the quantity of urine voided to be equal, or near- ly equal, to the quantity of drink taken in; and that we especially found this to be the case when the drink employed was impreg- 310 TREATISE OF THE nated with some saline matters, which determined it to go more en- tirely to the kidneys, and even to stimulate these to a more entire secret on. Reflecting upon this, I perceived that I had omitted in my Catalogue of diuretics some matters which are particularly well suited to the purpose of drinks, such as fermented liquors of all kinds, when these are either weak in their quality, or taken pretty well diluted with water. Even ardent spirits, if largely diluted and joined with a portion of vegetable acid, have been found to stimulate the kidneys, and to make a proper part of the ordinary drink. It was also an omission amongst rhe diuretics, not to mention the milk of the non-ruminant animals, and of the other milks, their products of whey and butter- milk, especially when these are in their most acid states. To finish what relates to the giving of drink in dropsy, I must observe, that whenever we can perceive that the quantity of urine voided is equal to the quantity of drink for the same time taken in, I hold it to be safe to allow as much drink as the patient may desire; and I have no doubt that, by such indulgence, the disease may be often entirely cured. There are indeed many instances of the dis- ease being cured in this manner; as in the cases given by Sir George Baker in the Medical transactions, in those quoted by Dr. Milman from several authors, and especially in the instances given by that ingenious author from his own practice. I can give none from mine ; but one accidentally fell under my observation. A woman labouring under an anasarca was accidentally directed to drink a mineral water, and that in considerable quantity. By this her urine was greatly increased, and the anasarca was soon entirely cured. From my own practice I can observe, that I always thought it absurd in physicians to employ diuretics while they enjoined an ab- stinence from drink, which is almost the only means of conveying these diuretics to the kidneys : so, whenever I employ diuretics, I at the same time advise drinking freely; and I am persuaded that drink- ing largely has often contributed to the cures I have made. Having thus mentioned the conduct of a chief means of promot- ing the secretion of urine, before I proceed to the other means that may be employed, I judge it proper to mention the chief effects of promoting this secretion. As it seems to be the purpose of nature to carry out by this secretion the saline matters that, by the nature of the animal oeconomy, are constantly generating in the mass of blood; so, by increasing the secretion, we carry out those saline matters, which, from certain causes, abound more than ordinary in the mass of blood. Such a superabundance of saline matter in the blood I sup- pose to take place in scurvy ; and accordingly we find, that in- creasing the secretion of urine is the chief means of curing that dis- ease. MATERIA MEDICA. 311 But as there are other causes than those producing scurvy which may increase the saline state of our fluids: so the increase of the secretion of urine may be a means of curing many disea^w, though we are not ready to point out those in particular that may be so cured. The supposing an acrimony, or, what I judge to be the same thing, a saline state of the fluids, has been often assumed at ran- dom, without evidence. And even in cases where it was certainly existing, there are certain acrimonies which do not readily pass by the kidneys; and therefore disease's depending upon them which are not to be cured by increasing the secretion there. Hence it is that the increase of this secretion may not prove a remedy in so many cases as we might suppose it. On the other hand, it is to be observed, that as there is a balance between the perspiration and the secretion of urine, so that the one being in- creased, the other is diminished; if there be a matter which na- ture has intended to pass especially by the perspiration, if this is retained by increasing the secretion of urine, diseases may be pro- duced. And even if the increased.secretion of urine should dimi- nish the quantity of water which should pass by the skin, the sa- line matters which should pass that way by their being less dilut- ed, may be more ready to stick in the vessels of the skin, and there- by give occasion to diseases of this kind. Another effect of an increased secretion of urine may be consi- dered as merely the evacuation of the water, or watery parts of the blood, which, when largely increased, may excite an absorption from the cavities, in which a preternatural accumulation of serous fluid had taken place. Thus it is that an increased secretion of urine has often proved a cure of dropsy: and for the conduct of this, by either one means or another, enough has already been said above; for I doubt much if any diuretic medicines will ever be ve- ry effectual without being accompanied with an increase of the wa- ter in the blood by the taking in of drink. PARTICULAR DIURETICS. We begin with those taken from the vegetable kingdom; and must introduce them by observing, that in making the Catalogue, I have been more directed by my complaisance to the writers on the subject than by my own opinion and experience. Ihe most part of the diuretic vegetables mentioned by writers are of very little power, and are employed with very little success. P But to speak of particulars, the first mentioned are the Umbel- lata, the power of which resides especially in their seeds ; but Ave have never found any of them powerful. Ihe semen dauci silves- tris has been commended as a diuretic: but we have seen ,t em- ployed in calculous cases in considerable quantities, and for a great 312 TREATISE OF THE length of time, but never found its diuretic power any wise re- markable. Some of the plantse stillatse have been commended as diuretics : but none of them deserve our notice, except the RUBIA TINCTORUM. This root passes so much by the kidneys as to give its colour to the urine ; and in passing that way it may be supposed to stimulate the secretories : and indeed it has been represented as a powerful diuretic. I have seen it frequently employed as a supposed emme- nagogue : but its diuretic powers did not always appear, and never to any considerable degree. As in the many experiments made with this root on brute animals, it has always appeared hurtful to the system, I should not think it fit to be employed to any extent in men. ALKEKENGI. The berries of this, the only part of it ever in use, are not known in the present practice: and I have never seen them employ- ed. But I have some reports of their being employed by others without effect: and if their diuretic powers had ever been remark- able, we may presume that they would have still continued in use. I cannot dismiss them without an observation, that as it is allowed that the berries often take a taint from the leaves of the plant; it will always require some caution in employing any part of a plant which is taken from an order of a very poisonous kind. The Bardana, Gramen^ Lithospermum, Ononis, Asparagus, Emula, Campana, are all substances which seem to pass in some measure by the kidneys : but from frequent experience we can assert, that their diuretic powers are .hardly ever to be taken notice of. In the catalogue of diuretics I have inserted the Asarum, for the sake of this remark, that it is doubtful if any of the supposed di- uretics in stimulating the kidneys show any specific power ; and on the other hand, many which do stimulate these organs show the same power with respect to every other excretory to which they are applied: and hence it is that every emetic and purgative show, up- on occasion, their diuretic powers. This seems to be all that is necessary to be said of the Asarum, Genista, Nicotiana, and Seneka, as inserted in our catalogue of diuretics; as. they are seldom em- ployed in this intention alone. The Arum, in its recent state, contains an acrid metier, which, like other acrids, passes, at least in part, by the kidneys, and in proportion excites the secretion there : but it can never be intro- duced into the stomach in such quantity as to become a powerful diuretic. Upon the same ground of their containing a great deal of acrid matter, which passes more or less by the kidneys, I have inserted in my list the Persicaria and Ranunculus, which have been com- monly marked as diuretics. They have, however, as such been MATERIA MEDtCA. 313 hardly employed in practice : and that for the same reason I have given with respect to the arum, that Ave have not yet learned how they can be introduced in such quantity into the stomach as to be- come powerful in the kidneys. DULCAMARA. We have employed only the stipites or slender twigs of this shrub: but as Ave have collected them, they come out very une- qual, some parcels of them being very mild and inert, and others of them considerably acrid. In the latter state we have employ ed a decoction of them in the cure of rheumatism, sometimes Avith ad- vantage, but at other times Avithout any effect. Though the dul- camara is here inserted in the catalogue of diuretics, it has never appeared to us as powerful in this way : for in all the trials made here, it has hardly ever been observed to be in any measure di- uretic. DIGITALIS. The powers of this plant as a diuretic are now ascertained by numberless experiments; but upon what sort of operation these powers depend, I am at a loss to explain. Whether it be by a specific stimulus applied to the kidneys, or by a general operation upon the system, which particularly affects the kidneys, does not appear very clearly. The small dose in which the digitalis com- monly operates, makes it difficult to suppose that so much of that dose can go to the kidneys, as to be a considerable stimulus to these organs ; and, on the other hand, the effects of that dose on the stomach and intestines, and especially its effect in diminishing the frequency of the pulse, are certain proofs of a general opera- tion upon the system. I have introduced this speculation, that some of my readers may prosecute the inquiry. But I do not take any pains at present to decide the question; because I do not perceive that either opi- nion can have any influence upon practice.