A TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE AND DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS. A BRANDY DISTILLERY. (Page 103.) A TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE AND DISTILLATION OP ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS: COMPRISING ACCURATE AND COMPLETE DETAILS IN REGARD TO ALCOHOL FROM WINE, MOLASSES, BEETS, GRAIN, RICE, POTATOES, SORGHUM, ASPHODEL, FRUITS, ETC. WITH THE DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION OF BRANDY, WHISKEY, RUM, GIN, SWISS ABSINTHE, ETC., THE PREPARATION OF AROMATIC WATERS, VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES, SUGARS, SYRUPS, AROMATIC TINCTURES, LIQUEURS, CORDIAL WINES, EFFERVESCING WINES, ETC., THE AGING OF BRANDY AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF SPIRITS, WITH COPIOUS DIRECTIONS AND TABLES FOR TESTING AND REDUCING SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS, ETC. ETC. TRANSLATED AND EDITED FROM THE FRENCH OP m:\C DUPLAIS, Aine et Jeune. BY M. McKENNIE, M.D. TO WHICH ARE ADDED THE UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE REGULATIONS FOR THE ASSESSMENT AND COLLECTION OF TAXES ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. ILLUSTRATED BY FOURTEEN FOLDING PLATES AND SEVERAL WOOD ENGRAVINGS. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 406 WALNUT STREET. LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, SON, & MARSTON, CROWN BUILDINGS, 1SS FLEET ST. 1871. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by HENRY CAREY BAIRD, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. All rights reserved. PHILADELPHIA : COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. PREFACE. Alcohol has become an article of prime necessity in many of the arts and manufactures, and enters largely, in one form or another, into the daily consumption of our people. This industry is pre-eminently based upon scientific principles, which, if correctly understood, will insure greatly increased profits to the producer, and, if honestly applied, will tend in no small degree to miti- gate the evils which grow out of the use of the article, often prepared by so-called practical distillers, some of whom are ignorant and others vicious. There are, how- ever, many intelligent and honorable exceptions—men who, knowing how, manufacture pure and good liquors. The undersigned, anxious to see a really good book on this subject placed in the hands of American distillers, rectifiers, and compounders, as well as dealers in wines and liquors, has been unable to find any work in the English language which seemed at all adequate to this requirement, or to the actual wants of this industry at the present day. In his extremity, he has naturally turned to the technical literature of France, among whose people great intelligence and skill have long been brought to bear in their applications of the principles of science to the various arts. In the book of MM. Du- plais, he believes he has found this great desideratum. These authors, by reason of thorough education in all those departments of science on which the art of the dis- tiller depends, as well as by practical skill in every ma- nipulation requisite for their application, are eminently vi preface. deserving of the exalted position which they have long held in their own country, and the translator feels honored by being permitted to introduce their really great work to the American public. The recent rapid development in this country of many new and important branches of industry, the attention paid to every source of improvement by our people generally, and the great impetus given within a few years past to the growth of the vine, would seem to indicate that the present moment is most opportune for the appearance of just such a book. He believes that this can admit of no doubt. The soil and climate of various parts of our country find their parallels in the wine and brandy producing districts of Europe, and appear to be well adapted to the production of all those substances which may economically enter into the manu- facture of alcohol.* The processes and apparatus which are profitably applied in the old world, will doubtless find enterprising men to make use of them in the new, when once properly brought to their notice. In preparing this translation for the press, it has been thought best to omit a few processes which had been found to be either unprofitable or inapplicable in this country. Then, again, the chapters on the French excise regulations have of course been substituted by our own internal revenue regulations. The appendix contains, in addition to this matter, many very full and valuable tables and other information without which it is believed that the book would have been incomplete. * We have seen wine and brandy prepared from grapes—Concord, Delaware, and Diana—raised by William Hotopp, Esq., near Char- lottesville, Virginia, which would, we believe, be considered of ex- cellent quality iu the best vineyards on the Rhine. PREFACE. vii The translator feels it due to himself, that he should make acknowledgment to Messrs. G. B. Stuart and R. W. Burke, of Augusta County, Virginia, to whom he is in- debted for much valuable information which was abso- lutely essential to him in the successful prosecution of his undertaking. Both of these gentlemen, by their intelligence, integrity, and skill, have acquired a high reputation in their business, of which they may well be proud, and which under a more liberal system of excise laws would insure to them ample and profitable returns for their efforts to develop an important source of national wealth. The handsome typography and paper, and the neatly engraved illustrations of this volume, as well as the many and expensive tables added to it, indicate that the publisher is fully alive to the obligations which he owes to that public which has so generously sustained him in his earnest efforts to advance the cause of practi- cal science among our people, by giving them an indus- trial literature worthy of the name. M. McK. University of Virginia, June 25, 1871. CONTENTS. PART I. CHAPTER I. Alcohol. CHAPTER II. Fermentation. PAGE Saccharine or Glucosic Fermentation 22 Yinous or Alcoholic Fermentation 23 Sugar 23 Water 24 Heat 26 The Air 28 Ferment 29 Phenomena of the Yinous Fermentation 35 Accidents of Fermentation 38 Acid Fermentation 38 Putrid Fermentation 40 Yiscous Fermentation 40 Lactic Fermentation 41 Frothing 41 Sweat-House and Fermenting Yats 41 CHAPTER III. Distilling Apparatus 46 The Simple Apparatus 46 Continued Apparatus 52 Derosne’s Apparatus 52 To Commence the Operation 54 To Conduct the Operation 55 To Empty the Stills ... 56 Distillation. X CONTENTS. PAGE To Terminate the Operation ....*••• 57 To Cleanse the Apparatus 58 Safeguard 59 Observations 60 Closing Remarks in Regard to the Apparatus of Derosne . . 63 Egrot’s New Apparatus for Continuous Distillation ... 64 Description of the Apparatus 66 To Work the Apparatus 67 1. Facility of Setting up—Economy of Removal and Transporta- tion 68 2. Remarkable Economy of Fuel 69 3. Facility ofUse 69 4. Richness in Degree ’69 5. Moderate Price .......... 69 6. Simplicity of Cleaning 70 Belgian Apparatus 71 To Set Going and Use the Belgian Apparatus .... 72 Apparatus for Distilling Pasty or Semi-fluid Materials ... 73 Method of Using the Apparatus 74 Rectifying Apparatus 75 Apparatus for Distilling Rum 76 Machines and Utensils Necessary for a Distillery .... 77 The Washer 78 The Rasp 78 The Root Cutter or Slicer 78 The Hydraulic Press . 78 The Steam Press 78 The Vat for the Conversion of Starch into Sugar .... 78 Macerators 79 Elevator 79 To Use the Apparatus 80 Pumps si Filters 81 CHAPTER IV. Heating by the Naked Fire Heating by Steam On the Application of Heat to Distillation CHAPTER Y Some Considerations upon Distillation as Applied to Alcohol. Accidents of Distillation g~ Leaks in the Apparatus g- CONTENTS. XI PAGE Insufficient Exhaustion of the Spent Liquor . . . . . 87 Testing the Spent Liquor 87 Imperfect Condensation of the Alcoholic Vapors .... 88 Fires 88 CHAPTER VI. Distillation of Alcohol. Spirits of Wine (Alcohol from Wine) 90 Wine 90 Vintage 91 Crushing 92 V atting 93 Chemical Composition of Must 94 Fermentation 94 Improvement of Must 96 Drawing off (Racking) 98 Expressing . 99 Chemical Composition of Wine . . 99 Choice of Wines for Distillation 101 Distillation . . ’ 102 Trois-Six or Spirits of Wine (Rectified Spirits) .... 102 Alcohol from Molasses 103 Variety and Selection of Molasses 103 Fermentation 104 Alcohol from Beets 108 Chemical Analysis of the Beet 108 Different Processes for Distilling Beets Ill Distillation of Beet Spirit by Rasping and Pressure . . . Ill Distillation of the Beet by Maceration 116 Maceration by Water 116 Maceration by Heat 116 New Method of Maceration by Heat 119 Maceration; the Cold Process 125 Maceration of Beet Chips 126 Maceration by Spent Liquor 127 Direct Distillation of Beets 128 Process of Leplay 128 Rectified Beet Spirit 130 Grain Spirit 130 Choice of Grain 131 Chemical Composition of Grain 132 Dextrine 134 Diastase 134 xii CONTENTS. PAGE The Alcoholic Product of Grain 135 Preparatory Operations which are Necessary before Submitting Grain to the Alcoholic Fermentation 136 Steeping 136 Germination 137 Drying the Malt 139 Grinding . 141 Mashing 141 Infusion 142 Alcoholic Fermentation of Grain 144 Method of Dombasle 145 Another French Method 147 Old English Method 149 English Process (New) 151 Belgian Process 152 New Process Generally used in Belgium 154 Chemical Process *. . . . 158 Alcohol from Rice 159 Alcohol from Potatoes 160 Analysis of the Potato 160 Selection of Potatoes 160 Testing the Quality of Potatoes 161 Processes for Distilling Potatoes 162 Distillation of Cooked Potatoes 162 Cooking 162 Reducing to Pulp 163 Mashing or Saccharifying by Malted Barley 163 Fermentation 163 Distillation 164 Distillation of Potatoes by Rasping and Maceration .... 164 Employment of the Residuum from the Distillation of Potatoes . 165 Distillation of Potatoes by Saccharifying the Starch .... 165 Saccharification by Sulphuric Acid 166 Saccharification by Malt 169 The Fermentation 170 Distillation 170 Remarks on Spirits from Grain and Potatoes 171 Alcohol from Sorghum or Chinese Sugar-cane 171 Apparatus of M. B. Yiale 177 Alcohol from the Asphodel 180 Alcohol from Figs 184 Alcohol from various substances (Yegetable and others) . . . 184 Alcoholizable Substances of the First Class 185 Alcoliolizable Substances of the Second Class 185 General Observations on the Different Kinds of Alcohol . . . 193 xiii CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. PAGE Essential Oils 195 Acids 199 Action of Heat 200 Management and Progress of Rectification 201 Purification of (Backings) Phlegm (Spirits of bad taste, from Beets, Potatoes, Grain, etc.), by M. Ortliu 205 Rectification. CHAPTER VIII. Distillation of Brandies. Brandies from Wine . . 207 Marc Brandy—Brandy from the Grape Pomace (Marc de Raisin) . 211 Distilling Apparatus of M. Villard of Lyons 216 Description of the Apparatus 219 Cider Brandy, Apple Brandy 222 Portable Apparatus for continuous Distilling 225 Pear Brandy 228 Brandy from Beer . . . 229 Rum 229 Kirschenwasser or Kirsch, Cherry Brandy 231 Gin, Geneva 235 CHAPTER IX. Absinthe of Portarlier 236 Absinthe of Montpellier 237 Absinthe of Lyons 238 Absinthe of Fougerolles . 238 Absinthe of Besancon 238 Absinthe of Nimes 239 Remarks 239 White Absinthe 241 Apparatus for Manufacturing Absinthe and Perfumed Spirits . . 242 Management of the Apparatus 243 Causes of the Pernicious Effects of Absinthe » 244 The Manufacture of Swiss Absinthe. CHAPTER X. Thermometers 247 Table converting the Degrees of the Centigrade Thermometer to Degrees of that of Reaumur, and vice versa 249 Alcoholometry. XIV CONTENTS. page Table for converting Degrees of the Fahrenheit Thermometer to De- grees of Centigrade 250 Table for converting Degrees of Centigrade Thermometer to Degrees of Fahrenheit 251 Hydrometer, Alcoholometer, Areometer 251 Centesimal Alcoholometer of Gay-Lussac 253 Explanation of the use of the Table indicating the actual strength of Spirituous Liquors at any given Temperature .... 254 Table indicating the actual strength of Spirituous Liquors . . 256 Table by which to find the value of Degrees on the Alcoholometer of Cartier in terms of the Centesimal Alcoholometer .... 264 Comparison of the Degrees of Baum6’s Hydrometer with the real Specific Gravities 265 Table of the proportion by weight of Absolute or Real Alcohol in 100 parts of Spirits of different Specific Gravities 266 Alcoholometric Scale of M. Strope 266 Experimental Stills 267 Assay Still of Gay-Lussac 267 Assay Still of M. J. Salleron 268 CHAPTER XI. Reduction of Spirituous Liquors. Improving. Increasing the Strength or Raising the Proof. Reduction 272 Table for reducing Spirituous Liquors, indicating the quantity of water necessary to reduce one Hectolitre of Spirits from a higher to an inferior degree 276 Raising the Proof of Brandy 284 Table exhibiting the actual value of Spirits at 85° Centesimal (33° Cartier) reduced to all degrees of proof found in the market. . 285 Receipts for Aging Brandies and other Spirits, for Improving them, and for Imitating the Aroma and Flavor of different growths . 286 Cutting or mixing common Brandies (Coupage) .... 286 Imitation of Brandies 287 Processes for Imitating the Brandy of Armagnac .... 287 Method of Imitating the Brandy of Saintonge 288 Methods of Imitating Cognac Brandy 288 Improving Brandies 290 Low Wines prepared for reducing Spirits 291 Extract or Essence of Cognac 291 Improvement of different Spirits *292 New Method of Distilling Wines practised in the Charentes . . 292 CONTENTS. XV PART II. DISTILLATION OF PERFUMED WATERS, LIQUEURS, ESSENCES, ETC. History of Liqueurs. CHAPTER XII. Distillation. PAGE The Laboratory, Store-rooms, Cellars, &c 299 Vessels and Utensils 301 Furnace 308 CHAPTER XIII. Application of Heat 312 Fuel. Distillation and Rectification CHAPTER XIV. Distillation as applied to Liqueurs 316 Rectification 321 The Selection and Preservation of Aromatic and other Substances . 325 CHAPTER XV. Water. Filtration and Preservation of Water 329 Distilled Water 330 CHAPTER XVI. Aromatic Waters. Aromatic Distilled Waters 332 Preservation of Aromatic Distilled Waters 337 Method of Depriving Aromatic Waters of their Odor . . . 339 Receipts for Aromatic Distilled Waters 339 Water of Orange Flowers 340 Methods of ascertaining the Quality of Orange-Flower Water . . 342 Rose Water 343 Water of Violets 344 XVI CONTENTS. PAGE Water of Absinthe 344 Water of Hyssop 344 Peppermint Water 345 Water of Tea 345 Anise Water 345 Coriander Water 346 Water of Mocha Coffee 346 Cinnamon Water 346 Angelica Water 347 Water of Bitter Almonds 347 Lemon Water 347 Raspberry Water 348 Maraschino Water 348 Water of Green Walnuts 348 Aromatic Waters without Distillation 348 CHAPTER XVII. Volatile Oils or Essences. Volatile Oils or Essences by Distillation 355 Volatile Oils or Essences by Expression 357 Rectification of Volatile Oils or Essences 357 Sophistication of Volatile Oils and the Means of Detecting the Fraud 359 Sophistication by Fat or Fixed Oils 359 Sophistication by Alcohol 360 Sophistication by Common Volatile Oils 361 Receipts for the Volatile Oils or Essences 361 Volatile Oil or Essence of Roses 362 Volatile Oil or Essence of Cinnamon 364 Volatile Oil or Essence of Bitter Almonds 365 Table of Volatile Oils or Essences susceptible of being used by the Distilling Liquorist 368 Volatile Oils by Maceration, or Extracts 371 CHAPTER XVIII. Sugar. Glucose 374 Grape Sugar 374 Grape Syrup 375 Sugar from Potato Starch . . 375 Syrup from Potato Starch 376 White Syrups 376 Colored Syrups ' 376 Syrup of Grain Starch • 376 CONTENTS. XVII Syrup of Wheat 376 Honey 377 Levulose or Liquid Sugar 377 Mannite 378 Glycyrrhizine, or Saccharine Matter of Liquorice .... 378 CHAPTER XTX. Sugar Continued. Clarification of Sugar 379 Decolorizing Sugar 381 Saccharometer (Pese-sirop) 386 Table indicating the Quantity of good brown (Crude or Raw) Sugar contained in a Litre of Cold Syrup 388 Table indicating the Quantity of Refined Sugar contained in a litre of Cold Syrup 389 CHAPTER XX. Degeneration and Preservation of Syrups 390 Receipts for Syrups 392 Simple Syrup . . . • 392 Syrup of Orange Flowers 394 Syrup of Capillaire 394 Syrup of Tea 395 Syrup of Gum Arabic 395 Syrup of Marsh Mallow '. . 396 Lemon Syrup 396 Syrup of Oranges 397 Syrup of Violets 397 Syrup of Orgeat 399 Currant Syrup 401 Syrup of Black Cherries 401 Fancy Syrup of Currants . . . 401 Syrup of Cherries 403 Syrup of Raspberries 403 Syrup of Mulberries . 403 Syrup of Raspberry Vinegar 404 Syrup of Brandy Punch 404 Syrup of Cherry Punch 405 Common Syrup of Rum Punch 405 Fine Syrup of Rum Punch ........ 405 Glucosed Syrups 406 Syrup of Currants 406 Syrups. xviii CONTENTS. PAGE Glucosed Syrup of Currants . . . . • . . . 406 Glucosed Syrup of Orgeat 407 CHAPTER XXI. Cox.oring. Red Coloring 409 Yellow Coloring 410 Caromel 410 Blue Coloring 411 Coloring for CuraQoa 412 Htematoxylin 413 Green Coloring 414 Violet Coloring 415 CHAPTER XXII. Rectffication of Perfumed Syrups 417 Backings or Phlegm 418 Receipts for Perfumed Spirits 418 Essence of grange Flowers 418 Essence of Roses . 419 Essence of Violets 419 Essence of Absinthe (Officinal) 419 Essence of Absinthe (Roman) 419 Essence of Genipi 420 Essence of Hyssop 420 Essence of Lavender 420 Essence of Balm 420 Essence of Peppermint 420 Essence of Angelica Seed 420 Essence of Dill 421 Essence of Aniseed 421 Essence of Star Anise 421 Essence of Caraway 421 Essence of Coriander # 421 Essence of Cumin Seeds 421 Essence of Candy Carrot ......... 422 Essence of Fennel 422 Essence of Raspberries ......... 422 Essence of Angelica Root 422 Essence of Calamus 422 Essence of Ginger Essence of Cascarilla 423 Essence of Rosewood Essence of Sandal-wood 423 Perfumed Syrups. CONTENTS. XIX PAGE Essence of Aloes 423 Essence of Catechu 423 Essence of Benzoin 423 Essence of Myrrh 424 Essence of Tolu 424 Essence of Muskmallow 424 Essence of Grains of Paradise 424 Essence of Cardamon . 424 Essence of Ceylon Cinnamon 424 Essence of Cassia 425 Essence of Cloves 425 Essence of Mace 425 Essence of Nutmegs 425 Essence of Sassafras 425 Essence of Bitter Almonds 425 Essence of Apricot Seeds 426 Essence of Celery 426 Essence of Cedrat 426 Essence of Lemon 426 Essence of Orange 426 Concentrated Essence of Lemon 427 Concentrated Essence of Oranges 427 Esprit d’Anisette Ordinaire 427 Esprit d’Anisette de Bourdeaux 427 Esprit de Curagoa Ordinaire 428 Esprit de Curagoa de Hollande 428 Essence of Coffee 428 Essence of Tea 428 CHAPTER XXIII. Aromatic Tinctures. Tincture of Ambergris 429 Tincture of Benzoin 429 Tincture of Catechu 429 Tincture of Musk 429 Tincture of Storax 430 Tincture of Tolu 430 Tincture of Orrisroot 430 Tincture of Vanilla 430 Tincture of Curagoa 430 Tincture of the Hulls of Bitter Almonds ...... 431 Tincture of Smaller Absinthe 431 Tincture of Hyssop 431 Tincture of Galangal 431 Tincture of Balm 431 XX CONTENTS. PAGE Tincture of Bay 431 Tincture of Black Currant Leaves 432 Tincture of Black Currants 432 Cassis Ordinaire 434 Cassis Demifin 434 Tincture of Raspberries 434 Tincture of Black Cherries 435 Tincture of Walnut Hulls 435 Raspberry Yinegar 435 CHAPTER XXIV. Liqueurs Compounding t . 438 Perfume 439 Mixing 441 Mellowing (Tranchage) 442 Apparatus for Mellowing Liqueurs 443 Coloring 444 Sizing (Clarifying) 445 Filtering 448 Storing and Preservation of Liqueurs 450 Classification of Liqueurs 451 Nomenclature and Receipts for Liqueurs by Distillation . . . 452 Common Liqueurs 452 Anisette 453 Eau d’Angelique 453 Cent-Sept-Ans 453 CuraQoa 453 Fleurs d’Oranger 454 Framboises 454 Mint 454 Eau de Noyaux 454 Par fait Amour 454 Huile de Roses 455 Eau de Sept-Graines 455 Yespetro 455 Liqueurs Doubles 456 Anisette Eau d’Angelique 456 Cent-Sept-Ans 456 Curagoa 457 Fleurs d’Oranger 457 Framboises 457 Huile de Mentlie 457 Eau de Noyaux 457 CONTENTS. XXI PAGE Par fait Amour 458 Huile de Roses 458 Eau des Sept-Graines 458 Vespetro . . . . . 458 Liqueurs Demifines 459 Anisette . . 459 Creme d’Angelique , 459 Crfeme de Celeri 459 Cent-Sept-Ans 459 CuraQoa . . 460 Crhme de Fleurs d’Oranger 460 Huile de Framboises 460 Crfeme de Menthe 460 Crfeme de Moka 460 Crfeme de Noyaux 461 Parfait Amour 461 Huile de Roses . . . . . * 461 Eau des Sept-Graines 461 Vespetro 462 Punch Liqueur 462 Rum Punch Liqueur 462 Fine Liqueurs 463 Anisette 463 Crhme d’Angelique 463 Cent-Sept-Ans 463 Curaqoa 464 Eau de Vie d’Andaye 464 Eau de Vie de Dantzick 464 Crfcme de Fleurs d’Oranger 465 Crhme de Framboises 465 Huile de Kirschenwasser 465 Crfcme de Menthe 465 Crbme de Noyaux 465 Crfeme de Moka 465 Huile d’CEilets 466 Parfait Amour 466 Huile de Rhum 466 Huile de Roses 466 Eau des Sept-Graines 466 Scubac 467 Crfeme de The 467 Vespetro 467 Punch Liqueur 467 Superfine Liqueurs 468 Liqueurs Surfines Franqaises . . 469 XXII CONTEXTS. PAGE Anisette de Bordeaux 469 Genuine Anisette (Marie Brizard) 469 Anisette de Paris 470 Anisette de Lyon 470 D61ices de Rachel 471 Crhme d’Absinthe 471 Crbme d’Angelique 471 Elixir de Cagliostro 472 Genuine Receipt by M. Cagliostro 473 Crfeme de Celeri 473 Liqueur dite de la Grande Chartreuse (green, yellow, and white) . 474 China-China 475 Eau de la Chine 476 Eau de la C6te-Sainte-Andr6 476 Cinnamomum and Crfcme de Cannelle 476 Eau de la C&te-Aux-Noyaux 476 Curaqoa (Old Receipt) 477 Curaqoa Blanc 478 Curaqoa Surfin 478 The Manufacture of 104 Litres of Curaqoa 479 Spirit of Dried Ribbons of Curaqoa 479 Spirit of Oranges 479 Eau Divine 480 Eau-de-Yie d’Andaye 480 Eau-de-Vie de Dantzick 480 Fenouillette de 1’lie de Rli6 481 Cr&me de Fleurs d’Oranger 481 Crbme de Framboises 481 Huile de Kirschenwasser 481 Elixir de Garus 482 Crfeme de G6n6pi des Alpes 482 Mayorque 482 Crfeme de Menthe 483 Liqueurs du Mezenc 483 Crbme de Mille Fleurs 484 Crfeme de Moka 484 Crfeme de Noisette a la Rose 484 Crfeme de Noyaux 484 Crbme de Noyaux de Phalsbourg 485 Eau de Noyaux de Phalsbourg of the house of IIoffman-Forty . . 485 Crfeme d'CBillets 485 Eau d’Or 485 Parfait-Amour de Lorraine 486 Persico 486 Raspail’s Liqueur Uygi£nique et de Dessert 486 Huile de Rhum 437 CONTENTS. xxiii PAGE Crhme de Roses .... 487 Eau des Sept-Graines 4 487 Scubac de Lorraine 488 Crfeme de The de la Chine 488 Huile de Y6nus 488 Eau Verte de Marseille 489 Vesp6tro de Montpellier 489 Eau Virginale ou de Pucelle 489 West Indian Liqueurs 490 Baume Divin Baume Humain . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Crfcme d’Ananas Crbme des Barbades 492 Crfeme de Cachou Crhme de Moka Crhme de Noyaux 492 Crhme Sapotille de la Martinique ....... 493 Huile de Badiane 493 Huile d’Anis des Indes blanche and rouge ...... 493 Huile de Cacao 493 Huile de C6drats 494 Huile de Cannelle 494 Huile des Creoles 494 Huile de Fernamboue 494 Huile de Girofle 495 Huile de Rhum 495 Huile de Yanille 495 Zinziber or Huile de Gingembre ....... 495 Foreign Liqueurs 496 Anisette de Hollande 497 True Anisette de Hollande of the house of Winand Fockink of Amster- dam 497 Curagoa de Hollande 497 Genuine Dutch Curagoa of the house of Winand Fockink of Amsterdam 497 Crhme Genihvre de Hollande 498 Liqueur Flamande Dutch Bitters Amer de Hollande 493 Veritable Eau de Yie de Dantzick 499 Franzoesisch Wasser de Dantzick ....... 499 Deutschland Wasser de Breslau ....... 500 Persicot du Palatinat Usquebaugh d’Ecosse (Scotch) 500 English Bitters Alkermes de Florence 501 Aqua Bianca de Turin , 502 XXIV CONTENTS. PAGE Aqua d’Oro de Turin 502 Cedrato di Palermo 502 La Fioretto de Florence 503 La Giovane de Turin 503 Liquore delle Alpi 503 Maraschino de Zara 504 Myrobolano, or Myrobolanti 504 Olio di Cremona 505 Olio de Maccheroni di Genova 505 Rosolio di Menta di Pisa 505 Rosolio di Torino 505 Rubino di Venezia 506 Chiraz (A new Persian Liqueur) 507 Nomenclature and Receipts lor Liqueurs by Infusion . . . 507 Ordinary Liqueurs 508 Huile de Vanille 508 Brou de Noix 508 Ratafia de Cassis 509 Cassis Ordinaire 509 Ratafia de Framboises 510 Ratafia de Coings 510 Liqueurs Doubles 510 Huile de Vanille 510 Brou de Noix 510 Ratafia de Cassis 511 Ratafia de Framboises 511 Liqueurs Demifiues 511 Huile de Vanille 511 Huile de Violettes 511 Brou de Noix 512 Ratafia de Cassis 512 Cassis Demifin 512 Ratafia de Cerises 512 Ratafia de Framboises 513 Ratafia de Quatre Fruits 513 Ratafia de Coings 513 Liqueurs Fines 513 Huile de Vanille 513 Huile de Violettes 513 Brou de Noix 514 Ratafia de Cassis 514 Ratafia de Cerises 514 Ratafia de Framboises 514 Ratafia de Quatre Fruits 514 Ratafia de Coings 515 CONTENTS. XXV PAGE Liqueurs Surfines 515 Veritable Liqueur Hygienique et de Dessert de Raspail . . . 515 Liqueur Hygienique (de Saumur) 517 Liqueur Stomachique Dor6e 517 Crbme de Vanille 517 Creme de Violette 518 Crbme de Brou de Noix 518 Crbme de Cassis 518 Ratafia de Cassis de Dijon 518 Crbme de Cassis de Touraine 518 Ratafia de Cerises de Grenoble 519 Ratafia de Grenoble, dit de Teyssbre 519 Ratafia de Merises de Grenoble 520 Ratafias de Louvres and de Neuilly 520 Ratafia de Framboises 520 Guignolet d’Angers 520 Receipts for Preparing Liqueurs by Volatile Oils or Essences without the use of the Still 521 Common Liqueurs (Ordinaires) 521 Anisette 522 Eau d’Angelique 522 Cent-Sept-Ans 522 Curagoa 522 Fleurs d’Oranger 522 Menthe 522 Eau de Noyaux 522 Parfait Amour 522 Huile de Roses 523 Vespetro 523 Liqueurs Demi-Fines 523 Anisette 523 Crhme d’Angelique 523 Crbme de Celeri 523 Cent-Sept-Ans ‘. 523 Curagoa Crhme de Fleurs d’Oranger ........ 524 Crhme de Menthe 524 Creme de Noyaux 524 Parfait Amour 524 Huile de Roses 524 Vesp6tro 524 Liqueurs Fines 524 Anisette 525 Crfeme d’Angelique 525 Crhme de Celeri 525 XXVI CONTENTS. PAGE Cent-Sept-Ans 525 CuraQoa 525 Eau de Yie de Dantzick 525 Crfeme de Fleurs d’Oranger 525 Elixir of Garus 526 Crfeme de Men the 526 Crfeme de Noyaux 526 Partait Amour 526 Huile de Roses 526 Eau de Sept-Graines 526 Yesp6tro 526 Liqueurs Surfines J327 Anisette 527 Crfeme d’Absinthe 527 Cr&me d’Angelique 527 Crfeme de Barbades 527 Crfeme de Celeri 528 Curacjoa 528 Liqueur dite de la Grande-Chartreuse 528 Eau de Yie de Dantzick 528 Crfeme de Fleurs d’Oranger 528 Elixir de Garus 528 Huile de Kirschenwasser 529 Crfeme de Menthe 529 Liqueur de Mezenc « 529 Crbme de Noyaux de Phalsbourg • 529 Crfeme de Roses 529 Eau des Sept-Graines 529 VespStro de Montpellier 530 Anisette de Hollande 530 Alkerm6s de Florence 530 Marasquin de Zara 530 Rosolio de Turin 530 Crfeme de Jasmin 531 Crfeme de Jonquille 531 Crfeme d’Heliotrope 531 Crbme de R6s6da 531 Crfeme de TubSreuse 531 Crfeme de Millefleurs 531 CHAPTER XXY. Imitation of Cordial Wines 534 Spirit of Tar 534 Cordiai, Wines. CONTENTS. xxvii PAGE Infusion of Toasted Bitter Almond Hulls 534 Receipts for Cordial Wines 535 Alicante ' 535 Cyprus 535 Constance 535 Grenache 535 Malaga 536 Malvoisie de Madbre 536 Muscat de Lunel 536 Muscat de Frontignan 536 Madeira 536 Sherry 537 Sherry Cordial 537 Lacryma-Christi 537 Port 537 Rota 538 Tokai 538 Vermout de Turin 538 Yermout d’ltalie (Receipt of Ollivero) 539 Yermout de Madbre 540 Factitious Effervescing Wines 540 New Method of Distilling in a Vacuum. CHAPTER XXYI. Method of Setting the Apparatus in Operation 542 APPENDIX. The Metric System of Weights and Measures 547 Tables showing the Relative Yalues of French and English Weights and Measures, &c 549 United States Internal Revenue. Regulations and Instructions Concerning the Tax on Distilled Spirits 557 Regulations Concerning the Distillation of Brandy from Apples, Peaches, or Grapes, Exclusively 601 Additional Exemption in Relation to Brandy Distilled from Apples, Peaches, or Grapes, Exclusively 617 Instructions as to Survey of Distilleries 618 Regulations and Instructions Relative to Tice Meters . . . 622 XXV111 CONTENTS. PAGE Regulations in Relation to the Use of Stamps for Distilled Spirits, the Issue of Stamps for Rectified Spirits, and to provide for a Uniform and Correct Mode for Marking and Branding Casks or Packages of Spirits 634 Report of the Committee of the National Academy of Sciences on Methods of Inspecting and Assessing Tax on Distilled Spirits . 644 Table of Specific Gravity of Alcoholic Spirits at 60° Fahrenheit . 651 Table of Percentage by Weight and Volume, and of Weights of Al- cohol and Water in 100 Gallons of Spirits at 60° Fahrenheit . 655 Table I. Containing the Densities found by Messrs. Gilpin and Blagden for Spirits of Different Strengths and at Various Tempe- ratures 657 Table II. Showing Gilpin and Blagden’s Densities corrected for Errors of Observation, and reduced to Standard of Tralles . 659 Table III. Showing the True Densities and Volumes of Alcohol of every Strength from 1 to 100 per cent., and for every Five Degrees of Temperature from 30° to 100° ....... 663 Supplement to Table III. Giving Specific Gravities for Tempera- tures between 0° and 25°, Observed by Dr. Recknagel, and re- duced to Tralles’Standard . 671 Table IV. Showing the Apparent Densities and Apparent Per cents, corresponding to every True Per cent, from 1 to 100, and for every Fifth Degree of Temperature from 30° to 100° . . . 672 Supplement to Table IV. Giving Apparent Specific Gravities and Apparent Per cent, for Temperatures between 0° and 25°, as de- rived from the Supplement to Table III 679 Experiments made at the Surgeon-General’s Office, United States Army, in Washington City 681 On Proving the Strength of Spirits 686 On Gauging the Quantity of Spirits 687 Manual for Inspectors of Spirits 688 Explanation of the Tables, and Directions for their Use . . 688 Table I. True Per cent 688 Volumes 689 Table II 690 Table III 691 Table I. Showing the True Per cents, of Proof Spirit for any Indi- cation of the Hydrometer at Temperatures between 0° and 100° F. 692 Corrections to Volume 719 Table II. For Finding the Number of Gallons at 60° Falir. from the Weight and Strength of Spirituous Liquors .... 720 Table III. Giving the Respective Volumes of Absolute Alcohol and Water contained in 100 Volumes of Spirits of Different Strengths, and the Specific Gravities 723 A TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE AND DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS. PART I. CHAPTER I. ALCOHOL. Under this name modern chemists designate a spirit- uous liquid of any degree or density. The terms brandy, spirits of wine, of molasses, beets, or whiskey employed in the market to designate the varieties and extreme de- grees of concentration of the same liquid, are replaced in scientific language by this generic term. The word alcohol is of Arabic origin, and signifies a very subtile or highly divided body. It was formerly em- ployed to indicate the extreme tenuity given to certain powders. Boerhaave used it to express the inflamma- ble principle reduced to its simplest terms without being decomposed. Pure or anhydrous alcohol is a transparent, colorless liquid, of a strong and penetrating odor; of a warm and acrid taste, very volatile; when exposed to the air it evaporates by degrees; inflammable by contact with flame, it burns with a white flame, leaves no residuum, and disengages much heat. When diluted with water it burns with more difficulty, and its flame is blue and less brilliant. It is very sensitive to the influence of changes of temperature; expanding under the effects 18 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. of heat, contracting in the cold. Exposed to a tem- perature of 173° Fahr. (78° cent.) under a pressure of 0m.76 it boils and evaporates entirely. It has never been frozen. The specific gravity of pure alcohol at 60° Fahr. (15°.5 cent.) is 0.793. Its elementary composition is Carbon 52.32 Oxygen ....... 34 38 Hydrogen 13.30 100.Q0 Pure alcohol is decomposed by passing it in the form of vapor through a porcelain tube heated to redness. It is converted into carbonic acid, carburetted hydro- gen, and water. These products indicate the constitu- ent principles of alcohol in a positive manner. Alcohol mixes with water in all proportions. The increase of temperature which takes place in the mixture indicates the condensation and complete union of the two bodies. The volume of the mixture is in fact much less than the sum of the volumes of the original liquids. The maximum of contraction takes place in a mixture of 580.625 parts of alcohol and 674.880 parts of water. 100 volumes of this mixture contain 53.939 volumes of alcohol, and 49.836 volumes of water; in other words, 103.775 volumes are reduced to 100. As has been said above, spirits and brandies* are alcohols of different titles or degrees of strength, the former known in commerce as rectified spirits (trois six), at 85 or 95 degrees of the centesimal alcoholineter. The second vary from 40 to 60 degrees, according to the nature of the substances which have been used to manufacture them. The chapters on the distillation of alcohols and brandies, and the reduction of spirits will give more ample details in regard to this subject. Alcohol is of the greatest importance in chemistry. Next to water, it is the most general solvent. It dis- * The term “ brandy” is used here as generic to indicate the spirit from grape. .From molasses comes rum; from grain, whiskey, &c. ALCOHOL. 19 solves iodine, the resins, volatile oils, vegetable alkalies, almost all of the acids, &c. It precipitates from their solutions gum, starch, albumen, gelatine, and many other substances. On account of these properties alcohol is an invaluable agent in analysis. It has numerous applications in medicine and the arts; it serves as the vehicle for a host of remedies, forming the bases of the ethers, tinctures, aromatic spirits, &c. It is never employed pure for these purposes, but of dif- ferent degrees of strength, as indicated by the alcohol- meter. It enters into the preparation of liquors and cordials for the table, absinthes, perfumed extracts, and vinegars, and aromatic spirits, and is therefore used in very large quantities by the perfumer and liquorist. It is used by the anatomist and naturalist to preserve their preparations from putrefaction. Finally, it enters into the manufacture of varnishes, stearine candles, gun caps, &c., for which large quantities are consumed. Alcohol is found in all substances (vegetable or other) which contain sugar or glucose; it is the product of the decomposition of the saccharine principle which takes place during the vinous or alcoholic fermentation. It does not exist ready formed in these substances, but only after they have passed through this kind of fermen- tation, and it may, by reason of its very great vola- tility, be separated by distillation from the water with which it is united. It is on this principle that is founded the extraction of this product. All vinous liquors which yield alcohol by distillation do not furnish it in equal quantities, the result depend- ing on the quantity of saccharine matter contained in the liquid. The larger the proportion of sugar the greater will be the alcoholic product, the latter being derived entirely from the former. Among the vegetables employed in Europe for the production of alcohol, the grape holds the first place, the beet and rice come next. Potatoes, artichokes, carrots, turnips, the stalks of Indian corn, sorghum and the daf- fodil, although producing notable qualities of alcohol, are much less employed. It is the same of the cereals 20 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. and fruits in general. The molasses of the sugar factories and refineries is almost entirely converted into alcohol, and takes rank after the beet and rice. In the United States, on the other hand, potatoes, Indian corn, and the cereals furnish almost the whole of the alcohol found in the market, while large districts of country depend on the product of the orchards for their brandy. Hereafter we shall examine the method of obtaining alcohol from each of the substances named above. It is impossible to obtain anhydrous alcohol by a simple dis- tillation. Whatever may be the merit of the rectifying apparatus, it is necessary to have recourse to very deli- quescent salts or other substances which have a great affinity for water, such as carbonate of potash, acetate of potash, chloride of calcium dried and melted, quick- lime, clay dried and finely divided, &c. Pure alcohol being very difficult to find in the market, the following, if not the most economical, is at least the most convenient and prompt method for procuring it:— The spirit is allowed to macerate at a gentle heat for two days upon one-tenth of its weight of carbonate of potash dried by the fire (100 grammes to the litre of alcohol at 85 degrees). It is agitated from time to time, then distilled in a water lath, to draw off all the alcohol marking 94 degrees. To this alcohol is then added pulverized quicklime in the proportion of 500 grammes to the litre, leaving them in contact for two or three days in a hot room, and after decanting the alcohol from the calcareous deposit it is distilled very gently. The product is perfectly pure dephlegmated alcohol, that is to say, absolutely free from water. When we wish to ascertain if alcohol contains any water, a fragment of caustic baryta is placed in contact with the liquid. If it contains no water the baryta is not altered; on the contrary, if any water is present it whitens, swells, becomes hydrated and falls into a powder. The phenomenon is more marked in proportion as the quantity of water is greater. The degree of concentration of alcohol is ascertained 21 FERMENTATION. by the use of instruments especially adapted to the purpose, the uses of which will be described in the article on the “ Determination of the alcoholic strength of liquids” Alcohol is a diffusible stimulant. Its energy varies with the quantity of water with which it is mixed. When concentrated it acts as a caustic on the living tissues of the animal economy, coagulating the albumen, and depriving them of their water. By injection into the veins it causes sudden death by coagulating the blood. Its introduction into the stomach almost always causes death. Taken properly its action is restricted, especially to the sensitive and intellectual organs. “Alcohol,” says Brillat-Savarin, “is the king of li- quids; it excites the taste to the highest degree; its vari- ous preparations have opened up to mankind new sources of enjoyment; it supplies to certain medicines an energy which they could not have without it; it has become in our hands a formidable weapon; for the nations of the new world have been almost as much overcome and destroyed by brandy as by fire-arms.” CHAPTER II. FERMENTATION. An intestinal reaction which occurs spontaneously in any vegetable or animal substance under the influence of a peculiar principle, called ferment aided by heat, whence are produced certain new substances which were not originally contained therein. As the periods of decomposition are characterized by some peculiar predominating principle, the distillers dis- tinguish four kinds of fermentation, viz : The saccharine or glucosic, the vinous or alcoholic, the acid or acetic, and the putrid. Although the vinous or alcoholic fermentation most 22 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. especially concerns the distiller, it is nevertheless indis- pensable, on account of the different alcohols extracted from starch and the cereals (of which we shall speak hereafter), that he should be perfectly familiar with the laws which govern the saccharine fermentation. As to acid and putrid fermentation, they may be considered, so far as the distiller is concerned, among the accidents to which we must refer further on. Saccharine or Glucosic Fermentation. This fermentation is developed in starch dissolved in water, when brought in contact either with malt (ger- minated barley), gluten, or with a mineral or vegetable acid, agents which act as a ferment or leaven. It also takes place in the act of germination of seeds and the ripening of fruit. It is effected without any visible movement in the material, solid or fluid, and without disengaging carbonic acid. The operation of saccharification is nothing more than the transformation of the amylaceous matter into glu- cose, that is to say, a true saccharine fermentation. The substances just named are not the only ones which may, under the influence of certain reagents, be transformed into sugar; gum, pectine, cellulose, etc., also enjoy this property. Green or unripe fruits contain a very small propor- tion of sugar, and, on the other hand, a considerable quantity of gum, mucilage, pectine, starch, lignine, and a great amount of free acid. During the maturation a part of the acid disappears under the influence of heat and the oxygen of the air, the cellular tissue diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases in such a manner that instead of ligneous and acid fruits we have, if the ma- turation is complete, some weeks after gathering them, fruits which contain a sweet and syrupy j uice enclosed in tough or leatherlike envelopes. The following table will exhibit the proportions of sugar contained in 100 parts of certain fruits, both green and ripe:— VINOUS OR ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 23 Green. Ripe. Pears . 6.4 11.5 Currants (red) . 0.5 6.25 Apples . 4.9 11. Apricots . . 6.6 16.5 Peaches . 0.6 11.6 Cherries . . 0.12 18.11 Experiment has demonstrated that the maturation of fruits is analogous to that produced by the reaction of feeble acids upon gum, starch, and the shavings of wood. Vinous or Alcoholic Fermentation. Among the proximate principles of organic substances, sugar alone gives occasion to vinous fermentation from which alcohol is derived. This fermentation cannot proceed without the con- currence of five agents acting, each in a different direc- tion, the union of which is, however, indispensable, viz:— 1. Sugar or saccharine principle; 2. Water; 3. Heat; 4. A ferment; and 5. Atmospheric air. If one of these agents is suppressed, the vinous fer- mentation will not take place, and consequently no alcohol wfill be produced, whatever be the materials used or the processes followed. The role of each is of more or less importance, and the success of the fermen- tation depends absolutely on their employment and combination. We shall now examine, in turn, the part played by each of these agents in the fermentation in order to bring about the formation of alcohol. Sugar.—As we have said above, sugar is the only constituent element that can produce alcohol. The rest are mere auxiliaries to the decomposition. According to the principles of chemistry, as under- stood to-day, sugar is a substance which, when dissolved and brought in contact with a ferment, possesses the property of being transformed into alcohol and carbonic acid; entirely composed of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. It consists by weight of carbon 42.47; oxygen 50.73; hydrogen 6.90. 24 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. There are two marked varieties of sugar, the common or crystallizable and the uncrystallizable sugar. The first of these, generally obtained from the cane and beet, is also found in the stalks of sorghum, Indian corn, etc. The second is met with in the grape, pear, and other fruits, in the potato, in beans and in seeds. From a number of vegetables sugar may be extracted, differing more or less from that derived from the cane, as the maple, beet, grape, or potato. This sugar will also undergo the vinous fermentation, and alcohol may be obtained from it by distillation. Again, there exist certain sugars susceptible of fermen- tation which, although differing entirely from the preced- ing, are employed in a fluid state in the form of syrup or juice. These can neither be crystallized nor solidified. Sugar is transformed into alcohol by the separation of a part of the carbon or oxygen which it contains. In the course of this transformation it loses half its weight in gas. This result may serve to make known the quantity of alcohol of any desired strength which may be obtained from a properly fermented vat. The liquid which the vat contains before fermentation having been weighed by means of a densimetre or sac- charometre (pese sirop), it is easy to calculate the weight of the sugar which it contains in solution, and the half of this weight will give approximately the weight of pure alcohol which the fermentation will produce; yet it must be observed that practice often destroys the calcu- lations of theory, because the liquid tested may contain tartrate of potassa, or other foreign matters, and conse- quently less sugar than is indicated by the saccharome- tre; moreover, it is proper to take into account the acetic acid which is formed at the expense of the alcohol as well as the loss by evaporation. Water.—Of all natural agents for the disorganization of material substances, water occupies the first place. The presence of this solvent par excellence, is not only indispensable, but the more or less active and complete change of the sugar into alcohol is dependent on the proportion in which it is used. VINOUS OR ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 25 The fermentation is rapid or slow in accordance with the quantity of water employed. To hasten or retard the operation, it is only necessary to increase or di- minish the dose, by adding water in the first case, and evaporating it in the second; the best guide being the saccharometre. In order to exhibit more clearly the action of water in the course of the vinous fermentation, we shall pro- ceed to give the results of some experiments made by M. Duplais in June, 1854. Five fermenting vats, of a capacity of 25 hectolitres each, situated in a place having an even temperature of 20° C., received each 300 kilogrammes of molasses from the sugar refineries (215 litres at 42 degrees), and a quantity of water sufficient to make, in No. 1, 600 litres, marking on the saccharometre 15°; in No. 2, 750 litres marking 12°; in No. 3, 1000 litres marking 9°; in No. 4, 1500 litres marking 6°; and in No. 5, 2250 litres marking 4°. The following table will exhibit the duration of the fermentation and the alcoholic product of each vat:— Vat. Quantity of liquid. Duration of experiment. Alcoholic pro- duct. Proportion per 100. 1 600 litres at 15° 8 days 18.15 litres 26.25 2 100 “ “ 12 5 “ 83.55 " 21.85 3 1000 “ “ 9 3 “ 90.45 “ 30.15 4 1500 “ “ 6 2 “ 93.15 “ 31.05 5 2250 “ “ 4 1 “ 93.90 “ 31.30 Thus it is evident that the proportion of water exer- cises a great influence, both on the duration and on the products of the fermentation, and although it requires more fuel to distil 1500 litres of a liquid which will produce 93.15 litres of alcohol, than for 750 litres which will produce 83.55 litres, the increase of fuel is more than compensated by the increase of the product. The choice of water for the vinous fermentation is not 26 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. a matter of indifference. That which contains organic matters in solution should be rejected, on account of its tendency to run into the putrid fermentation. Water strongly impregnated with lime, or salts of iron, should also be rejected. Without the employment of filtered water, as for cordials, liquors, etc., it is indispensable to have it pure and clear to obtain a good result from the fermentation. This article cannot be closed without one observation of very great importance. In distilleries where the fer- menting vats are heated by steam, if the pipes are not sufficiently inclined, the water resulting from the con- densation of the steam in them may check or even arrest the fermentation. This inconvenience may be abated by the use of a “drip.” Heat.—In the disorganization of organic substances, the intervention of heat is as important as that of water. Like water, heat may be the cause of hastening or retarding the vinous fermentation. Below a temperature of 12° C. it is checked, and ceases entirely with a very cold temperature. Between 15° and 18° C. fermentation sustains itself, and becomes more lively and more perfect beyond this point. It is not, however, necessary to ex- ceed 28° or 30°, because this high temperature excites the acetic fermentation and will become very injurious. This inconvenience may be obviated by cooling the mass by means of a coiled pipe placed in the vats, in which cold water is caused to circulate, as is done in many English distilleries. Heat is retained longer in large masses than in small, and the fermentation becomes of itself the source of heat, by reason of the rapidity of the decomposition of the sugar; this rapidity being also in proportion to the mass. Hence it follows that the heat should be increased in inverse proportion to the bulk of the mass to be fer- mented. In general, with some exceptions which will be indi- cated hereafter, the heat which should be applied to fermenting vats, is as follows :— VINOUS OR ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 27 A vat of 10 hectolitres . . . 25° to 30° C. “ 20 “ ... 20 “ 25 “ “ 40 ... 18 “ 20 “ “ 60 ... 15 “ 18 “ li 100 and above. . . . 12 “ 15 “ The power which organic substances possess of fer- menting under the influence of heat and contact with the air, and thus, when in this condition, of producing the same phenomena in other substances, will disappear entirely when they are submitted to the temperature of boiling water. This general rule has no exception. If we take a substance naturally susceptible of fer- menting, of putrefying, and being decomposed, when left even for a moment exposed to the action of the air, and if, after having arrested the movement of incipient change, by means of a temperature of 100° C., we pre- vent all access of oxygen which alone can cause a re- vival of this movement of decomposition, the substance will preserve, as it is easy to conceive, for an indefinite period of time, the condition and properties which it possessed at the moment when it was submitted to the temperature of boiling water. In fact the substance is in itself incapable of spontaneous motion ; so long as no external cause acts on its atoms, they will preserve their place and original character. When a bottle is filled with the fresh juice of the grape, hermetically sealed, and suffered to remain some hours in boiling water, or at least until the must has acquired the same temperature as the water, the small quantity of oxygen contained in the air which remains in the bottle is absorbed during the action of the heat by the elements of the must. In this manner the alteration of the must is preven- tive; it will no longer ferment; it will preserve its sweet taste, and this condition will be maintained until the bottle shall be opened, that is to say, until the moment when the liquid shall be brought into a new contact with the external air. But setting out from this time the liquid will undergo the same modifications as recent must; in other words, it will be, after some hours have 28 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. elapsed, in full course of fermentation, which may, how- ever, be interrupted and caused to cease entirely as at first, by means of a new ebullition. The Air.—By reason of its oxygen, the air is the ve- hicle of decomposition of organized bodies. It acts as a leaven in the vinous fermentation, for which it is essentially the initial force. Nevertheless, when its oxygen has given the impulse, it ceases to be necessary in the different periods through which the fermentation passes. This last, notwithstanding the exclusion of the air, continues its progress without interruption. The juice of the grape, so long as it is protected by its envelope from contact with the atmospheric air, experi- ences modifications which are scarcely appreciable. The berry only dries by degrees. But it is sufficient to change all the properties of this juice, if the envelope is opened with the point of a needle. When it is protected from contact with the air, and consequently preserved from the chemical action which the oxygen of the air exercises upon one of its proximate principles, the must of the grape will be preserved indefinitely; for in the absence of a disturbing cause, the elements can experience no change, whatever be their facility of assuming new ar- rangements. But when it is exposed to the air and subjected to a proper temperature, there is produced an active disengagement of gas, accompanied by movement in the liquid, and all the sugar will disappear. The juice of the grape now contains a quantity of alcohol which is in direct proportion to the sugar which it con- tained before. Nevertheless, if the contact of the air is indispensable to set up the vinous fermentation, particular care should be taken to prevent this contact when the fermentation has commenced; by this precaution will be prevented the formation of acetic acid, which is always produced at the expense of the alcohol, and then becomes itself a most active leaven for the acetic fermentation. It is advisable, then, during the continuance of the fermenta- tion, to abstain as much as possible from uncovering the vat, and producing any movement whatever that may 29 VINOUS OR ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. displace the layer of carbonic acid gas interposed between the liquid in fermentation and the atmospheric air. The period most to be apprehended for the forma- tion of acetic acid in the vinous fermentation, is towards the end of the operation, for then the action of the atmosphere is exercised only on the alcohol already formed and favors its transformation into acetic acid. Weak musts extracted from various substances in which the vinous fermentation is completed cannot bear, by reason of the small quantity of alcohol which they contain, contact with the air; in them the acid fermen- tation begins as soon as the vinous fermentation has ceased, and we may almost affirm that the two fermen- tations, under the circumstances indicated, in some mea- sure progress side by side. jFerment.—The term ferment is understood to apply to any substance which, when placed in a liquid capable of being fermented and properly arranged, causes it to ferment with more activity and energy than it would have done if left to itself, and thus shortens this opera- tion. The ferment is a substance in a state of putrefaction, whose atoms are in continual motion, and which has the property of causing the decomposition of sugar and its conversion into alcohol. May not this substance, which has not been clearly defined, be considered as pe- culiar, or rather as a modification of certain animal or- ganisms? This last hypothesis is admitted by many philosophers, because many animal substances, when in a state of decomposition, act as a ferment on sugar. According to the microscopic observations of Que- venne, Turpin, and others, upon substances in a state of fermentation, the ferment is endowed with vital action and partakes of the nature of the animal or vegetable; it appears to be organized, and to exist and develop it- self it requires similar nourishment. “ This azotized substance, which exists as a gum in the greater part of organized matters, when placed under certain influences and in proper conditions, is developed, modified, and acts as we shall demonstrate hereafter. 30 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Sometimes it exists already formed, but during the course of fermentation it loses its quality of ferment. Sometimes, on the other hand, it not only exists and acts, but, during the fermentation, it develops itself until it acquires a weight five, six, and even sevenfold more than it had at the beginning. “In respect to the ferment we recognize three condi- tions in the phenomena of fermentation ; in the first, the ferment does not exist, but may be produced spontane- ously, as in the case of saccharine fruits; in the second, the ferment exists and acts, but is not reproduced: this occurs when sugar is mixed with the leaven of beer; and in the third, the ferment may originate, act, and re- produce itself, as happens in the course of the manufac- ture of beer.” In general the ferment does not act virtue of its peculiar chemical nature, but simply as the cause of an action which extends beyond the sphere of its own de- composition ; it impresses on the organic substances with which it may be brought in contact the state of decomposition in which it happens to be. “ The ferment itself takes no part in the chemical changes which it provokes, and we can find, neither in the laws of affi- nity nor in the forces of electricity, light, or heat, any legitimate explanation of its effects.” Whatever may be the nature of the ferment, it is very evident that to its action, in the course of fermentation, is due the change of sugar into alcohol. Ferment, as we have already said, is a substance undergoing decom- position or putrefaction, the particles of which are in continual motion. This perturbation of elements, by communicating itself to the sugar, destroys the state of equilibrium of its peculiar atoms, which are then grouped in a different manner, according to their special attrac- tions. The carbon of the sugar divides itself between the oxygen and hydrogen in such a manner as to form two more stable and intimate compounds—carbonic acid and alcohol. The elements of the ferment take no part in the formation of the products which result from the sugar during the fermentation. It is only the stimulant VINOUS OR ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 31 which provokes the change without participating therein chemically. The.ferment most generally used is the leaven or yeast of beer. The preference of distillers for this substance is founded on its fermentable power, and on the facility with which it may be procured in the market. Yeast is a frothy substance which is drawn up by the carbonic acid gas, and collects on the surface of the liquid during the fermentation of the worts of beer. It is to be had of the brewers either in a liquid or solid state, that is to say, fresh or dry. Fresh yeast in a semi-fluid state is to be preferred, but it is very difficult to transport and preserve it, there- fore dry yeast is most frequently used. The latter has been subjected to the action of a press, to deprive it of the beer and render it solid. In this state it is in the form of a uniform brittle paste, neither stringy nor sticky, of a yellowish-white, and having a slight aromatic odor of hops, without any mixture of an acid or putrid taste. The fermentable power of yeast varies according to the quality of the beer from which it is derived. If it results from a strong beer, it is much more substantial, acts more gently and more certainly, and is more apt to favor a healthy and sweet fermentation. If, on the other hand, it is derived from a small beer, it acts all at once with a sort of violence, and, after having ex- cited in the wort a hasty bubbling and kind of efferves- cence, it loses all its energy, from which results a loss of a portion of the spirituous principle, and is frequently followed by acidity. The facility with which yeast passes to a state of putrefaction renders it necessary to preserve it in the cellar, or some other cool place, for a slightly elevated temperature may readily alter or corrupt it. It may be preserved a sufficiently long time, espe- cially as regards its freshness, when care is taken to cover it with water, which must be renewed every day. A means of preserving yeast at all seasons, and which has been employed with some success, consists in mixing this substance with very thick molasses, so as to form a 32 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. hard paste. “ The ferment thus mixed with sugar or molasses,” says Dumas, “ will for years preserve its cha- racteristic properties.” According to M. Payen a better result is obtained by spreading out a thin layer of fresh yeast, and allowing it to dry in the open air by exposure to the sun, or in a current of slightly-heated air. “ I have,” says he, “ succeeded in rendering the de- siccation more prompt by spreading the yeast whipped to a smooth broth on thick tables of plaster wrell dried, and thus rendered more absorbent.” Another means has appeared to me to be at least as efficacious. It con- sists in mixing the whipped yeast with very dry animal black in powder (and consequently strongly hydroscopic), or with starch strongly heated and cooled in a close vessel. The drying under these circumstances is easily finished in a current of air heated to 30° or 35° C. Whatever may be the method employed for preserv- ing pure yeast it is very certain that it will never possess either the strength or the energy of that which is newly prepared, therefore it should never be used when fresh yeast can be obtained. It is important to examine yeast with great care to be assured of its quality. That which is acid, or the result of a bad fermentation, should be rejected. The former is recognized as follows: A strip of litmus paper being dipped into the suspected yeast, if it is acid the blue will be changed to a permanent red; if, however, the yeast be good, fresh, and well preserved, the litmus paper will be slightly reddened, but if washed in fresh water the blue will be restored. As to that which re- sults from a vicious fermentation it is almost impossible to detect it, unless by employing the means hereafter indicated in the article on the phenomena of fermentation, or when the decomposition is so far advanced in the altered leaven that the disagreeable odor which it ex- hales may be recognized. Frequently the dry yeast is sophisticated. The fraud consists in the addition of rye or wheat flour, or, more likely, wheat or potato starch. This mixture is readily detected by dissolving a small quantity of the suspected VINOUS OR ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 33 yeast in a little boiling water, and pouring into it two or three drops of tincture of iodine. If it is pure, the liquid will not change color; if, however, it is adulte- rated, a decided blue color will be produced. Beer yeast is not the only substance which will cause the conversion of sugar into alcohol. All azotized sub- stances, as gluten, albumen, fibrine, caseine, &c., possess this property in a more or less decided degree, and they will act as much more promptly as they are more alter- able, and when they have already arrived at a state of incipient putrefaction. All the vegetable juices that contain sugar enter into a state of fermentation a few hours after they have been expressed, as happens with the juice of sugar-cane, the beet, fruits, the sap of the maple, &c. This pheno- menon results from the fact that these juices contain a notable proportion of nitrogenous fermentable material, which, however, does not possess the power of develop- ing fermentation until brought in contact with the air; for, in a vacuum, or in contact with other gases than the air, these saccharine juices undergo no change, while a very small quantity of atmospheric air will in a short time determine their fermentation. The varieties which exist in yeast, as regards the amount of ferment it contains, as well as the distance of certain distilleries from the sources of supply, oblige the distillers to prepare leaven for themselves. By this means they act intelligently, and are assured of obtain- ing uniform results; nevertheless we must say that leaven is never so energetic as good yeast. The following receipt will always produce a leaven, the efficacy of which has been proven by experience:— Malted wheat, very dry and pulverized . 2 kilogrammes. Malted barley ground and dried in a furnace. 400 grammes. Hops 250 Strong glue ...... 250 River water ...... 40 litres. Good fresh and dry yeast . . . .1 kilog. 500 grms. Boil the hops in 24 litres of water until reduced to one-third, filter through a cloth, then, after allowing it 34 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. to cool to 36° C., work in the flour. The glue is to be dissolved in the remaining 16 litres of water at a boiling heat, and the solution mixed with the flour dough. The mass is then allowed to cool down to 24° C., and the yeast is added. The mass will very soon begin to fer- ment, and, at the end of twenty-four hours, will have been converted into a very good leaven fit for immediate use. If a small quantity of this leaven is prepared at the beginning it will serve for preparing more, and by this means it may always be procured in such quantity as may be needed. It may be kept for eight days in a cool place without alteration. The following may also be employed successfully Common honey . . 5 kilogrammes. Malt ... 3 kilogr. and 500 grammes. Cream of tartar . 500 grammes. Water . . .10 litres. Heat the water to 50° C., then add the cream of tar- tar, honey, and malt; stir the whole well together and leave it for some hours. As soon as the temperature has fallen to 24° C. cover the leaven until the fermentation is established. The following process for the distillation of the juice of the beet,' for which a patent was issued in France in 1838, may with some modifications be highly useful. The process may be stated as follows, viz: The beet juice, marking from 6° to 7° of the areometer of Baume (saccharometer), is introduced into the vats at a tempe- rature of 25° C., to which are added, for a vat of 15 hec- tolitres :— Sulphuric acid, at 66° . 1 kilogramme 500 grammes. Dried beer yeast . . 2 kilogrammes 500 “ A special preparation . 2 “ The special preparation is made as follows:— Coarsely ground rye flour 16 kilogrammes. Wheat bran . . . 9 “ Butter (without salt) . 1 kilogramme 500 grammes. Soft soap ... 2 kilogrammes 500 “ Saltpetre ... 1 kilogramme. Boiling water . , .10 litres. PHENOMENA OF THE VINOUS FERMENTATION. 35 The object of the soap and butter is to prevent the fermentation from being too tumultuous. Phenomena of the Vinous Fermentation. Now that we have explained the role of the five in- dispensable agents of the vinous fermentation, their combination and use, we shall describe the phenomena of the operation itself. The vinous fermentation, as we have already said, is the result of the decomposition of sugar, the products being alcohol and carbonic acid. These results may be easily established by dissolving some sugar in four times its weight of water' or more, according to the idea of the distiller, without, however, using too great a quantity of water, for then the fer- menting mass will heat with difficulty, because it will be too watery. When the liquid marks 10° of the saccharometer its temperature should be raised, as has already been said, in proportion to the mass, that is to say, between 15° and 30° C. Take 2£ per cent, of dry and fresh yeast, and dilute it with a small quantity of the liquid which is to be fermented; beat the mixture strongly with a small whip ; cover the vessel, and if the yeast is good, the fermentation will be established at the end of a quarter or half of an hour at most; if not we shall be compelled to add yeast until fermentation shall be active and tumultuous. This preparation finished, the leaven is poured into the fermenting vats, the mix- ture thoroughly stirred, and the vessel closed. The temperature of the mass must be kept up, and under these conditions the fermentation will not delay in es- tablishing itself, and will run through its various periods. Let us suppose that this experiment is performed in a flask furnished with a bent tube, which is plunged into a cistern filled with water, in order to give issue to the gas, and at the same time prevent its dissipation in the air. With the apparatus so arranged it will be easy to observe what passes. First stage.—The liquid is disturbed, its volume in- 36 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. creases, and its temperature rises; for the heat applied to the vat to inaugurate the fermentation is not all that will act; the fermentation produces it spontaneously in proportion to the rapidity of its development, that is to say, in accordance with the more or less prompt decom- position of the sugar, and, consequently, with the quan- tity of carbonic acid formed. Certainly it is easy to comprehend that it is to this heat, produced by the in- ternal movement in the vat, that is due the elevation, or, at least, the preservation of the temperature of the mass in fermentation. It is evident that without this new heat the vat would soon lose a part of its caloric, and acquire the general temperature of the place wherein the fermentation is conducted. It is, too, on this prin- ciple that we raise the temperature of the place and of the mass in proportion as the quantity is small, and the must weak. The symptoms of fermentation then are : 1st, increase of volume ; 2d, elevation of temperature; 3d, formation and discharge of carbonic acid gas. This gas escapes from all points of the liquid in innu- merable small bubbles, which rise to the surface and break, bringing with them particles of the ferment, and produce, according to the nature of the materials acted on, a scum (or foam), more or less thick, called the cap. Second stage.—The vat attains its highest degree of temperature, the fermentation is in the greatest activity, the gas escapes abundantly, and the cap thickens; then the tumultuous movement subsides, the heat of the vat decreases, and this last resumes its original temperature. Third stage.—Almost the whole of the sugar being converted into alcohol and carbonic acid gas, the fermen- tation is finished, the liquid acquires the temperature of the place in which the fermentation is conducted, the cap, no longer supported by the carbonic acid, falls to the bottom of the vat, the liquid becomes clear, and should, if the operation has been well conducted, that is to say, if the sugar is decomposed, be reduced to the term zero of the saccharometre. In this condition, if the liquid is examined, it will be found to have lost its sac- PHENOMENA OF THE VINOUS FERMENTATION. 37 charine taste, and to have acquired one that is more or less strong and warm, as well as a peculiar vinous odor. From this point it loses the name of must to receive that of wine, whatsoever may be the character of the materials that have produced it. The vinous fermentation having run through its dif- ferent stages, if we have collected the whole of the carbonic acid gas evolved on the one hand, and, on the other, distilled the fermented must to extract the alco- hol, leaving out of the calculation the foreign substances furnished by the ferment, we arrive at this result of our experiment, viz., that 100 parts of sugar will furnish 51.455 parts of pure alcohol and 48.545 of carbonic acid. Now by establishing the quantity, in volumes, of the elements of sugar and of alcohol, we can easily account for this transformation of sugar into alcohol as indicated by Gay-Lussac:— Composition of sugar in volumes. Composition of alcohol in volumes. Yapor of carbon . . 3 vols. Yapor of carbon . . 2 vols. Hydrogen .... 3 “ Hydrogen .... 3 “ Oxygen 1|“ Oxygen vol. From which it is seen that alcohol differs from sugar only in this, that it contains one volume less of the vapor of carbon and one of oxygen, proportions which are exactly those in which these two bodies combine to form carbonic acid. Wine is only sugar, less a certain quantity of oxygen and carbon. As to the decomposed ferment, it is deposited in the form of white flocculi; but it no longer contains nitro- gen as one of its elements, and, as we do not find it in any of the products, we are ignorant of what has become of it. It may often happen that a vinous fermentation is entirely completed, although the saccharometre indicates one or more degrees, as in the fermentation of common molasses and of beet-juice. This indicates that the fermented liquid contains some salt of potash, or other substance, and that the saccharometer does not really indicate the quantity of sugar contained in the liquid, but only the specific gravity of this liquid. 38 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. So many circumstances may influence the more or less prompt decomposition of the sugar, that it is impos- sible to indicate precisely the time necessary for the fermentation to run through all its stages. This de- composition is dependent, first, on the saccharine rich- ness of the must; second, on its volume; third, on the local temperature and that of the mass to be fermented; fourth, on the energy of the ferment and the quantity employed ; in fact on a number of unforeseen causes. The phenomena which we have just described are produced in all saccharine liquids which enter into a state of fermentation, whatsoever be their origin. If we examine all the phenomena of fermentation as a whole, we arrive at a confirmation of the principle long ago laid down by Laplace and Berthollet, viz: “ That an atom set in motion by any force whatsoever, may communicate its own motion to another atom which may be in contact with it. This is a general law of dynamics which embraces every case in which the resistance {vital force, affinity, electric force, force of cohesion) which opposes a motion is sufficient to arrest it.” (Lie- big.) The vinous fermentation requires much precaution ; if it may be disturbed by many known causes, there are others which it is sometimes impossible to foresee or explain. It is necessary, then, to bring to this operation the most absolute care. Acid Fermentation.—The most to be avoided of all the accidents of fermentation is, without doubt, the acid fermentation, which results in the formation of acetic acid. This is always the sequence of the vinous fer- mentation ; it takes place when the fermented liquid is exposed to the air, under a temperature of from 20° to 35° cent. A portion of the oxygen of the air is absorbed, and aids in the formation of carbonic acid gas, the volume of which is equal to that of the oxygen which has disappeared. The liquid becomes heated, and by degrees is rendered Accidents of Fermentation. ACCIDENTS OF FERMENTATION. 39 turbid by a long stringy substance, which after a time is precipitated, thus restoring the transparency of the liquid. At this stage all the alcohol it contained is de- composed, and in its place is found a quantity of acetic acid which is proportional to it; from which circum- stance it is concluded that the acid is formed at the expense of the alcohol. Although chemistry cannot as yet explain in a satis- factory manner how these reactions are effected, it is known, 1st, that pure alcohol mixed with water never acidifies when exposed to the air; that it is necessary in order to convert it into vinegar that it should be in contact with a ferment or some other nitrogenous sub- stance that will fulfil the office of one ; 2d, that the presence of air and a temperature of from 20° to 35° cent, are indispensable to the fermentation of liquids containing alcohol. Hence we conclude that the ferment is in this case a cause of decomposition in the conver- sion of alcohol into acetic acid or vinegar. From this statement it may be understood how im- portant it is to prevent the access of the air to vats during the course of the vinous fermentation, and to avoid too high a temperature in the place where these vats are situated, as well as in the must when set for fermentation. The same remark is to be made in regard to the use of the ferment; while a proper quantity favors the development of the vinous fermentation, too great a dose will excite the acetic fermentation. In order to prevent every cause that may favor the acidification of the vats, the greatest cleanliness should be observed in the distillery, and care taken to wash the empty vats as well as all the utensils with lime-water, which neutralizes the acid. It is, in fact, proven that the smallest portion of acid is a leaven which will accelerate the oxv«;enation of the alcohol. O The acid fermentation may also be developed under a number of exceptional circumstances. Great perturba- tions of the atmosphere, stormy weather, thunder, the use of fetid or stagnant water, and the foul odors which 40 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. exhale from the fermenting-rooms, are so many causes that may induce the souring of the vats. Putrid Fermentation.—This is produced when the decomposition of the liquid passes beyond the acetic stage. The liquid then becomes viscous and turbid, disengages ammonia and deposits an earthy sediment. The rest of the liquid is nothing more than water, whose fetid and repulsive odor infects all parts of the place where this fermentation is developed. Viscous Fermentation.—This is a spontaneous altera- tion which sometimes takes place in white wines of inferior quality, in common beer, beet-juice, and generally in saccharine liquids, which have been kept too long before being set to ferment. It results in rendering these liquids thick and slimy, and the transformation of the sugar and starchy matters into a kind of gummy sub- stance. The peculiarity of this fermentation, when developed actively, is to form in the mass of the liquid mucila- ginous flocks which disturb its transparency and disen- gage during the chemical reaction a small quantity of carbonic acid and hydrogen gases. The light and par- tial foam which is formed at the surface confirms this discharge of gas, which, although small, is yet sufficient to be observed. According to M. Payen this vitiation of fermentable liquids is attributable to the alteration of the caseine and other nitrogenous substances which they may con- tain. One quite serious cause also to which this viscous change may be attributed, is the much too feeble action of the leaven, which does not possess sufficient strength to disorganize the saccharine principle entirely. It is to be observed that the viscous fermentation once produced in a must may be reproduced in any other saccharine liquid to which the altered must may be added ; it fulfils in this case the office of a ferment. The viscous fermentation may be easily avoided : 1st, by keeping the vats very clean, taking care to wash them with water acidulated with 5 per cent, of sul- SWEAT-HOUSE AND FERMENTING VATS. 41 phuric acid of 66° ; 2d, by only using good fresh yeast (ithe cap); 3d, by adding to certain must three or four thousandths of tannin or one-half of one per cent, of sul- phuric acid. Lactic Fermentation.—This accident of fermentation results in the conversion of saccharine or amylaceous substances into lactic acid. It originates like the viscous fermentation in certain albuminous or nitrogenous liquids, the fermentation of which progresses too slowly, either in consequence of using an altered ferment or in too small quantity, or by the delay in setting the vats to work. The lactic may take place simultaneously with the vinous fermentation, and even sometimes overcome it, but most frequently it succeeds or accompanies the viscous fermentation. It is recognized by the odor and the acrid and disagreeable taste which result from it. This accident may be prevented by the same care and precautions indicated for the viscous fermentation. Frothing.—The evolution of carbonic acid always pro- duces, during the fermentation of liquids, a great quan- tity of foam, which frequently runs over the top of the vats on to the floor of the apartment where it may occasion putrid exhalations. This accident may be prevented by sprinkling the batch from time to time by means of a broom with a solution of soft soap (500 grammes in 4 litres of water), or with a small quantity of very thick oil beaten up with water. Sweat-House and Fermenting Vats. After having spoken of the conditions, the phenomena and accidents of fermentation, it yet remains for us to say something in regard to the fermenting-houses and vats (vessels) destined for this operation. Since the vinous or alcoholic fermentation may be produced during the whole year without regard to the seasons, it is necessary to have a place specially devoted to it. The apartments in which this operation is conducted 42 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. is called by some a cellar, and by others a shop, but the proper term is sweat-house. The size of the sweat-house should be in proportion to the importance of the distillery as well as to the number and capacity of the indispensable vats ; it should receive as much as possible its light from the east or west, should have but little height of ceiling, and be surrounded by thick walls in order to preserve its heat. The number and size of the windows and doors should be restricted to what may be absolutely necessary, and care should be taken to cut off all air currents. A uniform temperature being one of the first condi- tions of a good fermentation, a thermometer should be placed in the sweat-house to indicate the degree of heat. If the heat is not sufficiently high, it may be supplied by means of large stoves placed in the middle of the room. Distillers frequently have no sweat-liouse, but place their fermenting vats in the distillery itself, so as to avail themselves of the heat of the distillery or other apparatus. This method, which at first sight appears to be very economical, is highly objectionable, because it is impossible to regulate the fermentation properly. Sup- posing that this heat is sufficient in winter, it is incon- testable that it will be too great in summer, and even sometimes in the bright days of spring and autumn. There is a loss in alcohol, which is converted into acid, which is much greater than the cost of the fuel neces- sary for heating the sweat-house. »/ o As has already been said there are evolved during the vinous fermentation, considerable quantities of carbonic acid gas. This gas, the composition of which is well known, is also one of the products of combustion, and of the respiration of men and animals. It is also a con- stituent of many minerals, being most abundant in the natural limestones, as chalk, etc.; readily absorbed by water, it reddens litmus paper slightly, the color being restored by a gentle heat. It is heavier than atmospheric air, nearly double the weight bulk for bulk, and may be poured from one vessel to another, extinguishes flame, and is destructive to the SWEAT-HOUSE AND FERMENTING VATS. 43 life of animals compelled to breathe in an atmosphere contaminated by its presence in sufficient quantity. We cannot recommend too great precautions against the deleterious action of this gas. On entering the vats, its presence may be readily detected by taking a lighted candle in the hand, and holding it near the bottom. The gas in consequence of its weight will occupy the lower stratum of air; if the light becomes dim, it is no longer safe to remain, and it becomes necessary to withdraw from the vessel at once, and gain free access to fresh air. In order to keep the air of the sweat-house healthy, we should place several buckets filled with lime-water about the floor, to absorb the carbonic acid evolved; but frequently this precaution has been insufficient, and workmen have been asphyxiated on entering the building. Much risk in this matter may be obviated by making a number of openings three or four inches square on a level with the floor, to afford a means of escape to the carbonic acid gas, which, being heavier than atmospheric air, will flow off at these vents. If a person should meet with an accident from breath- ing carbonic acid, he should at once be taken into the open air and caused to breathe a small quantity of am- monia (hartshorn), or, better still, chlorine gas. These remedies are often successful in cases of asphyxia from carbonic acid, yet it is better to send for a physician at once and in all cases. The greatest cleanliness should prevail in the sweat- house ; the floor should be swept every day, and, if pos- sible, well washed with a large quantity of water. It is proper that it should be paved with bricks or tiles that will resist the action of the organic acids which form when the froth or fermented liquids (or destined for this operation) are spilled on the floor. Occasionally the air of the sweat-house should be re- moved, but without varying too suddenly the temperature which is necessary for the success of the work. The fermenting vats are generally made of oak or pine encircled by thick iron bands; their dimensions and capacity vary according to the quantity and nature of the 44 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. materials to be fermented. They should be deeper than wide, and the bottom diameter should be some inches greater than that of the top, in order to present the least surface to the action of the air, and consequently diminish the chances of acidification. The solidity of the vats should be in proportion to their size, since the thickness of the wood has the ad- vantage of preserving the heat and protecting the liquid from variations in the temperature of the external air. A thickness of 4 centimeters is sufficient for a vat of 25 or 30 hectolitres, and 5 centimeters for a vat of GO or 70 hectolitres. For vats of greater capacity, the thickness should be increased in proportion. 1 he form of the vats is by no means a matter of in- difference. Circular vats, although occupying more space than those that are square, are infinitely prefer- able, because they are so much better adapted to pre- serve the heat of their liquid contents. It is moreover readily understood that the angles of square vats will very much favor this loss of heat. In order to avoid cooling and the loss or acidification of the alcohol, the fermenting vats ought to be herme- tically closed by a cover of which two thirds may be raised at pleasure. It is also a matter of the greatest importance to clean the fermenting vats as soon as they are emptied, and rinse them out either with slightly acidulated water (1 litre of sulphuric acid at 60° in 20 litres of water) or with lime-water. The former is used when the liquid which is drawn from the vats has not been fermented with sufficient energy, or when it contains a small pro- portion of sugar; the latter when the fermentation has been tumultuous or slightly acid. For this purpose, the vats should be furnished with a tap 5 centimetres from the bottom, for drawing off the liquid, and a bung in the bottom for cleaning out entirely the deposit formed during the fermentation. Aii arrangement used in some distilleries under the care of the author, and which has been found very ser- DISTILLATION. 45 viceable, may be used with advantage for the manufac- ture of alcohol. (Fig. 1., PI. VI.) This apparatus consists of a copper coil, the diameter of which varies according to the size of the vat, placed at the bottom of the latter. This coil is connected to a pipe with two branches furnished with stopcocks; one of these conducts steam and the other cold water, ac- cording as the batch has need of being heated or cooled. By this simple means the operation is under the con- trol of the distiller. CHAPTER III. DISTILLATION. The object of the process of distillation is to separate liquids from each other, which are converted into vapor at different temperatures, or to isolate a volatile liquid from a fixed substance by converting it into vapor by the aid of heat, and by means of its contact with a cold body cause it to resume its liquid form by being de- prived of its heat, and thus to be collected in proper receivers. It requires much care and skill. There are many methods of applying heat in the process of distillation, and to favor the ascent of vapor according to the liquid distilled, viz., the naked fire, the water bath, sand bath, and by steam, so that the degree of heat and its manner of application may be varied with the substance to be distilled. These operations will be treated of more particularly hereafter. Distillation is effected in apparatus, the form and arrangement of which are appropriate to the liquids or substances to be treated. Everything the earth produces may be its object and aim, but it is chiefly for the distil- ler of spirits and the liquorist, for flowers, plants, fruits, seeds, roots, and in fact every substance that contains an aromatic, saccharine, or amylaceous principle. 46 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The object of the distiller of ardent spirits is to separate the alcoholic principle from any liquid that may have been previously subjected to the vinous fer- mentation. The liquorist, on the contrary, only uses the process for the purpose of collecting, either by means of water or alcohol, the perfume of aromatic substances; in a word, he aromatizes liquids; he rarely distils water or alcohol separately. Distilling Apparatus.—The apparatus used for simple or continuous distillation of spirituous liquids is com- monly called a still. The merit of a still consists in the harmonious arrange- ment of its parts, which will permit the liquid to be heated writh promptness, and to be vaporized and con- densed with facility; and the apparatus will be as much better as it will perform these three functions with the greatest economy of time and fuel. The number and forms of distillatory apparatus are numerous and varied. A multitude of patents more or less valuable have been issued for improvements or for novelties which exist only on paper or in the heads of the would-be inventors. We shall only describe such as are really valuable and in actual use in distilleries of good standing. The Simple Apparatus is rarely employed for the dis- tillation of alcohol, because it is impossible to obtain pure products with it in a sufficiently large quantity and with sufficient economy to sustain the competition of commerce. Its use is almost entirely confined to distillers making brandy on the spot, and liquorists aromatizing the spirits for compounding their cordials. The following are the forms of simple stills, viz :— Still with a goose-neck, “ moor’s head, “ “ column, “ of glass or retort. The still with a goose-neck consists of five principal parts and five accessories. 47 DISTILLATION. 1. The boiler or still (Fig. 1, PI. I.) is made of tinned copper, and enters the furnace ; its size varies accord- ing to its capacity. At about three-fourths of its height this piece is projected or bulged, and forms a border or flange which rests on the furnace. An opening having a socket a, with a screw plug b, is placed on this projection, and serves for the introduction of liquid to replace that which is evaporated, without arresting the distillation. The opening of the boiler is strengthened externally by a circular flange c, of rolled copper to support the water bath; it has two handles d, to facilitate the hand- ling. A round grate (Fig. 2, PI. I.) of tinned. copper perforated with small holes rests near the bottom, sup- ported by many feet b, two or three inches from the bottom. This grate is formed of two pieces united by hinges, and is furnished with a handle a, to facilitate its removal from the still. 2. The water bath (Fig. 3, PI. I.) is a vessel of copper tinned inside only. It is supported by the still into which it enters. At its mouth are also two flanges, a and b, of rolled copper which fit exactly, one with the still and the other with the head. The water bath is also furnished with two handles, c, and a cover with a handle (Fig. 4, PI. I.) which closes it hermetically. This cover is only used when the water bath is used for making infusions. 3. The head or cap is of copper, tinned inside only. It has the form of an inverted funnel. Its two openings are each finished with a flange of rolled copper a and b. One fitting either the water bath or still and the other the goose-neck. A hole c, similar to that on the still, and for the same purpose, is made at about two-thirds of the height of the cap. 4. The goose-neck (Fig. 6, PI. I.) is a long copper tube bent into a semicircle, and reinforced at each end by a flange a and b, which serves to connect the still with the coil or worm. The coupling (Fig. 7, PI. I.) is made of tin or copper with small flanges of copper or brass for connecting the goose-neck with the worm when the water bath is in use for distilling. 48 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. 5. The cooler or worm (Fig. 8, PI. I.) is a long pipe of block tin or tinned copper bent into a spiral a, the branches b of which are supported by the perpendicular strips c, of tin or copper, which are soldered to it. The upper extremity of the worm, which is connected with the goose-neck by a flange d, has the form of a flattened sphere e, and is called lentil. The whole is surrounded by a slack-tub f of copper, at the bottom of which there is a tap. The hot water of the cooler runs off by a level pipe h, which is placed at the top of this vessel. A long copper funnel (Fig. 9, PI. I.), extending a little above the top, and descending to the bottom of the slack-tub, serves to keep up the supply of cold water. It is called the cooling pipe. The beak (Fig. 10, PI. I.) is attached to the lower extremity of the worm to connect it with the receiver. (The receiver is the vessel which receives the distillate, that used by the liquorist is glass, copper, or stoneware.) The cooler is firmly supported on a mass of bricks or oaken trestles. The apparatus with the goose-neck is generally used for the preparation or rectification of perfumed spirits. The still with moors head is composed of pieces like the last, with the exception of the cap, in which it differs completely. This cap (Fig. 11, PI. I.) is made of tin or copper, and rests on the still or water bath. A long late- ral pipe or neck a, serves to conduct the vapors into the worm. An opening with a neck of copper b, closed by a screw plug c, of the same metal, is placed at the top of the cap; two flanges, d and e, complete the apparatus. The moor’s head is preferred for the distillation of volatile oils and aromatic waters, as well as for Swiss absinthe. * For the distillation of aromatic waters, the perforated water bath (Fig. 12, PL I.) is used with advantage. This vessel is used to contain substances which it is desirable to subject to a higher degree of heat than can be attained by the ordinary water bath. The perforated water bath is not plunged into the boiling water, and the substances which it contains are subjected to the action of the steam only, thus preventing contact with the walls of the still DISTILLATION. 49 and the fear of having them burn and attach themselves to the sides, which sometimes happens when the contents of the still are large. M. Soubeiran has invented the following very simple apparatus for the preparation of distilled waters by steam:— A movable copper pipe a (Fig. 13, PI. I.), in the form of a handle with a stopcock 6, serves to conduct the steam from the still into the water-bath; a second curved copper pipe c is connected with it, and descending with- in, along the walls is bent inwards and opens near the middle of the bottom of the water bath. A perforated diaphragm cl, supported by several feet which sustain it above the orifice of the steam-pipe, and furnished with two handles by which to introduce or remove it at will, serves to hold the plants or flowers which are to be dis- tilled. By this system we may replace the perforated water-bath, and at the same time effect a distillation by steam, since the substances are not in direct contact with the water of the still. The still with column, like the preceding, consists of a still, a cap, goose-neck, and a cooler. The column a (Fig. 14, PI. I.) is the only point of difference; its height varies with the capacity of the apparatus. The extre- mity, which rests on the still, is closed by a fixed dia- phragm b, pierced with a great number of holes; this supports four or five other diaphragms, c, fitted with handles, which rest one on the other, being each charged with a layer of plants or flowers. A very important improvement has been added to the column still by Egrot, a skilful manufacturer in Paris, which consists in placing between the still and the column an intermediate piece which he calls a sepa- rator. (Vase extractif applique a la distillation.') By his process are obtained separately, but not at the same time, both the good and bad products without the latter mixing with the former. Thus, if in the ordinary apparatus we place a sepa- rator (so called because it rejects all the fixed and non- 50 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. distillable products); between the still and column for flowers, it is certain, that of the steam arising from the still to pass through the flowers in the column, to ex- haust them of their aroma, a small quantity will con- dense therein and carrying with it the color and active viscous parts of the plant (often very injurious to the operation), which instead of falling as before into the still, will now fall into the separator and be rejected from the apparatus.♦ It is these viscous colored products that first fall into the still, and, under the action of repeated distillation, sometimes for an hour or two, are volatilized. They give a taste of phlegm injurious to the flavor of the dis- tillate, or rather this turbid liquid attaches itself to the walls of the still, and detaches the tin or burns the bottom. Finally, if a distiller or perfumer finds himself pressed with his work, as happens at the period of the flower harvest, he will have the advantage with the ex- tractor of not being compelled to change the water in his still, thereby gaining much time; since he may dis- til with the same liquid during the whole day, taking care only when he renews the charge to add a quantity of water equal to that drawn off during the operation ; while in the present state of things, without this ex- tractor, he is obliged to empty, rinse, and refill the still with cold water, and then wait until it has been raised to the boiling point after each operation. Fig. 1. The Extractor. DISTILLATION. 51 Fig. 2. Section of Extractor. A. Flanges for fitting it to the still and flower column. B. Waste pipe. C. Stopcock. D. Cup into which the extremity of the waste pipe dips. E. Cylinder through which the steam passes. F. Cap of the cylinder for distributing the steam uniformly. The retort still is of glass, and consists of three parts (Fig. 15, PI. I.). The retort, a; a connecting tube, b, which is enlarged in the middle and open at both ends; and a globe, c, which answers for a receiver. This very fragile apparatus is rarely used. A copper test still, which is similar to the simple still, varying in size from one to six litres, is generally substituted for it. The form of distilling apparatus has undergone much change during a century, especially in regard to the cap. This piece, too, appears to be almost useless, and the less of height it has the better it is; it may, too, be re- placed with advantage by a simple tube connecting the still with the worm. The use of the cap being to contain a certain quan- tity of vapor, it would be more simple to conduct it at once into the worm, towards which it is attracted by the coolness of the condenser. This remark is so true that all distillers of alcohol have suppressed the cap. Simple stills to which steam is to be applied as a means of heating should receive it in a double bottom, and not by an interior coil, as is done in stills for a continuous operation, because by this arrangement the substances to be treated may attach themselves to the surface of the 52 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. coil, and, by interfering with the transmission of heat to the liquid, retard the operation. By the application of steam the water bath is super- seded. Continued Apparatus. This term is applied to a form of apparatus in which the distillation progresses without intermission and with- out interruption, and which possesses the advantage of producing with great economy of time and fuel a large quantity of alcohol of infinitely higher degree than that obtained from the simple still. The wine is introduced in a constant stream, is deprived during its course of all its alcohol, and passes off at the other extremity in such a manner that if the liquid subjected to distillation was not susceptible of befouling the apparatus, the operation might go on indefinitely. There are two forms of continuous apparatus, one for liquids and the other for semifluid or pasty materials. Derosne’s Apparatus. Among the continuous apparatus, one of the most re- markable is, without contradiction, that of Cellier-Blu- menthal as improved by M. Derosne, whose name it now bears. It is in use in the larger portion of the distilleries of France. The following is a description (Figs. 1 and 2, PL II.):— A. Reservoir into which are raised the materials to be distilled. A hogshead or a barrel of any size may be substituted for the reservoir. A1. Bucket for regulating the flow* of the liquid into the apparatus. B. Wine-heater and condenser. C. Distilling column. This column is built in two different modes, according to the uses for which it is intended. If for common distillation the subdivisions are made of wire gauze (or cloth); if it is intended more especially for the rectification, or the production of spirits of a high degree, the plates should be of solid sheet metal. derosne’s apparatus. 