—This, abstracted from all speculation, must be established by experience. With respect to this I would wish to lay down here rules for the proper manage- ment of this medicine: but I will not attempt it, because I can direct my reader to a more proper means of instruction by refer- ring him to the treatise of my verv ingenious and learned friend Dr. Withering, on this subject, which is a treatise m many per- sons1 hands, and, in my opinion, should be in the hands of every PrTcTnunoTh0owever quit this subject of the digitalis without ob- serving that the speculation with regard to its operation which I have started above, may occasion the general account of the ope- ration of diuretics, which I have given above, to appear less com- plete ; as, besides the increased quantity of water in the mass of blood, or a stimulus particularly applied to the kidneys, there may be a medicine which, by a general operation on the system, may promote the secretion of urine. My candour obliges me to men- Vol.1I. Rr 314 TREATISE OF THE .tion this; but I do not find mvself at present in a condition to prosecute the inquirv. RUTA ET SABINA. These two plants, as well as the general title of Amara, have been inserted in my catalogue of diuretics inadvertently ; for I do not find, either from writers, or from my own experience, any authority for ascribing a diuretic virtue to these plants. SCILLA. This is a root which from the most ancient times has been cele- brated as a diuretic ; and, under a proper management, it seldom fails to operate more or less as such. It has not, however, any specific power; as it seems to be universally stimulant with respect to every sensible part or excretory to which it is applied. It rea- dily stimulates the stomach, and proves emetic, as we observed above Avhen speaking of it under that title. When it is so manag- ed as to pass the stomach, it stimulates the intestines, and proves purgative ; and when carried into the mass of blood, it is general- ly, and I believe justly, supposed to stimulate the mucous glands of the lungs, and prove an expectorant. When it is thus so generally stimulant, we can readily under- stand Avhy it should prove a diuretic: and I would add, that pro- bably it has something in the nature of the acrimony it contains, that suits it to be taken up by the serosity, and thereby to pass readily by the kidneys, where its acrimony therefore increases the secretion* This actually happens, and has rendered it at all times noted as a diuretic. This effect, however, does not always happen; because, if it be thrown into the stomach in such quantity as to prove emetic or pur- gative, it is thereby prevented from reaching the blood-vessels and kidneys 5 and therefore, to obtain its diuretic effects, we must avoid its emetic and purgative operations, which may commonly be done by giving the squills in small doses, to be repeated after proper intervals only: and I have found, that by accompanying the squills with an opiate, the emetic and purgative operation of it may be avoided, and thereby it may be carried more entirely to the kidneys. A certain writer has alleged, that the diuretic effects of the squill is not to be expected unless it shows some operation on the stomach. This may perhaps be founded: but I understand it no otherAvise than that some operation on the stomach is a test, and a necessary test, of the squills being in an active state : in the same manner as we are only certain of the activity of mercurial prepa- rations when they have shown some effect in the mouth. I have often observed, that when the squill operates strongly in the stomach and intestines, the diuretic effects were less ready to happen ; and therefore, as the squill contains an acrimony that is in part very volatile, and which is mpst ready to act on the stomach, MATERIA MEDICA. 315 that the fresh squill, by acting more upon the stomach, is less cer- tainly carried to the kidneys than when its volatile part is in some measure dissipated. It is on this account that the dried squill is more frequently em- ployed than the fresh. We must not however omit to observe here, that the drying of the squill is a business that requires much attention; as it may readily be overdone, and thereby render the squill entirely useless: and it is to be observed also,that the squill mav not onlv be rendered inert by the first drying being too much, but that the dry powder, if it be kept long in a dry air, may also in time lose much of its power. This overdrving of the squill, in one Avay or other, happens more frequently than our apothecaries are aware of; and has led me to alloAv, that some operation on the stomach, some nausea excited by the squill, is a necessary test of the activity of the por- tion of it employed. When the squill is in good condition, to avoid its operation on the stomach and intestines, I have said it is proper to give it in small doses, to be repeated after long intervals only. But it is proper to observe here, that when the disease requires a repeti- tion, the doses of the squill, as they are repeated, may be gradu- ally increased, and the intervals of their exhibition made shorter; and Avhen they come to be tolerably large, it is then that an opiate may be conveniently employed in directing the operation ot the squill more certainly to the kidneys. In the cases of dropsy, that is, when there is an effusion ot wa, ter into the cavities, and therefore that less water goes to the kich nevs, we are of opinion that a neutral salt accompanying the squill may be of use in determining this more certainly to the kidneys : and whenever it can be perceived that it takes this course, we are persuaded that it will also be always useful, and generally sate, during the exhibition of the squills, to increase the usual quantity of drink. .... • r -n It may be a question, Whether the diuretic operation of squills may not be assisted by some mercurial preparation given at the same time? And when there is any appearance of the medicine coine to the kidneys, it cannot be doubted that the mercury, as sti- mulant of every excretory to which it is applied, may here also be useful. Accordingly it has been a frequent practice to join mercury with squills: but I doubt much if the common practice of employing calomel on this occasion be proper. Calomel deter, mines the squill more certainly to operate by stool: and unless the cure of the disease is to be trusted entirely tc> purging; the: calome mav readily prevent the diuretic operation of the squill. We have herefore been of opinion, that the less purgative preparations of m ury w e bette'r suited to the purpose: and we are disposed1 to mdKe that the solution of the corrosive sublimate, which so often C itself goes to the kidneys, may be more proper than any other. 316 TREATISE OF THL After treating of the squills, it seems proper to take notice oi a title inserted in my Catalogue that has some affinity with the squills ; Avhich is that of the ALLIACEAE. All of these seem to contain an acrimony, which seems by it?; nature to be determined to pass off by the kidneys. And the spe- cies Allium sativum, or Garlic, which possesses the largest portion of this acrimony, has been always celebrated as a diuretic. I have treated of its other virtues pretty fully above ; and have onh to add here, that Avhen it is taken into the stomach in its fresh and recent state, it almost always operates as a diuretic. And I am well persuaded, that in several instances of my practice it has con- tributed to the cure of dropsy; but I have not been so happy as Dr. Sydenham Avas, to find the disease cured by garlic alone. Prac- titioners have been of opinion, that the garlic is most effectual, when by its being taken in an entire state, as explained above, it has been left to the stomach to extract the more volatile parts of it. After the alliacese I must take notice of some substances Avhich have much affinity with these : and therefore, in the Catalogue, a\t have given the article of SILIQUOSAE. These contain a volatile acrimony, very much akin to that of the alliacese, and like these seemingly disposed to pass off by the kidneys. They have therefore been always considered as diuretics. There is however a considerable difference in this respect be- tween the different species of this order of plants. In the leaves, stalks, and flowers, and sometimes in the roots, the acrimony pe- culiar to the order is not very remarkable; and they show little poAver as diuretics. But in others, especially in their seeds, and sometimes in their roots, the acrimony is very considerable; and so far as it can be introduced to the kidneys, it is a powerful diuretic. This stronger acrimony, however, is so ready to inflame the sto- mach, that hardly so large a quantity of it can be introduced as to prove a powerful diuretic, or to be depended upon in dropsies, Avhere a large discharge of urine is required. The entire seeds may, indeed, as Ave explained above, be introduced in large quan- tities, and are in some measure extracted by the stomach, so as to be in some measure diuretic; but never so much as to act in this way very poAverfully, There remain of the Catalogue of vegetable diuretics two arti- cles to be taken notice of; Avhich are the BALSAMICA ET RESINOSA. With respect to the balsamica, as I have said above, that all of them have for their basis a turpentine, so it may be presumed that all the balsams may have the same diuretic quality which we find in the most simple turpentine. This Ave have said before to be commonly determined to the kidneys, operating there more or less as a diuretic: and therefore the general title of Balsamica is properly enough inserted in our Catalogue. I must, however, MATERIA MEDICA. 317 observe with regard to them, that they cannot possibly be intro- duced into the body in such quantity as to operate poAverfully in any diseases requiring a large discharge of urine. The diuretic substance afforded by turpentine, Avhich has been the most taken notice of, is the essential oil obtained by a distilla- tion with water. In attempting the cure of sciatica by this oil, I have frequently observed its passing by the kidneys, and promot- ing the secretion of urine : but it can never be introduced in such quantity as to be poAverful in this way. This observation applies to the oleum juniperi, Avhichhas been often employed as a diuretic; and it will readily appear as this oil is drawn from the terebinthinate substance of the juniper, it can hardly have more power than that drawn from the turpentine itself. . . On the subject of the balsimaca, I have conceived an opinion Avhich I have in some measure explained already, in the article of Benzoinum, amounting to this, that the acid found in the benzoine exists in the oil of turpentine and of the other balsams ; and that upon this particularly depend their diuretic virtues. It is there- fore that several of the substances inserted under the title of the Stimulantia Resinosa might have also been inserted in our Cata- logue of diuretics. But their power is not so consiberable as to deserve our attention here or in practice. Having now mentioned the several vegetable diuretics, I am next to speak of those taken from the animal kingdom: and those first deserving our attention are the CANTHARIDES. The acrimony of this insect, and, when applied to the skin, its inflammatory nature, Avhich may be readily carried so far as to raise a blister, is well knoAvn to all the world: and the effects of its rubefacient and blistering powers, in the cure of many diseases, are known to every practitioner. These effects, hoAvever, are not to be taken notice of here. As they may be the effects of other insects, and of many vegetable substances, they are to be consider- ed as a general remedy, none of which I propose to take into our treatise: and it is only the powers of the cantharides, when taken jnto the body, and employed as an internal medicine, that I am to consider. The cantharides taken internally, whether m substance or m solution, if in a certain quantity, may be considered as a stimulant and heating substance. And I have had occasion to know them, taken in large quantity as an aphrodisiac, to have excited violent pains in the stomach, and a feverish state over the whole body The cantharides, however, seem to act only m a concentrated state; for taken in moderate quantity they are so much diffused in the fluids, both in the alimentary canal and in the mass of blood, that they seldom show any effects on the general system. But this seems to be almost peculiar to this substance, that given even in C18 TREATISE OF THE moderate quantity, it very readily passes to the kidneys; and from circumstances Avhich we cannot explain, it seems to be there united at ith a certain portion of the urine only: and being thus in a concentrated state when carried on to the bladder, they give a considerable irritation and inflammation to the neck of it; in con- sequence of Avhich a frequent stimulus to the voiding of urine, and a painful difficulty in the voiding of it—symptoms very well knoAvn to every medical man under the title of Strangury—are produced___In explaining this very peculiar effect of cantharides I have insinuated a theory of their being united with a certain por- tion of the urine only, and of their being thereby in a more con- centrated state, Avhich will not perhaps appear clear to every body. But that there is a foundation for such reasoning appears to me very strongly from hence, that the effects mentioned are prevented by our rendering the urine more copious, and much diluted. It Avas proper for me to begin with an account of this frequent operation of the substance of cantharides. But it does not pro- perly touch the medicinal poAvers of them, Avhich I must therefore now speak of. From the effects mentioned, it is sufficiently evident that the substance of the cantharides goes to the kidneys : and it is with much probability supposed, that such a stimulus applied there must promote the secretion of urine. This effect, however, does not always in fact appear; and Dr. Smith Carmichael asserts, that in his frequent exhibitions of the tincture of cantharides, he never once observed the secretion of urine increased. In many instances of a strangury produced by the application or exhibition of can- tharides, I have not found, though I have often enquired after it, the quantity of urine sensibly increased'; and however it may be explained/though the substance of cantharides operates often up- on the neck of the bladder, it may be doubted if at the same time it operates upon the kidneys ; as, along with the strangury so often occurring, I have never met Avith pains of the back, or other marks of an affection of the kidneys. From these observations, it may be doubted if cantharides have properly any diuretic poAver: but the authority of the late eminent and learned Werlhof cannot be declined. In the Commercium Lite- rarium Norimbergense, Werlhof gives a remarkable instance ot the diuretic poAver ot cantharides ; and informs us, that he had fre- quendy experienced the same in dropsy and other diseases: and upon such an authority I can no longer doubt of the power in question. It however may be considered, Avhether the obtaining the diure- tic effects of cantharides may not depend upon that administration of them Avhich Werlhof employed. He gave a grain of powdered cantharides for a dose, and repeated this every four hours : and it Avas only after the third dose, that a suppression of urine, of many days standing, began to yield: and I will give the rest of what MATERIA MEDICA. 319 relates to this subject in his own Avords, Operum pag. 699. " Post tertium granum fluere urina parum grumosa sanguinolenta, dein pituitosa, tandem limpida coepit, cum dysuria. Continuavi, quia symptomata catera statim mitigata sunt, medicaminis usum, ad nonam usque dosin: quo facto magis magisque, et tandem largissime adplures in dies mensuras sine febre, dolore prodiit urina limpida^ imminutis symptomatis omnibus ; sensimque sola ejus remedii vstetey* convaluit homo jamque sanus vivit." By accidental circumstances I have myself been prevented from imitating this practice. And I Avas less intent upon it because Wichman, the editor of Werlhof's Avorks, in a note on this subject, observes that Werlhof him self did not continue the use of cantha- rides in dropsy and other diseases. All this, however, I thought necessary to lay before my readers. Cantharides have been frequently employed in the cure of cuta- neous diseases, and are for this particularly recommended by Dr. Mead: and as they may justly be supposed to pass by perspiration as well as by urine, the instances given of their utility may be very true. My learned friend Dr. Smith Carmichael, among other at- tempts which he thought of for the cure of cutaneous diseases, very properly thought of trying the cantharides. In one case they proved a remedy. But in some others, though given in large quantities, they entirely failed: and, so far as I know, the experi- ment has not been prosecuted further. In another disease the cantharides have been frequently employ- ed, and that is in a gonorrhea and gleet. For their efficacy in such cases, Ave have the testimony of the same respectable physi- cian Werlhof. His words, in the page of his works above referred to, are the following: Dedi in gonorrhoea in substantia ad granum unum, duo, tria, cum aussis sapia drachma, et pro efificacia observa- tione, continuavi ad plures dies, et minori id cum molestia fieri ob- servavi, quam si pro more Barthohni Lesteri, et aliorum mihi itidem feliciter tentato, infusio in vino facta sit." His editor, however, tells us, that Werlhof did not continue this practice, as he had found out a safer method of cure. As I suppose the operation of cantharides, in the cure of gonorr- hoea and gleet, to be by inducing some degree of inflammation upon the urethra, I hold the practice to be of very doubtful safety. MILLEPEDAE. These insects, like many others, contain a saline acrimony, which is supposed to go to the kidneys, and prove diuretic. What large quantities might do, I dare not determine : but I can join my testimony to the account of Dr. Lewis, that I have known a large quantity, that of a hundred, given twice a day, without any sensible effect upon the kidneys, and without any effect in curing the diseases for which they Avere given. SALES DIURETICA. These, in the printing of my catalogue, should have been scpa- 320 TREATISE OF THE rated from the foregoing articles by a proper space, as they cannot be properly placed under the titles of either animal or vegetable diuretics. . With respect to the whole of them, it is to be observed, in the first place, that as it seems to be determined by the nature of the animal ceconomy, that all saline substances received into the mass of blood, should soon pass out again by the excretions, and parti- cularly by that of urine, it will be obvious that as all saline matters are more or less stimulant, they must all of them, in passing by the kidneys, be more or less diuretic. Accordingly their power in this Avay is a matter of common ex- perience : and all of them may be employed as diuretic medicines, except the volatile alkali, Avhich cannot be introduced in the quan- tity necessary to have much effect upon the kidneys. The acids,' in their concentrated state, cannot be admitted ; but by being largely diluted with water, or watery liquors, they can be admitted in considerable quantity; and in this diluted state they sometimes prove poAverful diuretics. The fossil acids, however, can hardly be admitted in such quantity as to produce any large discharge of urine. But the vegetable acid, in its various forms, can be taken in more largely, and prove very useful, particularly by rendering watery liquors more agreeable as drinks, and by con- veying these more certainly to the kidneys, as explained above. The neutral salts, whether formed of acids and alkalines, or of acids and earths, are all of them diuretics in so far as they reach the kidneys. But many of them are at the same time laxative cathar- tics, and their operating by this quality commonly prevents their diuretic effects. These, therefore, can only be obtained by the exhibition of neutrals, Avhen they are given in such small doses as cannot act upon the intestines, and when these doses are repeated at certain intervals only. But even in this Avay I could hardly ever render the diuretic effects of neutrals, even those of nitre, considerable. There is, hoAvever, a neutral salt that is judged to be more cer- tainly diuretic than any other, and has therefore been entitled Sal Diureticus. It is very possible that this salt may be more active in the kidneys than some others: and I think I have sometimes observed it to be so. But with respect to it in general, I must de- clare, that, though trying the exhibition of it in various ways, I could never render its diuretic effects remarkable, or fit to be de- pended upon, when a large discharge of urine was required. To conclude this subject, they are the fixed alkaline salts that have been especially depended upon as diuretics. It has been the vegetable fixed alkali only that 1 have employed, and have some- times obtained its diuretic effects in a remarkable degree. But I have often also been disappointed of these: and I was not surpris- ed at this, as I believe that the alkali is almost ahvays rendered ne»nv:d in the stomal : and in that state they could have no other MATERIA MEDICA. 321 effects than that of other neutrals, which I have just now represent- ed as commonly inconsiderable. It is, however, still a matter of fact, that alkalines do, upon oc- casion, show their diuretic power: and upon the supposition just now made, of their neutral state in the stomach, their considerable operation as diuretics is not easily accounted for. On this sub- ject, however, I shall offer two explanations: one is, that the quantity of alkali thrown into the stomach may be more than the acid there can neutralize ; and therefore, that some portion of it may reach the kidneys in its alkaline state, and prove there a more powerful stimulus than any neutral salt would be. It is upon this ground that I find a large quantity of alkali to be always necessary to shoAv diuretic effects. Another explanation of the poAvers of alkali in producing these is the folloAving: as the acid of the stomach may be presumed to be of the nature of the fermented acid of vegetables, so an alkali joined with it must form a regenerated tartar, a sal diureticus, or kali acetatum: and if this be less purgative, and more diuretic than other neutrals, Avhile it is also conveyed to the blood-vessels in larger quantity, we can understand Avhy, from these circumstances, the fixed alkali may often appear diuretic. With respect to its operation as diuretic, I have another conjecture to offer. I have commonly found it to prove diuretic when given Avith bitters, as was the manner of Sir John Pringle. And 1 have imagined, that, as the bitters are absorbents of acid, they might absorb so much of that present in the stomach as to prevent this from being so fully applied to the alkali. I have noAv only to add on this subject, that, as alkalines may be often prevented, by purging, from reaching the kidneys ; so their diuretic effect may be often more certainly secured by giving an opiate at the same time: and for the utility of this practice, see Dr. Mead, on the subject of dropsy. After the diuretic salts, I have set down in my catalogue the Sapo Albus Hispanus. But after what has been said above, with respect to this medicine, I need not add any reflections here. CHAPTER XXII. DIAPHORETICA. Under this title I comprehend all the medicines suited to promote a discharge by the skin, whether it be by insensible perspiration or by sweat. In the common language ot writers, the term ot dia- phoretica is applied to those medicines only which promote the in- sensible perspiration; and those which occasion sweating they dis- tinguish by the term of Sudorifera, or sudonfica : but as in the medicines ranged bv authors under these titles, we can nnd no dif- ference but in the degree of force, or what arises from the manner Vol. II. Ss 322 TREATISE OF THE of administration, we comprehend the whole under the title of Diaphoretica; and shall employ this term only, though the effects of the medicines may be often the occasioning of sweat. We set out with the following proposition. All of the diaphoretics operate either by exciting the force of the circulation, or by exciting the action of the extreme vessels on the surface of the body only: and these two operations take place sometimes separately, and sometimes together. The medicines Avhich operate in these two ways are properly the diaphoretics we are to treat of. But there are various circum- stances of the body Avhich may produce these effects: and there may be medicines Avhich produce these general circumstances of the system, which may be, though not strictly, named Diaphore- tics. But they are the proper diaphoretics we are only to treat of here. With respect to the operation of these, as the water of the blood passes out by urine or perspiration, so the quantity of these ex- cretions, as said above, will be in proportion to the quantity of water for the time present in the mass of blood. And the pass- ing of it by the one excretion or the other will be determined by- certain circumstances of the ceconomy, which it is proper for us here to consider. The general force of the circulation, and the activity of the ex- treme vessels, are Avhat determine to, and support both perspira- tion and sweat. The latter circumstance, the activity of the ex- treme vessels, may depend upon the heat of the air applied to the surface of the body, or upon cold applied, Avhilst the circulation is by exercise, or other causes, in a vigorous state. The determination to the kidneys seems to depend upon the saline state of the serosity fitted to pass by that secretion, whilst the situation of the kidneys is fitted for a copious secretion of the watery parts of the blood. Whether there are any parts of the mass of blood which, with- out exciting the general circulation, are particularly fitted to pass by the skin, I cannot positively determine. But am disposed to think there are none such; as the function of perspiration does not appear to be a glandular secretion, but merely an exhalation. The action of the exhalant vessels may be excited by heat, fric- tion, and stimulant substances applied externally. But it is diffi- cult for me to conceive that any medicine, without affecting the general circulation, can be conveyed to the extreme vessels so as to act on these only, or so universally on these, as in the produc- tion of sAveat must be supposed. From the whole of what is said, it would appear that there are no diaphoretics strictly to be so called, that is, internal medicines, acting upon the organs of perspiration alone: and if, however, it appears that the action of the extreme vessels is excited without any increased action of the general powers of circulation, it must MATERIA MEDICA. 