53 D. Upper boiler or still. JE. Lower boiler or still. F. Furnace for heating the two boilers D and E. G. Rectifying column. H. Cooler or slack-tub. a a. Tube for introducing the liquid to be distilled into the slack-tub H. a1 a1. Tube by which this liquid passes from the cooler H to the wine-heater and condenser B. a2. A small gutter pierced with holes placed within the wine-heater for distributing uniformly the wine passing through the tubes a} a1. b b. Tube through which the liquid to be distilled leaves the wine-heater B to pass into the distilling column G. bl. Tube and stopcock connecting the lower part of the wine-heater with the tube b b, and serving to empty the wine-heater when the distillation is terminated. c. Handle of a copper rod which traverses the tube a1 a1 and the cooler H, bearing at its lower extremity a dasher, by means of which the contents of the cooler may be agitated, and any deposit which may have formed at the bottom of this piece, or may obstruct the different orifices of the apparatus, can be detached. d. Tube connecting the rectifier G with the coil in the wine-heater B. e. Tube connecting the condensing coil of the wine- heater B with the coil of the cooler H. /. Indicator of glass, marking the level of the liquid in the upper plate of the rectifier G. f. Indicator of glass, for detecting the engorgement or choking of the distilling column G. h. Stopcock for emptying the cooler H. j. Proof bottle or jar, for testing the distillate as it flows from the coil of the cooler. k. Opening closed by a plug and intended for removing any semifluid deposit collected in the cooler H. l. Screw plug on the boiler D, through which if necessary liquor may be introduced when the apparatus is used for rectification. 54 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. l1. Screw plug on the boiler E for the same purpose. m m. Cover of the wine-heater B in which are two small open tubes for admitting air when necessary into the wine-heater, and to indicate the formation of steam therein. The cover is fitted with a water-joint. n n1 n2. Three stopcocks for returning the low wines from the coil in B to the plates of the rectifier G. These cocks correspond to different turns of the coil B. o o1. Cock and ball-float placed in the reservoir A. The float opens or closes the cock according to the height of the liquid in A\ p. Stopcock to A1 by means of which is regulated the quantity of liquid which should flow in a given time according to the briskness of the operation. q ql. Goose-neck connecting the two stills D and E. r. Glass indicator showing the level in the still D. s s\ Two cocks connected with the indicator, to be closed in case of its being broken. t. Stopcock and pipe connecting the two stills D and E. u. Glass indicator showing the level in E. v vl. Two cocks attached to the indicator u, which are to be closed in case of its being broken. x. Stopcock for emptying the boiler E. y. Valve for admitting air to the boiler E if necessary. There is a similar valve on the boiler D not shown in the drawing. B B. Horizontal pipe for returning the low wines condensed in the coil B. This horizontal pipe connects with a number of small vertical pipes, each of which corresponds to a turn of the coil in the condenser B. The numbers from one to sixteen indicate all the flange-joints of the apparatus; they are brought together by screw bolts. To Commence the Operation.—Before kindling the fire under the still E, the different parts of the apparatus which should contain it must be filled with wine. For this purpose, the reservoir A being full, we open the cock o, then the cock p of the regulator A1. The wine then flows through a a into the cooler IT, fills it, and derosne’s apparatus. 55 through ax a} flows into and entirely fills the wine-heater B, in which it is distributed by the perforated gutter a2. From B the wine escapes by the tube h h to pour on to the upper plate of the distilling column G\ from this column it descends into the first still D, and through the cock t, which is open, it passes into the still E. The wine is allowed to flow from p until the still E is filled to three-fourths of its height, as may be seen by the indicator u; the cock t is then closed, the still D is allowed to fill in the same manner when the cock p is closed. The fire is now to be started under the still E\ the flame, after acting on this, passes under the other still D, and thence into the chimney. The still E soon begins to boil; the steam which escapes from it passes through the curved pipe (goose- neck) q q to escape at the bottom of the still D. The liquid contained in this still D is also very soon set to boiling, the steam rises into C, traversing the plates, mounts into the rectifier G, and from this is conducted by d into the condensing coil of the wine-heater B; the steam which reaches this coil, surrounded by a cold liquid, is entirely condensed. The condensed product fills the return pipe B B, and by the tube e (it is sup- posed that the return cocks n n1 n2 are all closed), it passes into the coil of the cooler from which it is re- ceived in the test jar/. When the brandy flows through /, and that part of the wine-heater B which is above G is too hot to bear the hand, we may consider the operation as started, and should open the cock p of the bucket A1 to allow a con- tinuous flow of wine into the apparatus. To Conduct the Operation.—The apparatus being under way, the continuous stream from p should be regulated according to the quantity of liquid which can be distilled in an hour, and this depends on the size of the apparatus. As for o of A it will not require any attention; the ball-float which is fixed to the key of the cock will cause it to move, as the level of the liquid in 56 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. A1 rises or falls, in such a manner as to close it before A1 can overflow. If it is desired to obtain brandy at 50° centigrade {proof spirit), the three return cocks n nl if are ordina- rily closed; when, on the contrary, a spirit of higher degree is wanted, they are opened. In the latter event all the products of a lower degree, which are collected in coil of B, return upon the plates of the rectifier G; that only passes into the coil of H which has continued in the form of vapor to the extre- mity of the coil of B, and which is consequently of a decided alcoholic strength. The product which passes into /should be cold; if it comes over warm, or is ac- companied by steam, it will be an indication that the fire under E is too active, if the flow from p is regulated according to the quantity of wine to be distilled in an hour. When the flow of wine from the cock p is properly regulated it should not be disturbed so long as the ope- ration lasts. The whole attention should be directed to the conduct of the fire, which should be increased or re- duced according to the jet of brandy or spirits which flows from the proof jarj. If this jet is warm, it indi- cates too much activity of the fire; it is the same if the strength is lowered, which is caused by too much watery vapor that cannot be condensed by the quantity of cold liquid that passes into the apparatus, it is then necessary to moderate the fire. To Empty the Stills.—At certain periods it is necessary to empty the stills JD and E\ this should be done with- out interrupting the distillation, and after being assured that the liquid is deprived of its alcohol. When the liquid appears to be sufficiently exhausted (which is ascertained by the test for spent liquor, as will be explained hereafter) the wastecock x of the lower still is opened, and the spent liquor drawn off until what remains in the still is five or six inches deep. The cock x is then closed, and this still is refilled as before to three-fourths of its height, from the liquor in the upper still D, by opening the cock t. When filled to the pro- derosne’s apparatus. 57 per depth the cock t is closed, and the boiler D suffered to refill from the stream of wine which continues to flow from A1. This emptying causes no interruption to the distilling, the stills having kept up a constant supply of vapor. The operation is therefore continuous To Terminate the Operation.—When it is desired to terminate the operation, that is to say, when there is no more wine to be distilled except what remains in the different parts of the apparatus, and consequently A and A1 are empty, it is necessary to suspend the fire for a while to empty the stills D and E, supposing that their contents are exhausted of alcohol, then to refill the stills with the contents of B by opening the cock hx; at the same time £Tis emptied by means of the cock h, and the contents passed into the stills D and E by the plug l and l1. The pieces B and H being empty are now to be filled with water, introduced from A and A1. To prevent this water from passing into the stills D and E by the tube h h, that portion of it between the joints 5 and 6 is detached; the open end at 5 is closed by a plug, and to the end at 6 is adjusted a pipe for conveying off the waste water which flows off at this point during the operation. The apparatus being thus prepared the heat is raised under the stills D and E, and the water is allowed to flow from A1 through p; the water which now circulates in the two pieces B and H produces the same effect as the wine, rectifying and condensing the vapors which enter the coil B. At the end of half an hour, and when the contents of the still E appear to be sufficiently ex- hausted, it is emptied ; and the contents of D transferred to E, the former being replenished by any wine that may remain from the contents of other parts, B and H, of the apparatus. The distillation is started anew, and so on until the whole stock of wine is disposed of. If towards the end of the operation we do not wish too great a quantity of weak brandy and low wines, the flow of cold water should be increased, and the cock n1 and n2 should be opened. The low wines are then eom- 58 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. pelled to return to the rectifying column, and the opera- tion is closed when what passes through the test glass j ceases to exhibit any appreciable strength. All parts of the apparatus are now to be emptied. H is emptied by h, and the deposit removed through the plug hole k. B is emptied by b, the return pipes by o1 o2; D is emptied by t into E\ and this last by x. When the distillation is stopped for four or five days only, the simpler plan will be to leave the apparatus charged, and extinguish the fire when the wine ceases to flow from A. To Cleanse the Apparatus.—The cleansing of the differ- ent parts of the apparatus is very important. The distilling column is cleansed, when the plates are of wire gauze, by removing one after the other the plates which are within, and are attached to brass rods running from top to bottom. These plates are removed, washed, and scraped very easily. When the plates are of sheet metal they are movable or fixed; when movable they may be removed and cleaned one by one as for the plates of wire cloth; when fixed they are cleaned by passing steam through the column. The steam is pro- duced by heating water in the stills D and E. The piece C,; in which the rectifying plates are always fixed, is to be cleansed by steam as above. This cleans- ing of the plates in G is both useful and necessary, be- cause towards the end of the operation there accumu- lates in them a considerable quantity of essential oils, resulting from the substances which have been distilled. These essential oils have a very offensive taste, and a very small quantity will suffice to spoil a large quantity of spirits. It is well then when the operation is closed to pass through the whole apparatus a quantity of the steam of water to remove these essential oils as much as possible. The cleaning of the outside of the coil in B is quite easy; by removing the cover m m, this coil may be reached by a broom or brush. The washings are drawn off by removing the plate which supports the cock b\ The piece H is cleaned by taking off the movable derosne’s apparatus. 59 cover of the cylinder, when the coil will be exposed to view, and may be reached by a swab or brush. It is best to keep these coils B and H as clean as possible, because when these surfaces are covered with a deposit the transmission of heat is interfered with, and the apparatus works irregularly. To prevent deposits from collecting at the bottom of H, and at length closing the mouth of the tube a a, there is placed in the midst of i? a long brass rod called an agitator, the upper end of which is bent into a handle, and which has attached at the lower extremity a small disk of leather with which the liquid at the bottom of H is stirred from time to time, so as to distribute the deposit through the mass to be carried forward by the current. Safeguard.—When called on to distil wines that are very rich in alcohol, as in the South of France and other warm countries, it is proper to add to the apparatus of Derosne a supplemented piece called an evaporator or safeguard (Fig. 3, PL II.). This piece is placed between B and H\ it consists of two concentric cylinders placed vertically, leaving an annular space between them. Along and over the sur- faces of these cylinders which are exposed to the air a small quantity of water is caused to trickle, which by its evaporation will remove a large portion of heat from the alcoholic products as it passes from B, and before it reaches H. Without this arrangement the alcoholic product would be too abundant in such rich wines to be condensed by the liquid itself. The following is a description of the different parts of the apparatus:— b b. Inner cylinder of copper. c c. Outer cylinder of copper. d d. Annular space which receives the products from B. This space is divided by sundry partitions which cause the liquid to come in contact with every part of the surface b b and c c. //. Little gutter around the bottom of the safeguard 60 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. to collect the water which has passed over the surfaces of the cylinder. a1 a}. Extension pipe placed in the axis of the cylinder in order to elongate a a1 of Fig. 1, to make room for the attachment of this piece. e. Tube by which the alcoholic liquid is conducted from the coil B into the annular space d d. e\ Tube by which the liquid reaches the coil H. x x. Circular gutter at the upper part of the safe- guard from which water is caused to trickle over the surface. It is well to cover the surface c c and b b with cotton cloths which should dip into the gutter x x, and which by their capillary attraction will convey to these sur- faces a sufficient quantity of water for the proper work- ing of the apparatus. By the assistance of the supplemental apparatus the richest wines are perfectly exhausted of the alcohol they may contain. Observations.—After this rapid survey of the general course of the distillation, in order to give a general idea of it, we now propose to go more into details on certain points which are important to the proper handling of the apparatus. All the success of continuous distillation by means of this apparatus depends in principle upon the desired quantity of vapor which is produced in the stills D and E, being in proportion to the stream of wine that flows from A\ When this proportion is not as it should be, certain accidents occur during the course of the work which it is our dut}' to make known. As we have said above, when the stream of wine which flows from A1 is once fixed according to the quan- tity which it is desired to distil in an hour, it should not be touched any more, but the whole operation should be regulated by the fire. The indicators / and fl, applied one to the column G and the other to the column G, indicate with sufficient accuracy what is going on within the apparatus. derosne’s apparatus. 61 When the distillation is very abundant, when the degree of spirituosity diminishes very rapidly, and the liquid is seen to rise in the indicator f1 beyond its mid- dle point, we may conclude that there is too much watery vapor produced by E, and the fire must be checked by closing the register of the furnace. If the liquid in the indicator / becomes discolored it is necessary to reduce the fire at once, unless we would see the liquid to be distilled pass into B, and come over through j, mixed with the product of distillation. These effects are easy to be understood; the steam which is generated in D and E, being too abundant and having too much tension, interferes with the descent of the wine by the column C; the wine accumulates in the plates of this column, and rises successively into those of the rectifier G, mixes with the low wines, colors them, and risks passing into the condensing coil of the wine- heater B, and thence into the coil of the cooler II. This is what is announced by the indicator / and fx. If it happens, in consequence of insufficient attention, that there should be too great a disturbance in this way in the working of the apparatus, we may, in order to establish the equilibrium more promptly, increase the stream of wine from A1, at the same time that the fire is reduced; this will cause a more prompt condensation of the vapors, but this expedient should be resorted to only in case of a serious accident. The distillate should always reach the test jar j cold ; if it comes over warm, it shows that the fire is too active. It is on the operation of the return cocks n nl n2 that is based the whole system of rectification by this appa- ratus, which enables us to procure even from the poorest materials spirits of the highest proof. For a proper comprehension of the effect of these return cocks, it is necessary to conceive that the products are richer in spirit as the part of the coil in which the condensation takes place is remote from d. In fact, the vapor which passes into the coil by d is a mixture of the vapors of water and alcohol in certain proportions; the vapor of water is more easily condensed 62 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. than the vapor of alcohol; since, in order that the for- mer may be reduced to the form of water, it is sufficient to have the cooling liquid a little below 100° C., while the alcohol continues in a state of vapor until the tem- perature of the surrounding liquid is reduced to 40° C. It is understood, then, that when the vapor, a mixture of alcohol and water, passes into the condensing coil B a portion of the vapor is condensed, and that which passes further on is more highly charged with alcohol. In the next turn of the coil another portion of vapor of water is condensed, thus rendering the aeri- form product still more alcoholic, and so on until by ad- vancing towards e the vapor is so far cooled down that the vapor of alcohol is itself condensed. We observe by this that the further it advances in the condensing coil, from d towards e, the stronger will be the alcoholic product which condenses therein. This being taken for granted, since all the product that con- denses in the different turns of coil B pass into the hori- zontal return pipe bb. by means of the small vertical tubes which correspond to them, we see that, if by open- ing the return cock n we cause to return into the recti- fier 6r all that has been condensed in the first part of the coil from d to n, we shall receive in the proof-bottle j a stronger product than wre should have obtained if the three cocks had been closed, and the whole of the pro- duct had passed through the cooler II. If we open nx we shall have a still stronger product, and by opening n2 we shall only have what is condensed in the last turn of the coil of B, and consequently this will be the strong- est spirit that can be produced by the apparatus. The office of the rectifier O is also easy of compre- hension. This rectifier is divided internally by plates superposed one above the other, which each retain a portion of the low wines which pass through the return pipe from the coil of B. The alcoholic vapor which rises from C plunges successively into each of these plates, commencing at the lower and passing on to the upper one. This vapor is enriched by plunging into the already strongly alcoholized liquid returned from the derosne’s apparatus. 63 coil, and is enriched more and more, because the more spirituous product is returned to the upper plates; for it may be seen that the product from the cocks n1 n2 are emptied into a part of the rectifier above that from the cock n. The proof bottle j is an instrument through which the distillate passes previous to being received in vessels destined to hold it. Into this proof bottle is plunged an alcoholmetre, which indicates at each moment of the operation, the alcoholic strength (or degree) of the liquid which flows from ths coil H. By inspecting this instru- ment, the workman is guided in his labor according to the degree of strength required. Closing Remarks in regard to the Apparatus of De- rosne.—To prevent all leakage, the joints of this appa- ratus are made by interposing between the two surfaces, a circular washer of cardboard smeared with some greasy substance or a mixture of red and whitelead ground in oil, and brought together with clasps or bolts. The various joints which are not made as above, but by fitting into a socket such as the fittings of the glass indicators, &c., should be luted very carefully. This lute is prepared by mixing red lead with the ordinary white paint, which is whitelead well ground in a dry- ing oil, so as to form a paste having the consistency of glazier’s putty. Bands or strips of cloth greased with this paste are used to cover the joints. A good lute is made by mixing equal parts of wheat flour and Spanish whiting in fine powder with the white of egg. Strips of cloth dipped in this mixture are to be applied to the joints as above. In setting the glass indicators, care must be taken not to close the orifices of the pipes, which connect them with the interior of the apparatus, which will happen if the tubes are too long, for then the liquid cannot have access to the tubes, and the indicator will be useless. The first product which flows from a new apparatus has a taste of copper and resin; this soon ceases. If this is not thrown away, it should be put aside to be mixed with the wine or for rectification. 64 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. It is always important to commence, as was indicated when describing the process for starting the operation, by filling the wine-beater and cooler with the liquid to be distilled, before raising the fire under the stills, and sending steam through the different parts of the appa- ratus, for if we commence by raising the steam and turn on cold water, there is risk of crushing the apparatus under the weight of the atmospheric pressure in conse- quence of the formation of a vacuum. When the operation is started, care must be taken not to allow cold liquid to flow into the stills when the ebul- lition has commenced, for fear of a similar accident. Care must be taken during the first heating to arrest the flow of wine into the stills, by closing the cock of the regulating tub, until the wine-heater is too hot for the hand. When the liquid is heated to this point, we may without hesitation allow it to flow into the distil- ling column ; there is no longer any risk from the con- densation of the steam, and the operation may go on continuously. In starting the operation when the steam begins to pass from the first still into the second, by means of the goose-neck, a loud noise is produced, sounding like the blow of a hammer in the second still. The noise is occasioned by the instantaneous condensation of the steam as it passes from the first still into the cold or only tepid liquid in the second, thus forming a kind of vacuum. This noise will continue until the liquid in the second still has acquired a sufficiently high temperature. The steam produces a similar noise, only much feebler, as it passes over each division of the distilling column. Egrot’s New Apparatus for Continuous Distillation. Plate III. The difficulties to be avoided and the care to be ob- served, in order to obtain good results by means of the distilling apparatus used at the present time, have in- duced M. Egrot to seek to improve this state of things. After many efforts crowned with success, this skilful egrot’s new apparatus for distillation. 65 artificer has succeeded in constructing a new apparatus which fulfils all the required conditions. Simplicity of use and management, richness in degree, facility of setting up and cleaning, economy of fuel, space, and transporta- tion, and of moderate price. The theory of this new apparatus is based on one of the most simple principles, that of the direct or multi- plied contact of vapor, under a feeble pressure, with the wine to be distilled. By this means, acting on a small quantity of wine, we obtain a rapid ebullition; and the separation of the alcohol is very promptly effected. Producing its effects in a small space, and over a great extent of surface, the apparatus exhibits the best condi- tions for economizing fuel; on the other hand, the feeble pressure existing in the column by reason of the small number of plates of which it is composed affords but little resistance to the passage of the alcoholic vapors, and the distillation is effected in a most simple and easy manner. The apparatus is not liable to the accidents which so frequently occur in those with a high column. The distiller charged with its management need not fear irregularities in the distillation in spite of too active a heat when using the open fire, or from too great a flow of steam when this agent is used. If there exists a stumbling-block or hindrance to distillation, it is without contradiction when the appa- ratus primes, that is to say, when the wine subjected to distillation comes over mixed with the alcohol, and flows from the pipe which should ordinarily only deliver the latter. This inconvenience takes place in a great number of apparatuses at the least blast of the fire, or under the influence of a little too much wine. We are compelled then to arrest the operation to interrupt the distilling, and for this purpose smother the fire, draw off a part of the wine not exhausted, and rearrange the apparatus as before in a proper state for working pro- perly. This requires more or less time, which, if the accident is repeated, occasions delays in the operation, 66 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. and leads to a disturbance of the general workings of a distillery. In the new apparatus of M. Egrot all these difficulties have been obviated. If there is an excess of heat pro- duced either by the open fire or by steam, the distillate will be of lower degree than usual, but the apparatus does not prime; we can then, when this lowering of the strength is observed, at once re-establish the equilibrium, disturbed for the moment, and consequently avoid all those annoyances and delays we have fust pointed out. With this apparatus may be distilled all wines and fermented liquids derived from any source, and semifluid materials when the apparatus is of sufficient size. The product obtained, whether as brandy or alcohol, is peculiarly fine. The apparatus distilling from 10 to 300 hectolitres may be heated either by steam or open fire; those which exceed these dimensions must be heated by steam. All the pieces of this apparatus are of copper, the flush-couplings of iron, the cocks and connecting-nuts and pipes of bronze. Description of the Apparatus.—This new apparatus is composed of the following parts :— a. Copper still. b. Siphon for the continuous exit of waste liquor. c. Waste pipe for completely emptying the still when necessary. d. Opening for cleaning the boiler, closed by a plug. e. g, li. Brickwork of the furnace. i. Fireplace. j. Grate. k. Ash-pit. l. Flue. Note—when steam is used—the furnace is replaced by brickwork. A. Distilling column composed of plates for continuous distilling. B. Cap covering the last distilling plate and sup- porting the rectifjdng column. D. Rectifying column. egrot’s new apparatus for distillation. 67 E. Goose-neck conducting the alcoholic vapor to the rectifying coil of the wine-heater. F. Jacket containing the rectifying coil, and acting as wine-heater. G. Jacket inclosing the cooling worm. I. Exit of the cooling worm. J. Funnel to receive the wine and convey it to the bottom of the wine-heater. K Pipe to convey the wine from the wine-heater to the first plate. N. Pipes and cocks for returning the low wines into the rectifying column D. R. Regulating bucket. S. Ball float. T. Regulating cock with an index to guide the dis- tiller. U. Pipe to convey the spirits to the proof bottle. V. Proof bottle—improved pattern. Y. Pump. Z. Wine Vat. To Work the Apparatus.—To put this apparatus in operation it is sufficient to fill the vat Z with wine or other liquor that is to be distilled, by means of the pump T, then open the cock T, which permits the wine to flow into the cooler G, the wine-heater F, and the dis- tilling plates A, taking care that the wine does not run into the still a. When the apparatus is to work over the naked fire, the still a is filled with water* by introducing it through the plug d, and the fire started; the water of the still begins to boil, and the steam which it furnishes passes through each of the distilling plates A, depriving their contents of its alcohol; from this the alcoholic vapors pass into the rectifying column D, wdiere they deposit their impurities, then pass by the tube E into the recti- fying coil contained in the jacket F\ finally the alco- * When the apparatus is heated by steam from a boiler, the pre- caution of commencing the distillation with water is unnecessary ; the still may be filled with wine as the other parts of t ie apparatus. 68 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. holic vapor, after being more or less rectified in the coil according to the will of the manager, passes into the cooling coil contained in the jacket G, to pass out in a liquid state at I, and to be received in the proof bottle V, in which there is an alcoholmeter to mark the strength or degree of the brandy or alcohol as it comes over. The wine moves in the opposite direction. It is in- troduced into the apparatus by opening the index cock T; the funnel J which receives it conducts it to the bottom of the jacket G, pushing forward the liquid con- tained in the jackets G and F\ it leaves the upper part of the wine-heater by the tube K, which directs it to the first distilling plate of A, when, after having circulated in the galleries, it is spread in succession over the plates below, then falls into the boiler, whence it escapes by the waste siphon b as spent liquor, completely exhausted of alcohol. The wine in traversing the interior galleries of which the plates A are composed, comes in contact with a great number of small pipes, which forcibly distribute the vapor in the course of the distillation, and agitate the wine without ceasing, thus causing the latter to be easily freed from the alcohol it contains; it is also to this new arrangement that the good quality and delicacy of the products obtained from this apparatus are due. This fact is easy of explanation if it is remembered that the wine to be completely exhausted does not re- main in the apparatus longer than ten or fifteen minutes; it is subjected for a very short time to the action of the heat, .and the empyreumatic oils and bad flavor can neither be formed nor pass over with the distillate. The principal advantages of this apparatus are :— 1. Facility of setting up—Economy of Removal and Transportation.—The small size and great simplicity ol construction of which it admits renders the setting up very easy. The adjustment of the two principal pieces, the still and the condensing wine-heater, is very convenient, both being placed vertically on a foundation easily constructed; egrot’s new apparatus for distillation. 69 the connecting pipes being few in number are readily fitted. Its small size requires but little space, and consequently the cost of packing is relatively less, and the expense of carriage tritling if to be moved to a dis- tance. 2. Remarkable Economy of Fuel.—In consequence of its small dimensions, it affords less surface and does not give out as sheer loss the caloric previously absorbed by distillation. It is a fact, that the larger the apparatus, the greater will be the expense of fuel necessary to work it. The economy of fuel lies too in the peculiar con- struction of the plates. During the course of the distil- lation, the vapor being forcibly distributed, is brought in direct contact with the circulating wine, which it agitates freely, from which results a forced ebullition, setting free all the alcohol contained in the liquid. 3. Facility of Use.—Being composed of only three or five plates, according to the alcoholic richness of the wine, the distillation is effected without pressure, conse- quently without disturbance, and without fear that the apparatus will prime, that is to say, the wine raised by an accumulation of steam or foam will not pass over instead of the alcohol. This stumbling-block in most apparatuses is completely avoided in this; there never being a sufficient quantity of wine in course of distilla- tion, and it is too rapidly exhausted for foam to be formed and obstruct the channels. 4. Richness in Degree.—By reason of the rectifying column placed on the distilling column, and the return of the low wines, the alcoholic degree may acquire a re- markable strength, and the spirit come over at from 70 to 92 degrees, especially when wines are operated on. Moreover, the alcoholic strength is under control and may be fixed at the option of the distiller. 5. Moderate Price.—A question of prime importance is the cost, which is considerably reduced and the dif- ference is greatest for the apparatus of large dimensions. This difference in price naturally depends on the small- ness of size which requires less material, without in any degree affecting the solidity of the parts. 70 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. 6. Simplicity of Cleaning.—In order that an apparatus may be well suited for use, it should be easy to clean. In this, if of small dimensions, it is sufficient to remove the three or five plates, and if of large dimensions, to open the manholes and wash out the interior thoroughly. If this cleaning is repeated every two months, the appa- ratus will be in the best condition to furnish excellent products. The wine-heater has at its lower extremity a screw plug, which facilitates the removal of any de- posit collected at the bottom. The still has also an opening d through which it may be washed out; all the coils are mounted in their jackets by joints, so that in the event of cleansing of these coils, as when it is de- sired to remove the tartrous crust which surrounds them and interferes with the action of the coolers, they may be removed from their jackets without having recourse to the tinner and his solder. This apparatus may be rendered complete by the ad- dition of the following pieces:— 1. In some countries, and particularly in Spain, where very rich wines are distilled, it is common to obtain, at the first distillation, spirits of a very high degree, exceed- ing 90° cent. In this event it is necessary to add a rectify- ing cap, which should surmount the rectifying column, which, by its peculiar arrangement, refines and increases the strength of the spirits. 2. When wines or other fermented liquors which are intended for the still, are highly spirituous, i. e., exceed ten or twelve per cent, of alcohol, it may become neces- sary to use an additional plate, to insure the complete exhaustion of the waste liquor. 3. A pump is indispensable for raising the liquor into the vat. The Eureka Pump Company of New York, under the management of a highly intelligent and ac- complished superintendent, manufacture a pump, either of iron or bronze, which is peculiarly well adapted for the use of the distiller. By the particular arrangement of the valves it can- not be obstructed even by solid substances of much greater size than would be found in a distiller’s vats. A BELGIAN APPARATUS. 71 child can work it so as to throw a very large and abund- ant stream. It is invaluable for industrial purposes, as well as in case of fire. The French manufacturer furnishes this apparatus of twelve different sizes, the smallest of a capacity of 800 litres in twenty-four hours, the largest 100,000 litres in the same time. Belgian Apparatus. This apparatus, the arrangement of which is due to Cellier-Blumenthal, is used in the large alcohol facto- ries ; it presents the advantage of exhausting the liquor promptly, of receiving and discharging at the same time a given quantity, of occupying but little space, and of being easily controlled. Unlike the apparatus of Derosne, it has no return pipes; the alcoholic vapors in passing over the plates are refined, and change more and more, and pass into the proof bottle, marking 50° or 60° onth’e alcohol me ter. The following is a description of the apparatus, as shown in Fig. 1, PI. IV. A. Distilling column of copper, sheet or cast iron, con- sisting of eighteen sections, each containing a plate. (See arrangement of these plates, Figs. 2 and 3, PI. IV.) B. Goose-neck conveying the alcoholic vapor into the forwarding tub or wine-heater. G Cl. Forwarding tub or wine-heater divided into two parts, each inclosing a coil. D. Cooler also inclosing a coil, and condensing the vapors by the aid of cold water. E. Stopcock for turning steam into the apparatus where it escapes directly into the liquor. F. Discharge cock or level pipe for the spent liquor. G. Pipe to conduct the warm liquor from the upper part of the wine-heater into the distilling column. H. Feed pipe, for delivering the cold liquor at the bottom of the wine-heater. I. Bent pipe, connecting the coils in the two divisions of the wine-lieater. 72 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. J. Bent pipe, connecting the coil of the wine-heater with that of the cooler. K. Point of entrance for cold water into the cooler. L. Point of exit for warm water from the cooler. M. Extremity of the coil from which the distillate is received. To Set going and Use the Belgian Apparatus. — Let the wine run through the feed pipe H until it tills the two divisions of the wine-heater, then by passing through the tube Cdescends into the distilling column, A. When the liquor has reached the top of the level pipe F, which is known by means of a glass indicator placed at the bottom of the apparatus, the cock of delivery is to be closed, and the cooler D tilled with cold water; it is necessary to leave open the cock of the level pipe Fwhile the wine is falling through the column, to allow the es- cape of the air, which is pushed before the descending liquor. When these arrangements are completed, close the level cock F, and open the steam cock E. This cock is in communication with a steam generator, by means of a copper pipe; the steam is discharged directly into the liquor, and sets it to boiling; the plates are heated in succession, the alcoholic vapors traverse them, being charged more and more, and pass through the goose-neck B, into the wine-heater GG\ where they are partially condensed, then descend into the coil of the cooler D, where the condensation is finally completed. As soon as the spirit begins to flow from the pipe M, turn on wine through the feed pipe, in a quantity proportional to the capacity of the still, and open the cock F so as to permit the spent liquor to escape through the level pipe. The wine, after a sojourn in the wine-heater, becomes heated, circulates in each of the plates in succession, falling from one to the other, and reaches the bottom of the still completely exhausted, thence it flows of itself, and continuously through the level pipe F. From this point care must be taken to keep up an equable tempe- rature, in order to maintain perfect regularity in the progress of the distillation. APPARATUS FOR DISTILLING SEMIFLUID MATERIALS. 73 A Belgian still, five meters high and twenty meters in diameter, will distil from 800 to 1000 hectolitres of fermented liquor in twenty-four hours. Apparatus for Distilling Pasty or Semifluid Materials. The invention of this apparatus is also due to Cellier- Blumenthal. With it may be distilled raw potatoes, artichokes, grain, &c. As may be seen, Figs. 4 and 5, PI. IV., it differs but little, very little, from the preced- ing, which, by the addition of an agitator, can be used for distilling pasty liquids, and replace this, of which the following is a description :— A. Distilling column, consisting of twelve sections, each containing a plate. B. Forwarding tub, or wine-heater, for heating the materials to be distilled, by means of the alcoholic vapor from the distilling column, this vessel inclosing a coil as well as an agitator, which is set in motion by gearing qql fixed on the shafts p and r. C. Cooler for water, inclosing a large coil. D. Pump for feeding the wine-heater. e. Spherical foam arrester, containing a diaphragm on which the foam is broken in the event of any sudden increase of the heat. /. Goose-neck, conducting the alcoholic vapor into the coil of the wine-heater. g. Connecting pipe between the coil of the wine-heater and the water-cooler. h. Discharge pipe for the distillate. i. Proof bottle, covered by the glass bell /, in which is placed an alcoholmeter for testing the strength of the spirit as it flows from the still. h. Funnel and pipe, to receive the materials from the pump D, and deliver them into the wine-heater. l. Tube, for conveying the materials to be distilled, from the wine-heater into the still. m. Steam pipe, for heating the apparatus. n. Pipe to supply cold water to the slack tub G. 74 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. o. Level pipe, for carrying off hot water from the cooler. p. Vertical shaft of the agitator, of iron, for forcibly stirring the materials in the wine-heater, to prevent them from settling on the bottom of the vessel. qql. Gearing, by which the motion of the shaft r is transmitted to the vertical shaft p. r-s. Crank, for communicating motion to the pump D, and the agitation of the vat G. t. Large screw plugs, for cleaning the plates of the distilling columns. u. Pipes, for pouring the materials from one plate upon the next, when the level rises above the level of these pipes. v. Spherical caps for discharging the alcoholic vapors into the materials contained in the plates. x. Tubes, through which the steam passes from one plate to the other; these tubes may be screwed in for convenience of moving at will. y. Basin, for receiving the exhausted materials. This piece is so arranged that the steam passes freely between it and the walls of the column. 2. First plunging or safety pipe, for the discharge of the exhausted materials. z\ Second safety pipe, for discharging the exhausted mass from the still. Method of Using the Apparatus.—The semifluid matters are transferred to the vat G, by means of the pump D, at the same time the agitator is set in motion. When the forwarding tub (wine-heater) is full, the semifluid mass passes through the tube l, spreads over the plates of distilling column A, and after passing through the pipes u, falls into the basin y, and thence into the bottom of the still. When this arrangement is complete, the steam is turned on by the pipe m. This steam being direct, that is to say, moist, there is very soon a sufficient quantity of water produced by the condensation, to prevent the mass from being too thick. As soon as the ebullition is established, the alcoholic vapor passes successively into each plate through the tubes with spherical caps v, and RECTIFYING APPARATUS. 75 by its action on the liquid, it is more and more charged with alcohol. After having traversed the column, the vapor is passed into the coil of the heater b, through the goose-neck /, where it gives off most of its heat to the material contained in the vat, and from this passes into the cooling coil c, where it is condensed into a liquid. When the spirit begins to flow, the pump is again set in motion, to maintain the supply of materials. The more solid parts are kept in suspension in the heating vat, by means of the agitator p, and fall on the plates of the still. The alcoholic vapors thin the mass more and more, in proportion as it passes to the lower plates. When the mass arrives at the basin y, it is completely exhausted, and discharges itself through the safety pipes z and z\ Rectifying Apparatus. There is scarcely any difference of form between this and Derosne’s still. Indeed, the latter will answer per- fectly for rectifying, by suppressing the first boiler, re placing the plates of wire cloth by solid plates. Never- theless, manufacturing and country distillers prefer an apparatus specially adapted to rectification. The following is a description of the apparatus ex- hibited in Figs. 1 and 2, PL V. A. Still. B. Column, containing twenty plates a, and twenty- four level pipes b. G and JD. Small cap and pipe, to conduct the alcoholic vapors into the condenser. E. Condenser, inclosing a horizontal coil c, which is preceded by the lenticular vessels d d\ each containing a vertical partition. F. Pipe, conducting the vapors into the cooler. G. Cooler, containing a vertical coil. H. External return pipe, serving to convey the con- densed vapors to the plates of the column (another re- turn pipe is placed within the condenser, and communi- 76 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. cates with the external pipe, by means of the little tube g.g1). I. Cock on the return pipe, by which it maybe ascer- tained if the return of the condensed spirit goes on pro- perly. J and K Pipe and cock, by which the water of the condenser may be emptied on the plates. L and M. Cap and pipe, through which the water passes from the cooler into the condenser. N. Level pipe, through which the hot water flows from the condenser. O. Waste cock to the cooler. P. P\ Air holes. Q. Waste cock of the still. B. Glass indicator, to mark the level of the liquid in the still. jS S1. Cocks of the indicator. T. Gauge showing the pressure existing in the still. U. Man-hole for cleaning out the still. V. Cock for filling the still with the low wines to be rectified. The method of starting and using this still will be explained under the head of rectification. Apparatus for Distilling Rum. The arrangement of this still is due to M. Egrot. Its use and management are simple and easy, and it is much used in the French and English colonies and in Cuba. The apparatus is made of tinned copper, and consists of the following pieces, Fig. 3, Plate V. A. Still which is to be filled to two-thirds. B. Rectifying cap through which the alcoholic vapors pass, and where they lose a portion of their essential oils. G. Wine-heater, or forwarding vat, inclosing a coil through which the vapors pass into the cooler by the pipe li. D. Cooler, containing a coil. (There is nothing pecu- liar about this piece.) d. Waste pipe and cock to the still. UTENSILS NECESSARY FOR A DISTILLERY. 77 e. Goose-neck, conducting the vapors from the recti- fying cap to the coil of the forwarding vat. f Pipe and cock for emptying the contents of the wine-heater into the still at the termination of the ope- ration. g. Return pipe. h. Pipe connecting the coil. i. Mouth of the cooling coil from which the spirits pass off. k. Funnel through which cold water is conveyed to the bottom of the cooler. l. Level pipe by which the hot water escapes from the cooler, as it is replaced by cold water from the funnel. m. Pipe and cock for conveying cold water into the cap B. (The water passes first through a small funnel pierced with holes which surround the pipe e, and after passing through a spiral {snail), contained in the cap, passes off at a temperature of about 60° through the level pipe n.) As a general thing in rum factories, the wine-heater is omitted; only the more intelligent planters use it. By this means they take advantage of a part of the heat arising from the distillation, and by this, much hasten the heating of the liquid to be distilled. The use and management of this apparatus are the same as for the simple still. Care should be taken to keep up the supply of cold water to the cooler, in order to prevent the rum from passing over in the form of vapor. A description of several other stills for special pro- ducts and purposes will be given in the body of the work. Machines and Utensils Necessary for a Distillery. The machines and utensils for preparing vegetable substances for the vinous fermentation, or necessary for the distillation of alcohol, are of various kinds, according to the nature of the substances to be treated. We shall rapidly pass in review those that are in some measure indispensable to the greater part of these prepara- tions. 78 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The Washer.—Is used for removing dirt, &c., from the roots and tubers employed by the distiller. The Rasp.—The character of this instrument is of very great importance in a distillery, for it may cause a variation of a fifth in the product. The machine should combine rapidity of motion with a perfect tritura- tion. The Root Cutter or Slicer.—This instrument is used for slicing roots which are to be treated by maceration. A root cutter, by whatsoever power it is driven, should have a velocity of 130 or 150 revolutions a minute to do its work satisfactorily and well. The Hydraulic Hess.—For extracting thin juice from the pulp of roots, or wine from the weared of the grape, cider from pumice, &c.; it has, by its superior properties, superseded almost all other means of obtaining pressure among intelligent manufacturers. The Steam Press.—This press is but little used except in large distilleries. It is very expeditious, and consid- erably hastens the work, but it is necessary that the sacks, which have been submitted to its action, should also be subjected to the action of the hydraulic press; for the pressure by steam is made almost instantaneously, and we can obtain by it only 60 or 65 per cent, of juice from rasped beets. The Vat for the Conversion of Starch into Sugar.—When starchy materials are treated on a large scale, solid oaken vats, Fig. 2, PI. VI., are used from 8 to 10 centimeters thick, and of sufficient capacity to contain 125 hecto- litres up to the line a, a1. Vats with much thinner walls may be used, but it is necessary to line them with sheet lead to obviate the carbonizing effect of the sul- phuric acid. b, b\ b2. Lead pipe bent into a circle near the bottom of the vat. The circular portion, bl, b2, is split at short distances to allow the steam to escape into the liquid contents of the vat. This pipe is connected to a copper steam pipe. d. Funnel through which the dissolved starch is added in small quantities at a time. UTENSILS NECESSARY FOR A DISTILLERY. 79 e. Flue for conducting the vapors from the vat to the stack of the chimney. /. Man-hole through which lime is admitted for the saturation of the sulphuric acid, and for removing the deposit, and washing the vat. g. Cock placed 15 centimeters from the bottom of the vat for drawing off the clear liquid only. h. Plug placed at the bottom for emptying the vat entirely. Macerators.—The process of extracting the saccharine principle from vegetable substances is effected by many arrangements of apparatus of more or less value. In speaking of the manufacture of alcohol from the beet, we shall describe those processes only which appear to be best adapted to the wants of the distillery. Elevator.—This name is applied to a small iron cylin- der shaped like a boiler, generally used in sugar facto- ries and refineries for raising the juice or syrup to the different stories of the building, by means of steam pressure. The elevator replaces the pump very advan- tageously; a few minutes are sufficient for raising 10 hectolitres to a height of 20 or 25 meters, and even more. Its use is a source of economy and expedition; we therefore employ it constantly, even in small coun- try distilleries where steam is used. The following is a description of this interesting and remarkably simple apparatus, with its accompanying tank, Fig. 3 and 4, PI. VI. A. Elevator.—Cylinder of iron plate, having hemi- spherical heads, and capable of bearing the same pres- sure as the steam generator. It should be tested for the same number of atmospheres. B. Tank for receiving the liquid to be raised. b. Cock for opening communication between the ele- vator A and tank B. c. Cock for ascertaining when there is a sufficient quantity of liquid in the elevator. d. Steam cock. /. Cock for the escape of air, to facilitate the entrance of the liquid. 80 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. g. Three-way cock, by which the liquid may be di- rected to different places. h. Tube rising from the bottom of the elevator for conveying the liquid to the three-way cock in its ascent. i. Man-hole for repairs and cleaning. To Use the Apparatus.—First open the air cock /, to allow the air to escape, then open the cock h, in order that the liquid may flow into the elevator. When the liquid rises to the level of the cock c, close the cocks f and h, turn the key of the three-way cock g towards the pipe by which the liquid is to be raised, and open the steam cock d; the steam will fill the vacant space and press on the surface of the liquid. This will yield and rise promptly by the inner tube h, and pass to its desti- nation without leaving the smallest quantity in the ap- paratus. The progress of the operation may be followed up by placing the hand on the pipe through which the liquid is passing. As soon as the heat becomes too great to be borne, it is certain that there is no more liquid in the elevator. Another method is sometimes adopted for using the elevator, as follows: Open the three-way cock g upon any pipe, taking care to close the cocks b, c, and /; open the air cock d, in order that the steam may completely expel the air from the vessel; this may be known when the cock by which the air is escaping is too hot to bear the hand; at this moment close first the cock g, then d, the steam will condense and cause a vacuum in the apparatus; then, after two or three min- utes, open the cock b only; the liquid is drawn rapidly into the elevator; at this stage close the cock b, turn the key towards the pipe through which the liquid is to be raised, and open the cock d. When through inattention the elevator is entirely filled with liquid, it is impossible to make it operate; the steam, by the loud clapping produced by its condensa- tion, announces this accident, which is easy enough to remedy. For this purpose, open the cock b, when the steam presses the liquid back into the tank B, and, as soon as a proper quantity has been drawn off, close the cock b; UTENSILS NECESSARY FOR A DISTILLERY. 81 there being now space enough for the steam to press properly on the liquid, the operation will go on properly. Pumps.—Two kinds of pumps are used in distilleries; one for liquids, wdien there is no elevator, and the other for semi-fluid materials. The former should be a forcing and suction pump, and should occupy but little space. The Eureka pump made in New York, besides combining these properties, is cheap, and requires but little force to work it. The second, called the movable tube pump, has the advantage of having no piston, and not being liable to choke; it raises pasty substances as well as hot or cold liquids. There is in this pump no cause of derange- ment, the only part which must be cared for is the piece of leather that is in the movable tube: all delays are prevented by having extra leathers in case of accident. Filters.—It frequently happens that clear liquids have to be separated from deposits which have formed, or from substances held in suspension; it is necessary that the distiller should have a number of filters at hand. They may be made of cloth stretched on frames; but those which appear to be most convenient consist of large baskets lined with woollen cloth. The liquid to be filtered is poured into these lined baskets. The liquid passes through while the grosser matters are re- tained. Besides the machines and utensils just described, there are many others which are necessary to the dis- tiller, and which it is only necessary to record by name. They are, for the wine distiller, grape-pickers, pestles, and presses; for the grain distiller vats for steeping, and germinating-kilns, mills for crushing or grinding grain, vats with a double bottom, and boilers for starch, flour, dec. Some utensils of daily use are indispensable, as wooden rakes, shovels and skimmers, iron forks, siphons of tin, lead, or gutta percha, spirit-pumps, wine-testers, tin pans and measures, wooden buckets, faucets of various sizes, large funnels of tin and wood, deep wooden tubs, beaters, tap- borers, &c. 82 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. CHAPTER IV. ON THE APPLICATION OF HEAT TO DISTILLATION. Heat is the principal agent of distillation. The general laws regulating its action on material substances constitute an interesting study, for which the reader is referred to any of the scientific books on the subject.* It is sufficient to say here that it is capable of being transmitted by conduction through the substance of bodies which are called good or bad conductors accord- ing to the facility of the transit, and that it passes from one body to another either by contact or through the surrounding atmosphere by radiation. There is a ten- dency among all bodies to acquire an equilibrium of heat by giving it off, or by absorbing it, as the case may be. By its power of penetration it overcomes the cohesive force which exists between the atoms of matter. By its accumulation in the body of a substance these effects are shown by the dilatation, which progresses until the solid becomes a liquid, and the liquid is finally converted into gas or vapor. By the abstraction of heat contrary effects are produced. This may be seen in the example of water, which is so readily presented under the three forms of ice, water, and steam, as increase or diminution of this imponderable force may determine. The following table will exhibit the boiling point of different liquids in degrees of the centigrade thermo- meter :— Sulphuric ether . . 350.5 Pure alcohol . . . 78°.4 Alcohol of 900 strength . 800.1 “ 850 “ . . 810.1 “ 590 “ . . 850.8 “ 450 “ . . 880.9 Pure water . . . 100O Syrup of sugar . . . 105° Water saturated with table salt 106° Water saturated with nitre . 1140 Oil of turpentine . . . 155° Sulphuric acid . . . 305° Linseed oil . . . 315° Mercury .... 350° * See particularly Box, A Practical Treatise on Heat. Phila- delphia : H. C. Baird. HEATING BY THE NAKED FIRE. 83 We have already said that bodies have a tendency to acquire an equilibrium of heat, and that the transfer from one body to another is made by contact. The greater the number of points of contact the more rapid will it be effected. It is, therefore, easy to conceive that in subjecting a liquid to the action of caloric in a still, it will be heated more rapidly in proportion to the number of points of contact presented to the source of heat and to the con- ducting power of the material of which this vessel is made. For this reason a still should be broad and shal- low if it is destined to evaporate its contents rapidly. Heat for practical purposes is derived from the com- bustion of various kinds of fuel. Much of the useful effect to be derived from the combustion depends on the construction of the furnace where it is effected, and in which the heat is applied to the different bodies to be heated. The heat for reducing liquids to the form of vapor is applied directly over the open or naked fire, or indirectly, that is, by steam and the water or sand bath. Heating by the Naked Eire. Distillation over the open or naked fire consists in effecting the combustion directly underneath the still. This method of heating is most usually employed in operations on a small scale. The management of heat with the open fire requires much skill on the part of the distiller, especially when semi-liquid substances are to be distilled—as the marc of grapes, cherries, &c. The degree of heat is quite difficult to fix and to be equably kept up, for, when a small addition of fuel is made to the fire, the heat may pass all at once from the condition of being too low to that of being too high, and the distillate may contract an empyreumatic flavor. An unequal distribution of heat with the open fire often presents the inconvenience of altering the product more or less. The liquid dries, and burns the upper 84 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. parts of the still, or, rather, some of the solid matters submitted to distillation attach themselves to the sides, and, by opposing an obstacle to the passage of the heat, favor its accumulation at such points; the product, under such circumstances, will inevitably contract a burnt flavor. Heating by Steam. The inconveniences which have just been pointed out in the use of the naked fire disappear entirely where steam heat is applied for purposes of distillation. There is, too, great advantage in its use. These advantages may be summed up as follows :— 1. Economy of fuel—since it permits all the opera- tions of the distiller to be conducted by the use of a single furnace, when otherwise each one would require a separate fire. 2. Economy of labor, and consequently greater facility of personal supervision. 3. Perfect regularity in the temperature necessary for the work. 4. And as a consequence of this regularity of tem- perature a superiority in the quality of the product. It is admitted that most liquid bodies may be trans- formed into vapor. This change is called in general evaporations; it is silent when the vapors are formed at the surface of the liquid without any movement therein. W hen the vapors escape tumultuousty the phenomenon is called ebullition or boiling. The latter only concerns us. Ebullition, is the tumultuous evolution of steam which is formed in the body of a liquid and escapes in bubbles at the surface. When any liquid contained in a vessel is submitted to the action of heat, a certain time elapses before the ebullition begins; this time is necessary for the vapor to acquire, by increase of temperature, a sufficient elas- tic force to overcome the pressure of the atmosphere; the boiling point depends on this pressure; in proportion HEATING BY STEAM. 85 as it is diminished the temperature necessary to cause ebullition is also diminished. In a vacuum ebullition is independent of the temperature. It begins instantly, and continues until the vacuum is filled, and then ceases. The heating of liquids, or materials to be distilled, is effected by several methods. When, without inconve- nience, they can be mixed with water, the steam is ad- mitted directly or by injection. This is used for semi- fluid substances, or for the distillation of substances in the large Belgian or column stills. But generally with the simple or continuous stills, arranged by Derosne, Egrot, etc., rectifying stills, etc., the liquids are heated by conduction from the steam, that is to say, by causing a current of steam to circulate in it through a tube usually arranged in a coil. Or the steam may be admitted into a jacket (or envelope) surrounding the still, or into a double bottom ; these last are used only by the spirit distiller. We would recommend that the greatest caution should be observed, in admitting steam into any appa- ratus, to open the steam-cocks slowly, so as to avoid too great and sudden condensation in the pipes, which will occasion detonations and shocks which injure the joints of the pipe and cause leaks. Those who are desirous of acquainting themselves with the calculations for the force of steam boilers for heating purposes, are referred to the catalogue of H. C. Baird for several valuable books on the subject of the steam-engine and its applications. Note—The use of the water and sand-baths being confined to another branch of the art, the consideration of them is deferred until we treat of distilled waters, etc. 86 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. CHAPTER V. SOME CONSIDERATIONS UPON DISTILLATION AS APPLIED TO ALCOHOL. A distilling apparatus to be profitable should be so constructed as to be able to heat the liquid rapidly, and to evaporate and condense it with facility. We may now add, as a sequel to these principles, that it is neces- sary, 1st, to heat at the same time, and equally, all parts of the mass subjected to distillation ; 2d, to remove any obstacles that may interfere with the ascent of the alcoholic vapors; 3d, to effect the condensation promptly in order to prevent a portion of these vapors from es- caping in the gaseous state. In order to obtain the first of these conditions it is necessary, in the first place, that the mass of liquid should be of little depth, and should present a large surface; that the heating, whether by the naked fire or by steam, should be conducted with intelligence and care, so as to maintain the stream of the distillate of regular size, and in order to avoid shocks. The ascent of the alcoholic vapors always goes on satisfactorily when the first condition is fulfilled, but care must be taken in a continuous distillation not to turn the wine or fermented must into the apparatus before it has acquired a temperature of at least 80° Cent., for if the wine be cold or only tepid the operation will be interrupted. The alcoholic vapors are always promptly condensed when the liquid contained in the cooler is sufficiently cold, that is to say, does not exceed a temperature of 18°; nevertheless the vapors should not come over in such great abundance that the condensed liquid will be warm. 87 ACCIDENTS OF DISTILLATION. Accidents of Distillation. The following accidents may occur during the course of an operation :— 1. Leaks in the apparatus. 2. Insufficient exhaustion of the spent liquor. 3. Imperfect condensation of the alcoholic vapors. 4. Fires. Leahs in the Apparatus.—When the joints of the appa- ratus are not well made, or when the screw taps or bolts are not tight enough, there will be an escape of alcoholic vapor, which will occasion more or less loss, and may be the cause of fire. The accident may be easily pre- vented by being careful to apply between the joints a cement of wThite and red lead mixed with oil, and to examine the taps and bolts occasionally to see if they are tight enough. Some loss of liquid or vapor may occur when there are cracks in the soldered joints necessary to the adjust- ment of the coils, wine-heater, and cooler; but in this case the liquid which flows into the proof bottle will be sensibly lowered in strength, and will at once indicate what is going on in the apparatus. Insufficient Exhaustion of the Spent Liquor.—The liquid which has been subjected to distillation, that is to say, the residuum which results from this operation, is called spent liquor. The insufficient exhaustion of the spent liquor can only occur when we distil too quickly the quantity of liquid which should be distilled in a given time, or wrhen the apparatus used is defective. This last danger of loss will disappear by using the apparatus we have described. Testing the Spent Liquor.—We ascertain whether the liquid submitted to distillation contains any more alco- hol, as follows:— We open the air-cock, placed on the top of the still, containing the liquid to be examined; a small quantity of vapor escapes, to which a lighted match is applied; if it takes fire it is evident that the spent liquor still contains a certain quantity of alcohol. 88 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. If, however, there should be any doubt about this test, it may be better to use the following:— Connect the air-cock, by means of an India-rubber tube, with a small cooler similar to that of a test-still; open the cock half way, and the vapor will be con- densed into liquid within the coil. This product when collected is tested in two ways : first, by throwing a small quantity on the top of the still, and applying a lighted match; if it burns, the exhaustion is not complete; second, by plunging into the liquid an alcoholmeter; if it marks two or three degrees, it is proof that the liquid contains more alcohol, and distillation must be conti- nued until the liquid marks zero, then we may be cer- tain that it is despoiled of its alcohol. Imperfect Condensation of the Alcoholic Vapors.—This accident may happen when the liquid of the cooler is not sufficiently cold, or rather when, in consequence of a shock, there is disengaged so great a quantity of alco- holic vapor that a part will escape in a gaseous state, while the other part flows into the proof bottle in the form of a hot liquid. The first cause readily disappears by taking care that the cooling liquid, as has already been said, does not exceed 18° in temperature, or by replacing the wine in the cooler by water; in this case the wine passes directly into the wine heating condenser. The second takes place only when the fire or steam is pushed too ac- tively. By regulating the heat this accident is pre- vented. Fires.—A distillery should be so arranged as to avoid all chances of conflagration. With this view the alco- holic products of the distillation ought to be received in reservoirs of iron, or tanks of oak lined with tinned copper, hermetically closed, and if possible in a separate place. The spirits that are rectified, or are ready for consumption, ought also to be placed in a special store. Leaks of the apparatus, and the imperfect condensa- tion of the alcoholic vapors, may frequently become the cause of fire, these vapors being exceedingly inflam- mable. The smallest flame is sufficient to set them on DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. 89 fire, and when a room or building is filled with this vapor the explosion which follows is truly terrific. The same accident may occur from the escape of the ethereal vapors, which are produced at the beginning of a distillation, or during rectification. All danger of fire is avoided by being careful not to enter, with a candle, a place where distilling is carried on, or where spirits are stored, without using a lantern —the use of Davy’s safety lamp is to be preferred. The lamps necessary for lighting the establishment should be inclosed by glass or mica, and finally, if it is possible, to distil only during the day, the risk will dis- appear almost entirely. CHAPTER VI. DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Now that we have explained the theory of the gene- ral principles of the distillation of alcohol, it becomes our province to set forth the rules for their practical application; for the connection between theory and practice is indispensable, and it is vain to separate them. The operator who is not guided by theory is like a blind man who walks without seeing his way. Practice is action; theory explains the why and wherefore it is done; it indicates the means to be employed to insure success, as well as those to which we must have recourse to surmount obstacles which might prevent its attain- ment. We set up no claim, in order to arrive at the end we have in view, to fix limits to the progress of distillation. We believe, on the contrary, that there is much yet to be learned. We have made, since wre have practised the art, some interesting and valuable observations, founded on science and work, which have proven to us that the actual state of our knowledge in regard to distillation 90 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. is far from being perfect. Moreover, every day brings new discoveries to enlarge the circle of our knowledge! Be this as it may, we shall explain in simple terms all the operations which are practised in our day for the production of the different kinds of ardent spirits which are found in the market. We shall add to these the results of our own experience, which, we are persuaded, ought to be taken under consideration. Spirits of Wine (Alcohol from Wine). The distillation of wines is one of the most fruitful sources of prosperity to France, and its development in the United States may yet lay the foundation for a branch of trade which will render great aid in restoring to its originally prosperous condition a portion of our beloved country, so lately prostrated by intestinal strife. The manufacture of all kinds of liquids, capable of yielding alcohol, being of necessity the province of the distiller, we shall devote some space to the mode of pre- paring wine from grapes. The limits of this work do not permit us to enter into all the details of this interesting subject, and for more extensive information our readers are referred to special treatises, of which there are many. Among the fruits which contain the elements necessary for the vinous fermentation the grape occupies the first rank. It has within itself the sugar, the water, and the ferment in the most suitable proportions. These sub- stances are, however, variable according to the climate and changes of seasons; nevertheless it is these, added to a bouquet or peculiar aroma, which constitute that valuable liquor, known as wine, and its infinite varieties. France, situated almost in the centre of Europe, is, by its topographical position, and by the nature of its soil, the richest country in vines, and that in which they best succeed. In the plains and on the mountains, here in the sand, there among the rocks, and everywhere Wine. WINE. 91 vineyards, old or new, yield their choicest products. That which especially distinguishes the French wines is their bouquet, their delicate flavor, and that valuable lightness which renders them inoffensive and superior to all foreign wines. In many parts of the world wines are made, of incon- testable merit, but which, nevertheless, generally fatigue the organ of taste, and which impress on the nervous system a state of excitability often dangerous; some- times it is from their extreme tartness; sometimes a flat and unsavory flavor, which is caused by an excess of sugar and the ropiness of the liquid; and sometimes from the harshness resulting from an excess of alcohol. In France there are innumerable varieties which an- swer to all the fancies of the most capricious taste, of a good color, a generally irreproachable limpidity, strength, fineness, mellowness, bouquet, delicate and light aroma, and a gracious perfume, which flatters, charms, and soothes the nerves, but rarely injures, except when abuse is mingled with their enjoyment. Vintage.—The name applied to the season of the grape harvest, and the various labors necessary to the manu- facture of wine. The vintage calls for the preparation of many details. We should be careful to provide the number of puncheons or hogsheads for which we may judge that we shall have need, to have them gauged and in good order, to make the necessary repairs to the press and vats, to have ready wooden shovels, iron forks, tubs and buckets of wood, funnels, panniers, and baskets. We ought to await the perfect maturity of the grapes before gathering, otherwise the wine will be sour, and keep badly. The true period of this maturity is when the berry begins to soften and falls at the slightest touch, when the stem becomes brown, and the expressed juice is sweet and sticky. The ripeness of the white grape is recognized by the transparency of the berry, its sweet taste, and by its brown spots. Grapes should be gathered as soon as possible after the dew has disappeared, using for the purpose the scis- 92 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. sors or shears. The knife jars the bunches, and causes the best berries to fall off. It is proper to handle them with care, so as not to bruise them, and to transport them to the place where the wine is to be made without jolting them. Crushing.—In order that it may yield a vinous liquor it is necessary that the grape should be crushed, to the end that its proximate elements may be brought into more intimate contact; for there would not be any alco- hol in the berry if left to itself; unless it be torn it will wither, dry up, and be decomposed without undergoing a regular and complete vinous fermentation. There are many ways of crushing the grape—each country has its own. The following appears to us to be the best:— We use a square box, open at the top, the bottom pierced with holes; it is placed on two pieces of wood, which rest on the edges of the vat; within this box a vintager places himself, and tramples the fruit with his great sabots; the expressed juice flows into the vat; then, by a sliding side-gate, he causes the marc to fall into the vat; this is thrown into another vessel, if the must is to be fermented alone. The crushing goes on as described until the vat is full. The crushing in the fermenting vat, directly, as is done in some countries, is highly objectionable; a great part of the berries not being mashed, it follows that the sugar and ferment contained in them, although floating in the liquid in full course of fermentation, will remain untouched because still inclosed in their cells, and when the grapes are pressed these berries yield a juice which will ferment in the hogshead. It is a question among wine makers whether it is proper to stem the grapes, but all doubt ceases when it is fairly examined. The stems containing, in fact, nei- ther aroma nor saccharine matter, contribute nothing to the strengh or the bouquet of the wine. Then, if the grape is not in a state of complete maturity, either from want of heat, or because the vintage has been hastened by frosts, or from any cause whatsoever, the stems can WINE. 93 only contribute, by their acidity, to increase that pro- duced by the grape in this condition. But, on the other hand, there are feeble and almost insipid wines, such, for the most part, as come from hu- mid climates, in which the slightly acid taste of the stems relieves the natural flatness of this drink. It Was so in Orleans, that, after having commenced to stem the grapes, they were forced to abandon it, because it was observed that the grapes which were stripped from the stems furnished a wine which very easily became ropy. It has been also observed that the stems of the grape increase and regulate the fermentation of the must; that they give to the cap a degree of permeability neces- sary to the escape of the carbonic acid, in such a man- ner that the stems may be considered as an advanta- geous ferment in all cases in which it may be feared that the fermentation will be slow or incomplete. They con- tain, too, an astringent principle which contributes to the preservation of wines containing a small quantity of alcohol. At all events stemming is but little practised, except in two-fifths of our wine-growing departments, or by some large proprietors, wrho take the greatest pains to obtain wines of the best quality. Vatting.—The grapes, after being crushed, are to be turned into the vat; a vacant space of 20 or 25 centi- meters is left, because of the increase of volume which occurs in the mass in consequence of the heat developed during fermentation and the escape of carbonic acid gas. The vat is then covered, and fermentation suffered to go on. The vats for the vintage are of oak, and are round; they are brought together and strengthened by wooden hoops, but iron hoops are better, as they are more solid. The contents vary from 20 to 25 hectolitres; they should be larger at the bottom than at the top; they rest on trusties, and are furnished with a stopcock for rack- ing. Vats of masonry are preferable for the proprietors of large vineyards, especially when the wine is intended for distillation. They may be heated before being filled. 94 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The plastered lining of these vats has a sensible action on the wine only the first year. Chemical Composition of Mast.—The recently ex- pressed juice of the grape is called must. It is a sweet liquor, agreeable to the taste, which contains no alcohol, but only those elements which are proper for its deve- lopment and the formation of wine. In order to explain the phenomena which take place within the vat during the fermentation, it is necessary to make known the composition of the must or juice of the grape. We find in it cellulose, water, glucose or grape sugar, pectic acid, malic acid, tannin, vegetable albumen, an azotized substance called albumen or glaia- dine, and which appears to produce the ferment, an es- sential oil, a violet-colored substance situated under the skin of the grape, fatty matter, acid tartrates of potash, lime, and alumina, sulphate of lime, and chloride of sodium. Of all the substances which are found dis- solved or suspended in the must, the most important is the glucose or grape sugar; the other substances are but accessories. Fermentation.—The grapes having been disposed as described above, the fermentation will in a few days have established itself, the mass becomes heated, bubbles of carbonic acid are disengaged so abundantly as to present the appearance of ebullition ; they raise the solid debris of the fruit, and a thick scum consisting especially of altered ferment, in such a manner as to form by degrees on the surface of the liquor a hemispherical crust which is called the cap. But very soon the effervescence is calmed down, and the cap subsides. The vat is now stirred so as to mix all the materials and revive the fer- mentation. When the liquor ceases to effervesce, when it has acquired a vinous taste, and has become clear, it is drawn off into hogsheads. It now bears the name of wine. The fermentation is feeble when the temperature is cold at the season of the vintage; heat being, as we know, one of the primary conditions of the vinous fer- mentation, it is necessary in order that it may go on WINE. 95 properly that the cellar in which the wflne is made should have a constant temperature of 15° Cent., and of course that the fruits should be at the same degree. This result is attained by heating the cellars with stoves and allowing the fruit to remain uncrushed until it has acquired the temperature of the place. We can, too, produce the proper temperature by drawing off a portion of the must, and heating it nearly to the boiling point and returning it to the vat. When the progress of the fermentation is not dimin- ished, it is unnecessary to stir or plunge the cap into the wine. In any event, instead of sending naked men into the vat (which is both nasty and dangerous, asphyxia often resulting from the carbonic acid gas generated during the process), it is better to depress the cap by a wooden plunger with a long handle. A majority of wine growers prefer the open vats; this was the method of our fathers. Although the loss which takes place in open vats has been greatly over-estimated (since Gay-Lussac has shown that it does not exceed the half of one per cent, of alcohol), it is better to cover them. Indeed, in the open vats, if the atmosphere is dry and warm, the cap becomes dry and the air pene- trates it; and if the fermentation is prolonged, acetic acid will be formed, and when the cap is mixed with the mass by stirring, it will communicate to the wine a dis- position to assume the acid fermentation. If the air is cold and moist, the upper surface of the cap will absorb water which will dilute the grapes, and cause the de- velopment of the acid or putrid fermentation and incipi- ent mouldiness. Fermentation in closed vats conbines the following advantages. The interior temperature is maintained, and the must before beginning to ferment ripens. The green fruit thus attains a degree of maturity similar to that which would have occurred on the vine if the sea- son had been favorable. The air has no influence, the evolution of carbonic acid is retarded, and the wine may be left for a longer time in contact with the marc with- 96 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. out any other inconvenience than the solution of the elements of the stem. Improvement of Must.—When the season has been cold or rainy, or the grape has been grown on moist lands, the must contains too much water of vegetation, and too little sugar. In this case, in order that the fer- mentation may not be irregular, slow, and often incom- plete, and that the product which results may not be deficient in alcohol, it is proper to restore the proportion of the elements by diminishing the water by artificial evaporation. This operation not only restores the normal propor- tions of the elements of the must, but facilitates the clarification of the wine if it is not pushed too far. It must be remarked, however, that must which remains too long over the fire loses its fermenting properties. This phenomenon is to be attributed to the coagulation of a part of the albuminous, glutinous, and extractive molecules contained in the must. The most natural means and those most in accordance with the principles of wine making, in order to counteract the excess of water in the juice of grapes or other fruit, are to add some saccharine substance to the must; at the same time that we supply this defect in the work of nature, correcting the imperfect composition of the must, we supply to that liquid the quantity of sugar which would have been developed if the season had been more propitious: we do more; we produce at will the must of the south or of the north. “Generally,” says Chaptal, “when the grape ripens, the sugar and vegeto-animal principle (ferment) exist in proper proportions to undergo a perfect and regular fer- mentation, but when the season is moist or cold, the sugar is deficient, the mucilage is in excess, and the product of the fermentation is wanting in alcohol. In this case the small quantity of alcohol developed is not sufficient to preserve the wine from spontaneous decom- position, and on the return of warm weather a second fermentation is set up which decomposes the liquor and converts it into vinegar. 97 WINE. “ This unprofitable result maybe obviated by correcting artificially the imperfect composition of the must. It is only necessary to add the amount of sugar that is wanting and which nature has failed to produce. “ In order to determine the quantity of sugar to be added to must derived from unripe grapes, the following indication will suffice :— “ In the South of France the grape ordinarily ripens perfectly, and in this case it is only necessary to manage the fermentation properly; the wine will keep without alteration, but in the north, even in a favorable season, this fruit never ripens completely. I have constantly observed that, in the south, wine which has been well fermented marks on the areometer some fractions of a degree below the specific gravity of water, while in the North of France, the new wines rarely allow the instru- ment to descend to the same degree. “ Another important observation which may serve as a guide to the quantity of sugar which it is proper to employ each year, is to determine the degree of concen- tration of the must, which varies with every gathering. The areometer has often shown a difference of from two to four degrees of concentration in must resulting from the same vintage, as the maturity of the grape has been more or less advanced; the must from very ripe grapes weighs the most. “ Thus, when we have once determined the specific gravity of must derived from grapes which have at- tained" the greatest maturity, it is sufficient to bring it to this degree by the addition of sugar in seasons when the ripening is less perfect. “In 1817 the grapes of Touraine had not ripened; the must of my vintage, which marked 11° in a good season, was only at 9°; I brought it up to 11° by add- ing sugar. I covered the vat with boards and woollen cloths, and allowed it to ferment. The wine was found to be very clear when drawn from the vat; it was almost as strong as that from the south, while that which had been vatted without the addition of sugar was flat and thick, as the thick red wines of the wine- 98 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. growers constantly are. The latter sold for fifty francs the barrel. I refused eighty-four francs for mine, pre- ferring to keep it for my table. The wine, as it was drawn from the vat, was as clear as that made from the same vineyard, and which had been four years in barrels, and it was much more generous and agreeable to the taste. Twenty barrels of wine prepared in this manner required fifty kilogrammes of sugar. “ As the grapes are crushed and the vat filled, some of the must is put in a boiler over the fire and heated sufficiently to dissolve the sugar. When dissolved, the solution is poured into the vat and the mass carefully stirred. This operation is to be repeated until all the sugar has been disposed of. When the operation is finished the vat is covered and the fermentation suffered to proceed.” The habit of sweetening must to improve wines is at present general in Burgundy, Champagne, Orleans, and many other wine-growing countries, only glucose is preferred as offering more analogy to the sugar of the grape than cane sugar. Yet it would be, in our opinion, more advisable to use white refined cane or beet sugar for table wines even of a low price, and to use glucose for common wines; by this means we should avoid in- creasing in the wines the formation of amylic alcohol, which the fermentation of the glucose of starch always produces in a variable quantity, and independently of the alcohol resulting from the decomposition of the sac- charine matter. Drawing off. (Racking.)—The quality of the wine de- pends in a great measure on this operation; but, all-im- portant as it is, the wine-growers, even in our day, depend only on equivocal signs. They have imagined a number of signs and circumstances by the assistance of which they pretend to ascertain the propitious moment; but it is easy to understand that this period cannot be fixed, because the phenomena vary in energy and duration according to climate and season, or, rather, according to the temperature at the time of the vintage, and also according to the quality of the must. We may, there- WINE. 99 fore, affirm that all methods, the object of which is to fix the period of racking in a general or precise manner, are necessarily fallacious. The only one that will furnish a sure guide consists in observing, during the fermentation, the progress of the decomposition of the saccharine principle, that is to say, the complete vinification of the liquor. The areometer may, under certain circumstances, aid in determining the stage of fermentation in the must. Expressing.—The whole of the wine is not obtained by the operation of drawing off; there remains a very considerable quantity with the marc which forms the cap, which sinks down as the wine is drawn off, until it forms a single mass with the parts deposited at the bottom of the vat. The marc is expressed by means of a wine-press. This has various forms, which are more or less perfect. This expressed wine is frequently mixed with that drawn off without pressure; but this is wrong; it should be kept separate, because it is harsher, less ripe, and more tart than the latter. Chemical Composition of Wine.—We shall omit the details of racking, sizing, sulphuring, and storing wines, as well as some other operations in regard to this sub- ject, as not being within the limits of a treatise like the present. We cannot speak of the distillation of wine without pausing a moment, as was done for must, to consider its chemical composition, from which it differs but little. Wine contains a large proportion of water, a little undecomposed glucose, traces of soluble azotized matter or ferment, alcohol in variable proportions (from 7£ to 24 per cent.), pectine and mucilage, some tannin, free malic and tartaric acids; a coloring matter, yellow in white wine, and red in the dark wines; acetic and oenanthic acids; an aromatic principle or bouquet, and cenanthic ether, an essential oil of vinous odor; and, finally, all the vegetable and mineral salts contained in the must. 100 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The wines of Bordeaux contain, in addition, a sapid principle called oenanthine, and the champagnes an ap- preciable quantity of carbonic acid gas. The numerous varieties of wines have very nearly the same composition, although the constituent elements are not always in the same relative proportions. These substances pre-exist in the marc of the grape beside some which are generated during the act of fermentation. The alcohol, acetic and oenanthic acids, the bouquet, oenanthic ether, and oenanthine, are the products of the fermentation of the must. The alcohol is derived evi- dently from the sugar. The acetic acid is formed at the expense of the alcohol, and is almost always the result of a too active or too prolonged fermentation. The oenanthic acid analogous to the fat acids results from the oxidation of the fatty substances contained in the must; its action as an acid is but little appreciable to the taste, but it is observed in proportion as it is transformed into oenanthic ether by its reaction on the alcohol; this oenanthic ether is a sort of essential oil, which appears to be the principle which communicates, not the bouquet peculiar to each locality, but that cha- racteristic vinous odor more or less common to all wines. As to the bouquet of wine so much prized by gourmets, it is a substance which, by reason of the minute proportion in each kind of wine, has hitherto escaped all the researches of the chemist. Wines are generous and strong in proportion to the amount of alcohol they contain. It is this principle to which they owe their intoxicating properties. The tan- nin gives them roughness and the acetic and malic acids, and cream of tartar, their tartness. As the tartar is deposited by degrees in the casks and bottles, it may be well understood how wines improve by age. They lose, too, by keeping, a large proportion of their coloring mat- ter, and acquire a tint which has received the name of onion peel. CHOICE OF WINES FOR DISTILLATION. 101 Choice of Wines for Distillation. In the choice of wines the distiller is principally de- cided, first, by the alcoholic richness, and then by the quality of the product he can obtain. The alcoholic richness of wines is easy to determine by means of the test-still of Gay-Lussac or Salleron (see determination of the strength of alcoholic liquids). It is sufficient to distil off one-third of the wine to be exa- mined, and then add to the distillate two volumes of water, and plunge an alcoholmeter into the mixture. This instrument, with the aid of a thermometer, will at once indicate the degree of spirituosity, or, in other words, the alcoholic strength of the wine tested. The proportion of alcohol in the different kinds of wines varies very much; it depends on the nature of the climate and soil on which the wines are grown. The strength of wines may be deduced, as we have seen, from the proportion of alcohol which they contain, but their value, in reference to the quality of the product they will yield, is not so easily determined. This value depends on numerous circumstances which cannot be ascertained by the taste alone. In general wines that are rich in alco- hol have neither the mellowness nor the perfume, which characterize the light wines; but, on the other hand, it is certain that they contain less malic acid. It is also to be remarked that generous wines yield the best rectified spirits (trois six). The distillation of alcohol from wines (spirits, trois six), having for its object to procure a per- fectly pure product, that is to say, free from taste, neither the bouquet, fineness, taste, nor the age of the wines is indispensable to the success of the operation. In brandies, however, as we shall see hereafter, all these qualities are to be sought for. Besides, in the choice of wines, we should be guided by the experience acquired in regard to each particular locality. They should be examined simultaneously by the taste and the small test-still referred to above; these will not only make known the quantity of alcohol, but will also throw some light on the quality of the product. 102 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Distillation.—This operation is generally conducted in the continuous apparatus, the use and management of which we have described (apparatus of Derosne & Egrot). By means of this method of distillation we obtain at once the desired degree (86 or 88 degrees), we exhaust the liquid completely, and economize a large quantity of fuel. It is, however, possible to distill wines with the simple apparatus; but, in this case, it is necessary to redistil the product several times to procure the degree of concentration required by the trade; this will neces- sarily lead to a great loss of time and considerable ex- penditure of fuel, without yielding a product equal in quality to that obtained by the continuous apparatus. In this trade these names are applied to the alcohol of wine, marking 85 degrees Centigrade, or 33 degrees of Cartier. The denomination trois six is very old, and constitutes with the following, viz., §, f, f, -|, T6T, f, |, and f, the ancient fractional denominations which are used in the South of France, at the present day, to de- signate spirits of different degrees of proof, and which correspond to 23, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 37, and 41 de- grees of Cartier’s areometer, the temperature being at ten degrees of the thermometer of Reaumur. These num- bers are not arbitrary; they indicate the weight, and not the volume, as some theorists have contended, of the quantity of water which it is necessary to add to any spirituous liquor to bring it to proof (Preuve de Ilollande), or 19 degrees Cartier (50 degrees Centigrade). Thus the three-fifths is spirits at 29 h degrees, which mixed in the proportion of three parts of spirits with two parts of water, will give five parts in weight of brandy at 19 degrees. The trois-six is alcohol at 33 degrees, of which, if three parts are mixed with an equal weight of water, will produce six parts of brandy of the same degree, or 19 degrees Cartier. The trois-six of wine is at present used exclusively in Trois Six or Spirits of Wine (Rectified Spirits). ALCOHOL FROM MOLASSES. 