323 be by medicines acting upon certain parts of the system, Avhich by a consent of nerves, can excite the action of these extreme vessels. When we are therefore to speak of the particular medicines enu- merated under the present title, we are to speak of all of them under the idea of their being sudorifics, whether acting upon the general circulation or upon the extreme vessels only, and in either case under a certain administration. But before entering upon this last circumstance of administration, and to explain wherein it con- sists, it is necessarv to observe, that under the most powerful deter- mination to the skin, Ave find that a certain application of heat to the surface of the bodv, without any assistance from powers inter- nally applied, is sufficient to produce sAveating; and that external cold applied can almost certainly prevent the same, though consi- derable powers are employed from within. The application of heat therefore to the surface of the body, and the avoiding of external cold, are circumstances almost absolutely necessary to favour the operation of sudorifics. These circumstances may be obtained by the heat of the air ap- plied, as in what is called the dry bagnio, or by increasing the heat of the surface by previous warm bathing, or by accumulating the warm effluvia of the body itself upon its surface. This last may be done by covering up the body very closely with such coverings as may both prevent the escape of the warm effluvia arising from the body itself, and may at the same time prevent the access of ex- ternal cold ; the theory of both which contrivances is, we believe, commonly understood. To favour the operation of sudorifics, another means may be ioined, which is, the taking into the stomach a quantity of warm liquid, which not only excites the general circulation, but particu- larly, bv the consent of the vessels on the surface of the body with the'stomach, excites the action of those vessels which pour out "These two means of covering up the body very closely, and taking warm liquids into the stomach, are what we call the sudo- rific regimen ; which will often alone answer the purpose of excit- ing sweat; is often necessary to the operation of sudorifics; and will always render their operation more complete and permanent. Having thus, as well as we can, explained the operation of dia- phore tics in general, and the measures proper and often necessary FnTeh admhiistration, we would next consider their general effects U^olK£U we say, that as their operation often depends unon theirPeKching the action of the heart and arteries and there- Somewhat uncertain; for it "is difficult to ckunnme m what or- 324 TREATISE OF THE cumstances the practice may be safe. The languor of the circula- tion may be owing to the diminished energy of the brain, from causes acting especially in the brain itself. And in Avhat cases the increased action of the heart and arteries will remove these causes, and restore the energy of the brain is very uncertain. For example, in what cases of apoplexy and palsy the action of the heart and arteries may be safely increased, it is difficult to de- termine : and I am persuaded, that in very feAv instances of these diseases the practice is admissible ; and that, for the most part, it is ready to do much harm. When the effects of the diminished energy of the brain appears, especially in the state of the circulation, the applying of a stimulus to the heart and arteries may seem to be more safe and proper. But it is difficult to give the due measure to such a stimulus, so as to render it both safe and durable. And Ave commonly find that tonics and exercise are both safer, and at the same time common- ly more effectual. In that general loss of tone Avhich we call a Cachexy, tonics, rather than stimulants, are found to be the reme- dies. When there are any fixed obstructions in any part of the system, it is difficult to determine Avhen the increased impetus of'the cir- culation is capable of overcoming and removing them: and much random judgment has been produced on this subject; Avhile it is very evident, that when such increased impetus is not capable of overcoming the obstruction, it is likely to prove very hurtful. When it happens that the action of the heart and arteries is al- ready considerably increased, it will be readily supposed, that me- dicines Avhich increase the same, would be improper: and so far as thev operate only by increasing the action of the heart and arte- ries, they may certainly be hurtful. But as nature has intended that the effects of the increased impetus of the blood should be obvi- ated by the flowing of sweat; so, when the operation of sudorifics; especially of those acting upon the extreme vessels alone, produ- ces this effect, it is possible that this sAveat'mg may not only render the first operation of sudorifics safe, even in cases where the im- petus of the blood ay as before preternaturally increased, but may also prove a means of removing the causes of that preternatural increase, and prove a remedy of the disease. This leads to the consideration of the effects and benefit of sweat- ing m fevers and phlegmasia. In the former we do not doubt but that SAveating, any hoAv excited, may sometimes prove a reme- dy: but it is at the same time extremely doubtful, whether it can be such when it is excited by medecines acting upon the heart and arteries: and we are certain that such medicines are generally hurt- ful. But on the other hand, when the sweating has been brought on by medicines Avhich act upon the extreme vessels only, as these remove the spasm of the extreme vessels which supports the fever, they may be a cure of the disease. I am clearly of opinion, that MATERIA MEDICA. 325 SAveating, by such a remedy, may in most cases be employed. But I have not attempted it so often as to allow me to be very po- sitive in advising it to be un'rversally practised. In certain fevers, in Avhich it is supposed that the contagion Avhich had produced the disease continues to be diffused over the svstem, and that the cure of the disease depends upon the expul- sion of this matter, it has been proposed to cure such a disease by copious sweating. Such is the case of the plague, which has been very universally treated by such a remedy : and without having had some experience in the disease, I cannot presume to condemn the practice. But I have many doubts to propose with respect to it: and that is enough to be said here, where the discussion could not be properly introduced. We cannot, however, dismiss the subject, without observing, that Chenot, an experienced practition- er, and one of the latest writers, is of opinion, that the copious sweatings formerly practised, are by no means necessary ; and that the judicious De Mertens, Avho Avrites of the plague of Moscow in 1771, does not propose sweating as one of the remedies to be em- ployed. In the case of the phlegmasia;, there is more difficulty in deter- mining the propriety of sweating. But it may in some measure be determined in the same manner, that is, according to the means of bringing it on. By heating, and what may be called inflamma- tory medicines, it is certainly improper: but by medicines acting upon the extreme vessels alone, it may be more safe. As we have however found, that sweating, even by the most simple sudorific regimen, sometimes aggravated inflammatory dis- eases ; we must say, that it is to be employed with doubt and cau- tion. At the same time, however, the effects of Dover's powder in rheumatism show, that sweating is not only compatible Avith, but may prove a remedy in a very inflammatory state of the sys- tem. We must, hoAvever, conclude Avith observing, that what are the circumstances of the particular phlegmasia; that may determine for or against this practice, is not sufficiently ascertained. Medicines which promote the discharge by the skin may be supposed to be remedies in the diseases of that part of the sys- tem ; and they may probably be such. But the distinction and pa- thology of cutaneous affections are with me still involved in so much obscurity, that I am not able to speak with any precision or clearness on the subject. It mav be supposed, when certain acrimonies are diffused over the whole system, that sweating may be a probable means of car- rvinc them out. And upon this footing it has been supposed, that sweating, by certain very powerful sudorifics, may be a means of curing the lues venerea : and it is alleged that it has actually prov- ed such. But it is not necessarv at present to enter into the dis- cussions either of the fact or the probability of it; as it is in few cases that we shall think of having recourse to the practice. / 326 TREATISE OF THE It has been supposed that sweating, like other serous evacua- tions, mav occasion an absorption of serum from the cavities in which it has been accumulated in the various species of dropsy: and in some instances this seems to have happened. But it does not happen so readily and constantly as to render the practice pre- ferable to the other practices which may be employed for the same purpose. PARTICULAR DIAPHORETICS. These are arranged in my catalogue according as they seem to act especially upon the heart and great arteries, or as we suppose them to act more especially upon the extreme vessels : and I have begun to enumerate these as we suppose them to act in the first manner. Those here enumerated may all be allowed to stimulate the heart and arteries: but in this they are of very different degrees of force. And many of them are so Aveak, that without great assist- ance from a sudorific regimen, they are not capable to excite sweat. Such are the Calendula, Crocus, Dulcamara, Salvia, Scordium, Sassafras, Sarsaparilla; all of which, Avith very little choice, may be employed, but without any advantage that I can perceive. There are other medicines in my list Avhich are more powerful, and require less assistance of the sudorific regimen ; such as the volatile alkali, Avine, and alcohol, and the essential oils, or the aromatics from which these are obtained. The volatile alkali, in moderate quantity, may be often conveniently employed for assist- ing the sudorific regimen ; and the same may be said of wine and alcohol in moderate doses. But they are in danger of going to ex- cess ; and in large doses are to be considered in another light. The essential oils, or the aromatics from which they are drawn are of the heating and inflammatory kind ; and may be employed sometimes as diaphoretic stimulants, but hardly in any case for the purpose of sAveating. The Contrayerva and Serpentaria are powerful stimulants, es- pecially the last. And both have been employed in fevers in Avhich a debility prevailed ; but with Avhat propriety seems to me very doubtful. I am persuaded that Avine may always supersede the stimulant poAver of these medicines ; and that debility is bet- ter remedied by the tonic and antiseptic powers of cold and Peru- vian bark than by any stimulants. On the subject of the Contrayerva and Serpentaria, I cannot avoid transcribing the Avords of the judicious De Mertens. u Radices contrayerva et serpentaria Virginiana a prastantissi- mis in arte viris tanquam optima remedia antiseptica laudatas infe- bribus putridis, solummodo quando vires deficiunt, et quidem raris- sime adhibeo ; experientia edoctus, illas corpori ingestus minus pro- ' desse virtute antiseptica, qualem experimenta in lagenis vel ollis in- stituta ipsis inesse demonstrant, quam vi calefaciente nocere. Putre- din'is humorum arcenda et corrigenda scopum solus absolvit cortex MATERIA MEDICA. 327 Peruvianus: et ubi cardiacis opus est, vinum cateris anteferendum mini videtur." And in a note he has this stricture on two cele- brated English physicians : " Huxham et Pringle, qui has radices commendant, vena sectionem initio harum febrium suadcnt: et in statu morbi vires stimulantibus excitare tentant." Of all the diaphoretics that may be employed to excite the ge- neral circulation, I hold the guaiacum to be one of the most valu- able; as it affords a matter which passes more entirely to the ex- treme vessels, and seems to stimulate the exhalants more in pro- portion than it does the heart and great arteries. By this means it is both a more safe and more effectual sudorific than those which stimulate the latter almost only. It is on this account that it may be justly considered as more effectual than other fudorifics in the cure of the lues venerea; and it is probably upon the same ground that it has been found so useful in all cases of rheumatism, and perhaps in those of gout. Having thus considered the several diaphoretics Avhich operate by exciting the powers of the general circulation, I must now speak of those which operate more especially or almost only, upon the extreme vessels. In making up my Catalogue I thought of inserting in this place Aquafrigida. I still think I should have done it; and therefore shall speak of it here. Taken into the stomach, it is a poAverful means of exciting the action of the extreme vessels. And with the assistance of covering the body very closely, it may be employed for exciting sweat. Galen and his immediate followers, as well as those of the 16th century, seem to have made much use of cold water, and fre- quently for the purpose of exciting sweat. But in more modern times, such practices, so far as I know, have been seldom follow- ed • and therefore, with respect to the effects or propriety of them, I cannot properly give anv opinion, but must advise my readers to consult the Gale.de writers, particularly Lommius, upon the sub- ject • and further, to consider two passages in Celsus, in Chap. VII. and IX. of his third book, which mention the exciting SAveat by a large quantity of cold water thrown into the stomach, and thereby curing fevers. , After thus supplying my omission of cold water, I proceed to mention the other articles of my Catalogue, which act especially upon the extreme vessels. . The first are the Acid Salts, of which the fossil species may be employed, but cannot be conveniently thrown in so suddenly as to be well adapted to sweating: and therefore the vegetable acids W been more commonly employed. Ot these= the crmented acid of vinegar has been considered as the most effectual. And a whey madelith a large proportion of vmegar proves commonly Tvery effectual sudorific. It has therefore been supposed, that vineglr has a power of attenuating the fluids. But this, upon the 328 TREATISE OF THE doctrines laid doAvn before Avith respect to attenuants, cannot be admitted: and we maintain that its sudorific power depends en- tirely upon its refrigerant poAver in the stomach, analogous to Avhat we are to say with regard to other saline diaphoretics. SALES NEUTRI. These are evidently, with a proper regimen, powerful sudori- fics, and have been frequently employed as such. For the use of nitre in this way, see Dr. Brocklesby's Observations, publish- ed in 1764. For the sudorific powers of the sal ammoniacus, see 3Iuy& de Sale Ammoniaco: and it appears from Boerhaave, that the sal di- gestivum, or febrifugum sylvii, has been employed to the same purpose. In mentioning these sudorific neutrals I need hardly add, that the saline mixture or neutral, formed of an alkali joined with the native acid of vegetables, is properly employed in favour- ing and supporting sweat. ANTIMONIUM. We have said above that this medicine, operating, as it always does, more or less on the stomach, by that operation excites the action of the extreme vessels. This is often to the degree of ex- citing sweat: and whether for this purpose certain preparations of it are more fit than others, I would not positively determine. In the case of fevers, we are clearly of opinion, that our nauseating doses have the best effects when they produce some sweating ; and that Avhen the antimonial alone does not readily do that, it should be assisted by some neutral salt joined to it. In other cases, as of rheumatism, or other inflammatory disease, the antimonial may be more certainly and properly determined to excite some sweating, by being joined with more or less of opium. In my Catalogue, I think I should have set down a general ti- tle of Emetics; as, from the analogy of antimony, Ave conclude, that all emetics are at the same time diaphoretics, and may very often be employed for exciting sweat. OPIUM. This substance has been at all times considered as a poAverful sudorific : and there has hardly been any celebrated sudorific com- position that has not had this as a chief ingredient in it. Though I have treated above pretty largely of the medicinal qualities of this substance, it is still properly considered here: and the ques- tion that especially occurs to us, is to explain upon what the sudo- rific powers of opium especially depend. To this purpose we shall allow, that the stimulant poAA'er of opi- um in exciting the action of the heart and arteries, may have a chief part in its producing sweat. But I maintain that opium does this more readily, and more safely, than any stimulants which ope- rate in the same manner; and this may be accounted for, and in my opinion can only be accounted for, by supposing that opium with its stimulant, at the same time exerts its sedative powers. .MATERIA MEDICA. 329 These must especially affect the parts most distant from the sensorium, which are the extreme vessels every where.—It mani- festly diminishes the activity of these vessels, and therefore sup- presses all excretions. But even this must be with some relaxation of their tone and tension, whence they may more easily yield to the increased impetus of the blood in the great vessels. In this manner we account for the sudorific powers of this substance: and we presume that it is consistent with all the several opera- tions and medicinal qualities of opium which we have mentioned above, and which it is not therefore necessary for us to repeat here. MOSCHUS. When this is given in large doses, it commonly induces sleep, and almost as certainly occasions a profuse sweat. It is therefore properly considered here as a sudorific: and its operation is ex- plained by the same reasoning we have just now employed on the subject of opium. In its turn the consideration of musk illustrates and confirms that reasoning. In the catalogue of diaphoretics there are two artic es which I have not yet taken notice of: and I doubt if they should have been inserted. The first of these is camphor, which, with a sudorific recimen, might perhaps be employed. But in the frequent exhibi- tioCof itwhich Ihave been acquainted with, I have not observed its tendency to excite sweating; and therefore think it was not pro- Ptne^thrr"anic7 Should have taken notice of is the Hydrar- evrus. This certainly reaches the extreme vessels, and excites Seh action : and the most acrid preparation the corrosive subli- ma e sometimes excites sweating. But neither this nor the other meparation^ are given intentionally for this purpose ; nor in my Sfon could they be conveniently employed as sudorifics, Avhich Salways operL more suddenly than a moderate dose of mer. cury could be supposed to concur with them. CHAPTER XXIIL MENAGOGA, from them. . ,. i ti^ ancient and modern, The writers on the '°^™*»*£ZS» as emmena: particularly the former, menuon ™n^ medc(hose rccommend. Rogues: and I haveemployed.^greatn^mber^ rf ^ ^ Wi «s hat T have ventured to allege that the ancient ^rt h°adttC on 3S subject .poUn from experience. Those Vol. II, 330 TREATISE OF THE disappointments which I have met with, I find to have also hap- pened to my fellow practitioners: and I have not, amongst the most experienced, found any one who does not acknowledge his failures in employing the emmenagogue medicines recommended by writers; nor who does not OAvn, that he cannot, almost in any Case of amenorrhcea, Avith confidence, promise success in curing it. What is the foundation of this failure, it is not easy to assign. But I judge it to be OAving to this, that Ave have not yet found out a medicine Avhich has any specific power in stimulating the vessels of the uterus ; and farther, to explain this, I must make a feAv re- marks upon the nature of the menstrual discharge. I suppose then, that in consequence of the gradual evolution of the system, at a certain period of life, the vessels of the uterus are diluted and filled ; and that by this congestion, these vessels are stimulated to a stronger action, by Avhich their extremities are forced upon and pour out blood. According to this idea it will appear, that I suppose the menstrual discharge to be upon the foot- ing of an active haemorrhagy ; which by the laAvs of the ceconomy is disposed to return, after a certain interval, and which, after some repetition, may, by the poAver of habit, be determined to re- turn at regular periods.—This is my general idea, which I think may be rendered applicable to all the various phenomena and ac- cidental occurrences which happen with respect to this discharge. It would not, however, be proper to enter into such an explanation here ; and for my present purpose I am to make use of only one circumstance: this is, that as in all active haemorrhagies the flow- ing of blood depends especially upon the increased action of the vessels of the part; so in the uterine discharge it depends upon an increased action in the vessels of the uterus. To apply this more particularly, we must observe, that the in- terruption of this discharge is in two different states ; one of which is, when the menses do not Aoav about the time of life that is the most usual with the sex ; and the other is, when the flow having been established at its usual periods for some time, it is by certain causes interrupted from returning at its usual times. These tAvo states are well knoAvn under the titles of the Retention and the Suppression of the menstrual discharge. The first state, that of retention, Ave suppose to depend upon some weakness of action in the vessels of the uterus ; the other, of suppression, Ave suppose to depend upon some constriction in the extremities of the same vessels, which prevents their yielding to the usual impetus of the blood flowing in the larger portions of them. The Avhole of the above remarks might perhaps have been omit- ted here, by referring my readers to the VI and VIII Chapters of the Fourth book of my First Lines, from which they may still take the doctrine more fully. But in an introduction to the Medica- menta Menagoga, I thought it necessary to give the general doc- trine ; which amounts to this, that the medicines which are to be MATERIA MEDICA. 