103 the manufacture of liqueurs, and for improving common brandies; the great advance in price for many years, has caused manufacturers to have recourse to the spirits of beets and grain for these purposes. Fine or well-flavored trois-six should be perfectly pure, without aroma, and besides should be absolutely limpid. Badly flavored trois-six is detected by its empy- reuinatic taste, resulting from careless distillation, or the flavor of the still, caused by too hurried a rectification, or the taste of the marc, of the beet, or produced by an admixture of the spirit manufactured from these sub- stances. In examining it, trois-six should never be tasted, unless it is diluted with at least half its weight of water; this is necessary to develop the aroma that may exist in the spirit; besides it would be very difficult to taste it pure, as the power of taste would be blunted by the strength of the spirits. Yet there are some dealers who have no difficulty in tasting trois-six by dipping in the point of the little finger and carrying it at once to the mouth. We may also, in order to recognize the odor of badly flavored trois-six, pour a few drops into the palm of the hand, and then after striking the hands together, let them approach the nose. The engraving exhibits the general arrangement of a first class brandy distillery. Alcohol from Molasses. Molasses is the uncrystallizable syrup which is produced during the manufacture of cane and beet sugar. It is the residuum of the manufacture and refining. Molasses is a brown, viscous, and very dense liquid, marking generally from 41 to 45 degrees on Baume’s areometer, and rarely above. Its color varies from a clear yellow to almost black, according to its origin. Variety and Selection of Molasses.—The selection of molasses is a matter of very great importance to the distiller, as much in respect to the quantity as the quality of the alcohol it will yield. The best is that 104 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. which is of a beautiful amber tint, without an)7 burnt taste, and in which are still found particles of crystalliza- ble sugar. Frequently, we confound the molasses of the refineries with that from the colonies, from which tajjia and rum are made. The taste is of excellent quality, and some- times contains as much as 60 per cent, of sugar. The molasses from the refinery is made from (1) cane sugar, or (2) beet sugar. The first is to be preferred as containing much more sugar, but it is scarce and always high priced in France. The molasses from the refineries of beet sugar, in its turn, should be preferred to that from the factories. It furnishes a larger quantity and better quality of spirit than the last. The molasses from the beet sugar facto- ries lacks that fresh, agreeable, and honey-like taste which characterizes the product of the cane factories and refineries. It retains a bitter and acrid taste de- rived from the root. It is strongly alkaline, because of the salts of potash which it contains in considerable quantity, and has an unpleasant odor. Because of its bad taste, this molasses cannot be employed for any other purpose than distillation. Fermentation.—The following is the process of fer- menting it, whatever be the kind of molasses selected. Dissolve the molasses in four or five times its weight of water, or in seven or eight times its volume, at pleasure,* of which a certain portion should be heated to 30° C., in order that the mixture may be complete; the cold water is then to be added so as to reduce the temperature of the mass to 20° in summer, and 25° in winter. The proportions indicated will yield a must, the density of which will vary from seven to eight degrees of Baum6’s areometer. As the liquid is often strongly alkaline, especially when operating with molasses from the beet sugar fac- * One hundred kilogrammes of molasses at 42 degrees, represent 71.43 litres by measure; 100 litres of molasses of the same degree will weigh 140 kilogrammes. ALCOHOL FROM MOLASSES. 105 tories, it becomes necessary to remedy this inconvenience which would otherwise prove an obstacle to the regular development of the fermentation, and consequently, the production of alcohol. The alkalies are neutralized the addition of a slight excess of sulphuric acid. This is determined by the use of litmus, which reddens in- stantaneously by contact with an acid. The exact quantity of acid to be used cannot be fixed, because the quantity of alkaline salts varies with the quality of the molasses. It may be stated as be- tween three and four kilogrammes for each one hundred kilogrammes of molasses. The acid should be diluted in seven or eight volumes of cold water to prevent altering the saccharine principle in the molasses. When the mixture is prepared, it is drawn into one or more vats according to the quantity, and the fermen- tation is established by adding 250 grammes of good fresh yeast, previously dissolved in a little tepid water, to each 100 litres of must at 7° or 8° Baume. After introducing the yeast, the liquid is to be well rummaged for some minutes, the vat carefully covered and left for the fermentation to proceed. In a very short time under the influence of the yeast and heat the fermentation will begin to be apparent; the surface of the liquid will be covered by a light white scum which begins at the sides of the vat and gradually extends over the whole surface. This scum consists almost entirely of yeast; it is caused to disappear entirely by throwing on the surface of the liquid a little oil or grease, mixed with a small quantity of boiling water. In the absence of grease a little soft soap dissolved as above will produce the same effect. When the scum has disappeared we perceive lively undulations of the surface of the liquid, at the same time that it exhales the very characteristic odor of car- bonic acid gas, a manifest sign of the conversion of the saccharine principle into alcohol. To this tumultuous movement of the liquid succeeds another phase. As the undulations become less active, and in proportion as the fermentation diminishes, the evolution of carbonic acid 106 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. becomes less abundant, it is remarked that the sweet taste of the liquid also diminishes and insensibly dis- appears ; then the vat acquires a very decided odor of alcohol—a sign which indicates the termination of the fermentation. When the operation has been conducted under favor- able circumstances such as have been indicated above, the vinous fermentation terminates usually at the end of thirty-six or forty-eight hours, and if it is not completed within fifty-five or sixty hours or more, the result will be a very bad one. We know that the operation has progressed properly when the liquid only marks 0° or 1° on the areometer of Baume. When the alcoholic fermentation is terminated, the acids contained in the fermented liquid are neutralized by a slight excess of lime, which should be previously mixed with a sufficient quantity of water. The object of this addition is not only to neutralize the acids which exist in the wine, or are produced during the fermenta- tion, but also to afford a means of arresting or at least of retarding, and in a great degree diminishing the pro- gress of the acetic fermentation which, as we know, always takes place at the expense of the alcohol. After saturation the vats are closely covered and allowed to stand twelve or fourteen hours. During this period of repose the vinous liquid becomes clear, and the lime falls to the bottom of the vats, combined with the acids which it has neutralized, when we may proceed to the distillation by the continuous apparatus. Admitting that we have operated upon good molasses, and that we have directed and watched the fermentation and distillation with the special knowledge which these operations require, we shall obtain ordinarily an average of 28 or 30 litres of pure alcohol from 100 kilogrammes ol molasses at 42° (37 or 41 per cent.). The alcoholic result will be materially increased if we use for a new fermentation the clear waste liquor which is derived from the previous distillation, by using it in- ALCOHOL FROM MOLASSES. 107 stead of water to dilute the molasses. This method, practised at present in distilleries of molasses from beet sugar presents also the peculiar advantage of affording a more highly concentrated saline liquid from which to extract the potash it contains. There results from it a notable economy of labor, and especially of fuel for con- centrating the waste liquor. Since the waste liquor resulting from the direct distil- lation of the wine of beet molasses usually marks from 3° to 4° of the areometer of Baume; and when used for a new fermentation we obtain after distillation waste liquor marking from 7° to 8°, we would call attention to the fact that in charging the vats we ought not to estimate at its full value the degree of the waste liquor used for diluting the molasses. In other words, if the charge of molasses for fermentation should be at 8°, and the waste liquor used had marked 4°, we should charge the vats at 12°, since there are 4° resulting from the waste liquor which count for nothing. Some chemists advise the fermentation of molasses at 12° or 14°. This would in effect yield a more concen- trated waste liquor, but experience has proven that by charging the vats at so high a degree there will be too much sugar lost in the waste liquor. For many years we have seen that the use of malt and rye-flour in the fer- mentation of molasses will produce an excellent effect. Five hundred grammes of each are to be employed for each hectolitre of the liquid to be fermented. It is cer- tain that these substances perceptibly increase the fer- mentation, and produce a greater quantity of alcohol. lhe spirit oi molasses has neither the taste nor the odor of spirits of wine; it is sweeter, and when the distillation and rectification have been properly con- ducted, it may be considered as a type of alcohol in its purity, for it has neither taste nor any peculiar aroma. In this state it is called fine spirits, and may be employed in the manufacture of liqueurs, for improving common brandies, and especially for refining the troix six (recti- fied spirit) of Montpellier. The spirits of molasses 108 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. occur usually in the market at from 90 to 94 centesi- mal degrees. Note.—Tn those districts of France where the beet is largely culti- vated for the manufacture of sugar, and the molasses is converted into alcohol, the waste liquor is made a source of no inconsiderable profit by concentrating it and incinerating the residuum, from which is ob- tained, for the use of the soap boiler, a caustic potash of superior quality. In addition to the alcohol, 100 kilogrammes of good beet molasses will yield 10 or 12 per cent, of commercial, or from 7 to 8 per cent, of refined potash.* Alcohol from Beets. The manufacture of alcohol from beets, after having been for many years the object of a special industry, has now a tendency to become entirely agricultural; in fact, for many years only three hundred farmers had set up distilleries for beets, and this year (1867) at least double the number will be set in operation if alcohol still continues to rise in price. The advantages which this manufacture presents to the farmers are conside- rable. Producing the raw material themselves, they get it at a price to which the trade cannot aspire; they extract the alcohol by maceration at minimum cost. This work furnishes a residuum, which costs them almost nothing, and which, when fed to cattle, will fatten them visibly. On the other hand, the manure resulting from this food will, in its turn, improve the quality of the land already improved by the cultivation of the beet. Finally, the distillation of the beet being conducted at a season when field work is interrupted, will afford occupation for the laborers. From these considerations it follows that the indus- trial distillation of the beet should give way to the agri- cultural, and that, after awhile, will do so entirely. Chemical Analysis of the Beet.—The following is the average of many analyses made at different times by intelligent and skilful chemists:— * See Dussauce: The Manufacture of Soap. 8vo. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird. ALCOHOL FROM BEETS. 109 Water 85 parts. Sugar ...... 10 “ Ligneous fibre . . . 2.5 “ Albumen and other substances . 2.5 “ 100 The other substances not named are : malic and pec- tic acids, an azotized substance, red, yellow, and brown coloring matter, fatty matter, an aromatic principle, an acrid essential oil, clilorophylle, oxalate and phosphate of ammonia; the silicate, sulphate, nitrate, and oxalate of potash, the chlorides of potassium and sodium, sul- phur, silica, the oxides of iron and manganese. When the distiller does not cultivate the beets he wishes to distil, that is to say, when he is obliged to buy them, it is best to make a preliminary examination of them in order to be assured of their saccharine rich- ness, for this varies with the species of beet, the method of cultivation, and the nature of the soil in which they are grown. Atmospheric influences also have their effect. The most certain test, that which will give the best result, is, without doubt, to ferment the juice and distil the wine resulting from the fermentation; the propor- tion of sugar which previously existed in the roots is deduced from the quantity of alcohol obtained. A very simple method of testing beets consists in cut- ting from the middle of a number of them some thin slices, which, after being carefully weighed in a small balance, are dried either in a hot room, or on a mode- rately-heated stove. As soon as the drying is complete, which may be known when the slices have become so hard and brittle that they break in the attempt to bend them, they are again carefully weighed; the difference in weight repre- sents the quantity of water originally contained in the fresh beets. It is indispensable, in order to have the drying perfect, that the slices should be subjected to many successive weighings until they lose no more weight. 110 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. In order to determine approximately the quantity of sugar which the dried slices contain, we make the fol- lowing calculation: Beets of a good variety, cultivated in a proper soil, and in a favorable season, would have 16 to 18 parts of dry matter for 100 parts of the fresh root; we should subtract 7 or 8 parts for the foreign substances, and there will remain 9 or 11 parts repre- senting the proportion of pure sugar, or, in other words, 9 or 11 kilogrammes of sugar from 100 kilogrammes of fresh beets, of which it will be possible, when operating on a large scale, to obtain from 4 to 7 kilogrammes of refined sugar, or from 7 to 11 litres of spirit, at 50° Cen- tigrade (proof), representing 3£ to 5 litres of pure alco- hol, because the beets only yield about four-fifths of the alcohol, and only one-half or two-thirds of the sugar they contain. Another method of testing as simple as the preceding, but much more prompt, consists in ascertaining the density of the juice of the beets examined, and is as follows:— Some beets are rasped in an earthen pan, and the pulp pressed in a cloth, the juice filtered through paper; then plunge an areometer into the liquid, and the degree of density will indicate the saccharine value of the beets with sufficient accuracy. This operation should he con- ducted quickly, and at a temperature below 15° Cent., in order to prevent the juice becoming thick and begin- ning to ferment. The yield of alcohol from beets is dependent on the quantity of sugar they contain ; it increases with the density of the juice, but not in proportion to it, on account of the saline matters and vegetable albumen which the roots contain in very variable proportions. Yet it is ascertained, according to a number of experi- ments, that beets, when they are matured, will generally yield 8 or 9 per cent, of sugar when their filtered (but not defecated) juice marks 6° on the areometer of Baume, 9 or 10 per cent, w hen it marks 6|-°, and 10 or 11 per cent, when the density is 7°. DIFFERENT PROCESSES FOR DISTILLING BEETS. Ill Different Processes for Distilling Beets. The principal methods at present used for obtaining alcohol from beets are :— 1. By rasping and pressure. 2. By maceration. 3. By direct distillation of the beet, that is to say, without rasping and without maceration. As to the method of boiling the beets, and then ex- tracting the saccharine juice by pressure, or subjecting the pulp to fermentation, then to distillation, it is at present almost entirely abandoned. Each of the processes that we have just indicated receives in its turn different applications which we shall examine in succession. The manufacture of alcohol, whatever be the process adopted, requires many operations, viz., washing the roots, rasping or slicing them, extracting the sugar, fer- mentation and distillation. Distillation of Beet Spirit by Rasping and Pressure. This process is employed in the large industrial estab- lishments, and especially in the sugar factories, which have been converted during the last four years into dis- tilleries. It requires a large stock and numerous hands, and, as a consequence, furnishes alcohol which costs a pretty high price. Therefore this process offers but lit- tle chance of success in the future, although the alcohol produced by it is undoubtedly superior to that obtained by any other process. The beets are washed, rasped, and pressed by suitable instruments. By this treatment are obtained from 80 to 85 parts of juice for 100 of beets; but the quantity may be made up to 100 by allowing a small stream of water to fall on the rasp; this will, at the same time, facilitate the rasping. Frequently, during the pressing, when the tempera- ture is above 12° Cent., or when the beets are somewhat damaged, the sacks which contain the pulp will become 112 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. thick or slimy, and still retain after this operation a certain quantity of liquid, nowithstanding the force ap- plied. This inconvenience may be avoided by occasion- ally plunging the sacks into water containing two or three one-thousandths of tannin in solution, or five per cent, of sulphuric acid at 60 degrees. The extraction of the juice of beets, by rasping and pressure, demands the most constant attention to clean- liness ; for the sacks, hurdles, reservoirs, and other im- plements may produce changes which will react with very great rapidity upon must otherwise of good quality, and cause serious damage. We should, therefore, every day wash the reservoirs, presses, tables, &c., with lime- water. The sacks are to be placed in a large rectangu- lar box, hermetically closed, and into which is intro- duced a current of steam. When they have been sub- mitted to this operation they are rinsed in lime-water, or acidulated water (five litres of sulphuric acid, at 60 degrees, to 100 litres of water). The juice resulting from the rasp and press is then brought together in a boiler, and heated by steam to a temperature of 26 or 28 degrees, then it is conveyed by a pump or elevator to the fermenting vats. Although the beet contains a natural leaven, the fer- mentation should, nevertheless, at the start be developed by means of beer yeast, in the proportion of 50 or 60 grammes to the hectolitre of juice. This yeast should previously be carefully mixed with a small quantity of water or must, and the temperature of the apartment should be at 18 or 20 degrees Cent. It is indispensable, in order to regulate and hasten the fermentation, to add to the liquid about two or two and a half kilogrammes of concentrated sulphuric acid for 1000 litres, according to the richness of the must, and more particularly according to the quantity of for- eign substances which it may contain. This dose, how- ever, ought never to exceed three kilogrammes; for then the acid would produce a contrary effect, that is to say, would hinder the development of the fermentation. The office of the sulphuric acid, in this case, is to satu- 113 DISTILLATION OF BEET SPIRIT. rate the alkaline salts, and to give the liquid an acid re- action which will favor the conversion of the starchy elements into sugar, and the transformation of the sugar into glucose, which, as we know, requires no ferment to produce the alcoholic fermentation. This transforma- tion always precedes the conversion of saccharine matter into alcohol and carbonic acid. Sulphuric acid also pre- vents the development of the viscous fermentation, otherwise so frequent in beet juice obtained by rasping. According to M. Dubrunfaut, the office of the acids employed in the fermentation of the beet is to destroy the cells of that root, and to facilitate the extrac- tion of the sugar; then to produce, by heat or cold, a sort of defecation which precipitates in a solid state the various azotized substances, especially the glairy ferment. Be this as it may, it is certain that by the employment of the acid, if the beet juice is placed in the condition of a favorable temperature, it will under- go a perfect and very regular alcoholic fermentation without the intervention of beer leaven, and that all the sugar contained in the juice will be converted into alcohol, under the influence of the natural ferment of the root, transformed into an exclusively alcoholic fer- ment by the reactions of acids. The acid may be advantageously added at different stages of the operation—on the rasp* by dissolving it in the water which flows on the drum of this machine dur- ing the rasping of the beets, in the trough of the rasp with the pulp after it has passed the machine, or when moist- ening the sacks already pressed, when they are submit- ted to the press a second time. In this addition the * The acidulation of the pulp on the rasp, that is to say, at the moment of its production, preserves it radically from all change, either by oxidation or otherwise. The pulp remains white, the juice is limpid or colorless, the sacks and other utensils are cleansed, and will thus be kept perfectly sweet even without washing. The cells of the pulp not torn are dissolved, and, if we follow up the work by moistening the pulp with pure water, and pressing a second time, as is done everywhere, we shall obtain a new juice rich in sugar, and at the same time remove from the pulp the small quantity of acid which it would have retained but for this method of treating it. 114 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. dose of acid should be calculated upon the weight of the beets as juice, and even above, because the earth on the roots, which may have escaped the washer, will neu- tralize a portion of it. It is known that the quantity of acid is sufficient when the pulp is colorless, and the slightly-colored juice is quite clear. A rapid fermentation, that is to say, one which is effected after a delay of less than eighteen hours, with a foam that is white or grayish, light, easy to reduce by the aid of any fatty liquid, is also an evidence of a proper quantity of acid. Blackish foam, or one that becomes so by exposure to the air, indicates the re- verse. It is easy to avoid irregularity in the dose by veri- fying the state of acidity of the juice, which ought to be, as was said above, from two to three kilogrammes of sulphuric acid, at 66 degrees, for 1000 litres of juice, ac- cording to its density, and the nature of the beets from which it is obtained. The dose of acid in the juice is ascertained with sufficient exactness by means of the alka- line test solution, graduated test glass, and litmus. As a general thing two kilogrammes of sulphuric acid will be sufficient for a juice marking 103 degrees on the den- simeter, or five degrees on the areometer of Baum4. Hydrochloric acid may be used with advantage to re- place sulphuric acid for the acidulation of the juice or pulp of the beet. This acid, which possesses a marked superiority as an agent for changing crvstallizable into grape sugar, and for the conversion of amylaceous substances into sugar, enjoys also the same superiority as an agent for the destruction of the cells of vegetables. Besides, hydro- chloric acid produces the development of the ferment and the alcoholic fermentation with a greater economy of time and money. The proportion which the hydrochloric acid should bear to the dose of sulphuric acid is that of their chemi- cal equivalents; that is to say, about two kilogrammes of hydrochloric acid (commercial) for one kilogramme of sulphuric acid at 60°. DISTILLATION OF BEET SPIRIT. 115 The fermentation of a vat, while yet in a state of activity, may serve to produce a new fermentation in another vat without the addition of beer yeast; it is sufficient for this purpose to draw off one-half of the liquor into the second vat, and to fill the two vats with fresh acidulated juice; the fermentation is then de- veloped and progresses without interruption, and may be the means of a new fermentation. The reaction is in- stantaneous, and takes place with great activity. During the fermentation of beet juice there is pro- duced quite a large quantity of globular ferment which forms the cap, and which has properties analogous to the yeast of beer, but is possessed of almost double its ferment- ing power. This ferment is collected in the same man- ner as that of beer, and may be applied to the same uses. When the fermentation is terminated, which happens generally 18 to 24 hours after the juice is introduced into the vats, the wine is allowed to rest for some hours, and then it is distilled in the continuous still, and in the manner already indicated. It is known that the fermenta- tion is at an end, and the wine ready for the still when it only marks 0° or 1° on the areometer of Baume, in- stead of 5° or 6° as at the commencement. There is formed during the fermentation of juice ob- tained by rasping and pressure a very great quantity of foam which may overflow the vats and spread on the floor of the sweat-house; this inconvenience is easily prevented by the use of a solution of soft-soap or grease, as has already been said. The deposit of the vats ought never to be used as a leaven for a succeeding operation; it only contains a spent ferment which will do more harm than good. It may be understood from this how necessary it is to clean the vats with care after each operation, and according to the principles indicated above. The alcoholic result is dependent on the saccharine richness of the beets, and the more or less advanced state of the season. It varies between three and five litres of pure alcohol for 100 kilogrammes of fresh beets. 116 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Distillation of the Beet by Maceration. Maceration is an operation by the aid of which is ex- tracted by means of water and spent liquor, all the sac- charine principle contained in the beet. The object of extracting the juice by maceration is to suppress the rasp and press, which call for the expen- diture of much mechanical force, and carry with them also too great an encumbrance of expense and personnel. Then, too, we obtain by this process five or six times as much residuum as by rasping, which is a great advan- tage to the fanner; nevertheless, it must be acknow- ledged that the alcohol produced by maceration preserves a little more of the taste peculiar to beet-spirit than that obtained from rasping and pressure. There are many methods of applying this process, but we shall confine ourselves to those in general use. Maceration by Water.—This should by all means be preferred as the industrial process, because it yields an alcohol having a less unpleasant odor than that ob- tained from maceration with spent liquor. Neverthe- less, this process may be resorted to by the farmer, if he will restore to the residuum of the beets the salt or salts they have lost in the process. Maceration by water is effective either hot or cold. The first method, although it furnishes a spirit of infe- rior flavor, presents the advantage of yielding a much greater quantity of sugar in a very much shorter time. The heat, by bursting the vegetable cells of the beet, facilitates the escape of the saccharine matter, the place of which is occupied by the water. It furnishes also a residuum suitable for feeding cattle. The second is longer, but furnishes a residuum which is better suited for feeding stock, while the alcohol is of better flavor; however it may be, the hot process is in general use, and we shall therefore commence by describing it. Maceration by Heat.—The beets are to be washed in a special apparatus, and sliced by means of a root-cutter moved by horse or steam power, or if the distillery is of little importance, by the force of two men. In the last case a fly-wheel should be added to give a greater DISTILLATION OF THE BEET BY MACERATION. 117 impulse to the machine, and accelerate the cutting. In any event, it is indispensable that the root-cutter should make from 120 to 150 revolutions per minute, in order that the roots may be properly cut. The knives of the cutter should be so arranged as to divide the beets into ribbons having a width of one cen- timeter to a thickness of one millimeter, and a variable length. These dimensions being rigorously observed, the maceration will be perfect. It is best in order to save labor that the beets should fall directly from the washer into the hopper of the root- cutter. The beets being cut as described, are placed in a ma- cerator of wood or iron and covered with boiling water, acidulated in the proportion of two kilogrammes of sulphuric acid at 66° to 1000 kilogrammes of roots. This dose of acid should be increased to five kilogrammes if the beets are damaged. After macerating for one hour the liquid is drawn off, and at once turned into a second vat charged with beets cut in ribbons, where it remains still another hour; it is then drawn off into a third macerator charged as before, and after standing the same length of time, it is drawn off into the fermenting vat. This juice should have acquired, during the three successive macerations to which it has been subjected, a density which differs but little from that obtained by the rasping process. While the operation is going on in the second mace- rator, the first is charged anew with acidulated boiling water, which also remains one hour, and is then turned into the second macerator after its contents are drawn off into the third. Finally the beets are completely exhausted by a third charge of acidulated boiling water, which also remains one hour in the first macerator. The pulp being exhausted, is removed and replaced by fresh slices; the first macerator is then charged with juice which has already passed through two macerators; it stands one hour on this fresh pulp, and is ready for fermenting. The starting differs, as we see, from the regular course 118 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. of the operation, in this, that the first macerator receives three charges of acidulated water at the beginning, while it only receives one when the work is under way; the two other charges are made with juices which already have a certain density, as they are the result of ex- hausting two other macerators. In conclusion, each macerator, to be completely exhausted, must receive three successive charges of liquid at intervals of one hour. When the temperature of the air is not too cold, the juice which results from the three macerations ought to be set to ferment without the necessity of being reheated; it is usually at from 22° to 24° of the centigrade ther- mometer. The fermentation is started at first only by the as- sistance of beer yeast in the proportion of 125 to 150 grammes to the hectolitre. This yeast, carefully dis- solved in advance in a sufficient quantity of water or juice, is poured into the vat before introducing the liquid, and in proportion as the latter is turned in, it is strongly stirred for some minutes in order to distribute the ferment properly. When the vat is full, that is, when the must rises to within 20 or 25 centimeters of the top, it is carefully covered, and the whole left to ferment in a local temperature of from 18° to 20°. Since, as was said above, the beet contains a natural ferment, a vat which is fermenting will serve for devel- oping a new fermentation in another vat without the use of any more beer yeast. For this purpose one-third or one-half of the must in the vat, after fermentation has commenced, is turned into a new vat and the two vats are filled during the course of the day with fresh juice. The fermentation will then proceed without interrup- tion, developing itself and continuing its course to give rise to new fermentations. Generally the fermentation of juice obtained by hot maceration is completed in the space of twenty-four or thirty hours; it sometimes happens that it is finished within eighteen hours. It is essential to observe the precautions we have pointed out in regard to preventing the accidents that DISTILLATION OF THE BEET BY MACERATION. 119 may occur during the course of the fermentation, either from frothing or from the formation of acids, as well as those prescribed in regard to the cleansing of all the ves- sels and utensils. The fermentation having terminated, as is known when the must has acquired an agreeable vinous odor, and when all internal movement has ceased in the vat, the liquid ought to mark 0° or 1° on the areometer of Baume. In this condition it may be distilled at once, but it is better to let it cool for twenty-four hours in order that it may attain the lowest possible temperature as it is used for cooling the coil and condensing the alcoholic vapors. When the fermented juice is sufficiently cool the dis- tillation is at once commenced in one of the continuous stills described above. The distillate usually marks from 45° to 55° : it must be rectified to deprive it of the disagreeable odor it exhales at this feeble degree, and to obtain it in the concentrated form required in the market (90° or 94°). The quantity of alcohol obtained from the beet is, as we have said, influenced by the amount of sugar it con- tains, as well as the season in which the work is carried on. In general 1000 kilogrammes of beets of good quality will produce, by the process just described, an average of 35 litres of pure alcohol, or 37.78 litres of spirit at 94°. This method of maceration, if it is thought proper, may be conducted in every particular, and without change with spent liquor—only substituting this liquid for boiling water. New Method of Maceration by Heat.—We devised, some ten years ago, a system of maceration which is very simple and convenient: exhausting the beet com- pletely, and which permits—-1st, the heating of the liquid in the macerators by steam; 2d, the almost instantaneous emptying of the pulp contained in the macerators. This new arrangement has been intro- duced into a number of farm distilleries in France and Italy. We shall now proceed to describe the apparatus and 120 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. the manner of using it. PI. VI., Figs. 5 and 6, represent the front and end elevation of the macerators. 1, 2, 3, cylindrical macerators of iron plate of suitable thickness, each having two perforated diaphragms within—one fixed at fifteen centimeters from the bottom by supports and nuts ; it serves to support the pulp, while it prevents it from being drawn off with the juice ; it also facilitates the dripping of the juice. The other diaphragm has two handles, and is used to press down the pulp and prevent it from rising and running over; it is supported by three nuts (near the top of the macerator) which fit in three grooves in the edges of the diaphragm in such man- ner that, by giving it one-twentieth of a revolution, it prevents the pulp from rising. a. Six bearings or boxes, of which each lower half is fixed by means of four screws to six posts of oak; the upper half is fastened down by two screws. In these boxes rest the trunnions which serve as points of support for the macerators, rendering it possible to turn them over in either direction. The pivot on the left is solid, that on the right consists of a pipe working in a stuffing box, the outer part attached to the steam-cock b, and the inner attached to the macerator. b. Cocks by means of which steam is introduced into the macerator from the main steam-pipe cl, and the branch pipes c. For this purpose a plunging-pipe el is placed within the macerator, just above the bottom; this pipe, being pierced with holes along its whole length, facilitates the admission of steam, and its distri- bution throughout the entire mass. This pipe is indi- cated by the dotted lines. d. Posts of oak. /. Pipe having a diameter of fifty millimeters, and communicating with the elevator. On this pipe are three perpendicular tubes, of the same diameter, curved at the top in such a manner as to pour the liquid into the macerators. Towards the middle of these tubes are placed cocks g. to give passage to weak juice, water, or spent liquor. By means of these three cocks liquid may DISTILLATION OF THE BEET BY MACERATION. 121 be turned into any one of the macerators at the will of the operator. h. Main discharge-pipe, fifty millimeters in diameter, conducting weak juice to the elevator, to be transferred to the macerators. To this pipe are attached three other curved pipes, each having a large funnel i. Each of these funnels has within a grating which prevents the pulp, which may be drawn off with the liquid, from ob- structing the pipes, and is placed directly under the dis- charge-cocks. h. Main pipe, thirty-five millimeters in diameter, for conveying the strong juice to the fermenting vats. On it are three funnels l. m. Displacement-pipes, one end attached at n by coup- ling-plate and three bolts under the bottom of the mace- rators, the other end curved into the funnels l. o. Pipe in the form of a semi-ellipse, having at its middle point a perpendicular pipe q, by which water is conveyed to the macerators. There is a cock at the ex- tremity of each of these pipes. p. Another pipe, curved and arranged in the same manner with cocks ql, for conducting weak juice to effect the displacement of the concentrated juice. The pipes o and p are in communication with reser- voirs or vats, situated above the place in which the maceration is carried on. o1 and pl. Connections with main pipes for water and weak juice. The maceration by means of the vessels just described is started as follows :— First, fill macerator No. 1 with washed beets, cut in slices of the size and thickness indicated (p. 117) in the preceding article. Then wret the mass with sulphuric acid, at 66 degrees, diluted in twenty times its weight of cold water, in the proportion of one and a half or two kilogrammes of acid to 1000 kilogrammes of roots. The dose of acid may even be increased to two and a half kilogrammes, according to the season and the condition of the beets. When this is done, place the diaphragm on the beets, which should be packed carefully and with- 122 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. out crowding; then open the cock q of the pipe o to ad- mit cold water on the beets until they are covered ; then turn on steam from the pipe c by cock b, opening it gradually and carefully, so as to prevent explosions caused by the steam coming in contact with the cold water, and heat the macerator until the hand cannot be borne on the upper part (60 or 65 degrees Cent.). At this stage close the steam-cock b, and per- mit the mass to macerate during forty-five minutes. When this time has elapsed, open the cocky to let the juice be conveyed to the elevator through the funnel i and the pipe h. When the liquid in macerator No. 1 has been entirely drawn off, close the cock j, and open q of the pipe o, in order to fill the vessel again with water; heat to the same degree as in the first charge, and also allow it to macerate during forty-five minutes. While the second maceration is going on in vessel No. 1, macerator No. 2, which has been previously filled with sliced beets, should be charged, by means of the elevator, with the juice from the first operation, which, on leaving the elevator, passes by the pipe / and the cock g; then heat to the same degree, by opening the steam- cock b, and leave it to macerate for forty-five minutes. When this operation is finished, draw off the resulting liquid into macerator No. 3, which has been filled with acidulated beets in slices, and allow it to stand for a few minutes; send, by means of the elevator, the product of the second maceration of vessel No. 1 into the reser- voir of weak juice, and open the cock q1 of the in order that the strong juice may be displaced. The weak juice pouring into the top of the macerator natu- rally presses on the liquid contained in it, and forces it to flow out by the pipe m and the funnel l, to pass through the pipe k into the fermenting vats. The displacement of the strong juice should be ac- complished in thirty or thirty-five minutes. We know that it is complete when the liquid which flows into the vats has the same density as the feeble juice, which was used to effect the displacement. DISTILLATION OF THE BEET BY MACERATION. 123 Generally we obtain one and a quarter or one and a half litres of strong juice for each kilogramme of beets, or from 1200 to 1500 litres for each 1000 kilogrammes of roots treated. The macerators Nos. 1 and 2 should then receive each another charge of water, which must be heated and suffered to stand for the time indicated above, so that after this maceration No. 1 is completely exhausted, having received three charges of water. No. 2, on the contrary, must receive another charge to be entirely ex- hausted. As soon as the third maceration of vessel No. 1 is completed the exhausted pulp is to be emptied. For this purpose the macerator is to be tilted into a horizon- tal position by tackle or a crank; then, with an iron fork, having two or three curved teeth, the pulp is to be drawn out into a hand-barrow, to be carried from the building. The exhausted pulp being removed, the vessel is again filled with fresh slices of beet, which are sprinkled with acidulated water in the proportions and manner indicated. The displacement of vessel No. 3 being terminated, the juice which it contains is heated in its turn, as has been said, and, after a sufficient maceration, is trans- ferred to vessel No. 1, in which the slices have been re- newed ; this juice is then displaced and conveyed to the fermenting vats by the same means employed for vessel No. 3, i. e., by weak juice from the cock ql. Thus it is seen that by this method the beets are com- pletely exhausted by three washings or successive mace- rations and displacement. In a regular operation it is always the juice from the second maceration which is poured over the fresh acidulated slices, and which is displaced by the third juice or that from the last wash- ing, to be sent to the fermenting vats. The last charge is made with pure water or spent liquor, according to the process adopted by the distiller. In this method special attention is to be given to the two distinct operations of maceration and displacement. The former is conducted at the will of the workman; 124 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. the latter should be made as gently as possible. To attain this last result, it is necessary that all other ope- rations should be conducted with promptness, which is easy enough, if use is made of the elevator, which adds greatly to the value of this method, by reason of the rapidity with which the transfers of liquid are made, that giving more time for the displacement to be com- pleted. The strong juice obtained by the process just described, has a proper degree of heat, and is therefore ready for immediate fermentation. This operation and the distil- lation present no peculiarities of management that have not been described for juice obtained by other processes. The advantages resulting from this system are :— 1. The employment of steam for heating, which is infinitely to be preferred for distilling and rectifying, to the open fire. 2. The distribution of the steam in each of the mace- rators, which affords time for any method of maceration that may be preferred, and gives a degree of heat as high as may be necessary. 3. The possibility of effecting displacement of .the strong juice in a given space of time at the pleasure of the operator. 4. The filtration of the liquid which is effected during the displacement, and which admits of sending to the fermenting vats a much clearer juice than that resulting from other methods of maceration; the juice ferments readily, without producing any great amount of foam, and forms scarcely any deposit in the distilling apparatus, and yields low wines which by rectification will furnish alcohol at 94° of good quality. 5. The ease and celerity with which the macerators may be emptied and filled, being suspended on pivots that may be caused to swing or turn over easily. This last advantage is very important; it dispenses with the use of the awkward fork tongs used by some, which is very heavy work, especially when the macerators are large, for then the workmen are compelled to descend into the vessel, where they will be surrounded by vapors that DISTILLATION OP THE BEET BY MACERATION. 125 are more or less injurious to the health, and are certainly a cause of intense discomfort to those who escape other injury. By the employment of swinging macerators, these inconveniences disappear. It is sufficient to tilt the vessels to an inclination of 45° for the workmen to empty and cleanse them in a few minutes. 6. Finally, the regularity with which all the opera- tions succeed each other, as well as the facility of exe- cution. As to the pulp resulting from this operation, it is most excellent for cattle, as we may readily understand. The slices, when placed in the macerators, will receive weak juice, water, or spent liquor. These liquids, in conse- quence of being heated with the beets, form regularly throughout the mass, a precipitate of various salts some of which adheres to each bit of the root; then comes the displacement of the liquid, which, by reason of the slow- ness with which it is effected, also deposits on the surface of the beets the vegetable albumen, coagulated by the addition of sulphuric acid. All the nutritious principles of the beet, except the sugar, are then preserved after the maceration by this process. Maceration ; the Cold Process.—The beets, after being washed, are divided into very thin slices by the root cutter, and are placed in a wooden macerating vat, then covered with water, acidulated with sulphuric acid at 66°, in the proportion of two or three kilogrammes of acid to 1000 kilogrammes of beets. After a macera- tion of two hours, the liquid is to be drawn off into a second vat containing fresh material, when it again stands for two hours; drawn off again, it is turned into a third vat containing a similar charge, where it stands the same length of time. This juice has then, during the space of six hours, passed successively through three macerators, and ought to have acquired a density almost equivalent to that of the juice obtained by the rasp and press. This juice is then heated to 22° or 24° C., and set to ferment as described for the hot process. As in the hot process, each macerating vat receives three charges for the complete exhaustion of the slices, 126 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. weak juice replacing water during a part of the opera- tion, thus giving a juice of proper density for fermen- tation. The cold maceration is effected much more promptly when the beets are reduced to a pulp by the rasp, than when sliced, but the cost of the mechanical force required for the machinery is more expensive. Maceration of Beet Chips*—Beets cut in slices by a root cutter, and dried on frames of wood or wire cloth in the open air, or in a drying room, are called heet chips. The object of thus drying the beets is to preserve and furnish material for the distiller at all seasons, so that he may continue his operations after the stock of fresh beets has been exhausted, or when the advance of the season does not permit him to employ them with profit; and further, it reduces the cost of transportation when it mav be desired to send them to a distant market. The maceration of beet chips is conducted as in the hot process, only it must be understood that it requires more water or spent liquor than the latter, because the chips absorb five or six times their weight of liquid in swelling to their original volume, and assume a condition almost equivalent to fresh slices. The fermentation and distillation of juice obtained by this process are managed exactly in the same manner as that from other processes described—sulphuric acid be- ing employed in the same proportion, allowing for the loss of weight by drying. We should advise the use of boiling water, as indicated above, especially when the farmer has an abundant supply, since it favors the divi- sion of the molecules of the root, and produces a better result than spent liquor. It may be objected that beet chips will be less nutri- tious for cattle. We would reply that what is lost on * No apology can be required for the use of this term, although it is ignored by the lexicographers. Chips are thin transverse slices of fruits dried. Suits are slices cut longitudinally and dried. The two words as given above are in constant use in the great valley of Vir- ginia, where all kinds of fruits are dried for home consumption or lor sale.— Trans. DISTILLATION OF THE BEET BY MACERATION. 127 one hand is gained on the other. The vat constructed of wood or masonry, with an opening near the bottom, which has an inclination towards the opening, is placed so as to receive the spent liquor as it runs from the still, after it has been filled with enough beet chips for a day’s work. The next morning the spent liquor is drawn off to be poured over the manure pile, the value of which it greatly enhances. If it is desired, to save the expense of fuel, and to avoid the construction of a special furnace for heating the water, it will be sufficient to construct a hot water tank of sheet iron, with an interior coil through which the spent liquor may pass before reaching the vats; this will heat the water, intended for the maceration, to a suffi- cient degree. This cistern may, also, if necessary, have beneath it a small furnace in the event of boiling water being required. The fuel consumed by this extra fire will be a trifle. We have also remarked that there is an economy of time for the maceration, and that one-half of the sul- phuric acid ordinarily used will be sufficient; because the boiling water lacking those organic principles which are obnoxious to the fermentation, attacks the cells of the beet more promptly and more energetically. If, from any cause, this process cannot be employed, we should advise the adoption of the method of Leplay —the direct distillation of the beet in substance. Maceration by Spent Liquor.—The value of this opera- tion has been greatly over-estimated by some. It has, however, its advantages when the supply of water, as in some localities, is scant. It is sufficient to say, that spent liquor is used instead of water in the different stages of the operations, until it has acquired such a density as to become profitable for the manufacture of potash. The macerating vats should be one meter deep, and one meter in diameter, capable of containing about 400 kilo- grammes of beets. 128 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Direct Distillation of Beets. Pi 'ocess of Leplay.—This operation depends— 1. Upon the direct fermentation of the beets cut in pieces or strips without extracting the juice, and without the addition of beer leaven, the slices being placed in circumstances to favor this reaction. 2. Upon the direct distillation of these strips by a current of steam passing through the mass without di- rect heat, and in such manner that the pieces preserve their form, and constitute a mass which may be fed directly to cattle. The beets being properly washed, are cut by means of a root cutter in pieces, having the form of ribbons some cen- timeters long, two centimeters wide, and two or three mili- meters thick; these pieces, when placed one above another, leave interstices for the passage of the steam which is to act on them during the course of the distillation. When this operation is finished, the beets are put into sacks and placed in a vat having a double bottom, con- taining juice, which has already passed through a good alcoholic fermentation in such manner that they shall be completely submerged, which is effected by means of a perforated cover, which keeps the sacks down while it gives passage to the liquid and the carbonic acid disen- gaged during the fermentation. This begins instantane- ously, and is usually completed at the end of ten or twelve hours. All the sugar is then transformed into alcohol. It is, however, still retained in the substance of the beet, having taken the place of the sugar. The fermented slices have not altered in form ; the original volume of juice has not apparently changed. The sulphuric acid is poured into this juice in the pro- portion of two or four kilogrammes at 66 degrees to 100 kilogrammes of beets in slices to aid in the conversion of crystallizable sugar into fermentable sugar, and for neutralizing the salts and other principles that may be injurious to the fermentation. The dose of acid depends on the nature of the beets, the soil where grown and the more or less thoroughness of the washing. DIRECT DISTILLATION OF BEETS. 129 New slices of beets may be fermented in the same liquor, and the juice will answer for three or four opera- tions without the addition of fresh juice or yeast. In fact this juice may be used indefinitely or until the fer- ment begins to lose some of its active properties, which is detected by the fermentation beginning to be pro- longed ; the fermented juice should then be distilled and replaced by fresh juice, fermented by the usual process. When at the beginning of the work there is not beet juice on hand, it is obtained by maceration with hot acidulated water and fermented with beer leaven. The pieces of fermented beets are then withdrawn from the sacks and arranged for direct distillation in a peculiar but very simple still, which consists of a cylin- drical column of wood or iron, somewhat similar to the bone black filters of the sugar factories. This column has a close cover with an opening connecting it with the coil which is cooled by cold water to condense the alco- hol. There are a number of movable perforated di- aphragms arranged within the column to support the pieces of beet and prevent them from packing. Between the lower one and the bottom of the cylinder, is a vacant space intended to receive the water of condensation which collects during the heating of the mass by the steam injected into this space by means of a cock placed below it. The steam, after penetrating this species of double bottom, escapes through the interstices left be- tween the pieces of beet, heats them to the centre, dis- engaging the alcoholic vapors which rise into the layers of beets above, to operate upon them in the same man- ner as the vapor of water has on those below, and to become more and more spirituous as they rise. With a column three or four meters high, we can obtain alcohol of 70 or even 80 degrees. The contents of the several diaphragms are successively and completely exhausted of their alcohol, and yield a cooked pulp which, says M. Leplay, contains all the nutritious elements of the beet, even all the soluble salts, the sugar alone having disap- peared. This pulp, which constitutes nearly fifty per cent, of the weight of the beets, keeps without difficulty, 130 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. and is easily transported from the distillery to the neighboring farms. There is no spent liquor to throw out of the establishment. Rectified Beet Spirit. Like all spirits obtained from roots, that from the beet, it matters not what process has been used for obtaining it, contains an essential oil which communicates to it a peculiar harshness and indicating its origin, unless it is carefully rectified according to the principles we shall explain further on. But, on the other hand, when freed from this essential oil, beet spirit constitutes a liquid which is suitable for replacing spirits of wine entirely and without exception in all the uses to which the latter may be applied. The cereals have been long used in England, Belgium, Holland, Prussia, in the whole of Germany and Ame- rica, for the manufacture of alcohol, known in the mar- ket as grain spirit. This trade, so useful to agriculture, and which has been forbidden by a royal decree in France for four years, has unfortunately never received that extension among us of which it is susceptible, for if the farmers were fully alive to the advantageous results which are to be derived from adding a distillery to their agricultural operations there would be no farm without one or more of stills. But blind and stupid routine is ever blocking the progress of the arts, even those of prime necessity, and in spite of the efforts of enlightened men, who sacrifice their time, and often part of their fortune, in propagating the results of scientific discov- ery, it requires ages to effect favorable changes. Mathieu de Bombasle is one of those who have sought with ardor to encourage the distillation of grains and potatoes, which he, with reason, considers one of the “ Columns of Agriculture.” “ There is not a farmer,” says he, “ who does not know that he should always cause a part of the crop to be consumed on his land by his cattle.” In this man- Grain Spirit. GRAIN SPIRIT. 131 ner he retains the value of the food consumed in ani- mal products, that is to say, in fat cattle, milk, butter, wool, &c., and he is assured, moreover, of a considerable quantity of manure for the improvement of the soil. It is not so advantageous to feed to his stock the grain and potatoes destined for them without first submitting to a distillation. This food then yields a three-fold profit to the farmer. He derives from the sale of the spirits the price of the raw material, with a profit from the manufacture. He then has the increase in cattle which are fed with the residuum, and experience has proven that grain and potatoes which have furnished alcohol are almost as good food for stock as if given without having been submitted to the distillatory process; finally, he produces a mass of manure, which by increasing the following harvest of grains destined for sale, equally adds to the profits of the still, and leaves the land in a constant state of in- creasing improvement. These truths are so well known in countries where the operation of distilling is in the hands of the farmers, that the}' would believe that in giving up the business they would be renouncing their farms, and that even in years of scarcity, governments have refrained from prohibiting the distillation of grain, from fear of interfering with the sources of the follow- ing harvest—the more, because the grain which is dis- tilled is not lost as food for man, since it is returned in the form of food of another kind, as meat, milk, butter, cheese, &c. Choice of Grain.—The state of preservation in which grain is found in the market should attract the special attention of the distiller; that which is heated yields much less alcohol, as its fermentation is much less easily effected. Its specific gravity is the most certain indication of the quality of grain; therefore that which will weigh the most for a given measure should have the preference, whatever be the purpose for which it may be intended. The cereals which are most commonly used for pur- poses of distillation are barley, rye, and rice; but wdieat, 132 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. oats, buckwheat, and Indian corn are also employed under some circumstances with advantage. Barley being the grain which is used exclusively for the preparation of malt, because it germinates more readily, and develops a larger proportion of diastase, should hold the first place. It should be selected with large fine grains of bright color, well filled, healthy, and firm, without any foreign substance, free from chaff, and as fresh as possible. Wheat, although of all the cereals that which has the most body, and furnishes the greatest proportion of the alcoholic principle, is but little used in distillation, be- cause its market value is always above that of other grains, and the alcoholic product is not always in propor- tion to this. In selecting wheat for the still, that should be preferred which is farinaceous, compact, and heavy, and very dry, without being blasted ; that in which the gluten is so abundant as to give a vitreous appearance to the fracture. Oats should be heavy, bright, long, and well filled. It is but little employed on account of its high price. Of all grains rice is the most proper for the use of the distiller. Its proportion of alcohol is considerable, and the product has a very good flavor. It should be a dull-white, slightly transparent, angular, elongated, with- out odor, and of a fresh farinaceous taste. The East Indies, Piedmont, and the United States furnish consid- erable quantities to commerce. Rye produces also a very considerable quantity of alcohol, in proportion to its cost, but it is inferior in taste to that resulting from rice, wheat, or barley. As for buckwheat and Indian corn, they are usually sold at a low price, and the distiller may, under favor- able circumstances, and in some localities, employ them with advantage. Chemical Composition of Grain.—Grain (of cereals) is composed of an envelope in the form of bran, and of a portion which when reduced to a powder under the mill takes the name of farina or flour. The flour of the different kinds of grain of which we have just spoken, GRAIN SPIRIT. 133 contains in itself various principles, the proportions of which vary not only for each of them, but for them all according to climate, variety, soil, or other accidental causes. These principles are starch (amidon), which constitutes the greater part, gluten in variable quantity, albumen, mucilage, a small portion of saccharine matter, and in some, phosphate of lime and other salts. By a recent analysis the proportions of these proxi- mate principles may be stated as follows:— Wheat—average of five varieties .... Rye Barley Oats Indian corn .... Rice o w ► 5 H 00 o* O'j J j O-J O OI OI i—‘ cn w 4*. as co CJ< O' O 05 O' 50 —T to 00 cc oo Gluten and other azo- OWWtOO'O tized substances.* O' O to O! O 05 Dextrine, glucose, and o o to © o os> similar substances. O O COT O O CO O CO O' to to fcO bo bo on -j >—i >—. Fatty matter. oooocn® i—■ cn -r rfk. co H-* so O -r ►—• cn Cellulose. o o os d o o Silica, phosphate of O J-1 CO 03 bO (O lime and magnesia, to to to w 03 OS O cn d O O «© and salts of potash- soda. Among these proximate principles it is the starch which has the property of being convertible into sugar, and giving rise to the alcoholic fermentation and the production of spirit. The gluten and vegetable albu- men have the property of transforming starch into sac- charine matter. This change is, however, better effected by means of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, germinated barley (malt), and diastase. It should be remarked that those grains or seeds which are richest in gluten always contain the largest propor- tion of azotized substances, and, in general, more fatty matters, inorganic salts, and cellulose, but less starch. As this last principle is that which furnishes the sac- charine matter, that is to say, alcohol, preference should * The proportion of azotized substance has been deduced from the elemen- tary analysis by multiplying the weight of the nitrogen obtained, by 6.5. 134 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. be given, for purposes of distillation, to those seeds which contain it in the greatest quantity. Dextrine.—Starch which has been subjected to the action of hot water, and which is entirely dissolved, has acquired new properties, and then constitutes a new isomeric principle called dextrine. The very feeble acids, aided by heat and diastase, have the property of converting starch into soluble dex- trine, and they produce this curious effect in a very sim- ple manner. Dextrine is obtained by turning into a boiler, containing 100 or 200 litres of water, at 25 or 30 degrees, from five to ten parts of sprouted barley (malt), raising the heat to 60 degrees; then add 50 kilogrammes of flour, stirring the mixture, which is kept at a tem- perature of 70 degrees, for twenty minutes. The liquid which was opaque and viscous becomes as fluid as water. The temperature is now rapidly raised to 100 degrees; it is then permitted to cool, the clear liquid drawn off, filtered, and evaporated to the consistency of thick syrup. On cooling the dextrine becomes an opaque jelly, which, when dried, is hard and brittle like gum Arabic. Dextrine is transformed into glucose by the action of acids, or malt added in larger quantity. Diastase. — This substance is a proximate principle which is developed during the germination of cereals, potatoes, &c., and which has the remarkable property of reacting on flour or starch so as to render all the starchy particles very soluble, forming first a gummy substance (dextrine), which is gradually transformed into glucose. It is a remarkable fact that diastase does not exist in grain before germination. This principle is produced in proportion as vegetation is established, and its office is to react on the starch so as to render it soluble, in order that it may contribute to the nutrition of the incipient plant. In its pure state diastase is white, solid, uncrystalliza- ble, insoluble in alcohol, soluble in water and dilute alcohol; its aqueous solution is neutral, and without any decided taste; left to itself, it is more or less rapidly GRAIN SPIRIT. 135 altered, according to the temperature, and becomes acid. This alteration, which is important in that it deprives diastase of its most remarkable property, takes place, although slowly, even in dried substances. For this reason it is not proper to prepare malt too long in ad- vance of the time for using it. It is especially improper to keep it from one season to another. The action of pure diastase on starch or flour made into a paste is most powerful. Fifty grammes of dias- tase are sufficient to convert 100 kilogrammes of amy- laceous matter into dextrine and sugar; this transfor- mation is effected more or less completely, according as the quantity of water employed and the degree of heat are more or less adapted to the operation. Generally diastase is extracted from barley malt, ■which does not contain more than two or three one- thousandths ; a greater proportion is obtained when the germination has been regularly conducted in all the grains, and when the gemmule or plumule has not been pushed too far in its development. This last is very important to be observed, for when the germination has been too much prolonged, it causes an absolute loss by diminishing the amount of saccharifiable principle. It is on this special reaction of diastase that is founded the art of manufacturing beer, syrup of dextrine, or dex- trine. The Alcoholic Product of Grain.—As with all sub- stances subjected to distillation, the amount of alcohol produced from grains will always be dependent on their nature, their state of preservation, and the manner in which the various operations have been conducted. As a general rule, when the operation has been man- aged under favorable circumstances, the average result should be as follows, viz.:— 100 kilogrammes of wheat yield 32 litres of pure alcohol. “ “ rye “ 28 “ “ barley “ 25 “ “ oats “ 22 “ “ “ “ buckwheat “ 25 “ “ “ Indian corn “ 25 “ “ “ rice “ 36 “ “ 136 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The result given above is apparently very different from that obtained when the several grains are taken by measure, since they differ considerably in their specific gravities; wheat, lor example, weighs much more for a given measure than barley or oats. Preparatory Operations which are Necessary before Submitting Grain to the Alcoholic Fermentation. There are six preliminary operations which are indis- pensable in order to fit grain for the process of fermenta- tion, viz: 1st, Steeping; 2d, Germination (malting); bd, Drying the Sprouted Grain; 4th, Grinding; 5th, Mashing; 6th, Infusion. We shall proceed to each operation in turn, taking barley for an example. Steeping.—The object of this operation is to introduce into the grain a sufficient quantity of water to deter- mine the germination; it serves, too, to separate all the blasted or withered grains which float on the surface of the water, and also removes the various foreign sub- stances which may be attached to the surface of the bar- ley. For this purpose the grain is allowed to macerate in river or well water for thirty or forty hours, accord- ing to the temperature of the atmosphere, the quality or dryness of the grain, and the character of the water; in other words, the barley is placed in a vat of wood or a stone tank lined with hydraulic cement. A quantity of fresh and limpid water is poured on the grain, so that it may be covered to the depth of ten or twelve centimeters; the mass is left alone for the requisite period of time. J his water, during the high heat of summer, ought to be changed every four or six hours, in order to avoid the establishment of fermentation during the steeping; in order to avoid disturbing the grain, an opening is made in the lower portion of the vat, through which the water may be drawn off at will, as fresh water is added above. It is known that the grain is sufficiently steeped and softened when it is swollen, and yields readily when pressed between the fingers, when it may be completely ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 137 crushed without leaving a hard lump or when it is divided easily by the nail. When it is in this condition the water is drawn off, care being taken that none of the grain is drawn off with it. To prevent such an accident the vat is provided with a double bottom, or a layer of straw is placed over the orifice of the vent. The operation of steeping requires the most careful attention, for if the grain is steeped for too long a time, it will lose a portion of its saccharine matter. Germination.—Barley which has not been subjected to germination will not answer alone for making spiritu- ous liquors, but when converted into malt it can effect the conversion of a large quantity of Hour into saccha- rine matter. It is therefore important, to indicate pre- cisely the most advantageous method for preparing this malt, which plays so important a part in the distillation of grain. After drawing off the water which covered the grain as described above, it is allowed to drain for four or six hours, and is then conveyed to the malt-house. This apartment is situated usually on the ground floor, or, better still, in a cellar, in order that the temperature, which should be regulated at 12° C., may not be subject to variations. It is always paved with tile or stone. In the malt-house the barley is arranged in couches or beds of 50 or 70 centimeters high until it becomes sen- sibly heated. This heat, which is favored in winter by covering the beds with sacking or blankets, is produced by a commencement of vital movement in the grain, and is generally manifest in from twelve to twenty-four hours after the couches have been prepared. At this stage the grain gradually absorbs oxygen from the air, and exhales carbonic acid at first slowly, but afterwards with more rapidity. The temperature of the mass sensibly rises, and at the end of a certain time it has attained a temperature exceeding that of the atmosphere by six or seven degrees; the barley which had become dry on the surface then acquires so much moisture as to wet the hand when thrust into it; it exhales an agreeable odor somewhat similar to that of apples; 138 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. when this moisture is observed the grain is said to sweat. It is not proper to permit the grain to become too warm, because it will sprout too rapidly, and the saccharine matter will be destroyed. It is proper, also, to turn the grain over every six or eight hours, placing that which was on the top at the bottom, and that in the middle on top of the pile, taking care always to keep the floor very clean, to prevent the formation of mould and putrid odors. As soon as the germ appears, which happens when the barley sweats, and when a small white prominence is seen at the end of each grain, which is soon sepa- rated into three little roots, which increase in length very rapidly, the barley should be turned every three, four, or five hours, according to the temperature, by which this operation should be regulated. As the process proceeds the beds should be made thicker or thinner, so as to maintain a temperature of 15° or 16°. When the germ is long enough the grain ought to be turned twelve or fifteen times a day, according to the season. When the germination has been checked, and the little roots begin to dry, the thickness of the beds must be reduced so as not to exceed eight or ten centimeters; they must be stirred and changed frequently in order to prevent the rootlets from resuming their growth, to avoid mould- ing and to prevent the grain from sprouting, that is to say, giving issue to the seminal leaves at the extremity of the seed opposite the roots, for this would deprive the barley of a great part of the substance which yields alcohol. It is difficult to indicate the exact period for the ger- mination ; it varies from eight to fifteen days, according to the season. We know generally that the process is terminated when the rootlets have attained a length equal to about two-thirds of that of the grain. Germination causes the production of the diastase which is necessary to transform the starch into glucose; it has then for its object to convert a small quantity of the fecula of the grain into sugar, at the same time that it predisposes the rest to a more complete and prompt ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 139 saccharification by giving to the gluten the property of being more readily dissolved. Drying the Malt.—We have shown how important it is to arrest the germination promptly, for without this precaution the saccharine matter which has been de- veloped by this operation in the grain at the expense of the starch, which is, as we have said, saccharified by the action of the diastase, will be destroyed, and the grain will pass rapidly to a state of putrefaction after having run through the acid fermentation. These acci- dents, then, must be forestalled by drying the grain by a gentle and well-regulated temperature in order to arrest the germination. The drying is effected in an apartment called a kiln. The grain is spread on the floor in beds of twenty or thirty centimeters thick, then subjected to a temperature which, at first, should not exceed thirty-five degrees; but should be gradually increased to fifty-five or sixty degrees at most, until the grain is almost entirely dried. This temperature is most favorable to producing a good quality of malt. If too great a heat is employed at the beginning while the grain is yet very moist from be- ing filled with water, the starch will expand, become hydrated and form a stiff paste, and then acquire so much hardness and cohesion as to be very difficult of so- lution. When the grain is almost dry, the heat may be raised to 80 and even 100 degrees without risk, the dias- tase being alterable at this temperature only when water is present. Nevertheless if the grain is dried at a tem- perature sufficiently high to convert the sugar into cara- mel, the diastase will be destroyed, there will be a loss of sugar, and the malt will have a less agreeable flavor. Barley sprouted and dried is called malt. When the heat has not been sufficient to change the color it is pale malt; when the heat has caused a decided color it is brown malt. When the malt is well dried, it is drawn from the kiln and spread out to cool in a well-ventilated room and stored in piles. It may be preserved for a long time if protected from moisture. The freshest is how- ever the best. 140 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Various means are employed for kiln-drying malt; plates of sheet iron or tiles perforated with small holes are used, metallic cloth of iron or brass is also in use in some establishments, and is to be preferred to the sheet iron or tiles. We would especially recommend the process by heated air. The method of heating by gas jets, recently patented in Great Britain by Hade- mul of Leeds, is as a combination of the various sys- tems an improvement. Certainly if the results obtained by him are fairly stated, there is great profit both in the improved quality of the product and economy of fuel. The choice of fuel for kiln-drying malt according to the old method, is by no means a matter of indifference; if wood, for example, be used the grain will acquire the taste of the smoke which will be transmitted to the beer in the fermenting vats, and consequently to the spirit resulting therefrom. Coke either specially prepared or that from the gas-works is the best, the next is wood charcoal. When the malt is sufficiently dried and while it is yet warm it is passed through a winnowing machine, which will completely separate all the radicles, which are very brittle. There is no real loss from the separa- tion of the radicles, as they contain neither diastase, starch, nor sugar. They yield by infusion a reddish water of disagreeable taste, and if some time is allowed to elapse before the separation, the radicles will, under the influence of a little moisture, resume their which will render them difficult to break off from the grains. They are only fit for manure. Barley converted into malt, loses about an average of 20 per cent, of its original weight, but this 20 per cent, is to be diminished by 12, for the water evaporated during the drying, therefore the real loss is 8 per cent., which may be stated as follows, viz: — Substances removed by the water during steeping . 1.5 Matters lost during the sprouting, &o. . . .35 Radicles 3.0 8.0 ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 141 Malt is known to be of good quality when the grain is round and full of farina, the skin very thin, odor agreeable and taste saccharine, or better still, by the en- ergy of its action on starch, 100 parts of which may be dissolved by 5 parts of good malt in 400 parts of water, if the mixture is placed in a water-bath main- tained at a temperature between 65 and 80 degrees and continually stirred. In conclusion, pale dry malt is the heaviest and best for distillation. Grinding.—It is necessary that malt should be ground to facilitate the action of the water on the flirinaceous matter which, without this operation, would be pre- vented by the skin. Every grain should be crushed, but not reduced to flour; for those which escape the action of the mill, will be lost to the fermentation. It must not be supposed, however, that malt reduced to a flour cannot be fermented, it is only crushed to save labor, and because experience has shown that malt coarsely ground will yield all its fermentiscible principles. Fine grinding is preferable for raw grain, that is to say, for unmalted grain; and in fact this cannot be too finely ground. Thus crude rye, wheat, buckwheat, rice, Indian corn, and barley ought to be ground in the same manner as if intended for making bread. In this con- dition the material will be more promptly penetrated by the water, and will thus facilitate the action of the dias- tase on the starch, to effect its conversion into sugar. It is known that musty grain, whether unground or in flour, appreciably loses its fermentiscible properties. To avoid this inconvenience distillers should grind their grain as it is needed. It should also be observed that malt after being ground attracts more moisture from the air than when whole. That which has been on hand for some time, or has absorbed moisture, ought to be mashed with warmer water than freshly prepared malt. Mashing.—The object of this operation is to wet and soften, with a certain quantity of warm water, the sub- stances of the crushed malt as well as the flour of the various grains that may be mixed with it; it prepares these substances for receiving a larger quantity of water at a 142 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. higher temperature, and appears too to prevent the agglu- tination of the mass by the formation of lumps and balls which might prove an obstacle to the water pene- trating all parts of the mass. The malt and grain either crushed or ground into flour are shot into a vat; warm water in the'proportion of a litre to the kilogramme is turned on in small quantities at a time, in such manner that the temperature shall not exceed 35 or 38 degrees. While the wrater is being poured in, a workman must stir the mass continually, beating it in every direction so as to prevent the formation of lumps and cause every portion of the flour to receive a thorough wetting; after which the vat is to be closely covered and permitted to rest for twenty or thirty minutes or more. We should observe during this operation to pour in the water gradually and in small quantities at a time and not to raise the temperature higher than that indi- cated above, for i greater heat will coagulate the albumen of the grain, will cook the starch, and in a great measure prevent the action which the gluten and diastase ought to exercise on it. Infusion.—The object of the infusion is to cause the diastase of the grain to react on the starch, which has been thoroughly divided by the mashing, in order to convert it into saccharine matter and to predispose it to a fermentation, which it would be impossible to un- dergo without it. This very important operation is effected by pouring boiling water into the vat until we have obtained a tem- perature of 60 or 70 degrees Cent., while a workman stirs the mixture energetically for ten minutes at least. When the requisite degree of heat has been attained, the vat is covered closely and allowed to macerate for four hours. It is proper during this time that the tempera- ture of the vat should not fall below 50 or 55 degrees, and it is even preferable that it should be maintained at 60 degrees. We would remark that it is proper to employ a little more heat for the maceration of a small vat than a large one; and also that in winter the heat should be much 143 ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. greater than in summer. In any event if the tempera- ture should happen to fall to 40 or 45 degrees, it will be better to set the malt to ferment at once rather than prolong the maceration, because there must be a loss of a certain quantity of alcohol in consequence of the acidity which will infallibly be produced at this low de- gree. The temperature of 60 degrees is the most proper for this maceration, as being that at which the saccharifica- tion is effected most rapidly. Not that it cannot be effect- ed at a lower temperature, at 40 degrees for example, but it is then more tardy, and we are exposed to the risk of seeing the whole mass become acid if it is exposed for some hours to this temperature, and this would be an irreparable loss. If, on the other hand, we exceed the temperature of 60 degrees, there will be no inconveni- ence up to 68 or even 72 degrees; but at 75 degrees mis- chief begins to be manifest, and above 75 degrees the fer- mentation is exposed to serious injury; it will fail alto- gether if the temperature is raised to the neighborhood of 100 degrees. It appears that the gluten, which is, in this operation, the vehicle of saccharification, only pos- sesses this property when it has not been exposed to too high a temperature. Heat contributes very much to its action and renders it much more intense; but the maximum of utility of this heat is from 60 to 72 de- grees. The proportion of water also plays a remarkable part during the maceration. The greater it is, the more prompt and complete will be the saccharification, all other circumstances being the same. Let us take an example: generally when we wish to treat 100 kilo- grammes of flour we mash with one hectolitre of water and add two and a half hectolitres of water for the ma- ceration. This then is completed in the space of four hours; but if the dose of water is doubled, that is, if we use three hectolitres for mashing and four for the ma- ceration, the operation will be as perfect as the preced- ing in the space of two or two hours and a half. So much for the influence of water upon saccharification. 144 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Now that we have set forth the principles of the ope- rations to which the grain must be subjected before sub- mitting it to the alcoholic fermentation, we shall pro- ceed to occupy ourselves with this last. Alcoholic Fermentation of Grain. When the operations which we have described above are completed, that is, when the maceration is finished, the barley is submitted to the vinous fermentation ; for this purpose, as it contains a sufficient quantity of sac- charine matter, it suffices to mix it properly with cold water so that the temperature may be at from 20 to 26 degrees, according to the volume of the mass operated on. Liquid beer yeast is then added in the proportion of one litre of yeast to 100 kilogrammes of grain (or 250 grammes of dry yeast), the vat is then covered and the fermentation is soon established. The mash ought to be cooled promptly in order to prevent acidification during the operation. Never make a mash unless it can be set to ferment immediately. The chemical analysis of a must thus obtained gives for its results: 1st. A saccharine substance, which con- stitutes the most abundant portion of it; 2d. Starch, which it is easy to recognize by the blue color obtained with tincture of iodine; 3d. A combination of tannin and gluten; 4th. Mucilage, which is precipitated in flocks when the must is poured into alcohol. The pro- portion of gluten is inconsiderable, and that of the starch varies according to the more or less perfect character of the mashing. As a general thing where the various operations have been well managed, the fermentation progresses with perfect regularity and lasts from two to three days; but it is only twenty-four hours after it is finished that we proceed to the distillation in a continued apparatus for pasty materials. We have taken barley for our illustration in all the preparations and arrangements we have described, be- ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 145 cause malted barley is the very essence of the distilla- tion of grain and potatoes, not that this grain has pro- perties which are peculiar to it, but because it possesses them in a much higher degree than any other. There are many methods of distilling grain. We shall examine those which are most in use in the farm and agricultural distilleries of Europe. Method of Dombasle.—“Suppose,” says he, in his valu- able Treatise on the Manufacture of Spirits from Grain and Potatoes, “that it is desired to ferment 100 kilo- grammes of flour (80 kilogrammes of rye and 20 kilo- grammes of malted barley), the fermenting vat should contain six or seven hectolitres, not counting the space which ought to remain empty. The water must be heated to the boiling point and maintained at that de- gree for some minutes; a portion is then to be cooled down to 50 degrees for making the paste. For this pur- pose we use a vat which is much wdder than deep, and which contains three or four hectolitres; this is the mash tun. The flour is turned in and the water at 50 degrees is gradually added with continual stirring in such man- ner that the flour may be thoroughly moistened through- out, without the formation of lumps. We should con- tinue to add the same water until the temperature of the mass is reduced to 81* or 33 degrees; the vat must then be covered and allowed to stand for half an hour. We should then take some of the water which is still boiling, and pour it into the mash tun in small quanti- ties at a time, stirring the mass continually so that no part of the flour may be exposed to too great an excess of heat until the mass has attained about 62 degrees. The vat must then be covered and allowed to rest for two hours. It may be permitted to rest even three or four hours if the mass is large, or if the temperature of the apartment in which the operation is conducted be sufficient to prevent the heat from diminishing too rapidly. At the end of this time the vat should be un- covered and the liquid stirred so as to cool it as rapidly as possible. A method which has been very successful in accomplishing this cooling, consists in filling a copper 146 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. or tin flask of a capacity of 25 or 30 litres and having a long neck, with cold water, which is plunged into the liquid and gently moved about therein. When the water becomes warm it is changed and the operation continued until the liquid has acquired the proper degree of tem- perature. This degree ought to be calculated so that when the mass is conveyed to the fermenting vat and enough cold water is added to fill the vat to the desired point, the liquid shall have the proper temperature for adding the yeast. As soon as the mass is sufficiently cooled it is transferred to the fermenting vat and the last of the cold water added; it should then have the proper temperature for adding the yeast, as has been explained before. This varies from 20 to 25 degrees according to the season, the size of the vats, the na- ture of the grain used, &c. By the assistance of the thermometer we shall soon ascertain the proper degree for each distillery and every circumstance that may re- quire attention. If the yeast is added when too hot, the fermentation will take place promptly, will be very active, and the liquid will become acid on the second or third day. If, on the contrary, the yeast is added too cold, it will be easily discovered, because the fermenta- tion will take place slowly and will have but little ac- tivity ; then too, the acid fermentation will commence be- fore the vinous fermentation has sufficiently advanced. As a general rule, when the yeast has been properly added and in sufficient quantity, the fermentation has already begun two hours after the addition of the yeast, and in twelve hours is very active, and so continues until the third day. Thus a vat which has been set to ferment on Monday, will present during the whole of Tuesday an active fermentation with an elevated foam and very strong odor; if a lighted candle is plunged into the empty part of the vat it will be very promptly extinguished. On being tasted, the liquid should still be sweetish without any acidity. On Wednesday, the foam will have very much diminished, and the liquid be no longer sweet but vinous, although not yet acid. On Thursday the foam will have completely fallen and settled ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 147 to the bottom of the vat; the liquid is almost clear and slightly acid, and there is generally found on the surface a whitish pellicle. This is the proper condition in which to subject it to the action of the still. “ I have advised that the mashing should be per- formed in a separate vessel; nevertheless it is the com- mon usage of distillers to make the mash in the fer- menting vat directly. I prefer the former method, because it is easier to cool the mass in a large vat of little depth than in the fermenting vat, which is much deeper than broad. Besides, in transferring the mass to the fermenting vat, which is cold, it will lose two or three degrees, which is so much time gained in the cool- ing, and it is very important that this should be accom- plished as promptly as possible. By making the mash in the fermenting vat, it is necessary to add a very much greater quantity of cold water to reduce the mass to the degree of heat proper for adding the yeast, and we have in consequence a very weak wine. “I have indicated 62°Cent, as the most favorable tem- perature for making the mash. It is in fact that which is best under the greatest variety of circumstances, and we shall never fail iiq a fermentation from having made the mash at this degree; nevertheless, there are circumstances in which we obtain a greater quantity of spirits by making the mash some degrees above or below 62°. These cir- cumstances are so numerous that it is impossible to give precise rules for each. We should always be governed by experience, with the thermometer in hand that it may direct us. We may say, however, that, in general, the mash should be much warmer in winter than in sum- mer ; for small vats than large, and as much warmer as the proportion of malt is increased.” This process, by reason of its simplicity, like that spoken of by us before, may be practised in farm distil- leries of the least importance; both require but little hand labor, a small number of vessels, and consequently not much capital. Another French Method.—Suppose that we intend to operate on one hundred kilogrammes of grain:— 148 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. According to Dubrunfaut, the grain being mixed in the proportion of 80 parts of rye and 20 of malt, is re- duced to coarse flour, then deposited with two or three kilogrammes of chaff,* in a fermenting vat of a capacity of 12 hectolitres. These materials are then moistened with three hectolitres of water at about 43°, and then made into a mash with four hectolitres of cold and boil- ing water, mixed in such proportions that when the mashing is completed, the mixture shall have a tempe- rature of 62° or 68°. The vat is then covered and left to itself for three or four hours; after this time has elapsed, the vat is to be filled to within six or eight inches of the top with cold and hot water, mixed in such pro- portions that the whole mass shall have a temperature of about 25°. It is set to ferment with a litre of good liquid beer yeast. “ After a few hours, the fermentation commences, and runs through all of its stages in the space of about thirty hours. It is then in a proper state to go into the still. “ If the grain is of good quality and the operation properly conducted, the result ought to be from 45 to 50 litres of proof spirit (50° centesimal). “ Many distillers only obtain from 30 to 35 litres by this process. There are many circumstances which may concur in causing this result; the principal and most influential is the proportion of water employed ; instead .of using about 11 hectolitres of to 100 kilo- grammes, they only employ about six. “ In a continuous operation the spent liquor (or swill), which is drawn from the still, ought to be stored in hogsheads or in a cistern constructed for the purpose. There the solid matter is deposited, and the clear liquor floats above. This liquor may be profitably employed in succeeding operations to dilute the mash. It is found that this practice has the advantage of bringing to the * Some distillers attribute to chaff properties somewhat analogous to those of malt; that is to say, in giving lightness to the materials. Indeed, M. Pubrunfaut has ascertained that if it has not the pro- perty of saccharifying the starch when made into a paste, it at least renders it more fluid and more readily attacked by saccharifying agents. 149 ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. fermentation a liquor which still contains fermentable matters which have escaped in the previous operation. This course may be continued through many successive operations, three, four, or even five; and we may ob- tain by this means as much as 60 litres of proof spirit from a metrical quintal of grain, a result which cannot be obtained by any other process. We should cease to use the clear portion of the spent liquor, when, after many operations, it has become so acid as to injure rather than support the vinous fermentation. “ If we operate with a smaller proportion of water, we cannot follow the same course, or at least it cannot be pushed so far, because in that case the fermentation, requiring three or four days instead of thirty hours, yields a strongly acid spent liquor.” This method, like those spoken of before, necessitates the distillation of pasty or semifluid materials, which, as we know, always furnish an alcoholic product of in- ferior quality; first, on account of certain principles con- tained in the envelope of the grain; second, because the mash, when distilled over the open fire, readily at- taches itself to the bottom of the still, burns and gives to the product a burnt or empyreumatic flavor which detracts very much from its value. These objections disappear when steam is used, or, better still, with the following, known as the:— Old English Method—Which consists in treating the grain in a vat with a double bottom, so as to make an extract just as is done in the manufacture of beer. The grain, consisting of malt and raw rye, being mixed and crushed as for mashing by the French process, a layer of short straw, about two centimeters deep, say about ten kilogrammes, is arranged on the false bottom of the vat; on it are placed about 200 kilogrammes of the crushed and mixed grain. Then, by a lateral pipe communicating with the va-. cant space between the two bottoms, 200 litres of water at 35° or 40° Cent, are turned on, while one or two men stir the mass vigorously with a beater for eight or ten minutes. The mass is then left to itself for about a 150 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. quarter or half an hour, in order that it may be well saturated with water. This operation is identical with and has the same result as the steeping, which precedes the mashing in the last method described, the only dif- ference being in the apparatus used. Immediately after this steeping, the workmen resume their beaters, and recommence the stirring, while a new supply of boiling water, 800 litres, is turned on by the lateral pipe. This stirring is kept up about a quarter of an hour, then it is left to stand about an hour. At the end of this time any grain which may have been float- ing on the surface ought to have fallen to the bottom of the vat, and the whole be covered by a stratum of tole- rably clear liquid. A cock, which communicates with the space between the two bottoms, is now opened, and as the upper or false bottom, by its conical perforations and layer of straw, forms a species of filter, all the liquid (wort) runs off and is conveyed to the fermenting vats. The first extract being completed, 600 litres of boiling water are turned in by the lateral pipe, and the mass is again stirred for fifteen minutes; the mass allowed to stand an hour, the wort is drawn off, as before, and set to ferment. The grain which remains on the false bot- tom, after these two operations, is sufficiently exhausted of fermentable matters which have been borne off by the water in saccharine form. This operation, which is a true mashing when well understood and properly managed, proves to a demon- stration the effect of this mashing on the grain ; it proves, as we have said, that it is a true saccharification. The liquid which we have obtained, and which has been conveyed to the fermenting vats, is leavened when the temperature has fallen sufficiently, say to 20° or 30° Cent., according to the capacity of the vat; and we thus obtain a liquid free from deposit, which may be sub- jected to distillation in any kind of apparatus. If it is found that the grain remaining on the double bottom is not sufficiently exhausted, it may be submitted to the operation a third time. The Germans follow the same method for the distil- ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 151 lation of grain, except that in all cases they malt their grain exactly as is done by the brewer. If we desire to utilize this process to the best advan- tage, it will be well to increase the proportion of water in making the wort, or at least to dilute the wort with cold water, so as to increase the quantity of water to ten or twelve times the weight of the grain. The particular advantages resulting from this procedure are as follows:— 1. The fermentation is more complete and more rapid, and consequently less acid. 2. The boiling spent liquor, as it leaves the still, may serve for a new steeping and mashing (instead of water), which will without doubt result in a maximum production of alcohol from a given quantity of any vegetable substance. The spirit obtained by this method is much purer than that resulting from the distillation of a pasty mash, has an agreeable flavor, and may be distilled from the continuous apparatus of Derosne or Egrot, but requires a greater number of vats, more hand labor, and larger capital. English Process (new).—The process at present in use in England, where the business of distilling has been greatly extended since the great advance in the price of spirits, may be summed up as follows :— Winter Barley, 80 parts. Pale Malt, 10 “ Oats, ....... 10 “ The barley is coarsely ground, and the malt prepared with the utmost care. The mixture is stirred in a me- chanical vat (mash tun), with such a quantity of water that the fermented must shall contain about six per cent, of pure alcohol by measure (say GOO litres of water to 100 kilogrammes of the farinaceous material treated). The must drawn from the mash tun is cooled in very large backs or shallow vats of iron, or, better still, by circulating in the copper tubes of a cooler surrounded by cold water. This last means avoids the changes which sometimes result from contact with the atmosphere, and yields a profit to the distiller, by saving heat; since the 152 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. water warmed by this particular arrangement may be transferred to the boiler which furnishes water to the mash tub. When the temperature of the must has attained the proper degree (18° or 20°), it is set to ferment in im- mense vats containing from 180,000 to 200,000 litres, by adding five or six litres of fluid yeast, or two and a half to three kilogrammes of dry yeast to the 100 kilo- grammes of material employed ; the fermentation is de- veloped very slowly at first, then progressively, and is finished at the end of four or five days. When the operation has been conducted under favor- able conditions, the result is about 28 litres of pure alcohol (291 litres at 95 per cent.) to 100 kilogrammes of the farinaceous substances employed. Generally the English distillatory apparatus is of colossal dimensions; there are many which distil 5000 gallons (22,700 litres) per hour, or 120,000 gallons (340,800 litres) in twenty-four hours. The superiority of the English proof spirit is due entirely to the use of such stills ; the greater the capacity of the apparatus, the better the quality of the product. We are well convinced of the truth of this proposition, and indicate the reasons there- for in the various circumstances of the process of recti- fication. It is to be remarked that in England, as in France, it has been observed that broken barley allows the filtra- tion of the must, and oats favor it; while, on the other hand, the flour of rye hinders it, and compels us to de- cant the liquid after a sufficient rest. Belgian Process.—Since Holland was separated from Belgium, the legislation of the latter country, on the subject of distilleries, has entirely changed the processes in use up to that time, and created a system used in no other country of Europe. Thus, says M. Lacambre, while, before the Belgian law of July 18, 1833, it usually required 36 or 40 hours to complete the operation of mashing and fermentation; since this date, the greater number of distillers in Bel- gium complete the operation in 22 or 24 hours, and ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 153 there are some who finish in 18 or 20 hours. This is certainly not for the best, because the product is mani- festly diminished by it. This practice is followed because of the heavy tax levied on the mash tuns (one franc to the hectolitre for each 24 hours). The new law of 1852 increases this tax to one and a half francs, imposing an additional impost on those who complete the mashing and fermentation in less than 24 hours, consequently there are no longer any distillers who finish the fermentation in less that 24 hours, which is really a useful and beneficial result of the last change in the Belgian law. Almost all of the changes which have been made in the old Dutch process, and which legislators and work- men have commonly called improvements, have had the effect, or at least for their object, to reduce the taxes by either accelerating the operations of mashing and fer- mentation, or reducing the capacity of all the vessels and apparatus on which taxes were laid. From this it will be easy to comprehend how most of the products of the Belgian distilleries in general, and of the farm stills especially, had diminished in quantity and lost in qua- lity before the law of 1852, which has in some measure improved this deplorable state of things. In fact, prior to 1852, most of the Belgian distillers conducted their work as follows: They had reduced the quantity of mixed flours used to from 11 to 12 kilo- grammes to the hectolitre in the mash tun, mixing with water at 50° or 60° Cent., after which they added enough boiling water to fill the vat to about three-fifths of its ca- pacity, and stirred constantly until the mixture was as perfect as possible. When this second addition of water was well mixed in, the vat was covered and allowed to rest for half an hour; frequently, at the end of twenty minutes, the mixture was stirred anew in order to cool it, and the cooling was hastened by the addition of cold water, or cold spent liquor, resulting from a pre- vious operation, to lower the temperature and the den- sity to the required degree. It was then set to ferment at a temperature so high that the first two periods of the 154 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. transformation might be accomplished in 16 or 18 hours at most. Now, from what has been said on the subject of mashing the grain and the alcoholic fermentation, it is evident that the saccharification of the starch could only take place very imperfectly and partially. This has been fully demonstrated in many Belgian distilleries by examining the spent liquor, which, prior to the new law, still contained an appreciable quantity of starchy matter in the form of paste. Then by conducting the fermentation at too high a temperature, as was and is still generally done in Bel- gium, the acetic fermentation is soon developed, and converts a portion of the alcohol into vinegar, which causes not only a material loss in quantity, but also in the quality of the product. In fact, as may be ascertained by means of special rectifications, the fermented materials yield a product which is less pure and agreeable to the taste in proportion to their acidity. But a number of the larger Belgian distillers, being aware of the consequences of accelerating the work too much, do not exceed the limits fixed by the rules of the art, and, consequently, obtain far more satisfactory results than the farm distillers. Thus, while most of the latter obtain only 44 or 46 litres of proof gin (50°) from 100 kilogrammes of grain, the majority of the large distillers, who understand their business and have not too great an interest in hastening their opera- tions and overloading their vats with work, usually ob- tain from 54 to 56 litres, which is, moreover, as a general rule, of better quality than that produced from the small distilleries in which the whole operation was affected in 18 hours. New Process Generally Used in Belgium.—I shall now proceed to describe the process in general use in the large Belgian distilleries, where they employ the continu- ous apparatus operated by steam. They sprout their barley as perfectly as possible, pushing it almost to the same degree as for the white beer of Louvain ; then dry it in common kilns, taking care to manage the tempera- ture so as not to discolor the malt. This barley malt is ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 155 mixed with rye principally, and in exceptional cases with wheat, more or less damaged, and with a small quantity of oats. Some distillers also employ crude barley, especially that from northern Europe, which is very heavy and cold ;* but these are an exception. Most commonly from 24 to 30 parts of malt by weight are mixed with 76 or 70 parts of rye, which is ground very fine; this mixed flour, into which sometimes 8 or 12 per cent, of oats enter as a component part, is turned into the mash tun in the proportion of 11 or 14 kilogrammes to the hectolitre of the vat, the capacity of which varies from 10 to 30 hectolitres. Before placing the flour in the vat, which we suppose to be of the capacity of 10 hectolitres, there are turned in 30 or 36 litres of cold water and about 270 litres of boiling water; then all the flour is poured in at once, say 120 or 130 kilogrammes; the mixture is then vigorously stirred by an implement similar to that used by the brewer. When the stirring is finished, that is to say, when there are no more traces of flour, and the mixture is homogeneous (which requires generally 20 or25 minutes), about a hectolitre of boiling water is added while the mass is actively stirred, in order to distribute the heat as promptly as possible. So soon as the mixture is perfect the vat is covered to effect the fusion, as the Belgians say, and it is left to rest for about half an hour; after this period of rest, the mass is stirred up for a moment to put in suspension the solid substances which have fallen to the bottom of the vat, and when the mixture has been effected, which is in two or three minutes, the vat is re-covered and left to macerate anew for half or * The brown barleys of Sweden and Norway, which weigh 66 or 68 kilogrammes to the hectolitre, are highly valued by the large Bel- gian and Dutch distillers who work this grain ungerminated, with from one-third to one-half of rye and one-fourth of malt prepared from the barley of the country. As the distillers say, this barley is cold, that is to say, its fermentation is neither so tumultuous nor so prompt as that of rye and of oats, but the product which it yields is quite satis- factory, and the gin of good quality. 156 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. three-quarters of an hour; after this the mass is cooled a little by stirring it vigorously, then diluted with cold water, if at the beginning of a series of operations, or with cold spent liquor clarified by rest, if the work is already commenced. In either event it is so arranged that the diluted mixture shall be at 27° or 30° C., accord- ing to the season, the size of the vat, and the tempera- ture of the apartment. When the vats are of the capacity of 15 or 20 hectolitres, as is most usual in Bel- gium, and if, moreover, the cellar is well selected, that is, well sheltered from sudden change of temperature, it is cooled, usually, to 28° in summer, from 30° to 32° in spring, and 32° to 34° in winter. It should be observed, too, that more grain is used in winter than in summer. In the latter season most Bel- gian distillers who do not use mash tuns with a double jacket, and only use 11 or 12 kilogrammes of the mixed flour to each hectolitre of the capacity of the mash tun, in winter increase this proportion to 14 and 15 kilo- grammes. When the mixture is cooled and diluted as much as .the capacity of the vat will allow, it is ordinarily filled to within one-fifteenth or one-twentieth of the top nearly, or so as not to have the vat overflow during the fermentation. The mixture being cooled and diluted to the point desired, the ferment, previously dis- solved in a little worts or tepid water, is added in the proportion of 160 or 200 grammes of yeast, in paste, to the hectolitre of the material of the operation. The fer- ment is well stirred into the mass, the vat covered, and the mass left to ferment quietly until it has reached the maximum of effervescence, which happens generally twelve or thirteen hours after the yeast is added. If at this time the fermentation is found to be too active, the cover is slightly raised, so as to cool the mass a little at the surface, and thus render the action less tumultuous; but it would be preferable not to be under the necessity of having recourse to this expedient to which the Belgian distillers, both great and small, are too much ad- dicted. Nevertheless, when the fermentation is pressed ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 157 so hard as to become as tumultuous as a liquid in active ebullition, as happens with those distillers who use 14 or 15 kilogrammes of flour to the hectolitre of water, it is well, by any means whatever, to moderate the action, but it would be better, as has already been said, to cool the mass by means of cold water circulating in an inte- rior coil, as is generally done in England, or, better still, by means of a double jacket. This last means is pre- ferable for those distilleries where the natural grain is fermented, that is, without separating the solid parts which render the washing of the fermenting vats very difficult if they contain coils. Moreover, these interior coils render it very difficult to mix the flour thoroughly with the water wheA this operation is performed in the fermenting vats, as is still generally the case. When the fermentation does not appear to be suffi- ciently active the mixture is stirred for an instant, by raising the solid matters from the bottom and plunging the cap into the fluid, that is to say, the solids which float on the surface; the vat is then covered until the fermentation ceases entirely. A great number of the Belgian distillers infer that the fermentation is sufficiently advanced when the cap has subsided for a couple of hours, but there are others who, less impatient and more enlightened, prefer to pay a little more into the public treasury and wait until they no longer hear any sounds on applying the ear to the wall of the vat. Better still, and this sign more easily determines with exactness the end of the fermentation, they remove the scum and other substances that float on the surface of the liquid, and when no more, or very little foam is formed, that is to say, when bubbles of gas are no longer disengaged in appreciable quantity, they proceed immediately to the distillation; they empty the fermenting vat into a lower vat, and begin at once to transfer the worts to the wine-heater, or forwarding vat when it is used, as is generally the case in all large Belgian distilleries. As to the method of conducting the distillation in 158 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Belgium, it varies, of course, with the apparatus used as everywhere else, but there is no peculiarity about it re- quiring special mention here. Chemical Process.—The saccharification of grains by replacing malted barley by sulphuric, muriatic, or other acids, was, for some years, practised in France. This process, which produces an excellent spirit of very fine flavor, is not adapted to agricultural distillers, because of the necessity of saturating the residuum with lime, which, instead of producing a marc suitable for feeding cattle, is only fit to be cast on the manure pile. Besides, the decree of November 10, 1857, forbids the use of this process in France. We will, however, give a sketch of the process which was employed in large manufacturing distilleries. The barley or unground rye was set to steep twenty- four hours in advance in twice its wTeiglit of water, con- taining 2 per cent, of sulphuric acid at 66°. At the end of this time the grain thus softened was crushed by being passed between two cylinders; it was then con- veyed to a special vat where the saccharification was effected by the assistance of a jet of steam kept up for twelve to sixteen hours, until it was ascertained by means of the iodine test* that the saccharification wTas more or less complete. This operation completed the acid was saturated by the addition of chalk (carbonate of lime), and the liquid suffered to rest for ten or twrelve hours; to hasten the precipitation and the cooling, the saccharified material was drawn off into a very broad but shallow back (vat) situated below the saccharifying or steeping vat. The precipitation accomplished, the clear liquid was drawn off into the fermenting vats to be diluted with cold water so that it should contain about ten per cent, of the grain, and the temperature was lowered to 22° or 24° C. in order that it might be leavened (yeasted) in a satis- factory manner. The deposit of sulphate of lime was washed a num- ber of times with five or six times its volume of water ALCOHOL FROM RICE. 159 and the liquid drawn off to serve for a new saccharifica- tion, or for diluting the saccharine solution in the fer- menting vats. Some distillers avoided the inconvenience of the de- posit of the sulphate of lime by using muriatic (hydro- chloric) acid instead of the sulphuric, taking double the quantity, which, by saturation with lime, formed a solu- ble compound (chloride of calcium) which produced no precipitate. When ground grain was used the dose of acid was increased one-third, and the time of steeping reduced one-half, that is to say, to twrelve hours. The saccharification of grain by means of acids is much less easily effected than that of flour, because the acid liquid finds much difficulty in penetrating the starch cells. It was on this account that it was necessary to continue the action of steam for a longer time than was necessary for the saccharification of grain in the form of flour. Alcohol from Rice. Rice, like all other seeds, is saccharified by means of malted barley, and may be treated by the same methods; but the saccharification is much more complete when, like other cereals, its starch has been converted into a paste. The following is the process usually followed, viz:— 500 kilogrammes of rice, reduced to flour, are mixed with 50 hectolitres of hot water, at the temperature of 60° or 65°, in a vat having a double bottom, perforated with holes; this mixing, which may be effected by hand or a mechanical stirrer operated by steam or other power, being complete, the mass is heated to 70° by steam. This temperature must be kept up, but not ex- ceeded, for half an hour. After this delay, the tempera- ture is reduced to 50° by the addition of cold water, and 125 kilogrammes of ground malt, which are distributed carefully and uniformly, so as to produce a complete mixture. The vat is then covered and suffered to stand 160 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. for two hours in order that the saccharification may be accomplished. The clear liquid is then drawn off into the ferment- ing vats, and the temperature reduced to 22° or 24° with.cold water, and the yeast added in the usual way. This method in which if a large quantity of water is used, produces the most alcohol, and possesses, too, the additional advantage of the greatest simplicity. Alcohol from Potatoes. Analysis of the Potato.—Independently of the water it contains, the potato consists mainly of starch and a fibrous substance which is very similar to starch. 100 kilogrammes yield as an average :— Dry Starch 16 kilogrammes. Parenchyma 9 “ Water of Vegetation 75 “ 100 “ The parenchyma and water in their turn contain various substances, viz: cellular tissue, pectose, pectin, albumen and nitrogenous matter, sugar, resin, essential oil, fatty matter, citrate of potash, phosphates of potash and lime, silica, alumina, oxides of iron and manganese. Selection of Potatoes.—On account of their size, some potatoes are to be preferred for the manufacture of alco- hol or starch, and for fattening cattle, while others, on account of their flavor, are employed as food for man. The varieties are multiplying daily, and each locality has its own. The qualities of soil and the peculiar methods of culture are infinitely varied, and this vegeta- ble is undergoing so many modifications that, before a great while, it will be almost impossible to recognize its original characteristics. The starch, however, is the portion which it is import- ant to consider in this connection. Its quantity varies much in different species of the potato, according to the nature of the soil in which it has grown, the temperature of the season, their state of preservation, &c. &c. They ALCOHOL FROM RICE. 161 contain most, just after being harvested. The best pota- toes, that is, those which contain the most starch, and which, consequently, are most mealy when cooked, yield also the most alcohol. Those which are’diseased, sprouted, or damaged, yield only a small quantity, and that holds in solution a principle having a bitter and disagreeable flavor. Winter is the best season for distilling potatoes, that is, from the beginning of October, when they are harvested, to the latter part of March, when they begin to sprout. Potatoes will not bear extremes of temperature. They should be stored in cellars or store-rooms protected from the vicissitudes of the weather, and should only be taken out as needed for use. It is, however, not im- portant to reject those which may be frozen, since it is only the water of vegetation which is attacked; the starch and parenchyma may be separated from it. It suffices to place the potatoes in cold water until they have ac- quired sufficient firmness to be subjected to the action of the rasp. Testing the Quality of Potatoes.—To ascertain the ex- act quantity of starch which is contained in any given variety of potato, we first remove carefully with a brush all the earth adhering to the surface. The tuber is then cut in very thin slices, which are spread evenly and side by side on a plate, care being taken to avoid overlap- ping; they are then dried either in a current of heated air, or in a stove heated to 40° or 50°. It is known that they are perfectly dry when, after repeated weigh- ings at intervals of three or four minutes, the slices are found to lose no more weight. The slices are then hard and brittle. Deduct nine per cent, of the original weight for the parenchyma, and the remainder will in- dicate the quantity of starch. In making this test it is not a matter of indifference whether the tuber is cut near the middle or at the out- side, because the starch is not distributed equally through- out all parts of the root. It is found in greater proportion near the outside than towards the middle. This in large 162 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. potatoes is sometimes almost transparent, and contains little more than water and tissue. Potatoes may also be tested by reducing them to a pulp on a small* tin rasp and extracting the starch, which is then dried, and the weight indicates the value of the root. Processes for Distilling Potatoes. There are three methods of preparing potatoes, pre- vious to subjecting them to alcoholic fermentation : 1. By cooking. 2. By rasping. 3. By the saccharification of the starch green or dry. These methods have but one end—to saccharify the starch, either by means of malted barley or of acids. Distillation of Cooked Potatoes. This method consists of five distinct operations :— 1. Cooking the potatoes. 2. Reducing them to pulp. 3. Mashing, or saccharifying by means of malt. 4. The alcoholic fermentation. 5. The distillation. Each of these operations will be described in order and as rapidly as possible. Cooking.—The potatoes, after having been well washed, should be cooked by steam in a cylindrical vessel. A hogshead properly arranged will answer. The apparatus described by Doinbasle appears to be perfectly adapted to this purpose. It consists of an iron boiler set in masonry, the upper surface of which is well covered with good mortar, and rises with a gentle inclination above and from the edge of the boiler. Upon this ma- sonry is a hogshead with the upper head removed (or a special vat made of stout oak staves), the bottom of which should have a diameter eight or ten centimeters greater than the boiler, in order that the hogshead may stand firmly on the masonry. The bottom of the hogs- head, which should be of thick wood, is perforated with DISTILLATION OF COOKED POTATOES. 163 a great number of holes ten or twelve centimeters wide, and fifteen centimeters long, to give passage to the steam. They should not be round to avoid the accident of being closed by the tubers fitting into them. To facilitate the operation, the hogshead should have an opening near the bottom, closing by a door, through which the potatoes are to be drawn out when cooked, without displacing the hogshead. If the locality will permit, the potatoes should fall directly from this open- ing into the hopper of the crushing mill. It commonly happens that there is some escape of steam below the hogshead where the chime rests on the masonry; this is easily stopped by a lute made of clay and horse dung. The hogshead must not be completely filled, as the potatoes swell considerably in the course of the operation. Reducing to Pulp.—As soon as the potatoes are suffi- ciently cooked they are placed in the hopper of the crushing machine, to be reduced to a homogeneous pulp. This machine commonly consists of two cylinders of oak, which by their friction crush the potatoes and re- duce them to the condition of paste. Mashing or Saccharifying by Malted Barley.—When the potatoes have been reduced to a paste, the mashing is at once conducted almost in the same manner as for grain. Taking 1000 kilogrammes, for example, the pro- cess is as follows :— The paste is arranged in a vat of the capacity of 35 or 40 hectolitres, to which are added 70 kilogrammes of broken malt, and such a quantity of hot and cold water as to bring the temperature of the mass to 36° or 42° Cent., in order that the steeping of the malt may be properly accomplished. Care must be taken to stir the paste and malt with a fork as the water is gradually poured into the vat, and hermetically close the vat as soon as the stirring is finished. After a rest of half an hour boiling water is added until the wThole has acquired a temperature of 60° Cent., and the mass is left to ma- cerate three or four hours. Fermentation.—When the mashing is completed the 164 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. mixture is increased by alternate doses of cold and boil- ing water until the quantity is made up to 32 or 35 hectolitres, according to the size of the vat, and in such a manner as to establish the proper temperature (24° or 26° Cent.). This point reached, two and a half or three litres of good liquid beer yeast, or two kilogrammes of dry leaven are added. The fermentation is soon under way, and follows the same course as that for grain. Distillation.—Potatoes, by reason of the pasty nature of the material resulting from this method of cooking, should be distilled in the apparatus discussed on pages 73 and following (in Figs. 4 and 5, PL IV.), or in some simple apparatus worked over the naked fire; the latter is best adapted for agricultural establishments. 1000 kilogrammes of potatoes treated as above with 70 kilogrammes of malt will yield an average of 160 litres of spirit (or 74 litres of pure alcohol) at 46° having an unpleasant odor. Distillation of Potatoes by Rasping and Maceration. The object of this process is on the one hand to avoid the expense of cooking the potatoes, and on the other the manual labor indispensably necessary, in separating the starch. The process is as follows :— 1000 kilogrammes of potatoes reduced to a pulp by means of the rasping machine are placed in a vat of 22 to 25 hectolitres, and with a double bottom, on which are spread evenly 25 or 30 kilogrammes of short straw. In this position the pulp is allowed to drain for about half an hour to deprive it of a portion of its water of vegetation, which is drawn off from time to time by a cock placed between the two bottoms. After this delay 1000 or 1200 litres of boiling water are added gradually, and then 70 kilogrammes of malt previously steeped, while two men stir the whole vigorously. After a maceration of three or four hours the clear liquid is drawn off by the cock under the false bottom, and the mass suffered to drain ten or fifteen minutes. The liquid so drawn off is conveyed immediately to the DISTILLATION OF POTATOES. 165 fermenting vat. In the mean time, 500 litres of boiling water are turned on to the pulp—it is stirred anew—the liquid drawn off as before, and turned in the fermenting vat with the first. Finally, the potatoes are entirely exhausted of fer- mentable principles, and at the same time a proper temperature is given the liquid to be fermented, by the addition of a third charge of cold water, which, after being stirred and drawn off as before, is added to the product of the two previous operations. The liquid resulting from the three operations just described is set to ferment by means of liquid beer yeast in the same proportion and manner as for the must of grain, or by 2 h or 3 kilogrammes of dry leaven to the 1000 kilogrammes of potatoes. By this process is obtained quite a large quantity of residuum (marc), which is excellent as food for cattle; there is no pasty material to distil, the must is quite clear, and a quantity of spirit drawn off is superior to that produced by the preceding process. It has, too, a better flavor and odor. Employment of the Residuum from the Distillation of Potatoes.—The residuum resulting from the two processes just described by reason of its pasty nature constitutes an admirable article of food for cattle, but which, how- ever, after prolonged use may prove too laxative. This inconvenience may be avoided, or remedied, by giving to the animals an addition of ground Indian corn, peas, or beans, or, better still, oil cake, &c. Distillation of Potatoes by Saccharifying the Starch. Potato starch is a pulverulent substance without taste and odor, which drains off with the water of vegetation, and which is separated from the tubers by means of many operations, the principal of which are the rasping of the tubers and the separation of the starch from the paren- chyma when the potatoes have been washed and reduced to a fine pulp by means of a rasp; this pulp is placed on a sieve of hair, or metallic cloth. The pulp is well rubbed 166 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. between the hands to mix it with a stream of water which flows on to the middle of the sieve and carries off all of the starch set free by tearing the fibrous tissue of the cells which make up the substance of the root. The liquid flows through the sieve in a state of limpidity. When all the starch has been exhausted from the pulp, the waste material is thrown aside and a new supply of pulp placed on the sieve, and so on. The starch is obtained suspended in the water, and after a little while falls to the bottom of the vessel; this deposit is then mixed with fresh water and allowed to deposit two or three times successively, changing water each time; it is laid up to drain on cloths, and if it is desired to preserve it, the mass is dried in the open air, or in a drying room. In modern starch factories manual labor is reduced to a minimum by the use of a continuous apparatus in which the washing and rasping of the tubers as well as the washing of the pulp on the sieve is effected by ma- chinery.* They easily treat 160 hectolitres of tubers in ten or twelve hours, and obtain 16 or 17 per cent, of dry starch. The exhausted pulp retaining 2 or 3 per cent, of starch, which cannot be removed by the most energetic washing, is used as food for cattle. Green starch, that drained but not dried, and dry starch, must, in order to produce alcohol, be first con- verted into sugar by the process of saccharification either by the assistance of malt or sulphuric acid. Saccharification by Sulphuric Acid.—The following is the process by which starch is saccharified on a large scale for the manufacture of alcohol:— To perform this operation a special vat called a sac- charifier is used; a description has been given before, as well as a drawing. (Fig. 2, PI. VI.) It is filled to about two-thirds with acidulated water (6000 litres of water with 40 kilogrammes of sulphuric acid at 66°). The temperature of this water is then raised to 100° C. by * For a particular description of the very ingenious machine used in this manufacture the reader is referred to Muspratt’s Practical Chemistry, vol. ii. pp. 953 et seq Trans. DISTILLATION OF POTATOES. 167 steam through the pipe c, which is connected with the generator. The vat being prepared, 2000 kilogrammes of dry starch are taken and mixed in quantities of 100 kilo- grammes in a tub with 100 litres of water, the starch mixture is then poured into the funnel d, in small quan- tities of 15 or 20 litres at a time, the ebullition of the mass being kept up until the whole 2000 kilogrammes having been turned in, and the decomposition is com- plete, which happens about an hour after the last addi- tion of starch. The starch in this operation passes first into a pasty state, then becomes fluid, and is converted into gum or dextrine, and is then transformed into glucose in the form of syrup. It is ascertained that the starch is en- tirely saccharified, and that the mass contains no more gum by taking a little of the liquid in a champagne glass, mixing with 3 or 4 parts of alcohol (90°); if the liquid contains any gum, it will be precipitated in white flocks; if there is no gum present, it is an evidence that the saccharification is complete. A few drops of tincture of iodine poured into the cold mixture without producing a violet tint indicates that the operation is completed. The steam is now cut off, and we proceed to the sepa- ration of the sulphuric acid from the saccharine prin- ciple, by saturating the liquid with chalk or Spanish whiting (carbonate of lime). For 40 kilogrammes of sulphuric acid we use 45 or 50 kilogrammes of carbon- ate of lime mixed to the consistency of cream with a little water, and thrown into the vat in small quantities at a time. At each addition of the carbonate of lime through the man-hole /, a strong effervescence is pro- duced by escape of the carbonic acid gas, which may throw the liquid out of the vat if the additions are not carefully made. It is ascertained that the saturation is complete by the cessation of the effervescence, and more accurately still by means of litmus paper, which is no longer red- dened by contact with the liquid. When the operation 168 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. is finished the liquid is allowed to stand twelve hours in the same vat or another, then the clear part is drawn off into the fermenting vats. The deposit left in the vat is sulphate of lime (gypsum), a substance of little solubilitv. . %/ A more highly acidulated liquid will render the sac- charification more prompt; but, on the other hand, it will be necessary to increase the dose of carbonate of lime, wdiich may injure the solution and prevent its clarifying. The dose indicated (two per cent, of acid) has been recognized for a long time as that which pro- duces the best results. The arrangement of the flue e which conducts the vapors from the vat into the chimney (stack) prevents the disagreeable emanations which result from the pro- cess of saccharification. The essential oil of starch con- condensed with the wrater flowrs into a vessel arranged to receive it. During the operation the vat should be covered so as to direct the vapors into the flue, and pre- vent their condensing on the walls and ceiling and run- ning down in dirty streaks. The pressure of steam proper for the operation of saccharification should be two or three atmospheres, because the more active the ebullition the more quickly will the starch be converted into the saccharine prin- ciple. It is unnecessary to stir the liquid, as the steam agitates it quite enough for the success of the opera- tion. During the saccharification of starch by sulphuric acid there is neither absorption nor evolution of gas ; the atmosphere produces no effect whatever; the sulphuric acid is unaltered ; finally, 100 parts of dry starch pro- duce 110 parts of dry sugar. In the factories are ob- tained from 100 parts of dry, or 150 parts of moist starch. 150 parts of syrup of 30° representing 100 parts of solid sugar. To explain these remarkable results, M. Theodore de Saussure thought that under the influence of the acid which destroyed the starch cells and set the dextrine free, the latter appropriated to itself a portion of the DISTILLATION OF POTATOES. 169 elements of the water, and that consequently the sugar was formed by a combination of dextrine and water. Chemical analysis demonstrates, in fact, that glucose differs from starch and dextrine only in this, that it contains a little more oxygen and hydrogen than these last, and exactly in the proportions in which these two elements exist in water. The composition of these three substances may be represented thus :— Starcb and Dextrine. Glucose. Carbon . 43.81 36.80 Water, or its elements . 56.19 63.20 100. 100. From which it is seen that glucose only differs from starch and dextrine by containing 7.01 parts of water, or its elements. The saccharification of the starch of different grains by sulphuric acid is effected in the same manner as described for potato starch. The use of hydrochloric acid presents the advantage of producing on one hand quite a pure alcohol, and on the other a residuum which when neutralized by soda, may serve to a certain extent as food for cattle. Saccharification by Malt.—This operation, the only one used at present, is conducted almost in the same manner as the preceding; only the sulphuric acid is re- placed by malt. Chemists have ascertained that malted barley, like all other seeds in a state of germination, contains a peculiar principle soluble in water, neutral, and not crystallizable, which they call diastase. The following is the process for saccharifying 500 kilogrammes of dry, or 750 kilogrammes of green starch by malt. The starch is mixed in a vat of 30 hectolitres with 1000 litres of cold water, taking care to agitate the whole continually to maintain the starch in a state of sus- pension and prevent it from precipitating. There are added gradually 1700 litres of boiling water. The mass at first thickens and is converted into a paste ; but in proportion as the boiling water is poured in, its 170 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. milky appearance disappears to give place to a most re- markable transparency. At this moment, 75 or 80 kilogrammes of malt, reduced to flour, to favor still more its action on the starchy solution, are added, as is done in the saccharification of grain. The whole is stirred vigorously for ten minutes, then the vat is closely covered and allowed to stand three or four hours; during this time the diastase contained in the malt acts upon the starch, and transforms it completely into saccharine matter. The Fermentation.—The saccharine liquid obtained by either process of saccharification just described, may be transferred to the fermenting vats without being filtered ; then a certain quantity of water (cold or hot, as may be necessary) is added, so that the temperature may be at 22° or 24° Cent., and the solution shall mark 7° by the areometer of Baume. These arrangements completed, 1 litre of good fresh yeast, or 500 grammes of dry yeast to the 1000 litres will be sufficient to start the fermen- tation, which progresses very regularly, and is usually terminated in 36 hours. Distillation.—The fermentation being finished, the liquor is allowed to rest 24 hours, then the distillation is proceeded with in a continuous apparatus. The alcoholic result is in proportion to the more or less perfect saccharification of the starch. But gene- rally, 100 kilogrammes of the latter will produce 35 or 40 litres of pure alcohol, or from 40 to 45 litres of spirit at 95°. The product will be sensibly increased if the spent liquor be used in succeeding fermentations, as is practised with grain and molasses. The spirit from starch is very fine and of excellent flavor. It may be used for all purposes to which the trois-six of Montpellier is usually applied; but its great- est merit is that of improving the latter; in fact, if two parts of the trois-six of Montpellier be mixed with one part of fine starch spirit, the product will be preferable to the pure Montpellier, because it will have acquired an extraordinary delicacy. ALCOHOL FROM SORGHUM, OR CHINESE SUGAR-CANE. 171 Remarks on Spirits from Grain and Potatoes. The spirits produced by these substances possess at odor and taste called fusel, due to peculiar oils of a nauseous odor, analogous to the essential oil of wine or oenanthic ether. These substances are produced during the fermentation of the must. They exist already formed in fermented liquors, since they distil with the alcoholic vapor when the mixture is simply heated. The spirit which is manufactured from syrup or starch prepared by means of sulphuric acid is perfectly free from essential oil. This last, then, is produced by the alteration of the albumen, or some other nitrogenous principle of the potato, which takes place during the fermentation. The essential oil of grain spirit is composed in great part of a non-etherizable fat acid, which in composition approaches oenanthic acid, but which nevertheless differs from it in some of its properties. The oil of potato spirit, which was first noticed by Scheele, is analogous to ether. It is excessively acrid, and its vapor provokes coughing and even vomiting. It should be observed that spirit produced from flour of grains, from which the bran has been separated by bolt- ing, has a far purer taste and odor than that resulting from flour which has not been subjected to this opera- tion ; because it has been known for a long time that it is the envelope of the grain that contains the peculiar essential oil which causes the bad flavor of this spirit. Potato spirit extracted directly, that is, without sub- sequent rectification, often acts in a most deleterious manner on the animal economy, either because it con- tains some acid or volatile principle, or because it con- tains solanine and prussic acid, as a great many chemists have stated. Alcohol from Sorghum, or Chinese Sugar-cane, The sorghum, or Chinese sugar-cane (Holcus saccha- ratus), a plant cultivated in the northern parts of China, was sent, about the year 1850, to the Geographical 172 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Society by M. de Montigny, the French consul at Shang- hai. This society introduced the seed into France, and aided by the indefatigable zeal of the society of acclimatiza- tion, encouraged a serious examination of its properties. The seeds from this package were, in the first place, ex- perimented on by one of the most eminent members of the commission at Toulon, and since then many others have ardently turned their attention to the cultivation of this plant. We then saw it spread over the whole South of France, in Bordelais, Champagne, Sologne, and even to the vicinity of Paris, where it excited the greatest emulation among the most distinguished agriculturists. At present the cultivation of sorghum is extending itself more and more, especially in Algeria. That country is most favorable for its culture, especially in the plains of Matidja; for a moist heat is necessary for this species of plants. About the same time that Montigny gave this im- portant bequest to France and its colonies, Leonard Wray discovered in Africa, among the Zulu Caffres, many other varieties of sorghum, cultivated for their sugar and confounded by the public under the name of Irnph.ee, and even by some mistaken for the Chinese variety. Wray had an experienced eye to the part Imphee might take in the agriculture of tropical coun- tries, and he made persevering researches into the subject in the English Antilles and at the Cape of Good Hope. Such is the history of sorghum; doubtless many varie- ties are confounded under the same name; cultivation on a large scale only can decide which is the best. Not- withstanding this inevitable confusion, great results have and will continue to be obtained. Sorghum grows promptly; five months in fact are suffi- cient for its complete growth all along the shores of the Mediterranean. We can only hope for a single crop in one year, but we cannot expect the bountiful production of the tropics in our climate; yet even in its less favored position sorghum offers the promise of more sugar and alcohol to our factories, and more forage to the farmer, than is afforded in the same time by the beet crop. ALCOHOL FROM SORGHUM, OR CHINESE SUGAR-CANE. 173 Sorghum should be planted according to the varying circumstances of the season and the climate. In France it should be manifestly later than in Algeria. In the latter country the seed time is from April to June. In France the seeding should commence as soon as there ceases to be any expectation of frost. The -cultivation of sorghum is easy and not attended with any considerable expense. It is only necessary that the soil, without being wet, should continue some- what moist during the earlier period of its development. It is proper to shelter the young plants from a too-great heat of the sun, which may be accomplished by sowing some other plant of more rapid growth, between the rows. The hills should be about 60 centimeters apart each way.* It does not appear to require very heavy manuring, guano seems to suit best. Frequent ploughings are indispensable to its rapid growth. Throwing the earth up to the plants also favors their development. When it has attained its maximum of growth, sorghum is a slender plant, rising three or four meters, and even more on rich land, in straight thin stalks, with flexible and drooping leaves; its appearance is quite like Indian corn, but it is more beautiful. It forms generally a cluster composed of five or six stalks, terminated by a conical panicle covered with flowers, green at first, then passing through the various tints of the violet to a deep purple at maturity. Sorghum is harvested when the seed is perfectly ripe; that is to say, when it is of a decidedly chestnut color. The plants are cut with a bill, then conveyed to the barn or factory, where they are to be consumed. The leaves are stripped off and the tops removed. It has been ascertained that not more than two or three stalks should be left in a hill; if there are more, the stalks will be slender and will contain relatively less juice, and will be rejected by the distiller. * American farmers have found that a greater width between the rows is preferable, as giving room for the use of the plough as well as affording space for a larger growth of cane Translator. 174 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. When the cane is left standing beyond a certain time there will be serious loss, because towards the end of November there is developed in the interior of the cane the larva of an insect, which feeds on it at the expense of the saccharine matter. It is also known that sor- ghum, when cut and allowed to stand in stalks for some days before it is used, loses a portion of its juice, and that the sugar begins to ferment. It is important then to avoid these sources of loss, to harvest the cane as soon as it matures, and use it immediately. The product of the sorghum consists in the juice abundantly contained in the pith of the stalks, but the richness in sugar diminishes in the joints as we approach the top of the stalk, where the tissues more recently developed are more watery. This juice stands between that of the true sugar-cane, lacking the aroma, and that of the beet in lacking its disagreeable odor. It therefore produces alcohol devoid of taste when carefully rectified. It has also been observed that the juice of sorghum con- tains a natural ferment, which may serve in case of necessity to start the fermentation and transform the saccharine matter into alcohol. The saccharine richness of sorghum juice has been the object of a number of analyses, from which it has been determined that this richness varies from ten to twenty per cent. The earliest method in use for obtaining alcohol from sorghum is that of M. Count David de Beauregard, President of the Agricultural Society at Toulon. It consists in subjecting the cane, stripped of their leaves, to the powerful action of a rolling mill, consisting of three cast-iron cylinders placed horizontally, as is done with the true cane in America. The method requires a great motive power on account of the necessity of bring- ing the cylinders very close together to prevent the loss of juice. By this means only one hectolitre of juice to the horse power is obtained in one hour. This juice or syrup is set to ferment, without being heated, by the addition of a small quantity of dry yeast (about 50 grammes to the hectolitre), and under the in- ALCOHOL FROM SORGHUM, OR CHINESE SUGAR-CANE. 175 fluence of the surrounding temperature alone. After this fermentation has run its course, and is entirely ter- minated, the liquor is distilled. The method of working, which requires a considerable outlay at th'e start, and which demands the use of many horses or of steam-power, cannot be adopted in small agricultural distilleries. It has, besides, the objection of only producing the average of 3.75 or 4 litres of alco- hol to the 100 kilogrammes of cane. There is another method which consists in pressing the canes as above, and then macerating in water the bagasse which still contains a considerable quantity of saccharine matter; then, when the fermentation is fin- ished, uniting the liquid resulting from the maceration of the bagasse to that from the mill and distilling, the two in the usual way. Some colonists in Algeria content themselves with crushing the stalks of sorghum, and macerating the whole with cold water, without the addition of any fer- ment whatever, in a hogshead standing on end, in open sheds exposed to all the viscissitudes of the weather. Some persons operate after the method of M. Leplay or M. Pluchard, i. e., by direct distillation of the sorghum. Our opinion is sufficiently set forth in the article on the subject of the distillation of the beet, and we may dis- pense with any further reference to it here. It may be well understood that the spirit obtained by either pro- cess is of inferior quality. But of all methods used for the distillation of sorghum, the process of maceration by heat is without contradic- tion the best. It is, moreover, that which we have em- ployed at Settimello (Italy), and at the large distillery of Amor-el-Ain, near Blidah (Algeria). It is managed as follows, viz:— The stalks of sorghum, stripped of leaves and the tops, are cut in short pieces by means of a sorghum cutter. It consists of an iron cylinder armed with eight or ten steel blades arranged obliquely in connection with a pair of feed rollers, one of which is plain and the other grooved, so that the stalks are pressed forward as 176 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. they are cut. When a sufficiency of material is pre- pared, the cut stalks are placed in a macerator, No. 1, then covered with boiling water, or cold water, which is heated to 80° by means of a jet of steam. After an hour of maceration, this liquid is drawn off in a macera- tor, No. 2, where it remains one hour. The operator should introduce into the second mace- ration one part of sulphuric acid [at 66°], to the thousand, diluted with twenty times its weight of water. The liquid is now drawn off into a macerator, No. 3, where it stands one hour. This last maceration completes the saturation of the liquid with the saccharine juice. When the routine of work is well established, the juice drawn from the second maceration is always used for macerating fresh cane, during which it is more freely charged with saccharine matter. When drawn off from the cane the liquor is allowed to cool, so that it may reach the fermenting vat at a proper temperature. The second charge is made with the weak liquor, resulting from a third maceration; and the third charge is always made with pure boiling water (or heated, as has been described). On leaving the macerators, the concentrated juice, as it reaches the fermenting vat, should have a temperature of 20° or 25° at most, and should mark an average den- sity of 6° by the areometer of Baume. Under these conditions, the first operation of maceration furnishes the liquor in which to dissolve the liquid leaven neces- sary to start the fermentation according to the capacity of the fermenting vat. The proportion used is 25 litres of fluid yeast, or 120 grammes of dry to the hectolitre of juice. This is called the “ bottom of the tub”* When this bottom is in full fermentation, which commonly hap- pens one hour after its preparation, the vat is filled suc- cessively with the liquid resulting from new macerations. The fermentation always progresses regularly, and is finished without violence; it is completely, terminated in 18 or 20 hours, and rarely extends to 24 hours. The * Footing.—Trans. ALCOHOL FROM SORGHUM, OR CHINESE SUGAR-CANE. 177 froth is white and light, and does not require the use of any fatty substance to cause it to fall. After a rest of 24 hours, the fermented juice or wine of sorghum is subjected to distillation in the apparatus of Egrot, Derosne, or some other, and yields an ave- rage of five litres of alcohol at 95° to 100 kilogrammes of the sorghum cane. The system of maceration by steam which we de- scribed in the article on Beet Spirit, may be applied as well to the treatment of sorghum. Towards the close of the season, it sometimes hap- pens that the sorghum juice contains so great a quantity of acetic acid produced by changes within the stalks, and even lactic acid, that it becomes necessary to saturate the juice with lime to obtain a successful fermentation. It is not important, however, to have this saturation too perfect, indeed it is better to preserve a slight acid re- action, lest too great a degree of alkalinity may inter- fere with the success of the fermentation. The juice so saturated should only be employed after being drawn off clear and separated from the deposit resulting from the saturation. The distillation of the sorghum left standing and cut as required is not profitable after the month of January [in France.] After this time the cane dies, is heated, ferments, or is destroyed by larvae, as has already been said, which devour all the pith, and with it the sugar, and leaves absolutely nothing more than the ex- ternal envelope. Apparatus of M. B. Viale.—Now that we have de- scribed the various methods in use for obtaining alco- hol from sorghum, we think it will not be amiss to speak of an apparatus which is readily set up in agricultural establishments, and which is used for the extraction of the saccharine juices contained in sorghum, beets, arti- chokes, etc. etc. The following is a description of this apparatus. (See Fig. 7, PI. VI.) A. Tubular pan for concentrating the syrups. 178 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL B. Chimney. G. Apparatus for boiling the sorghum cane or other substance. D. Stopcock for drawing off the juice. E. Furnace. The furnace is so constructed that the smoke on leav- ing the boiling apparatus traverses the tubular pan A, and returning by the two sides finds its way to the chim- ney. It is easy to understand the economy of this arrangement in utilizing the waste heat. The manner of extracting syrups by this method is as follows: The stalks of sorghum stripped of leaves are cut up by means of a stalk-cutter, and as cut, are placed in the boiling apparatus, care being taken to place a wicker-work hurdle on each layer of 15 or 20 centime- ters. When the apparatus is filled with cut sorghum, it is filled with water enough to cover the cane, then for each 100 litres of water in the apparatus are added 200 grammes of sulphuric acid. It is then boiled for twenty minutes; the syrup is now drawn off by the cock, the bagasse being at the same time pressed by the screw fixed above the boiler. The juice is then poured into the tubular pan to be evaporated to the proper degree of concentration (20° or 25° is generally enough). The boiler is then emptied of bagasse by the assist- ance of a fork, and a second operation begins. Syrups prepared in this way are only fit for distilla- tion, and may be bought by the distiller at the same price as molasses from the beet. The following is the method adopted by M. Viale for ascertaining the true value of such syrups and thereby fixing the price. AVe know, says he, that molasses is sold at 40°, and by the 100 kilogrammes. Let us suppose a cask of sor- ghum syrup contains 160 kilogrammes at 25°; this is the product of 1000 kilogrammes of cane; we will mul- tiply 160 by 25, which will give 4000; divide 4000 by 40, and we find the true quantity of merchantable mo- lasses 100 kilogrammes; this is sold according to the ALCOHOL FROM SORGHUM, OR CHINESE SUGAR-CANE. 179 price of alcohol. July 30, 1857 trois six was worth 118, and beet molasses 26 francs per 100 kilogrammes. Then we find the value 26 francs per 1000 kilogrammes of cane with 200 kilogrammes of forage over. The hectare yielding upwards of 50,000 kilogrammes of cane will produce 1500 francs to the farmer. The cost of extracting the syrup from the sorghum may be estimated at a max- imum of 5 francs for 1000 kilogrammes of stalks, which will cause a deduction of 250 francs to the hectare; there will remain then 1250 francs, which is a heavy yield as compared with other crops, while over and above the syrup, each hectare produces 30,000 kilo- grammes of forage. If it is desired to fit these syrups for table use, it is necessary to saturate them with Spanish whiting and clarify them with animal charcoal. The syrup of beets is extracted as follows:— The beets cut in thin slices by means of a root-cutter are cast, as they are cut, into a copper containing 200 litres of water and one kilogramme of common salt. When these slices have been macerated for about ten minutes, they are withdrawn from the copper and dripped, and are then thrown into the boiler c in layers of about 25 centimeters, being careful to lay a wicker hurdle on each layer. When the apparatus is full, the block which serves as a part of the press is put in place, and the whole carefully covered with a moistened cloth; the fire is then kindled under the boiler, into which have previously been poured 40 litres of water; this is quite sufficient water to furnish by ebullition, enough steam to cook the slices of beet. When these are cooked the discharge cock is opened, and the press applied; the juice drawn off ought to weigh four or five de- grees by the areometer of Baume according to the rich- ness of the beets. This juice is then turned at once into the tubular pan A to be concentrated to a syrup, marking 22 or 25 degrees of the areometer of Baume. In this form it may be put in hogsheads and preserved during the winter. 180 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The succeeding operations are conducted in the same way, with this difference, that by refilling the boiler with water there are left forty litres of juice, marking four or five degrees. The salt water in the copper used for macerating the fresh slices of beets may answer for four or five mace- rations, and need only be renewed when it marks 4 or 5 degrees; when it may be used in the boiler in place of the 40 litres of water. At the end of the day’s work, this, as well as all the juice marking 4 or 5 degrees, should be concentrated to a syrup with the exception of forty litres of water, which may be left in the boiler to recommence the operation next morning. By this process, according to M. Yiale, 1000 kilo- grammes of wine yield 130 or 140 litres of syrup at 25 degrees, according to the nature of the beets, and 600 kilogrammes of pulp. This process of Viale renders it possible for small farmers to make the pulp themselves according to their necessities, and enables them to forward the juice with facility to the distiller in a proper state of concentra- tion. They avoid, too, the transportation of the beets to the distillery, and the return of the pulp to the farm, at a season of the year when such transportation is always difficult. The Jerusalem artichoke is treated in the same man- ner as the beet. The apparatus of M. Yiale is readily set up on a farm, occupies but little space, and may be operated by any larm hand. It is so simple as to require few repairs, and is of quite a moderate cost. Alcohol from the Asphodel. The asphodel, commonly called in France the king’s rod, is a beautiful plant growing in the South of Europe, the tuberous roots of which are reproduced abundantly, according to climate, every two or three years. Its stalk, which rises to the height of about one meter, is ALCOHOL FROM THE ASPHODEL. 181 covered in the month of April with a beautiful white or yellow flower. Its leaves, which are very like some varieties of flag, dry up towards the end of summer, to be renewed at the beginning of autumn, and remain green all winter, except when the cold is very severe. There are many varieties of Ihe asphodel, but the principal are, the branching asphodel (Asphodelus ramo- 8U8), which appears to be the original type of the plant, and is found growing wild, and the yellow asphodel which is cultivated in gardens. The wild asphodel, which is the variety used for purposes of distillation, is never cultivated, but grows in great abundance on the plains of Algeria, in Corsica, Sardinia, Tuscany, Sicily, Spain, in the South of France, and in fact all along the coasts bf the Mediterranean. The root of the asphodel forms a cluster of fusiform tubercles, brown on the outside, white within, as large as the thumb, and eight or ten centimeters long; stands by analogy between the root of the turnip and the dahlia. No attempts have been made to cultivate the aspho- del, because it requires two or three years for its vege- tation, and manufacturers content themselves as if work- ing a sort of mine without troubling themselves about its reproduction. An analysis of the root shows that it contains the following :— Water * 68.84 parts. Ash, 0.75 “ Fatty substances, soluble in ether, . . . 2.20 “ Substances transformable into grape sugar, by the action of ferment, or acid, .... 18.25 “ Pectine, 2.80 “ Albumen coagulable by heat, .... 0.42 “ Cellulose, 7.00 “ Loss, 0.24 “ 100.00 “ The large proportion of principles susceptible of being transformed into alcohol (27.55 parts in 100), found by 182 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. M. Mares in this analysis, excites the suspicion that he operated on selected tubers collected under favorable circumstances, because, as we shall see hereafter, we do not in practice obtain such favorable results. It should be remarked that the roots of the asphodel do not furnish alcohol in abundance, except during the season of flowering, which is in April, May, and June. Before and after this period the quantity of alcohol di- minishes, and finally is reduced to nothing. The distillation of the asphodel, originating at a time when wines and spirits were very dear, appears to have no future. Although it produces alcohol at a very mode- rate price, since the roots are collected on uncultivated land, where their spontaneous growth enables them to be sold for the cost of collecting (li to 1 i francs for 100 kilogrammes), it is evident that it cannot contend in an abundant season with the wines of the south. The dis- agreeable odor of asphodel spirit, which it is difficult to remove, even partially, will always interfere with its sale, except when the price of other spirits is very high. We shall nevertheless examine the different processes used for the extraction of alcohol from the roots of the asphodel. In the first process, the roots are washed to remove the earth adhering to them, then crushed in an oil-mill, or by some special machine, so as to reduce them to the condi- tion of pulp. After this operation, the pulp is thrown into common vats, where it is covered with water and stirred, then set to ferment by adding 200 grammes of dry yeast to 100 kilogrammes of the roots. After the fermentation, the clear liquor is drawn off and distilled in any kind of apparatus. The amount of alcohol obtained by this method is usually from to 4 litres at 96° to 100 kilogrammes of the root; but it would be much greater if the material itself were dis- tilled in the vat in which it was fermented, by means of a special arrangement adapted to the use of a jet of steam. In Algeria there are some distillers who allow the ALCOHOL FROM FIGS. 183 materials to ferment without the addition of any leaven; this method is objectionable, because the fermentation is developed too slowly, and as a consequence, notwith- standing what certain persons may say, the result is by no means profitable. By the second process, the roots are also washed before being subjected to the action of a rasp similar to that which is employed for reducing beets to a pulp. When this pulp has been submitted to the action of a press (hydraulic or other), the juice, after being heated to 20° or 24°, is poured into a fermenting vat, then 250 grammes of dry yeast for each hectolitre of liquid are added, and the fermentation is very well established. When this is completed, the liquor is distilled, and yields an average of 41 or 5 litres of alcohol at 96° to 100 kilogrammes of roots. By the third process, the roots, after being washed and reduced to a pulp, as above, are placed in a saccha- rifying vat with two or three per cent, of sulphuric, or five or six per cent, of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, and fifty or sixty per cent, of water. In this state a jet of steam is turned into the vat so as to produce ebullition, which is maintained for seven or eight hours. When the saccharification is completed, the juice is saturated with carbonate of lime, and, after a sufficient rest, the clear liquor is drawn off to be fermented, by the addi- tion of enough water to reduce the temperature to 20° or 24°. By this process 150 or 200 grammes of dry yeast are sufficient to obtain a very good fermentation, and the result leaves nothing to be desired, since it yields from six to seven litres of pure alcohol to 100 kilogrammes of the root, the taste of which, although sufficiently marked, is far superior to that obtained by the preced- ing methods. Finally, as the result of practical observation, it is found that all the processes applied to the distillation of the beet are adapted to the distillation of the roots of the asphodel, particularly that of the hot maceration with the use of sulphuric or some other acid. 184 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Alcohol from Figs. Generally this spirit is obtained from common dried figs. The fruit is reduced to a pulp by crushing or grinding, and covered with water, and left to ferment. When this is completed the liquid is drawn off, and the marc subjected to the action of a press; the resulting juice is then added to the fermented liquor and the whole distilled. The operation may be conducted as was done by the author in Algiers. The fruit was covered with water without being crushed, and, after a proper fermentation, which is started spontaneously, was distilled, both the liquid and fruit, by means of a steam jet. By this process the yield is ordinarily from 48 to 52 litres of brandy at 50°, having quite an agreeable odor and taste. Alcohol from Various Substances (Vegetable and Others). We have already examined among vegetables, those most usually employed for the production of alcohol or spirits, whether on account of their richness in sugar, the facility of extracting it, or on account of the low price of its production; but it still remains for us to speak of a number of vegetable and other substances which may, under certain circumstances, present some advantages to the manufacturer. All vegetable substances are susceptible of producing alcohol, because most of them contain sugar, starch, gum, pectine, inuline, and cellulose, and these elements may be easily transformed, by the aid of an acid or some other saccharifying agent, into uncrystallizable sugar, either solid or liquid. Alcoholizable substances are divided into two classes: the first comprises those which contain sugar or glucose, already formed by nature; the second comprises those which must be subjected to some artificial operation for developing and obtaining the saccharine principle. ALCOHOLIZABLE SUBSTANCES OF THE SECOND CLASS. 185 Alcoholizable Substances of the First Class. Carrots, turnips, parsnips, artichokes,pumpkins, the whole family of squashes and melons, cornstalks. Among fruits : apricots, cherries, peaches, gooseberries, ivhite currants, rasp- berries, strawberries, midberries, elderberries, dates, &c., may all produce alcohol by some one of the processes already described. It is only necessary to adopt that which has been recommended for analogous substances in the course of this work. Seeds and nuts of many plants, as well as roots, and even some leaves, as well as milk of cows and other animals, and honey, have been used to produce alcohol in some of its forms. Alcoholizable Substances of the Second Class. Peas, beans, lentils, and various farinaceous seeds, chestnuts, horsechestnuts {buckeye), acorns, &c., are saccha- rified like grain or starch, either by the assistance of malt or sulphuric acid, and in the same maimer as we have described under the proper head. The root of the Chinese yam (Dioscorea batatas) will yield seven per cent, of pure alcohol if distilled by the process recommended for the common potato. Lichens, dahlia, and madder are also capable of yield- ing a notable quantity of acohol. The manufacture of alcohol from the last is, in the garancine factories, made a source of considerable profit by utilizing much material that has hitherto been suffered to go to waste, on ac- count of the manufacturers being ignorant of the great source of profit they were daily and hourly throwing away. Cellulose.—This name is applied to the cellular por- tion of the wood of vegetables. The parts of plants in which cellulose is found most nearly approaching purity, are, besides those of very young growth, the pith, the down, the succulent mass or flesh of fruits and roots, that are rapidly developed, and very light woody tissues. It is almost pure in old linen, cotton, the pith of the elder, and in white paper. 186 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Cellulose plays an important part in the growth of all vegetables, because it constitutes the foundation of all the organs. It is no less useful in the economic arts and manufactures, since it constitutes the useful sub- stance of wood and vegetable fibre, as cotton, hemp, &c., and other filamentous substances, which are converted by man into thread, cloth, &c. In 1819, M. Braconnet discovered the means of con- verting cellulose into grape sugar or glucose, by the action of sulphuric acid. In less than a quarter of an hour he converted ligneous matter into dextrine; then this was very soon transformed into sugar, under the influence of the same acid, diluted with water, and brought to a state of ebullition. The following is the process as described by him, viz: He takes six parts of hemp or linen cloth well washed and cut into small pieces, on which are poured eight parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, a small quantity at a time. The mass is constantly stirred in order that the cloth may imbibe the acid equally, and at the same time escape as much as possible the risk of heating. The ligneous matter assumes a brown color, and becomes at lirst a very hard and compact mass; but in less than twenty minutes it is converted into a brown paste, pitch- like and viscous, which is completely soluble in cold water. Enough water to effect its complete solution is then poured on this paste; after which, the acid liquor is saturated with chalk. It is filtered to separate the sulphate of lime; evaporated by a gentle heat, and to separate any traces of lime still remaining in the solu- tion a small quantity of oxalic acid is added. It is fil- tered again, and the gummy substance is precipitated by the addition of rectified alcohol. The precipitated gum is re-dissolved in water; on evaporating the solution to dryness, a pale yellow translucent substance is obtained, which has a brilliant conchoidal fracture; this is dex- trine. If it is desired to transform the ligneous matter into sugar, instead of saturating the gummy paste with lime ALCOHOLIZABLE SUBSTANCES OF THE SECOND CLASS. 187 as above, it should be boiled for ten hours, care being taken to replenish the water as it evaporates. The dex- trine then changes completely into sugar, which may be obtained perfectly pure and white. From one hundred parts of dry rags, according to M. Braconnet, we can obtain 115 parts of white sugar. This conversion of lignin into gum and sugar is not difficult of explanation, since we know that cellulose is isomeric with dextrine and starch. It is none the less truly marvellous when we thus see that a simple derangement in the elementary principles of a substance is sufficient to effect an entire change in its properties. All ligneous substances, as different kinds of wood, bark, straw, &c., like rags, are capable of producing sugar. It was not altogether a witticism when a learned professor ex- claimed, that in the present state of the science, a block of wood becomes a loaf of sugar in the hands of the chemist. Alcohol from wood was the subject of a communica- tion to the Academy of Sciences at its session October 23, 1854. M. Pelouze presented a small sample on the part of one of his pupils, M. Arnould. He describes the process used by him as follows, viz:— “ Under existing circumstances, when the manufac- ture of alcohol has been so largely developed that it has turned many primary substances, particularly the cereals, from their legitimate and most useful application, I have thought it a matter of some interest to present to the Academy some researches into a new method of pro- ducing alcohol, although these researches are not yet complete. Encouraged by the experiments of M. Braconnet, pub- lished thirty-five years ago, and by the more recent pub- lications of M. Payen, I have undertaken to produce substances analogous to starch, sugar, and alcohol, from vegetable fibre, and especially from wood. My first efforts have completely answered my expec- tations. I have succeeded with certain fibres in render- ing soluble 97 per cent, of the substance used, and for 188 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. certain varieties of woods I have succeeded in rendering soluble from 75 to 80 per cent, of the wood employed, and have then converted the sugar into alcohol. The following is a brief summary of the process of preparing alcohol from white wood :— The wood, in the form of coarse sawdust, is dried at 100° so as to drive off the water it contains, which is often more than half its weight. When cold and in a suitable vessel, concentrated sulphuric acid is poured on it with great care, and in small quantities at a time; the acid is poured on very slowly to prevent the matter from being heated. The acid is mixed with the wood as it is poured in, then the mixture is allowed to rest for twelve hours; after which it is stirred carefully until the mass, which is at first almost dry, becomes fluid enough to pour. The liquid, diluted with water, is then heated to ebullition; the acid is neutralized by chalk, and the liquor, after filtration, is subjected to fermentation, and then the alcohol is distilled off by the ordinary pro- cesses. In this experiment the quantity of sulphuric acid em- ployed might have been equal to, while it might not have been less than 110 per cent, of the weight of the dry wood used. From researches in progress, I am led to believe that the quantity of acid may be considerably reduced; but even now with the proportions indicated above, alcohol may be economically manufactured from materials as cheap as wood, sulphuric acid, and chalk. I hope that the Academy will excuse my having pre- sented a work not yet completed, on account of its im- portance as a matter of public utility. In fact, the nation has at its disposal a new and almost inexhaustible source of food, since from wood, dextrine, sugar, and alco- hol can be produced so economically. Governments will see that famines, so painful to all, become more and more rare, if not impossible, since wood will contribute doubly to the general supply of food at first directly, and then by yielding products which have been drawn ALCOHOLIZABLE SUBSTANCES OF THE SECOND CLASS. 189 mainly from the cereals, which constitute the principal article of food to all peoples. This new application of wood will restore to a product so abundant, and the pre- servation of which, in so many respects, is so important, a part of its value, at a time when it is almost driven from use by the applications of iron and coal.” Doubtless all these speculations of M. Arnould are very beautiful, but are they not illusions so common with inventors ! It is not everything to produce alcohol, it must be produced at such a price as to yield a profit from which the distiller should be remunerated for his labor; and although fully recognizing the merit of those men of science who consecrate their lives to opening up new processes, we practical distillers hold ourselves in reserve. Let us leave to philosophers the care of making scientific discoveries; let us apply ourselves to introducing them into practice only when we are fully satisfied of their practicability, or where experience has assured us of success. Madder.—We copy from the interesting work of M. Paul d’Aspremont the following details, which include some notice of the factory of Messrs. Julian fils et cie, at Sorgues (Vaucluse). This factory turns out* every day 1200 kilogrammes of flowers of madder, and 2500 kilogrammes of garan- cine. M. Julian, the father, discovered the flowers of madder in 1852, and he was one of the first, in 1847, to distil the washings of madder for the purpose of obtain- ing alcohol. At present, when this factory is in full operation, it produces as much as 800 litres of spirit at 87° in one day, which indicates a consumption of 8000 or 9000 kilogrammes of the powdered root. The wash (or waste waters) do not yield more than two per cent. 1000 kilogrammes of powdered madder yield 70 or 75 litres of alcohol at 85°. The preparation of the roots to render them fit for the use of the dyer is not very complicated. As the farmers or their brokers bring in their products, they are spread out in extensive sheds. As all purchases are for cash, it 190 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. follows that the factories should be possessed of a large capital. It is not possible for me to ascertain the exact figures; but I infer from the amount of the entire pro- duct, which is not far from thirty-five or forty millions of kilogrammes for Yaucluse and the neighborhood, that during the course of the season, the manufacturers disburse twelve or thirteen millions of francs. I do not speak of the large quantities which come from Naples and the Levant, and which are imported into Yaucluse to be manufactured. Without exaggeration, wre may well esti- mate the floating capital necessary to carry on the madder factories of this department at fifteen or sixteen millions. The first operation to which the root is subjected is that of drying. It is placed in a drying-room heated to about 50°, where it remains 48 hours. M. Julian uses, every day, 130 bales of 85 kilogrammes each. The second operation comprises scraping, winnowing, and grinding. The roots are first freed from the earth which adheres to them; they are then passed through the winnowing machine, and are thrown under vertical grinding stones, which reduce the roots to powder. This product bears the name of powder of madder or ground madder. It is used to dye red on cottons, and other common materials. The powder contains all the mucilaginous substances and saccharine elements of the root, which tends to enfeeble its tinctorial power. It, therefore, yields much less coloring matter than the flowers of madder, which is much more concentrated. The powder sells for 80 francs for the common and 92 francs for the palus per 100 kilogrammes. The flowers of madder was discovered in 1852, by M. Julian (the father). The product is used to dye in light tints. The following method is used for preparing it: The ground madder is placed in a box, and six times its volume of water is poured on it. It is then filtered through a woollen cloth, pressed, dried, ground to pow- der, and the flower packed in barrels. In this state it is put on the market. The price is from 160 to 200 francs for 100 kilogrammes. 191 ALCOHOLIZABLE SUBSTANCES OF THE SECOND CLASS. The flowers of madder is debarrassed by the washing and pressure of all the mucilaginous substances which the roots contain; the proportion varies according to the nature of the soil on which it has grown. Cal- careous soils produce purer madders of more lively color. These are better adapted for making the flower. The waters which have been used for washing the powder, as wrell as that from the press, are collected to- gether in vats, wrhere they are fermented by the ordinary processes.* The first runnings which were obtained by this method, in 1847, sold for eighteen francs per hecto- litre, at 80°. This alcohol had a horrible empyreumatic taste; but since that time a Pole, M. Pongoski, has dis- covered a means of rectifying madder spirit so that it sells at the same price as beet spirit, and is used for the same purposes. Garancine is the third product obtained from madder root. First, the powder is washed and pressed, as if in- tended to produce the flower. The washings are used for making alcohol. After this operation the powder is placed in vats and covered with water, acidulated with from 25 to 40 per cent, of sulphuric or muriatic acid. It is boiled for an hour and a half. The liquor drawn off, is not distilled, unless alcohol is at a very high price. The powder is placed in other vats, where it is washed with cold water. The acid which still remains is neu- tralized by soda; the second washing lasts twenty-four hours. It is then left to drain, and when dried and ground, the garancine is packed in casks. This pre- paration is used in printing calicoes. The discovery made, in 1857, by M. Pongoski has given a great value to madder spirit. M. Santel, of Sorgues, tested the process, which is as simple as it is ingenious. The process consists in passing a jet of * In the establishment of Arthur & Hinshaw, at Edinburgh, the fermentation is spontaneous or artificial. Leaven does not appear to hasten or modify the operation.— Translator. 192 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. alcoholic vapor into a distilling column charged with charcoal in coarse powder. This charcoal absorbs the empyreumatic oils contained in the spirit, and alcohol is thus obtained of good flavor, or rather without any sort of flavor. The coal used by M. Sautel is prepared from willow, poplar, or birch. The wood is inclosed in retorts and distilled. It requires 600 or 700 kilogrammes of green wood to make 100 kilogrammes of charcoal. The cost of production is 20 francs. With 100 kilogrammes 5 hectolitres of alcohol are rectified. The coal loses 10 per cent, of its value every time it is used. It may be revived by reheating it in the retort. The cost is almost nothing. It is obvious from these figures that the process of Pongoski is but little dearer than the common process, and that it may be applied to the rectification of beet spirit. The attempt has already been made at Lille and with success. M. Pongoski also applied his discovery to the rectification of pyroligneous acid; he thus avoided many successive distillations and obtained an article of good flavor at the first jet. His distilling apparatus is like any other; only he adds a second column, in which he effects the absorp- tion of the essential oils. It is proper to state that a little more pressure is necessary. The apparatus of M. Sautel was constructed at Sorgues. It yields 150 litres, at 95°, per hour. This is a little too strong, and is subject to some loss in transportation; but it may be reduced to 90° by the addition of water. M. Sautel made alcohol of 100° by a process pecu- liar to himself, and sold it for three francs the litre. By the use of charcoal, he made ether of good flavor at the first operation. His factory is in operation only eight or nine months of the year. The unpleasantness be- tween the states of North America has very much re- duced the demand for flowers of madder. On the day of my visit, M. San tel paid francs for backings, at 86°, without the barrel. In Paris, at that OBSERVATIONS ON DIFFERENT KINDS OF ALCOHOL. 193 time, beet spirit was worth 68 francs. The difference between backings (fleymes) and rectified trois-six is always from 20 to 22 francs. The rectification which costs eight or ten francs is always reckoned at fifteen or sixteen francs by the seller. The pipe of six hectolitres costs twenty-four francs; it is reckoned at the rate of six francs to the hectolitre. The sales are made at 90°, as is done with the alcohol of the beet. Backings, as well as rectified trois-six, are stored in stone cisterns. The production of the department of Vaucluse is, according to M. Sautel, from 1800 to 2000 pipes per annum. This is small when compared with the alcohol formerly produced from the wines of the South of France, which is estimated at 120,000 pipes. At present, not more than 25,000 or 30,000 pipes are made from wine. In the north, the amount produced is not exactly known, because the beet is sometimes con- verted into alcohol, and sometimes into sugar. Last year the north produced 190,000,000 kilogrammes of sugar, and 130,000 pipes of alcohol. The 2000 pipes which are produced from madder do not then make much impression on the market. Madder spirit rectified, according to the process of Pongoski, is sold as alcohol of good flavor, and for the same purposes. At the rate of 68 francs, the 12,000 hectolitres so produced, are worth more than 800, 000 francs, which, before the discovery of M. Julian, was suffered every year to flow into the sea. Our grati- tude is therefore due to M. Julian for his happy idea, and the more so, since the manufacturers of madder reduce the price of their product by the value of the alcohol obtained from the waste washings. It is in this way that each new discovery tends to lower prices, and improve the condition of the consumer. General Observations on the Different Kinds of Alcohol. From what has been said about the different varieties of alcohol, we draw the following conclusions:— 194 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. 1. That the processes used for distillation are always the same. 2. That they only differ in the methods adopted for preparing the materials for fermentation. 3. That all substances, whether vegetable or not, which contain sugar, glucose, or any principle that may be converted into either, are susceptible of passing through the alcoholic fermentation. 4. That, to obtain this result, it is sufficient to set free the saccharine matter by rasping, pressure, maceration, and saccharification. 5. That this saccharine matter must be diluted, when necessary, with a sufficient quantity of water, to cause the liquid to mark five or six degrees on the areometer of Baumd. 6. And that, in conclusion, alcohol should be extracted only from those substances which, by their moderate price, or the facility of their production, will enable it to compete with spirits of wine, or the trois-six of Montpellier, either in price or quality. CHAP TEE VII. RECTIFICATION. Tiie object of rectification is to increase the spiritu- osity or standard of alcoholic liquids, which have already been distilled, and at the same time remove those sub- stances which give them a bad flavor. This operation is based on the difference of volatility between these substances and alcohol. The spirits obtained by the various processes which we have described do not always possess that purity which is required in trade, although they may be of the proper alcoholic standard ; it is important, therefore, to rectify them in order to remove the peculiar and dis- agreeable flavor derived from the various foreign sub- RECTIFICATION. 195 stances accompanying them. It is frequently necessary to make a second rectification to have the purification perfect. Before entering into the details of rectification, and in order to have a better comprehension of this opera- tion, it is proper to be acquainted with the substances which mar the purity of the alcohol, and the different causes that exercise an influence on its quality. Among these, the essential oils and acids occupy the first rank; then comes the action of heat. Indeed, the products of rectification are of different natures. The first, that is, those which flow at first, contain highly volatile, ethereal principles, in greater or less quantities, according to the perfection of the fermentation; they have a suffo- cating and disagreeable odor, due to the presence of a certain quantity of aldehyde, and usually have a light yellow color. The second are generally purer and without color, and -are endowed with a sweeter and more pleasant flavor; it is from such products that the well-flavored (bon gout) trois-six is obtained. The third are much less pure; they contain an appreciable quantity of amylic alcohol; that is to say, alcohol mixed with a great quantity of essential oil; their odor is strong and disagreeable. Finally, the last products consist only of essential oils, almost pure and of a repulsive odor. Essential Oils.—We have already said that alcohol is the result of the decomposition of the saccharine prin- ciple, which takes place during the vinous or alcoholic fermentation. We should add, that from whatever sub- stance obtained, it is, chemically speaking, identically the same. This truth is incontrovertible; but it is im- possible to doubt that if all alcohols have the same chemical properties, their tastes and odors are as various as the substances from which they are obtained. It may be remarked that the various raw materials are distin- guished by the peculiar aroma and distinct shades of flavor in the alcohols which they produce. It is by this means that we recognize at once not only the alcohol from cher- ries, beets, or molasses, together with that from the grape; but we find a decided difference between the brandies 196 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. of Languedoc, Cognac, and Montpellier, &c., although all these brandies are produced from the fermented juice of the grape. Now, to understand the solution of the problem which ■we have in hand, it will be sufficient to recall the fact that plants, roots, flowers, fruits, &c., owe their perfumes to the presence of an essential oil, soluble for the most part in alcohol, and that this essential oil varies in its perfume not only for each particular substance, but even in the same plant according to soil and season. The essential oils, so various in their perfume, affect the organs of taste as well as those of smell; the taste of the rose is readily distinguished from that of the orange flower. Therefore, since these oils exert such a decided action on the senses, and as they differ in each substance, it is evident that to obtain a spirit free from peculiar flavor, it is necessary to deprive it of the essential oil which it may hold in solution. We shall describe more particularly the peculiar characters of the essential oils, when we come to treat of aromatic waters and spirits. They are volatilized at a heat not exceeding 100 degrees, and often much below, although they do not begin to boil until heated to 130 or 150 degrees; they are also very soluble in alcohol, and but little so in water. After what has been said, if we recollect the prin- ciples of distillation, it will be easy to separate the alcohol from this essential oil, because it requires a higher temperature to volatilize it than to drive off the alcohol in the form of vapor; and it is ascertained that the more nearly alcohol approaches a state of purity, the more readily it is separated from the essential oil, be- cause a heat of 78 degrees is sufficient for the vaporiza- tion of the former. This principle established, we can easily preserve in an alcohol the perfume which is agreeable to the consumers, or extract that which is disagreeable. If we desire to test the presence of essential oils in lion-rectified brandies, it will be sufficient to take Cognac brandy, for example, and rectify it with the necessary care; if this spirit is diluted with water, it will be found RECTIFICATION. 197 that it no longer has the flavor of Cognac; the essential oils have not then been volatilized, and the agreeable bouquet which constituted the real merit of this brandy has disappeared. Potato spirit may afford another example. Carefully rectified, it yields a considerable quantity of essential oil, which may be burned in a lamp, and a single drop of which is sufficient to communicate to many litres of good brandy that nauseous flavor and harsh taste so recognizable in ill rectified spirits made from amylaceous substances. It is the same with brandy made from the marc of grape (pomace). The most conclusive example that we can give of the presence of essential oils in non-rectified brandy, and that the quantity which is vaporized is in proportion to the temperature necessary to the vaporization of the alcohol, according as the latter approaches a state of purity, is the nebulous tint of the feints (low wines) ; for the weaker the alcohol the more nearly must the tempera- ture necessary to vaporize it approach that of boiling water; then the essential oil, finding a temperature better adapted to its vaporization, will pass over into the receiver in greater quantity. We have said that essential oil is very soluble in alco- hol, and but little so in water; it follows, then, that the weaker the alcohol the less essential oil will it dissolve; this occasions the nebulous appearance of the feints ; for the great quantity of essential oils and the feeble strength of the alcohol they contain, both concur in leaving the essential oil in a state of suspension. If a proof of this fact is desired, it is only necessary to add a few drops of any essential oil to a rectified alcohol; the oil dissolves at once; if then a large quantity of water is added to this aromatized alcohol, its solvent power being greatly di- minished, the mixture will become clouded; this is what happens when cologne, essence of lemon, or fine absinthe is mixed with water. It has been attempted by an infinite number of methods to remove or destroy the bad flavor which the essential oils give to alcohol, and a number of chemical agents 198 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. have been employed for attaining this result; but up to the present time none of these agents have fulfilled the object in view, and most of them communicate to alco- hol properties peculiar to themselves which are more in- jurious than useful. Frequently they only mask for a longer or shorter time the odor which it is desired to remove, and which will reappear with more force than ever. The alkalies, lime, soda, and potassa, act only to a slight degree on the essential oils, for to convert them into soap it is requisite that they should be resinified by the action of oxygen, which cannot take place in the condition in which they are found with alcohol. In the rectification of alcohol, the use of muriates, silicates, bo- rax, alumina, tannin, charcoal, plaster, magnesia, and clay, produces imperfect results. The action of some acids upon the essential oils is, it is true, very energetic, but it is necessary that these acids should be concentrated; for example, sulphuric acid resinifies and carbonizes them; hydrochloric acid dissolves them; nitric acid also dissolves them and con- verts them into a substance very nearly approaching the resinous state, if it is diluted with water in proper pro- portions; if it is concentrated it causes them to burst into fiame. It is necessary, then, that on the one hand the acid should be concentrated, and on the other, the essential oil should be brought in contact with it in a state of purity. But what can be expected of these reagents when they are dissolved in a great quantity of water and the essential oil itself is in a state of minute division ? Chlorine and the chlorides mask the odor of essential oils for a time, but do not remove it, and the liquids which have been treated by them, when exposed for some time to the air, or when kept in store casks not only resume their original odor, but it is increased by the emanations of chlorine, which render them unfit for the manufacture of brandy and liquors. It is proper to conclude, then, from what has just been said, that rectification conducted with care and intelli- RECTIFICATION. 199 gence is the only means of destroying the odor of alco- hols in a satisfactory manner. Acids.