331 employed in both the states of amenorrhea, are chiefly those which strengthen and increase the action of the vessels of the uterus : and with this explanation I proceed now to make some remarks upon PARTICULAR EMMENAGOGUES. ALOE. Of this Ave have treated in its proper place amongst the purga- tives ; and there too we have made our remarks upon its supposed emmenagogue virtues. GUMMI FOETIDA, et PLANTAE FOETIDAE. Of these I have treated above, under the head of antispasmo- dics ; and have there insinuated, that they have seldom or never answered my expectations in practice as emmenagogues. But I have said that there may be some fallacy in my experiments, and certainly I could not disregard the general opinion so much as to omit them here. CROCUS. I must say the same with respect to this article. But I have given above mv reasons for suspecting that it is a medicine for the most part insignificant. CASTOREUM. Of this also I have treated above as an antispasmodic ; and per- haps that virtue is a good reason for introducing it here : but be- sides that, it has as good a right to be considered as an emmena- gogue as any of the disagreeable odours Avhich we have mentioned as such before. The Castor is commonly enough joined with the foetid gums: and Avhenever I have employed these with any suc- cess, I am of opinion that the castor had a great share in produc- ing the effects. ... With respect to the castor, let it be observed, that as it is m our shops it is in different conditions ; that the most odorous is the most powerful medicine ; and that some of the kinds ot little odour have hardly any power at all. FERRUM. This wo have also treated of before as an astringent and tonic medicine : but we have introduced it here as commonly supposed to be a very powerful emmenagogue. From the principles we have laid down above, it will readily appear, that, in the ■casesi ot retention, attended as they commonly are with a general ^adity of the system, the tonic powers of iron are like y to be the most poAverfulremedv: but at the same time, it will be probable that n the cases of suppression depending upon a constriction of the "xlremitieJ of the vessels of the uterus, the same tonic powers mav not be so properly employed. HYDRARGYRUS. a v„ Sl9 an universal stimulant, and as very commonly reach- ,. 'evremc ve^s, mav be capable of stimulating those oi 332 TREATISE OF THE, &c. the uterus, and therefore of proving an emmenagogue. Upon this supposition it is introduced here ; and, from several trials, I am persuaded that the continued use of mercury has proved a cure of suppressions. Hoav far it may be employed in cases of retention I am uncertain; but am of opinion, that it can be nei- ther so safely nor so effectually employed in these as in the cases of suppression. EM) OI VOLUME SECO.\£r. INDEX TO BOTH VOLUMES. IPhere the first volume is refered to, the page alone is inserted. ABERCROMBIE (Da. VID,) 90. Abrotanum, ii. 46. foemina, ii. ibid. Absorbents, ii. 229. Absynthii essentia, ii. 4G« tinctura, ii. ibid. Absynthium, ii. 45. ponticum, ii. ibid. Romanum, ii* ibid Acacia, ii. 23. Acanthus, ii. 71. Acerba, ii. 23. Acetosa, ii. 22. Acetum, ii. 261. concentratum, ii. 193* distillatum, ii. ibid. rosaceum, ii. 19. volatile, ii. 194. Acid, ii. 284. serial, ii. 73, 240. of borax, ii. 196. of fir, ii. 193. fossil, ii. 276, 320. marine, ii. 190. of milk, ii. 195. muriatic, ii. 190, 256, 276. nitrous, ii. 189, 276,290. salts, ii. 327. of tartar, ii. 290. vegetable, ii. 190, 256, 276, 290, 310, 320. fermented, ii. 199. native, ii. 196. distilled, ii. 193, 199. Acid, vitriolic, ii. 19, 18?*. 156. Acidity, ii. 284. Acids in general, ii. 73. fossil, ii. 188, 242. vegetable, ii<. 242, 276, 290. Acrids as condiments, 253. iErial acid, ii. 73, 240. iEther, ii. 215. iEthiops mineral, 34. iEtius, 18. Agrimony, ii. 17. Aikenside, (Mark) ii. 265. Aiken, (John) ii. 16. Alchemilla, ii. 18. Alcohol, ii. 181, 326. Ales, 167, 244, 249. Alexander, (William) ii. 169, 184, 197. Alexipharmics, 93. Aliments, ii. 230. animal, 184. vegetable, 147. of different solubility, 145- particular, 146. taken from animals, 186. amphibia, 231. birds, 226. fishes, 232. insects, 235* quadrupeds, 223. Avorms, 236. Alkalescent plants, ii. 9.J. Alkali fixed, ii. 240. vegetable, ii. 290. Alkali a constituent par' of soap, ii. 228. fossil, ii. 290. pure, ii. 2-10. 334 I N vegetable, ii. 290. volatile, ii. 320, 326. Alkalina, ii. 227. Alkaline salts, ii. 239. fixed, ii. 73, 288, 321.- volatile, ii. 243. Alkalines, ii. 228. Alkekengi, ii. 312. Alliacse, 165—ii. 98, 316. Allium ascalonicum, ii. 101. cepa, ii. ibid. fistulosum, ii. ibid. porrum, ii. ibid. sativum, ii. 98, 316. schamoprasum, ii. 101. scorodoprasum, ii. 100. Aloe, ii. 295, 331. Barbadensis, ii. 295. Hepatica, ii. ibid. Socotorina, ii. ibid. Aloetic pill, ii. 296. Alsine, ii. 71. Alston (Charles), 29. 39, 100, ii. 42. Alterantia, ii. 223. Althaea, ii. 71. Alum, ii. 3, 9. burnt, ii. 11. Amara, ii. 244, 294. Amber, ii. 207. oil of, ibid. distilled, ibid. salt of, ibid. Ambergris, ii. 206. Ammi, ii. 89. Ammonia, ii. 220. Ammoniac salt, common, ii. 198. secret, ii. 197. Amygdala amarae, 166. . dulces, ISO. Amylum, ii. 237. \nas domestica, 229. Andromachus, senior, 14. Anethum, ii. 89. Angelica, ii. 91. Animal fats, ii. 72. food, 220, 221, 254. Anise, ii. 80. . DEX. Anisum, ii. 89. stellatum, ii. 90. Anodyne necklace, 17. Anonis, 32. Anser domesticus, 229. Antacida, ii. 237. Antalkalina, ii. 240. _ Antiemetic mixture, ii. 198. Antihecticum poterii, 34. Antimonium, ii. 272, 328. calcinatum, ii. 276. diaphoreticum, 34,—ii. 276. Antimony, ii. 272. butter of, ii. 73. crude, ii. 272, 274. Antiputrida, 33. Antiscorbutic, 255. Antiscorbutics, ibid. Antiseptics in general, ii. 241. in particular, ii. 242. Antispasmodic, ii. 295. Antispasmodics in gen. ii. 200.. in particular, ii. 206. Antizymics, ii. 185. Antony, (Francis), 22. Aparine, 32—ii. 20. Apophlegmatizonta, ii. 249. Apples, 152. Aqua, ii. 223. frigida, ii. 327. juniperi composita, ii. 107- raphani compositi, ii. 94. reginae Hungarian, ii. 87- Aquafortis, ii. 189. Aqua sapphirina, ii. 14. Aquilegia, 32. Aquosa blanda, ii. 226. Arabians, 19. Arbuthnot, (John), 157. Archigenes, 18. Argentina 32—ii. 18. Aristolochia, ii. 47. Aristotle, 10. Arnica, ii.- 50. Aromata, ii. 115. Aromatics, 25-1—ii. 245. Arrack, 251. Artemisia, ii. 209. INDEX. 335 Artichoke, 162. Arum, ii. 121, 312. Asafoetida, 255—ii. 210. Asarum, ii. 247, 276, 312. Asclepiades, 5. Pharmacion, 18. Asparagus, 162—ii. 312. Asperi foliac, ii. 235. Asplenium, ii. 23. Asses milk, 198. Astringentia, 33—ii. 244. Astringents, ii. 54. in general, ii. 1. particular, ii. 8. vegetable, ii. 17. Astruc (Joan.) ii. 112. Atagas, 228. Atriplex, ii. 71. fcetida, ii. 209. Attenuants, ii. 227. Attenuantia, ii. 258. Avellana, 180. Avena, 34, 169. Avicenna, 20. Aurantia curaslaventia, ii. 49. Aurantii cortex, ii. ibid. Aurantium, 152—ii. ibid. B Bacher, ii. 302. Baglivi, (George) ii. 35. Baker, (Sir George) ii. 269. Baking, 171, 240. Balaustia, ii. 27. Balaustines, ii. ibid. Balsam copaib.e, ii. 107, 109. Balsamica, ii. 107, 294, 316. Balsamics as astringents, ii. 29. Balsams, ii. 104. Balsamum canadense, ii. 106. copaibae, ii. 107, 108, 294. guaiacinum, ii. 111- Peruvianum, ii. 109. Tolutanum, ii. ibid. Bardana, ii. 312. Bark Peruvian, ii. 18, 49, 135 198, 326. Barley, 166. water, 166—ii- 309. Barn-door foAvl, 227. Barry, (EdAvard) ii. 74. Bartholinus (Thomas) ii. 319. Basil, (Valentine) 20. Basilicon nigrum, ii, 110. Batatas, 166, 176. Bauhin, (John) 25, 29—ii. 166. Baume, ii. 122. Bean, 179. Bearsbreech, ii. 71. Beccaria, (Giam Batista) 145, 172. Bedeguar, 34—ii. 20. Beer, 167. Beet, ii. 287. white, ii. 71. Behr, (Henry) 35. Belladonna, ii. 154. Bellis, 37. Benzoini fiores, ii. 110. Benzoinum, ii. 110, 317. Berger, (De) ii. 114,169,173. Bergius, (Jonas Petrus) 39, 99—ii. 3, 21, 26, 46, 51, 66,91, 96, 100, 119, 149, 161, 181,294. Bergman, (Sir. Torben) ii. 238. Berkley, (Bishop) ii. 192. Beta, ii. 71, 247. Betony, ii. 82, 247. Bierken, (Petrus Af.) ii. 151. Bilis animalium, ii. 294. Birds, 226. Bistorta, ii. 22. Bitter almond, ii. 106. . Bitterness, ii. 31. Bitters, ii. ibid. in general, ii. ibid. particular, ii. 40. Bituminous fossils, ii. 208. Black (Joseph), ii. 11. Black cock, 228. currant berry, 154. hellebore, ii. 302. pepper, ii. 120. , Blue vitriol, ii. 13, 271. Boerhaave, (Herman), 45, 101, 163, 173, 210—ii. 8, 22, 54,112, 180,194,226,228, 237, 240, 275. :3«>6 INDEX. Boiling, 239. Bokis Armena, 37—ii, 8. gallica, ii. 8. rubra, ii. 8. Bontius (Jac.) ii. 117. Bonus, Henricus, 37—ii. 71. Borax, acid of, ii. 196. Borrichius (Olaus), ii. 20. Bos, 223. Bouvart (Mr.) ii. 299. Boyle, (the Honorable Robert) 25,92—ii. 155. Branca ursina, ii. 31. Brandy, 251,261. Brassica, 158—ii. 95,287. gongylodes, 159. napus, 164. oleracea, 159. rapa, 164. sabauda, 159. Brassicae capitate, ibid. Brawn, 225. Bread, 171. fermented, 173. unfermented, 174. Brocoli, 159. Brocklesby (Richard), ii. 197, 328. Broiling, 240. Broom, ii. 299. Brouzet, 200. Buchave, ii. 18. Buchner, {And. El.) 35. Buckthorn berries, ii. 306. Buckwheat, 175. Buffon, {Le Comptc de) 228. Bufo ustus, 37. Burdock, ii. 312. Burnet Saxifrage, 91. Bursa pastoris, 33. Butter, 187, 188,211. of antimony, ii. 73. of milk, 214. C Cabbage, 159. white, ibid. red, ibid. C^cao, 181. Calendula, ii. 326. Camphire, 254—ii. 167, 215. oil of, ii. 174. Canada balsam, ii. 106. Canella alba, ii. 120. Cantharides, ii. 317, 319. Capillary plants, ii. 23, Capon, 227. Capra, 224. Capsicum, 254—ii. 120. CaraAvay, ii. 90. Cardamine, ii. 94. Cardamon the leBser, ii. 118. Carduus benedictus, 32—ii. 43, 45, 267. Carrot, ii. 287. Cartheuser, (Fred. John) $5, 36—ii. 88, 111, 118. Carum, ii. 90. Caryophillata, ii. 18. Caryophilli, 116. Cassia bark, ii. ibid. of the cane, ii. 285. Cassia fistularis, ii. ibid. lignea, ii. 116. Castanea, 176. Castor, ii. 219. oil, ii. 300. Cathartic, ii. 289. Cathartica, ii. 278. acriora, ii. 294. mitiora, ii. 284. laxantia, ii, 294. purgantia, ii. ibid. Cathartics, ii. 278, 281, 284. Cato the censor, 12. Caustic, lunar, ii. 74. Caustics, ii. 73. Celeri, 161. Celsus, 12, 174, 222—ii. 327. Centaurium minus, ii. 41. Centaury, ii. 45. Cepe, 165. Cephalics, ii. 84. Cerasa nigra, ii. 165. Cerealia, 166, 167, 174, 178. Cerevisia, 33. Cervus, 325. INDEX. 337 Cete, 184. Chocolate, 131. Chalk, ii. 8. Chalybs, ii. 11. Chamsedrys, ii. 47. ^ Chamaemeli flore3, ii. 44, 71. Chamaemelum, ii. 44. Romanum, ii. ibid. Chamaepitys, ii. 47. Chamomile, ii. 44, 267, 272. Cheese, 189, 190, 191. Cheiri fiores, 37. Chelidonium majus, 23. Chenopodium bonus henricus, ii. 71. Chenot, (Adam) ii. 159, 325. Cherries, 152. Chesnut, 176. Cheyne, (George) 226—ii. 195. Chickweed, ii. 71. Chittick's medicine, ii. 239. Chomel, (Jean Baptiste) 30, 31, 33—ii. 19, 88. Chrystallus Montana, 37. Churning, 187. Cicuta conium, ii. 150. virosa, ii. 54. Cinnabaris antimonii, 34. factitia, ibid. Cinnamon, ii. 115. Cinquefoil, ii. 19. Clark, (David) ii. 45. Clay, ii. 9. Clephane, (George) ii. 37. Clossicus, ii. 65. Cloves, ii. 116. Cloyne, (Bishop of) ii. 192. Coagulum aluminosum, ii. 10. Cochlea pomatium, 237. Cochlearia, ii. 93. Cock, 227. of the mountain, 228. Cockle, 236. Coelius Aurelianus, ii. 37. Coffee, 34. Coibatch, (John) ii. 26. Cold seeds, 182. Collin,(Joseph) ii. 169,172,177. Voi. IE Collyflower, 159. Colocynthis, ii. 307. Coltsfoot, ii. 260. Coluber berus, 232. Columba, 230—ii. 44. domestica, 238. Comfrey, ii. 236. Condiments, 251. acrid, ibid. saline, ibid. Coniferse, ii. 102. Conium maculatum, ii. 88. Conserve of roses, ii. 19. Contrayerva, ii. 245, 326. Cookery, 237. Copper, ii. 13, 74. Corallina, ii. 239. Corallium, ii. ibid. Coriandrum, ii. 90. Cornu cervi pm paratum, 33. ustum, ii. 249. Corrosive sublimate, ii. 252, 256, 271. Corrosives, ii. 73. Corstorphin cream, 213. Cortex aurantii, ii. 49. granatorum, ii. 25. Peruvianus, ii. 51. querci, ii. 25. suberis, 33. winteranus, ii. 120. Cortices, ii. 25. Cow's milk, 198. Crab, 235. Crammed foAvl, 227. Craneberry, 154. Cranium humanum, 33. Crantz (Jo. Henr. Nepom.) 