—The essential oils, by the agreeable or repulsive odor which they diffuse, are not alone in contributing to the good or bad quality of alcohol. The presence of certain acids may also play an important part, although a secondary one, in giving a sharp and biting taste which will affect the consumer unpleasantly. This fact was established conclusively by Parmentier. The troops had complained for a long time that detestable brandy was issued to them; no other could be had, and the sol- diers murmured. Parmentier was consulted; he exam- ined the brandy and found the taste horrible; in seeking the cause, which could not escape his sagacity, he recog- nized the presence of an acid. He at once saturated it with ammonia, and the brandy became palatable. All fermented liquids contain acids of different kinds and in variable proportions, according as the acids are the result of the fermentation, or are the product of the fermentable materials. Thus, all grape wines will furnish tartaric acid, and sometimes carbonic and acetic acids; cider, perry, the wines of cherries and gooseber- ries, yield malic acid; the wines of molasses, beets, grains, potatoes, etc., generally yield acetic acid, al- though these substances do not contain it; this acid is formed spontaneously during the vinous fermentation, and it may also be the result of a fermentation more or less acidified. These last wines may also contain lactic acid as the product of a vicious fermentation. Like the essential oils, the acids require for their va- porization a higher temperature than is necessary for water; the result is, that whenever it is desirable to pre- serve the aroma of a spirit, the acids are also retained, and vice versa. The presence of acids in liquids which it is desired to subject to rectification, and particularly acetic acid, facilitates their combination with alcohol, and gives rise to different ethereal principles endowed with very great volatility. These principles, as soon as the liquids 200 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. are heated, pass off, at first, in a gaseous state, next they mingle with the first products and bring along with them a certain quantity of essential oil, especially in potato and beet spirit. We see then that acetic acid not only destroys a portion of the alcohol during the vinous fermentation, but that also, by its presence in the spirits, it proves very injurious to the quantity of the mass unless it is saturated by an alkali, especially lime. Action of Heat.—The excessive action of heat on liquids which are subjected to distillation by the open fire has been known for a long time, and its influence on the flavor of the spirits has been well understood by distillers. Indeed, these liquids contain mucilagi- nous substances which attach themselves to the bottom or sides of the boiler which receive the heat directly and are decomposed, thus producing acetic acid and an acrid empyreumatic oil; so the peculiar taste of the still is generally known by the name of empyreuma; independently of this taste the heat when pushed ac- tively causes the essential oils to pass over. We may well conceive that rectification should be employed to deprive the alcohol of the products of this decomposi- tion, for the prevention of which the process of distilling by the water bath and by steam has been adopted. Now that we know the causes which produce the offensive flavor, it becomes our duty to indicate the means, by the aid of which, we may diminish or remove it. These means resolve themselves into the saturation of the acids, and separating the product (fractionnement des produits). The saturation of the acids is effected by caustic lime, in the proportion of fifty grammes to the hectolitre of spirits to be rectified, having first mixed it with a suffi- cient quantity of water to make it of the consistency of cream. This proportion of lime is not absolute. It may be increased or diminished as the liquid is more or less acid; nevertheless this is about the quantity that has succeeded best in our hands in the rectification of alco- hol from beets. Soda and potash may be employed for the same pur- MANAGEMENT AND PROGRESS OF RECTIFICATION. 201 pose instead of lime, but the latter is much cheaper, and answers exactly the same purpose. When the liquid has been properly neutralized, as shown by the use of litmus paper, the rectification is proceeded with, without drawing off the clear liquor, as the lime does not interfere with the distillation. The separation of products resulting from the rectifi- cation, is the first condition of the quality of the spirits. This operation requires great skill in tasting, and much care, for the products which pass over at the beginning, and at the end of the rectification, are strongly sapid and odorous, while those which pass over during the middle of the operation, are more or less free from taste and smell. M. Ch. Derosne was the first to point out this important fact, and for a long time it was con- sidered a great secret by the rectifiers. It would be very difficult to indicate the moment when the liquid should be separated, that is to say, when the pure product should be collected; this is regulated by the nature of the spirits rectified; some may be pure twenty or thirty minutes after they have attained the desired degree, and some others run pure only an hour or hour and a half, sometimes even more, after they have attained the required degree. It is necessary to taste the product frequently, taking care to dilute it with water, or to pour a few drops into the hands, and after striking the hands together quickly to see if, by the odor, the alcohol is acceptable or not; these two means may be applied simultaneously. The separation is, as we have seen, a delicate operation, requiring a certain amount of skill. Management and Progress of Rectification. Kectification by means of the apparatus described at page 75, Figs. 1 and 2, PL V., is conducted as follows:— The still A is filled four-fifths full with spirit, of less than 50°. The condenser E and the cooler G are filled with water; then the cocks I and V are examined to see that they are closed. Everything being thus arranged, 202 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. steam is turned on carefully, so as to heat the liquid gradually, in order that the operation may be slow, but continuous. The alcoholic vapor soon rises above the first plates a of the first section of the column B B B, and passes entirely through the latter, and by way of the cap C and the pipe D into the condenser E. Imme- diately on reaching the lentils, dd1, this vapor is condensed, and returned upon the upper plates of the column B through the return pipes / and f1 and g and gl, where it is volatilized and constantly recharged with alcohol, to be again recondensed until the water in the conden- ser is sufficiently heated to permit the lighter alcoholic vapor to pass into the convolutions of the horizontal coil c c c without being reduced to the liquid form. As soon as the water in the condenser E is sufficiently warm, the vapor passes by the pipe F into the cooler G, where it is converted into a liquid as it comes over. This is the point at which the closest attention should be paid to the heating, because it may happen that the va- por, by heating too abundantly, may not be entirely con- densed, and may pass off in a gaseous state, or may flow off as hot liquid. The first product of the distillation always contains the ethereal principles which are generally the least abundant; that which follows is more or less pure; then follows, in due course, well-flavored alcohol; and last, the product containing the essential oils, which, in some substances, are quite abundant. Each product should be separated and set aside, so that those which are most contaminated with impurities shall not be mixed with those which are least so. It must be remarked that well- flavored alcohol can be obtained only when the strength is kept between 92° and 96°. Generally, the liquid must be heated for two or three hours before the first flow of the rectification, because the distillation is effected within the apparatus, and by means of the return pipes which return the heavier por- tions to the twenty plates of the column to be purified and recharged anew. The importance of this return of the spirits has been sufficiently demonstrated in speaking MANAGEMENT AND PROGRESS OF RECTIFICATION. 203 of the apparatus of Derosne, and we may be excused from repeating it. Care should be taken during the progress of the recti- fication to keep up a constant supply of fresh water in the cooler, so that the liquor may always flow quite cold, without, however, reducing the temperature so low as to interrupt the operation, which will certainly happen if the cap of the cooler is not kept moderately warm; because, in that case, the cold water, by reason of its weight being greater than the warm water, will immedi- ately pass through the latter into the condenser, and will then rapidly condense the alcoholic vapors, which, instead of passing into the cooler, will return to the column by the return pipes. The operation is complete when the liquor which flows through the proof vessel marks not more than 3° or 4°; but it is better to suspend the operation as soon as the heavy phlegm (backings or feints) indicates 10°, because the product which then passes over is highly charged with essential oils, and is not worth the time spent in saving it. Moreover, this last product, by reason of its nature, adheres strongly to the surface of the plates and the coils, and renders the cleaning much more difficult. The apparatus should be cleansed as soon as the ope- ration is finished, so as to take advantage of the hot water in the condenser. For this purpose the stopcock Q is opened to draw off the water contained in the boiler A; then the cock J of the pipe K is opened to empty the hot water from the condenser on to the plates, to remove the essential oils which remain in them. The condenser and boiler being empty, the cocks J and Q are closed, and the plate U i-s removed; then by means of a pipe, the water in the cooler Q is entirely emptied into the boiler A, so that the steam coil may be covered to the depth of 18 or 20 centimeters. When this has been done, the screw plate U is returned to its place and secured, and a strong heat applied. Ebullition soon be- gins, and the steam which escapes from the boiler in great abundance, carries with it all the essential oils ad- hering to the different parts of the apparatus. After 204 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. fifteen or twenty minutes, when it is perceived that the steam no longer has any taste, the heat is cut off, and the apparatus left to cool gradually, in order to avoid cracking the soldered joints by cooling too quickly. Iffie application of steam as a means of heating in rectification is without contradiction the best of all, but if the operation is conducted over the open fire, care must be taken not to allow the naked bottom of the still to be exposed to the fire when the waste liquor is drawn off from the boiler; it must never be entirely emptied, but must remain covered by at least ten centimeters of liquid. The bad-flavored spirits resulting from rectification may be rectified anew by adding to them nearly an equal quantity of water, so that they may be at 40 or 50 de- grees Cent.; this addition of water is indispensable to set the essential oils free, and it is for this reason that we said above that alcohol should never be rectified at a higher degree than 50°. This method may at first glance appear to be contrary to the principles we have laid down, in saying that the more nearly alcohol approaches a state of purity the more readily it is deprived of its essential oils and acids, in view of the low temperature at which it is vaporized. But it must also be observed that alcohol, having a strong affinity for essential oils, when it is concentrated, dis- solves them in large proportions, and forms with them an intimate union. It is in this manner that the aromatic spirits and es- sences, of which we shall speak hereafter, which con- tain a large quantity of different essential oils, pass over by distillation entirely without change of character, while, if they be diluted with two or three times their volume of water before being rectified, the alcohol, which has greater affinity for the water than it has for the es- sential oils, will separate from the latter to unite with the water, and the essential oils will be set free. The liquid, then, which results from this rectification will be almost entirely free from the essential oils which will be found in the boiler of the rectifying apparatus, collected together on the surface of the fluid contained therein. PURIFICATION OF PHLEGM. 205 The last products of the rectification, that is to say, the feints or backings should, on account of the large quantity of essential oil they contain, be made the object of a special rectification. The alcohol obtained from them, it matters not what care has been taken with the opera- tion, still retains a very unpleasant odor, of which it can only be deprived by many rectifications. We have often been asked what is the proportion of well-flavored alcohol that can be obtained from a successful rectification. This question is very difficult to be answered. The proportion is very variable; it is dependent on the nature of the liquor to be rectified, on the method of extracting the saccharine matter, and on the manner of distilling. The quantity of well-flavored alcohol ob- tained will be in inverse proportion to the quantity of essential oils contained in the liquor. The loss by rectification is usually estimated at five per cent, of pure alcohol. It must be observed that the capacity of the rectifying apparatus has a very great influence on the production of trois-six of good flavor (bon gout). Small apparatuses will not furnish the same quantity in proportion ; they are always more difficult to manage, and the stream of flow has not the regularity which characterizes the large apparatus. It is certain that the more extensive the ap- paratus the better will be the quality and the larger the quantity of the trois-six obtained. Purification of (Backings) Phlegm (Spirits of bad taste, from Beets, Potatoes, Grain, &c.). By M. Ortlin. The first process is founded on the oxidation of the substances infecting the alcohol, by means of hypochlor- ous acid, which renders the offending substance highly volatile, and facilitates its separation from the alcohol by distillation. For ten hectolitres of alcohol, 1st, dissolve one kilo- gramme of chlorate of potash in a sufficient quantity of boiling water, and add this solution to the alcohol, stir- ring it thoroughly; 2d, three and a half kilogrammes of commercial hydrochloric acid are added and well 206 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. mixed. After digesting 24 hours, during which it is occasionally stirred, it is distilled in the usual way; managing the fire so that the alcoholic vapors shall be at a higher temperature than 45° Cent., when they reach the cooler. The product is purified alcohol. The dose varies with the amount of impurities contained in the alcohol. In the second process, for ten hectolitres of badly flavored alcohol, dissolve 1.6 kilogramme of bichro- mate of potash in five litres of hot water; this solution is mixed with the alcohol, which has been previously diluted with four hectolitres of water; after being well stirred, 1.9 kilogramme of sulphuric acid at 06°, diluted with 1.3 kilogramme of water, is added. They are mixed by prolonged stirring. After being digested for several days, and the liquid from being yellow has changed to green, five hectolitres of water are added, and it is distilled in some good apparatus. The separated pro- duct of this rectification is purified alcohol. The pro- portion will be diminished on account of the removal of the infecting substances. The bichromate of potash, under the influence of the sulphuric acid, parts with one-half of its oxygen, and produces the sesquioxide of chromium; the free and nascent oxygen unites with the amylic alcohol, pro- ducing valerianic acid, which is much less volatile than alcohol, and does not pass over during the rectification. CHAPTER VIII. DISTILLATION OP BRANDIES. Spirit, the density of which varies between 40° and 60°, is generally called brandy (eau de vie); but this name is most usually applied to the product of the dis- tillation of wine, although we do say (in France) grain brandy, cider brandy, &c. Brandy is, therefore, only a 207 BRANDIES FROM WINE. mixture of alcohol and water, obtained by distilling fer- mented liquids, and which contains in addition certain foreign substances that are peculiar to these liquids, such as acetic, and hydrocyanic acids, a volatile oil, and espe- cially a coloring matter which it extracts from the casks in which it is stored. The distillation of brandies, unlike that of alcohol (or spirits heretofore described), is so conducted as to pre- serve in the spirits the aroma which distinguishes them, and which constitutes their peculiar merit. This opera- tion should be effected on the principles hitherto set forth, and by means of the apparatus of Derosne or Egrot, or by a simple apparatus, as is done in many places; but in the last case the product must be redis- tilled, in order that it may have the proper degree of alcoholic strength. Brandies from Wine. The quality of brandies is dependent on many cir- cumstances, especially the maturity of the grapes, the perfection of the expressed juice; the care given to managing the vinification; on the conduct of the distilla- tion of the wine, which should be observed carefully to prevent the extractive matter from being burnt during the operation ; on the intimate union of the volatile prin- ciples with the alcohol during the distillation; on the aroma of the wine which has been more or less retained in the product of distillation, &c. &c. The quality of brandies depends, too, on the age of the wines; on their variety and state of preservation ; for all wines are not equally suited to the manufacture of good brandies. Old wines yield a much better article than the new. The product of sweet wines is excellent. Spoiled (turned) wines produce brandy of very in- ferior quality. White wines are preferable to red wines for distillation, because, as a general rule, they yield better brandy than the latter. This results from their not having been vatted on the skins and stalks of the grape. They contain a much smaller proportion of the essen- 208 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. tial oils which are found in the husk of the seed, and which dissolve in the must under the influence of the alcohol generated during the fermentation. It is remarked that, as a general rule, the wines which produce the best brandies; those of Charentes, for example, are more or less inferior as table wines, and are quite difficult of preservation. They are called Vim de Ghaudiere. Wines that have the taste of the soil communicate it to the brandy extracted from them. This is the reason that the wines of Seyssel and Dauphine yield a brandy having the odor and flavor of the Florentine iris, while those of Saint Peray yield a brandy with the odor of violets, and we observe the taste of brimstone in the wines of Cote-Botie, that of slate in the wines of Mo- selle, that of amber in the wines of Holstein, &c. When brandy has just been made it is colorless. If it is immediately bottled, as is done with Kirchenwasser, it will never acquire any color; but as it is usual to preserve it in oak hogsheads, it attacks and dissolves a certain quantity of coloring and extractive matter from the wood, and then acquires a reddish-yellow tint. Brandy should be very clear, very white when new; a light amber tint if three or four years old, and very yellow if it is very old. It ought to be agreeable to the taste, or at least should be free from empyreumatic and foreign flavors. Brandies are greatly improved by age. They lose a little of their alcohol when kept in barrels; but their elements combine more intimately; they lose the slight taste of the still, which the most carefully prepared brandies retain for some time, and they become at last more oily and more potable. Brandies are easily preserved, as temperature exercises no influence on their quality. To prevent evaporation, they should be carefully sealed; for it costs a good deal to keep brandies, especially when they are new. The brandies most esteemed are those of the depart- ment of Charente ; and the cantons which yield the best 209 BRANDIES FROM WINE. are Champtagne, canton of Blanzac, 16 kilometers from Angouleme; the country of Cognac; that of Jarnac on the right bank of Charente, 12 kilometers from Cognac; Rouillac, 22 kilometers northwest of Angou- leme, and 20 kilometers northeast of Cognac; Aigre, 21 kilometers from Ruffec. All the brandies of this department, and those of some cantons of Charente-In- ferieure are known to the trade as Cognacs, and parti- cipate more or less in the qualities of those we have cited. Generally all of these brandies are noted for a purity of flavor and delicacy of perfume which is at- tempted to be imitated in vain. Champagne brandies are divided into two sorts, or two different qualities; the first is known as fine Cham- pagne, and the second as country brandy (des hois); the latter not so highly prized. Next to the Cognacs, the brandies of Saint-Jean- d'Angely are most highly esteemed. Their softness and purity of taste often cause them to be confounded with the former. The brandies of Charente-Inferieure are known un- der the name of Cognacs of Saintonge and of Aunis. They have much less reputation and quality than those of Charente, because of a certain taste of the soil which is peculiar to them, and because of their wanting in delicacy. The brandies of Sargeres, Mauze, and Rochelle are different varieties from this department. The first are most esteemed. The brandies of the two Charentes, as made, weigh usually from 60° to 68°, but they are delivered to the trade only at from 58° to 60° ; the medium, aged and old brandies are put on the market at from 49° to 59° (Cen- tesimal). All of them are put up in very neat and well-hooped barrels. The casks (barriques) contain from 300 to 350 litres; the vessels of less capacity are called quarters. The brandies of Marraande are manufactured in the department of Lot-et-Garonne. Although quite fine, they have an earthy taste, which reduces them to the rank of common brandies. 210 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Among the common brandies, those of Armagnac hold the first place; they are distinguished by a taste of the soil, which is quite pleasant and improves very much by age. They are manufactured in the departments of Gers, of Upper and Lower Pyrenees, as well as in the Eastern Pyrenees; they are sent to market gauged at 50°, in tolerably well-constructed tierces of very thick wood, 'which contain 400 litres or more. The brandies of Montpellier are the most common and least sought after. They have a very feeble bou- quet, and but little delicacy. They are put on the mar- ket in casks; their alcoholic strength varies from 50 to 60 degrees. There are few vine-growing countries that do not pro- duce brandy. The departments which produce the most, after those already named, are, Ardeche, Aude, Bouches-du-Rhone, Dordogne, Gard, Haute-Garonne, Herault, Landes, Loir-et-Cher, Loire-Inferieure, &c. The name of proof is given to the different degrees of potable brandies; thus, the preuve de Hollctnde* cor- responds to 19 degrees Cartier, or to 50° centesimal. A liquor of this degree, when agitated in a glass vial, produces small bubbles, which will remain for a while; this happens neither for a higher nor a lower degree of strength. The brandy trade is subject to great vicissitudes, on which the price of the commodity depends. These vicissitudes induce very uncertain speculations, which may result in heavy profit or as serious loss to the ope- rator. It is also subject to the chances caused by a good or bad wine crop. These circumstances will soon be learned by a tradesman who follows his business with any skill. His prudence will teach him to lay in his stock during those years when brandies are at a mode- rate price ; but as brandy in store is the occasion of much expense, it is necessary to know how to calculate this * Brandy is now regarded of good quality and proper standard when, after being violently shaken in a vial not quite full, it makes a bead, that is to say, forms a circle of small bubbles which arrange them- selves against the inner wall of the vessel on the surface of the liquid. This is what is called preuve de llollande, or Dutch Standard. BRANDT FROM THE GRAPE POMACE. 211 expense, together with the profit which an advantageous sale will produce. In this calculation he should take into consideration the value he wTould receive, if his money had been put at interest. It is rare that five years in succession pass without there being a scarcity of brandy which causes the prices to advance consider- ably, thus giving the dealer who has a stock on hand a profit far above his expenses and the interest on his money. (Marc Brandy) Brandy from the Grape Pomace (Marc de raisin). All vine-growing countries produce marc brandy. Languedoc, especially, furnishes it in great quantity, converted into spirit of wine, or trois-six, which is di- luted or reduced to make the marc brandy. Burgundy, Champagne, and Lorraine distil a good deal, and the production of these countries is always insufficient for their own consumption. The marc of the grape, notwithstanding the care that may be taken in pressing it, always contains a certain quantity of wine, and consequently alcohol. In the south there remains in the marc a certain portion of sugar that has escaped the vinous fermentation, which is always incomplete, and of which the most energetic pressure cannot deprive it. This sugar, being decom- posed, will still further increase the volume of spirits. Usually the process for obtaining marc brandy is very objectionable ; the following is the method pursued in vine-growing countries :— The marc, on leaving the press, is borne to a deep pit dug in the earth; sometimes plastered with clay, in which it is packed and pressed as it is brought. When the pit is full, it is covered with straw, vine leaves, and twigs, over which is thrown a thick bed of earth to prevent contact with the air. The whole is left to ferment for about six weeks. When it is thought that the fermentation is com- pleted, they commence to distil the marc. For this purpose the boiler of a simple still, having a grating on 212 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. the bottom, is filled to about three-fourths with the marc, then a sufficient quantity of water is poured in to pre- vent the marc from burning in the still. It is then closed by luting, and heat applied. The first product of this operation is very weak, and must be rectified or re- distilled to produce potable brandy at 50 degrees. The marc, thus submitted to a sort of dry fermenta- tion, evolves an amount of heat sufficient to decompose it promptly, and cause it partly to putrefy if care is not taken to be assured from time to time whether the fer- mentation is completed. A preferable method, which is adopted by some pro- prietors, consists of mixing the marc in a vat with tepid water at 25 to 30 degrees, to cause a new fermentation from which is drawn a light wine called piquette, and which is distilled separately. The marc is then distilled with a small quantity of water. The better process for distilling the marc,in our opinion, consists in fermenting it with a small quantity of tepid water in a hermetically closed vat, then to draw off the liquid and use it to fill the still, the steam from which might be utilized for distilling the marc in a cylindrical apparatus of very simple construction. By this means would be obtained at the first jet a brandy at from 50 to 55 degrees free from empyreuma, and infinitely superior to that obtained by any other process now in use. Brandy from the marc has a very disagreeable odor, and always retains an acid and penetrating taste which it is very difficult to remove. This insupportable taste is due to the presence of an essential oil, which, accord- ing to M. Aubergier, exists already formed in the skin of the grape, and which is not developed in the course of and by the distillation, as has hitherto been thought. This chemist, on rectifying some marc brandy in a water bath, with a very gentle heat at the beginning of the operation, and regulated so as to obtain a spirit at 36 degrees Cartier, perceived that the first portion of alco- hol was partly free from the acid principle which strongly impregnated the brandy he rectified. “ I undertook," said he, “ to repeat the operation, and BRANDY FROM THE GRAPE POMACE. 213 divided the product into three parts; the first consti- tuting all the spirits drawn off up to the period when I ascertained that the admixture of a small quantity of water caused it to become a little milky; I changed the receiver, and that which came over, until it became necessary to increase the heat sufficiently to cause the liquor to flow in a continuous thread, constituted my second product. After having continued the heat in or- der to draw off all the alcohol contained in the liquor, I obtained for my third product only a thick milky liquid. “ I took the first product, and after repeated distilla- tions with gentle heat, I obtained an alcohol almost free from the odor of marc brandy. I conceived the hope, that on repeating the rectification I might obtain a spirit free from this bad taste, but I tried in vain through three other operations; my alcohol has not the most agreeable flavor, and I think it altogether im- possible to free it from a principle so tenacious. “ I redistilled the second product many times with a gentle heat, so as to draw off one nearly three-fourths of a tolerably pure alcohol, and the rest highly charged with oil. Finally, on rectifying the third product, I obtained one-third of alcohol like the foregoing; I then added the last fourth of the second product to the remaining two- thirds, thus highly charged with oil. In subjecting this to a new distillation the first portion obtained was scarcely troubled on being mixed with water, an evident sign that it contained very little oil. The second, which I permitted to run so long as it was limpid, contained a much greater quantity of oil, the presence of which was easily detected pouring the spirit into water, when it was immediately clouded. Here I changed the receiver and continued the distillation, but at the end of the ope- ration I only obtained a milky liquor, having on its surface a thin stratum of oil, notwithstanding, this last product was at twenty-three degrees by the areometer of Baume. “ Finally, on re-uniting this last product to the second and adding enough water to reduce the mixture to fifteen degrees of Baume, the liquor became at once very 214 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. opaque, and was, a quarter of an hour afterwards, co- vered with quite a considerable quantity of oil, which I collected with the greatest care. It appears to me that this oil is entirely volatile, since after more than ten dis- tillations it has not left the least trace of its presence in the residuum remaining in the water bath. I may also remark, that this residuum having been subjected to very violent ebullition, was impregnated with neither the taste nor odor which characterize marc brandy. “ This oily principle has all the properties of the essen- tial oils; its peculiar aroma, the acrid and insupportable taste which is also peculiar, prevents its being confounded with any of its kind, and authorizes me to give it the name of volatile oil of the grape. The following are its chemical properties:— “1, It is very limpid and without color at the mo- ment of its separation from the alcohol; but light causes it in a short time to assume a light lemon tint. “2. Its odor is penetrating, its taste is very acrid and insupportable; both the odor and taste are peculiar to it. “ 3. It is very fluid. u4. It burns with a blue flame, diffusing in the air the odor of marc brandy. “ 5. When subjected to distillation the first portions which are volatilized preserve the aroma, but the pro- duct acquires an empyreumatic odor, which causes me to suspect that it may contain a small quantity of fixed oil derived from the seed. The liquor contained in the retort very soon acquires a lemon color which deepens during the operation, and leaves a very light but incon- siderable carbonized residuum, which induces me to be- lieve that this volatile oil is somewhat less light than others. “ 6. It dissolves in one thousand parts of water, im- parting to it both its odor and taste. “ 7. It dissolves sulphur when in a state of ebullition, and deposits it when cold. “ 8. Finally it forms soaps with the alkalies. 215 BRANDY FROM THE GRAPE POMACE. “ I obtained nearly 32 grammes of this oil from 150 litres of brandy. “ Its aromatic odor sui generis caused me to think that it was not, like empyreumatic oil, the product of distil- lation, as has been believed up to the present time, but rather a volatile oil peculiar to the grape, and which must have its place in one of its parts. “ I then distilled all of the parts of the grape one after the other and separately. “ The seeds diluted with alcohol yielded quite a trans- parent liquor, having the very agreeable flavor of the almond. This same almond flavor is also reproduced by a distillation of grape seed with simple water. It is not, then, the seed which imparts to marc brandy the unpleasant flavor which characterizes it. The stems, when distilled, only produce a very slightly alcoholic liquor. “ But the skin or envelope of the grape, when sepa- rated from the seed and the berry, and alone subjected to fermentation and distillation, yields a brandy alto- gether like that from the marc. Therefore, I repeat, the disagreeable taste of those brandies does not come from an empyreumatic oil which is the product of dis- tillation; it is not due to acetic ether; nor yet, is it the effect of an oil contained in the seed, as has been pub- lished for many years. Its true cause is a volatile oily substance, contained only in the skin of the grape, hav- ing a taste and odor so acrid and penetrating that a single drop is sufficient to infect ten litres of the best brandy, and hence, I conclude that the brandies of Cog- nac and Andaye are superior to others, because they alone are obtained from the distillation of white wine, which, not being fermented on the grape, is not charged with this oil, which is the product of the skin alone.” M. Aubergier has also made many very interesting experiments in regard to the vinification and purification of brandies from wine and marc. He draws the follow- ing conclusions from his experiments :— 1. There exists a volatile oil of the grape. 2. This oil exists only in the envelope of the grape. 216 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. 3. It is this oil, improperly called empyreumatic, that infects the marc brandies. 4. On fermenting the must, separate from the pulp, the skin, and the seeds, in hogsheads having no other opening than that necessary for the escape of the car- bonic acid, a wine will be obtained, the distillation of which will yield the largest results in brandy of the best quality. 5. Two kinds of brandy may be obtained from this same marc. That obtained by washing will be equal in quality to the wine brandy, and the other will be no worse than ordinary marc brandy. 6. If magnesia is macerated with marc brandy from which a greater portion of the essential oil has been already removed, it will be completely, purified. Distilling Apparatus of M. Villard, of Lyons. M. Villard, of Lyons, has two kinds of apparatus specially intended for distilling the marc of grapes and other solid or semi-fluid substances which contain alco- hol. These apparatus will yield products far superior to those obtained from the common still. Indeed, until the invention of M. Villard became known, a peculiar coppery taste, and a greenish tint, were the inseparable characteristics of marc brandy. This disagreeable flavor might have been called the taste of the still. Some savants, among others M. Aubergier, attributed this to an empyreumatic oil, or to a volatile oil, derived especially from the skin of the grape. These were powerless to explain the coppery taste and the greenish tint which indicated the presence of copper. The ex- periments made by Mr. Higgins, of Jamaica, upon mo- lasses, which, when heated by the common methods, gives this empyreumatic taste, persuaded M. Villard that it was due to the solution of copper in the acetic ether, which, according to this chemist, is produced by the distil- lation of substances brought too directly in contact with a brisk fire, having a heat of 400° or 500°. If the vaporization of alcohol can be effected by means of an DISTILLING APPARATUS. 217 agent which does not yield so great a degree of heat, the steam of water, for example, which does not exceed a temperature of 100°, it is to be presumed that this heat being sufficient to vaporize the alcohol which is volatilized at 78°, cannot develop either the empyreumatic or peculiar oils of M. Aubergier, or the acetic ether of Mr. Higgins. M. Villard then determined to heat the substances to be distilled by driving through them a current of steam, which, by rapidly penetrating the strata of marc, as it were molecule by molecule, might disengage the alcohol without permitting, at the same time, the formation of essential oils or acetic ether. He has succeeded, not that he pretends to have entirely removed the taste which is peculiar to marc brandy, but his productions have neither the coppery taste, the green- ish tint, nor the flavor of still, wrhich is so remarkable in others, and which constitute a great part, if not the whole of the disagreeable flavor that affects this kind of spirits. Doubtless, the idea of continuous distillation by steam is not new, for many manufacturers have employed it; for a long time it has been public property. But inventors, whose principal object was the manufacture of trois-six, only occupied themselves with producing, by a continuous process, steam more or less saturated with alcohol, which, on leaving their receiver, was directed into the apparatus where the separation of the vapors was effected by the aid of coolers, more or less ingeni- ous, but always metallic. In 1847, M. Villard conceived the altogether novel idea of bringing into service, as a condenser, the sub- stance under treatment. Alcohol is vaporized at 78°, and water only at 100°. If under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere we direct into the bottom of the mass, a current of steam which very readily unites with alcohol, it is clear that the mass, when heated to 78°, will disengage its alcohol alone, until it has attained 100°. When this maximum temperature is reached, it will evolve the steam of water mixed with the alcohol that has not been driven off at a lower temperature, either because of its more 218 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. intimate union with the particles of the material under treatment, or because the temperature has been raised too rapidly for it to escape. It is proper, then, to heat the mass containing alcohol rapidly up to 78°, by the assistance of any medium which may serve as a vehicle for the alcohol in quantity, may unite with it readily, and which may be separated from it without difficulty; then to retard the elevation of the temperature to 100°, as much as possible, or to reduce it below that degree, if it should be unintention- ally reached. If the steam is driven into the more or less cold mass, the problem will be solved, and all the distillable spirit will find its way into the coil, if the following precau- tions are taken, viz.:— 1. To effect the elevation of temperature slowly, pro- gressively, and regularly, by making the refrigerant more compact and compelling the heat to penetrate it, layer by layer, or rather, atom by atom, which will enable "the substance most easily vaporizable to escape first. 2. To maintain the temperature below 100 degrees by an equally cold obstacle, which must be heated by it. The marc of the grape is well adapted to perform this office. A cold material, finely divided and penetrable, it may be compelled to take any desirable form or density. Why may it not then serve for a purifyer and condenser as well as metallic substances ? It is only necessary to arrange it in closely packed layers, to heat it slowly, and to press it somewhat against the vessel containing it so as to increase the adhesion and force the steam to follow a regular course of which the operator may be certain; for two bodies of different densities, like metal and marc, are never as completely united at their points of contact as two bodies of the same nature and the same density, and an agent thrust between them by any impelling force will support itself upon that which affords the strongest resistance to force a passage through the other, and find a way of escape. It is, therefore, evident that if the idea is adopted of employing the marc, or other solid substance, as a purifier DISTILLING APPARATUS. 219 and condenser, it is absolutely necessary, in order to its realization, to resort to its rational and methodical ar- rangement by packing regularly, and forcing it against the walls of the containing vessel. It is in this that the new invention, first conceived by M. Villard in 1847, con- sists, and of which his apparatuses of the present day are at bottom a new but very much improved application. The peculiar advantages presented by the apparatus of M. Villard will be so apparent to the educated and practical distiller, that we consider it scarcely worth while to go into any lengthy discussion of the subject. We may, however, remark that, in theory, his apparatus rests on three essential principles :— 1. Uniformity of pressure (one atmosphere). 2. A progressive difference in the specific gravity of the alcoholic vapors; alcohol being lighter than phlegm, phlegm lighter than water; the vapor of water being heavier than the vapor of the other two pushing them before it. 3. The difference between the degrees of heat neces- sary to the evaporation of alcohol and water. The application of these principles leads to a distilla- tion by analysis, in which the substance treated plays the part of condenser. The apparatuses used by M. Villard are of two kinds. The first consists, 1. Of a steam generator of any convenient form. 2. Of three distillatory vessels having movable covers to facilitate the charge and discharge. They are con- nected by pipes furnished with stopcocks, to convey the vapor at will from the upper part of one to the lower part of another. 3. Of a cooling coil connected with an alcoholic pipe, which is common to the three vessels. (See Fig. 2, PI. VII.) Description of Apparatus (Fig. 2, PI. VII.):— 1. Distillatory vessels for receiving the solid materials. 2. Pipes of communication between the vessels, from the top of one to the bottom of the other. 220 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. 3. Covers of the entire breadth of the vessels, and closed by screw clamps. 4. Cocks attached to the pipes 2, and serving to direct the alcoholic vapor at will into the cooling coil, when at the commercial standard, or into the bottom of the next vessel, if in the state of phlegm or low wines. 5. Alcohol pipe. This pipe, common to the distil- latory vessels, serves for conveying the spirituous vapors to the cooling coil. 6. Discharge cocks for the distillatory vessels, for drawing off the water resulting from condensation. 7. Alcoogene, or analyzing cylinder, the object of which is to prevent foreign substances from passing into the coil with the spirits. 8. Flake stand or coil cooler. 9. Cooling coil or worm. 10. Steam generator (a tubular boiler). 11. Steam box. 12. Safety valve. 13. Steam pipe, conveying the steam from the boiler to the distilling vessels. This steam is delivered into a box common to three other pipes, which conveys it to each of the vessels. 14. Steam pipes connecting the secondary box with each vessel. 15. Carriage on which the apparatus is moved from place to place. • The material to be distilled being methodically ar- ranged in each vessel, in one or more layers of greater or less thickness according to its character, is heated by steam from the boiler. The steam, by its ascensional motion, removes all the alcohol it contains. The condensation and return of vapors, occurring as the parts of the mass are penetrated, the more highly spirituous vapor, being the most volatile, will be the first to escape into the cooling coil. This method of distillation, then, is divided into two stages. In the first all the good brandy, that is, the com- mercial article, is obtained. In the second the phlegm is distilled through fresh materials, which condense it afresh, but at the same time it serves for heating the mass. DISTILLING APPARATUS. 221 From the explanation just given, we may readily con- clude that there is much economy in this method of dis- tillation, since the phlegm, which in the common appa- ratus, unprovided with a metallic rectifier, constitutes about one-half of the whole product, is thus distilled with- out loss of time or fuel. The charging and discharging is managed very readily. The second apparatus, which was constructed more particularly with a view to the distillation of beets, de- pends on the same principles; the condensation of the alcoholic vajpors by the material to be treated. The means only differ. Instead of three vessels communicating with one an- other as in the former, the latter consists of a single column, but so arranged that the charge is continually made at the top and the discharge at the bottom, without causing the least interruption to the distillation. The product is of a constant alcoholic degree, and, as we have said, the flow from the coil is uninterrupted. The following is a description of the apparatus. (Fig. 1, PL VII.) 1. Distilling column. 2. Steam chamber. 4. Hurdles or baskets containing the marc, beets, or other solid matter. 5. Toothed rack for assisting in the removal of the hurdles. 6. Feed pump for the steam boiler. 7. Steam boiler. 9. Alcoogene for the same purpose as the correspond- ing piece in the first apparatus. 10. Flake stand and coil. 11. Carriage for transporting the apparatus. This apparatus presents decided advantages over the other, whenever large quantities of material are to be heated. Both are portable when of small dimensions (the illustrations are for the portable apparatus: modifica- tions which a stationary apparatus would require will naturally suggest themselves), and at the present time 222 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. are fully sanctioned by experience; a number of them being in operation both in France and in other countries. Moreover, the numerous infringers of his patents, which M. Villard has sued to conviction and damages during the last few years, are the best evidence of the value of his apparatus. The price varies from 3000 to 20,000 francs, and the minimum of production is never less than 5 hectolitres of spirit of 50° or 55° Cent. Although more especially intended for the distillation of solid materials ; both of the apparatuses of M. Villard may, with some slight modifications be adapted to the distillation of liquids. Cider Brandy. Apple Brandy. Cider is the fermented juice of apples, and is in some countries a very common drink. The manufacture of cider is as easy and more prompt than that of wine. Its quality is influenced by many circumstances, of which the principal are: the variety, the ripeness and crushing of the fruit, the fermentation of the must, &c. The varieties of apples are very numerous, but it is not a matter of any importance to particularize them further than to say that, for the manufacture of cider, they may be divided into three classes. 1. Acid (or sour) apples. 2. Sweet apples. 3. Rough apples. These classes are further subdivided into: 1. Early apples. 2. Late apples. Acid apples yield much clear juice, of little specific gravity, producing a cider without strength, of not very pleasant taste, and always liable to become turbid, or as they say in Normandy, to hill itself. Sweet apples produce but little juice without the ad- dition of water; furnish a clear and pleasant cider, so long as it is sweet, but which becomes bitter and but little alcoholic when the fermentation is advanced. CIDER BRANDY APPLE BRANDY. 223 Rough apples, that are bitter and harsh to the taste, yield a very dense, highly-colored juice, which ferments tor a long time, and which produces a generous cider, susceptible of long preservation. The early apples produce quite a pleasant, clear cider, but of poor color and but slightly spirituous, and which can hardly be preserved for a year. Finally, late apples of good varieties yield a generous cider, which may be kept a long time. The fruit is harvested, says M. Girardin,in September, October, or November, according to its time of ripening, whether early, medium, or late. It is left in a pile for a certain time, to finish ripening, and in order that it may furnish a more saccharine must. The apples are then crushed. This operation is effected sometimes by means of a vertical stone wheel moving in a circular trough by the power of a horse; and sometimes by a small mill com- posed of grooved cast-iron cylinders, surmounted by a hopper. The pulp is submitted to the press three several times, between layers of straw, or, better still, between sheets of hair-cloth. The juice from the first pressure is what is called strong cider; that from the two last constitutes small cider. It is very weak, because the pulp has been twice mixed with a certain proportion of water. The juice of apples consists of much water, a small quantity of sugar, a natural ferment, vegetable albumen, a peculiar coloring matter, traces of pectic acid, gallic acid, the malates of potash and lime, a considerable pro- portion of mucilage, and free malic acid. When the seeds are crushed they communicate to the must a bitter principle and a little essential oil. The juice is poured into hogsheads with a large bung having a capacity of 600 or 700 litres, where it very soon sets up the alcoholic fermentation, which continues for two or three months. When it is finished, the clear cider may be used as a drink. But if a more agreeable cider is wanted, it should be drawn off* into a clean vessel, one month after being expressed, and this should 224 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. be continued month after month until it is finished. For effervescing cider, it is left in the hogsheads only a month when the clear liquid is drawn off and bottled. Usually cider made in summer is potable for four to six months; that made in autumn for six to ten months, and that made during the winter, from ten to twenty months. The best ciders cannot be kept in good con- dition more than three or four years. The districts in which cider brandy is more particu- larly manufactured are Normandy, first; then Picardy and Brittany. The distillation is conducted by the same methods and apparatus as for wines. As with the alcoholic richness of wine and other drinks, so does that of cider vary according to the season, the ripeness and variety of fruit, &c. It is by no means un- usual to obtain nine per cent, of pure alcohol from some ciders, while there are others which yield only four or four and a half per cent. Ordinarily from seven to eight litres of pure alcohol are obtained from one hectolitre of old cider, or about fifteen litres of brandy at 50°. But these results may be greatly increased if the fermentation is conducted on the principles we have set forth, and a certain propor- tion of water added to the juice, so that it shall not mark higher than six degrees by Baume’s areometer; the fermentation will then be more active and more complete. Cider brandy has a strong and disagreeable odor, due partly to the presence of malic acid, which may be re- moved by rectification, but which consumers prefer. Thus, in Lower Normandy, where the manufacture of apple and pear brandies is still in its primitive state, the spirit they obtain is not at all comparable to that obtained from wines, yet the Normans prefer it to the latter, and so strong is the power of habit, that they select that as the best which has the most decidedly empyreumatic flavor.* * In many portions of the United States, particularly in the east- ern counties of Virginia and the middle portions of North Carolina, distillers ferment and distil the pulp of the apple without expressing PORTABLE APPARATUS FOR CONTINUOUS DISTILLING. 225 Portable Apparatus for Continuous Distilling. The portable apparatus for continuous distillation is altogether a recent invention of M. Egrot, yet it is al- ready introduced on many farms in France and other countries. Simple, light, and yielding products of good quality, it appears to be well adapted for use, particularly on small or medium-sized farms. It should be highly prized in Normandy for distilling cider, and in the South for wine. It is sufficient to set up the apparatus near the shed in which the liquor to be distilled is stored, and then to pump the liquor through pipes of sufficient length into it. This apparatus is no more than the stationary system of the same inventor, so modified as to render it capable of being worked on a carriage, and thus become portable. M. Egrot affirms that it adds the facility of transporta- tion to the advantages presented by large distilleries, since the distillation is promptly accomplished, and the exhaustion of the liquor is complete. It yields at the first jet, brandy at 50 degrees, and rectified alcohol at 90 degrees. Besides, it is set up very easily so that it may be put in operation immediately on its arrival at a place. Finally, it greatly economizes fuel. There is no necessity for enumerating the advantages which small proprietors would derive from the use of a ma- chine of this kind, which may serve many crops and can be transported from one farm to another in time or as wanted. M. Egrot constructs portable distilleries of different sizes. The smallest, treating 30 hectolitres in twenty-four hours, may be drawn by a single horse. The larger apparatus requires for its transportation on a good road one horse, but two horses are always sufficient, even where the roads are in bad condition. To enable the reader to understand more fully the the juice. Thus producing a poisonous compound of alcohol with essential and empyreumatic oils, nauseous beyond measure, and fraught with disease and death to those who are so unfortunate as to have acquired a fancy for a drink so abominable. It is called pug, or pulp brandy.—Translator. 226 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. arrangement of the machine, we offer the accompanying illustration and description. Fig. 3. L. Copper boiler surrounded by a sheet iron furnace. M, K Distilling plates. H. Rectifying column. I. Goose-neck for conducting the alcoholic vapor from the rectifying column to the wine-heater G. G. Cooler and wine-heater combined. PORTABLE APPARATUS FOR CONTINUOUS DISTILLING. 227 J. Pipe and cocks for the return of the spirits to the rectifier. E E\ Funnel and pipe to receive the wine and con- vey it to the bottom of the cooler. A B. Suction and force pumps to feed the reservoir D. C. Pipe to convey the wine from the pump to the reservoir D. D. Reservoir or tank surmounting the apparatus and to receive the wine. F. Supporters for the reservoir. d. Level pipe to the reservoir. The distilling is conducted as follows :— The liquor to be distilled, let it be wine, is raised to the upper tank D by means of the pump B attached to the frame of the carriage; the regulating cock of the pipe E is opened, and all the parts of the apparatus are filled except the boiler L, which has been previously filled with water. The regulating cock is then closed, and the fire lit under the boiler. The steam which rises, passes first over the first plate M, where it takes up a certain quan- tity of the vapor of alcohol; by traversing the second plate K it is enriched by a second dose of alcohol; finally, it is saturated in the third compartment. This vapor, highly charged with alcohol, reaches the rectify- ing column H] where it is freed from a greater portion of its water and its essential oils; thence' it is conveyed by the goose-neck I into the coil of the cooler G, the upper portion of which acts as a rectifier. The alcoholic vapors which have found their way mixed with the steam into the cooler, return to the rectifying column by the pipe J. The vapors which are not condensed in the upper part of the cooler are condensed as they descend and escape in the form of brandy or alcohol as the re- turn cocks may be closed or open. At this moment the regulating cock is opened. The liquor contained in the reservoir entering at the bottom of the cooler, raises the wine already heated by contact with the worm, and causes it to flow into the pipe which leads to the upper section of the still; there it is subjected 228 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. to the action of the steam rising from the boiler, which deprives it of a portion of its alcohol; it loses the balance of its alcohol in traversing the two other sections; it finally falls into the boiler as spent liquor, and by its ebul- lition furnishes more steam for continuing the distilla- tion, and so on. The exhausted liquor escapes from the boiler in a continuous stream through a waste pipe in form of a siphon. To terminate the operation, water is pumped into the upper reservoir. This water forces before it all the wine which the apparatus contains, and when the proof bottle no longer indicates the presence of alcohol all the stop- cocks are closed, the fire is extinguished, and the ma- chine left in this condition until the work is resumed, or if this is to be postponed for a long time, or the ma- chine has to be removed to some other place, it will be necessary to empty it entirely of water.* Pear Brandy. Perry is a drink prepared from pears just as cider is from apples, and between which, too, there is much analogy. The action of perry on the nervous system is thought to be injurious. It is less nutritious and more irritating than cider. It is very heady when old, and promptly intoxicates those who are addicted to its habi- tual use. Pears yield nearly fifty per cent, more juice than ap- ples, and the juice is far more saccharine; perry, also, contains more alcohol than cider. Perry of the best quality is very like the white wines of Anjou, Sologne, and Gatinais. When bottled, after being well prepared, it becomes entirely wine-like. When it is effervescent, it often resembles the light wines of Champagne. It is well suited for mixing with white wines of inferior qua- * There is an apple and cider mill manufactured by Messrs. II. M. Smith & Co., of Richmond, Va., which reduces the apples to a very fine pulp in a very short time, and delivers them directly into a frame or slatted box, over which is placed a screw to act as a press. Those who have tested this machine by its practical application speak of it in the highest terms. It may be driven by hand or horse power.—Translator. BRANDY FROM BEER—RUM. 229 lity, which it renders stronger and better, as is well un- derstood by wine dealers; frequently, small retailers even sell pure perry as white wine. Pear brandy is obtained in the same way as cider brandy, and possesses the same characteristics. The al- coholic results, as in all other drinks, cannot be positively estimated, this depends on the good or bad quality of the pears, whether they are carefully handled or not, the temperature, &c. Nevertheless, we may say that it is quite common to obtain 15 or 18 per cent, of brandy at 50 degrees from perry. Brandy from Beer. Beer is produced by the fermentation of barley and a decoction of hops; like all other fermented liquors, it contains more or less alcohol, and will yield a brandy of pretty fair quality when it is itself of a good quality, and when the distillation is effected by steam, but which still preserves a peculiar odor and taste due to the hops. Generally the quality is bad, as only spoiled beer is distilled; good potable beer will always command a higher price than the brandy it will yield. The distil- lation too is always conducted over the naked fire, and proper precautions are not taken to prevent the slimy and mucilaginous elements of the beer from being burned to the still, which, by adding a detestable empyreumatic flavor to the acid taste of the spoiled beer, must cause the product to be bad. When beer is distilled the operation should be con- ducted in the same manner as for wine. There are many other fermented liquors which will yield alcohol by distillation, as hydromel, &c., but the in- ferior quality of the spirit produced, and the expense attending the use of many of these substances have induced distillers to pass them by for those in more general use, and the profit from which is less proble- matical. Rum. The names rum and tafia are applied to a spirit obtained from the distillation of a fermented liquor prepared from 230 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. the molasses of sugar cane. This spirit is of excellent quality, and is very much sought after when it is old. Rum comes to us from America, principally from the Antilles ; Martinique and Guadaloupe furnish it in large quantities of very good quality. True Jamaica rum was formerly made from the juice of the violet cane, which gave it a peculiar aroma, and tafia was the product of the distillation of molasses; now both of these liquors are obtained from the distil- lation of molasses, only the article sold as rum is the spirit of molasses carefully prepared, while that sold as tafia has less perfume and is of inferior quality. Rum is shipped from the colonies in iron-bound oak barrels containing 225 or 425 litres: its alcoholic strength is commonly from 51 to 55 degrees Centigrade. It is much used in France and England, where it is con- sidered as a preservative against cholera. This distillation of rum like all the operations accom- panying it, is conducted in the same way as that for the distillation of alcohol from molasses, only by preference a special apparatus (see page 76) is used in order to retain in the rum the characteristic taste which causes it to be so highly prized by gourmets. The first product is never of sufficient degree; it is necessary, then, to re- distil it. Like all other spirits, rum when it is first distilled is white and transparent; in order to give it the yel- lowish amber tint by which it is known in the trade and to increase the peculiar taste usually met with in it, variable proportions of prunes, shavings of leather, cloves, tar, etc., are infused in a part of the liquor: the desired color is generally completed by the addition of the necessary quantity of caramel. The proportions of the ingredients just named constitute what are called in the rum factories sauces. They differ in different fac- tories, and from this results the various kinds of rum, which connoisseurs esteem more or less for their peculiar bouquet. The following is the recipe for one of these sauces:— CHERRY BRANDY. 231 New leather tanned and rasped . 2 kilogrammes. Oak bark crushed .... 500 grammes. Cloves 15 “ New tar ...... 15 “ Molasses spirit .... 100 litres. Infuse the whole for fifteen days, then draw off the clear liquid and complete the color with caramel. Another method consists in infusing the other ingre- dients in a small quantity of the spirits, and using the tar in a different manner. It is as follows:— Shavings of tanned leather . 4 kilogrammes. Black truffles .... 1 “ Orange peel . . . .20 grammes. Alcohol from molasses at 85° . 10 litres. Digest at least fifteen days before using this prepara- tion, and only add enough of it to the rum to perfume it properly, then introduce into the cask destined to con- tain the rum the smoke from a wisp of straw impreg- nated with tar; now close the bung in order to allow the vapor time to condense on the surface of the cask, then fill it with the prepared rum. This, when old, acquires a flavor very analogous to that of Jamaica. It is well to add a small quantity of caramel to give the usual amber tint. Prunes are used even during the fermentation ; they are steeped in hot water, and after being crushed, are thrown into the fermenting vat. The proportions are very variable, but generally 10 kilogrammes of prunes are added for every 100 kilogrammes of molasses: that of the hot water is also indefinite. By reason of the facility with which rum may be mixed with spirit of wine, it is rarely met with unless so mixed, especially in the hands of a dealer. This fraud is difficult of detection; there are a few dealers in spirits who can detect it, and they are frequently deceived. Kirschenwasser or Kirsch. (Cherry Brandy.) In Germany, the spirit distilled from the fermented juice of a variety of wild cherry, is called Kirschenwaa- 232 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. ser (cherry water), which is contracted into Kirsch. A great quantity is produced in the Black Forest, from which the best kirsch of Germany and Switzerland comes. In France, the distillation of kirsch is confined almost exclusively to Franche-Comt6, that is, to a small portion of the departments of Haute-Saone, Vosges, and Doubs. The centre of this trade is at Fougerolles (Haute-Saone), where there are many commission agencies of import- ance, both French and foreign. The cherries generally employed for making kirsch are a species of wild cherry, the fruit of which is very black when thoroughly ripe, and with a long red stem, and a very large seed in proportion to the fruit. They are collected in July and August. If possible, a fair day is selected; because it is well understood that kirsch from cherries gathered in bright weather is far better than that obtained from fruit gathered during a damp spell. Generally, the method of manufacturing kirsch is very objectionable. When the cherries are ripe enough to be readily plucked by hand, one by one, as is indis- pensable to avoid unripe fruit, the peasants thrash the trees with long poles, while the children gather the fruit as it falls and throw it into open hogsheads. One may well see that in this mass there will be some cherries in- sufficiently ripe, and some that are rotten; yet there is no separation, and the whole are mashed together, either with the hands or a small wooden block on a wicker strainer, resting on two pieces of timber, placed on the top of the fermenting vats, which receive the expressed juice; they then pound the marc with a view to crushing the seeds, and throw it into the expressed juice, in order that, during the vinous fermentation, it may impart the agreeable taste which is characteristic of kirsch, and which causes it to be so much sought after. When the fermentation is finished, which requires from fifteen to thirty days, according to the capacity of the vats and the temperature of the weather, they throw CHERRY BRANDY. 233 the whole, marc and liquid, into the Turk’s-head still, and distil over a naked fire. This process, as we see, is very defective, and can only result in a product of very bad taste, and is highly injurious to the animal economy; because, on one hand, the cherries, being left to ferment in vats, or hogsheads usually on end, open at the top, and but seldom, or imperfectly covered, become acid, and often mouldy on the top. On the other hand, the distillation of a semi-fluid substance over a naked fire, produces an empyreumatic flavor, which the crushed seeds are intended to conceal, however, without entire success. The best process for obtaining kirsch of good quality is the following :— The cherries, when ripe, are plucked singly by hand, only the ripest being gathered; in this state they only are taken that will separate easily from the stems, which are left attached to the tree. Those that are rotten or damaged should be rejected. As soon as a sufficient quantity of fruit is gathered to justify operations to be commenced, it is crushed by the hands, or a wooden rubber, on a wicker basket or trough, supported by a frame resting on a tub. The juice falls into the vessel, while the skins and seeds remain in the basket. The seeds, being separated from the skins, are thrown into the liquid, and the whole transferred to a fermenting vat; it is carefully covered, and permitted to ferment in some place having the proper temperature. The must commonly marks six or seven degrees Baum6, and the fermentation, which lasts about four or five days, is effected without artificial ferment. When the fermenta- tion is finished, the clear liquid is drawn off and dis- tilled, with all the necessary precautions, by the aid of steam. All spirits from nut fruits, may be prepared in the same manner, especially that from prunes, which pos- sesses much analogy to kirsch, and is often confounded with it. Well prepared kirsch has a peculiar flavor, which is not empyreumatic, but which is derived from the seeds; 234 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. it is not acrid; the odor is due to the presence of a small quantity of hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, contained in the cherry stones. For a long time, it was thought that the stones ought to be broken, to produce in kirsch its characteristic odor and taste; but it has been ascer- tained that this is altogether superfluous, and that the seeds communicate to kirsch identically the same per- fume, whether broken or not. The alcoholic product from 100 kilogrammes of cher- ries is usually seven or eight litres of kirsch at 51° or 55°, or about from three and six-tenths litres to four and four- tenths litres of pure alcohol. The larger proportion of kirsch made in Franche- Comte, is sent to market very soon after its distillation; it is then at 53° C. When intended to be kept, it is put up in glass vessels, demijohns, bottles, or flasks, etc. During the first year, the vessels are closed with some substance that will permit a slight evaporation, by which the acrid principles are volatilized, and a very pleasant liquor is left in the vessel, which is now closely corked to be kept. When glass vessels are lacking, it is put up in small casks or kegs made of ash, which have the advantage of not imparting any color to their liquid contents. In the country they are in the habit of placing kirsch, during the first year, in rooms where a gentle temperature favors evaporation. We may remark, in passing, that colored kirsch is seldom made, it being more highly prized when limpid and transparent. Age, as for all other spirits, greatly improves its quality. Frequently, kirsch is met with in the market mixed with pure brandy, or alcohol from apricot seeds, reduced to 51°; alcohol, reduced and perfumed with the essence of bitter almonds, is added to it; but all these frauds produce a kirsch of inferior quality, which is easily recognized by the taste. There is, however, a preparation which imitates kirsch so perfectly, that when mixed with the latter, it is very difficult of recognition. It is as follows:— GIN, GENEVA. 235 Seeds of apricots ... 3 kilogrammes. Seeds of cherries ... 9 “ Dried peach leaves . . . 625 grammes. Myrrh ..... 150 “ Good flavored alcohol at 85° . 62 litres. Bruise the seeds and digest the whole together in a water bath in a simple still for 24 hours; at the mo- ment of beginning the distillation, add 30 litres of water, lute on the top, light the fire, and draw off 60 litres of a good product, to which should be added 40 litres of water to reduce it to 50°, and thus form 100 litres of factitious kirsch. By adding 15 grammes of sugar to the litre, the taste will be softened and the sharpness of the liquor destroyed. The peach leaves may be replaced by 315 grammes of the dried flowers. Since the advance in the price of spirits, a great many kirsch distillers mix alcohol from the beet or grain with the cherry wine. The mixture being perfect, the alcohol takes up the excess of perfume, which would have remained in the liquor, and, in consequence of its addition, the quantity of kirsch is greatly increased. Gin. Geneva. Gin is nothing but grain spirit aromatized with juni- per berries. It is not the result of the distillation of these berries crushed and fermented with water. This spirit, then, is prepared in the same manner as whiskey, and the only object of adding the juniper is to cover the unpleasant taste which usually characterizes this liquor. The proportion of berries used is extremely variable; it depends on the nature of the spirits and the wishes of the distiller; but, as a general rule, one kilogramme of berries is sufficient for the proper aroma- tization of one hectolitre of whiskey. The juniper berries, coarsely ground or simply crushed, are added to the product which is about to be distilled, or placed in a sack and suspended in the still, or, what is better yet, on a receiver arranged for the purpose, through which all the alcoholic vapors rising from the still are compelled to pass. 236 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Holland enjoys a large trade in the exportation of its gin. Its home consumption, which is considerable, con- sists of a gin at 45 to 49 centesimal degrees. The large factories of this product are at Scheidam (Schnaps). This town contains more than two hundred gin distilleries. In Sweden and Norway, a sort of gin is prepared by simply digesting the juniper berries for some days in spirits at 50 or 55 degrees. This process is very objec- tionable, because it communicates to the liquor a very disagreeable sharpness. It is preferable to employ the process described hereafter, which consists in distilling the berries after sufficient maceration with alcohol at 85 or 90 degrees, and to reduce the product of the opera- tion to 49 degrees. The gin, which is consumed in the North of France and Belgium, is often nothing more than whiskey from rye and barley, or rather from potatoes and barley, and the taste which characterizes it is that of grain. This gin has an odor which is by no means agreeable, and far from being delicate, yet it is very much preferred by those who like this kind of spirits. CHAPTER IX. THE MANUFACTURE OF SWISS ABSINTHE. Swiss absinthe at the present time constitutes the object of considerable trade and a special manufacture. Portarlier, Montpellier, and Lyons, are cities in which it is manufactured'in very great quantities. We shall describe the article as produced in each locality, as- suming that the quantity of Swiss absinthe to be made is one hectolitre. Absinthe of Portarlier. Larger absinthe, dried and ground, 2 kilogrs., 500 grms. Green anise 5 “ Fennel . . . . . 5 “ Alcohol at 85° . . . .95 litres. ABSINTHE OF MONTPELLIER. 237 Digest these ingredients for at least twelve hours in a water bath, add 45 litres of water when ready to dis- til, close the apparatus, and distil off 95 litres of per- fumed spirit. Continue the operation until all the phlegm is drawn off, and set it aside for another ope- ration. The green color is given by the following process :— Small absinthe, dried and picked ... 1 kilogr. Hyssop (tops and flowers), . . . . 1 “ Lemon balm, dried and picked . . . 500 “ Perfumed spirits, from the preceding operation, 40 litres. Divide or cut up the small absinthe, reduce the hyssop and balm to a powder in a mortar, put the whole into a water-bath with the perfumed spirits, lute imme- diately, then heat gently, so as to produce a very mode- rate and gradual heat, and, so soon as the hand cannot be placed on the cap, withdraw the fire quickly from beneath the apparatus, in order to prevent the liquid from being distilled. Allow it to cool entirely before withdrawing the still from the water-bath, then pass the colored liquor through a hair cloth to drain the plants; add this product to the 55 litres of perfumed spirits that are reserved, and reduce to 74 degrees by adding five litres of water, which will bring the quantity up to 100 litres. Large absinthe dried . . . 2| kilogrammes. Green anise .... 6 “ Florentine fennel ... 4 “ Coriander ..... 1 u Angelica seed .... 500 grammes. Alcohol at 85° . . . .95 litres. Absinthe of Montpellier. Distil as in the preceding case. The color is made also in the same way with the following ingredients: Dried hyssop, (herb and flowers), 750 grammes. Dried balm of Moldavia . .750 “ Small absinthe .... 1 kilogr. 238 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Large absinthe, dried . . 3 kilogrammes. Green anise .... 8 “ Fennel 4 “ Angelica seed .... 500 grammes. Alcohol at 85° . . . .95 litres. Absinthe of Lyons. Coloring. Dried and selected lemon balm . 1 kilogramme. Small absinthe dried. 1 “ Hyssop tops and flowers dried . 500 grammes. Dried veronica . . . 500 “ Green anise . . . .45 kilogrammes. Fennel 25 “ Larger absinthe ... 16 “ Alcohol at 85° .... 570 litres. Water 300 “ Absinthe of Fougerolles. (For 600 Litres.) Digest for at least twelve hours with the alcohol in a proper apparatus, add the water at the time of distil- ling, draw off 570 litres of perfumed spirits. When this quantity has been obtained continue the distillation until all the phlegm has been distilled off and set aside for another operation. Coloring. Lemon balm . . . . 4| kilogrammes. Hyssop 3J “ Lesser absinthe .... 4 “ Veronica 4 “ Treat as for that first described and reduce the mixed spirits to 74° by the addition of enough water to bring the quantity up to 600 litres. Absinthe of Besancon. (For 600 Litres.) Great absinthe . . . .24 kilogrammes. Green anise .... 30 “ Fennel 40 “ Coriander 4 “ Alcohol at 85° .... 570 litres. Water 300 “ To be treated as above. ABSINTHE OF NIMES. 239 Cobring. Balm 3 kilogrammes. Less absinthe .... 6 “ Hyssop 5J “ Treat as the last. Absinthe of Nimes. (For 600 Litres.) Great absinthe .... 22| kilogrammes. Green anise .... 22| “ Fennel ..... 15 “ Coriander ..... 2f “ Roots of the black alder . . l| “ Angelica root . . . . 1J “ Alcohol at 85° .... 570 litres. Water ..... 300 “ Treat as above. Cobring. Less absinthe .... 5 kilogrammes. Hyssop 4J “ Balm 1J “ Veronica 2J “ Mint ...... 2| “ Treat as before. It is always optional to diminish or increase the quantities of the ingredients in the foregoing recipes according to the taste of the manufacturer, or the price of the article he wishes to produce; but this fact must be borne in mind, that it is only age that will give to absinthe that softness so much prized by consumers. Remarks.—The greatest pains should be taken in the selection of the materials, especially the plants intended for the coloring; these should be very green and dry, and free from black and mouldy leaves. The seeds should be powdered in a mortar, and the great absinthe picked over and ground. The distillation of absinthe should be effected in a Turk’s-head still, in a water-bath, or, what is better, by steam, in order that the essential oils may rise with more facility, especially towards the close of the opera- tion ; because the phlegm is employed in another opera- 240 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. tion, in which it is most useful, by adding to the per- fume through the large proportions of essential oils it contains. The coloring is of the highest importance. The plants are finely divided, or reduced to powder, and covered with perfumed spirits; then heated gently, in order to extract the chlorophylle or coloring principle. After cooling, the colored spirit is drawn off clear, and the plants are drained. They may still, after this operation, serve for coloring a smaller quantity of absinthe. They are then subjected to distillation, to collect and save the small quantity of alcohol still adhering to them. In the large factories, the extract of absinthe is colored in tinned copper vessels, containing about twenty hectolitres—they are called colorers. These vessels, hermetically closed, are heated to 60 degrees by means of steam. The coloring may be made in the cold way, but the operation requires many days, and a large quantity of plants, which considerably increase the acridity of ab- sinthe. When the coloring and perfumed spirit, held in re- serve, have been mixed, the alcoholic strength is tested and reduced to 74°, although absinthe is never sold above 72°; but, by rest and time, there is always some loss which must be provided against. The green color of absinthe becomes yellowish by age, and then has a dead-leaf tinge. The green tint may be preserved by adding, after the mixture, fifteen grammes of alum, dissolved in a glass of water; but consumers generally prefer the yellow tint. By age, absinthe improves in quality, by losing its sharp and empyreumatic taste, which is communicated by the dis- tillation and coloring. It is to be remarked that it is not the great variety of substances introduced into the manufacture that con- stitutes the great merit of absinthe, but rather the ra- tional combination of a small number having peculiar virtues : thus, the anise serves to produce the whiteness; the fennel corrects the piquant and sugary taste of the WHITE ABSINTHE. 241 anise, at the same time adding something to the flavor; the hyssop fulfils the same end, while it yields a beauti- ful green color, which the balm increases still more. Finally, the lesser absinthe, by its slightly yellowish tinge, modifies the excessive brilliancy of the green color, while its slight bitterness and aroma, added to those of the great absinthe, impart to this liquor the character- istics peculiar to a well-made product. Absinthe is considered as being of good quality when, on being diluted with water, it becomes white, and ex- hibits the colors of the opal, which is due to the essential oils from the seeds, and the resinous and coloring mat- ters of the plants, which, under these circumstances, are set at liberty, and form, with water, the milky com- pound so highly prized. In this state, it should be pleasant, agreeable, odorous, and sweetish. Sharpness and tastelessness are always signs of a recent manufac- ture. Absinthes of inferior quality are often met with in the market. Some are manufactured without distillation, essences being used to replace the seeds and plants; some are distilled with trois-six from beets, &c., which leaves much to be desired in flavor; some are prepared with old or damaged materials, while, finally, there are others which, after the distillation have had added to them aromatic resins, such as benzoin, guaiacum, &c., in order to increase the opalescence. White Absinthe. Greater absinthe, selected . 2 kilogrs., 750 grms. Less absinthe ... 1 kilogr., 125 “ Hyssop flowers . . . 1 “ 100 “ Veronica .... 550 grammes Genepi ..... 550 Roman chamomile . . 225 “ Green anise .... 5 kilogrs., 250 grms. Fennel . . . 5 250 “ Coriander .... 1 kilogr. Angelica seeds . . . 550 grms. Alcohol at 85° . . .96 litres. 2 42 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Conduct the maceration and distilling in the same way as for green absinthe; then rectify the product, and reduce to 74°. The abuse of absinthe, even diluted with water, is most deleterious to the animal economy. Taken pure, it occasions serious disorders of the stomach and brain. It is not to the alcohol alone that these injurious effects are to be attributed, but more especially to the large quantity of essential oils of anise and fennel which it contains. Apparatus for Manufacturing Absinthe and Perfumed Spirits. This apparatus, PL VIII., consists of the following parts:— A. Kettle inclosed in a wooden jacket, acting as a water bath inclosing another kettle, which contains the alcohol and herbs to be distilled. JB. Top or cover of the boiler (still). C. Opening closed by a plug for charging the still. Cl. Opening like the above for discharging the plants after distillation. D. Cap of the still fastened on by a circular collar, and terminating in a neck which conducts the alcoholic vapors to the cooling coil. E. Cooler with its coil. El. Discharge pipe of the condensing coil. F. Colorer, furnished like the still, with plugs through which to fill and empty it. G. Pump firmly fastened to the wall by the collars G1. H. Piston rod. I Eccentric for driving the pump. J. Pulley on which a band runs to connect with the power. K Bearings for pulley shaft. L. Tank, or well of metal, sunk in the floor. M. Suction pipe. M1. Suction pipe connected with colorer. N. Three-way cock, attached to the suction pipe to draw any liquid from the tank to deliver it in the still, in APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING ABSINTHE. 243 the colorer, or to the store-room, or to draw the finished liquor from the colorer, and deliver it in the store-room. Nl. Pipe for drawing off the colored product. O. Force or delivery pipe. P. Three-way cock, which directs liquids at pleasure into the still or the colorer. P1. Pipe delivering the liquid into the colorer. Pu. Pipe to convey the liquor into the still. P. Cock and pipe for delivering the manufactured product into the store-room. S. Funnel and pipe to convey the distilled product to the tank. T. Main steam-pipe connected with steam boiler. U. Steam-cock for the kettle of the still. V. Steam-cock for the colorer. Management of the Apparatus.—The principal advan- tages of this apparatus are its great simplicity and the small number of pieces constituting it. One pump, by its multiplicity of uses, is sufficient for three different transfers of liquid. 1. It fills the boiler of the still A with alcohol and water. 2. It fills the colorer F with the distilled product which flows into the tank by the funnel and pipe S. 3. It draws the liquid from the colorer P, to send it to the store cisterns by the pipe R. The apparatus is set in operation as follows:— Having filled the tank L with water and alcohol in the proper proportions, and having placed in the boiler of the still through the upper opening the plants neces- sary to the manufacture of the absinthe, the cock PP1 is opened, and the pump set to work; the boiler A is immediately filled from the contents of the tank L. When the tank is empty, the motion of the pump is stopped and the cock P is closed. The steam is turned on by opening the cock U, and the product soon begins to flow from the lower extremity of the condensing coil, falls into S, and again fills the tank L; but now it is spirits perfumed by the plants that were placed in the still. The liquid is white, and possesses already a great 244 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. part of the properties peculiar to the liquor. It must now be colored. For this operation the pump performs its second office, by drawing up the liquid and sending it to the colorer F, which has been previously packed with the coloring plants in quantity proportioned to the perfumed spirit to be poured over them. The perfumed spirit is drawn from the tank L by the pump, and is transferred through the cock Pand the pipe P1 into the colorer. Finally, after this operation, which finishes the manufacture of absinthe, the pump fulfils its third office by drawing the colored product contained in F through the pipe N1, and transfers it through cock and pipe R into the tanks or barrels intended for its reception. Causes of the Pernicious Effects of Absinthe. This so-called Swiss absinthe has attracted public at- tention for some time, and much credit is due to the writers of many scientific and medical essays, for indi- cating with so much persevering energy the abuses of this product, a horrible curse which is killing the youth of our colleges, decimating the army, and will cause the fatal debasement of the rising generation. In order to increase the sale of this truly horrible beverage, the idea has been invented of mixing it with syrups of gum, so called, and which most generally do not contain a particle of gum, and which, on account of the vile method of the manufacture, only bring in their train an increase of the evil. Of course these evils are not to be attributed to first- class houses, who only sell for consumption perfectly distilled absinthes that are free from all adulterations. We have no intention, by what has just been said, to advise the use of this liquor, however well it may be made, but to set forth the fact that, in many localities, sufficient care is not taken in the selection of the plants, and in conducting the distillation. This results from the fact that most persons who undertake this work are ignorant of the first principles of distillation. So much is this the case, that, if allowed to express an opinion on so serious a question, we should advise the authorities— CAUSES OF THE PERNICIOUS EFFECTS OF ABSINTHE. 245 1. To require that all liquor distillers who manufacture absinthe, or any other spirituous liquors, should have some knowledge of chemistry and botany, should be of good character, and be possessed of organs of taste and smell accurate enough to be of use in estimating the quality of the materials passing through their hands. 2. That a certificate or diploma as a distiller should be conferred on him only after his having proved, by a satisfactory official examination, that he is possessed of a competent knowledge of the theoretical principles of the trade he wishes to pursue. 3. Finally, that he should serve for at least one year as an apprentice, in order that he may, on entering into the business, add also practical knowledge to the theoreti- cal which he should possess. By following this plan, we would have good and true distillers. While at the pre- sent time a large proportion of the young men, who set up in this business, have very little knowledge, they very often leave trades having little or no connection with distilling, and at the end of a few months’ apprentice- ship, sometimes under a man more ignorant than them- selves, they present themselves as master workmen at the distillery or the brewery. Why, then, should it be cause for astonishment if badly manufactured products of distillation enter into our daily consumption? We cannot close this article without giving some ad- vice on the distillation of absinthe. The plants should be picked over, as only the tops are distilled, and the flow phlegm should never be pushed to the end of the distillation. It may be objected that the liquor will be less penetrating, and will have less bou- quet ; we answer, so much the better for the consumer. They may rejoin that the price will be much higher : we reply, what is the difference? it will sell all the better for that. We cannot omit to recommend the use of calamus aromaticus, and angelica root in the proportion of 125 grammes to the hundred litres of the-product, with balm, hyssop, and the small absinthe for the coloring, which should always be made hot. 246 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. But why are absinthes so bad in Paris ? It is because the greater proportion of absinthes sold are not distilled, but made from essences, which, as is wrell known are highly charged with empyreumatic essential oils. Now, if the proportion of these essences is too great, as is almost always the case, they are not completely dis- solved, and the absinthe so manufactured, after being swallowed, leaves an acrid taste, and a lasting and pain- ful sense of heat and discomfort in the mouth, throat, stomach, and even in the urinary organs in persons who use it habitually. In conclusion, absinthe, as a medicine, like most other plants, has some useful properties; but as a favorite and daily drink it has its dangers and becomes very often fatal. But it is certain that if this liquor was always of good quality and properly prepared, it would not play such sad havoc, and would spare many useful men to the country. CHAPTER X. ALCOHOLOMETRY. Spirituous liquors, known in commerce as brandy, whiskey, spirits, etc., as we have already said, are mix- tures of alcohol and water in variable proportions. Their marketable value generally depends on the actual quan- tity of alcohol which each of them contains. Alcoholometry is the determination of the alcoholic strength of spirituous liquors, that is to say, the valuation of the proportions of water and pure alcohol that a mix- ture of these two liquids may contain. This is effected by the combined use of a thermometer and an areometer. As for the valuation of the proportion of pure alcohol con- tained in a wine, or any liquid whatever, it is made by the assistance of small test stills. Before examining the latter, we shall first explain the method of determining THERMOMETERS. 247 the proportion of alcohol contained in a mixture of pure water and spirit, and describe some of the instru- ments necessary to the solution of this problem. Thermometers are philosophical instruments made use of to determine the temperature of the atmosphere and of different substances with which they may be brought in contact. These instruments are graduated glass tubes hermetically closed, which contain a certain quan- tity of mercury or alcohol. The construction of the thermometer depends on the property common to all substances by which they expand under the influence of heat, and contract under the influence of cold. The thermometers used in France are Reaumur's and the Centigrade. The latter is the official thermometer, and is coming more and more into use. In Germany, England, and the United States Fahrenheit's thermometer is used. In order to compare two thermometers one with the other, it is necessary to have two fixed and invariable points of reference; the temperature of melting ice has been chosen for one, that of water in a state of ebulli- tion at the level of the sea for the other; because these two terms are the same everywhere, and are easily found. The three thermometers named have not the same divisions, but are as follows:— Reaumur, the freezing ot water 0°, boiling water 80° Centigrade, “ “ 0°, “ “ 100° Fahrenheit, “ “ 32°, “ “ 212° In Russia, the thermometer of Delisle is used; the scale is the reverse of the above; the boiling point of water is zero, and the freezing point is marked 150°. Mercurial thermometers cannot be constructed to in- dicate a temperature, above 350°, because that liquid boils at this temperature, nor below 34° below zero, be- cause when so near its freezing point its rates of ex- pansion and contraction are irregular. Thermometers. 248 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The distiller has frequent use for the thermometer in the various operations we have described. When the instrument is to be used, it is sufficient to suspend it for a while in the air or the liquid the temperature of which is to be tested. The fluid in the instrument will soon stand at a fixed point, thus indicating on the scale attached the temperature sought for. It is proper to remark that mercury acquires the temperature of a liquid much more readily than that of air, so that it is necessary to wait a longer time when testing the temperature of the atmosphere than is required for liquids. Mercurial thermometers are to be preferred to those filled with alcohol on account of their greater accuracy and the promptness with which they react under changes of temperature. As each may have his own fancy as to the thermome- ter he may prefer to use, we have thought it advisable to subjoin the following tables, showing the relations be- tween those in use among different people in various countries. CENTIGRADE AND REAUMUR THERMOMETERS. 249 Table converting the Degrees of the Centigrade Thermometer to Degrees of that of Reaumur, and vice-versa. Centigrade. Reaumur. Centigrade. Reaumur. , Centigrade. Reaumur. Reaumur. Centigrade. Reaumur. Centigrade. Reaumur. Centigrade. lO 00.8 350 28O.0 690 550.2 lO 10.25 280 350.00 550 680.75 2 1.6 36 28.8 70 56.0 2.50 29 36.25 56 70.00 3 2.4 37 29.6 71 56.8 3 3.75 30 37.50 57 71.25 4 3.2 38 30.4 72 57.6 4 5.00 31 38.75 58 72.50 5 40 39 31.2 73 58.4 5 6.25 32 40.00 59 73.75 6 4.8 40 32.0 74 59.2 6 7.50 33 41.25 60 75.00 7 5.6 41 32.8 75 60.0 7 8.75 34 42.50 61 76.25 8 6.4 42 33.6 76 60.8 8 10.00 35 43.75 62 77.50 9 7.2 43 34.4 77 61.6 9 11.25 36 45.00 63 78.75 10 8.0 44 35.2 78 62.4 10 12.50 37 46.25 64 80.00 11 8.8 45 36.0 79 63.2 11 13.75 38 47.50 65 81.25 12 9.6 46 36.8 80 64.0 12 15.00 39 48.75 66 82.50 13 10.4 47 37.6 81 64.8 13 16.25 40 50.00 67 • 83.75 14 11.2 48 38.4 82 65.6 14 17.50 41 51.25 68 85.00 15 12.0 49 39.2 83 66.4 15 18.75 42 52.50 69 86.25 16 12.8 50 40.0 84 67.2 16 20.00 43 53.75 70 87.50 17 13.6 51 40.8 85 68.0 17 21.25 44 55.00 71 88.75 18 14.4 52 41.6 86 68.8 18 22.50 45 56.25 72 90.00 19 15.2 53 42.4 87 69.6 19 23.75 46 57.50 73 91.25 20 16.0 54 43.2 88 70.4 20 25.00 47 58.75 74 92.50 21 16.8 55 44.0 89 71.2 21 26.25 48 60.00 75 93.75 22 17.6 56 44.8 90 72.0 22 27.50 49 61.25 76 95.00 23 18.4 57 45.6 91 72.8 23 28.75 50 62.50 77 96.25 24 19.2 58 46.4 92 73.6 24 30.00 51 63.75 78 97.50 25 20.0 59 47.2 93 74.4 25 31.25 52 65.00 79 98.75 26 20.8 60 48.0 94 75.2 26 32.50 53 66.25 80 100.00 27 21.6 61 48.8 95 76.0 27 33.75 54 67.50 28 22.4 62 49.6 96 76.8 29 23.2 63 50.4 97 77.6 30 24.0 64 51.2 98 78.4 31 24.8 65 52.0 99 79.2 32 25.6 66 52.8 100 80.0 33 26.4 67 53.6 34 27.2 68 54.4 250 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Table for converting Degrees of the Fahrenheit Thermometer to Degrees of Centigrade. % rC a m H ee Pm Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Centigrade. 320 0O 69° 20°.555 106° 41°.Ill 143° 61°.666 180° 82°. 222 33 0.555 70 21.111 107 *41.666 144 62.222 181 82.777 34 1.111 71 21.666 108 42.222 145 62.777 182 83.333 35 1.666 72 22.222 109 42.777 146 63.333 183 83.888 36 2.222 73 22.777 110 43.333 147 63.888 184 84.444 37 2.777 74 23.333 111 43.888 148 64.444 185 85.000 38 3.333 75 23.888 112 44.444 149 65.000 186 85.555 39 3.888 76 24.444 113 45.000 150 65.555 187 86.111 40 4.444 77 25.000 114 45.555 151 66.111 188 86.666 41 5.000 78 25.555 115 46.111 152 66.666 189 87.222 42 5.555 79 26.111 116 46.666 153 67.222 190 *87.777 43 6.111 80 26.666 117 47.222 154 67.777 191 88.333 44 6.666 81 27.222 118 47.777 155 68.333 192 88.888 45 7.222 82 27.777 119 48.333 156 68.888 193 89.444 46 7.777 83 28.333 120 48.888 157 69.444 194 90.000 47 8.333 84 28.888 121 49.444 158 70.000 195 90.555 48 8.888 85 29.444 122 50.000 159 70.555 196 91.111 49 9.444 86 30.000 123 50.555 160 71.111 197 91.666 50 10.000 87 30.555 124 51.111 161 71.666 198 92.222 51 10.555 88 31.111 125 51.666 162 72.222 199 92.777 62 11.111 89 31.666 126 52.222 163 72.777 200 93.333 53 11.666 90 32.222 127 52.777 164 73.333 201 93.888 54 12.222 91 32.777 128 53.333 165 73.888 202 94.444 55 12.777 92 33.333 129 53.888 166 74.444 203 95.000 56 13.333 93 33.888 130 54.444 167 75.000 204 95.555 57 13.888 94 34.444 131 55.000 168 75.555 205 96.111 58 14.444 95 35.000 132 55.555 169 76.111 206 96.666 59 15.000 96 35.555 133 56.111 170 76.666 207 97.222 60 15.555 97 36.111 134 56.666 171 77.222 208 97.777 61 16.111 98 36.666 135 57.222 172 77.777 209 98.333 62 16.666 99 37.222 136 57.777 173 78.333 210 98.888 63 17.222 100 37.777 137 58.333 174 78.888 211 99.444 64 17.777 101 38.333 138 58.888 175 79.444 212 100.000 65 18.333 102 38.888 139 59.444 176 80.000 66 18.888 103 39.444 140 60.000 177 80.555 67 19.444 104 40.000 141 60.555 178 81.111 68 20.000 105 40.555 142 61.111 179 81.666 CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT THERMOMETERS. 251 Table for converting Degrees of Centigrade Thermometer to Degrees of Fahrenheit. V-» w-1 J_j j—I >_i i CiC^4^COtO»-*O^CD-^aiC7irf^OObOl-,0 o Centigrade. amorI?'