37. Cream of milk, 185, 191. Corstorphin, 213. of tartar, ii. 289. Creta, ii. 9, 239. Crocus, ii. 180, 245, 326, 331. metallorum, ii. 275. Crude antimony, ii. 272. Cruger, (Hen. Chr.) ii. ibid. Crustacea, 235. Crystals of tartar, ii. 289. S's 338 I N D E X. Cubebae, ii. 120. Cuckow pint, ii. 121. Cucumber, 157. Cucurbitaceae, ibid. Culmiferae, 177. Cummin, ii. 90. Cuniculus, 226. Cuprum, ii. 13. ammoniacum, ii. ibid. Curaso apples, ii. 49. Curcuma, 23. Curd of milk, 185. Currant berry, 154. Cursuta, ii. 41. Cycas revoluta, 175. Cynara, 162. Cynoglossum, ii. 236. Cynosbatus, 154. D Dale, (Samuel) 29. Dandelion, 161. Date, 155. Daucus, 164. Deadly night-shade, ii. 154. Decoctum senekae, ii. 312. De Mertens, (Carolus) ii. 325. Demulcents, ii. 234. particular, ii. 235. oily, ii. 234. Dens Leonis, 34. Diacassia, ii. 286. Diaphoretics in general, ii. 322. particular, ii. 326. Digitalis, ii. 313. Dill, ii. 89. Diluentia, ii. 228. - Dimerbroeck, ^Isbrand) ii. 152. Dioscorides, 14, 17. Distilled acid of vegetables, ii. 191. Diuretics, ii. 288. in general, ii. 307. particular, ii. 311. Dolicos, 256. Dover (Thomas), ii. 250. Dover's poAvder, ii. 137, 148, 149, 197, 325. Dragon':* blood, ii. 10,24. Drink, 241. Drinks, 242, 244. Drupaceae, 152. Drying 238. Dulcamara, ii. 323, 326. Dulcia, ii. 230, 287. Dunghill foAvl, 227. Dwarf, elder, ii. 300. E Ebeling, (J. T. P. C.) ii. 42. Ebulus, ii. 300. Ebur, 33. Eggs, 230. Elaterium, ii, 307. Elder, common, ii. 300. berries of, ii. ibid. flowers of, ii. ibid. Elecampagne, ii. 259. Eleo saccharum, ii. 85, 89. Elixir aloes vitriolicum, ii, 296, guaiacinum, ii. 113. volatile, ii. ibid. proprietatis, ii. 296. sacrum, ii. ibid. salutis, ii. ibid. vitrioli acidum, ii. 139. Emmenagogue, 94—ii. 295. in general, ii. 329. particular, ii. 331. Emerigon (Mr.) ii. 113. Emetica, 261. Emeticum mite, ii. 275. Emollients in general, ii. 66. particular, ii. 70. Endive, 161. English mercury, ii. 71. Enula campana, ii. 312. Erasistratus, 11. Erigerum, ii. 267. Erodents, ii. 73. Errhina, ii. 246. Erysimum, ii. 95. Eschalot, 255. Escharotics, ii. 73. Esculapius, 9. Essential oil, 254—ii. 104, 320, 326. Etmuller (Michael), 29. INDEX. JJ3 Evacuantla, ii. 223. Fmphorbium, ii. 248 Euphrasia, 33. EAves' milk, 198. Expectorants in general, ii. 257. particular, ii. 259. Extractum colocynthides, com- positum, ii. 297, 307. F Faba, 179. (St. Ignatii) ii. 36, 43. F'abius Columna, ii. 213. FagopA-rum, 175. FalloAV deer, 225. Farina alibilis, 166. Farinacea, ibid. non fermentata, 13. Febrifugum sylvii, ii. 328. Fehr (J. M.) 165. Fennel, sweet, ii. 90. Fermentation, vinous, 250. Fermented acid of vegetables, ii. 193. liquors, 244. Fern, male, ii. 23. Ferrain, 34. Ferrum, ii. 11, 331. Foetid plants, ii. 209. Fcetids, ii. 206. Feverfew, ii. 209. Figs, dried, 155. Filberts, 180. Filix mas, ii. 23. Filices, ii. ibid. Fir, acid of, ii. 193. First lines of the Practice of Physic, ii. 4, 5, 35, 51, 143, 201, 202, 204, 241, 264, 269, 330. Fishes, 232. Fixed alkaline salt ii. 73, 288, 320. Florentine orrice, ii. 259. Floyer (Sir John), 24, 90—n. 64. Foeniculum, ii. 90. Folia plantarum, 158. Fondant, ii. 289. Forrestus (Petrus), ii. 17, 88. Forster (J. R.) 153. Fossil acids, ii. 188, 242, 276, 320. Fothergill, (John), ii. 24, 153. Fourcroy, 26. Fowl, barn-door, 227. crammed, ibid. dunghill, ibid. Fox-glove, ii. 313. Fragaria, 34—ii. 19. F'raxinus ornus, ii. 287. Frogs, 232. Fructus acido dulces, 147. recentes, ii. 284. siccatae, ii. 285. horaei, 147. Fruits, acid, 148. dried, 154—ii. 285., preserved, 153. recent, ibid. Frying, 240. Fuligo ligni, ii, 214. Fuller (Francis), ii. 260. Fumaria, ii. 43. Fumitory, common, ii. ibid. Fungi esculent, 184. G Galbanum, ii. 212. Galen, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 148, 198—ii. 35, 327. Galium, ii. 21. Gall ointment, ii. 26. Gallx, ii. ibid. Gallin e, 227. Gallopavo, 221. Galls, ii. 26. Gallus Gallinaceus, 227. Gamboge, ii. 306. Garaye (Compte de la), ii. 39. Garlic, 165, 255—ii. 98. Gaspari (Girolamo), ii, 20. Gaubius, (H. D.)—ii. 16, 37, 85, 119, 226. Gelatinae ex rebus animalibus, ii. 237. Gelinotte d'Ecosse, 228. Genista, ii. 299, 312. 340 INDEX. Gentian, ii. 40. Gentiana, ii. 41. lutea, ii. ibid. purpurea, ii. ibid. rubra, ii. ibid. Geoffroy (Stephen Francis), 28, 29,31, 32—ii. 89,196. Gesner (Conrad), ii. 154. Ginger, ii. 118. Gingiber conditum, ii. ibid. Ginseng, ii. 92. Glauber (J. Rudolphus), ii. 190, 192, 290. salt, ii. 279, 290. Gleditsch (J. G.) ii. 46. Glycyrrhiza, ii. 232. Glysters, ii. 284, 292. Goat, 221. Goat's milk, 135. Gonorrhoea spuria, 34. Gorter, (de) 219 236. Goose, solan, 229. tame, ibid. Gooseberry, 154. Goose grass, ii. 21. Gordonius (Bernhard), 21. Goulard, ii. 15. Grallae, 229. Gramen, ii. 312. Graminis radix, 34. Grana paradisi, ii. 118. Granatorum cortex, ii. 25. Grape, 154. Great water dock, ii. 22. Greater bistort, ii. ibid. Greding, ii. 155, 162. Griffin (Corbet), ii. 169. Grossularia, 154. Ground ivy, ii. 83. Groundsel, ii. 267. Guaiacum, ii. 112, 212, 327. Guinea hen, 288. pepper, ii. 119. Gum ammoniac, ii. 211. arabic, ii. 236. cerasi, ii. ibid. guaiacum, ii. 112. Gummi foetid*, ii. 310, 331. resinae, ii. 245. Gums fetid, ii. 211. Gunzius, (J. G.) ii. 66. H Haen, (de) 92—ii. 27,141, 151. Hales, (Stephen) 178. Halle, ii. 177. Haller, (Albert) 48, 234—ii. 17, 37, 230. Hard Avater, 242. Hare, 225. Hartman, (George) 29. Hazel nuts, 180. Heberden, (William) ii. 2. Hedera terrestris, 37—ii. 83. Hedge mustard, ii. 97. Hellebore, black, ii. 304. Helmot, ii. 16. Helmont, (Van) 200. Helvetius, (A.) ii. 10. Hemlock, ii. 150. extract of, ii. 153. plaster of, ii. 154. poultice of, ii. ibid. powder of, ii. 153. seeds of, ii. ibid. Hen, 227. Henbane, ii. 155. leaves of, ii. ibid. root of, ii. ibid. seeds of, ii. ibid. Heraclides, 11. Herman, (Paul) 24. Herophilus, 11. Heucher, (George) ii. 6. Heurman, (de J. Henr.) ii. 27. Hill, (John) 39—ii. 8. Hippocrates, 10, 222—ii. 19. Hoffman, (Fred, junior) 29, 90, 1'98—ii. 44, 107, 115, 169, 177,215, 274. liquor anodynus, ii. 215. Home, (Francis) ii. 123, 290. Honey, ii. 232. recent, ii. ibid. Hops, ii. 43, Hoppe, (D. F. W.) ii. 108. Hordeum, 167. distichum, ibid. tetrastichum, ibid. INDEX. 341 hexastichum, 167. Horse-radish, 255. root, ii. 96, 267. Hounds' tongue, ii. 236. Huet, (Bernard) ii. 144. Hulme, (Nathaniel) 252. Hungary-water, ii. 87. Huntdermark, (C. Fred.) ii. 15. Hunter, (John) ii. Ill, 152. Hydragyrus, ii. 329, 331. Hydrolapathum, ii. 22. Hyosciamus, ii, 155. Hypnotic sedatives, ii. 124. Hypocistus, ii. 23. Hysop, ii. 83. Huxham, (John) ii. 327. J Jalap, ii. 302. Jamaica pepper, ii. 119. James's powder, ii. 275. Japan earth, ii. 23. Icthyocolla, ii. 237. Jesuits' bean, ii. 43. Immutantia, ii. 223. Incidentia, ii. 258. Infusum amarum, ii. 294. rosarum, ii. 19. Insects, 235. Inspissantia, ii. 233. Joerdens, ii. 173. Johnston, (James) ii, 218. Ipecacuanha, ii. 269, 272. Iridis nostratis succus radicis, ii. 248. Iris Germanica, 33. florentina, ii. 259. Iron, ii. 11. Isinglass, ii. 237. Juglans, 180. Jujubes, 155. Juncter, (John) ii. 122. Juniper, ii. 106. berries, ii. 107. K Kay, (John) 22. Keill, (James) 219, 234. Ker, (James) ii. 24. Kermes mineral, ii. 275. Kesselmaier, 145. Ketchup, 255. Kidney-bean, 179. Kinnier, (David) ii. 169, 172. Kino, ii. 10, 24. Koenig, (Emanuel) 26. Kunckell, (Joan) ii. 272. L Ladanum, ii. 110. Lac ebutyratum, ii. 286. Lacerta guana, 232. Lactua, 161. Ladies' bed-straw, ii. 21. Ladies mantle, ii. 18. Lake-Avater, 243. Lamb, 224. Langrish, (Brown) 51—ii. 165, 177. Lapathi, ii. 71. Lapathum, ii. 22. Lapides calcari ~, ii. 239. Lassonne, (J. M. F.) ii. 169, 175. Latd, (James) ii. 173. Lavendula, ii. 84. Lauro cerasus, ii. 162. Laxath'e, ii. 184, 186. Laxatives, ii. 186. neutral, ii. 197. Laxantia salina, ii. 288. Lead, ii. 15. Leek, 255—li. 101. Legumina, 166, 177. Lemon-peel, ii, 50. Lenitivum electuarium, ii. 286, 301. Lent-diet, 234. Leopard's bane, ii. 50. Lepus, 225. Le Roy Archange, ii. 122. Lesser centaury, ii. 41. Lettuce, 161. LeAvis, (William) 40, 100—ii. 10, 41, 99, 122, 117, 122, 207, 295, 319. Libavius (Andreas), 29. Lieutaud (Joseph), 32, 33, 34, 101, ii. 71, 299. Lightfoot (John), ii. 18. 34* INDEX. Lignum campechense, ii. 27. Linacre (Thomas), 22. Lintl (James), of Hasler, 252 —ii. 135. Lindenstople (Joan), ii. 46. Limonium, 152. Linnaeus (Sir Charles), 38, 91, 95, 156,228. 231—ii. 17,46, 98, 119. Linseed, ii. 73, 171. Liquid storax, ii. 110. Liquor anodynus Hoffmanni, ii. 215. mineralis, ii. 207. Liquors fermented, 244, 250. Lister (Martin), 307, 329. Lithospermum, ii. 312. Lobster, 205. Loesecke, (J. L. L.) 35, 101. Lommius (Jodoes), ii. 327. Loose strife, ii. 2 7. Ludwig(Ch. Gott.) ii. 156, 162. Lunar caustic, ii. 74. Lupulus, ii. 43. Lythrum, ii. 27. M Macbride (David), 168—ii. 243. Mice, ii. 117. Macis, ii. ibid. Madder, ii. 21. Magnesia alba, ii. 240, 291. Maidenhair, ii. 23. Maize, 170. Majorana, ii. 84, 247. Mallow, ii. 71. Malt, ii. 244. liquors, ii. 286. spirit, 251, Malting, 250. Malva, ,158—ii. 4, 57. Mammalia, 184, 215. Manna, ii. 286. Mares milk, 198. Margraff, (Andr. S.) i41, 163, —ii. 9. Marine acid, ii. 190. Marjoram, SAveet, ii. 84. Mars, ii. 11. Marsh-mallow, ii. 71. trefoil, or buckbean, ii. 4-, Marubium, ii. 88. Masticatories, ii. 249. Matricaria, 209. Matthiolus (Andreas), 31. Mayerne (Sir Theodore), 22. Mead (Richard), 2j>i ii—10, 113, 319, 321. Meat, 241. Meats, 237- putrescent, 239. salted, 238, 251. vegetable, 255, 256. Mel, ii. 232. rosaceum, ii. 19. Melampodium, ii. 304. Melilotus, ii. 71. Melon, 157. Menagoga, ii. 329. Menghini, ii. 12, 168. Mentha piperata, ii. 85. sativa, ii. ibid. Menyanthes, ii. 42. Mercurius dulcis, ii. 156. emeticus flavus, ii. 271. Mercury ii. 250. Mezereon, ii. 122. Melium, 168. Milk, 185—ii. 70. of asses, 185. of ewes, 198. of goats, 185. of mares, ibid. of sheep, ibid. of Avomen, ibid. acid of, ii. 195. its caseous part, 194, 211. its coagulable part, 185, 188, its oily part, 185, 193. its serous part, ibid. sugar of, 214. its watery matter, 185. Millefolium, ii. 27. Millepedae, ii. 319. Millet, 168. Milman (Francis), ii. 310. Mineral waters, ii. 291. INDEX. 343 Misletoe, ii. 27. Mistura, guiacina, ii. 113. Mithridates, 13. Morris (Michael), ii. 151. Morton (Richard) ii. 56. Moschus, ii. 217, 329. Mucilaginosa, ii. 236. MugAvort, ii. 209. Muriatic acid, 190,235,276,290. Murray (Jo. Andreas), 37, 100, —ii. 17, 20, 27, 42, 84, 97, 209. Musa (Antonius), ii, 83. Mushrooms, ii. 191. Musk, ii. 217. Mussel, 236. Mustard, 235—ii. 96, 267. for the table, ii. 97, 276, 271. Muys (W. G.) ii. 32 8. Myrrha, ii. 110. N Narcotic sedatives in general, ii. 124. Narcotics, particular, ii. 128. Nasturtium aquaticum, ii. 94. Natrum tartarisatum, ii. 290. NaveAv, 164. Navier, (P. T.) 26. Needham, (Tuberville) ii. 184. Neutral salts, ii. 196. 289, 321. Newman, (Casper) 100. Nicander, 13. Nicotiana, ii. 156, 248, 270. Nitre, 252—ii. 29, 198, 228. cubic, ii. 197. Nitrous acid, ii. 189, 276. Nuces oleosae, 179. Numida, 228. Nutmeg, ii. 117. Nux moschata, ii. 116. Nymphaea, ii. 71, 181. O Oak bark, ii. 26. Oats, 169. Oil, ii. 235. _ of amber, ii. 208. of camphire, ii. 174. emollient, ii. 69. essential, ii. 104, 230, 243, 2e6. a constituent part of soap, ii. 258. of olives, ii. 73. volatile, ii. 2 20. Olea empyitumatica, ii. 216. ex animalibus, ii. 217. essentialia, ii. 214. Oleosa blanda, ii. 237. Olera, 158. acescentia, ii. 243. blanda, ii. 287. Oleraceae, 158. Oleum aniinale, ii. 216. caryophillorum, ii. 116. macis expressum, ii. ibid. ricini, ii. 300. succini, ii. 207. terebinthinae, 34. Olibanum, ii. 107. Olives, 182. oil of, ii. 73*. Onion, ii. 312. juice of, ii. 101. Opium, ii. 109, 128, 156, 245 Opopanax, ii. 212. Orache, ii. 71. Orache, stinking, ii. 209. Orange of China, 153—ii. 49. peel, ii. 50. tree, ii. ibid. Ochis bifolia, 175. morio, ibid. Oribasius, 18. Oryza, 169. Ostracea, 236. Ovis, 224. Ox, ii. 223. Oxycoccus, 154. Oxylapathum, ii. 22. Oysters, 236. P Pachius (Antoninus), 14. Paeonv, 17—ii. 213. Panis fermentatus, 13. sine fermento, ibid. Papaver albunij 181. 