?3li 00©U>rf*-OlC»©isS4i.C5aD©t0£»C5GO Fahrenheit. COCOO0O5tObOfcObObObOfcOtOfcOfcOH-»»-»h-* WfcOHO^CXMO;^^WtOHO'>OQOM o Centigrade. ®CtK»COCO(»!»HOOOOOO«£)?D?OM topcooirfi.wHjDMUi4iU)pQoa^^ o to a bo b to a cx) o bo a c» o to Fahrenheit. oi050i050505ao50twytmtnmwo»m o Centigrade. M1 H1 t-J1 (-• h-J1 1—» 1—* »—II—>1—‘1—>1—» 1—'i|—‘i—l h-» 1-11 MpW1t, WMffl-jpi^tiOOOMOOSMttl^ao bai^osaoobakbooofcol^cioobfcarfi. Fahrenheit. 1—-1 o^?o?o?o?o?d?dcoco«oqoccqoooc» 0?OOOM050i4^WU)HO?OGOMOim o Centigrade. fco to to to to fcO bo I—* 1—* 1—* 1—1 I—* 1—1 1—■ 1—■ MHOOOOOtOfflffltDffltOCOCO® bsoc»p||iWHp o o B Degree to be reduced. cdco^cdcocowodcocd^ WfcOHO«OCOMC5tn^.c o o Degree to be produced. l_i|_i|-i|-‘l-‘>-‘l-1H-1t-‘M ts h-* ►-* «■ HtOWt^OKICCOMM CO~J~J~J~300COI-‘tt*.COfc3-40J=®~JWrfi.CnOJSOCOClO|t*fc01-‘fcOW«OCllt».OiaOlS».CQlf* fcOlfi.OlCOMlfi.^JOrf^-a®' o Quantity of water required. CO CO to scog o oB Degree to be reduced. fcOHO«DCOMO^m^WfcOHO?DOOMCiU'^W© o o Degree to be produced. >—* I—• t—* J—* >—• >—1 )—l t—• »—• ,- HHMHMHMtObObObOl^fcO^ HfcOW^CiMCOOHWi^WMCOOlOWU’^tD^ fcO^OiCOfcOO*COtOC"Otf*.SOtf*.«0£"h-*ODC*fcOO£J Quantity of water required. CO ~tO© r. r. ~ O 5 Degree to be reduced. CD?OCDCOCOCOQOCDCOODCOCO—1 1—1 1—1 I—• 1—■ 1—• _ h-‘>-‘l--*l-‘H-‘bOb5KOlsSls3fcOCA300WCOWrfit^lt>.|^p;- OiCDMaffiWMMOlH1 05 H O'. bS *4 W«i»J!DH' W 05 CO- o<«oit»oc»»ac»HOui9vciuo(xitO* WyiCDHrf^COHOiOt«O^I-‘*44iHGOOiOiWCOW05^0'*40^CX)W?DCnWHOHfcO® p Quantity of ■water required. ........................ 00 ?©S? 0 *'<=>b Degree to be reduced. 050i 03 05 O0i05WCiUiUiW^mrr 0 o o Degree to be produced. HHHHMiMMh» H- HtOOOyt05-4^0tOWU’aCDOHWW'-^OHWC^MOHW05CDHW05?OH^MHrfi.' mOClWbOWmCDOiWWClHCDO WC5Ofcia?Drfi.C0WCDWC0^WO01^WHHMHU)WUiC0b305HMWH^)(X)C0OWffi o Quantity of water required. „ 0D 00 5* O 0 si Degree to be reduced. WbiMOfflCO-4050<||iWMHO«0(» QDv(CSOlji.oifcoi-‘05ooo -io)o<1)iwu)i-io®a)CI)®tJUrfiOi3l-'O«Da3<|C0 Degree to be produced. oioi»!;i®®o)i4afc®t®Wlt».CS«©t®0il-‘^It£.l-‘C0§' p Quantity of water required. QO 00 s? Degree to be reduced. oooci(»CD(»(»MMMM u'r U)HO®ooMCieniixWN)HO®i»ji.ci3t>si-‘Oc©a>^!cs«xrfi.CA3fc®i-‘0«oao-a[aimi£>.03fcai-‘0^0 Degree to be produced. J-J * ►—* h-1 »—* >—• Witk|^ifcitkWWCnffi®®? Degree to be reduced. CDaDCOaO~.T^J-J-4-'I*'J*'J-'J-'I—rcs®50}C5C5Ci05;» ■qauiit»wts5Ho®aiM®cit»wuiHO®(»M®o>iiiWtaHO®® i4WbOHO®(»-j®oii(kWkOMOW(»totat>3uiu>03wcocos.' t-‘fc®^tn0500«0l-‘ta^a5--7CDI-‘C0O’O5CCOC»St’'“4- MWWWM®W-«JH«IrfiHWffl®(-‘W«aW®CO'4®OiOOWtn»JI-'^ CO*^OU<®l^®I^O®UOQO®I^Us Quantity of water required. 279 TABLE FOR REDUCING SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS. Degree to be reduced. Degree to be produced. Quantity of water required. Degree to be reduced. Degree to be produced. Quantity of water required. Degree to be reduced. Degree to be produced. Quantity of water required. Degree to be reduced. Degree to be produced. Quantity of water required. from to lit. dec. from to lit. dec. from to lit. dec. from to lit. dec. 830 740 13 1 820 810 1 3 800 45 81 3 790 550 46 1 it 75 11 6 it 46 77 4 ti 56 43 4 il 76 10 0 810 38 117 5 It 47 73 6 it 57 40 9 it 77 8 5 it 39 111 9 ti 48 70 0 tl 58 38 4 it 78 70 tt 40 106 7 ti 49 66 5 It 59 36 0 It 79 5 5 it 41 101 7 tl 50 63 1 It 60 33 6 it 80 4 1 tt 42 96 9 tl 51 59 9 it 61 31 4 tt 81 2 7 tt 43 92 3 It 52 56 8 It 62 29 2 it 82 1 3 tt 44 87 9 tt 53 53 8 It 63 27 1 it 45 83 7 tt 54 50 9 tt 64 25 0 820 380 120 3 it 46 79 7 It 55 48 1 il 65 23 0 it 39 114 7 tt 47 75 9 It 56 45 4 il 66 21 1 tl 40 109 3 a 48 72 2 It 57 42 8 tl 67 19 2 tt 41 104 3 it 49 68 7 ti 58 40 2 It 68 17 3 tl 42 99 4 tt 50 65 3 It 59 37 8 il 69 15 5 tt 43 94 8 tt 51 62 0 tl 60 35 4 It 70 13 8 it 44 90 4 it 52 58 8 tl 61 33 1 ti 71 12 1 tt 45 86 1 it 53 55 8 it 62 30 9 it 72 10 5 it 46 82 1 it 54 52 9 It 63 28 8 It 73 8 8 it 47 78 2 it 55 50 0 It 64 26 7 It 74 7 3 tt 48 74 5 tt 56 47 3 It 65 24 7 tl 75 5 7 tl 49 70 9 tt 57 44 7 il 66 22 7 It 76 4 3 it 50 67 4 tt 58 42 1 It 67 20 8 It 77 2 8 it 51 64 1 tt 59 39 6 tl 68 18 9 it 78 1 4 It 52 60 9 tt 60 37 2 It 69 17 1 tl 53 57 8 it 61 34 9 tl 70 15 3 780 380 109 1 it 54 54 9 it 62 32 7 it 71 13 6 tl 39 103 8 tl 55 52 0 tt 63 30 5 It 72 12 0 It 40 98 7 tt 56 49 2 tl 64 28 4 It 73 10 3 tt 41 93 9 tt 57 46 5 tl 65 26 3 It 74 8 7 It 42 89 3 tl 58 44 0 ti 66 24 3 tt 75 7 2 It 43 84 9 it 59 41 5 tt 67 22 4 tt 76 5 7 It 44 80 7 it 60 39 0 it 68 20 5 tl 77 42 tl 45 76 6 tl 61 36 7 it 69 18 7 tl 78 2 8 It 46 72 8 it 62 34 4 it 70 16 9 it 79 1 4 ti 47 69 1 il 63 32 2 it 71 15 2 It 48 65 5 tl 64 30 1 tt 72 13 5 790 380 111 9 tt 49 62 1 tl 65 28 0 it 73 11 8 tt 39 106 5 tt 50 58 8 it 66 26 0 it 74 10 2 tt 40 101 4 tl 51 55 7 ti 67 24 0 it 75 8 6 tl 41 96 5 It 52 52 7 it 68 22 1 it 76 7 1 tt 42 91 8 ti 53 49 7 tt 69 20 3 it 77 5 6 It 43 87 3 tt 54 46 9 tt 70 18 4 it 78 4 2 tl 44 83 1 It 55 44 2 it 71 16 7 tt 79 2 7 it 45 79 0 It 56 41 5 tt 72 15 0 it 80 1 4 It 46 75 1 tl 57 39 0 tt 73 13 3 tt 47 713 tl 58 36 5 ti 74 11 7 800 38 114 7 tt 48 67 8 tl 59 34 1 tt 75 10 1 tl 39 109 2 ft 49 64 3 It 60 31 8 it 76 8 5 tl 40 104 0 tt 50 61 0 it 61 29 6 it 77 7 0 It 41 99 1 tt 51 57 8 it 62 27 4 tt 78 5 6 tl 42 94 3 It 52 54 7 it 63 25 3 tt 79 41 It 43 89 8 tt 53 51 7 It 64 23 3 “ 1 80 1 27 1 tl 44 85 5 tl 54 48 9 l a 65 21 3 280 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. o OB Degree to be reduced. v|®tni^MbSHOi»00«a®® Degree to be produced. h-* ►—* >_4 Hl\D^C^wb3HOtDaxt®oiitiMuiHOW(»wk3i-‘owcoo o o Degree to be produced. »-■ ►-■ _ ltktnWOl®®ffl-i|-‘t-‘l-‘MI—‘fcOfcOtOtsDCOCOCOCOiti^lJ^rf^mmC'ClOlCS^T-'.'T-JaOCOeOCOOS: tDtOU't»tiW®03<(H®0«'0 |^®#‘00-»WOOKioo5wo-‘Hi-ibaMMbatawwwwitiiiijiO'WU’®®a-> CO (t*. 05 “4 tO Mi ■ ®wbOHHit»aiuifr c?’©wi-‘'OOOWOM»HWO!OWaiOW-JHOlOlHO HWJiOlvItOHCOWMtOHWUivIOMU'MOWOHOtiOl" OlOO)W®^HOlOO)WHOHMOlB P Quantity of water required. 05 <1 o - 75 oB Degree to be reduced. rf=*- ►P*' oo co -joiffioi®®^ O‘-0CC.rfi.ifi.c7ic™«o>o5(a505 £• (0t00'CCt00'®UI03O0lffl||i. MC0rf3kO3OO?OI—‘OSO'-*!©!—‘4^C3GOt-‘OOCT3©l—*rf*-OIh-‘di.-4>-‘0'©03»4t>i03 H CO 03 CD (£>' WM«IrfkMMM0301O303(»OW0)l-‘03baOC0H!0 OlH^IWOCO® P Quantity of water required. Degree to be reduced. O3O3O3O3C3O3O3 03O0lr* O 50 CO CO-JOSOlrfi.WCOHOtOOOMCCiO'rfi.WtOt-10 o o o Degree to be produced. ci-4-T i~‘i-‘i-‘i-‘i-‘b0tat3bsiN3W0i03H: l-‘COrf^©00©l-‘OOOl-J©U)^©©l-‘lf^©- *] H1 © 03 fcO © © tf* U) M‘ © © 1-^1OOtnOOtOOSbOOO©3t*.rfi.Cn~ai—'OSWHHMMlIk 03 tOCD W CO H‘ © CO 0O CO © 1—‘ tfi. « © §" p Quantity of water required. Ci as O O 3 Degree to be reduced. 03 03 03 03 ©3 03 03 0'0'0'0'0'0'0'0'0'0'it*.it3.tfi.tf3.it3.rf3.tf3.3f3.Ji.<-* G0bSh-‘©©C»-a©O'^0ib3l-3'O«0»M05W|f3WC0H1 © © CD O3Ol>-*©©a0~4030'43k00c>3l—‘° o o Degree to be produced. |-J|-‘l-‘l-i |_i|_iMMi-‘COU)COt3WMWW((3.||il^CXOtWa03S O'03C0©bi>43.03CO©03O'00©0i03©t303COt—lO'©00~JI—‘O' 1—‘C0rf3.c;CD©|NS4-.O300©l>aO'-a©t0O'GDI—‘C © C3ti©~IOlrf*000JD0£*O3©fc0O3l--‘COO'0it00Srf3*COfc3COO3a3§‘ Quantity of water required. 282 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. 05 05 "i1 jag O O O 3 Degree to be reduced. 050>ao:o)Oiwo50Ha'XitS0iOlMBW |—« CO fflWC0OH*.»JM05b3(»010;®03HWHffl®Olti ®WHfflOOM '0'it*tt5-tt5-it*it*it*if*it*tt*it*OSOS — —JO5®'it*.0St3l-‘©:0CD-405O'lJ*.0StSt-‘©COCO CO **J 05®'lt*OSt3>""‘©©00 «*J 05 O' it* OS tt ® 0 00 Degree to be produced. ‘-Jir‘'-'tOtOtOOSOSO3l I-IH-‘l-‘l-ltafc3fc®bSOSOSOStt*lt*®'0' t-i|_il-,|_itCfcOtOtOOSOSOSj5-4^H; l(iC. ®tS*.-IOOJ050«-JH‘ H030lMfflMi(505®H||iC5®tSO'®t3 05Cli5. M0SW-J®Hitkaa)HWO5®t5O'C»l-‘W Oi®ltkC*bU‘OiW«JI-lO50SbS C0rfi0'MH03 OHt5Ji-flb3<1030®®003vI03 ® O H 03 W ffl 03 ffl » ifk 03® Quantity of water required. rfi.rfi.rfi. C3i O'? s £ s s -4 ccccccrccoo ccccccccrccco O O O O OB Degree to be reduced. rfi.rfi.rfi.COCO rfi.rfi.rfirfi.rfl.rfirfirfi.COCO rfirfirfirfirfirfirfirfirfiCOCO rfirfirfirfirfirfirfirfirfirfiCOCO toi—‘OOOtg MOJOirfiWtOHO®!* OO-rfOiCnrfiCObOl—‘OCOCg ®00'1030'|(i03tOHO®lg O ® OO a O' 1^0 Degree to be produced. HMMtota HHHtstots i-'i-'Mtotatoto t-ii-'i-'>-‘tobOfcoco m m m 5 tOrfi-rfOrfi tOrfiOlCDI-'rfi.-rfOCOOS tOl|i03®l-‘rfiM00303® fcOrfiOSCOI-'COOi- p. to ®® ® H tOej'QOCOCOOSrfirfi.O'OO HltiMHOOSHOOtOO' HC003®rfiO-4COg Quantity of water required. CO rfi rfi rfi rfi rfi rfi rfi rfi*? CO 50 s 5 M : : CN S555CO 5 5 5 5 5 rfi C I C C t IW S55“EEEO 5 5 5 -4 g oooc o o o OOB Degree to be reduced. co coco rficoco rfi rfi co co rfi rfi rfi co co rfi rfi. rfi rfi co co rfi rfi rfi rfi rfi co co rfirfirfirfirfirficoco rfi i{i rfi» OO COCO OCOCO HOBCO tOI—‘OCOCO CO fcO t—1 © CO GO rfi CO tO I-* © CO CO O' Ji 03 CO H O ® ® O) O' rfiCOO OOOO O O O OO Degree to be produced to to oi to o' co tsoiiio tao"ioco to rf. -4 © u> O' co us rf. © F -4 03 CO Wtoo OtHODil rfi O 03 rfi rfi rfi CO O' to O O CO CO ©-4-4 <1 CO 03 © *4 rfi CO CO rfi tSOSOW’ffi p Quantity of water required. 284 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Raising the Proof of Brandy. The augmentation of the strength or degree of a spirituous liquor, by means of another spirituous liquor, is known, in the trade, as raising the proof (remontage). We have already given an example of this operation in speaking of the reduction of one liquor by means of another; nevertheless, we think it better to present another example, in order to explain more fully the manner of conducting the operation. We will suppose that a cask, containing 420 litres of brandy at 46 degrees, is to have its standard of proof raised to 49 degrees by the addition of spirit at 85 de- grees. We take the difference between 43 and 46, and mul- tiply this difference by the number of litres (420x3= 1260); divide the product by 36, the difference between 85 and 49, and we have 36 for the number of litres of spirit at 85°, to be added to 420 litres of brandy at 46° to raise the proof to 49°. The operation yields 455 litres. —Multiply the number representing the quantity of spirits to be raised by the difference between its degree and that of the new compound; divide this product by the differ ence between the degree of the stronger spirit and that of the new compound; the quotient will indicate the quantity of strong spirit necessary to increase the standard or proof of the weaker liquor.]—Trans. ACTUAL VALUE OF SPIRITS REDUCED. 285 Table exhibiting the actual value of spirits at 85 degrees centesimal (33o Cartier) reduced to all degrees of proof found in the market. Cost of a hecto- litre in francs. 410 or 170 Cartier. 430 or 17°* Cartier. 450 or 180 Cartier. 470 or 18°£ Cartier. 490 or 190 Cartier. 500 or 19Qi Cartier. 510 or 19Q£ Cartier. 530 or 200 Cartier. 580 or 21Q| Cartier. 590 or 2201 Cartier. fr. fr fr. fr. fr. fr. fr. fr. fr. fr. fr. 35 16.97 17.82 18.61 19.46 20.27 20.68 21.10 21.94 23.97 24.36 36 17.45 18.32 19.14 20.01 20.84 21.27 21.70 22.56 24.65 25.06 37 17.93 18.83 19.67 20-56 21.42 21.86 22.30 23.18 25.33 25.76 38 18.42 19.33 20.20 21.12 21.99 22.44 22.90 23.81 26.02 26.46 39 18.90 19.84 20.73 21.67 22.57 23.03 23.50 24.43 26.70 27.16 40 19.38 20.34 21.26 22.22 23.14 23.62 24.10 25.06 27.38 27.86 41 19.86 20.85 21.79 22.77 23.72 24.21 24.70 25.68 28.06 28.55 42 20.34 21.35 22.32 23.33 24.29 24.80 25.30 26.31 28.74 29.24 43 20.83 21.86 22.85 23.88 24.87 25.38 25.90 26.93 29.43 29.94 44 21.31 22.36 23.38 24.43 25.44 25.97 26.50 27.56 30.11 30.63 45 21.79 22.87 23.91 24.99 26.02 26.56 27.10 28.18 30.79 31.33 46 22.27 23.38 24.43 25.54 26.60 27.15 27.70 28.80 31.47 32.02 47 22.75 23.88 24.96 26.09 27.17 27.74 28.30 29.43 32.15 32.71 48 23.24 24.39 25.49 26.64 27.75 28.32 28.90 30.05 32 84 33.42 49 23.72 24.89 26.02 27.20 28.32 28.91 29.50 30.68 33.52 34.10 50 24.20 25.40 26.55 27.75 28.90 29.50 30.10 31.30 34.20 34.80 51 24.68 25.91 27.08 28.30 29.48 30.09 30.70 31.92 34.88 35.49 52 25.16 26.41 27.61 28.86 30.05 30.68 31.30 32.55 35.56 36.18 53 25.65 26.92 28.14 29.41 30.63 31.26 31.90 33.17 36.25 36.88 54 26.13 27.42 28.67 29.96 31.20 31.85 32.50 33.80 36.93 37.57 55 26.61 27.93 29.20 30.52 31.78 32.44 33.10 34.42 37.61 38.27 56 27.09 28.44 29.72 31.07 32.36 33.03 33.70 35.04 38.29 38.96 57 27.57 28.94 30.25 31.62 32.93 33.62 34.30 35.67 38.97 39.65 58 28.06 29.45 30.78 32.17 33.51 34.20 34.90 36.29 39.66 40.35 59 28.54 29.95 31.31 32.73 34.08 34.79 35.50 36.92 40.34 41.04 60 29.02 30.46 31.84 33.28 34.66 35.38 36.10 37.54 41.02 41.74 61 29.50 30.97 32.37 33.93 35.24 35.97 36.70 38.16 41.70 42.43 62 29.98 31.47 32.90 34.39 35.81 36.56 37.30 38.79 42.38 43.12 63 30.47 31.98 33.43 34.94 36.39 37.14 37.90 39.41 43.07 43.72 64 30.95 32.48 33.96 35.49 36.96 37.73 38.50 40.04 43.75 44.51 65 31.43 32.99 34.49 36.05 37.54 38.32 39.10 40.66 44.43 45.21 66 31.91 33.50 35.01 36.60 38.12 38.91 39.70 41.28 45.11 45.91 67 32.39 34.00 35.54 37.15 38.69 39.50 40.30 41.91 45.79 46.59 68 32.88 34.51 36.07 37.70 39.27 40.08 40.90 42.53 46.48 47.29 69 33.36 35.01 36.60 38.26 39.84 40.67 41.50 43.16 47.16 47.99 70 33.84 32.52 37.13 38.81 40.42 41.26 42.10 43.78 47.84 48.69 71 34.32 36.03 37.66 39.36 41.00 41.85 42.70 44.40 48.52 49.38 72 34.80 36.53 38.19 39.92 41.57 42.44 43.30 45.03 49.20 50.07 73 35.29 37.04 38.72 40.47 42.15 43.02 43.90 45.65 49.89 50.77 74 35.77 37.54 39.25 41.02 42.72 43.61 44.50 46.28 50.57 51.46 75 36.25 38.05 39.78 41.58 43.30 44.20 45.10 46.90 51.25 52.15 76 36.73 38.56 40.30 42.13 43.88 44.79 45.70 47.52 51.93 52.84 77 37.21 39.06 40.83 42.68 44.45 45.38 46.30 48.15 52.61 53.53 78 37.70 39.57 41.36 43.23 45.03 45.96 1 46.90 , 48.77 53.30 54.23 79 38.18 40.07 41.89 1 43.79 45.60 46.55 i 47.50 | 49.40 53.98 54.93 286 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Cost of a hecto- litre in francs. 410 or 170 Cartier. 430 or 17°J Cartier. 450 or 180 Cartier. 470 or 18Q£ Cartier. 490 or 190 Cartier. 500 or 19Q£ Cartier. 510 or 190* Cartier. 530 or 200 Cartier. 580 or 210} Cartier. 590 or 2201 Cartier. fr. fr. fr. fr. fr fr. fr. fr. fr. fr. fr. 80 38.66 40.58 42.42 44.34 46.18 47.14 48.10 50.02 54.66 55.63 81 39.14 41.09 42.95 44.89 46.76 47.73 48.70 50.64 55.34 56.32 82 39.62 41.59 43.48 45.45 47.33 48.32 49.30 51.27 56.02 57.01 83 40.11 42.10 44.01 46.00 47.91 48.90 49.90 51.89 56.71 57.71 84 40.59 42.60 44.54 46.55 48.48 49.49 50.50 52.52 57.39 58.40 85 41.07 43.11 45.07 47.11 49.06 50.08 51.10 53.14 58.07 59.10 86 41.55 43.62 45.59 47.66 49.64 50.67 51.70 53.76 58.75 59.79 87 42.03 44.12 46.12 48.21 50.21 51.26 52.30 54.39 59.43 60.49 88 42.52 44.63 46.65 48.76 50.79 5184 52.90 55.01 60.12 61.19 89 43.00 45.13 47.18 49.32 51.36 52.43 53.50 55.64 60.79 61.88 90 43.48 45.64 47.71 49.87 51.94 53.02 54.10 56.26 61.48 62.57 91 43.96 46.15 48.24 50.42 52.52 53.61 54.70 56.88 62.16 63.26 92 44.44 46.65 48.77 50.98 53.09 54.20 55.30 57.51 62.84 63.95 93 44.93 47.16 49.30 51.53 53.67 54.78 55.90 58.13 63.53 64.73 94 45.41 47.66 49.83 52.08 54.24 55.37 56.50 58.76 64.21 65.42 95 45.89 48.17 50.36 52.64 54.82 55.96 57.10 59.38 64.89 66.13 96 46.37 48.68 50.88 53.19 55.40 56.55 57.70 60.00 65.57 66.84 97 46.85 49.18 51.41 53.74 55.97 57.14 58.30 60.63 66.25 67.52 98 47.34 49.69 51.94 54.29 56.55 57.72 58.90 61.25 66.94 68.20 99 47.82 50.19 52.47 54.85 57.12 58.31 59.50 61.88 67.62 68.90 100 48.30 50.70 53.00 55.40 57.70 58.90 60.10 62.50 68.30 69.60 Receipts for Aging Brandies and Other Spirits; for Improving them, and for Imitating the Aroma and Flavor of Different Growths. Everybody knows that the best distilled new brandies always retain a sharpness, which causes them to be recog- nized at once, and that they are so much better as they become older. It is known, too, that they equally pre- serve the taste of the soil, or the peculiar flavor which distinguishes the wines from which they were obtained, and that to correct this sharpness, to age, and to imitate the aroma of different growths, certain precautions are to be used. We shall indicate below, those which are most certain of success. Cutting or Mixing Common Brandies (Coupage). In the brandy trade, they generally employ the spirits (trois-six) of Montpellier, of beet, molasses, or grain, for the manufacture of common brandies, which are then labelled brandy of Montpellier, Armagnac, &c., according IMITATION OF BRANDIES. 287 as the spirits have been mixed with low ivines prepared for the purpose, or writh some other preparation. The mixing (or cutting) with pure water always produces a brandy which is harsh and biting, without perfume or delicacy. The following are the different methods of preparing common brandies:— First Process.—This consists in reducing the spirit to the requisite degree, and adding to the mixture 3 litres of cane molasses for each hectolitre of brandy. The molas- ses should be previously well mixed in the water intended for the cutting, with a sufficient quantity of good cara- mel to produce a golden yellow tint. When the mixing is finished, two centilitres of volatile alcali (aqua ammo- nia) is to be added, and the whole vigorously stirred with a rummaging stick. Second Process.—In this process the molasses is re- placed by an equal quantity of syrup of raisins, and pro- ceed as above. Third Process.—This is the same as the last, except that, in addition to the syrup of raisins, two per cent, of common rum are added to the brandy. Imitation of Brandies. Pi'ocess for Imitating the Brandy of Armagnac.—To each hectolitre of trois-six, reduced, is added the follow- ing mixture:— Infusion of walnut bulls .... 1 litre. Infusion of the hulls of bitter almonds . 2 litres. Syrup of raisins 8 “ These quantities may be increased or diminished, ac- cording to the quality of the brandy wanted, and the character of the infusion and syrups employed. Another Process for Imitating the Brandy of Armagnac. —To obtain 100 litres of this imitation, at 49 degrees, take:— 288 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Alcohol of good flavor, at 85° . 56 litres. Common rum ..... 2 “ Water 40 “ Syrup of raisins at 36° ... 2 “ Dried liquorice root . . . 500 grammes. Black tea 60 “ Cream of tartar (bitartrate of potash) 2 “ Boracic acid 1 gramme. Bruise the liquorice root, and boil it with half the water intended for the reduction, in order to extract all its saccharine principles ; then infuse the tea separately, in a hermetically closed vessel, with ten litres of boiling water, then dissolve the cream of tartar and boracic acid in two litres of hot water. When all of these pre- parations have become cold, pass the infusions of tea and liquorice root through a hair cloth, and mix the whole together with the alcohol, rum, syrup of raisins, and enough pure water to make up 100 litres. Color the mixture with a sufficient quantity of good caramel. Method of Imitating the Brandy of Saintonge.—The fol- lowing is the process for 100 litres of trois-six reduced to 50 degrees, to which, at the time of the reduction, have been added three per cent, of syrup of raisins, at 36° Baum6:— Infuse five grammes of powdered Florentine iris root for fifteen days, in two litres of rum, with the rind of two sweet oranges; five grammes of the best Mexican vanilla, and five grammes of angelica seed; then, at the time of the reduction, make separate infusions in a litre of boiling water, of 30 grammes of imperial tea, and 30 grammes of the flowers of the linden; then the three infusions (rum, tea, and linden flowers), pressed and filtered, are to be added to the 100 litres of brandy rummaged thoroughly, and colored, if necessary. Method of Imitating Cognac Brandy.—Of all brandies, Cognac is the most difficult to imitate, and among the numerous preparations used for attaining this end, we have seen very few which so nearly approach success as the following:— IMITATION OF BRANDIES. 289 Alcohol at 85° (well flavored) . . 54 litres. Rum of good quality . . . . 2 “ Syrup of raisins . . . 3 “ Infusion of green walnut hulls . 2 “ Infusion of the shells of bitter almonds. 2 “ Catechu in powder . . . .15 grammes. Balsam of Tolu 6 “ Pure water 27 litres. Product . . 100 litres. Dissolve the catechu and balsam of Tolu together in a litre of alcohol at 85°, and pour this solution into the 58 litres of alcohol before adding the water; mix all the liquids together, rummage thoroughly, and then color with caramel of the best quality. jRemarks.—The quality of the water and caramel in the manufacture of these brandies is of the highest importance, and they should have bestowed on them the most scrupulous attention. We shall, in the second part of this book, point out the inconvenience which results from using these liquids if they are spoiled or badly prepared. Rain water is to be preferred. The object of using the syrup of raisins or molasses and liquorice root is to soften and impart a smoothness to the brandy; the addition of the rum, infusion of the hulls of bitter almonds, of the tea, catechu, and balsam of Tolu is to impart bouquet, delicacy, and aroma. The infusion of walnut hulls gives the flavor of age, the cream of tartar and boracic make a bead on brandy at 45°; the liquorice root also has the same property. In the reduction of trois-six in which much water is employed, the syrup of raisins, by reason of the tartar it contains, has the additional advantage of precipitating all the lime and its various salts that may be held in solution. It is indispensable to use the volatile alkali in the pro- portion of 2 centilitres (about 20 grammes) to the hecto- litre when the brandy is sharp, or when it contains an acid; and, in any event, whatever be the nature of the brandy, this small quantitv of the alkali can do no pos- 19 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. sible injury either to the quality of the spirits or to the health of the consumer. Another Method of Imitating Cognac Brandy.—The fol- lowing receipt is used by one of the largest houses in the spirit trade in Paris :— Rum of good quality . . . 2 litres. Liquorice root .... 500 grammes. Roman chamomile . . . 125 Vanilla 10 “ Brown sugar .... 1 kilogramme. Good flavored alcohol at 85° . 68 litres. Rain water from the cistern . . 80 Product 100 litres at 58°. Bruise the liquorice root and boil it in a portion of the water intended for the mixture, then make hot in- fusions (separately) of the chamomile and vanilla each, in a hermetically closed vessel. When cold pass all these infusions through a cloth filter, add them to the trois-six and the remainder of the water in which the sugar has in the mean time been dissolved. Improving Brandies. Generally the genuine new brandies of Montpellier, Armagnac, Cognac, and other districts, are improved in quality by adding to them 15 grammes of sugar candy, or 3 centilitres of the syrup of raisins to the litre, which removes their sharpness and renders them smoother and more agreeable. Independently of this addition of sugar, the aroma and flavor of the brandies of Armagnac may be con- siderably augmented by the addition of a litre of the infusion of green walnut hulls and a litre of the infu- sion of the hulls of bitter almonds, or in the absence of these two infusions, of two litres of rum to each hecto- litre of brandy. The flavor, the aroma, and the age of the brandies of Cognac, Saint Jean d’Angely, Saintonge, etc., may also be increased by the addition of various substances. The following is a receipt for one hectolitre of brandy :— IMPROVING BRANDIES. 291 Old rum 2 litres. Old kirsch ..... 1.75 “ Infusion of green walnut hulls . . 75 centilitres. Syrup of raisins ... .2 litres. Low Wines prepared for reducing Spirits. —In Angou- mois, Saintonge, and Aunis, the dealers in spirits are in the habit of reducing their brandies with low wines pre- pared especially for giving them age; this custom is an excellent one, and we cannot recommend it too highly. The following is the method of proceeding:— A certain quantity of rain water is collected and al- lowed to stand for several days in order that it may de- posit all the foreign substances that may have been sus- pended in it. After a sufficient rest, the clear portion is drawn off and stowed in pipes or barrels where 10 or 12 per cent, of brandy at 58° or spirit at 85° is added to preserve it. When this wTater so prepared has been kept for six or eight months in the casks it has acquired indisputable merit for the softness and qualities of age it communicates to brandies. There are some dealers who consider that the low wines, when three or four years old, are quite equal in value to new Cognacs. There is still another method of preparing the low wines intended for reducing spirits which, independently of the smoothness and age, impart a perfume to those brandies which lack it. It is as follows:— An empty barrel of any size is set on end; we intro- duce into it about ten kilogrammes to the hectolitre of its capacity, of the chips, shavings and sawdust of the white oak, which are left from the manufacture of the barrels for Cognac brandy. The cask is then filled with water to disgorge the wood. After six or eight days’ infusion, this water, which is not used, is drawn off, and the cask is filled with rain-water, to which has been added a tenth of spirit or brandy. This water by age improves in color and quality; mixed with brandies in proper proportions, it gives them an excellent bouquet. Extract or Essence of Cognac.—The spirits of diffe- rent countries and of various kinds, previously softened 292 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. by the addition of sugar-candy or the syrup of raisins, harmonize very well with the preparation of which the following is the receipt for a hectolitre of spirits:— Sassafras wood .... 10 grammes. Balsam of Tolu . . . . 10 “ Catechu ...... 100 “ Essence of bitter almonds 1 “ Vanilla ...... 5 “ Well flavored alcohol, at 85° . . 1 litre. Triturate the vanilla in 125 grammes of brown sugar. Macerate the whole for eight days, shaking frequently and thoroughly; then, after a rest of twenty-four hours, draw off the clear portion, and pour this extract into the spirit to be improved, taking care to rummage the mixture well so as to incorporate the elements tho- roughly. Improvement of Different Spirits. Rum, kirsch, gin, absinthe Swiss or any other spirit, when newly made, always possesses, like spirits in general, a harshness and very disagreeable pungency; this imper- fection may be corrected by adding to them 15 grammes of white sugar or sugar-candy to the litre of spirits. New Method of Distilling Wines Practised in the Charentes. For some years a number of distillers in Charentes introduced into their wines (as is done in distilling kirsch) spirits of wine, beet, rice, sorghum, &c., before submitting them to distillation, in order to produce a greater quantity of Cognac brandy. The increase of the product, by a reasonable addition of foreign spirit to the wine distilled, is quite important, since it may, according to the season, double the quan- tity produced by the distillation of the wine, without the addition of any alcohol. The object of this addition of spirit is to increase the profit by utilizing the superabundance or excess of or- ganic acids which exists in the wine, and the greater portion of which is lost by the old method, since it is found in the spent wash in quite considerable quantity. NEW METHOD OF DISTILLING WINES. 293 It appears that it is during the distillation, and under the influence of heat, that brandy acquires the inimitable flavor and aroma which constitute its merit, and which are so highly appreciated. In fact, during this opera- tion, reactions take place between the acids just men- tioned and the alcohol, which produce the peculiar ethers which give to Cognac its flavor and perfume. It is a fact worthy of note, that the brandy obtained in consequence of the addition of a spirit foreign to the wine, in limited proportions, cannot be distinguished from the brandy resulting from the natural wine by itself; that is to say, without this addition. Finally, brandy resulting from this new method defies all methods of investigation. We may suspect the mixture, and even know of its existence, but we cannot furnish the proof; neither the most skilful and practised taste, nor the persevering researches of the most skilful and learned chemists, have been able to detect it. M. Payen him- self acknowledged some time since that, in the actual state of the science, the discovery of this mixture pre- sented insurmountable obstacles. Now this question may be raised. Although the ad- dition of a determinate quantity of alcohol to the wine does not change the characteristic properties of the brandy, does it not constitute a fraud or an alteration, and should it not be so considered ? This question has been warmly discussed by the proprietors of large vine- yards in Charentes, various dealers, and many eminent chemists. Messrs. Dainpierre, Barral, Payen, and San- son, have taken a very large and active part in the dis- cussion. The last, among others, recently presented a paper on the subject to the Academy of Sciences and the Central Agricultural Society, well worthy the at- tention of those distinguished associations, in which he concludes that, in a scientific point of view, we may consider this process for manufacturing brandies both rational and lawful, since it consists in the augmenta- tion of the alcoholic richness of the wines of the country, and consequently their productiveness. Without pronouncing a decided opinion on the matter 294 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. under discussion, we think that we may be permitted to say that it is always right and proper for producers and dealers, who sell these mixed brandies, to be careful that their composition and origin are made known, and that they should not be sold as pure Cognacs. To act on any other principle, would be a culpable offence which the honest trade should condemn, and which should bring the offender under the notice of the correctional police, because the seller has deceived the buyer as to the nature of his merchandise. PART II. DISTILLATION OF PERFUMED WATERS, LIQUEURS, ESSENCES, ETC. HISTORY OF LIQUEURS. The ancients were acquainted with, and made great use of liqueurs, which, at first, were used as medicines, or as corroborants. Afterwards, they were found ca- pable of stimulating the appetite, and assisting diges- tion. These liqueurs had for their basis simply the must of the grape or wine, which was aromatized according to the peculiar properties attributed to each of the liqueurs. Hippocrates, the father of medicine, was the inventor of the first aromatic liqueur, the use of which has spread to almost all nations, and which has always borne the name Hippocras. It was, at first, composed of wine, cinnamon, and honey; but, in the course of time, it was improved, particularly by Alexis, of Peidmont. This mixture, so much vaunted by our ancient romancists, was, for a long time, very fashionable; it was served on all great occasions of feasting. Louis XIV. was very fond of it; the city of Paris presented him, every year, with a certain number of bottles of it, and his cooks set themselves up as rivals of the distillers of the capital in the manufacture. There were still some remains of this ancient custom in the reign of Louis XV. Pliny, Galien, and Dioscorides soon followed the ex- ample of Hippocrates; they employed wines in which they digested hyssop, absinthe, calamus, &c. &c. The Romance of Floremond alludes to them under the gene- ral name of “wine of herbsf and it is spoken of in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries. All that remains 296 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. of these is the wine of absinthe, which is called, in Italy, Vermut, and is an excellent stomachic. According to Pliny, the wines, to which were added the juices of cer- tain fruits, were known to the Gauls, and they were in the habit of introducing into their new wines the buds and berries of the mastich, in order to render them more pleasant to the taste. Pliny also says, that wines con- taining absinthe prevent sea-sickness. He makes men- tion of the games celebrated at the capitol, where, among other prizes, they gave to the conqueror a drink mixed with absinthe, as a fountain of health. Arnault de Villeneuve and Raymond Sulle invented the first known liqueur based on alcohol—they called it eau divine et admirable (divine and admirable water); this was simply brandy mixed with sugar; it was then considered as a medicine, and for many centuries it was so regarded. Much later, the eau divine was perfumed with the lemon, the rose, and orange flowers. The con- vent of Saint Sacrement, rue Saint Louis, au Marais, in Paris, had, in 1760, the reputation of preparing eau divine in superior style, producing it of extreme delicacy of flavor. About the year 1520, Theophrastus Paracelsus, pro- fessor of chemistry at Basle, invented many liqueurs, which he called the grand arcanum, great and small cir- culation, and, among others, the famous elixir proprietatis. Brouat, a physician, in 1636, conceived the idea of ex- tracting the essential oils from drugs by means of brandy, with the intention of compounding liqueurs which were generally administered as cordial draughts. The follow- ing quotations from Brouat himself, on the subject of aro- matic liqueurs, and, more particularly, the brandy of the ancients, are very curious, and the energy of his style is odd enough to justify the belief that our readers will not be displeased at finding it presented to them. “Would you then adorn this heaven (brandy) with all- powerful stars ? Extract from it tinctures and essences of all things that are fitting for the general preservation of a long life, or rather for the special cure of every disease. history of liqueurs. 297 “For the preservation of the general health, you shall take the corroborants of the noble parts, as for the brain, the heart, the liver, the stomach, the lungs, the kidneys, the spleen, or others, and you shall not have need for a great mass to appropriate to each; but it will be enough to select that which will possess the greatest virtue; as for the heart, you shall take saffron and mace; for the brain, muse and prepared vitriol; for the nerves and head, lavender, sage, and rosemary; for the liver, cocklebur and aperient roots; for the kidneys, lapis ne- phriticus; for the spleen, tamarinds; for the testes, figs and orchis mascula; for the veins, angelica ; for the lungs, liquorice, argillaceous earth. “For the simplest medicaments are the best, and the great number or crowding of remedies into a body never produces either a good or laudable effect, and nature acts more promptly on the reception of a few than at the importunity of many, which rather produce a sur- charge and hindrance.” Brandy (eau-de-vie), employed at the beginning of the thirteenth century as a medicine, passed insensibly to the table, and soon became the favorite of the people. Then the Italians more than any other people set them- selves to making it agreeable to the palate. They dis- covered the means of giving it a higher value for the use of the wealthy classes. They called these new drinks liquori, and they exported them to foreign countries. The French first adopted the use of them in 1532 at the time of the marriage of Henry II., then Duke of Orleans, to Catherine de Medicis. This court attracted into France a great number of Italians, who brought along with them the delicate dishes used in their own country, and gave instruction as to the methods of pre- paring them. They were the first who manufactured and sold fine liqueurs in Paris. The earliest among these was rossoli, in which the rose furnished the pre- ponderating perfume. The precise etymology of this word rossoli cannot be given; it very soon, however, became general as applied to all cordials or ratafias. It 298 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. may be derived from the plant ros solis (Drosera rotun- difolia), which among others enters into the composition of this liqueur. The rossoli called populo was highly esteemed during the reigns of Henry III. and Henry IV. The ratafias of cherries and violets, as well as many other liqueurs, were intended for the purpose of reviving the old age of the king, Louis XIV. Finally, towards the beginning of the last century, while the distillers of Montpellier were exercising them- selves in compounding the liqueur called eau d'or (water of gold), in allusion to the potable gold of the ancient chemists, the Americans produced the celebrated ratafia from Cedrat, which they called cr&me des bar- hades, Dalmatia introduced its marasquin de zara, Am- sterdam its curagao, while Bourdeaux acquired a world- wide reputation for its anisette. Garus, a physician, gave us the elixir which bears his name, Colladoti of Geneva his eau cordiale, and Bouillerot invented huile de Venus. Since liqueurs are so much varied, the diversity of names called for by the public has greatly increased in our day; so that the distillers have multiplied them on every side. Those of Paris, Villette, Lyons, Bordeaux, Limoges, Rouen, &c., rival each other in price and qua- lity. At the present time the monks of the order of Saint-Bruno, who reside at the monastery Grande Char- treuse near Grenoble manufacture three elixirs; white, yellow, and green, which have a great reputation. The liqueur hygienique of Raspail also enjoys a high degree of public favor. A fall description of the apparatus used in the va- rious processes of distillation has been given in the earlier chapters of this book, and a repetition here will be unnecessary. 299 DISTILLATION. CHAPTER XII. DISTILLATION. As has been seen in the first part of this book, dis- tillation is a chemical operation, the object of which is, to separate with the assistance of heat the lighter or more soluble parts of any substance by converting them into vapor, and then by the application of some colder body, removing the heat which was the means of pro- ducing the vapor, condensing them so as to collect them in a liquid form. The operation requires much care and skill. The business of the brewing distiller, or the manufac- turer of alcohol, consists in separating the spirituous parts from any liquid whatsoever, that has been previ- ously subjected to the vinous or alcoholic fermentation. The liquorist, on the other hand, never distils except for the purpose of obtaining the perfume of aromatic substances, either by means of water or alcohol; in a word, he aromatizes these liquids, and rarely distils water or alcohol separately. The Laboratory, Store-rooms, Cellars, &c. The laboratory of the liquorist should be of sufficient extent to enable him to carry on his operations with facility; the walls well constructed of good materials, vaulted or plastered; of sufficient height of pitch to pre- vent the flames, in case of fire, from reaching the ceiling. It should be well ventilated, lighted from above as much as possible, paved with gravel, or what is better still, with bricks or stone tiles. It is of the greatest importance to have at hand a spring or well, which may furnish a sufficient supply of water. A great quantity is required for washing the ves- sels; more for cooling the stills, and in case of necessity, 300 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. to arrest fires which may occur in the establishment. For this purpose, a reservoir is indispensable; which should be large enough to contain all the water needed for a day’s work, and even more. It should be filled every evening. The chimney should have a large and well-constructed flue. The breast of this chimney should be very broad, and have the form of a broad, open hood, under which should be placed the furnaces for the pans and stills. The store-rooms for the liqueurs should, if possible, be on the same level as the laboratory. It is important that they should be dry. They should be paved or floored with pitch, and have a constant temperature of 12° or 15°. The store-rooms for brandies and other spirits ought to have about the same temperature as for liqueurs. This is of great importance, because heat increases, while cold diminishes the body of liquids. This store-room should only be half lighted, and the floor sprinkled with saltpetre. The cellars should be situated on the north side, and have a depth of five or six meters. The vault under the keystone should have a height of about four meters, and ought to be covered to the depth of a meter or a meter and a half with earth; for the deeper the cellar the better the vault. Its temperature should be main- tained constantly at 10° or 12° Cent., and it is proper when the temperature exceeds this degree, to close a portion of the air holes (or ventilators), and when the temperature diminishes to open, without, however, re- ducing the temperature below 10° above zero. The moisture should be constant without being too great; an excess causes the barrels and stoppers to mould, &c.; a deficiency of humidity causes the casks to dry, thereby causing loss of liquid. The reflection and direct light of the sun must be avoided, as it causes variations of temperature in the cellar, thereby affect- ing its character. The light should be very moderate. While too bright a light is drying, almost absolute dark- ness may and often is the occasion of an explosion, which may result in the bursting of the casks. VESSELS AND UTENSILS. 301 The cellars should be protected as much as possible from the jarring of passing vehicles, and the vicinity of forges where heavy hammers are used. Both excite in liquors as well as in wines oscillations, which cause them to deposit a residuum in casks or in bottles. Perfect order and absolute neatness should prevail in all parts of the laboratory, the store-rooms, cellars, and in all the operations of the liquorist. Without order, the labor is confused and hindered at every turn; with- out cleanliness there can be no good products, for the very best materials will only yield the most inferior results; then in summer a swarm of flies will add to the annoy- ance. To avoid all inconveniences, it is necessary to assign to everything the place it should occupy habi- tually, and to wash and replace all utensils whenever they have been in use, and to scour all implements every evening that have been in use during the day; the stills should be examined frequently, to see if they require repairs or retinning; the whole laboratory should be washed every day, so as to remove all substances cal- culated to attract flies, or to engender filth, or to exhale unpleasant odors. The fuel, sugars, plants, and other ingredients, should be kept in very dry places, except mineral coal, which may be stored in the cellar. Vessels and Utensils. Having treated of the subject of stills, areometers and thermometers, in the preceding portion of this book, it re- mains for us to describe only the vessels and utensils which are required in fitting up the laboratory of a liquorist. There must be many pans or basins of copper of differ- ent sizes (Fig. 4), as well for melting and clarifying sugar as for the preparation of syrups and preserved fruits, and other purposes. These pans should be broad rather than deep, so as to afford a greater surface for evaporation; the bottom should be convex, in order to present the largest surface to the action of the heat, and prevent the sugar or other substance from becoming impacted and being burned. The pans, intended for blanching and pre- serving fruits should, on the other hand, be flat at the 302 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. bottom, so that the fruits may not be crushed or bruised. Then come filters (Fig. 5) : these should be of tinned Fipr. 4. Pan. copper of many sizes, furnished with covers and stop- cocks, having small hooks within, arranged at different Fipr. 5. Filters, dippers, and dish. distances for attaching the strainers. These filters, which resemble large, closed funnels, should be mounted on a frame of oak, under which is placed a vat lined with tinned copper, in order to catch any liquid which, by the inattention of the workmen,.runs over the top of the vessel intended to receive it. A number of filters for decolorizing syrups. This very simple filter consists of a box having the form of an invert- ed, truncated pyramid. This box is made of wood, lined within with tinned copper soldered at the angles; at the bottom, is a stopcock a, for drawing off the syrups; a VESSELS AND UTENSILS. 303 little above the bottom is a hole to receive a tube b, ap- plied to the exterior of the filter to afford a means of escape for the air contained in the apparatus. Within these are two perforated diaphragms, also of tinned Fig. 6. Decolorizing filter.* copper, one of which is larger than the other to adapt them to the form of the case, one being placed near the bottom, and the other fitting near the top. It is com- pleted by the cover E, intended to prevent the contents from cooling too rapidly. We shall describe the manner of using the filter in the article on the Clarification of Sugar. Cans {conges), of different sizes, for mixing liqueurs. * This is also known as a “ Rectifier” by the liquor dealers of the United States.—Trans. 304 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The can (Fig. 7) of the liquorist is made of copper, tinned within, having a graduated scale to indicate the quan- tity of liquid it contains, a stopcock b and cover c. Figr. 1. Graduated can of the liquorist. Fi£. 8. Wooden bowl and iron ball. VESSELS AND UTENSILS. 305 A large bowl lined and bound with iron, having two handles and supported at a height of about one metre from the floor by cords A, attached to a strong hook in the ceiling This bowl is set in motion by twisting the cords first in one direction and then in another, and by means of the iron ball b, which weighs 10 or 12 kilogrammes, serves for bruising almonds for orgeat syrup. There are many machines in Paris for the same purpose, but we are assured by our own experience that they are all in- ferior to this simple apparatus. We ought to say, how- ever, that we have seen at Orleans a machine for crush- ing almonds, similar to a mustard mill, which produces excellent results. We shall describe it in speaking of syrup of orgeat. Fig. 9. Covered mortar. A cylinder or roaster for roasting coffee and cocoa, a coffee mill, a stone or marble mortar with a wooden pes- tle, and a small brass mortar. 306 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. A large iron mortar for bruising hard substances hav- ing a loose pocket-like cover of leather, which is attached to the top of the mortar by a hoop with a hole at the top, for the passage of the handle of the pestle. Strainers of silk and hair for straining liquids, a syphon with a stopcock and a liquor pump of tin for transfer- ing brandies and liqueurs into barrels, a small syphon of glass or tin for smaller operations, a florentine receiver of glass, funnels of tinned copper, glass and tin of various sizes; a dipper and its dish, both of which should be tinned, for pouring liquids on the filters and filling the brocks (metal jugs). The dipper should have a capacity of three litres and have a scale marked on its interior. A press (Fig. 10) with its frame for expressing the juice from fruits and the marc of currants; an extra Fig. 10. Press. bed is necessary for pressing the marc of orgeat. A large oak table for the general use of the laboratory; under which should be a large drawer containing plyers, nippers, sugar and fruit knives, graters, cork compres- sors, etc. VESSELS AND UTENSILS. The liquorist should have, according to the importance of his establishment, a certain number of hogsheads and barrels of oak well bound with iron, having brass stop- cocks, painted with oil-color, as much to protect from moisture and the boring of insects as to prevent evapo- ration through the pores of the wood. The paint is not a useless ornament. These vessels should stand on end upon trestles so as to occupy the least space. The laboratory should be abundantly provided with flat spatulas of oak for stirring the mixtures, sauce-pans with a lip, and others, shimmers, pipkins and crocks of stone of different sizes, brocks of tin, copper and wood, demijohns covered with osier; flasks, jars, long and short necked bottles of glass, glazed earthen pans, tubes for ex- amining and testing liqueurs and syrups, a tin box hav- ing many divisions, in which are kept the instrument for testing the specific gravity of liquids, steel-yards, scales and weights, and tin measures for liquids. A large assortment of strainers and filtering cloths of dif- ferent sizes is necessary. The filtering cloth (chaussee) is a sort of pocket of cloth or other woollen stuff, of conical form, used for filtering liqueurs. It is hooked in- side of the copper filter. The strainer is a square piece of woollen cloth having a row of eyelets along its edge through which a cord is run. This is hung by means of small hooks in a square wooden frame for straining syrups. The use of steam for heating conserves cannot be too highly recommended to the liquorist, whatever may be the extent of his business. The apparatus he should employ should consist of an upright oaken chest lined with zinc or copper (the latter is preferable), having a number of shelves of iron. These shelves are open, being composed of thin iron bars placed two fingers in width apart, and are for supporting the bottles and jars. The door is closed by means of two buttons or bolts, and has in the middle a glazed opening behind which a thermometer is hung in order to indicate the degree of heat within. At the bottom of the chest is a stopcock for drawing off the water condensed from the steam. 308 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The steam is admitted from below by means of a pipe and stopcock, communicating with a small portable boiler, having a water and steam gauge and a safety valve like boilers of larger size. After stills, the furnaces should attract the atten- tion of the liquorist. On their proper construction de- pends very much the success of his operations. Every possible care should be given to their arrangement, for, independently of the matter of economizing fuel, they exercise great influence on the quality of the products. A furnace consists, first, of the fireplace; second, the grate; third, the ash pit; fourth, the chimney. The Fireplace.—The fireplace is the space between the bottom of the still or boiler and the grate, or the place in which the fuel is burned. The walls of the fireplace should be so arranged as to reflect the greatest possible quantity of heat. It is requisite, for attaining this end, that they should be comparatively restricted in their dimensions so that the bottom of the still may re- ceive the full action of the fire, and that the flame and heated air may circulate freely beneath, before passing off by the sides. The dimensions of the fireplace should, therefore, be strictly proportioned to the size of the still and the character of the fuel to be employed. It should be so constructed that the flames, after having licked the bottom of the apparatus, may circulate freely around by means of a flue of special form, making several turns before reaching the chimney. By this arrangement the heat, which would otherwise escape, and be lost in the chimney, is utilized, the liquid is equally heated, and the smoke only escapes after having been deprived of a greater portion of its heat. The door of the fireplace should fit as perfectly as possible, in order to prevent all access of atmospheric air, except through the openings into the ash pit. A complete closure of this opening is obtained by substi- tuting for the door a round hole, stopped by a conical sheet-iron plug filled with sand or cinders. Furnace. FURNACE. 309 The Grate.—The grate is the support for the fuel, and on which it is burned, by maintaining it in a sus- pended position, so that the air may have free access to it, thereby facilitating the regulation of the fire. The bars of the grate should be movable, of cast iron, very strong, and straight; they should be supported firmly on bars of iron ; because grates in a single piece, or fixed in a frame, are liable to be disarranged by warping, and are difficult to clean. The bars for burning wood should be placed horizontally, the cross section being a quarter circle, so that the coals may always fall to the middle of the grate, while for coal, the bars should be arranged horizontally, and on a level. The space between the bars, as well as their size and number, will depend on the dimensions of the furnace, and the character of the fuel. Finally, the grate should be fixed in the fireplace under the anterior part of the still, so that this portion of it may receive the direct action of the fire, and, as the draught tends to send the flame and heat towards the chimney, the greatest possible effect is produced. The Ash Pit.—The ash pit, besides the use which its name indicates, is principally intended to afford access for the air which serves to keep up the fire. Its dimen- sions are a matter of indifference, especially for wood; yet, it is necessary that it should have sufficient height and depth to contain all the ashes resulting from a day’s work, without being crowded. The ash pit should be closed accurately by a sliding damper, by which the draught of the chimney may be regulated and the fire increased or lessened, as occasion may require. The use of coal renders the employment of this sliding damper indispensable. The Chimney.—The chimney conveys the smoke and vapors arising from the combustion out of the laboratory; it causes, too, an upward draught, which constantly re- news the air which finds admission through the ash pit; and this is the reason of the saying, that the taller the chimney, the better the draught. On this principle, the rapidity of the combustion, and the intensity of the 310 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. heat, will be in direct proportion to the height of the chimney. The furnace should be constructed of smooth brick of good quality—those called refractori/ (fire brick) should have the preference; they are laid in a mortar made of clay and sand. This method of construction presents the advantages of acquiring greater solidity under the action of the fire, and of preserving a greater quantity of heat. The furnace should be faced on the exterior with pressed brick, and bound with iron. The height should not exceed 85 or 90 centimeters, in order that the stills may be luted without the necessity of getting on the brickwork, and that the pans of syrups and fruits may be handled with more facility. On account of their importance, furnaces ought to be built by skilful and experienced men, who are perfectly acquainted with the subject of heat and its applications. CHAPTER XIII. FUEL. For purposes of distillation and the other operations of the liquorist, heat is produced by the combustion of different articles of fuel, as wood, coal, and sometimes coke. As for charcoal and turf, they are employed only in those localities where it is difficult to procure the three first named, either on account of their scarcity or high price. The selection and use of these different kinds of fuel involve important questions of economy. That should be adopted, the price being the same, which will produce the most intense and lasting heat. Heating by means of wood is not to be preferred, nor is it the least expensive. The heat produced by this fuel is far inferior to that from coal. The former un- questionably takes fire more readily, and produces a greater amount of flame, but the fire is not so easy of FUEL. 311 control as that made with coal; nevertheless, there are some countries where wood is sold at a very low price, while, on the contrary, coal is very dear. We indicate the woods to which we would give the preference:— 1. Oak. 2. Beech. 3. Hornbeam.* 4. Elm. Fire wood is found in the market of two sorts, cord wood and raft wood. Cord wood is that which has been transported on wagons or boats from the forest to the place of consump- tion. This is the best. Raft wood is floated in rafts on navigable streams, from which circumstance it has its name. It is inferior to the former. It is to be observed that hard wood which has been protected from the prolonged action of water is the best for heating purposes; round sticks are better than split pieces, which are only used for kindling.f This results in economy of fuel and regularity of heating. Coal, or mineral coal, is of all fuels the most valuable, and most abundant; it presents the greatest advantages on account of its low price when compared with the amount of heat it produces. All industrial pursuits de- pend on this primary substance, as railroads, navigation, illumination, the manufacturing of iron, woollens, cot- ton, &c., for their very existence. Blot out her coal fields and England would become a wilderness. Coke is charred mineral coal, as the residuum of the gas-works; it produces a very intense heat and leaves very little ash ; it may replace wood-charcoal advan- tageously. Charcoal is the residuum of all kinds of wood which have been deprived of all their volatile principles by the action of fire. It is black, brittle, sonorous, and of lit- tle solidity; it burns readily and produces a very great * Hickory and ash, which are among the best of American fire- woods, appear to be unknown for such uses in France.—Translator. f The reader must remember that this is in France, where timber is converted to all manner of uses, and none but such as is fit for nothing else goes into the fire.—Translator. 312 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. quantity of heat; that which is compact and heavy should be preferred to that which is light. Turf is the result of a partial decomposition of cer- tain plants under water; it is brown or almost black; it burns with difficulty at first, but when once on fire, the combustion progresses very well; it produces little flame and yields a gentle heat, but emits a very un- pleasant odor. Application of Heat. Heat is the principal agent of distillation; it is an interesting subject to examine and ascertain the laws according to which caloric is transmitted to and through bodies. The name caloric is given to the fluid which consti- tutes the principle of heat; in other words, heat is the effect, and caloric the cause. Caloric is an imponderable fluid, like light, distributed throughout nature; we become conscious of its presence through the sensation of heat which is impressed on our organs of sense; invisible, eminently elastic, it tends to a state of equilibrium in all bodies, penetrating them more or less easily, expanding them, decomposing, causing them to pass from the solid state to that of a liquid, and from a liquid to a gas, and on abstracting it from these substances they are reduced from a gas to a liquid, and from that to a solid; and finally, it has the power of combining with each in a different proportion, to bring them to the same temperature. Those substances which heat penetrates easily are called good conductors; they are arranged in the order of their conductibility; silver, gold, copper, platina, iron, zinc, steel, tin, and lead. Substances which heat penetrates with difficulty are called bad conductors; gases, liquids, porcelain, pottery, are not as good conductors as the metals named above; charcoal, dried wood, and glass are almost without capa- city for conduction. To explain more clearly the effects of caloric, we cite 313 APPLICATION- OF HEAT. some examples : mercury in its natural state is a fluid; if it is heated in a retort, the caloric accumulates in it, and the mercury is evaporated in the form of a gas; if it is deprived of a sufficient amount of its caloric by artificial cold, it becomes a solid. It is by these means that water assumes its three forms—liquid, solid, and gase- ous. Nevertheless, the effects of caloric are not always as marked, all substances not having the same affinity for it. Thus, a piece of charcoal burning at one end may be held by the other end without inflicting any pain, while it would be impossible to hold in the hand a piece of copper or iron of the same dimensions, if heated to redness at the other extremity. It is, then, on this prin- ciple that alcohol boils and is converted into vapor at a lower temperature than that required for water. The following table indicates the boiling points Cent, of different liquids, and although given in another part of this book is repeated here on account of its peculiar value to the liquorist:— Sulphuric ether 35°.5 Liquid ammonia 60°.2 Pure alcohol 78°.4 Alcohol (90°) 80°.l Alcohol (85°) 81°.1 Alcohol (59°) 85°.8 Alcohol (45°) 88°.9 Pure water ..... 100° Syrup of sugar 105° Saturated solution of common salt . . 106° Saturated solution of nitre . . . 114° Saturated solution of carbonate of potash. 135° Spirits of turpentine .... 155° Sulphuric acid 305° Linseed oil 315° Mercury 350° Caloric by its accumulation in, or interposition between the molecules of different substances, causes them to un- dergo a very variable degree of expansion. Its effects may be observed by the changes which take place in the thermometer. We have said, too, that substances tend to assume a state of equilibrium in regard to heat, hence 314 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. the sensations of heat and cold. According to this prin- ciple, we may understand that heat passes from one body to another by points of contact; this is the reason that well polished marble always feels cold; for the points of contact being greatly multiplied, a quantity of caloric is abstracted from the hand in proportion to the surface touched. It may be conceived for the same reason, that in sub- jecting a liquid in a boiler to the action of caloric, it will be heated more rapidly when the boiler presents a greater number of points of attack to the heat arising from the fuel, and that the boiler should be constructed of some ma- terial that is a good conductor of heat. This is the rea- son why a boiler should be broad and shallow, if a prompt vaporization of the liquid it contains is desired. Of the many means of producing heat, combustion is the most common and most useful. It is produced by one or other of the fuels to which we have alluded. It is by the assistance of the various parts which consti- tute the furnace that this combustion is effected, and the heat is applied to the different substances which it is desired to heat. Having come to the amount of heat which is requi- site for the operations of the liquorist, we may again re- mark, that water requires a greater quantity of heat than alcohol to boil and v&porize it; the heating and va- porization of liquids are always in proportion to the heating surface ; a mixture of alcohol and water will require for heating it the average of the amount of heat required for the two taken separately, that is to say, the boiling point of alcohol being 78°, and that of water 100°, that of the mixture consisting of equal parts of each will be 89°.* One of the essential conditions of the application of heat is to produce it in the greatest quantity and at the least possible expense. It is manifest that distillation * Two liquids of different boiling points, and which do not com- bine in solution, as water and benzole, water and oil of cloves, &c., will boil at a lower temperature than either alone. This explains why a liquid having a higher boiling point than water is converted into vapor by the injection of steam.—Kundt in Pnggendorfs “ Annalen APPLICATION OF HEAT. 315 by the naked fire presents some inconveniences; so, large establishments ought unquestionably to employ steam for all operations having reference to the manufacture of liqueurs, syrups, and conserves; by it they will obtain products of superior quality and an economy of fuel which may be safely estimated at more than half the cost of heating; the breakages, too, which ordinarily take place when they are put over the fire in a pan of water are all avoided. We may affirm that under ordi- nary circumstances, no vessel containing any conserve whatever will be broken when heated by steam. Many wholesale liquorists have their establishments arranged according to the principles we have herein set forth. Plate IX. represents a liquorist’s laboratory arranged according to the modern style and heated by steam. Fig. 1.—Steam boiler. A. Steam cock for regulating the supply of steam. B. Copper pipe for conveying steam to the distillatory and other apparatus. C. Cocks for admitting steam to the different pieces of apparatus. Figs. 2 and 3.—Still with goose-neck receiving steam in a double bottom. A. Strong table or oak trestle to support the stills. Fig. 4.—Small goose-neck still complete in all its parts placed on a furnace and heated by a naked fire. Fig. 5.—Cooler of copper containing the three coils of the above stills. A. Receivers. Fig. 6.—Turk’s head still with all its parts; it stands on a furnace and is heated by the naked fire. Figs. 7 and 8.—Copper pans receiving steam in dou- ble bottom. A. Strong oak table or trestle supporting the pans. Fig. 9.—Small copper pan for small operations, on a furnace heated by a naked fire. Figs. 10 and 11.—Copper skimmers. Fig. 12.—Oaken chest with two compartments, lined with sheet copper or zinc, and intended for the reception of the different conserves intended to be heated by steam. 316 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Fig. 13.—Copper filters with covers for filtering li- queurs, syrups, &c. A. Brocks or metal jugs of tin or copper, of a capacity of 15 litres. B. Table or trestle of oak to support the filters., with a trough beneath lined with copper to catch any liquid that may flow over the top of the vessels during the filtration. Figs. 14 and 15.—Copper cans tinned inside for con- taining the liqueurs intended for feeding the filters. Fig. 16.—Wooden shelf or dresser for different im- plements. A. Copper bottles tinned inside, and of different sizes. B. Copper pans for various purposes. Fig. 17.—Another dresser also intended for various articles. A. Pourers or pans with a spout or lip. B. Brocks or jugs of copper tinned inside, and of differ- ent sizes. C. Dipper and its dish; the two implements are of copper tinned inside and out; the former contains ex- actly three litres, and has a graduated scale inside, divided into three parts. CHAPTER XIV. DISTILLATION AND RECTIFICATION. The liquorist, after carefully cleansing all the parts of his still, assures himself that no flavor remains; it is all important that the coil should be well rinsed with hot water, as much to remove the odors of the preceding distillation as to be assured that the convolutions are all open, for it may happen by some unforeseen accident that the coils may be closed, in which event an explosion would be inevitable. It must be observed that if this cleansing is done without first emptying the tub which Distillation as Applied to Liqueurs. 317 DISTILLATION AS APPLIED TO LIQUEURS. contains the coil, the operation will be of no avail, inas- much as the hot water will be chilled in its course through the convolutions of the coil, and the flavor of the preceding distillation will not be removed as desired. When the distillation is to be conducted over the naked fire the still is to be placed on the furnace with the open grating fixed in its place so as to prevent the materials from imparting a bad flavor by attaching them- selves to the still and being burned. If the plants dis- tilled are dried, care should be taken that they be not employed in too large a quantity; the heat and the liquid will cause them to swell, and it may happen that the luting will be disarranged, thereby causing an escape of liquid and perhaps a fire. To obviate this inconve- nience, we should advise that the plants be cut in small pieces; this will cause them to occupy less space in the still, or water bath, and give better opportunity for them to absorb the liquid. It is important that the boiler of the still should be filled only to about two-thirds with liquid; the cap is then adjusted to its place and attached to the coil, the tub or vat containing the latter being previously filled with cold water. At the ex- tremity of the coil must be placed a receiver to catch the liquid as it distills over during the course of the opera- tion. The socket joint of the boiler and cap must be absolutely closed to prevent the escape of vapor; all the joints must be well paid over with a strong paste made of flour and water. The joints, after being cov- ered with this paste, should have a layer of strong paper or of cloth bands applied to them; these bands are about the width of two fingers, and should be covered with paste on both sides, and should be bound over the already luted joints of the still, so that they shall cover them completely and closely. When matters have been thus arranged the fire is kindled under the still, care being had that it is not pushed too much, especially at the beginning of the dis- tillation ; it is then gradually increased, and as occasion may require; when the first drops of liquid begin to flow, the fire should be moderated so that the vapors 318 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. may have time to condense and the chance of an ex- plosion be prevented. The distillation should be conducted so that the liquid may flow uniformly and equally. This result is obtained by an intelligent management of the fire, the variations in the stream being regulated by increasing or diminish- ing the amount of heat applied to the still. The ope- ration is properly conducted when an average stream is maintained, for if we distill only by drops, the water or spirit obtained will be but slightly charged with the aromatic principle; if the fire is pushed too rapidly, it cause the feints to rise with the water or spirit and volatile oil so as to render the liquid objectionable and give it an empyreumatic flavor. It frequently happens, too, that by a sort of explosive start, the liquid in the still passes over unchanged, carrying with it the sub- stances intended to aromatize it. The water of the cooler in which the coil is contained should be changed frequently; for the vapors which pass into the interior of the coil are condensed by constantly traversing new strata of cold water; and if this opera- tion is neglected, the water, by becoming heated, will be the means of imparting an empyreumatic odor to the liquid. It must be observed during winter when it is very cold, that the cooler should be emptied after the day’s work; the expansion of the water in the act of freezing may burst the vessel, or cause some injury to the convolutions of the coil. The still should never be left, especially when distill- ing spirits, because spirituous vapors are much more liable to escape than water, and it may happen that the liquid may find a means of exit at the joints and spread over the surface of the furnace, or by running down the boiler come in contact with the fire. In this case the fire must be promptly extinguished by throwing water into the fireplace as well as on top of the furnace; the joints must be covered with wet cloths; the operator taking care when he approaches for this purpose to have his mouth and nose covered also with a wet cloth, for it is highly dangerous to breathe these inflamed vapors. If it should happen that one should be covered with DISTILLATION AS APPLIED TO LIQUEURS. 319 inflamed spirits, he should be immediately covered with a wet cloth, which should be kept always ready and at hand; in default of this, he should throw himself flat on the floor, with his face to the ground, and call for help. It frequently happens that persons covered with burn- ing spirit run as they call for assistance. The flames are increased by the current of air caused by the run- ning and occasion burns which are most generally fatal. La Villette, where there are a great many ignorant dis- tillers, has been the scene of many accidents of this kind. Distillation over the naked fire has the advantage of progressing with greater promptness, but it has in many cases the disadvantage of altering the product more or less decidedly; this results from the unequal distribution of the heat. It frequently happens that the liquid is dried and burned at the upper portions of the boiler, or rather that some of the solid particles of the materials subjected to the distillation may come in contact with the sides of the boiler and facilitate the accumulation of heat at this point by preventing the contact of the liquid which would keep it down. Distillation in the water bath is conducted as follows: The boiler is placed on the furnace (the grating which was used when distilling with the naked fire having been removed) and half filled with water; the water bath is now fixed in its place, care being taken to observe that the water in the boiler does not rise higher than five centimeters below the neck. The water bath con- taining the liquid and other substances is then fixed in the boiler covered with the cap, which is to be attached to the coil; all the joints are to be luted and the fire kin- dled. The operation is conducted in all respects just as with the naked fire. The distillation with the water bath does not require so much care as that with the naked fire, but it is necessary to take precautions to have the water in the cooler frequently renewed and to run off no more of the liquid than is proper. 320 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. By distillation in the water bath purer and lighter products are obtained; that is, the spirits are stronger in degree, while the perfume is more delicate and they have no empyreumatic flavor. The water bath enables us also to avoid the destruc- tive action of heat on the liquid and other substances distilled. It is always advantageous to the quality of the product, that the degree of heat at which the liquid to be distilled will boil, may be less than that of the auxiliary liquid contained in the boiler or outer vessel. For example, it is desired to obtain an aromatic water by means of the water bath; the transmission of the heat acting on liquids of the same degree will be slow and insufficient to cause a proper amount of ebullition in the still, and the operation will progress with so much difficulty that it will become extremely expensive to push it to the end. If, on the other hand, it is desired to distill essential oils in the water bath having only water in the boiler for the transmission of the heat, it will be impossible. Under some circumstances oil and other liquids may be used in the water bath to produce a greater degree of heat than that of the liquid to be distilled. But it may happen that these substances by becoming more and more concentrated may change in character and in their boiling point, and that an imperfect result will be ob- tained. Yet there is advantage in most cases in the use of these agents; it is at least certain that they will not exceed a given degree of heat, and that the temperature will be uniform in all parts of the liquid. Distillation by steam should be conducted as follows:— Commence by filling the steam boiler three-fourths full of water; see that the safety valve, the water, and steam gauge work well; kindle the fire under the boiler so as to set the water boiling to produce the steam. As soon as the steam gauge indicates the proper pressure (one and a half or two atmospheres), the cock which admits the steam to the pipe connecting the still with the boiler is opened one-fourth so as to heat the liquid to be distilled very gradually, then it should be opened one-half, and then entirely when it becomes necessary. RECTIFICATION. 321 As to the still, it is arranged and managed just as in the distillation by the naked fire and water bath. The steam boiler must be frequently cleaned ; the water by evaporation forms a deposit, especially when calcareous waters are used ; in this event it will be neces- sary to introduce into the boiler either flour, starch, or potatoes; by this means the formation of a calcareous deposit is prevented, and the boiler is protected from injury. Distillation by steam is, without doubt, preferable to any other method in the threefold relations : 1, econ- omy in fuel; 2, superior quality of the products; 3, facility of the working. Nevertheless, the heavy ex- pense which the application of steam requires at the start prevents this method of distillation from being em- ployed except in large establishments. Distillation by the sand bath and retort are but little used except in chemical operations ; the liquorist rarely has occasion to employ them. Rectification. We have already said that the liquorist never distills spirits except with the view of associating with them cer- tain aromatic substances. Distillation for the purpose of obtaining trois-six spirit is not essential for liqueurs. Now, the aromatics which are to be combined with brandy or spirit by means of distillation being of differ- ent kinds, either on account of their oily or resinous na- ture, it follows that the process of distillation should vary accordingly. If the aromatic is very subtile, like that in leaves and flowers, or if it is desired that the spirit should retain only a small portion of it, distillation by the water bath is to be preferred; if, on the contrary, these aromatics are refractory or heavy, they can be separated from their original compounds only by distil- lation over the naked fire; still it is necessary to be ob- served that a portion of the feints or phlegm should be allowed to pass over towards the end of the operation. These feints, which require a very high degree of heat, 322 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. only are capable of volatilizing such aromatics; but, as in this case, the liquid is often acrid without being on that account empyreumatic, it is indispensable that it should be redistilled in a water bath in order that the more subtile and aromatic parts once separated may pass over with the spirit. Rectification consists in pouring into the water bath of a still the liquid already distilled, and adding to it a cer- tain quantity of water, which under these circumstances causes the volatile oil which is in excess to collect in globules on the surface of the spirit from which it has been separated. It has also for its object the removal from the aromatized spirit of the acrid and empyreumatic flavors which it may have contracted, or rather the feints which may have come over during the course of a distillation pushed to excess. To conduct this opera- tion properly, it is necessary, on the one hand, to wTatch the fire, and, on the other, to renew the water in the cooler frequently. Rectification is frequently confounded with cohoba- tion. To cohobate a liquid is to pour the already dis- tilled liquid on the residuum of the distillation in order to continue the operation which this return of liquid has not interrupted. Now, it is certain that the practice of cohobation is more injurious than useful. The long sojourn of these substances, exposed to heat in the still, causes them to contract an acridity from which the dis- tilled liquid is not exempt. This is not the case in rectification: whenever the distillation is conducted over the naked fire, the rectifi- cation of the distilled liqueur is essential to the produc- tion of a delicate aroma. For some years a column of plates has been success- fully used in the manufacture of liqueurs and perfumery, for the rectification and concentration of spirits. This column is applicable in the manufacture of liqueurs when it is necessary to distill the marc of cur- rants, or the remains of brandied fruits, feints, or other products, from which it is profitable to extract alcohol. This piece of apparatus is mounted directly on the boiler or the water bath of a common still. RECTIFICATION. 323 The following is a description of this column, which has been so well constructed by M. Egrot as to leave nothing to be desired. We indicate also the method of using it (Fig. 11). Fig. 11. a, base of the column; at the bottom of this piece is a circular collar c c, which fits perfectly to that of the boiler or the water bath. b, first basin soldered directly on the base a. There is within this basin a convex bottom, from the centre of which rises a pipe d, for communication with the vessels above. This pipe supports a second basin, but distinct from that below; this also has a convex bottom. On one side there is a level pipe which, passing out at the edge of the basin, connects by means of the conical pipe / with that below (b), and dips to the bottom of it. The column is completed by a number of basins exactly like the last, except that the level pipes are placed alter- nately on opposite sides. 324 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. g, is a continuation of the tube d, which affords a means of escape for the alcoholic vapors after they have circulated in the column; a bridle at its upper extremity serves to make its connection with the goose-neck which conveys the vapors to the cooling coil. When alcohol, the flavor of which is objectionable, is to be distilled, the column is placed on the water bath of an ordinary still (Fig. 3, PL I.); the goose-neck is then attached by means of a connecting pipe having the same height as the column, and serving to complete the con- nection of the goose-neck with the coil; all the points are then covered with bands of cloth covered with flour paste, and heat is applied to the apparatus. The water bath being sufficiently full of the liquid which is to be distilled, is heated by the water contained in the boiler and soon begins to boil. The alcoholic vapors evolved rise under the bottom of the first basin b, and pass through the pipe d into the bottom of the second basin, where they circulate in the space left between the two bottoms, both being convex outwards. This space or cavity, from its form, is called the lentil. There is a similar cavity in the bottom of each of the basins above, and the vapors in their upward course must pass through them all where they are regularly and progress- ively cooled and despoiled of their essential and empy- reumatic oils, and at the same time increased in degree by the refrigerating influence of a stream of cold water through the cock h. The water which flows through the cock h falls into the upper basin, which it fills, and then flows over by the level pipe /; this second basin being full, overflows in its turn to fill that below, and so on in succession, until tlie cooling liquid reaches the lowest basin b, from which it flows off by the level pipe i. It is easy to understand that the alcoholic vapors, in their passage through the different basins, constantly come in contact with a cooling medium, which is colder and colder as they ascend, and thus they will be tho- roughly purified, and that products which were before unfit for use may be employed after their rectification. This column is of moderate cost, and occupies very SELECTION AND PRESERVATION OF AROMATICS. 325 little space. In perfumery it is used for increasing the strength or degree of commercial alcohols and produc- ing them almost in an anhydrous state (95 or 97 de- grees). The Selection and Preservation of Aromatics and other Substances. The quality of liqueurs and the other products of the liquorist depends in a great measure on the selection of the materials used. It is very important to acquire the knowledge which is necessary to their purchase and pre- servation. It is hardly within the limits of this work to enter upon a lengthened description of the choice, properties, sources, and means of detecting adulterations in each of the substances, as all of this information is presented in far better form than would be possible here, in many special treatises. We will, however, give a few general hints which may be useful to the reader. Flowers.—The flowers which are freshest and have the greatest amount of odor are to be preferred; it is not only important that they should have been freshly plucked, but that they should be full blown and dry; those should be rejected which have been plucked in rainy weather, or have been dampened to increase their weight and make them appear fresher; the beginning of fermentation which this moistening produces, in great measure destroys the perfume of the flowers and gives rise to a disagreeably herbaceous odor. Fruits.—Fruits having the best flavor and color are to be preferred. We should carefully avoid the employ- ment of such as may not be fresh, or may have been heated in transportation, or that have been, pulled in wet weather. Excessive ripeness is equally objection- able. Fruits wflth a sound and smooth skin should be preferred; this is a proof of quality. Plants.—Plants are bought and sold either fresh or dried. They should be gathered in clear dry weather, after sunrise, after the dew and moisture have evapo- rated. Those that are healthy and most vigorous in growth are to be preferred. The cultivated aromatic 326 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. plants of our climate, when well kept, are more odorif- erous, and yield a greater proportion of volatile oil than those that are not cultivated. When plants are to be dried for preservation, foreign herbs, black, dead, or wilted leaves are picked out, the large stems and stalks are thrown aside, and the plants are spread in thin layers on dryers of boards or wicker work, care being taken to turn them from time to time until they are perfectly dried. It must be observed that the plants should not be placed on the dryer in too large quantities, lest they should ferment, or cause the leaves to turn yellow. The exposure of the plants to the heat of the sun is also to be avoided, especially for those intended for coloring purposes. They should be dried in a warm place, either in an attic or a drying room. Dried plants should be preserved, wrapped in paper, in packages of moderate size, and protected from moist- ure in order to prevent moulding. Seeds, roots, woods, and other drugs.—The liquorist generally purchases these substances already dried; we should select seeds which are full and plump, roots sound and very dry, and woods hard and compact. All substances are more or less deteriorated by moist- ure ; it is therefore this inconvenience which is mainly to be guarded against. This desirable result is attained by preserving them in a dry place, and in closely cov- ered boxes, as well as insuring them against dust and atmospheric influences. It is of the highest importance to make a careful se- lection of aromatics and other substances; it is impossi- ble to obtain satisfactory results if the materials have suffered the least alteration. We should therefore con- sider the quality first, without regard to cost, which often varies but a trifle for inferior articles. Ten, twenty, or even thirty centimes more per kilogramme is a trifle to the liquorist, and will most generally be sufficient to justify the dealer in making a fair delivery. In con- clusion, goods of the first quality must be procured with- out stinginess, if success is to be attained. WATER. 327 CHAPTER XV. Water. Of all substances that exist on the surface of the earth in a liquid state, water is the most important, both on account of its utility and abundance. Indispensable to the existence of all living beings, it is the drink of man and beasts; without its assistance, plants cannot grow, nor seeds germinate. In fine, without this liquid, organized existence would be impossible, and if, by an unhappy chance, it should disappear from the surface of the globe, all things would return to that chaos which character- ized the infancy of the world. Water is a liquid, transparent, colorless, without either odor or taste, very little compressible, consist- ing (chemically) of one volume of oxygen and two of hydrogen, or 88.90 parts of oxygen by weight, to 11.10 parts of hydrogen. Water exists in the three separate and distinct forms of liquid, gas or vapor, and solid. As a liquid.—Water in this form constitutes those masses, of greater or less extent, which cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface, under the names seas, rivers, etc., for running waters; and lakes, ponds, and marshes, for standing waters. Asa gas.—Water always exists in the atmosphere in the form of gas or vapor. At first invisible, it passes through various forms to constitute fogs, clouds, rain, and dew; combined with a great quantity of caloric, it is converted into vapor and increases its volume very considerably. As a solid.—Water passes from the liquid to the solid state in two ways: first, by the lessening of its tempera- ture; second, by its combination with salts or other substances. In the former it constitutes ice, which remains per- 328 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. petually on the tops of high mountains, and is always formed when the temperature falls below zero; as snow and hail, which fall from the clouds under certain cir- cumstances. In the second case, when it is solidified by combining with a salt, it is called water of crystalliza- tion ; poured on other substances, as, for example, lime or plaster, it combines with them so intimately that it is no longer appreciable either to the sight or the touch. As water has the property of dissolving a certain quantity of gas, and many salts and oxides, that from springs, rivers, and ponds very frequently contains more than the two elements (oxygen and hydrogen). We may find in it carbonic acid, alumina, calcareous earths, the debris of decomposed vegetables, etc. These sub- stances, although in small quantity, are sufficient to render it unsuitable for drinking, or for use in liqueurs. The presence of calcareous salts, so common in the water of wells, renders it hard; they curdle soap and render its solution flocculent, harden vegetables, and hinder rather than promote digestion. • When in the objectionable conditions indicated, and water is not of good quality, it must be boiled, then decanted after cooling, and filtered. The presence of lime and its salts is easily recognized by means of the solution of oxalate of ammonia (1 gramme to 30 grammes of distilled water). A few drops of the solution are poured into the water suspected of containing lime; if a precipitate is farmed, new portions are added until the water is no longer troubled. The precipitate should present the following characteristics : when held in suspension by shaking the liquid contain- ing it, it appears to be formed of a multitude of crystals, which, by the reflection of the light, present a pearly lustre. Collected on a filter, washed and dried, if it is subjected to the action of heat it is decomposed, leaving a residuum which consists of carbonate of lime or quick- lime, according to the degree of heat employed. Of all potable waters, the purest supplied from natu- ral sources is rain collected in the open country in large vessels, but only after the atmosphere has been purified, WATER. 329 by showers, of earthy substances which the winds sometimes carry to a considerable height. Rain water that falls on the roofs and is collected by means of gut- ters is not pure, but nearly so; it is charged with cal- careous salts which it dissolves from the tiles or the plaster on the sides of the houses. Water is the intermediate agent of all the operations of the liquorist; he should be careful to employ only such as is of irreproachable purity and limpidity; it is therefore indispensable that it should be filtered before being employed in the various operations. Filtration and Preservation of Water. "Water is filtered by various processes. That most commonly employed, is by means of a filtering fountain of stone : but water, although perfectly clear after passing through the porous stone filter, is not freed from the odors it may possess. Filtering through paper, with or without a bag, gives precisely the same results. The antiseptic and decolorizing properties of char- coal have been taken advantage of, to render the most brackish and offensive waters potable, by depriving them of the organic and odorous substances which affect their taste, or disturb their transparency. For the purpose of utilizing these properties, purifying filters, the em- ployment of which is indispensable, are used, and in an infinite variety of forms. We insert a description of one of these filters. A conical or cylindrical tub lined with sheets of lead soldered together (Fig. 12); within it is divided into three separate compartments, A, b, and c, by two fixed parti- tions. The first has an opening in the centre covered by a perforated hemisphere of metal D, which is sur- rounded by a sponge for retaining the grosser particles suspended in the water; the second is perforated with many cylindrical holes. The first compartment receives the impure water; the second has two layers of sand, E f, separated by a layer of charcoal; the third receives the 330 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. purified water which is drawn off by the cock. There are against the sides of the vessel two small tubes, A and Ficr. 12 Water filter. h, intended to afford a way of escape for the air con- tained in the two compartments b and c, as the water enters them. This filter may be used for six months without its being necessary to clean or change it. At the end of this time the charcoal must be changed; it may be used for culinary purposes after being dried. Water purified by charcoal is found to be deprived of its atmospheric air, which is absorbed along with the putrid gases. It is therefore necessary to agitate this water vigorously for some minutes, in order to re- store the air which it has lost during the filtration. Water filtered through charcoal may be preserved in- definitely in close reservoirs of lead or zinc, or in tight hogsheads; if in the latter case, two or three per cent, of alcohol should be added. Distilled Water. It is impossible to find perfectly pure water in a state of nature. It is necessary then to have recourse to distillation to purify it. For this purpose the turk’s head still is used in the following manner:— DISTILLED WATER. 331 A certain quantity of water is poured into the still; the vessel is placed on the furnace and the cap adjusted, and the coil attached to the arm of the cap. After luting all the joints of the apparatus with strips of cloth or paper saturated with flour paste, the cooler or flake- stand is filled with cold water; the fire is then kindled and the distillation kept up until about three-fourths of the quantity of water employed is drawn off. The water converted into vapor by the ebullition passes through the arm of the cap into the coil, where it condenses by contact with the cold water of the cooler and is collected in the receiver. This vessel should not be closed tightly, because the great quantity of air and highly rarified vapors which are disengaged from the still may burst it, or interfere with the success of the operation. The first products which pass over should be rejected, because they may contain ammonia, carbonic acid, or the results of some decomposition : they may also bring with them other foreign substances. It should be remarked that a worm (coil) which has not been used for a long time yields water charged with the oxide of lead, the first time it is used for distilling this liquid. Distilled water has neither odor nor taste, and is per- fectly clear and limpid. Protected from contact with the air, it may be preserved an indefinite time without contracting any disagreeable odor, or being injured. Its insipid taste, and the oppression which it causes in the stomach, render it unfit for drinking. Distillation, while it separates the foreign substances from the water, deprives it of its air, and renders it indigestible; never- theless, its original virtues may be restored by agitating it violently in contact with the air. Distilled water may be sought for from the liquorist by persons engaged in chemical pursuits, or he may himself have use for it under some circumstances. Its purity is determined by its not being troubled by the addition of solutions of nitrate of silver, acetate of lead, and the soluble salts of lime and baryta. 332 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL., CHAPTER XVI. AROMATIC WATERS. Aromatic Distilled Waters. Under this name are comprised all the aromatic pro- ducts which are obtained by employing simple water for dissolving them. The aromatic waters owe their properties to the pre- sence of a certain quantity of volatile oil which they dissolve from the substances from which they are ob- tained. Nevertheless, there are many of them which do not owe their odor and other properties alone to these volatile oils; in fact, many plants or parts of plants are known which yield, on distillation* products having an odor differing from that of the volatile oil of the same substance. For example: the odor of the distilled water of orange flowers does not resemble that of neroli, and it is the same with water of valerian and some others. If we observe, moreover, that many highly aromatic plants, as reseda, tuberose, jasmine, etc., do not contain any volatile oil, it must be inferred that these oils are not always the cause of vegetable odors. It is for these considerations that the ancients claimed for each substance a peculiar odorous principle to which they gave the name of aroma, and which Boerhaave called spiritus rector. Aromatic distilled waters serve for compounding liqueurs to which they impart a perfume and delicacy which are not obtained by the use of aromatized spirits. The distillation of waters requires much care and atten- tion ; the management of the fire also has great influence on the quality of the products obtained, which frequently have a bad flavor and empyreumatic odor. It is im- portant, therefore, not to allow the operation to drag, and to avoid operating on masses that are too large, and not to fail in renewing the water in the cooler. The AROMATIC DISTILLED WATERS. 333 preservation of distilled waters becomes impossible, if during the distillation any portion of the decoction passes over into the receiver. It is also necessary to avoid packing the materials too much in the bottom of the still, and not to allow the latter to lack water. The rules to be followed are :— 1. The plants or parts of plants intended for distilla- tion should be gathered during that period of the year when their odor is fully developed. It is also necessary to cause them to present as great a surface as possible; for this purpose, woods are rasped, roots and barks are crushed; but aromatic plants should be employed sim- ply cut, so that they may lose no portion of their odor- ous principle. In conclusion, care should be taken to allow woods, roots, and dried barks, whose texture is very close, to macerate some time, in order that the water may be enabled to penetrate them. 2. If the substance is possessed of but little odor, it becomes necessary to cohobate it many times, by treat- ing the liquid obtained from a preceding distillation over fresh supplies of the materials. 3. If, on the other hand, the substance is odorous, a sufficient quantity should be placed in the still to satu- rate the water completely. 4. The still should contain enough water to insure its contents being covered until the end of the distillation. The more succulent substances require less water. 5. It is necessary to prevent any portion of the con- tents of the still from passing over into the receiver in its natural state. 6. For fear that substances may be softened and form a paste on the bottom of the still, they should be sup- ported on a grate, or, better still, in a perforated water bath. 7. The water must be rapidly heated to the boiling point and so maintained to the end. 8. The water in the flake-stand should be renewed as often as possible. 