344 INDEX. somniferum, ii. 128. Papilionaceae) 177. Paracelsus, 21. Parietaria^ ii. 71. Parmentier. 163, 172, 176. Parsley, ii. 91. Parsnip, 164. Partridge, 228. Passeres, 230. Passulae majores. 155. minores,, ibid. Pastinaca, 164. Pavo, 228. Pauli (Simon), 29, 31. Peach tree, flowers of, ii. 83. leaves of, ii. ibid. Peacock, 228. Pears, 152. Peas, 179. Pechlin (J. Nich.) 234. Pellitory of the wall, ii, 71. Pennyroyal, ii. 86. tea, ibid. Pepper, ii. 119. black, ii. 120. Peppermint, ii. 86. essence of, ii. 86. Percival (Thomas), ii. 16,44. Persicaria, ii. 312. Peruvian balsam, ii. 109. bark, ii. 11,44, 49, 51, 135, 198, 326. Petasites, ii. 260. Petroleum hortense, ii.'91. Macedonicum, ii. ibid. Phaseoli, 179. Pheasant, 228. Philinus of Cos, 11. Pickles, 253. Pickling, 238. Pilulae aloeticae, ii. 296, ex colocynthide cum aloe, ii. 299, 307. rufi, ii. 296. stomachicae, ii. ibid. Pimento, ii. 17. Pimpinella, ii. 91. Pinus, ii. 102. Piper Iongum, ii. 113* nigrum, ii. ibid. Pistachio, 181. Pisum, 179. Pitvvell water, 243. Pitcairn (Arch.), ii. 44, 105. Pix Liquida, ii. ibid. Plantae alliaceae, ii. 244. faetidae, ii. 331. siliquosae, ii. 244. Plantago, 37. Plantarum partes acidae, ii. 243. Plempius (Vopiscus), 20. Plenck (Jos. Jac.) ii. '^53. Pliny the elder, 16. Plumbum, ii. 15. Poisons, 13. Poisonous plants, ii. 124. Polygala seneka, ii. 298. Polygonatum, 33. Polypodium, 34. Pomaceae, 152. Poppy seeds, 181. Porrum, 165. Portland powder, ii. 35,46,114. Potatoes, 166, 176. Poulard, 227. Poupart, ii. 26. Prawn, 235. Precipitate, red, ii. 74. Preserves, 253. Primates, 134. Pringle (Mr. James), ii. 218. Pringle (Sir John), 252—ii. 63, 89,113, 134,227, Prunes, 155. Prunus silvestris, ii. 23. Prusian blue, ii. 11. Ptarmigan, 228. Pu egium, ii. 86. Pulsatilla nigracans, ii. 123. Pulse, 177. Pulvis ari compositus, ii. 122. bufonum, 34. stenutarius, ii. 247. stypticus, ii. 10. Putrescent meats, 2^9, INDEX. 345 Q Quadrupedia, 185. Quail, 228. Quarin, (Joseph), ii. 170. Quassia, ii. 42. Quercetan (Joseph), 29. Quick grass, ii. 312. silver, ii. 250. Quinquefolium, ii. 19. R Rabbit, 226. Radices, 163. graveolentes, ii. 213. Radish, 163. Rain water, 243. Raisins, 155. Rancidity, 188. Ranunculus, 312. Raphanus rusticanus, ii. 96. Rapum, 168. Rattlesnake root, ii. 298. Ray (John), 24, 25, 29, 31, 39. Red beet, ii. 71. game, 228. Redi, (Francisco) ii. 35. Refrigerants in general, ii. 183. particular, ii. 186. Regulus medicinalis, ii. 274. Reid, (AndreAv) ii. 192. Resin of guaiacum, ii. 112. Resinosa, ii. 110, 316. Restharrow, ii. 312. Rhabarbarum, ii. 296. Rhamnus, catharticOs, ii. 306. Rhazes, 20. Rhubarb, ii. 296. Ribes nigrum, 154. , Ribesia, ibid. Rice, 169. Riverius, (Lazarus) ii. 197. Rivinus, (Aug. Quir.) ii. 159. Roasting, 240. Rob, ii. 107. juniperi, ii. ibid. Robinson, (Brian) 45,216, 227* _ii. 70, 265. Roborants, ii. 2. Roccambole, 165. Vol. II. Rock oil, ii. 207. Roe, 225. Roebuck, ibid. Rolfinc, (Gutrnerus) 20. • Roots, 163. Rosa silvestris, ii. 20. Rose, red, ii. 19. Rosemary, ii. 86. Rosenstein, (Van. Nic.) ii. 84. Rubia tinctorum, ii. 21. Rubigo ferri, ii. 11. Rue, ii. 209. conserve of, ii. 210. Rum, 251. Runnet, 189. Russel, (Alexander) ii. 123. Russia, 23. Ruta, ii. 209, 314. Rutty, (John) 40. Rye, 168. S Sabina, ii. 210, 314. Saccharum saturni, 200. Saffron, ii. 180. Sage, ii. 87. Sago, 175. Sal alkalinus fixus vegetabilis purificatus, ii. 288. alkalinus fixus, ii. 326. volatilis, ibid. ammoniacus, ii. 328. secretus, ii. 197. volatilis, ii. 219. digestivum, ii. 328. diureticus, ii. 320. mirabile, ii. 197. plumbi, ii. 199. polychrestus, ii. 290, 296. Sal rupellensis, ii. 290. tartari, ii. 288. v Sala (Angelus), 29. Salep, 175. Sales acidi, ii. 242. alkalini, ii. 243. volatiles, ii. 219. diuretici, ii. 320. Sales neutri ii. 227, 243, 290, 328. Xs 346 INDEX. terrestres, ii. 199, 243. volatiles, ii. ibid. Saline mixture, ii. 198, 328. Salix'alba, ii. 66. pentandra, ii. ibid. Salsafi, 165. Salt, ii. 220. common, ii. 197, 229. of wormAvood, ii. 198: Saked meats, 238. Salting, ibid. Salts, acid, ii. 327. neutral, ii. 29, 289, 320. Salvia, ii. 87, 326. Sambuci fiores, 37—ii. 71. Sambucus, ii. 300. Sanctorius, 219, 234. Sandaracha, ii. 107. Sanders, yellow, ii. 115. Sanguis draconis, ii. 10, 25. Santalum citrinum, ii. 115. Sapo albus hispanus, ii. 292, 321. Sapones, ii. 228. Saracens, 19. Sarsaparilla, 37—ii. 136, 326, Sassafras, ii. 136, 326. Savin, ii. 210. Savoy, 159. Sauer kraut, 160. Scammonv, ii. 305. Scheele, (Char. William) ii. 238. Schroeder, (John) 25, 28, 29. Schulzius, (J. Hen.) 163. Scilla, ii. 270, 314. Scolvmus cynara, 162. Scop'oli, (J. Ant.) 157. Scordium, ii. 46, 336. Scarzonera, 165. Scribonius Largus, 14. Scurvv-grass, ii. 93. distilled water of, ii. 92. Sea salt, 251. Sealed earths, ii. 8. Sebestcn, 155. Secale, 168. cornuturn, ibid. Sedantia, ii. 124. Sedative salt, ii. 196. Sedatives, ii. 80. soporific, ii. 124. Sedatives, as astringents, ii. 29. Seeds, cold, 182. of plants, 166. Semen dauci silvestris, ii. 311. santonicum, ii. 35. Semiflosculosae, 165. Semina, 166. Si nac (Jt an Baptist), ii. 258. Senecio, 33. Seneka, ii. 312. Senna, li. 90, 294, 301. Sennertus, (Daniel), 22. Senticosae, 154—ii. 19. Serapion, 11. Serpentaria, ii. 326. Virginiana, ii. 48. Serum aluminosum, ii. 10. lactis, ii. 286. Shallot, 165. ShaAv, (Peter), ii. 41. Sheep, 224. Shrimp, 235. Sialagoga, ii. 249. Siliquosx, 163—ii. 98. 316. Silver-weed, ii. 18. Simaruba, ii. 42. Sinapi, ii. 97, 271. album, ii. 97, 293. nigrum, ibid. oleum expressum, 97. Sisarum, 164. Skirret, 164—ii. 287. Sloes, ii. 23. Smith (Thomas), ii. 178, 196, 307. Smoking tobacco, ii. 159. Smyth (James Carmichael) ii. 318. Snail, 237. Snipe, 229. Snuff, ii. 157. Soap, ii. 228. its attenuant poAver, ii. 229. decomposed by any acid, ii. 228. white, ii. 292. Solan goose, 229. Solanum tuberosum, 166. Sophia chyrurgorum, 33. Sorrel, ii. 22. INDEX. 347 Southernwood, ii. 46. Sow, 224. Soy, 256. Spallanzani, (Abbe) ii. 185. Spielman, J. R.) 37, 101, 156, 169—ii. 19. • Spinage, 158—ii. 71, 287. Spiritus aethereus vitriolotus, ii. 207- Spiritus ammoniaci fcetidus, ii. 211. * ..... antiscorbuticus Drawitzii, ii. 94. lavendulae, ii. 87. compositus, ii. 84. mindereri, ii. 199. rosmarini, ii. 87. salis ammoniaci dulcis, ii. 220. vinosus, ibid. volatilis fcetidus, ii. 214. Squill, ii. 270, 314. Squill dried, ii. 315. Stag, 225. Stahl, (Geo. Em.) ii. 35, 91. Stahlians, 26—ii. 50. Starch, ii. 236. Stark, (William) 253—ii. 231. Steedman, (John) ii. 105. Steel, ii. 11 • Stellatae, ii. 20. .. Stenzelius, (Christr. Godofr.) n. 46. Stevens, (Edward) 145. Stewing, 239, 240. Stimulantia acria, ii. 121. resinosa, ii. 317. Stimulants in general, ii. 74. particular, ii. 82. indirect, ii- 76. Storck, (Baron) ii. 123, 150, 156, 165. Stomachica, 33. Stone fruits, 152. Storax, ii. HO* liquid, ii. ibid. # Stoughton's elixir, u. 41. Stramonium, ii- 161; Strawberries, U4—n. 19. Strengtheners, ii. 2. Styrax calamita, ii. 110. liquida, ibid. Succinum, ii. 207. Succory, 161. Sudoriferum antypireticum raro fallens, ii. 135. Sugar, ii. 230, 233, 243, 287. Sugar as alimentary, 141. of lead, ii. 11. Sulphur, ii. 292. auratum, ii. 275. antimonii precipitatum, ibid. preparations of, ii. 293. Summer fruits, 147. Suppositories, ii. 284. Sus, 224. Sutton, (Daniel) ii. 305. Sweden, 23. Swediaur, (F.) ii. 156. Sweet, ii. 284. Swieten, (Baron Van) 163—ii". 9, 53, 87, 98, 109, 119, 169. Sydenham, (Thomas) ii. 21, 36, 53, 87, 109, 137, 143, 300, 307, 316. Symphitum, ii. 235. Syrup, ii. 305. of horse-radish, ii. 95. of roses, ii. 19. Syrupus erysimi, ii. 95. gingiberis, ii. 118. ex rosis siccis, ii. 19. T Tabernaemontanus, 28. Tacamahaca, ii. 212. in shells, ibid. Tamarind, ii. 285. Tansey, ii. 45. tea, ii. ibid. Tar, ii. 105. water, ii. 106, 192. Taraxacum, 161. Tartar, ii. 195,289. cream of, ibid. crystals of, ibid-. emetic, ii. 270. 848 I ar D E X. Tartarum emeticum, ii. 277. solubile, ii. 290. Tea, ii. 178. green, ii. 87. Terebinthina, larigna, ii. 102, 106. veneta, ii. 102. Terra japonica, ii. 23. sigillatae, ii. 8. Testacea, 236—ii. 239. Tetradynamia, 158, 166. Tetrao, 228. lagopus, ibid. Tetrix tetrao cauda plena, ibid. Teucrium, ii. 47. scordium, ii. 88. chamsedrys, ii. ibid. chamaepitys, ii. ibid. marum, ii. ibid. Thea, ii. 178. Theophrastus, 10. Theriaca andromachi, 13. Thomson. (Alex.) ii. 10, 270. Thorn apple, ii. 161. Thunbergh, (C. P.) 175. Tinctura aperitiva Moebii. 190. aromatica, ii. 120. fuliginis, ii. 211. jalappae, ii. 305. sennae compositaj ii. 305. Tincture of guaiacum in rum, ii. 113. of roses, ii. 19. Tobacco, ii. 156. cheAving, ii. 157, 159. smoaking, ii. 156. snuffing, ii. ibid. Tonics, ii. 2, 30. Tormentil, ii. 20. Torti (Franc), ii. 56. Tortoise, 231. Tournefort (J. P.) 23, 34—ii. 18. Tragacantha, ii. 237. Tragopogon, 165. Tragus (Hierom) 28. Trades (Balth. Lud.) ii. 150, Triticum, 170. Turkey, 228. Turkey rhubarb, ii. 296., Turnip, 164. Turpentine, ii. 102, 107, 109, 294. Venice, ii. 107. Turpentine, its essential oil, ii. 317. glysters, ii. 103. Turpethum minerale, ii. 271. Tussilago, ii. 259. farfara, ii. 360. V. Vaccina, 154. Vaginales, ii. 22. Valerian, ii. 245. wild, ii. 213. volatile tincture ibid. Valeriana silvestris, ii. ibid. Valisnieri, ii, 285. Vapour, ii. 68. Veal, 223. Vegetable acid, 253—ii. 190, 256, 276, 290, 310, 320, 327. astringents ii. 17. meats, 254. Vegetaux nourissants, 163. Venel, 35. Venice turpentine, ii. 102, 107. Venison, 225. Venus, ii. 13. Veratrum, ii. 367. Verdegris, ii. 14. Vermes, 236. Verticillatae, ii. .82. Virticillated plants, ibid. Vinegar, 253—ii. 19, 194, 199, 260, 327. Vinous fermentation, 250. Vinum, ii. 245. aloeticum, ii. 296. amarum, ii. 120. Viper, 232. Virgil, 177. Virginian snake-root, ii. 48. Viscus, ii. 26. I N D E X. 349 Vitriol, blue, ii. 13, 271. Vitriol, white, ii. 11, 271. Vitriolated tartar, ii. 197. Vitriolic acid, ii. 19,188,235, 276. Vitrum antimonii, ii. 274. ceratum, ii. ibid. Umbellatae, 161, 164—ii. 88, 311. Unguentum e pice, ii. 107. Ungula alcis, 34. Vogel (Rud. Aug.) 36, 109. Volatile alkali, ii. 320, 326. oil, ii. 220.J tincture of valerian, ii. 214. Urogallus tetrao, 228. Uva ursi, ii. 6, 27. Uvae apyrsenae, 155. corinthiacae, ibid. vitis, 154. W Wall (Martin), ii. 218. ^allerius (Joan Gotsch.) ii. 106. Water, simple, 242—ii. 70,224, 291. distilled, ii. 19. Water, soft, 242. hard, ibid. of pitwells, 243. of rivers, ibid. of lakes, ibid. from rain, ibid. from snow, ibid. gruel, 170—ii. 309. Varm, ii 69, 266, 271. Water cresses, ii. 111. foAvl, 228. germander, ii. 47. hemlock, ii. 154. lilly, ii. 181. ' melon, 150. trefoil, ii. 42. Watson (William), ii. 60. Weber (Christ.) ii. 18. Wedelius (Wolfgangus G.), 30. Wepper (Jo. Jac.) 32—144. Werlhoff (P. Gottl.), ii, 47,169, 173, 319. Wheat, 170. Whey, 189, 191,214. Whyte (Robert), ii. 41,50. Wickman (J. E.) ii. 47, 319 Willow, ii. 82. Wine, ii. 181,261, 329. austere, ii. 28. burnt, ii. 29. Wine, new, 247. old, ibid. perfect, ibid. in different conditions, ibid. red, 248. rough, ibid. styptic, ibid. sweet, ibid. white, ii. 276. Winter cherry, ii. 312. Winter's bark, ii. 120. Wintringham, (Clifton jun.)iit 68. Withering, (William), ii. 313. Women's milk, 198. Woodcock, 229. Worms, 236. s Wormwood, ii. 45. Salt of, ii. 198. Wort, 250. Y Young (George), ii. 136. Young (Thomas), 191, 193, 194, 196, 197—ii. 21. Z Zacutus (Lusitanus), 31—ii,8S. Zea, 170. Zedoary, ii, 46, 118. Zorn (Barth.) 35. Zinc, ii. 16. Zinci fiores, ii. 16. FINIS, # /gag ./. VT3' /V « NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NLM Din3fl3b 3 i ■ ■ m NLM011938363