9. Fresh materials are preferable to those which have been dried; they yield a sweeter and more odorous pro- 334 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. duct; there are sometimes exceptions which will be pointed out as they occur. 10. Aromatic waters should be collected in a glass receiver, which is shaped like a bottle, the neck of which becomes smaller as it rises; at the bottom is a spout, which rises along the body of the principal vessel, but which does not rise quite to the full height of the neck. By this arrangement, the volatile oil, commonly lighter than water, rises into the neck, and the water flows off at the extremity of the spout as the distillation pro- gresses. This is called the Florentine receiver, so called from the city in which it was invented (Fig. 13). The volatile oil which floats on the surface is removed by the pipette (Fig. 13). Fisr. 13. .Pipette. .Florentine receiver. 11. It is indispensable to filter aromatic waters after their distillation to separate the small quantity of oil which may be held suspended, and which renders them acrid and not very agreeable. Contrary to the opinion of the ancients, it is important not to omit the use of common salt, which is necessary for the distillation of aromatic waters and essential oils ob- tained from flowers. Its effects are : to sharpen the water and render it more capable of penetrating and dividing the vegetable substances; to prevent fermentation from being set up when operating on dried materials which have to undergo a preliminary maceration; and, finally, to in- crease theytemperature of the water, and thereby facilitate the disengagement of a greater proportion of volatile oil. An experiment was made some years ago by a distin- guished chemist, M. Couerbe, as follows:— AROMATIC DISTILLED WATERS. 335 “ With the assistance of sulphuric acid I have mace- rated the flowers of roses, linden, elder, and orange. Before the addition of the acid, the different macerates had but a feeble odor, but it was decidedly increased and strongly developed by the admixture of sulphuric acid. This phenomenon recalled a passage which I had read in a very ancient book (Magni Alberti liber secre- torum de Vertutibus herbarium, lapidum et animalium, 1478),, which says, that to procure odorous water of roses promptly, it is sufficient to place some roses in a common bottle full of water and add to the mixture a small quantity of oil of vitriol, and after a quarter of an hour, to filter the liquid. I have tried this experi- ment and found it to succeed admirably. I had, in fact, the odor, and the color of roses as well. I then applied this method to the distillation of roses, the flowers of linden, violets, and elder, by placing them in a retort with ordinary water slightly acidulated with oil of vitriol; the product I obtained was a very pleasant liquid, in no wise acid, without any odor of sulphur, and not yield- ing a precipitate with any of the caustic solutions. I do not know whether in time it will experience any change in its principles. It is possible, that the mu- cosity which forms even in inodorous distilled waters may not originate in this.” It should be remarked, that when a dried plant is distilled with water, the volatile oil having experienced some change by contact with the oxygen of the air, has become less soluble : consequently more of it should be obtained in a free state. The same effect is produced when a fresh plant is used; if the distillation is com- menced with cold water, the oxygen contained in the water acts on the oil, effecting such an alteration as to render it insoluble in the water: consequently it will separate from the water in this case likewise; but if, on the contrary, boiling water is used at the commencement of the distillation, or what amounts to the same thing, if the fresh plants are suspended in the vapor of water, the volatile oil experiences no alteration, and is more completely dissolved. 336 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. For the same reason, those volatile oils which are most susceptible of alteration yield the least highly charged distilled waters, and reciprocally. This is in ef- fect what happens with the waters of cinnamon, cloves, and mint; their turbid'appearance indicates that the volatile oil. is very imperfectly dissolved, whilst the limpidity and the intense odor of rose water evidently prove that it holds in solution a considerable proportion of the volatile oil. This volatile oil of roses is, one of the least alterable. From this we may infer, in the preparation of distilled waters and volatile oils, that it is by no means a mat- ter of indifference whether the plants are dried or fresh, or the temperature of the water hot or cold, or the quantity greater or less. These circumstances, or any one of them, may greatly influence the results, both as to quantity and quality. Aromatic waters are distilled in either the turk’s head or column still. With the first, the perforated water bath must be used for those substances which will be pointed out; the application of the method of Soubeiran with the same still offers some advantages over the use of the perforated water bath. The second will be preferable, particularly if conjoined with the separator of Egrot (described on page 49). Distillation by steam is to be preferred for plants of pleasant and delicate odor; the products so obtained may be used at once, because distilled waters prepared by this method are free from that empyreuinatic flavor, called taste of the still, which the most carefully pre- pared waters distilled over the naked fire always have, and retain for quite a length of time. The following plants should, as a matter of preference, be distilled by steam :— Absinthe, Anise, Caraway, Citronella, Fennel (seeds), Juniper, Hyssop, Lavender, Melilot, Balms (Melisse), Mint, Orange (Flowers), Rose (Flowers). Sage, Wild Thyme, (Serpolet), Garden Thyme, (Thym). PRESERVATION OF AROMATIC DISTILLED WATERS. 337 The following substances are, on the other hand, dis- tilled more successfully when mingled with the water, viz:— Bitter Almonds, Cinnamon, Cloves, Mace. Preservation of Aromatic Distilled Waters. Aromatic distilled waters very soon spoil; they ought to be renewed as often as possible. They should be kept in opaque vessels in a cool place, and protected as much as possible from the light, which decomposes them. The vessels which contain aromatic distilled waters should be stopped as closely as possible (it is a great mistake to suppose that air is necessary for them); for this purpose paper or parchment is best, for experience has proven that if the cork is covered with cloth, they in a short time acquire a mouldy taste. Orange flower water may, however, be kept a year, or even more, in a tightly corked bottle, without its acquiring any disagreeable property; but as soon as it is opened the cork must be thrown aside, and paper only used instead. Generally, aromatic waters, immediately after their distillation, have not a very pleasant odor; they all have an empyreumatic flavor which disappears in time. This taste may be removed at once by immersing the vessel containing them in an ice bath; nevertheless, although cold does improve the quality of aromatic waters, they must be protected from freezing during winter. The water, after thawing, remains turbid for some days, but becomes clear by depositing a considerable quantity of sediment, which retains a portion of the odor of the plant, which assists in the preservation of the water. If under these circumstances, the water is separated from the precipitate, it will be found to have only a feeble vegetable odor, agreeable, it is true, but of little dura- bility. Almost all distilled aromatic waters, after a few days, contain mucilaginous flocks, which remain in a state of suspension, or are precipitated : it is therefore necessary to filter them frequently. Then it happens that the 338 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. waters are spoiled within a year because they are dis- tilled with too great heat, and in too large quantity, which causes the mucilaginous parts of the plant to pass over into the receiver. This accident does not happen when the distillation is carefully conducted. When aromatic distilled waters become turbid from this cause, they may be clarified by throwing into them eight or ten drops of vinegar to each litre of water, and then filtering. The limpidity of aromatic distilled waters which have become turbid in consequence of the decomposition oc- casioned by the causes indicated above, may be very conveniently restored by adding to each litre of damaged water two grammes of borax, and as much alum. The reaction of these two salts results in a flocculent pre- cipitate, wffiich clarifies, and in some measure decolorizes the waters; but this process is applicable only in per- fumery, because this addition, however small, still pro- duces an effect which may modify the character of the distilled waters. There are certain waters, and particu- larly the water of orange flowers, which by decomposition become very acid; in this event the means just indi- cated will be insufficient. It will be necessary to use magnesia, about two grammes to the litre, or according to the degree of the acidity. This species of alteration may be prevented by adding a little of this base in ad- vance, but then it will be necessary to use four grammes, magnesia being almost insoluble in non-aeidulated water. The method we are now about to explain will prevent all the inconveniences attached to the employment and preservation of aromatic distilled waters. Alter having distilled any aromatic water whatever, with all the care which this operation requires, it is immediately returned to the still, which has in the meantime been thoroughly cleaned, and again distilled very gently. AY hen the water which is distilled off becomes too weak, the ope- ration is suspended, and the first product only is pre- served in well-corked fiasks. The waters of orange RECEIPTS FOR AROMATIC DISTILLED WATERS. flowers, hyssop, melisse, and mint, so prepared, remain in good condition for four or five years. Method of Depriving Aromatic Waters of their Odor. Mr. Davis, a druggist of Chester, England, having chanced to make a mixture of equal parts of castor oil and peppermint water, observed that the taste and odor of the latter diminished gradually until after one or two days it had disappeared entirely. The same effect is produced with other distilled wa- ters or volatile oils mixed with water in the propor- tion of one drop to 60 grammes of water. Olive oil substituted for castor oil produces the same effects. This discovery, promulgated as original, is not, how- ever, new, since it is well known that the fixed oils are better excipients of the volatile oils than water. Thus, when a fixed oil is mixed with water charged with a volatile oil, the latter is easily absorbed and removed by the fixed oil. If this oil is not sensibly impregnated with the odor and taste, it is because the volatile oil is more masked than when dissolved in the water. Receipts for Aromatic Distilled Waters. Small operations for the distillation of aromatic wa- ters are infinitely preferable to those on a large scale; this will explain the reason why our receipts are for small quantities. It should be observed that three or four litres more than the quantities indicated ought always to be drawn off, in order to secure all the per- fume contained in the materials; this last product should be reserved for use in a new distillation. The quantities we give may not always produce the same results. The quality of aromatic distilled waters depends on the season when the flowers, plants, etc., have been gathered. Their perfume is more highly de- veloped during a hot season; in seasons that are cold and rainy, they contain less perfume. It is for the liquorist to decide whether he will retain or increase the 340 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. quantities given in the receipts, in order to have his aromatic waters constantly of the same quality. The products may also be fmotioned (separated), and in such manner as always to have the waters invariably the same. The receipts here given are based on a favor- able season. Water of Orange Flowers (Eau de Fleurs d’ Oranger). Orange flowers fresh gathered and picked from the calices .... 5 kilogrammes. Common water ..... 40 litres. Common salt ..... 500 grammes. After putting the water and salt into the still, the fire is kindled in the furnace, and the liquid heated nearly to the boiling point. At this moment, turn the flowers at once into the perforated water bath, or into the Sou- beiran still; adjust the cap upon the still, connect the coil, lute all the joints, and place the florentine receiver under the end of the coil to catch the product; then go on with the distillation until twenty litres of simple water of orange flowers are drawn off. If it is desired to obtain a double or triple water, only the half or one-third the quantity indicated is drawn off; or the distilled water is poured back on fresh flowers in quantity proportioned to the quality which it is desired to obtain. This distillation should be conducted rapidly, so as to leave the flowers in contact with the heat the least time possible; it affects the character of the product. We have already said that orange-flower water, as other aromatic waters, distilled in the manner we have described, that is to say, putting the flowers into the still only when the water is beginning to boil, is much clearer than when the flowers are put into the still with cold water. It is to be observed that orange-flower water is more agreeable and sweeter when the petals of the flowers only are used; the calix and organs of fructification give a decidedly bitter flavor. water. RECEIPTS FOR AROMATIC DISTILLED WATERS. 341 Orange-flower water, among other principles, fre- quently contains, as it runs from the still, free acetic acid, which may, if thought proper, be neutralized by putting in the still 15 grammes of magnesia to each kilogramme of flowers. Orange-flower water becomes solid at a temperature of three degrees below zero, yet it remains limpid after congealing; but, if examined closely, an infinite num- ber of very delicate, pearly particles will be observed in the liquid, which finally settle on the walls of the vessel in the form of a reddish-brown incrustation insoluble in water. This sediment appears to be the volatile oil resinified. Orange-flower water, which has been frozen, has a more agreeable odor than before; but it is very evanescent; within two months at most it becomes acrid and com- pletely spoiled. The orange-flower waters of commerce, which come from Provence in barrels and cans, are most frequently the result of the distillation not only of the flowers, but of the leaves and the fruit of the orange. Those waters, which grocers and other dealers sell at a very low price, have an odor analogous to that of the orange leaf when bruised or pressed between the fingers; their flavor is decidedly bitter, and by no means agreeable. The differ- ence between these waters and that prepared from the flowers alone is readily appreciated by the taste; never- theless, there are some persons who do not hesitate to add acetate of lead to these imitations of orange-flower water for the purpose of improving them. There is no necessity for our remarking on the impropriety of such a practice, and the great danger there is in using these waters. This falsification is easily detected by pouring into the suspected water a few drops of a solution of tartaric acid (15 grammes of acid to 30 grammes of water); an abundant precipitate is formed. As was said above, orange-flower water frequently contains free acetic acid, of which the proportion is some- times so large as to be sensible to the taste, and will affect the color of litmus paper. When these waters 342 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. chance to be in contact with copper, as is the case with those brought from the south in cans, they contract a disagreeable metallic taste, and may prove injurious to the health. The copper is detected in such waters by the addition of a few drops of liquid ammonia, which in the presence of cupreous salts produces a beautiful blue color. Orange-flower water is greatly used in the manufac- ture of liqueurs; it is frequently employed in domestic economy, and enters into the composition of many phar- maceutical preparations. Methods of ascertaining the Quality of Orange-Flower Water.—Nitric and sulphuric acids have'the property of communicating to orange-flower water a more or less intensely red color, as this water is more or less highly charged with the volatile oil of orange flowers. The following is the method of proceeding with sulphuric acid: A certain quantity of water of the first quality is poured into a wineglass, and into another glass the same quantity of water under, examination; then to each is added an equal quantity of sulphuric acid. The tints are then compared, and it is determined, by the intensity of the color in the water tested, whether it approaches the quality of that which is used as a stand- ard in the experiment. Concentrated sulphuric acid acts more promptly. Orange-flower water, properly prepared, when brought in contact with this acid, in a few minutes develops a beautiful rose color. By adding the acid in greater quantity, the color appears more promptly, and is of deeper tint; and by using a quantity of acid equal to that of the water, a beautiful red color is produced which remains unchanged for two or three days; the color passes to a crimson, if the mixture is slightly heated, or the quantity of acid doubled. It is important to observe that the color is produced more promptly when the water is poured on the acid at once, than when added gradually in small portions. The color produced by nitric acid disappears when RECEIPTS FOR AROMATIC DISTILLED WATERS. 343 the acid is neutralized by an alkali, and is reproduced anew on a fresh addition of acid. Rose Water. Petals of fresh roses . . .20 kilogrammes. Common water . . . .40 litres. Common salt .... 1 kilogramme. Distill by steam in a perforated water-bath, until 20 litres of the product are drawn off; and follow the di- rections given for orange-flower water. An excellent rose water may be prepared from the flowers preserved in salt. The flowers, in the propor- tion of two parts to one of salt, are rubbed together, and may be preserved in this condition more than six months. The roses become brownish, but, nevertheless, yield a water which, for sweetness, leaves nothing to be desired. Fermentation has been used for some years by many chemists for obtaining rose water. M. Cenodella, among others, has published the process, as follows: The petals and stamens of the roses are introduced into the still with the necessary quantity of water, the cap is adjusted to its place, and the whole suffered to macerate for some days, or until a vinous odor begins to mani- fest itself, care being taken in the meantime to stir the mixture occasionally; then to distill off a very odorous rose water. M. Cenodella adds that a similar quantity of roses, distilled in the usual way, yields a less aromatic water. This method of preparing rose water is not new; a de- scription of it is found in most of the ancient books on chemistry, especially in the Antidotarium Bononiense (Venice, 1766); but still we cannot say that it pro- duces good results. Besides, the time which this process requires, at the season when roses are distilled, appears to be a sufficiently serious obstacle, and a reason for pre- venting the experiment being attempted. Bose water, distilled from the flowers without sepa- rating them from their calices, has a disagreeable odor and an herbaceous taste. Prepared under favorable condi- 344 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. tions, it is successfully employed in the manufacture of various liqueurs; in medicine it is used as a vehicle in potions and collyria. The presence of the salts of copper in rose water is detected by the process described in the article on Orange-Flower Water. Water of Violets {Eau d! Oeillets). Violets (flowers) separated from the calices 10 kilogrammes. Common water 40 litres. Common salt 250 grammes. Distill to procure 20 litres. Conduct the operation as for the preceding waters. Water of Absinthe (Eau d' Absinthe). Leaves, tops, and smaller stalks of absinthe 20 kilogrammes. Water ....... 40 litres. Salt 250 grammes. Cut or chop the stalks of absinthe into pieces of 20 or 25 centimeters long. After macerating for twenty- four hours, distill rapidly to draw off one-half of the water employed. When there is a large quantity of absinthe to be dis- tilled, the maceration may be omitted. The first portions of water distilled are white and milky, and bring with them a certain quantity of vola- tile oil, which separates and floats on the distilled water in the florentine receiver. When the operation is finished, this oil is removed by the pipette. In the same way are obtained the aromatic waters of citronella, marjoram, rue, and origanum. Water of Hyssop {Eau d’Hysope). Fresh tops and flowers of hyssop 10 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .40 litres. Salt ...... 250 grammes. Introduce the tops and water into the still, then after macera- tion, distill off 20 litres. RECEIPTS FOR AROMATIC DISTILLED WATERS. 345 By the same method are obtained the waters of la- vender and melilot. Peppermint Water. Fresh peppermint, in flower . . 10 kilogrammes. Water 40 litres. Salt 250 grammes. After maceration draw off twenty litres. The waters of balm (melisse), curled mint, rosemary, sage, lemon thyme (serpolet), garden thyme, are prepared in the same manner. Water of Tea (Eau de The). Imperial tea 1 kilogramme. Hyson tea 500 grammes. Pekoe tea 500 “ Water . . . . ... 40 litres. Place the three kinds of tea together in the still, pour in the water, which should be boiling, close the still hermetically, and allow it to infuse for three or four hours, then distill rapidly until thirty litres are drawn off. Anise Water. Anise seeds dried and bruised . 5 kilogrammes. Water ...... 40 litres. Salt 250 grammes. After a maceration, distill off twenty litres. The water in the cooler should be tepid, in order that the oil contained in the water may not solidify and cause an obstruction in the convolutions of the coil. If this con- cretion should take place, the distillation must be dis- continued. Water distilled from anise seeds is not affected by freezing, for it resumes all its characteristics when ex- posed to a temperature higher than that which caused the separation of the volatile oil; but if the water, which floats above the crystals formed by the cold, is poured off, it will be perceived that it has lost its perfume. The following waters are prepared in the same wray : 346 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Dill (seeds)—star anise (Badiane)—caraway (seeds)— fennel (seeds)—juniper (berries). The same precautions in regard to the cooler, as indi- cated for anise water, are to be observed for these waters. Coriander Water. Coriander seeds, dried and bruised . 10 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .40 litres. Salt ....... 250 grammes. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and draw off twenty litres. The following waters are prepared in the same way : Angelica seeds — skirret — (chervi) [sium sisarum] (seeds)—candy carrot [daucus cretensis] (seeds). Water of Mocha Coffee (Eau de Cafe Moha). Mocha coffee 3 kilogrammes. Water 40 litres. Toast the coffee slightly, until it has acquired a yellowish- brown tint; then, while still hot, reduce it to a coarse powder, and allow it to infuse for twenty-four hours. Distil off one-half the liquid employed. Prepare the following waters in the same way : Mar- tinique coffee and Carraccas cocoa—Cohobate twice for cocoa, and distill gently. Cinnamon Water (Eau de Cannelle). Ceylon cinnamon in powder . 2 kilog. and 500 gram. W ater 40 litres. Salt 1 kilogramme. Cohobate once. Macerate twenty-four hours, distill over the naked fire, without the perforated water-bath, and boil gently until twenty litres are distilled. The following are prepared in the same manner: Malabar cinnamon, Cascarilla, cloves, mace, nutmegs, sassafras, and rosewood. It must be observed that cinnamon water is always somewhat turbid. This effect is due to the prolonged suspension of the volatile oil, which, being heavier than RECEIPTS FOR AROMATIC DISTILLED WATERS. 347 water, falls to the bottom of the vessel. When this water is to be used, it is necessary to shake the vessel which contains it. After the distillation of the above-named waters, care should be had that the cooler be tepid, in order that the volatile oils, wrhich may have condensed and become obstructed in the coil, may descend. If this precaution is neglected, a portion of the principal products will be lost. Angelica Water (Eau dAngelique). Dried and ground roots of angelica, 2 kilog. and 500 gram. Water ..... 4 litres. Salt ...... 500 grammes. Macerate twenty-four hours, and distill off twenty litres. Prepare the following by the same process : Elecam- pane (aunee), calamus, cardamom. Water of Bitter Almonds [Eau dAmandes Ameres). Bitter almonds .... 5 kilogrammes. Boiling water . . . .40 litres. Salt ...... 500 grammes. After having removed the fixed oil of almonds by expression, reduce the cake to powder, mix it with the boiling water, and distill off twenty litres. This water must be employed with great caution, on account of a certain quantity of prussic acid which it contains. The following are prepared in the same way: Seeds of apricots, cherries, and peaches. Lemon Water [Eau de Citron). The rinds of 80 fresh lemons. Water ....... 40 litres. Salt ....... 250 grammes. Distill off half the water used. The following are prepared by the same process : Bergamot, cedrat, sweet and bitter oranges. 348 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Raspberry Water (Eau de Framhoises). Fresh raspberries (capped) . . 12 kilogrammes. Water . ..... 40 litres. Without previous maceration, distill with such precautions as to prevent the fruit from attaching itself to the still. Draw twenty litres. Pursue the same method for the following: Apricots, prunes, quinces, and other fruits. Maraschino Water (Eau de Marasquin). Black cherries (very ripe) [prunus avium] . 20 kilog. Raspberries (very ripe and capped) . . 4 “ Black cherry leaves . . 1 kilog. and 500 grammes. Peach kernels ... ... 250 “ Florentine orris root in powder ... 1 kilogr. Water ...... . . 40 litres. Macerate the whole together for twenty-four hours (the fruits having been crashed), then distill off carefully twenty litres. This receipt is excellent, and the maraschino water, thus prepared, may well rival that which is sold as coming from Dalmatia, but which is really produced in the south of France. Water of Qreen Walnuts (Eau de Noix Vertes). Green walnuts . . . .11 kilogrammes. Water ...... 40 litres. Take the green nuts, when the kernels have scarcely formed, crush them properly by stamping with a pestle, then distill without a previous maceration, so as to ob- tain twenty litres, observing the same precautions as for raspberry water. Aromatic Waters without Distillation. The non-distilled aromatic waters are imitations of those produced by distillation; they are always put on the market without their origin being made known, and with the intention of creating the impression that they have passed through the still. As it may happen that AROMATIC WATERS WITHOUT DISTILLATION. 349 the liquorist may be under the necessity of purchasing aromatic waters in consequence of his own supply being exhausted, in order to protect him from this fraud, we shall indicate the processes employed by the counter- feiters and the method of detecting the trick. These waters are prepared in two ways:— 1. Pour the volatile oil on pulverized sugar, then triturate the mass, adding the water to be aromatized in small quantities at a time, shake the mixture well, and, after a rest of thirty or forty minutes, filter. 2. Pour the volatile oil on carbonate of magnesia, and conduct the operation as above. This method is greatly to be preferred, as the carbonate of magnesia has the property of greatly facilitating the suspension of volatile oils in water. Aromatic waters, thus manufactured, have a less agreeable perfume than those which are distilled. On account of the difficulty of procuring good volatile oil, they are also defective in not having so fresh a flavor. They may, however, be preserved quite a long time, except those prepared with the aid of sugar, which are very susceptible of fermentation. The factitious aromatic waters are easily recognized. They develop less perfume when poured into pure water; they are not mucilaginous nor greasy to the touch, and always exhale a somewhat herbaceous odor. Orange-flower water, prepared from the essence of neroli, is nothing like so pleasant as that which is distilled from the flowers. Apart from the characteristics above mentioned, fac- titious aromatic waters are infallibly recognized by the means which we are about to indicate. When examining an aromatic water suspected of having been manufactured by the aid of sugar, the liquid should be evaporated to dryness, and if, instead of ob- taining mucilage and extractive matter, we find a saccha- rine substance which, when thrown on burning coals, puffs up and diffuses the odor of caramel, the suspicion is well founded. If, on the other hand, the aromatic water is prepared 350 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. with carbonate of magnesia, we prepare a test, by making nearly saturated solutions of carbonate of ammonia and phosphate of soda, and filtering them. Having pre- pared the two reagents as indicated, an ordinary wine- glass is half-filled with the water under examination; into this is poured a small quantity of the solution of ammonia; then if, on adding an excess of the solution of phosphate of soda, the water becomes turbid, and a white precipitate falls to the bottom of the glass (ain- monio-phosphate of magnesia), the problem is solved. The presence of carbonate of magnesia in any aromatic water maybe detected by boiling it, and then adding a small quantity of a saturated solution of hydrochlorate of alumina, a precipitate is thrown down, which consists of carbonate of alumina. CHAPTER XVII. VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. The volatile oils, commonly called essences, are proxi- mate principles of vegetables; in their characteristics, they differ entirely from the fixed or fat oils, in respect both to their physical and chemical properties. The greater number of volatile oils are generally liquid at the ordinary temperature; some are solid, or partially crystallized; none of them are greasy or unctuous to the touch like the fixed oils, nor have they the appearance of being what is commonly called oily. All of them have a very persistent and penetrating odor, which generally recalls the substances from which they have been obtained, but they are never as fragrant. Generally poisonous, their taste is acrid, irritating, and caustic. Light changes the color of volatile oils in a remarkable manner; it changes to yellow those that are colorless, darkens or decolorizes those that are colored; the volatile oil of chamomile, for example, which is blue, becomes VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. 351 yellow. Exposed to the air they change color, lose their odor, thicken, and finally become solid. They take fire suddenly on the approach of a flame, and burn with a very brilliant and dense flame. Highly solu- ble in alcohol, but little so in water, they boil only at 150 degrees Centigrade, and are distilled without alter- ation. When heated along with water, they volatilize at a heat not exceeding 100 degrees, and frequently much below that. It is remarked that their volatility is usually in inverse proportion to their density, the most dense being the least volatile. Cold produces notable effects on them; it congeals them, but at different degrees; many become solid at some degrees above zero, others remain liquid many de- grees below. By age, they undergo changes in color and consist- ency which are very unfavorable to them; they be- come turbid, deposit a precipitate, and become so acrid that they redden the ends of the corks in the vessels which contain them. When these accidents occur, it is important to rectify the oils at once. They have the property of uniting with the fixed oils, and dissolving resins, wax, and caoutchouc; they are generally lighter than water, but there are some which are heavier than that liquid; the lighter are also more volatile. They are found in all the organs of plants, but they abound especially in the leaves and flowers. Ac- cording to the opinion of a goodly number of distin- guished chemists, they do not constitute the perfume or odor exhaled by these organs; they serve simply as the vehicle for the transmission of the odorous substance, or aroma, the nature of which is yet unknown. Boer- haave has defined this odorous principle as follows :— “ This essence,” says he, “ acts upon our organs of taste and smell; it is active; it is the offspring of fire, and it produces various incredible effects. Innate, con- fined, and, as it were, bound up in the oils, it communi- cates a singular and powerful odor which is found no- where else; but when it has been altogether driven off, 352 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. it leaves them almost without strength, so that they can hardly be distinguished one from the other. Now, as a gentle heat is sufficient to drive off this essence of spirit from many oils and dissipate it in the air, the oils which have thus lost it are without strength, and are no longer capable of producing the effects they produced before.” M. Roubiquet has published a remarkable article on the subject of aroma, which we reproduce from the Annales de Cliemie et de Physique, 2d ser., vol. xv. p. 27. “ The ancient chemists thought that the odor of aro- matic substances was due to a peculiar principle which Boerhaave called spiritus rector. Macquer contended that this peculiar principle or essence was not the same for all odorous substances, and he distinguished them as acid, alkaline, and oleaginous. When the French che- mists were engaged in regulating chemical language, and establishing the modern nomenclature, they gave the name aroma to this unknown principle, which they regarded as the essential cause of odor; in the system- atic collection of substances, it was arranged among the proximate products of vegetables. Fourcroy, more recently, ascertained that the existence of this substance, which had been admitted on the faith of the ancients, could not be demonstrated in a positive manner; he contended that odors were the result of the solution in the air of a portion of the odorous body itself, and that the intensity of the odor depended on the greater or less volatility of this body. Unfortunately, this theory, so seducing in its simplicity, is not in accordance with well- known facts. In September, 1820, I published some opinions on the subject of aroma, and, without pretend- ing to return to the ideas of the ancients, I think I have demonstrated that in many various circumstances the odor which emanates from a substance is not due merely to a volatilization of a portion of this substance in space, but rather to an actual combination of a substance, often inodorous in itself, with a very volatile product which serves it for a vehicle. It is thus that tobacco, mask, ambergris, and so many other substances, manifest their odor only by the assistance of ammonia. Musk, VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. 353 well dried in a water-bath, is no longer odorous while the water, which is discharged from it, is ammoniacal. When it is impregnated with ammonia anew, by allow- ing it to be exposed for some time in the fumes of a laterine (as is sometimes done by the perfumers), where this ammonia results from a natural decomposition, the odor returns with all its original intensity. Ammonia is not the only vehicle for odors. I cited, in the remarks above alluded to, the example of the essential oils of certain cruciferse, particularly that of black mustard [sinapis nigra). In this case it is certainly not the volatile alkali which causes the diffusion of the odor, since it is known that acids give more strength and piquancy to mustard. It is by no means the oil which of itself communicates this enduring and penetrating odor, for, on allowing it to stand for some days on a well-cleaned metallic surface, it tarnishes it deeply, and frequently the oil almost entirely loses its odor. I pre- sume that these phenomena are due to the presence of sulphur; but it is combined in a manner which is still unknown to us. If, as Fourcroy thought, plants owe their odor to the diffusion of the volatile oil which they contain, how is it, that certain highly odorous plants, such as the heliotrope, tuberose, jasmin, &c., do not yield an essential oil ? and how can it be explained that certain essences have, so to say, no analogy with the odor of the plants, or parts of plants, from which they are obtained ? It is certain, whatever may be said to the contrary, that neroli does not represent the entire odor of the orange flower, which, on the contrary, is found in the water distilled from this flower. “ All that has just been said demonstrates, it appears to me, that if it is right, on one hand, to include aroma among imaginary substances, we cannot, on the other, be satisfied with a theory which leaves so many gaps. It is necessary, then, to wait until experience shall en- lighten us. “ It appears, in my opinion, from all the facts stated, that the odor, which diffuses itself in the air, should not, as a general rule, be attributed to a simple volatilization, 354 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. or emanation produced by the odorous substance itself, but rather, in many cases, to a gas or vapor resulting from its combination with a proper vehicle capable of diffusing itself in space according to certain laws. In regard to distilled odorous waters, this would be for many of them a pure solution of this combination; and I can readily suppose, on recurring to the opinion of M. Macquer, that the volatile oils frequently owe their odor to the combination of a variable vehicle with an inodorous oil. This would be solving a problem which has for a long time occupied certain distillers, who regret their inability to deceive at their ease, and who would discover an inodorous volatile oil with which to dilute the rarer and more expensive essences. I will finish this note with one last remark: it is, that the analy- sis of essence of turpentine, published by M. Houton- Labillardiere {Journal de Pharmacie, vol. iv.), and that of the essence of lemon, which we owe to M. De Saus- sure (Annalesde Chemieet de Physique, 2d ser., vol. xiii.), exhibit an identity of result which indicates a similar composition, and which proves that the different odors which distinguish them arise from causes which exercise very little influence on their entire nature.” As is seen, the state of our knowledge is very imper- fect in what concerns the true nature of the perfume of flowers and aromatic substances, and this subject, so full of attraction, has been little studied up to the present time. Nevertheless, one of our eminent chemists, M. Millon, Director of the Central Military Dispensary at Algiers, prepared, in 1857, a very interesting work, which Marshal Yaillant, the Minister of War, presented to the Academy of Sciences. In this memoir, M. Millon makes known a new method of extracting the odorous principle of flowers and plants, from which it appears that the author substitutes a double operation for distil- lation, expressing or maceration in oil: 1st, solution; 2d, evaporation. He dissolves the odorous principle in sul- phuret of carbon, or in ether, on the one hand, and, on the other, he evaporates the solution over a slow fire. By this means, a butter-like substance is obtained, quite VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES BY DISTILLATION. 355 similar to the essence of roses from the East, and this substance reproduces in all its purity, its intensity, and fragrance, the original odor of the flower or plant. This last product presents the peculiar chemical char- acteristic of being absolutely inalterable in the air. The perfumes, prepared by M. Millon, were preserved entire years in open tubes, without losing any of their peculiar properties. This inalterability of the perfume of flowers and plants, when exposed to the air, consti- tutes a most interesting discovery. Let us hope that these perfumes, which render so much service to the perfumer, may ere long be successfully employed by the liquorist. The volatile oils are contained in small glands, which are disseminated throughout the cellular tissue of vege- tables. To extract these oils from the organs which contain them, the most common means is distillation; yet many are contained in such great abundance in the rinds of certain fruits, that they may be extracted by simple expression, while others can be obtained only by maceration in a fat or fixed oil. As we have already said, volatile oils are very easily altered; it is therefore necessary that they should be preserved with great care to keep them in good condition. They ought to be placed, when fresh, in vessels that are well filled, and closely stopped, and kept in the dark. It is equally necessary to be careful to keep them clear; for mucilage acts as in the aromatic waters, although more slowly; that is, it decomposes the small quantity of water which is found in the oil, from which it follows that the essence resinifies itself, and the mucilage spoils itself, while the oil becomes rancid. Volatile Oils or Essences by Distillation. The manufacture of volatile oils by distillation re- quires the use of water at the boiling temperature, as in the case of aromatic waters. This liquid being con- verted into vapor serves as a vehicle for the oil, which is lighter though less volatile than it is. 356 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The following rules are to be observed for the distilla- tion of volatile oils :— 1. Distill promptly. 2. Divide the material as much as possible to facili- tate the escape of the oil contained therein. 3. Operate on large quantities in order to obtain strong products, and to have them of a better quality. 4. Charge the still with water already distilled from the substance, and which consequently contains a certain proportion of volatile oil. 5. Only use a sufficient quantity of water to prevent the materials from being burned, and use the first water that is distilled several times on fresh materials. 6. Saturate the water of the still with common salt, especially for exotic substances, whose oil is heavier than water. By this means, the density of the liquid is in- creased, and it is compelled to attain a higher tempera- ture before boiling. Ordinary water boils at 100°, salt water requires 106°. As in the case of aromatic waters, the florentine re- ceiver should be used, and care should be taken that, in the case of the fluid oils, the water on the coil should be frequently renewed ; and for those which concrete easily that the temperature is maintained at 30 or 40 degrees. The distillation of volatile oils is effected better in the turk’s-head still than in that with the goose-neck. Besides the temperature is easily regulated, and it is less difficult to cleanse a straight pipe than a crooked one, from the oil that may adhere to it and communicate its odor. Sou- beiran’s still may be used with advantage. For the extraction of volatile oils, flowers and plants are generally used when fresh, yet there are some plants which, when dried, produce more oil than when they are fresh; sometimes the latter furnish none at all. Milfoil'5'' and garden balm, for instance, present a remark- able example of this singular phenomenon. This is at- tributed to the fact that in the fresh plant the oil exists in a peculiar state of combination, which is destroyed by the drying. * Milfoil. (Achillea Millefolium) Common Yarrow.—Trans. 357 RECTIFICATION OF VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. Volatile Oils or Esssences by Expression. Volatile oils are extracted by pressure from those substances which contain them in great quantity, and where these oils are almost on the very surface of the substance. The lemon, orange, cedrat, bergamot, and all similar fruits, contain the essence in the outer rind, or zeste, which incloses their acid pulp. To obtain the oil, all of the yellow or green portion of the surface of these fruits is rasped off, and the mass is inclosed in a small hair sack, and subjected to the action of a press between sheets or plates of fine tin; it is allowed to clarify, and is then decanted. The volatile oil obtained by this process is more fra- grant than that extracted by distillation, but it will not keep so long; besides it is impure, and is always clouded, because it is charged with mucilage, and a small propor- tion of water which is expressed from the rind. The oils obtained by pressure are yellow, highly odor- ous, thicken quickly, in time acquire a disagreeable odor, leave a grease spot on cloth, are not entirely sol- uble in alcohol; wrhile those that are distilled are more fluid, have a less agreeable odor, are more soluble in alcohol, and keep for a long time. We have already said that volatile oils are altered, and become damaged under certain circumstances. On becoming old, some become entirely thick, while others are so only in part; they become rancid, or lose their odor, and sometimes throw down a deposit which con- tains a resinous substance ; have a consistence and odor similar to turpentine, while the supernatant volatile oil has lost none of its fluidity. This resin is dissolved in the volatile oil when shaken; it does not separate from it again, and greatly hastens its destruction. When the oils of certain seeds have reached this condition of change, they are no longer susceptible of crystallizing by a slight degree of cold as before. The light volatile oils, like those of lavender, sage, Rectification of Volatile Oils or Essences. 358 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. lemon, &c., experience the changes, of which we have just spoken, more promptly than the heavy volatile oils of cinnamon, cloves, sassafras, &c. It is easy to observe the beginning of the change in volatile oils, by the ac- tion of their acids on the corks, which they corrode and stain yellow, as is done by nitric acid. Volatile oils, which have become rancid, and although very much deteriorated, entirely deprived of their odor and color, and almost without fluidity, are not lost be- yond remedy. They may be restored in all their purity, but the ordinary rectification is insufficient, because they are then deprived of all their perfume. We shall now proceed to describe the different methods adopted for their rectification, in order to restore to them all their original properties. The volatile oil which is to be rectified is placed in a still, along with a large quantity of the recent plant, and a sufficient quantity of water; the distillation is proceeded with. When the volatile oil which has been spoiled by age is rectified, it is saturated anew with the perfume, and passes over with the volatile oil arising from the fresh plant. In this manner the volatile oil is completely renewed. When a volatile oil is not altogether changed, but has commenced to lose its color and limpidity, it is suffi- cient, in order to restore it, that it be poured into a small glass retort placed in a sand-bath over a furnace, the receiver attached, and the distillation proceeded with at a moderate heat, about the temperature of boiling water. The volatile oil which passes over is limpid and almost without color. The distillation is suspended as soon as the drops begin to be colored; that which remains in the retort is thick, and has very much the appearance of a resin. All volatile oils lose considerably by rectification; some about one-third, and others more, according to the state of deterioration in which they are when rectified. MEANS OF DETECTING THE FRAUD. 359 Sophistication of Volatile Oils, and the Means of Detecting the Fraud. Most of the volatile oils met with in commerce are adulterated. Want of good faith and honesty in certain dealers, who, to increase their profits, make no scruple in cheating the public so long as it requires goods at a low price, are the causes which multiply these adultera- tions. It is therefore important for the liquorist, if he cannot prepare his own oils, at least to know how to detect the fraud. Almost all the high-priced volatile oils, and those which are sent to foreign countries, are mixed; some with volatile oils of lower price, others with volatile oils of other substances, and which have lost their color by ex- posure to the air or by age; some with fixed oils, as that of the olive, the almond, &c., and, finally, with alcohol. The following are the means of detecting these frauds :— Sophistication by fat or fixed Oils.—A volatile oil, which contains a fixed oil, is as much less liquid as the proportion of fat oil is increased; then, when vigorously shaken together, bubbles of air will be observed to col- lect on the surface of the liquid. Unsized paper is used to discover the mixture made with a fat oil; one or two drops of the oil examined are let fall on the surface of the paper, and then exposed to the air, or to a gentle heat. If the oil is pure, it is completely volatilized; if it is mixed with a fat oil, it leaves on the paper a permanent spot which renders it transparent. The adulteration by a fixed oil may also be readily ascertained by distilling the sophisticated oil in a retort over a water-bath. The volatile oil passes over during the distillation, while the fixed oil remains in the retort, because it cannot be converted into vapor at the temper- ature of boiling water. There is no reason to fear the adulteration of volatile oils by fixed oils, w7hich are put in the still with the plants at the time of their distilla- tion for extracting the essence, because volatile oils begin to boil and are distilled at a temperature much below that which is required for the fixed oils. 360 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Alcohol is also an excellent means for detecting this sophistication. It is sufficient, in applying this test, to place any quantity of the suspected oil in a graduated tube, and to pour on it eight times its bulk of pure alco- hol and shake it. The alcohol dissolves the volatile oil, leaving the fixed oil, which falls to the bottom of the tube, where the quantity is indicated to within some hundredths by the graduation. It quite often happens that a portion of the undis- solved fat oil adheres to the sides of the tube, and by so much diminishes the quantity collected at the bottom; in this case it is essential to promote the precipitation by slight blows upon the tube in different directions. Sophistication by Alcohol.—This fraud alters vola- tile oils much less than the preceding; it has not, like the fixed oils, the objection of rendering them viscid; it renders them, on the contrary, more fluid, and does not change the color. The adulteration with alcohol is rendered certain when, on mixing the volatile oil with water, the mix- ture immediately becomes white and milky, as the alcohol unites with the water and the oil floats on its surface. The following method determines exactly the quan- tity of alcohol contained in a volatile oil: A graduated glass tube is filled with water to any height desired, and the same quantity of volatile oil is then added, a por- tion of the tube, at the top, being left empty. The two liquids are then frequently shaken, and after a moment’s rest, if the oil contains alcohol, it will be observed that the volume of the water has increased, while that of the oil has diminished ; the graduation on the tube will indicate the proportions of the mixture. Potassium has the property of promptly demonstrating the presence of alcohol in volatile oils. The following is the process by which the liquorist may apply this reagent successfully. It consists in putting a bit of potassium, as large as a pin-head, into a small quantity of the suspected volatile oil. If the oil contains so much as one-fourth of alcohol at 90 or 96 degrees, the RECEIPTS FOR THE VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. 361 potassium at once assumes a round form, with a brilliant and shining aspect like a globule of mercury; it moves about, oxidizes very promptly, and disappears in at least one or two minutes; a slight noise always accompanies these phenomena. When the alcohol is only mixed in the proportion of a sixth, an eighth, a twelfth, and even a twentieth, the same phenomena take place; it is only to be observed that the potassium disappears more slowly, and the noise is much less sensible when the proportion of alcohol is less considerable. Sophistication by Common Volatile Oils.—This fraud, which is more difficult of detection, consists in mixing with certain volatile oils the more common and cheaper oils, such as the rectified oil of turpentine, lavender, rosemary, &c. This adulteration, before which all the tests of chemistry have failed, can be detected only by comparison with an oil of unquestionable purity. It is to be observed, however, that, by saturating a piece of cloth or paper with this sort of mixed oils, the more volatile oil is first dissipated, and that whose odor is most enduring is evaporated last, and may thus be dis- tinguished, that of turpentine easiest of all. Receipts for the Volatile Oils or Essences. As for the aromatic waters, the quantity of volatile oils or essences is dependent on the season in which the plants, flowers, seeds, fruits, &c., have been gathered. As to the result, the causes are so various, which may increase or diminish it, that it is impossible to establish any very positive basis; the nature of the soil, expo- sure, good or bad weather, cause the result to vary in considerable proportions. The details given, at the beginning of this chapter, render it unnecessary to repeat our observations in refer- ence to the extraction of volatile oils. We shall con- tent ourselves with giving the receipts for the volatile oils of roses and cinnamon, which will serve as types, one for the light, and the other for the heavy oils. We shall also give the receipt for the volatile oil of bitter 362 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. almonds, because of the peculiar characteristics pre- sented in its manufacture. Volatile Oil or Essence of Roses. Petals of fresh roses . . .25 kilogrammes. Water ...... 10 litres. Common salt .... 500 grammes. After fixing the grate in the still, put in the flowers, add the water and salt, adjust the cap, lute the joints of the apparatus, and distill, until the volatile oil ceases to pass over; collect the product as it comes off in a florentine receiver; remove the oil which floats on the aromatic water, with a pipette, filter it if necessary, and preserve it in well-stopped flasks. There is a particular adulteration of volatile oil of roses, of which we designedly omitted to speak above. Sometimes the oil of roses imported from the East is nothing more than spermaceti dissolved in some fixed oil, to which a small quantity of the pure volatile oil has been added. In this condition the fraudulent mixture presents the appearance of the true oil, and, like it, remains congealed at a temperature of ten degrees above zero. This fraud is readily detected. When the oil is ren- dered liquid by a slight increase of temperature, it has neither the fluidity nor mobility of the pure oil of roses; alcohol dissolves only a small portion of it, and it leaves a spot on paper which is not entirely dissipated by heat. We take the liberty of reproducing an extract from a pamphlet on the subject, published in 1804, by M. Langles, because it contains some information in regard to the essence of roses which is but little known :— “ Can it be imagined,” says this learned Orientalist, “ that a process, which is so simple and so wide-spread in the East, and in fact throughout the western coasts of Africa, which is the result of another known from time immemorial (rose water), does not date back more than two hundred years ? This opinion differs very much from that of many of the learned.” RECEIPTS FOR THE VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. 363 From bis researches among oriental writers, he has ascertained that, prior to the year 1021 of the Hegira (1612 of the common era), the essence of roses was en- tirely unknown. In a History of the Great Moguls, from 1525 to 1677, the discovery of the essence of roses is mentioned in the most positive terms in the two passages which follow:— “ The essence of rose water which the princess (Nour- Djihan-Beygum) at first named Djihdnguyr s essence, as well as some other perfumes of less price, the enjoyment of which she obtained for people less favored by fortune, is the invention of herself and her mother. “ At the beginning of the perfumed feast of the new year, and the commencement of the reign of Djihanguyr, the mother of the Princess Nour-Djihan presented her with some of the essence of rose-water which she had extracted, and the prince, having found it agreeable, thought proper to add his august name to this discovery, and he called it a ther djihdnguyry, that is, Djihanguyr’s essence. “ The method of making the a ther, or attar, says Gladwin, in a History of Hindoostan, was first discovered by the mother of Nour-Djihan-Beygum. The attar is the essential oil of roses, which floats in very small quan- tity on the surface of distilled rose-water,” &c. The following account of the discovery is given by the Venetian, Manucci, who sojourned forty years in the Indies :— “ While the Emperor was walking with her (Nour- Djihan-Beygum) on the border of a canal filled with rose-water,’ they perceived a sort of foam which had formed on the water and floated on its surface. They waited to collect it when it should come to the shore, and they then ascertained that it was a substance which had been extracted from the roses by the action of the sun, and had collected together in one mass. The whole seraglio agreed in pronouncing this the most delicate perfume known in India. Eventually, art attempted to 364 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. imitate what had been produced by chance and by nature.” [Note.—The following article, from Tire’s Dictionary, may not be uninteresting to the reader, and is therefore inserted here without apology Trans. “ The oil of roses, called also the attar or otto, is ex- tracted by distillation from the petals of the rosa centi- folia and semper virens. Our native roses furnish such small quantities of the oil, that they are not worth dis- tilling for the purpose. The best way of operating is to return the water repeatedly on fresh petals, and even- tually to cool the saturated water with ice, whereby a little butyraceous oil is deposited. But the oil thus ob- tained has not a very agreeable odor, being injured by the action of the air in the repeated distillations. In the East Indies the attar is obtained by stratifying the roses in earthen pans, in alternate layers, with the oleif- erous seeds of a species of digitalis, called gengeli, for several days, in a cool situation. The fat oil of the seeds absorbs the essential oil of the rose. By repeating this process with fresh leaves and the same seed, they become eventually swollen, and, being then expressed, furnish the oil. The turbid liquid thus obtained is left at rest, in well closed vessels, where it gets clarified. The layer of oil which floats on top is then drawn off by a capil- lary cotton wick, and subjected to distillation, whereby the volatile oil is separated from the fat seed oil.”] Volatile Oil or Essence of Cinnamon. Ceylon cinnamon, bruised . . 5 kilogrammes. Water 20 litres.* Common salt .... 1 kilogramme. Macerate for twenty-four hours, add the salt, and dis- till until the water passes over clear. The product will be milky, very aromatic, and by rest will yield a vola- tile oil at the bottom of the receiver; after twenty-four hours, decant the product, return it upon the materials remaining in the still, and distill as at first; repeat this operation until there is no longer any perceptible RECEIPTS FOR THE VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. 365 increase of the oily product, allow it to rest twenty-four hours, and decant to separate the volatile oil. Volatile Oil, or Essence of Bitter Almonds. Bitter almonds . . . .10 kilogrammes. Water ...... a sufficient quantity. Common salt .... 1 kilogramme. Reduce the almonds to a powder by a peculiar mill, and extract the fixed oil by pressure in the usual way; that is to say, by a stamping press; mix the almond cake with water so as to form a thin broth, introduce the mixture into a still, and allow it to macerate for twenty- four hours; then distill by the aid of steam, which is injected through a tube into the still, or by means of Soubeiran’s apparatus; in this last case the diluted almond cake should be placed in the water-bath. Continue the distillation so long as the product is odorous. Then separate the volatile oil from the aromatic water, pour this into a small still and distill anew ; a new quan- tity of essence, which passes over at the beginning of the operation, will be separated; this essence must then be mixed with the first product. For a long time the formation of the volatile oil of bitter almonds was an enigma to»chemists, which they had almost despaired of solving; they asked themselves whence this essence could have originated, since the bitter almond contains only a fat oil, and other principles that are completely inodorous. MM. Robiquet, Liebig, Bussy, and Fremy have taught us that it is the product of a metamorphosis, of a chemical reaction which is under the influence of water, between the vegetable albumen of the almonds and one of the ino- dorous principles which accompany it. This principle, which is called amygdaline, is white, crystalline, sweetish, and soluble. If, in fact, amygdaline is brought in contact with a solution of the albumen of almonds, or, more simply, with an emulsion of sweet almonds, the mixture almost immediately acquires a strongly aromatic odor. 100 parts 366 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. of amygdaline will thus furnish by distillation as much as 42 parts of essence, accompanied by five or six parts of prussic acid. And what is more remarkable, is, that this conversion of an inodorous into a highly odorous principle is effected only by the albumen of the bitter almonds, and never by that of other vegetables, nor by the albumen of animals. Moreover, what thoroughly proves that the essential oil in this case is formed at the expense of the amygdaline, is, that sweet almonds, which do not contain amygdaline, do not yield the slightest trace of essential oil by distillation. Because of this peculiar property of the albumen of the bitter almond, which is very similar to diastase, or a ferment, it is distinguished by the name, synaptase. When exposed to the air, the essential oil of bitter almonds absorbs oxygen, and deposits crystals of ben- zoic acid. It contains from 8 to 14 per cent, of prussic acid, which adheres to it obstinately, but from which it may be separated by distilling it upon potassa. When entirely freed of this acid, it is no more poisonous than other volatile oils, and is classed with them. Generally, the essence of bitter almonds found in the market, whether for liqueurs or perfumery, is composed of one part of the pure volatile oil of bitter almonds and seven parts of rectified alcohol. For some years, there has been employed, in per- fumery for scenting soaps, a chemical product having a perfume almost identical with that of the essence of bitter almonds; it is called essence of mirbane. The following is the method of preparing it:— Benzine *2 kilogrammes. Nitric acid, at 40° .... 2 “ Sulphuric acid, at 66° ... 2 “ Pour the benzine into a large matrass; add gently, and in small doses, the acids, which are mixed at the moment of being used (a sunny day should be selected for this operation), shake the mixture carefully every fifteen minutes for four hours; it results in an elevation of RECEIPTS FOR THE VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. 367 temperature and the abundant evolution of nitrous acid gas, which continues throughout the operation. After a rest of ten or twelve hours, decant the oil which floats on the acids, and wash it in many waters. Thus prepared, the essence of mirbane is of a yellow color and very liquid, and has a powerful and highly aromatic odor. It cannot be used in the manufacture of liqueurs. 368 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Substances Weight as Remarks. Names of oils. which yield Country producing Color of the Odor of the volatile compared them. them. volatile oil. oil. with water. 1 Absinthe (large) Entire plant South of France and Decided green Of the plant Lighter Very odorous ; becomes dark and thick (fresh) environs of Paris by age. 2 Absinthe (small) 44 44 44 Green 44 44 “ Less odorous than the above. 3 Dried stalks Sea-coast Amber Absinthe & camphor Heavier But little used. 4 Bitter almonds Almond cake South of France Bright yellow Prussic acid Very volatile; crystallizable; contains much prussic acid, of which a few drops will kill a dog. . 6 Angelica Dried roots Forests of the South Golden yellow Slight musky odor of fighter Very odorous ; darkens by age. angelica Less odorous than the last. 6 Angelica Entire plant Cultivated in gardens Bright yellow Of the plant 7 Dill (Anethnm) (fresh) Dry seeds France and Germany Colorless 44 44 “ Very fluid, and more odorous than that from fresh seeds. 8 Anise 44 44 South of France Almost colorless Sweet and aromatic of 44 Crystallizes at 12° C., and easily be- the seeds comes rancid. 9 Elecampane (Inula) Dried roots Moist woods & gardens Bright yellow Slightly of camphor 44 Crystallizes easily, and then becomes white. 30 Dry seeds China Colorless Sweet anise 44 Becomes yel. by age; crystallizes at 15°C. 11 Dried plant 4 4 44 Cultivated in gardens Golden yellow Perfect of the plant Becomes darker by age. 12 Mint Musky, having some The fresh stalks obtained before, during, relation to peppermint or after flowering yield no essence. 13 14 Bergamot (distilled) “ (expressed) Fresh rind Italy, South of France Almost colorless Yellow Agreeable of fruit Of the fruit 44 Perfume fragrant and odorous. Perfume less pleasant than the last. 15 16 Bigarades (distill’d) Botrys See Curacoa Dried leaves Environs of Paris Bright yellow Strongly of the plant <4 Taste bitter and somewhat acrid. 17 Calamint Fresh plant in Stony mountains of Recalls the odor of Taste acrid. flower the South garden mint Taste of camphor. 18 Calamus Dried roots Brittany & Normandy 4 4 44 Feebly of camphor 19 Chamomile Fresh flowers France and Roman Beautiful blue, Agreeable, of the ** The dried flowers yield a much less aro- limpid flower matic oil. 20 Qinnamon (Ceylon) Dried bark East Indies Dark yellow Approaches the odor Heavier Perfume superior to that of China cin- of a chinch namon or cassia. 21 44 44 China 44 44 44 44 44 Perfume inferior to the last. 22 Carraway Dry seeds Fields and gardens in France East Indies Bright yellow Cumin Lighter Crystallizes at 12°; becomes rancid by age. Taste sharp and penetrating. 23 Cardamom (greater) Dried fruit .< «< Pimento “ 24 Cardamom (less) “ “ 44 4 4 Yellow Pimento, but stronger Table of Volatile Oils or Essences susceptible of being used by the Distilling Liquorist. TABLE OF VOLATILE OILS OR ESSENCES. 369 Names of oils. Substances which yield them. Country producing them. Color of the volatile oil. Odor of the volatile oil. Weight as compared with Remarks. water. 25 26 27 Carrot Cascarilla Cedrat (distilled) Dry seeds Dried bark Fresh rind France South America Italy, Portugal, and Yellow Light greenish Yellow Balsam of Peru Musky Agreeable of the fruit Lighter it Liquid, hot and biting. Very fluid ; taste acrid and biting. Very odorous and agreeable. 28 Cedrat (expressed) it it a it « it tl it it t t 29 30 Celery Chervi (Sium Sesa- rum) Dry seeds France Reddish-brown Yellowish The plant Parsnip seeds Heavier Lighter Very odorous and sharp. Darkens and thickens by age. 31 Citron (Lemon) (dis- tilled) Fresh rinds Italy, Portugal, and South of France Almost white Agreeable of the fruit “ Darkens by age with a lemon-white de- posit which it is necessary to separate 32 Citron (expressed) (( it it it it Bright yellow it it it it it <1 it it to prevent total decomposition. 33 31 35 Coriander Cumin Curacoa Dry seeds Dried rind of France Germany Italy, Portugal, and Strongly of the seeds Feeble but agreeable it Reddens by growing old. Acid, taste acrid. Taste bitter. 36 37 38 Dittany (of Crete) Fennel Fennel (Florentine) bitter orange (bigaraae) South of France of fruit Dried plant Dry seeds Greece South of France Italy Yellow Bright yellow Approaches origanum Aromatic of the seeds •< u « it it Liquid, acrid and biting. Crystallizes at 6° C. 39 Cloves Dried buds East Indies Deep yellow Strong of cloves Heavier Becomes dark and thickens by age ; taste 40 Ginger Dried roots Antilles Greenish-yellow Faint odor of the root Lighter sharp and burning. Hyssop Fresh flowering plants South of France Bright yellow Perfect of plant Very odorous; acrid. 42 Juniper Fresh berries North of Europe Deep yellow Strong of berry, simi- it Color deepens and it thickens with age. 43 44 Laurel (Bay) Lavender Fresh leaves Fresh flowering plant South of France France Greenish-yellow lar to turpentine Decided of leaf Of the plant it Color deepens by age. 45 Limes Fresh rind Italy Bright yellow Lemon-like it Dried arillus of the nutmeg Moluccas Golden yellow Pepper and thyme Heavier Taste peppery. 47 (Mace) Marj oram Fresh flowering South of France Bright yellow Feeble odor of mint Lighter Darkens by age. 48 Melisse {Balm) plant it ti and camphor. Cultivated in gardens Almost white Lemon-like ti 49 Milfoil Flowering plant France Bright blue or Aromatic, camphor- it Deepens to a decided green by age: fresh dried yellowish-green like plant yields no oil. 370 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Substances Weight as Names of oils. . which yield Country producing Color of the Odor of the volatile compared Remarks. them. them. volatile oil. oil. with water. 50 Neroli Fresh orange France Reddish-yellow Pleasant, of orange Lighter Reddens and browns by age: the best is flowers flowers made from the flowers of the bitter orange (Bigarade). 51 Nutmeg Dried nutmegs Moluccas Yellow Faint odor of nutmeg Heavier Composed of two oils, one fluid and light, the other thick, white, and 52 Orange See Portugal 53 Orange flowers See Neroli heavier than water. 54 Parsely Dried seeds France Greenish-yellow Of plant Taste strong and bitter. 55 Origanum Fresh flowering South of France Brownish-yellow Of plant, but some- Lighter Taste acrid ; darkens by age. plants what pepper-like Taste very sharp; crystallizes at 22° in 56 Peppermint Fresh flowering England,United States Colorless Of plant tops line needles ; yellow by age. 57 Portugal (distilled) “ (expressed) Orange rind South of Europe Almost white Pleasant, of oranges U << <( Perfume less than by pressure. 58 Yellow << Becomes rancid easily, deposits a muci- lage which must be removed to pre- 59 Petit-grain See Bigarades vent decomposition. 60 Rhodium (Rose- Dried wood Grecian Archipelago €i Of roses and sassafras Taste bitter; reddens by age. wood) and Antilles 61 Rosemary Fresh flowering South of France Greenish-yellow Of plant, camphor- Taste burning; darkens by age. 62 Roses Petals of 100- South of France and Colorless or le- Strong of roses « Crystallizes below 10°. leafed Rose (RosaCentifolia) East Indies mon 63 Rue Fresh plant France Green & yellow- Of plant li Odor strong and disagreeable; taste ish acrid. 64 Saffron Dried stigmata Gatinais Golden yellow Of saffron Heavier Taste acrid and burning; changes into a of the saffron white substance which floats on water. 65 Sage Fresh plant France Greenish-yellow Camphory, decided Lighter Salvia officinalis yields a more aroma- of plant tic essence than the Salvia sclavea ; darkens by age. 66 Sassafras Dried roots America Reddish-yellow Pleasant, of the plant Heavier Heavier than any other volatile oil; reddens by age. 67 Serpylluin (Wild Thyme) Tansy Fresh flowering plant Forests of France Yellow Aromatic, of plant Lighter Darkens and browns by ago. 68 France Greenish-yellow Of plant, approaching fennel Strong and pleasant << Taste of anise, and piquant. 69 Thyme ti il South of France Yellow « Darkens and browns by age. of plant 70 Zedoary Dried roots East Indies Bright yellow Of the root, camphor- ish Heavier Darkens by age. VOLATILE OILS BY MACERATION OR EXTRACTS. 371 Volatile Oils by Maceration, or Extracts. Volatile oils are obtained from certain flowers by ma- cerating them in a fixed oil (. 1 “ “ anise .... 2 litres. “ celery . . . ,.v 1 litre. “ chervi . . . . 1 ‘‘ u coriander ... 2 litres. “ fennel .... 1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 41 litres. Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 33 litres. Color yellow with caramel, and proceed as above. Vespetro. Spirit of muskmallow ... 1 litre. “ dill . . . . 1 “ “ anise . . .2 litres. “ caraway .... 1 litre. “ coriander ... 2 litres. “ daucus .... 1 litre. “ fennel . . . . 1 “ Alcohol, 85°. . . . .41 litres. Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 33 litres. If necessary, color yellow with caramel, and proceed as above. LIQUEURS DEMI-FINES. 459 The remarks made at the beginning and end of the receipts for ordinary liqueurs, apply equally to liqueurs doubles. Liqueurs Demi-fines. Demi-fine liqueurs have for their foundation, like the preceding, fixed doses of alcohol and sugar, viz., 28 litres of alcohol at 85°, and 25 kilogrammes of sugar. Anisette. Spirit of anisette (ordinaire) . . 6 litres Orange-flower water ... 1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 22 litres. Sugar ...... 25 kilogrammes. Water 54 litres. Process as for anisette ordinaire. Creme d’Angelique. Spirit of angelica (roots) . . 7 litres. 11 “ (seeds) . . 7 “ Alcohol, 85° 14 ' “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. Proceed as above. Creme de Celeri. Spirit of celery . . . .12 litres. Alcohol, 85° 16 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .55 litres. Process as above. Cent-Sept-Ans. Spirit of lemon ... .2 litres. Eose water 3 “ Alcohol, 85° 26 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 52 litres. Color red with cudbear, and proceed as above. 460 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Curagoa. Spirit of curagoa (ordinaire) . .12 litres. Infusion of curagoa . . .15 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° 15 litres. Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. Color with one litre of the coloring for demi-fine cu- ragoa, and, if the color should be too red, reduce it to a deep yellow by a few drops of a solution of tartaric acid. If required, add a little caramel to give more body to the tint. Creme de Fleurs d' Oranger. Orange-flower water . . .9 litres. Alcohol, 85° 28 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 46 litres. « Proceed as for anisette. Huile de Framboises. Spirit of raspberries . . .15 litres. Alcohol, 85° 13 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. Color red with cudbear, and proceed as above. Creme de Menthe. Mint water 10 litres. Alcohol, 85° 28 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 45 litres. Proceed as above. Creme de Moka. Eau de Moka (coffee) . . .20 litres. Alcohol, 85° 28 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 35 litres. Proceed as above. LIQUEURS DEMI-FINES. 461 Creme de Noyaux. Spirit of apricot seeds . . .14 litres. Alcohol, 85° 14 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. Proceed as above. Parfait Amour. Spirit of lemon .... 3 litres. “ “ coriander . . . . 4 “ Alcohol, 85° 21 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. Color red with cudbear, and proceed as the last. Huile de Roses. Eose water 10 litres. Alcohol, 85° 28 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 45 litres. Color red with cudbear, and proceed as above. Eau des Sept-graines. Spirit of dill . . . .1 litre, 50 centilitres. “ “ angelica (seeds) . 2 litres, 50 “ “ “anise . . . 2 “ “ “ celery . . . 2 “ “ “ chervi . . .1 litre, 50 centilitres. “ “ coriander . . .2 litres, 50 “ “ “ fennel . . . 2 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 14 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. Color a bright yellow with caramel, and proceed as above. 462 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Vespetro. Spirit of muskmallow . . 50 centilitres. “ “ dill. . . .1 litre, 50 centilitres. “ “ anise * . .3 litres. “ “ caraway . . . 3 “ “ “ coriander . . 3 “ “ “ daucus . . .1 litre, 50 centilitres. “ “ fennel . . .2 litres, 50 “ Alcohol, 85° ... 13 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. If required, color yellow with caramel, with the addi- tion of a little saffron. Process same as preceding. Punch-liqueur. Brandy (eau de vie), 58° . 40 litres. Rum (tafia), 55° . . . 5 Concentrated spirit of lemon 10 centilitres. Citric acid . . . .50 grammes. Hyson tea . . . . 125 “ Raw Martinique sugar . . 18 kilog., 750 grammes. Water . . . . .42 litres. Infuse the tea in four litres of boiling water, allow it to cool, and press; then pour the brandy, rum, and spirit of lemon into a can, add the infusion of tea, the clarified sugar and the acid dissolved in a glass of water; mix, and color with a little cara- mel ; size, if necessary, and filter. This liqueur must not be confounded with “ the spirit of punchit is intended to be used cold and as pre- pared. The rum-punch liqueur is prepared in the same way, the brandy being replaced by rum. Remark.—The remarks and observations made under the head of ordinary (ordinaire) liqueurs, in regard to aromatic distilled waters, syrup of sugar, and syrup of starch, may be repeated in reference to deini-fine liqueurs. The dose of alcohol may alfeo be increased two per cent. When a demi-fine liqueur marks ten degrees on the saccharometer, it contains the proper quantity of sugar. FINE LIQUEURS. 463 Fine Liqueurs (Liqueurs Fines). Fine liqueurs, with the exception of curagoa, are all prepared with the same quantity of alcohol and sugar; the dose of the latter varies, however, with certain liquorists according to the selling price; they use 375 grammes (12 oz.) to the litre of liqueurs, but it is better to employ the quantity we indicate (437 grammes, 50 centigrammes, or 14 ounces). In order to avoid the constant repetition of the doses of sugar and water, we shall indicate them only in the first receipts. It must be understood that all the quan- tities, whatever be the character of the materials, are intended for one hectolitre of liqueur. Anisette. Spirit of anisette (de Bourdeaux) . 25 litres. Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Infusion of iris . . . .20 centilitres.’ Alcohol, 85° . . . .7 litres. Sugar 43 kilog., 750 grms. Water . . . . .38 litres. Proceed in the usual way. Creme d’Angelique. Spirit of angelica (roots) . . 10 litres. “ “ “ (seeds) . . 10 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 12 “ Sugar 43 kilog., 750 grms. Water 39 litres. Cent-Sept-Ans. Spirit of lemon . . . .4 litres. “ “ coriander . . . 4 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 24 “ Sugar and water as above. Color red with cudbear. 464 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Curagoa Spirit of curagoa (of Holland) . 25 litres. “ orange . . . 7 “ Infusion of curagoa . . .25 centilitres. Coloring for superfine curagoa . 4 litres. Sugar 43 kilog., 750 grms. Water . . . . .35 litres. Reduce the color to a dark yellow by adding a few drops of a solution of tartaric acid. In case the operator should use the coloring prepared by boiling, or that produced by haematine, it will be necessary to add 4 litres of alcohol at 85°. Eau de Vie d’Andaye. Spirit of anise . . . .2 litres. “ coriander . . . 2 “ “ bitter almonds . . 2 “ “ angelica (roots) . . 4 “ “ cardamum (large) . 50 centilitres. “ “ (small) . 50 “ “ citrons . . .1 litre. “ orange . . .5 litres. Infusion of iris . . . .20 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° . . . .15 litres. Sugar 48 kilog., 750 grms. Water 89 litres. Eau de Vie de Dantzich. Spirit of Ceylon cinnamon . 2 litres, 50 centilitres. “ China cinnamon . 5 “ “ coriander . . . 5 “ “ cardamum (large) . . .50 centilitres. 11 “ (small) . . .50 “ “ muskmallow .... Alcohol, 85° . . . .18 litres. Sugar and water the usual quantities. It is customary to put a certain quantity of gold or silver leaf into the flasks (green or white glass) of eau de Dantzic. For this purpose one or two sheets of gold or silver leaf are put into a glaas with ten centilitres of liqueur, and the whole beaten with a fork until the metal is broken into fragments. FINE LIQUEURS. 465 Crdme de Fleurs d’ Granger. Spirit of orange-flowers . . 10 litres. Orange-flower water . . . 5 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 22 “ Sugar 43 kilog., 750 grms. Water . . . . .34 litres. Creme de Framboises. Spirit of raspberries 20 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . . . 12 “ Sugar and water, the usual quantity. Color red with cudbear. Huile de Kirschemeasser. Common kirsch, 51° . . 20 litres. Spirit of apricot seeds . . 4 “ Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Alcohol, 85° . . . .16 litres. Sugar 43 kilog., 750 grms. Water . . . . .30 litres. Creme de Menthe. Essence of peppermint . . . . 25 litres. Alcohol, 85° 7 “ Sugar and water, the usual quantity. Proceed as above. Creme de Noyaux. Spirit of apricot seeds . . 16 litres. “ bitter almonds . . 8 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 8 “ Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Sugar 48 kilog., T50 grms. Water 38 litres. Creme de MoJca. Spirit of moka . . . . .25 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . * . , 7 u Sugar and water, the usual quantity. 466 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Huile d’ OEUlets. Spirit of violets 20 litres. “ cloves . . . . . . **1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 11 litres. Sugar and water, the usual quantity. Color red with cudbear, and proceed as above. Par fait Amour. Spirit of lemon . . .3 litres. “ orange . . . . 3 “ “ coriander . . . . 4 “ “ anise . . . . 2 “ Alcohol, 85° 20 “ Sugar and water, as usual Color red with cudbear, and proceed as above. Huile de Rhum. Common rum, 53° . . . . .30 litres. Alcohol, 85° 14 “ Sugar, the usual quantity. Water 27 “ Color a decided yellow with caramel, and proceed above. Huile de Roses. Spirit of roses 25 litres. Alcohol, 85° 7 “ Sugar and water, the usual quantity. Color red with cudbear, and proceed as above. Eau des Sept-Graines. Spirit of dill 2 litres. “ angelica (seeds) . . . . 3 “ “ anise 3 “ “ celery . . . . . v . 3 “ “ chervie . . . . . 3 “ “ coriander 3 “ “ fennel . . . . . . 3 Alcohol, 85° 13 “ Sugar and water, the usual quantity.’ Color a bright yellow with caramel, and proceed usual. FINE LIQUEURS. 467 Scubac. Spirit of saffron . . .1 litre, 50 centilitres. “ cinnamon (China) . 4 litres. “ cloves . . . 4 “ “ nutmegs . . . 2 “ 50 “ Orange-flower water . . 1 litre. Alcohol, 85° . . . .20 litres. Sugar, the usual quantity. Water 38 “ Color an amber yellow with saffron coloring, and add a little caramel to deepen the tint. Proceed as above. Creme de The Spirit of tea . . .25 litres. “ angelica (roots) . 50 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° . . . 6 “ 50 Sugar and water, the usual quantity. Proceed as above. Vesjoetro. Spirit of muskmallow .... 1 litre. dill 2 litres. “ anise 4 “ “ caraway . . . . . 4 “ “ coriander 4 “ “ daucus 2 “ “ fennel . . . . . . 3 “ Alcohol, 85° 12 “ Sugar and water, as indicated above. Punch Liqueur. Old Cognac brandy, 55° . . 46 litres, Old rum, 50° . . . .10 “ Concentrated spirit of lemons . 15 centilitres. Citric acid . . . .60 grammes. Imperial tea .... 200 “ White sugar . . . .31 kilog., 250 grms. Water 23 litres. Operate as for demi-fine punch liqueur (see p.. 462). This liqueur, which is to be consumed cold and en na- ture, must not be confounded with the syrup of punch. 468 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Remarks.—The syrup of starch cannot be used in the manufacture of either fine or superfine liqueurs. These require the use of refined sugar. A fine liqueur sweetened with 487 grammes, 50 centi- grammes (14 ounces) of sugar to the litre, will mark 17° on the saccharometer. That sweetened with 375 grammes (12 ounces), will mark only 15°. Superfine Liqueurs (Liqueurs Surfines). As was said above, superfine liqueurs are divided into three kinds—French (Fmngaises), foreign (etrangeres), and West Indian (desiles). These three kinds ofliqueurs should be the object of the especial attention of the liquorist, and he should endeavor to give every care and attention to their manufacture. The proportions of alcohol, sugar, and water which are to be used for superfine liqueurs being sometimes we are compelled to indicate the doses for each receipt. These liqueurs generally contain 562 grammes, 50 centigrammes (18 ounces) of sugar to the litre, and mark 25° on the saccharometer. There are, however, some manufacturers who only use 500 grammes (16 ounces) of sugar, in which case they mark 20°. The manufacture of superfine liqueurs has been en- riched since 1858 by new receipts, which we give. The attention of manufacturers is especially called to the preparation of curacoas (de Ilollande), to which we have given a new value by our efforts. If the workman will study our work well and care- fully, and closely follow our methods of manufacture, we can assure him, in advance, of success; with the one condition (sine qua non), that he has real rinds and of the best quality. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 469 Liqueurs Surfines Francaises. Anisette de Bourdeaux. Star anise (badione) ... 1 kilog., 750 grms. Green anise (anis vert) . . 500 grammes. Fennel ..... 437 “ Coriander .... 437 “ Sassafras wood . . . 450 “ Muskmallow (ambrette) . . 187 “ Imperial tea . . . 190 “ Nutmegs .... 10 u Alcohol, 85° . . . .40 litres. Macerate the whole for 24 hours in the alcohol; distill in a water bath, with the addition of 19 litres of water ; rectify with the same quantity of water so as to draw off 36 litres of good quality; then dissolve 56 kilogrammes of very white refined sugar by heat in 24 litres of water; when cold, mix the liquids together, and add :— Infusion of orris-root . . . .50 centilitres. Orange-flower water . . . .2 litres. Then pour in enough water to make one hectolitre of liqueur. Mellow, size, and after a sufficient rest, filter. The anisette of Bourdeaux [Anisette de Bourdeaux) enjoys a universal reputation; the old house of Marie Brizard, prior to 1789, exported this liqueur to all parts of the world, and her successors still retain this kind of monopoly. There are, however, in Bourdeaux, and in many other cities in France, liquorists who manufacture anisettes which rival those bearing the name of Marie Brizard. We have made an analysis of the genuine anisette manufactured by the successors of Marie Brizard, and find the following to be the result for one litre:— Alcohol, 85° . . .82 centilitres. Sugar 500 grammes. Water * 35 centilitres. The saccharometer plunged into this liqueur marks 20°. 470 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Anisette de Paris. Star anise .... 1 kilog., 500 grms. Bitter almonds . . . 1 “ Anise 500 grammes. Coriander .... 250 “ Fennel 125 “ Angelica (root) . . .30 “ Fresh lemon rind, number . 20. Fresh orange rind, number . 20. Alcohol, 85° . . . .38 litres. Distill and rectify as in the preceding receipt; then dissolve, by the aid of heat, 56 kilogrammes of refined sugar in 24 litres of water ; after cooling, mix the whole and add:— Infusion of orris-root . . . .25 centilitres. Orange-flower water . . . .1 litre. Cinnamon water (Ceylon) . . .50 centilitres. Water of cloves . . . . 10 “ Water of nutmegs . . . . 10 “ Add enough water to make a hectolitre of liqueur. Mellow, size, and after a sufficient rest, filter. Anisette de Lyon. Star anise .... 1 kilog., 750 grms. Green anise . . . . 1 “ Coriander .... 250 grammes. Fennel ..... 125 “ Sassafras wood . . . 125 u Angelica root . . . . 30 “ Kinds of fresh lemons, number . 30. Alcohol, 85° . . . .41 litres. Macerate for 24 hours and distill in a water-bath carefully, but without rectifying; draw off 40 litres of perfumed spirit; dissolve 56 kilogrammes of very white refined sugar by heat in 19 litres of water, and when cold mix the whole and add:— Orange-flower water . . . . 2 litres. Cinnamon water ...... 50 centilitres. Infusion of orris-root . . . .50 “ Add enough water to make up one hectolitre of liqueur, and finish the operation as for anisette de Bourdeaux. This anisette is just now very much in vogue; it is served at the cafes in goblets, and when water is poured into it, it becomes almost as white as Swiss ab- sinthe. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 471 Delices de Rachel. Spirit of bitter almonds . . .14 litres. “ orange . . . . 2 “ “ cinnamon (China) . . 2 “ “ dill 2 “ “ coriander . . . 2 “ “ muskmallow . . .1 litre. u fennel . . . . 1 “ Rose water 1 a Orange-flower water . . . 1 “ Alcohol, 85° 12 litres. White sugar . . • . .45 kilogrammes. Color a delicate green with blue and saffron (in imi- tation of green chartreuse). Crime d’Absinthe. Dried tops and leaves of the larger absinthe 1 kilogramme. Dried tops and leaves of the less absinthe 500 grammes. Dried peppermint leaves . . 500 u Anise 500 “ Fennel ...... 125 “ Calamus 125 “ Fresh lemons (rind), number . . 10. Alcohol, 85° ..... 38 litres. Macerate 24 hours; distill and rectify with the addition of the usual quantity of water, and draw off 86 litres of perfumed spirit; then, by the aid of heat, dissolve 56 kilogrammes of sugar in 26 litres of water; when cold, mix the whole to- gether, adding enough water to make one hectolitre of liqueur. Creme d'Angelique. Angelica root .... 1 kilog., 250 grms. Angelica seed . . 1 “ 250 “ Coriander .... 125 grammes. Fennel 125 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .80 litres. Macerate, distill, and rectify as in the preceding, and add to the 36 litres of perfumed spirit 56 kilogrammes of very white re- fined sugar and enough water to make 100 litres of liqueur. 472 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Cloves 800 grammes. Cinnamon (China) . . . 800 “ Nutmegs 800 “ Saffron 200 Gentian ..... 200 “ Tormentilla .... 200 11 Socotrine aloes ... 2 kilog., 400 grms. Myrrh 1 “ 200 “ Fine treacle . . . 2 “ 400 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .36 litres. Elixir de Cagliostro. Macerate for 48 hours, and distill gently to obtain 36 litres of spirit; do not rectify ; add 50 kilogrammes of white sugar, dissolved by heat, in the usual quantity of water; mix, and add 15 centilitres of tincture of musk and three litres of orange- flower water, and then make up the quantity to 100 litres. Mellow, and color a golden yellow with saffron and caramel; size, and after rest, filter. This elixir is said to be useful in cases of debility, feeble digestion, &e* M. Cadet (the father) says that he happened to be dining one day at the house of Cagliostro with La Harpe, Lemoine, Linguet, and the daughter of Salmon, who had been condemned to be burned alive, and who had just been pardoned by the parliament at Paris. This beautiful and interesting female was at that time the object of public curiosity; she was invited and feted by every one. The sumptuous and frequent feasts which she had attended had so entirely disordered her stomach, that she could digest only the lightest food, and even this was sometimes rejected ; a dysentery had exhausted her very much for some days. The pallor of her complexion and her languid air caused her to be questioned con- cerning her health. Each of them set himself to ad- vising her to take care of herself and to be cautious * The active principles of aloes and gentian are not volatile. The efficacy of this preparation would be increased by substituting the operation of displacement with the non-volatile drugs for distillation. It may well take the place of many of the hurtful patent medicines, so called.—Translator. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 473 with her diet, when Cagliostro, raising his voice, ex- claimed : “ This is not my opinion; Mademoiselle may eat whatever her appetite calls for, and I will answer for her speedy restoration to health, if she will take a few drops of an elixir I will procure for her.” A servant by his order brought a vial from which the Count made the patient drink three spoonfuls; some minutes after, Mile. Salmon’s color returned and her strength was restored. We took our places at table, and she did honor to the repast, which was followed by a second dose of the elixir. M. Cadet assured himself of the beneficial effects of the remedy by making a visit on the next day to Mile. Salmon, and Count Cagliostro at his request furnished him with the formula.* Crime de Celeri. Celery seed .... 2 kilog., 500 grms. Daucus of Crete . . . 125 grammes. Alcohol, 85° . . . .38 litres. . By the process already described, draw off 36 litres of per- fumed spirit, to which add 50 centilitres of cinnamon water and 56 kilogrammes of very white refined sugar, dissolved by heat, in enough water to make 100 litres of liquid. * The following is the genuine receipt given by Cagliostro :— Cloves 8 grammes. Cinnamon ..... 8 “ Nutmegs ..... 8 “ Saffron ...... 2 “ Gentian 2 “ Tormentilla 2 “ Socotrine aloes . . . .24 “ Myrrh . . . . . .12 “ Musk 1 centigramme. Fine treacle . . . . .24 grammes. Brandy ...... 1 kilog., 500 grms. Digest 15 days; then filter, and add 750 grammes of the syrup of orange-flower water. 474 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL Liqueur dite de la Grande Chartreuse. Dried lemon balm .... 500 grammes. Hyssop in flower (dried tops) . . 250 Peppermint (dried) .... 250 “ Genepi 250 “ Balsamite (balsamita major) . . 125 Thyme ...... 30 “ Angelica (seeds) .... 125 “ Angelica (roots) . . . .62 *'{ Flowers of arnica . . . .15 “ Buds of balsam poplar . . .15 “ China cinnamon . . . .15 a Mace . 15 “ Alcohol, 85° 62 litres. Digest 24 hours; distill and rectify to obtain 60 litres of good spirit; then add 25 kilogrammes of refined white sugar dis- solved by heat, in 24 litres of water; mix the whole, and, if necessary, add enough water to make up 100 litres. Mellow, then color green with the blue and infusion of saffron or cara- mel, according to the tint desired; size, and after repose, filter. If this liqueur is colored with melisse, hyssop, or any other plant, the color will in a short time be decomposed and form quite a deposit in the bottles (see green color, P- 414). Green (Verte). Liqueur dite de la Grande Chartreuse. Yellow (Jaune). Lemon balm .... 250 grammes. Hyssop in flower (tops) . . 125 “ Genepi ..... 125 “ Angelica (seed) . . . 125 “ Angelica (root) . . .30 “ Arnica flowers . . .15 “ China cinnamon . . .15 “ Mace ..... 15 “ Coriander .... 1 kilog., 500 grms. Socotrine aloes . . .30 grammes. Cardamom (small) . . .30 “ Cloves 15 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 42 litres. Refined white sugar . . 25 kilogrammes. Water, a sufficient quantity to make up one hectolitre of liqueur; follow the directions for the preceding, and impart a yellow color with saffron. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 475 Liqueur dite de la Grande Chartreuse. White (Blanche). Lemon balm .... 250 grammes. Genepi ..... 125 Hyssop in flower (tops) . . 125 Angelica (seeds) . . . 125 Angelica (root) . . .30 “ China cinnamon . . . 125 “ Mace 30 “ Cloves . .... 30 “ Nutmegs . . . .15 “ Cardamom (small) . . .30 “ Calamus ..... 30 “ Tonka beans .... 15 “ Alcohol, 85° . . • .52 litres. Best refined white sugar . 37 kilog., 500 grms. Water, a sufficient quantity to make 100 litres. Process same as the last. The three receipts which we have given above pro- duce perfect imitations of the liqueurs manufactured by the monks of St. Bruno, at the Carthusian Monastery, near Grenoble. These liqueurs, on account of the large proportion of alcohol which enters into their compo- sition, require age; the monks, therefore, do not offer them for sale until two or three years after they have been manufactured. China- China. Spirit of Ceylon cinnamon . . 3 litres. “ cloves . . . .50 centilitres. “ nutmegs . . . .50 “ Infusion of curagoa . . .3 litres. Alcohol, 85° 33 “ Refined sugar . . . .50 kilogrammes. Water .26 litres. Dissolve the sugar by heat; after cooling, mix with the per- fumed spirits and the infusion, and complete the 100 litres with water if necessary. Color a deep yellow with caramel and a little saffron coloring. 476 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. China cinnamon 250 grammes. Cloves 250 “ Nutmegs . . . . . . 60 “ Storax ...... 125 “ Star anise 250 “ Sweet bay 125 “ Imperial tea 250 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . .38 litres. Eau de la Chine. Digest, distill, and rectify as described above to draw off 86 litres; then dissolve 56 kilogrammes of very white refined sugar in water by the aid of heat, and, if necessary, make up the measure to 100 litres by the addition of water. JEau de la Cote-Saint-Andre. Spirit of Ceylon cinnamon . . 20 litres. “ cloves ... .1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 15 litres. Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. Mix the perfumed spirits and alcohol; dissolve the sugar by heat in the water, and if necessary add enough water to make a hectolitre of liqueur. Cinnamomum and Creme de Cannelle are made by the same receipt, and are nothing but eau de la Cote-Saint- Andre. JEau de la Cote-Aux-Noyaux. Spirit of Ceylon cinnamon . . 10 litres. “ cloves .... 1 litre. “ apricot seed . . .15 litres. Alcohol, 85° 10 “ Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. Proceed as above to make 100 litres. Les eaux de la cote at one time enjoyed quite a reputa- tion; the best were prepared by the Visitandines. They are still highly esteemed. They are sold in white gfciss bottles of a peculiar shape. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 477 Curagoa (Old Receipt). Curagoa rinds (Dutch) . . .5 kilogrammes. Rind of fresh oranges, number . 80. Alcohol, 85° . . . . .54 litres. Steep the curagoa rinds in cold water, and when they are soft enough, strip off the outer skin and digest it with the orange peel; distill and rectify to draw off 86 litres of good spirit; add 56 kilogrammes of best refined white sugar dissolved by heat in 22 litres of water; when cold, mix the whole together, and add 4 litres of alcohol coloring, 80 centilitres of the in- fusion of curagoa, and enough water to make 100 litres of liqueur. Mellow, size, and after a sufficient rest, filter. Superfine curagoa ought to have a decided yellow color. This tint is obtained by adding a few drops of a solution of tartaric acid. The same effect is produced by the coloring prepared by the boiling process, or by extract of logwood; but in this case it will be necessary to add 4 litres of alcohol at 85°, to replace that con- tained in the alcoholic coloring. The infusion of curacoa is used to impart a slight bitterness of the orange to the liqueur; the quantity indicated may be increased or diminished according to the strength of the infusion or the taste of the maker. We cannot too highly condemn the practice of using hot water for steeping the rinds of the curacoa oranges, by which they lose a portion of their perfume, and acquire a rancid flavor which injures the liqueur con- siderably. Frequently curacoa, although quite transparent when looked through horizontally in a small glass, appears to be turbid when looked at from above; this effect is due to an excess of coloring, and is demanded by some persons. Superfine curacoa is' sometimes taken mixed with water, when it acquires a rose tint. The change of color astonishes and charms the public, who erroneously regard it as a proof of excellence. By following our receipts closely, a most satisfactory result will be obtained; that is to say, a curacoa which will sustain a comparison with those of the best liquor- ists. 478 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Curagoa Blanc. Spirit of curacjoa (fine) . . .25 litres. “ oranges . . . . 12 “ Amertume (bitter tincture of cura- 90a) 1 litre. White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Size, and after rest, filter. We should observe that it is always allowable for the manufacturer to increase or diminish the quantity of sugar according to the taste of his peculiar locality; in Paris at the present time the preference is for strongly spirituous liqueurs that are not very sweet. The curagoa blanc may be prepared by the receipt for curacoa; only replacing the alcoholic coloring by the same quantity of strong spirit. Curagoa Surfin. Commencement of the operation Genuine rinds . . . .25 kilogrammes. Alcohol, 85° 50 litres. 1. After having stripped off the outer portion of the 25 kilo- grammes of cura9oa rinds, and allowed them to digest for some days in the spirit, the liquid portion is poured off and distilled until 89 litres of a good article are drawn off; the rinds (zestes) are left in the digester (barrel or other vessel), care being taken to distill only the liquid. 2. When the 89 litres of good spirit have been drawn off by rectification, the spirit is poured on the rinds for a new macera- tion of twelve hours; then decant to make what is called amertume (or bitter tincture of curagoa), which is set aside in a demijohn or other suitable vessel. 3. Then to the above-mentioned rinds (which have already served for two macerations) add for distillation— Rinds of fresh oranges . . 6 kilogs., 250 grms. Dry ribbons of curaQoa . . 3 “ 125 “ Then add 75 litres of alcohol at 85°, and distill so as to obtain 75 litres of a good article, perfectly rectified. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. The Manufacture of 104 Litres of Curagoa. Perfumed spirits of curagoa . 14 litres. Spirit of the dried ribbons of . curagoa . . . . 10 “ Amertume .... 6 litres, 25 centilitres. Spirit of oranges . . . 6 “ 25 “ Coloring . . . . 4 or 5 litres. White sugar. . . . 56 kilogrammes. Size with milk, one litre to the hectolitre. In order to facilitate the operation, we append the receipts for preparing the spirits of dried ribbons of curagoa and of oranges. • Spirit of Dried Ribbons of Curagoa. Dried ribbons of curagoa . . 9 kilogrammes. Alcohol, 85° 50 litres. Make one or two distillations, according to the size of the ap- paratus, if the distillation is made in two operations, add to each, 20 litres of water, or 40 litres for the whole; rectify to obtain fifty litres of good spirit. Spirit of Oranges. Fresh oranges .... 8 kilogrammes. Alcohol, 85° 81 litres. Water for the distillation . . 80 “ Product 30 “ Rectify and distill slowly. The coloring should be prepared as follows: take a barrel having a double bottom, pierced with holes, and fixed about 10 centimeters from the head ; fill it with logwood, arranged in layers, to which should be added a certain quantity of bicarbonate of soda, but which should not exceed 50 grammes to a barrel of 50 or 60 litres; add, also, 80 grammes of tartaric acid; cover the wood with superfine perfumed spirit, which will, in turn, be added to the manufacture. 480 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Eau Divine. Spirit of lemon .... 8 litres. “ oranges . . . . 6 “ “ coriander . . . 3 “ “ nutmegs. . . . 3 “ Orange-flower water ... 1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 18 litres. Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Add water enough to make 100 litres of liqueur, and proceed in the usual way. Eau-de- Vie d’Andaye. Aniseed 375 grammes. Coriander ..... 750 “ Bitter almonds .... 750 “ Angelica root 500 “ Cardamom, large .... 30 “ Cardamom, small .... 30 “ Fresh lemons (outer rind) . . 10 in number. Alcohol, 85° 38 litres. Digest, distill, and rectify to obtain 36 litres of perfumed spirit; then add— Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes, Infusion of orris-root . . .20 centilitres, and enough water to make up one hectolitre of liqueur. Conduct the operation as described above. A more highly spirituous eau de vie d’Andaye than the above is prepared by using the same doses of per- fume, omitting one-half of the sugar, and increasing the quantity of alcohol one-third (28 kilogrammes of sugar, and 54 litres of alcohol). Eau-de- Vie de Dantzick. Spirit of Ceylon cinnamon . 3 litres, 50 centilitres. “ China cinnamon . 6 “ 50 u “ coriander . . 6 “ “ cardamom, large . 75 centilitres. “ cardamom, small . 75 “ “ muskmallovv . 50 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . 18 litres. Best refined white sugar . 56 kilogrammes. Water, a sufficient quantity to make one hectolitre of liqueur. Operation as described. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 481 It is usual to put fragments of gold or silver leaf into the white glass bottles containing eau de Dantzic. This spirit as prepared in the city from which it takes its name, is more spirituous than that for which wre have given the receipt, but it is not so agreeable. Fenouillette de Vile de Rlie. Spirit of fennel . . . .16 litres. “ coriander . . . 2 “ Cinnamon water (China) . . 2 “ Alcohol, 85° 18 “ Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water, a sufficient quantity to make one hectolitre of liqueur. Process as described above. Creme de Fleurs d’ Oranger. Spirit of orange-flowers . . .18 litres. Alcohol, 85° 18 “ Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. Proceed as above. Creme cle Framboises. Spirit of raspberries 26 litres. Alcohol, 85° 10 “ Sugar and water, as the last. Proceed as usual, and color red with cochineal. Huile cle Kirsdienwasser. Fine kirsch, 50° . . . .25 litres. Spirit of apricot seeds . . . 5 “ Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 16 litres. Best refined white sugar . . 50 kilogrammes. Water 19 litres. Proceed as described above. 482 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Elixir de Cams. Saffron 60 grammes. Socotrine aloes 125 “ Myrrh 125 “ China cinnamon 125 “ Cloves 60 “ Nutmegs 60 “ Alcohol, 85° ... ..36 litres. Infuse for 24 hours; distill with care but without rectifying, to draw off 36 litres of perfumed spirit; add 56 kilogrammes of refined white sugar dissolved by heat in the requisite quantity of water; pour the boiling syrup on one kilogramme of capil- laire of Canada (sweet fern); when cold, pass through a hair sieve, and proceed to mix the liquids to make one hectolitre of liqueur; then color yellow with saffron and caramel. Creme de Cenepi des Alpes. Gdndpi in flower .... 2 kilogrammes. Peppermint in flower ... 1 kilogramme. Balsam 1 “ Angelica root .... 500 grammes. Galanga 125 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .42 litres. Macerate for 24 hours; distill and rectify to obtain 40 litres of good spirit; then add 37 kilogrammes, 500 grammes of white sugar, dissolved by heat, in 35 litres of water, and, if necessary, complete the hectolitre of liqueur by the addition of water. Mellow, then color a bright green with blue coloring and the infusion of saffron; size, and after rest, filter. Mayorque. Fresh oranges (outer rind), number . . 200. Alcohol, 85° ...... 54 litres. Macerate 48 hours; distill and rectify to obtain 36 litres of good spirit; add 56 kilogrammes of refined white sugar, dissolved by heat, in 18 litres of water; when cold, mix the whole together, adding the juice of 200 oranges and 30 centilitres of the in- fusion of curagoa. Color a golden yellow with caramel. The name of this liqueur has reference to the country which produces the best oranges; it was invented at Orleans, and has a reputation even in the centre of SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 483 France; it is the same, even to the juice of the oranges, as the gouttes or larmes de Malte. The liqueur called acidule or acididine, which is made at Lyons, resembles the Mayorque in all essential par- ticulars. Creme de Menthe Spirit of peppermint . . .30 litres. Essence of peppermint (English) . 15 grammes. Alcohol, 85° 54 litres. Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the essence of mint in a little of the unperfumed alco hoi, and proceed as described above. The use of this essence is indispensable, if it is de- desired to obtain a liqueur which shall impart to the mouth the cool sensation produced by mint lozenges. The hunter’s cordial, or eau de chasseur, is nothing but creme de menthe, to which have been added some musk- mallow and coriander. Liqueurs du Mezenc. Daucus of Crete .... 500 grammes. Nutmegs 125 “ Mace 60 “ Muskmallow . . . .60 “ Myrobolans 60 “ Roman chamomile ... 2 kilogrammes. Alcohol, 85° . . . .38 litres. Spirit of coriander . . .50 centilitres. Digest 24 hours; distill and rectify to obtain 36 litres of good spirit; add 56 kilogrammes of refined white sugar, dissolved by the aid of heat, in 22 litres of water; when cold, mix the whole together, and add 4 litres of the infusion of vanilla; then color a golden yellow with the curagoa coloring prepared by boiling (see page 413). This receipt gives a perfect imitation of the liqueur clu Mezenc prepared at Lyons; it has the property, like it, of acquiring a rose tint when water is poured into it. 484 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. According to the declaration of the inventor of this liqueur, its perfume is prepared from plants of the mountain of Mezenc (Switzerland). Creme de Mille-Fleurs. Spirit of orange flowers . 8 litres. “ roses . . 9 “ “ muskmallow. . 50 centilitres. “ sassafras . . 2 litres, 50 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° 16 “ Best refined white sugar . 56 kilogrammes. Water, a sufficient quantity to make one hectolitre. Process as directed above. Creme de Moka. Spirit of Moka . . . .80 litres. Alcohol, 85° 6 “ Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water, a sufficient quantity to make one hectolitre. Process as above. Creme de Noisette a la Nose. Spirit of bitter almonds . . 10 litres. “ roses . . . . 10 “ Alcohol, 85° 16 “ Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. Product, 100 litres of liqueur. Process as described. If required, impart a rose color with cochineal. Creme de Noyaux. Spirit of apricot seeds . . .26 litres. “ bitter almonds . . 10 “ Orange-flower water ... 1 litre. Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water ...... 25 litres. Product, 100 litres. Process as described. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 485 Crime de Noyaux de Phalsbourg. Spirit of apricot seeds . . .26 litres. “ bitter almonds . . 7 “ “ oranges .... 1 litre. u lemons . . . . 1 “ “ China cinnamon . . 50 centilitres. “ cloves . . . .25 “ “ nutmegs . . . .25 “ Orange-flower water ... 1 litre. Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 25 litres. Product, 100 litres. The analysis of one litre of eau de noyaux de Phals- bourg from the house of Hoffman-Forty, which enjoys a well-merited reputation, gives the following result:— Alcohol, 85° 32 centilitres. Sugar . . . . . .375 grammes. Water ...... 43 centilitres. The saccharometer, plunged into the liqueur, marks 14 degrees. Crdme d' CEillets. Spirit of violets 25 litres. “ cloves 2 “ Alcohol, 85° 9 “ Refined white sugar 56 “ Water 26 “ Color red with cochineal. Product, 100 litres. Eau d’ Or. Spirit of lemons . . . .10 litres. “ oranges . . . . 8 “ “ coriander . . . 4 “ “ dancus . . . . 2 “ “ fennel . . . . 2 “ Orange-flower water ... 1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 10 litres. Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 25 litres. Color 3/ellow with saffron. Proceed as above. Pro- duct, 100 litres. 486 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. This liqueur, the name of which has allusion to the potable gold of the alchemists, is very ancient. It was at one time looked on as a sort of panacea. The eau d’argent is prepared in the same way, the color being omitted. These liqueurs are sold in white glass bottles, in which are placed a few fragments of gold leaf in the first, and of silver leaf in the second. Par fait-Amour de Lorraine. Spirit of lemons 4 litres. “ oranges . . . . . 4 “ “ coriander 5 “ “ anise 3 “ Alcohol, 85° 20 “ Sugar and water, the usual quantity. Color red with cochineal. Product, 100 litres. Persico. • Spirit of bitter almonds . . 15 litres. “ dill (anethum) . . 2 “ “ China cinnamon . . 2 “ “ coriander . . . 2 “ “ fennel . . . .1 litre. Orange-flower water . . . 1 “ Alcohol, 85° 14 litres. Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 25 litres. Product, 100 litres. RaspaiVs Liqueur Hygienique et de Dessert. Angelica (dried tops) . . 1 kilog., 650 grms. Angelica (dried roots) . . 1 “ Calamus ..... 440 grammes. Myrrh 250 “ Cinnamon .... 250 “ Socotrine aloes. . . . 125 “ Cloves 100 “ Nutmegs ..... 30 “ Saffron 10 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .30 litres. Macerate 24 hours, distill carefully, but without rectifying, to draw off 30 litres of spirit; add 37 kilogrammes, 500 SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 487 grammes only of refined white sugar, dissolved by heat in 40 litres of water; when cold, mix, adding five litres of the infu- sion of vanilla. Product, 100 litres of liqueur. Mellow, and then color yellow with the infusion of saffron and caramel; size, and, after sufficient rest, filter. This receipt, which is not exactly the same as that furnished by Raspail,* since it is prepared by distillation, and contains no camphor, yields an excellent liqueur, which will bear comparison with any liqueur whatso- ever which may be sold under the name of Raspail. Haile de Rlium. Fine rum, 50° . . . .30 litres. Alcohol, 85° 18 “ Refined white sugar . . .50 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .18 litres. Color a deep yellow with caramel. Product, 100 litres. Creme de Roses. Spirit of roses . . . .30 litres. Alcohol, 85°. .... 6 “ Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .26 litres. Color red with cochineal. Product, 100 litres. The crhme de roses musquee is prepared by the same receipt, with the addition of some drops of tincture of musk. Eau des Sept-Graines. Spirit of dill . . .8 litres. angelica (seed) . 3 “ 50 centilitres. “ anise . . . 3 “ 50 “ “ celery . . . 3 “ 50 “ u chervi . . . 2 “ u coriander . . 3 “ 50 “ “ fennel . . . 3 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . 15 “ Refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. W ater 26 litres. Color yellow with caramel. Product, 100 litres. * The genuine receipt will be given hereafter. 488 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Scubac de Lorraine. Spirit of saffron .... 2 litres. “ cinnamon . . . 5 “ “ cloves . . . . 4 “ “ • nutmegs . . . . 3 “ Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 22 litres. Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 25 litres. Color a deep yellow with saffron and caramel. Pro- duct, 100 litres. Process same as above. Creme de The de la Chine. Spirit of tea . ... . .35 litres. “ angelica roots . . .1 litre. Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. Process as above. Product, 100 litres. The creme de the is put up in white glass flasks covered with silk printed with Chinese characters and scenes. Huile de Venus. Spirit of daucus . . .4 litres. “ caraway . . . . 2 “ “ chervi . . . . 2 “ “ dill 4 “ “ lemons . . . . 6 “ “ oranges . . . . 4 “ Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 14 litres. Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 25 litres. Color a bright yellow with saffron. Product, 100 litres. SUPERFINE LIQUEURS. 489 Eau Verte de Marseille. Spirit of cinnamon . . .6 litres. “ coriander . . . 4 “ “ caraway . . . 4 “ a peppermint . . . 4 “ lemons . . . . 10 “ “ oranges . . . . 8 “ Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. Color grass-green with saffron and blue. Product, 100 litres. Vespetro de Montpellier. Spirit of muskmallow . . .1 litre. “ dill 8 litres. “ anise . . . . 4 “ “ caraway . . . . 6 “ “ coriander . . . . 6 “ “ daucus (candy carrot) . 3 “ “ fennel . . . . 3 “ Alcohol, 85° 10 “ Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .26 litres. If required, give a bright yellow with the infusion of saffron. Proceed as above. Product, 100 litres. Eau Virginale ou de Pucelle. Spirit of celery . . . .10 litres. “ juniper . . . . 4 “ “ candy carrot (daucus) . 4 “ u China cinnamon . . 2 “ “ cloves . . . .1 litre. Orange-flower water . . . 1 “ Rose water 1 “ Alcohol, 85° 15 litres. Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 24 litres. Process as above. Product, 100 litres. 490 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. West Indian Liqueurs (Liqueurs Surfines des lies). West Indian liqueurs for more than a century have enjoyed an extraordinary reputation, due to their fra- grance, delicacy of flavor, and richness. For a long time it was thought that they owed their superiority to the cane spirit (tafia) used in their preparation ; but common sense has exploded this prejudice. It has been ascer- tained that cane spirit (or rum) imparts an empyreu- matic flavor to liqueurs; besides, the liquorists of the In- dies now compound their liqueurs with the trois-six of France. The greater part of the Indian liqueurs which are imported from Martinique, Guadaloupe, and Barbadoes are prepared from aromatics collected from vegetables indigenous to those countries—as the bark of the lirio- dendron (tulip-tree), the allspice, Jamaica balsam, which has the odor of the rose, the narrow-leaved myrtle with odor of the pippin, and a number of other ingredients which, although but little known, are highly prized on account of their fragrance. The widow of Amphoux-Chassevent (Madeline Achard), born at Marseilles in 1707, who settled in Martinique in 1769, where she died in 1812, had a world-wide re- putation for these liqueurs. They were known as liqueurs de la veuve Amphoux. At the present time, those of Grand Maison of Fort Royal enjoy as great a reputa- tion. The West Indian liqueurs are prepared in the same way as the superfine French liqueurs; the proportions of alcohol and sugar are invariable, to wit, 40 litres of rectified perfumed spirit, and 56 kilogrammes of sugar. To avoid constant repetition, it is to be understood that all the receipts for these liqueurs apply to the manu- facture of 100 litres; that the sugar, for reasons already given, should always be dissolved by the aid of heat, and suffered to cool before using; that, after the mixture is made, the liqueur should be mellowed (tranchee), colored, sized, and, finally, after a rest of some days, filtered. WEST INDIAN LIQUEURS. 491 Baume Divin. Balsam of Peru . . . . . 125 grammes. “ Tolu ..... 125 “ Socotrine aloes 30 “ Muskmallow ..... 125 “ Rose wood 250 “ Alcohol, 85° 42 litres. Digest for 24 hours; distill and rectify to draw off 40 litres of perfumed spirit; then add— Rose water 3 litres. Cinnamon water . . . . 2 “ Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .17 litres. Baume Humain. Balsam of Peru .... 250 grammes. Benzoin (tears) . . . . . 125 “ Myrrh ...... 60 “ Alcohol, 85° 42 litres. Digest 24 hours; distill and rectify to draw aff 40 litres of per- fumed spirit, and add— Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Rose water 1 “ Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 20 litres. Creme d’Ananas. Bananas (fresh plucked) . . .8 kilogrammes. Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Crush the bananas and infuse them in the alcohol for eight days; pass the liqueur through a silk strainer; dissolve 56 litres of sugar in 27 litres of water, and pour it into the liqueur with 50 centilitres of the infusion of vanilla; color a bright yellow with caramel. Bananas, being always high priced, are frequently re- placed by other fruit; the following is a receipt for an imitation:— Very ripe sickle pears . . .10 kilogrammes. Spirit of raspberries . . .10 litres. Infusion of vanilla . . . 2 “ Alcohol, 85° 28 “ Proceed as above. 492 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Creme des Barbabes. Fresh cedrats (outer rind), number . . 100. Fresh oranges (outer rinds), number . 50. Alcohol, 8o° 50 litres. Digest 24 hours; distill and rectify to draw off 40 litres, and add— Cinnamon water . . . .50 centilitres. Water of cloves . . . .25 “ Water of mace . . . .25 “ Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 21 litres. Crhne de CacJiou. Catechu (terra japonica) . . .3 kilogrammes. Alcohol, 85° 42 litres. Digest 24 hours; distill and rectify to obtain 40 litres of per- fumed spirit, then add— Orange-flower water . . .2 litres. Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 20 litres. Creme de Malm. Mocha coffee 5 kilogrammes. Bitter almonds .... 1 kilogramme. Alcohol, 85° 42 litres. Roast the coffee; then reduce it to a coarse powder; digest, distill, and rectify to draw off 40 litres of good spirit, to which add— Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Creme de Noyaux. Apricot seeds (kernel) . . .6 kilogrammes. Peach seeds (kernel) ... 2 a Bitter almonds .... 2 “ Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Digest and distill (without rectifying) to obtain 40 litres of per- fumed spirit; then add— Orange-flower water . . .2 litres. Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 20 litres. WEST INDIAN LIQUEURS. 493 The creme de noyaux rouge is prepared in the same way, only using a sugar of inferior whiteness, and is colored with cochineal. Creme Sapotille de la Martinique. Storax 250 grammes. Muskmallow ..... 60 “ Yellow sanders (santalum citrinum) . 250 “ Alcohol, 85° 42 “ Proceed as for crhne de Moka, and draw off 40 litres of good spirit; then add— Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Rose water 1 r“ Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 20 litres. Huile de Badiane. Star anise (badiane) ... 2 kilogrammes. Rosewood ..... 500 grammes. Cascarilla wood .... 500 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .42 litres. Proceed as above to draw oft’ 40 litres of perfumed spirit, and add— Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. The huile d’anis des Indes blanche and rouge are pre- pared in the same manner; for the latter a colored sugar is used and it is colored with cochineal. Huile de Cacao. Caracas cocoa .... 2 kilog., 250 grms. West Indian cocoa . . . 2 “ 250 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .43 litres. Eoast the cocoa and reduce it to a powder; digest for three days; distill and rectify to obtain 40 litres of good spirit, and add— Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Infusion of vanilla, according to taste. 494 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL Huile de Cedrats. Fresh cedrats (outer rind), number . . 150. Alcohol, 85° 50 litres. Digest, distill, and rectify to obtain 40 litres of good spirit, to which add— White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Color a bright yellow with caramel. The fine orange and huile de bergamotes are prepared in the same way—substituting the cedrats by fresh oranges and bergamots. These two liqueurs are also colored a bright yellow. Haile de Cannelle. Ceylon cinnamon . • . . . 750 grammes. China cinnamon .... 250 “ Cloves 60 “ Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Digest and distill carefully (without rectifying) to obtain 40 litres of good spirit; then add— White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Color golden yellow with caramel. Haile des Creoles. Muskmallow (ambrette) . . . 500 grammes. Nutmegs . . . . . .125 “ Cloves ...... 125 “ Alcohol, 85° .’.... 40 litres. Digest 24 hours; distill carefully (without rectifying) to obtain 40 litres of perfumed spirit, and add— White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Color red with cochineal. Iluile de Fernambouc is prepared by the same receipt, being colored a deep yellow with Brazil wood, to which are added a few drops of a solution of tartaric acid to redden the color. WEST INDIAN LIQUEURS. 495 Huile de Qirojle. Cloves bruised (girofies). . . 500 grammes. China cinnamon .... 150 “ Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Proceed as in the last receipt, and add— White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Color a deep yellow with caramel. Huile de Ehum. , Rum (old and extra) . . .50 litres. White sugar. . . . .50 kilogrammes. Water 18 litres. Dissolve the sugar in the water by the aid of heat in a water- bath; then withdraw the fire from the furnace; lute on the cap of the still without fixing the goose-neck; then pour in the rum through the orifice of the cap, and mix the whole well together; close hermetically; after cooling, color a deep yellow with caramel. Huile de Vanille. Vanilla 200 grammes. Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Cut the vanilla into small pieces; then bruise it in a mortar with a portion of the sugar (about 5 kilogrammes); pour the alcohol and syrup of sugar into a water-bath, and add the vanilla sugar; mix the whole well together; after luting on the cap, heat the still gently so as to digest properly without distilling; allow it to become cool on the furnace; color with cochineal; size, and, after a sufficient rest, filter. This process produces an excellent liqueur. Zinziber or Huile de Gingembre. Ginger 1 kilogramme. Galanga 200 grammes. China cinnamon .... 100 “ Cloves 60 “ Nutmegs ..... 80 “ Mace ...... 15 “ Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. 496 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Distill in the same manner as for huile de cannelle, and add— Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Color a golden yellow with caramel. West Indian liqueurs are put up for sale in bottles of dark grass-green of a peculiar shape; they are called English bottles. Foreign Liqueurs. “ No man is a prophet in his own country,” says a very ancient proverb. This saying is especially appli- cable to liqueurs; for if there is any country where the manufacture is conducted with intelligence, with taste, perfectly, it is manifestly in France, and particularly in Paris; yet, in spite of the superior quality of our pro- ductions, liquorists are most generally under the very unpleasant necessity of presenting their liqueurs to consumers as the product of foreign countries, in order that they may be considered as of superior quality; thus it often happens that we send liqueurs to foreigners which are sold as being manufactured in their own land. This state of things is to be regretted. It has a ten- dency to maintain the reputation of foreign liqueurs in France, although Holland, Italy, Germany, &c., are far from being our rivals. During our sojourn in Italy, we were convinced that French liqueurs were highly esteemed, and that for quality they were infinitely to be preferred to any that came under our notice, whether they came from Turin, Geneva, Florence, &c. The proportions of liquids and other substances which enter into the composition of foreign liqueurs not being fixed, we shall indicate the quantities to be employed in each receipt, which will, however, be, as with all others, for one hectolitre of liqueur. FOREIGN LIQUEURS. 497 Anisette de Hollande. Bitter almonds .... 1 kilogramme. Anise 800 grammes. Star anise 750 “ Coriander 250 “ Fennel 125 “ Imperial tea 190 “ Bay leaves 125 “ Balsam of Tolu . . . .90 “ Muskmallow 60 “ Nutmegs 15 “ Alcohol, 85° 42 litres. Macerate for 24 hours, distill and rectify to obtain 40 litres of perfumed spirit, and then add— Rose water ..... 2 litres. Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water ...... 20 litres. Proceed and mix as described above and size. The true anisette de Hollande, of the house of Winand FocJdnJc, of Amsterdam, which we have analyzed, yields the following quantities for one litre of liqueur:— Alcohol, 85° . . . . .40 centilitres. Sugar 500 grammes. Water ...... 27 centilitres. The saccharometer plunged into it marks 20 degrees. Curagoa de Hollande. Rinds of curagoa (Dutch) . . 5 kilogrammes. Fresh oranges (outer rind) . . 80 (in number). Alcohol, 85° 60 litres. Proceed as for curacoa surfine, and draw off 40 litres of per- fumed spirit, to which add— Infusion of curagoa . . .60 centilitres. Alcohol color from Brazil wood . 4 litres. Refined white sugar . . .50 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. The analysis of the genuine Dutch curagoa of the house of Winand FocTdnk, of Amsterdam, yields the following:— Alcohol, 85° 47 litres. Sugar 375 grammes. Water 28 centilitres. 498 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. The saccharometer when plunged into this liquid stands at 10°. The large proportion of alcohol contained in the Dutch curaqoa explains why this instrument does not indicate a larger proportion of sugar. Creme Oenievre de Hollande. Old gin, 50° 60 litres. Best white sugar . . . .25 kilogrammes. Water 23 litres. Proceed as above. Liqueur Flamande (60 litres). Cloves. .* 30 grammes. . Ceylon cinnamon. . . . .30 “ Angelica seed 60 “ Star anise 60 “ Coriander . . . . . . 100 “ Rinds of four oranges. Alcohol, 85° 26 litres. Raw sugar 40 “ Pulverize the solid substances, and digest in the alcohol for eight days; dissolve the sugar, and pour it, boiling hot, on the aromatics; size and filter; add euough water to make the quantity up to 60 litres. Dutch Bitters (Bitter de Hollande). Dutch cura9oa rinds ... 1 kilogramme. Calamus ..... 250 grammes. Socotrine aloes .... 250 “ Brazil wood ..... 2 kilogrammes. Alcohol, 85° . . . .60 litres. Water 40 “ Place the solid substances in a water-bath with the alcohol and water; infuse them at a gentle heat for 24 hours; when cold, add 15 grammes of alum, and filter without sizing. Amer de Hollande (Dutch Bitters). Rinds of Dutch cura§oa ... 1 kilogramme. Fresh lemons (outer rind), number . 20. Fresh oranges (outer rind), “ . 20. Alcohol, 50° 100 litres. Digest one month; draw off the clear liquid and filter. FOREIGN LIQUEURS. 499 The Dutch liqueurs are put up in square or round reddish-gray stone jugs; also in black glass bottles with a long neck or compressed sides; the latter are called marteaux. Veritable Eau de Vie de Dantzick. Ceylon cinnamon . 250 grammes. Cloves 15 “ Celery seeds ..... 125 “ Caraway seeds 125 “ Anise seeds 125 “ Cumin seeds ..... 30 “ Alcohol, 85° 50 litres. Digest for 24 hours, and distill with care (without rectifying) to draw off 50 litres of perfumed spirit, and add— Best refined white sugar . . 25 kilogrammes. Water 33 litres. Finish the operation according to the usual methods, and add a sheet of broken gold leaf to each flask. This liqueur being highly spirituous, and not very sweet, requires age. That which we have described under the French superfine liqueurs is generally pre- ferred. Franzoesisch Wasser de Dantzick. Anise 500 grammes. Star anise 500 “ Fennel 125 Coriander 250 “ Dry sage ...... 500 Dry peppermint 500 “ Melisse 500 “ Alcohol, 85® 40 litres. Digest for 24 hours; distill and rectify to draw off 38 litres of perfumed spirit, to which add— Spirit of lemons . . .1 litre. u orange . . . 1 “ Refined white sugar . . .87 kilog., 500 grms. Water 35 litres. Color a brilliant red with cochineal, and proceed as usual. 500 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Deutschland Wasser de Breslau. Angelica roots .... 1 kilogramme. Seeds of dill 125 grammes. “ caraway . . .60 “ “ cumin . . . .80 “ Calamus 125 “ Chamomile 500 u Nutmegs ..... 30 “ Alcohol, 85° 42 litres. Digest 24 hours; distill and rectify to draw off 40 litres of good spirit, and add — Infusion of orris-root . . .50 centilitres. Refined white sugar . . .37 kilog., 500 grms. Water 35 litres. Color a bright green with saffron and blue. Process as described above. Persicot du Palatinat. Peach kernels . . . .6 kilogrammes. Bitter almonds .... 2 “ Alcohol, 85° 86 litres. Macerate 48 hours, and distill carefully to draw off 86 litres of perfumed spirit, and add— Cinnamon water . . . .75 centilitres. Water of cloves . . . .25 “ Orange-flower water . . .1 litre. Refined white sugar . . .50 kilogrammes. W ater 24 litres. Process as described. Usquebaugh cTEcosse (Scotch). Saffron 60 grammes. Juniper berries ..... 250 “ Star anise 125 “ Angelica root ..... 125 “ Coriander 250 “ China cinnamon 60 “ Muskmallow 60 “ Fresh lemons (outer rind), number . 25. Alcohol, 85° . . . . .40 litres. FOREIGN LIQUEURS. 501 Digest one month, stirring from time to time; then strain through a hair sieve, and add— Orange-flower water . . .2 litres. Refined white sugar . . .25 kilogrammes. Water 41 litres. Communicate a light reddish-yellow tint with cochineal. Usquebaugh is a drink of high repute in Great Britain; Sir Walter Scott frequently refers to it in his novels, and Paul Feval makes mention of it in his “Mysteries of London.” This liqueur was originally prepared at Batavia, and was introduced into Europe by the Dutch. English Bitters. Fresh lemons (outer rind), number . 25. Fresh oranges “ “ . 25. Calamus 125 grammes. Ginger 60 “ Gentian 500 “ Elecampane (root) .... 120 “ China cinnamon 30 “ Cloves 15 “ Nutmegs 15 “ Alcohol, 85° ..... 100 litres. Macerate one month, stirring occasionally; pass through a hair sieve and filter without sizing. Alkermes de Florence. Muskmallow 150 grammes. Calamus 150 “ Ceylon cinnamon .... 250 “ Cloves ...... 60 “ Mace 60 “ Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Macerate for 48 hours; distill carefully in a water-bath (without rectifying) to draw off 40 litres of perfumed spirit, and add— Extract of jasmin . . . .30 grammes. Infusion of orris-root . . .50 centilitres. Rose water 6 litres. Eefined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 16 litres. Proceed as with other liqueurs, and color a deep red with cochineal. 502 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Aqua Bianca de Turin. Ceylon cinnamon .... 500 grammes. Cloves 60 “ Nutmegs ...... 60 “ Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Digest for 24 hours, and distill (without rectifying) to obtain 40 litres of good spirit, and add— Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Process as described. Place a sheet of broken silver leaf in each flask. Aqua d' Oro de Turin. Ceylon cinnamon .... 250 grammes. Cloves 30 “ Angelica root 125 “ Daucus (candy carrot) . . . 125 “ Fresh lemons (outer rind), number . 80. . Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Digest 24 hours; distill in a water-bath (without rectifying) to draw off 40 litres of good spirit, and add— Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 22 litres. Process as described. Place in each flask some frag- ments of gold leaf. Gedrato di Palermo. Fresh cedrats (outer rind) . . 200 (in number). Alcohol, 85° 50 litres. Distill, and rectify to obtain 40 litres of good spirit, and add— Cinnamon water (Ceylon) . . 50 centilitres. Water of cloves . . . .25 “ Water of mace . . . .25 “ Spirit of muskmallow . . .50 “ Best refined white sugar . . 56 kilogrammes. Water 21 litres. Process as described above. FOREIGN LIQUEURS. 503 La Fioretto de Florence. Larger cardamom . . . . 250 grammes. Nutmegs ...... 250 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . .38 litres. Distil], with care, in a water-bath, without rectifying, to draw off' 38 litres of perfumed spirit, and add— Infusion of orris-root ... 2 litres. Orange-flower water . . . 2 “ White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water .20 litres. Proceed as above, coloring rose with cochineal. La Giovane de Turin. China cinnamon 125 grammes. Benzoin in tears 30 “ Storax(best) . . . . ,125 “ Nutmegs ...... 60 “ Muskmallow .... . 30 “ Bay leaves 250 “ Bosewood . . . . . . 250 “ Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Distill, with care, in a water-bath, without rectifying, to draw oft' 40 litres of spirit, and add— Orange-flower water ... 1 litre. "White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 21 litres. Color a bright red with cochineal, and proceed as described. Liquore delle Alpi. Larger absinthe (picked from stalks) 500 grammes. Lesser absinthe (picked from stalks) 500 “ Angelica (tops) .... 500 “ Peppermint (picked from the stalks) 500 Hyssop in flower .... 500 “ Genepi 500 “ Anise 500 “ Fennel seeds 250 “ Lemons (outer rind) . . .10 (in number). Alcohol, 85° 38 litres. 504 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Digest 24 hours; distill in a water-bath, and rectify to obtain 86 litres of perfumed spirit; add 56 kilogrammes of best white sugar, converted into syrup, with 30 litres of water, and pro- ceed as usual. Maraschino* de Zara. Maraschino water . . . .20 litres. Orange-flower water ... 1 litre. Bose water . . . . . 1 “ Alcohol, 85° 40 litres. Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Place the perfumed waters and sugar in the water-bath ; put on the cap without attaching the goose-neck; lute and heat quickly, passing a stirring-stick through the opening in the cap, in order to stir the syrup; when the sugar is dissolved, add the alcohol; stir again, and close hermetically; draw the fire from the fur- nace, and allow the liqueur to cool in the still. Maraschino is also prepared by the following re- ceipt :— Spirit of raspberries . . .15 litres. “ apricot seeds . . . 8 “ “ orange flowers . . 2 “ Old kirsch 20 “ Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 17 litres. Proceed as above. Myrobolano, or Myrobolanti. Myrobolans ..... 500 grammes. Storax, best 125 “ Bay laurel 500 “ Yellow sanders 250 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . .42 litres. Digest 24 hours, distill, and rectify to draw off 40 litres of good spirit, and add— Bose water 2 litres. Cinnamon .water (China) . . . 25 centilitres. Best white sugar . . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 20 litres. Process as described before. * From macarska or marasca cherry, a fruit growing in Dalmatia. FOREIGN LIQUEURS. 505 Olio di Cremona. Fresh lemons (outer rinds) . . 50 (in number). Fresh oranges “ . . 40 “ Storax (best) 250 grammes. Alcohol, 85° 42 litres. Digest 24 hours, distill, and rectify to obtain 40 litres of spirit, and add— Rose water 2 litres. White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 20 litres. Color red with cochineal, and proceed as described. Olio de Maccheroni di Genova. Spirit of bitter almonds . 10 litres. “ orange flowers . 6 “ “ roses . . . 4 “ “ cinnamon (China) . 25 centilitres. “ nutmegs . .25 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . 15 litres, 50 centilitres. White sugar . . . ' 50 kilogrammes. Water 30 litres. Color a clear yellow with infusion of saffron, and pro- ceed as above. Rosolio di Menta di Pisa. Peppermint in flower ... 6 kilogrammes. Essence of peppermint . . .20 grammes. Alcohol, 85° 38 litres. Macerate the mint for 24 hours in the alcohol; distill and rec- tify to obtain 36 litres of spirit, in which dissolve the essential oil of mint; then add 50 kilogrammes of best white sugar, made into a syrup, with 30 litres of water. Process as usual. jRosolio di Torino. Bitter almonds .... 1 kilog., 500 grms. Apricot seeds .... 2 kilogrammes. Anise 500 grammes. Coriander 125 “ Fennel 125 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .32 litres. 506 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Digest 24 hours, distill and rectify to obtain 30 litres of per- fumed spirit, and add— Spirit of roses . . . .10 litres. Cinnamon water (China) . . 50 centilitres. Water of cloves .... 25 “ “ nutmegs ... 25 “ Orange-flower water ... 1 litre. White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 20 litres. Impart a clear rose color with cochineal, and proceed as above. Rubino di Venezia. Bitter almonds .... 1 kilogramme. Star anise 1 “ Fennel • 125 grammes. Storax (best) 125 “ Angelica (roots) .... 125 “ Alcohol, 85° 42 litres. Digest 24 hours, distill and rectify to obtain 40 litres of good spirit, and add— Infusion of vanilla . . . .50 centilitres. Cinnamon water (China). . .50 “ Water of cloves . . . .20 “ “ “ nutmegs . . . .30 “ White sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 21 litres. Impart a bright rose color with cochineal, and proceed as above. The Italian liqueurs are put up in white or clear green glass bottles of various forms. Most of these bottles are covered with a species of cord or twisted husks of Indian corn. There are some which have a certain air of originality which is quite peculiar, particularly those called fiasco. RECEIPTS FOR INFERIOR LIQUEURS. 507 Chiraz. (A New Persian Liqueur.') Muskmallow (ambrette) . . 188 grammes. Anise ..... 500 “ Dill 250 “ Caraway ..... 500 “ Coriander .... 1 kilog., 500 grms. Daucus ..... 250 grammes. Fennel 575 “ Sassafras (wood) . . . 188 “ Angelica (root) . . . 500 “ Florentine iris .... 125 “ Yanilla . . . . . 60 “ Orange-flower water . . 2 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . .35 “ White sugar . . . .45 kilogrammes. Water 33 litres. Distill and rectify with care, and proceed according to principles already laid down. Color a clear yellow with saffron. Nomenclature and Receipts for Liqueurs by Infusion. As we have said above, there are some aromatic sub- stances from which it is impossible to extract the per- fume by distillation with either water or alcohol. If it is desired to prepare liqueurs with these substances, the process by infusion becomes obligatory. Almost all of the liqueurs prepared by infusion are designated by the name ratafia. According to certain authors, the word ratafia is the same as ratafier (to ratify), and is derived from two Latin words, rata fiant (that the affair agreed on shall be accomplished). This opinion is founded on a custom among the ancients when they had discussed public affairs at the table, by which they con- firmed the resolutions taken by drinking at the close of the feast some pleasant liqueur; a remnant of this usage still remains in our day among a certain class of people. The number of receipts for liqueurs by infusion is small enough to justify our giving under each the pro- 508 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. portions of aromatic substances as well as of the alcohol, sugar, and water that enter into their composition. We repeat, and more particularly with respect to ratafias, what we have already said in reference to the inequality of results. Although using with the most scrupulous atten- tion the quantities which we indicate, it may happen that a liqueur prepared at one time will be far inferior to the same liqueur prepared at another; the condition of the materials or fruits, their state of maturity, the influence of temperature, a more or less prolonged infu- sion, &c. &c., are so many influences that may cause dif- ferences in liqueurs. Here our mission ends; we cannot communicate to our readers that skill and tact which enable a good liquorist to determine immediately, on tasting it, whether a liqueur is possessed of the requisite perfume; this experience is only acquired by long practice. The receipts, like those which precede, all apply to one hectolitre of liqueur. Ordinary Liqueurs (Liqueurs Ordinaires). Huile de Vanille. Infusion of vanilla . . .1 litre. Tincture of storax . . .25 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° . . . .24 litres. Sugar 12 kilogs., 500 grms. Water 66 litres. Color with archil Brou de Noix. Infusion of walnut hulls (old) . 21 litres. Spirit of nutmegs . . .25 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° . . . .13 litres. Sugar 12 kilog., 500 grms. Water 57 litres. Color a deep yellow with caramel. If the perfume of this liquid is not sufficiently decided, a few litres of the water of nuts may be added, omitting the same quantity of water. ORDINARY LIQUEURS. 509 Ratafia de Cassis. Infusion of cassis (currants) (premiere) . . . .25 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . 12 “ Sugar 12 kilogs., 500 grms. Water 54 litres. If it is desired to employ the second (deuxieme) infu- sion, the process is as follows :— Infusion of cassis {deuxilme) . 32 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . 6 “ Sugar . . . . .12 kilogs., 500 grms. Water 54 litres. The third infusion (troisieme) may be used thus:— Infusion of cassis (troisilme) . 45 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . 7 “ Sugar 12 kilog., 500 grms. Water 39 litres. In the event that this last preparation is not suffi- ciently perfumed, two or three litres of the infusion of currant leaves may be added, withholding at the same time a corresponding quantity of alcohol, 85°. The three examples given will serve as a guide in case all three, or only two, of the infusions are used simultaneously. Cassis Ordinaire (100 litres.) Pure alcohol . . . .21 litres, 25 centil’s. Or 25 “ 85°. Infusion, first charge 50° (taken in the manufacturing) . .18 “ Wine of Rousillon or Loire . 7 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 14 “ Raw sugar (decolorized or well clarified) . . . .12 kilog., 500 grms. Water, to make up the quantity. 510 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Ratafia de Framboises. Infusion of raspberries . . 15 litres. “ “ currants or wild cherries 5 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 12 “ Sugar 12 kilog., 500 grms. Water 59 litres. The first infusion of currants, or wild cherries, serves to give this liqueur a higher color. Ratafia de Coings (quinces). Expressed juice of thoroughly ripe quinces . . . .6 litres. Spirit of cloves . . . .50 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° . . . .25 litres. Sugar 12 kilog., 500 grms. Water 60 litres. Give a bright yellow color with caramel. The ratafia of pears is prepared in the same way. Liqueurs Doubles. Huile de Vanille. Infusion of vanilla . . . .2 litres. Alcohol, 85° 48 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 33 litres. Color deep red with archil. Brou de Noix. Infusion of walnut hulls . . 42 litres. Spirit of nutmegs . . . .50 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° 25 litres. Sugar . . . . . .25 kilogrammes. Water 18 litres. Give a strong yellow color with caramel, in order that when the liqueur is reduced the color may be sufficiently decided. LIQUEURS DEMIFINES. 511 Ratafia de Cassis. Infusion of currants (premiere) . 50 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . . 24 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 10 litres. Another. Infusion of currants (premiere) . 25 litres. “ (deuxihue) . 30 “ Alcohol, 85° 17 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .11 litres. Ratafia de Framboises. Infusion of raspberries . . .30 litres. “ currants or wild cherries 10 “ Alcohol, 85° 24 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 19 litres. Liqueurs Demifines. Haile de Vanille. Infusion of vanilla . . .4 litres. Alcohol, 85° 22 “ Sugar . . . . . .25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. Color red with cudbear, and if a bright red is desired, add a little caramel. Huile de Violettes. Infusion of orris-root . . .6 litres. Alcohol, 85° 22 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .55 litres. Color violet with cudbear and blue. 512 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Brou de Noix. Infusion of walnut hulls (old) . 25 litres. Spirit of nutmegs . . . .30 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° 13 litres. Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 45 litres. Color a dark yellow with caramel. Ratafia de Cassis. Infusion of currants {premiere) . 30 litres. “ raspberries . . . 5 “ Alcohol, 85° 12 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 36 litres. The same observations are repeated for this as the preceding cassis. Cassis Demifin. (100 litres.) Pure alcohol 23 litres. Or 28 “ at 85°. Infusion (premiere) . . . .23 litres. Wine of Loire or Roussillon . . 8 “ Infusion of wild cherries . . 3 “ “ 7 raspberries . . . 3 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . . 13 “ Decolorized raw sugar . . .25 kilogrammes, Water, a sufficient quantity. Ratafia de Cerises. Infusion of cherries . . .30 litres. “ wild cherries . . 5 “ Spirit of apricot seeds . . . 5 “ Alcohol, 85° 4 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 39 litres. The color ought not to be very dark. 513 LIQUEURS FINES. Ratafia de Framboises. Infusion of raspberries . . .20 litres. “ wild cherries . . 6 “ Alcohol, 85° 10 “ Sugar . . . . . .25 kilogrammes. Water 47 litres. Ratafia de Quatre Fruits. Infusion of currants, premiere . 10 litres. “ cherries . . . 10 “ “ raspberries . . . 8 “ “ wild cherries . . 8 “ Alcohol, 85° 8 “ Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .39 litres. Ratafia de Goings. Expressed juice of very ripe quinces 8 litres. Spirit of cloves . . . .50 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° 28 litres. Sugar . . . . . .25 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .47 litres. Impart a bright yellow with caramel. Liqueur Fines. Haile de Vanille. Infusion of vanilla . . .8 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . 24 “ Refined white sugar . . .43 kilog., 750 grms. Water 39 litres. Color red with cudbear or cochineal. Haile de Violettes. Infusion of orris-root . . 10 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . 22 “ Refined white sugar . .48 kilogs., 750 grms. Water . . . . .39 litres. Color violet with cudbear and blue. 514 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Brou de Noix. Infusion of walnut hulls (old) . 30.litres. Spirit of nutmegs . . .35 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° . . . .15 litres. Sugar 37 kilog., 500 grms. Water 29 litres. Color a deep yellow with caramel. Ratafia de Cassis. Infusion of currants, premiere . 36 litres. “ raspberries . . 8 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 10 “ Sugar 37 kilog., 500 grms. Water . . - . . .21 litres. Ratafia de Cerises. Infusion of cherries . . .35 litres. “ wild cherries . . 8 “ Spirit of apricot seeds . . 6 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . 4 “ Sugar . . . . .37 kilog., 500 grms. Water 21 litres. Ratafia de Framboises. Infusion of raspberries . . 25 litres. “ wild cherries . 10 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .10 “ Sugar . . . . .37 kilogs., 500 grms. Water 29 litres. Ratafia de Quatre Fruits. Infusion of currants, premiere . 15 litres. “ cherries . . . 10 “ “ raspberries . . 10 “ “ wild cherries . .15 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 4 “ Sugar 37 kilog., 500 grim Water 20 litres. LIQUEURS SURFINES. 515 Ratafia de Goings. Expressed juice.of very ripe quinces . . . .12 litres. Spirit of cloves . . .75 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° . . . .30 litres. Refined white sugar . . .37 kilog., 500 grms. Water 32 litres. Color a bright yellow with caramel. Alcohol, 85° Liqueurs Surfines. Veritable Liqueur Hygienique et de Dessert de Raspail. Alcohol, 21° Cartier ... 1 litre. Angelica root . . . .30 grammes. Calamus 2 “ Myrrh 2 “ Cinnamon 2 “ Aloes 1 gramme. Cloves ...... 1 “ Vanilla 1 “ Camphor 50 centigrammes. Nutmegs ..... 25 “ Saffron 5 “ “ The whole is permitted to digest for several days in the sun, the bottle being kept well corked. It is then strained through a cloth of close texture; the bottle, again well corked, is to be kept in a quiet place.” M. Raspail says that “ a liqueur may be prepared which will be quite as hygienic, as pleasant to drink, by adding to the ingredients above named 500 grammes of sugar, dissolved and caramelized in half a litre of water. If the liqueur is muddy, it should be passed through the cloth a second time, or the dose of brandy increased.” Finally, M. Raspail adds that “if it is desired to have it still more limpid, and more pleasant to drink, the liquid should be subjected to distillation, and the dose of aloes added to the distilled liqueur.” Although M. Raspail published his formula for the benefit of the public, he appears, by his frequent com- 516 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. plaints through the public prints, to be desirous of hold- ing a monopoly in the manufacture. He especially objects to the use of his name on the labels of other manufacturers, because most of them do not use all the ingredients prescribed by him. It is allowable for us to remark that although there are some people who like camphor, there are others who do not like it (and we count ourselves among the number), and even if cam- phor does possess undoubted virtues as an external application, there is some room for discussion as to its value as an internal remedy. In his valuable Manual de Parfumerie, M. A. Debay remarks on this subject:— “ Extolled by M. V. Raspail, whose elixir had become popular, camphor was, for some years, in the public estimation, a panacea for all diseases. It was swallowed, smoked, chewed, and sprinkled on the beds of the sick. It was employed in ointments, liniments, and plasters; in fact, it was administered in every form; but, like every other matter of fashion, the fancy for camphor is daily passing away. “ The perfumer used camphor for perfuming his soaps, tooth-powders, and pastes—his sachets and other pre- parations. “ It was contended that the odor of camphor had the effect of driving away insects and preserving clothes and furs from the attack of moths. “ Experience has dissipated this notion, as well as its title to being a panacea.” For our part, we affirm that in the provinces, as well as in Paris, the liqueur of M. Combier, of Saumer, is preferred to that which contains camphor. The cam- phor masks all the ingredients of the formula except the angelica; we would therefore say, in agreement with M. Raspail, that the liqueur of M. Combier has no ana- logy with that invented by him. The following is the receipt of M. Combier:— 517 LIQUEURS SURFINES. Liqueur Ihjgienique [de Saumur). Angelica seed .... 450 grammes. Calamus ..... 950 “ Myrrh ...... 450 “ Ceylon cinnamon .... 450 “ Aloes ...... 300 “ Cloves 300 “ Cardamom (lesser).... 300 “ Nutmegs ..... 300 “ Outer rind of lemon ... 2 kilogrammes. Digest in 72 litres of alcohol, 85°; distill to draw off 50 litres of good spirit, taking care to separate the product in the dis- tillation ; set aside the remaining 22 litres to be used in another operation. Reduce the quantities in the receipt, if the liqueur is too highly perfumed. Manufacture (100 litres). Perfumed spirit as above . . 50 litres. White sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water, a sufficient quantity. Color a bright yellow with saffron; size, and after rest, filter. Liqueur Stomachique DorSe. Cinchona (red), bruised . . 187 grammes. Dutch curagoa (rind) . . 125 “ Ceylon cinnamon . . . 125 “ Vanilla 90 “ Saffron ..... 10 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .36 litres. Refined white sugar . . 37"kilogs., 500 grms. Water . . . . .38 litres. Digest 8 days, and strain off the liqueur with pressure; add the sugar and water; size and filter, and put some fragments of gold leaf in each bottle. Creme de Vanille. Infusion of vanilla . . .10 litres. Alcohol, 85° 26 “ Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. Color red with cochineal. 518 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Crime de Violette. Infusion of orris-root . . .12 litres. Alcohol, 85° 24 “ Refined white sugar . . .56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. Color violet with cochineal and blue. Creme de Brou de Noix. Infusion of walnut hulls (old) . 40 litres. Spirit of nutmegs . .* . .50 centilitres. Alcohol, 85° 10 litres. Refined white sugar . . .50 kilogrammes. Water 16 litres. Color a deep yellow with caramel. Creme de Cassis. Infusion of currants, premibe . 42 litres. Spirit of raspberries . . . 5 “ Alcohol, 85° 6 “ Refined white sugar . . .50 kilogrammes, Water 16 litres. Ratafia de Cassis de Dijon. Infusion of currants, premibe . . 25 litres. “ cherries . . . 5 “ “ wild cherries . . 5 “ “ raspberries . . . 5 “ Burgundy (or any other red wine of similar properties) . . . 10 “ White sugar . . . . .50 kilogrammes Water . . . . . .16 litres. This is sometimes called crime de vougeot. Creme de Cassis de Touraine. (Superior to the Cr&me de Yougeot.) Infusion of currants, premibe. . 26 litres. “ wild cherries . . 6 “ “ raspberries . . . 6 “ “ cherries . . . 6 “ Wine of Roussillon . . . 9 “ Infusion of currant leaves . . 5 “ White sugar 50 kilogrammes. Water ...... 9 litres. LIQUEURS SURFINES. 519 Dissolve the sugar in a water-bath with the 9 litres each of wine and water. After the liqueur is prepared, size; and, after a sufficient rest, bottle it without filtering. Ratafia de Cerises de Grenoble. Infusion of cherries . . .25 litres. “ wild cherries . . 15 “ Spirit of apricot seeds . . . 6 “ “ raspberries . . . 4 “ Refined white sugar . . .50 kilogrammes. Water . . . . . .16 litres. Ratafia de Grenoble, dit de Teyssere. Currants . . . . .15 kilogrammes. Raspberries . . . . .20 11 Cherries .... . . 20 “ Wild cherries . . . .10 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . .36 litres. Refined white sugar . . .50 kilogrammes. Infusion of bay . . . .50 centilitres. Water of nuts .... 8 litres. Infusion of galangal . . .50 centilitres. Crush the whole without breaking the seeds, and let it digest for one month, then strain with pressure, and add the sugar, previously dissolved by heat, in a sufficient quantity of water to make one hectolitre. This liqueur is also prepared as follows :— Take a sufficient quantity of wild cherries (very ripe) and (after removing the stems) crush them ; then put them on the fire in a copper pan with a little water; heat rapidly, taking care to stir with a paddle until the liquid begins to thicken, then pour the whole on a sieve over a stone jar, and press the marc until it becomes cold; then prepare the ratafia as follows:— Boiled wild-cherry juice . . . 10 litres. Infusion of currants . . . 15 “ 11 cherries .. . . 20 “ Spirit of raspberries . . . 10 “ Refined white sugar . . . .50 kilogrammes. Dissolve the sugar by heat in the juice of the wild cherries, and, after cooling, complete the admixture, adding, if necessary, enough water to make one hectolitre. 520 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Boiling does not affect the wild cherries, which have neither perfume nor parenchyma, the juice being highly aqueous; the action of the fire, on the contrary, is ad- vantageous, because it develops a flavor as well as the saccharine principle. The ratafia of Grenoble may also be prepared from the infusions of the fruits which enter into its compo- sition. The ratafia de merises de Grenoble is prepared as fol- lows :— Place 100 kilogrammes of thoroughly ripe cherries, sepa- rated from the stems and crushed, in a copper kettle, heat rapidly, stirring with a wooden spatula until the juice is very thick; at this point, pour the whole (marc and juice) into a hogshead, and, when cold, add 55 litres of white spirit at 59° (trois-six reduced); allow it to infuse for at least six weeks, then draw off the clear liquid and turn it into another hogshead to settle. * As may be observed, this ratafia contains no sugar except that derived from the fruit. The ratafias de Louvres and de Neuilly are prepared in very nearly the same manner as the ratafia de Grenoble dit de Teyssere, only they have a more decided flavor of currants. Ratafia de Framboises. Infusion of raspberries . . .30 litres. “ wild cherries . . 10 “ Alcohol, 85° 10 “ Refined white sugar .* . . 50 kilogrammes. Water 16 litres. Guignolet d' Angers. Infusion of cherries . . .20 litres. “ wild cherries . . 20 “ Alcohol, 85° 10 “ Sugar 50 kilogrammes. Water 16 litres. 521 COMMON LIQUEURS. Receipts for Preparing Liqueurs by Volatile Oils or Essences without the use of the Still. Liqueurs flavored by means of the direct solution of one or more volatile oils are never so pleasant nor so delicate as those prepared from distilled spirits. Al- though highly aromatic, these liqueurs are possessed of a harshness which connoisseurs recognize at once; they leave an enduring and oppressive sensation of heat and irritation in the mouth, throat, stomach, and sometimes even in the urinary organs of those who make use of them habitually. Nevertheless, being fully aware of the fact that liqueurs prepared by solution are altogether inferior in every respect to those prepared by distillation, we are compelled to acknowledge that circumstances may exist which will oblige the liquorist to resort to the use of essences for the manufacture of liqueurs. Influenced by the probability of this necessity occurring with some of our readers, we shall describe the processes which we would recommend. As in the case of common liqueurs prepared by dis- tillation or infusion, the proportions of sugar, alcohol, and water are invariable. The following will indicate the quantities of each which are required for the manu- facture of one hectolitre of liqueur :— Common Liqueurs (Ordinaires). Alcohol, 85° . . . .25 litres. Sugar 12 kilog., 500 grms. Water 66 litres. Essences,* the quantity prescribed in each receipt. Fill a bottle of the capacity of one litre half full of alcohol; then pour in the essence; agitate quickly and thoroughly for one or two minutes; nearly fill the bottle with alcohol, and agitate again; pour this solution into a can, and pour thereon the balance of the alcohol; mix * Essences, volatile oils. 522 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. well for some minutes; add the sugar, previously dis- solved by the aid of heat, in the water; color, size, and filter according to the directions previously given. Anisette. Essence of anise . . . .30 grammes. “ star anise . . .30 “ 41 fennel . . . .5 “ coriander . . .50 centigrammes, Fau d’ Angelique. Essence of angelica . . . .5 grammes Cent-Sept-Ans. Essence of lemons (distilled) . . 40 grammes. “ roses 2 “ Color red with archil. Curagoa. Essence of curagoa (distilled) . . 40 grammes. “ Portugal “ . . 15 “ “ cloves . . . .2 “ Color a deep yellow with caramel. Fleurs d' Or anger (Orange-flowers). Essence of neroli (Paris) . . .10 grammes. Menthe (.Peppermint). Essence of mint ... . .20 grammes. Eciu cle Noyaux. Essence of noyaux . . . .30 grammes. Parfait Amour. Essence of lemon (distilled) . . 40 grammes. “ cedrat “ . . 15 “ “ coriander .... 1 gramme. Color red with archil. 523 LIQUEURS DEMI-FINES. Unite de Roses. Essence of roses 6 grammes. Color red with archil. Vespetro. Essence of anise 20 grammes. “ caraway . . . .15 “ “ fennel . . . .6 “ u coriander . . . .2 tl “ lemon (distilled) . .8 “ Liqueurs Demi-Fines. These liqueurs are prepared like the preceding, using for the manufacture of 100 litres the following quanti- ties :— Alcohol, 85° . . . . .28 litres. Sugar 25 kilogrammes. Water 55 litres. Anisette. Essence of anise . . . .32 grammes. “ star anise . . .32 “ “ fennel . . . .6 “ “ coriander . . .50 centigrammes. “ neroli (Paris) . . 1 gramme. Crime d' Angelique. Essence of angelica . . . .7 grammes. Creme de Celeri. Essence of celery 15 grammes. Cent-Sept-Ans. Essence of lemon (distilled) . . .60 grammes. “ roses 5 “ Color red with cudbear. DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Curagoa. Essence of cura9oa (distilled) . . 50 grammes. “ Portugal “ . 20 “ cloves •. . . .4 “ Color a deep yellow with caramel. Creme de Fleurs d’ Oranger. Essence of neroli (Paris) . . .12 grammes. Creme de Menthe. Essence of peppermint . . .35 grammes. Creme de Nojjaux. Essence of noyaux . . . .40 grammes. Parfait Amour. Essence of lemon (distilled). . . 50 grammes. “ cedrat “ . . 20 “ “ coriander .... 1 gramme. Color red with cudbear. Huile de Roses. Essence of rose 8 grammes. Color red with cudbear. VespStro. Essence of anise . . . .30 grammes. “ caraway . . . . 20 “ “ fennel . . ■' . .6 “ “ coriander . . .2 “ “ lemon (distilled) . .10 “ The process is the same as for the preceding, employing the following proportions for one hectolitre :— Alcohol, 85° . . .32 litres. Sugar . . . .43 kilog., 750 grammes. Water . . . .39 litres. Liqueurs Fines. 525 LIQUEURS FINES. Anisette. Essence of star anise . . . .50 grammes. “ anise . . . . .20 “ “ fennel ..... 6 “ “ coriander . . . .1 gramme, sassafras . . . .4 grammes. Extract of orris-root . . . .40 “ “ ambergris . . . .6 a Crime d'Angelique. Essence of angelica . . . .10 grammes. Crime de Celeri. Essence of celery . . . .20 grammes. Cent-Sept-Ans. Essence of lemon (distilled) . . .70 grammes. “ roses . . . . 4 “ Color red with cudbear. Curagoa. Essence of cura9oa (distilled) . . 70 grammes. “ Portugal “ . . 25 “ “ cloves . . , . 5 “ Bitter infusion of cura9oa, a sufficient quantity. Color with logwood, or extract of logwood. Eau de Vie de Dantzick. Essence of Ceylon cinnamon 4. . 4 grammes. “ China cinnamon . . .12 “ “ coriander . . . .2 “ “ lemon (distilled) . .25 “ “ Portugal (distilled) . .8 “ Creme de Fleurs d’ Oranger. Essence of neroli (Paris) . . .15 grammes. 526 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Elixir of Garus. Essence of China cinnamon . . .12 grammes. “ cloves . . . .6 “ “ nutmegs .... 2 “ Socotrine aloes 40 " Myrrh ....... 25 “ Saffron 4 u After dissolving the essences, digest the aloes, myrrh, and saf- fron for three days in the alcohol. Color a golden yellow with caramel. Creme de Menthe. Essence of peppermint . . .50 grammes. Crdme de Noyaux. Essence of noyaux . . . .50 grammes. Parfait Amour. Essence of lemon (distilled) . . .60 grammes. “ cedrat “ ... 25 “ “ coriander - ... 2 “ Color red with cudbear. Huile de Roses. Essence of roses 12 grammes. Color red with cudbear. Eau de Sept-Graines. Essence of angelica .... 3 grammes. “ anise . . . . .15 “ “ celery .... 5 “ coriander .... 1 gramme, fennel . . . . 5 grammes. Portugal (distilled) . .5 “ “ lemon “ . . 5 “ Color a bright yellow with caramel. LIQUEURS SURFINES. 527 „ Vespetro. Essence of anise 40 grammes. “ caraway . . . .25 “ 11 fennel . . . .6 “ coriander . . . .3 “ lemon (distilled) . .15 “ The proportions for the manufacture of one hecto- litre of liqueur are— Alcohol, 85° 30 litres. Sugar 56 kilogrammes. Water 26 litres. The operation is the same as that described above. Liqueurs Surfines. Anisette. Essence of'star anise .... 70 grammes. “ anise 20 “ “ fennel .... 8 “ “ coriander .... 1 gramme. “ sassafras .... 6 grammes. Extract of orris-root . . . .60 “ “ ambergris .... 8 “ Creme d' Absinthe. Essence of absinthe .... 6 grammes. “ peppermint . . . 6 “ “ anise ..... 30 “ “ fennel .... 8 “ “ lemon (distilled) . .30 “ Creme d’Angelique. Essence of angelica . . . .15 grammes. “ coriander .... 2 “ “ fennel . . . . 4 “ Creme de Barbades. Essence of cedrat (distilled) . . 60 grammes. “ Portugal “ . . .30 “ “ Ceylon cinnamon . . 4 “ “ cloves .... 4 “ “ nutmegs ... . .2 “ 528 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Crime de Celeri. Essence of celery . . . .30 grammes. Curagoa. Essence of cura§oa (distilled) . . 100 grammes. “ Portugal “ . . 40 “ Bitter infusion of curagoa, a sufficient quantity. Color with logwood in chips, or the extract. Liqueur dite de las Grande-Chartreuse. Essence of lemon balm ... 2 grammes. “ hyssop .... 2 “ “ angelica . . . .10 “ “ peppermint . . .20 “ “ China cinnamon 2 “ “ nutmegs .... 2 “ “ cloves . . . . “ Color yellow or green, as may be required. Eau de Vie de Dantziclc. Essence of Ceylon cinnamon, . . 5 grammes. “ China “ . 15 “ coriander .... 2 “ “ lemon (distilled). . .30 “ “ Portugal “ . . .10 “ Creme de Fleurs d’ 0ranger. Essence of neroli (Paris) . . .20 grammes. Orange-flower water .... 2 litres. Elixir de Oarus. Essence of China cinnamon . . .15 grammes. “ cloves . . . . 8 “ nutmegs . . 2 “ Socotrine aloes . . . . .50 Myrrh 30 “ Saffron 5 After dissolving the essences, digest the last three articles in the alcohol for three days. 529 LIQUEURS SURFINES. Huile de Kirschenwasser. Essence of noyaux . . . .40 grammes. “ neroli (Paris) . . . 4 “ Crime de Mentlie. Essence of peppermint . . .60 grammes. Liqueur du Mezenc. Essence of nutmegs .... 5 grammes. “ mace ..... 2 “ “ chamomile . . .10 “ “ daucus .... 5 “ u coriander .... 3 “ Myrobolans ..... 60 “ Muskmallow . .... 60 “ Vanilla 60 After dissolving the essences, digest the last three named sub- stances for 15 days in the alcohol; color with extract or chips of logwood, arid add a small quantity of a solution of tartaric acid to brighten the color to a golden yellow. Creme de Noyaux de Phalsbourg. Essence of noyaux . . . .50 grammes. “ bitter almonds . . .10 “ “ Portugal (distilled) . .10 “ “ lemon (distilled) . . .8 “ “ China cinnamon . . .4 “ “ cloves ..... 2 “ “ nutmegs . . . .1 gramme. “ neroli 2 grammes. Creme de Roses. Essence of roses 15 grammes. Color red with cochineal. Eau des Sept- Qraines. Essence of angelica . . . .4 grammes. “ anise 20 “ “ celery . . . .6 “ “ coriander . . . .2 “ “ fennel 4 “ “ Portugal (distilled) . .10 “ Color a bright yellow with caramel. 530 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Vespetro de Montpellier. Essence of anise 45 grammes. “ caraway . . . .30 “ “ fennel 8 “ “ coriander .... 4 “ “ lemon (distilled) . . .20 “ Anisette de Hollande. Essence of star anise . . . .50 grammes. “ anise . . . . .50 “ “ bitter almonds . . .8 “ “ coriander . . . .1 gramme. “ fennel . . . . 2 grammes. “ roses . .* . .2 “ “ angelica . . . .4 “ Alkermes de Florence. Essence of calamus .... 3 grammes. “ Ceylon cinnamon . .2 “ “ cloves 5 “ “ nutmegs . . . .3 “ “ roses 4 “ Extract of jasmine . . . .30 “ “ orris-root . . . .30 “ Impart a rose tint with cochineal. Marasquin de Zara. Essence of noyaux . . . .35 grammes. “ neroli ..... 5 “ “ jasmine . . . .10 “ “ vanilla . . . .15 “ JRosolio de Turin. Essence of anise 25 grammes. “ fennel ..... 3 “ “ bitter almonds . . .30 “ “ roses 6 “ Extract of ambergris and musk . .4 “ Color a bright rose with cochineal. LIQUEURS SURFINES. 531 C) erne de Jasmin. Extract of jasmin .... 150 grammes. Cilme de Jonquille. Extract of jonquille .... 140 grammes. Cclor a bright yellow with caramel. Crime cVHeliotrope. Extract of heliotrope .... 180 grammes. Color a very bright rose with cochineal. Crime de Reseda. Extract of reseda . . . .175 grammes. Creme de Tuhereuse. Extract of tuberose .... 150 grammes. Creme de Millefleurs. Essence of neroli .... 5 grammes. “ roses . . . . 2 Extract of jasmin . . . . 20 “ “ jonquille .... 15 “ “ heliotrope . . . .25 “ “ reseda .... 20 “ “ tuberose . - . .20 “ Remarks.—In time, liqueurs prepared from essences lose their perfume in a great measure, and acquire a rancid flavor. This last objection is often due to the inferior quality of the essences, which are for the most part mixed or old. The manufacturer should endeavor to purchase these products only from houses of the best reputation, and to take those only that are of the best quality, regardless of the price; for in this business, as in many others, cheap goods cost very dear. 532 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. CHAPTER XXV. CORDIAL WINES. Wines are generally divided into two very distinct sorts : dry wines (vins secs) and sweet or cordial wines (yins suerSs, or vins de liqueurs). The cordial wines contain less water, more sugar and alcohol, and present a more decided perfume than the dry wines; they are of almost syrupy consistence, and of a sweetness which renders them rather pleasant liqueurs than wines for daily consumption. The grapes for making cordial wines are prepared in several ways. In those countries where the temperature is high, and where the grape, when at maturity, is of a variety to afford sugar in abundance, the method most generally adopted consists in interrupting the vegetation by twisting the stem of the bunch of grapes on the vine, in order that the fruit may lose a portion of its water of vegetation by a natural desiccation under the action of the sun’s rays. By another method, the grapes are dried after being cut, by exposing them to the action of the sun on hurdles. From these preparations, it hap- pens that the abstraction of a portion of the moisture of the grape concentrates the saccharine principle, and de- stroys the equilibrium between it and the water which is necessary to the fruit. The presence of water being absolutely necessary in the fermentation of wine, to enable the force of dis- organization and new combination to exert itself on fermentable substances, it maybe readily conceived that the juice of the grape is only subject to the laws of fer- mentation in proportion to the ratio which the water holds to the other principles which enter into the com- position of the juice. Now, cordial wines are necessarily of the same nature as wines properly so called, with CORDIAL WINES. 533 the addition of the saccharine principle, which has failed to be fermented because of a deficiency of water; the molecules of the sugar are perfectly intermingled with the molecules of the wTine; the two constitute a fluid which clarifies itself by rest, each of them serving as a support to the other; the wine, or rather the alcohol of the wine, opposes the fermentation of the sugar, and the latter in its turn prevents the wfine from being converted into an acid, provided, however, that the liqueur is kept in close vessels. When the juice or must of the grape is more watery than is proper, wfith regard to the proportion of the saccharine principle, the must is concentrated by evapo- ration over the fire; whereby the saccharine is rendered relatively more abundant than the aqueous principle. The quality of the cordial wines is determined by the peculiar aroma and flavor which appertain to each kind, and which produce on the organs of taste a more or less decided vinous and saccharine sensation. As a general rule, the cordial wines which are met with in the market are factitious wines* manufactured for»the most part at Cette and Montpellier; they are invariably the result of the admixture of different wines, alcohol, saccharine matter, and a bouquet extracted from various aromatic substances; the whole in proportions which have reference to the character and nature of the wines imitated. The public in general are persuaded that factitious cordial wines are injurious to health; this is a great mistake. These wines contain no unhealthy or noxious materials, and are, on the contrary, for the most part, more healthy than certain natural wines. It must not be suspected, however, that our object in publishing the methods of manufacturing cordial wines is to encourage the fraud which sells the imitations for natural wines; it is only for the purpose of making * This term is not altogether proper ; that of mixed wines would be preferable, since whatever be the character of the wine it is de- sired to manufacture, it must always be the product of a mixture of wines. 534 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. known all the processes employed in the south of France; we would, on the contrary, urgently advise dealers who sell these wines for consumption to indicate on their labels and invoices that they are imitations, and are not genuine. Imitation of Cordial Wines. The constituent elements of cordial wines being known, nothing more is required to obtain a good result than to mix them with skill, and aromatize them pro- perly. For this purpose various preparations are used, such as syrup of raisins (strop de raisin); infusion of green walnuts (noix verte); infusion of toasted bitter almond hulls (coques d'amandes am eres torrefiees); infu- sion of Florentine iris ; spirit of raspberries (framboises); spirit of tar (goudron). Before making known the receipts by means of which the cordial wines may be imitated, it is necessary to in- dicate the method of preparing the spirit of tar and the infusion of toasted bitter almond hulls, the only liquids required for these imitations which we have not hereto- fore noticed. Norway tar 500 grammes. Alcohol, 85° 2 litres. Water 1 litre. Spirit of Tar. Distill the whole carefully in a glass retort, over a sand-bath, until two litres are drawn off. Infusion of Toasted Bitter Almond Hulls. Hulls of bitter almonds . . 5 kilog., 500 grms. Alcohol, 85° . . . .20 litres. Toast the almond hulls in a coffee toaster, and, while yet hot, throw them into the vessel containing the alcohol; lute care- fully, to prevent evaporation ; allow them to infuse one month ; then draw off the clear liquid, and filter. RECEIPTS FOR CORDIAL WINES. 535 Receipts for Cordial Wines. As in the case of the liqueurs, the receipts which fol- low are all applicable to the manufacture of one hecto- litre of liquid. Alicante. Old wine of Bagnols . . 90 litres. Syrup of raisins, 85° . . 5 “ Infusion of orris-root . . 1 litre, 25 centilitres. “ walnut hulls . 1 “ 10 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 3 litres. Mix carefully and allow it to stand for two months; then size with gelatine (15 grammes dissolved in half a glass of water), and after 8 days draw off. Cyprus. Very old wine of Bagnols . 86 litres. Infusion of orris-root . . 1 litre, 10 centilitres. “ walnut hulls . 1 “ 10 “ Toasted hulls of bitter almonds . ... 2 litres. Syrup of raisins, 35° . . 5 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 5 “ Operate as above. Constance. Very old wine of Bagnols . 88 litres. Infusion of orris-root . . 1 litre. Spirit of raspberries. . . 2 litres, 25 centilitres. “ tar . . .15 grammes. Syrup of raisins, 35° . . 5 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . 5 “ Operate as above. Grenache. Old Collioure wine . . .89 litres. Syrup of raisins, 35° . . . 6 “ Infusion of walnut hulls . . 1 litre, 25 centils. “ toasted bitter almond hulls 1 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . .3 litres. Mix as above. 536 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL Malaga. Old Bagnols wine . . . .90 litres. Syrup of raisins, 35° . . . . 5 “ Infusion of walnut hulls . . . 2 “ Spirit of tar 30 grammes. Alcohol, 85° 3 litres. Mix as above. Malvoisie de Madere. Sweet wine of Picardy . . .88 litres. Infusion of toasted bitter almond hulls 2 “ Spirit of raspberries . . . . 2 “ Elder flowers 500 grammes. Syrup of raisins, 35° .... 5 litres. Alcohol, 85° 3 “ Mix as above. Muscat de Lunel. Sweet wine of Picardy . . .90 litres. Syrup of raisins, 35° . . . . 6 “ Elder flowers 750 grammes. Alcohol, 85° 4 litres. Place the flowers in a net; let them infuse in the liquid for 2 months, and mix as above. Muscat de Frontignan. Dry wine of Picardy . . . .82 litres. Syrup of raisins, 35° 10 “ Elder flowers 250 grammes. Alcohol, 85° 8 litres. Operation, in every respect, as above. Madeira (Madere). Dry wine of Picardy 90 litres. Infusion of walnut hulls . . . . 2 “ “ ‘toasted bitter almond hulls . 2 “ Syrup of raisins, 35° 2 “ Alcohol, 85° 4 “ Mix in the same manner as wine of Alicante. RECEIPTS FOR CORDIAL WINES. 537 Sherry (.Xeres). Yery old dry wine of Picardy . 88 litres. Infusion of walnut hulls . . 2 “ “ toasted bitter almond hulls 3 “ 50 centils. Syrup of raisins, 35° . . . 2 “ Alcohol, 85° . . . . 5 “ Operate as above. Sherry Cordial. Very old dry wine of Picardy . . .85 litres. Infusion of walnut hulls . . . .1 litre. “ toasted bitter almond hulls . 3 litres. “ orris-root . . . . .1 litre. Syrup of raisins, 35° 8 litres. Alcohol, 85° 2 “ Operation as above.. Lacryma- Christi. Very old Bagnols wine . . . .86 litres. Tincture of catechu 1 litre. Infusion of walnut hulls . . . . 1 “ “ orris-root 1 “ Syrup of raisins, 35° 6 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . . . 5 “ Operate as above. Port (Porto). Old Collioure wine 83 litres. Infusion of black cherries (merises) . . 5 “ “ walnut hulls . . . . 2 “ Spirit of raspberries . . . . 2 “ Syrup of raisins, 35° . . . . . 5 “ Alcohol, 55° 3 “ Operate as above. 538 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Rota. Old Collioure wine 88 litres. Infusion of walnut hulls . . . . 2 “ “ toasted bitter almond hulls . 1 litre. Spirit of raspberries 2 litres. Syrup of raisins, 35° 5 “ Alcohol, 85° 2 “ Operate as above. Tokai. Very old Bagnols wine .... 86 litres. Infusion of walnut hulls .... 1 litre. “ orris-root 1 “ Spirit of raspberries 2 litres. Syrup of raisins, 35° 6 “ Alcohol, 85° 4 “ Operate as above. Remark.—All wines improve with age, but especially the cordial wines; thev should never be sold for con- sumption until after the dealer has satisfied himself that they are as near perfection as possible. Limpidity is of essential importance. Vermont de Turin. Large absinthe 125 grammes. Gentian . ..... 60 “ Angelica (roots) . . . . .60 Holy thistle (centaurea benedicta) . .125 “ Calamus aromaticus .... 125 “ Elacampane 125 Lesser centaury 125 “ Small germander (chamaedrys) . . 125 “ China cinnamon 100 “ Nutmegs ...... 15 “ Fresh oranges, cut in slices . . 6 (in number). Sweet wine of Picpoul . . .95 litres. Alcohol, 85° . . . . . 5 “ Digest for five days, draw off the clear liqueur, size with fish sounds; after a rest of eight days, rack it off and size again before putting it in bottles. RECEIPTS FOR CORDIAL WINES. 539 The Picpoul wine may be replaced by dry Picardy wine, in which case five litres of syrup of raisins, at 35°, are to be added. Vermout is commonly made at Mont- pellier, Cette, and Lyons. Frequently its bitterness is too decided, and it is necessary to correct it by the addition of more wine. The following is a combination which is always ac- ceptable. Bitter Yermout 50 litres. Common white wine (yin ordinaire) . . 42 “ Syrup of raisins . . . . . 4 “ Infusion of toasted bitter almond hulls . 1 litre. Alcohol, 85° 4 litres. Color a golden yellow with caramel, and size twice as for the preceding. Vermout d’ltalie (.Receipt of Ollivero). Coriander 500 grammes. Einds of bitter oranges . . . 250 “ Orris-root in powdera .... 250 11 Elder flowers 200 “ Cinchona (red) 150 “ Calamus 150 ' “ Larger absinthe 125 “ Elecampane (roots) .... 125 “ Lesser centaury 125 “ Germander (less) 125 “ China cinnamon ..... 100 “ Angelica (roots) . . . .60 “ Nutmegs 50 “ Galanga 50 “ Cloves 50 “ Cassise (flower buds) . . . .30 “ Dry white wine of Picardy . . 100 litres. Digest for five or six days, draw off the clear liqueur, size with fish glue, and allow it to stand fifteen days. Vermout of the best quality will be obtained if we add to this preparation two litres of the infusion of toasted bitter almond hulls, and three litres of good Cognac. 540 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. Vermout au Madere. Grand absinthe ..... 125 grammes. Angelica (roots) 60 “ Holy thistle ..... 125 “ Lungwort (pidmonaire) . . . 125 “ Veronica 125 “ Rosemary 125 “ Rhubarb 80 “ Cinchona (red) ..... 200 “ Orris-root in powder .... 250 “ Infusion of curaQoa . . . .25 centilitres. Common Madeira wine . . .92 litres. Syrup of raisins 3 “ Cognac 5 “ Digest for three days, draw off the clear liqueur, size with fish sounds; after a rest of eight days, rack off and size again before boiling. Madeira wine may be replaced by dry Picardy, to which are added two litres of the infusion of toasted hulls of bitter almonds. Factitious Effervescing Wines. The manufacture of champagne wines is the object of a special trade, and we regret that the limits of this work forbid our entering into the details of the various preparations. We may, however, be permitted to intro- duce a short notice of a factitious effervescing wine, which is readily prepared, and which may well take the place of much of the vile stuff sold under that name. All wines may be rendered effervescent, but light wines which preserve their whiteness should have the preference. Before using them, it is necessary to size and rack them off at least twice, in order to prevent their leaving a deposit in the bottles; then sweeten them properly, that is to say, having an eye to the nature of the wine. In order to make a good imitation of champagne, it is best to use sugar candy, and to select that which is very white. FACTITIOUS EFFERVESCING WINES. 541 The following is the method of preparing the liqueur which is to be added to the wine before rendering it effervescent:— Take 5 kilogrammes of sugar candy, and dissolve it in 5 litres of white wine; after it is perfectly dissolved, add 3 litres and 50 centilitres of white Cognac brandy at 58°, and 5 grammes of tincture of vanilla;* mix and filter. The liquor being prepared, add 70 litres of white wine, and put the whole into a glass-lined fountain of proper dimensions, and connect with an apparatus for pre- paring aerated mineral water, suffer the liquid to ab- sorb the carbonic acid gas until the pressure equals six atmospheres. Beyond this the wine will become too acid. It may be remarked that wine absorbs gas in propor- tion as it is rich in alcohol. The wine being properly charged with gas, draw it off into bottles with a suitable apparatus, secure the corks in the usual way with twine and wire, then cover the heads with tinfoil, and label. The product of this manufacture will be 100 bottles containing 80 centilitres each. The rose-tinted, foaming wine is prepared by adding to each bottle two or three drops of coloring, made by infusing elder berries in brandy. This liqueur is very highly charged with color. The color may be imparted by using a very dark red wine in the proportion of ten per cent. * This tincture is prepared by macerating 200 grammes of vanilla in 1 litre of spirit at 85°, for 15 days. 542 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. CHAPTER XXVI. NEW METHOD OF DISTILLING IN A VACUUM For a long time pharmaceutists and liquorists have sought in vain for some easy and simple method of dis- tilling and concentrating fluids in a vacuum. This in- teresting problem has been happily solved by M. Egrot; that skilful manufacturer has recently taken out a patent for a new apparatus, which may be used in the manu- facture and concentration of pharmaceutical extracts, and answers equally well for the distillation of aromatic and other waters, as well as alcoholic tinctures (per- fumed spirits) either in a vacuum or under the free pressure of the atmosphere. This apparatus, which may be heated by steam, or the naked fire is represented in PI. X., Fig. 1 and 2, heated by the latter method. Method of Setting the Apparatus in Operation.—The boiler A is filled with water to about three-fourths; the level of the water is indicated by the glass tube /; the fire is then lighted until the water begins to boil, the steam escapes by the pipe k, passing through the cock j, into the evaporator B; being continually renewed, the steam fills this piece and passes by the pipe q into the receiver C, to escape at last from the apparatus by the escape-pipe t and the cock U. When the steam escapes by this last pipe, a large portion of the air contained in the apparatus has been driven out, but it is better to allow the steam to blow off for twelve or fifteen minutes, in order that the air may be entirely expelled. The cock U is then closed, and next the cock j. The escape-pipe of the boiler A is now opened, and at the same time the door of the ash-pit is closed, or the fire covered with cinders, so as to check its action NEW METHOD OF DISTILLING IN A VACUUM. 543 (further on will be found a description of the section of the furnace), and the fire should be maintained in this condition during the whole operation. When everything has been arranged as above, the cock l of the pipe which dips into a vessel containing the liquid to be concentrated or distilled, is opened ; im- mediately this liquid, in consequence of the vacuum formed in the apparatus, begins to flow into the evapo- rator B, until it rises to the line/'; when the liquid has attained this level, the cock l is closed, and ten minutes afterwards the evaporation or distillation begins, or, in other words, the liquid begins to boil. If the ebullition does not appear to be sufficiently active, as may be seen through the lunette n, a small stream of water is turned into the funnel y, and im- mediately the ebullition will be vigorously set up, espe- cially when the liquid evaporated is very frothy. It is on this account that, at the beginning of the operation, a very small quantity of cold water must be allowed to flow into the cooler; the operation progressing regularly, the cooler fills with water, which should remain cool at the lower portion and tepid above. The water escapes by the overflow at 2. The apparatus thus started, continues in operation so long as there is liquid in the evaporator. It requires but little supervision, which consists in— 1. Examining if the fire is too active, or whether it is dying out: the fire is known to be too active when, on looking through the lunette n, the ebullition is observed to be too tumultuous, or if the evaporator is too hot for the hand. 2. To regulate the stream of water in the cooler. It is not necessary to pay so much attention to the fire; but in most cases it ought to bear an equal part in regu- lating the ebullition of the liquid. The evaporation is complete when the liquid or ex- tract has been concentrated to the proper degree. When there is a certain quantity of liquid to be eva- porated, and it is not desirable to commence another ope- ration, that is to say, to unlute and lute the apparatus 544 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. anew, the charge is renewed on the extract already manufactured by opening the cock /, which dips into the liquid, the suction acts as before, and the evaporator is again filled to the linef. After having concentrated this second charge with the first, the charge may be re- newed a third time or even oftener, until the evaporator contains too much extract to be operated properly, then the cock l, which should no longer be connected with any liquid, should be opened, and the operation is at once suspended by the introduction of air into the eva- porator ; the cock U is then opened to allow the evapo- rated liquid to escape from the receiver; then the cock x to discharge the water from the cooler. Finally, re- move the joint clasps PP, and remove the receiver from the evaporator; then with a dipper or a spatula, as the product is liquid or semi-fluid, remove it from the appa- ratus. Sometimes, when very frothy liquids are treated, which from their nature will pass without being volatilized from the evaporator B into the receiver C, a small piece called a froth arrester is used; it being placed at the entrance to the pipe q (see Figs. 3 and 4); in Fig. 3, this piece is represented in section through its vertical axis. a. A pipe expanding below in the form of a funnel, and supporting at its widest portion a sheet of metallic cloth, the straight portion forming a tube is introduced into the pipe q, and is maintained in position by simple adjustment; it may be used or not at pleasure. b b. Straps riveted on the part o, and connecting with the inverted cone c, the base of which returns so as to form a flange. The action of this little apparatus is as follows: the liquid contained in the evaporator beginning to rise, first comes in contact with the inverted cone, which by its form forces the frothing liquid back, and reduces tlie effervescence; the froth attempting to overcome this resistance, is broken and arrested by the metallic cloth placed immediately above the cone c. Among the different parts which compose the vacuum evaporator, there are two which are not represented in NEW METHOD OF DISTILLING IN A VACUUM. 545 the figures of Plate X. These pieces attached to the boiler B, are: 1. A safety-valve to prevent too great a pressure between the boiler and the evaporator; 2. A screw plug for filling the boiler with water, and in case of necessity to act as an escape-pipe for steam from the boiler. Fig. 2 represents a section, in elevation, of the furnace on which the evaporating apparatus is to be placed. a a. Brick walls laid in mortar. b. Fireplace; this portion of the furnace should be very conical. c c c. Very thin bars forming the grate; this last should have but a small surface, in order to have the fire under more thorough control. D. Ash-pit. It is important that this should be ca- pable of being well closed, in case it is desired to reduce or extinguish the fire. e e e. Flues through which the heat may circulate freely and be more thoroughly economized. The advantages presented by this apparatus, which has been tested by the Imperial Academy of Medicine, are remarkable, viz.:— 1. By its simplicity of construction, as well as the economy and perfection of the workmanship, the entrance of air is impossible. 2. By a single joint which connects the ordinary re- ceiver to the evaporator; this joint, extremely easy of adjustment (an essential point in an apparatus which is to be dismounted frequently), consists of two circles of copper o o', of which one is soldered to the evaporator, and the other to the receiver; these two pieces, as in- dicated in the illustration, are finished on their outer surfaces into a cone; between these two circles is placed a washer of vulcanized rubber of at least four millime- ters in thickness; then the joint is closed by means of a movable circle or clamp (serre-joint). The form of this new apparatus of M. Egrot, its com- binations, and the arrangement of its joints, render the use of the pneumatic pump useless, since they are suffi- cient to produce a vacuum. 546 DISTILLATION OF ALCOHOL. This apparatus may be used as a still for distilling in a vacuum, or under the free pressure of the air. When distilling in the open air, the cock U is left open, and the steam or vapor rising from the evaporator B is con- densed in the receiver C, and escapes by the cock. If, on the other hand, the distilling is conducted in a va- cuum, it will be necessary to conduct the operation as described at the beginning of this article, and collect the product of the condensed vapors in the receiver C. In case it is desired to distill seeds or plants, it will be necessary to place them on the grating x x, which is arranged for that purpose, and by means of the pipe z screwed to the cock for the introduction of the steam coming from the boiler under the grate, where it escapes and passes through the aromatic plants. This grate and the pipe 2 may be removed when the apparatus is re- quired for other purposes. APPENDIX. THE METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The United States being the first to introduce the decimal system into the coinage of the country, and to demonstrate its superior utility, it is remarkable that we have hesitated so long in regard to the substitution of the same simple and rational system of weights and measures for the complicated and con- fused standards in general use. In May, 1866, the Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Mea- sures presented to the House of Representatives an exhaustive report, accompanied by bills authorizing the introduction of the metric system into the various departments of trade, and making all contracts, based on this system of weights and measures, valid before any court in the United States. They said:— “the metric system. “It is orderly, simple, and perfectly harmonious, having use- ful relations between all its parts. It is based on the meter, which is the principal and only arbitrary unit. The meter is a measure of length, and was intended to be, and is, very nearly one ten-millionth of the distance on the earth’s surface from the equator to the pole. It is 39.37 inches, very nearly. “The are is a surface equal to a square whose side is 10 meters. It is nearly four square rods. “The liter is the unit for measuring capacity, and is equal to the contents of a cube whose edge is a tenth part of the meter. It is a little more than a wine quart. “ The gramme is the unit of weight, and is the weight of a cube of water, each edge of the cube being one one-hundredth of the meter. It is equal to 15.432 grains. “The stere is the cubic meter. “Each of these units is divided decimally, and larger units are formed by multiples of 10, 100, &c. The successive mul- tiples are designated by the prefixes, deka, hecto, kilo, and myria; the subordinate parts by deci, centi, and milli, each having its own numerical significance. “The nomenclature, simple as it is in theory, and designed 548 THE METRIC SYSTEM. from its origin to be universal, can only become familiar by use. Like all strange words, these will become familiar by custom, and obtain popular abbreviations. A system which has incorporated with itself so many different series of weights, and such a nomenclature as 'scruples,’ ‘pennyweights,’ ‘avoir- dupois,’ and with no invariable component word, can hardly protest against a nomenclature whose leading characteristic is a short component word with a prefix signifying number. We are all familiar with thermometer, barometer, diameter, gasometer, &c., with telegram, monogram, &c., words formed in the same manner. “After considering every argument for a change of nomen- clature, your committee have come to the conclusion that any attempt to conform it to that in present use would lead to con- fusion of weights and measures, would violate the early learned order and simplicity of metric denomination, and would seri- ously interfere with that universality of system so essential to international and commerciaj convenience. “When it is remembered that of the value of our exports and imports, in the year ending June 30,1860, in all $762,000,000, the amount of near $700,000,000 was with nations and their de- pendencies that have now authorized, or taken the preliminary steps to authorize, the metric system, even denominational uni- formity for the use of accountants in such vast transactions assumes an important significance. In words of such universal employment, each word should represent the identical thing in- tended, and no other, and the law of association familiarizes it. “Your committee unanimously recommend the passage of the bills and joint resolutions appended to this report The metric system is already used in some arts and trades in this country, and is especially adapted to the wants of others. Some of its measures are already manufactured at Bangor, in Maine, to meet an existing demand at home and abroad. The manufacturers of the well-known Fairbanks’ scales state: ‘For many years we have had a large export demand for our scales with French weights, and the demand and sale are constantly increasing.’ Its minute and exact divisions specially adapt it to the use of chemists, apothecaries, the finer operations of the artisan and to all scientific objects. It has always been and is now used in the United States coast survey. Yet in some of the States, owing to the phraseology of their laws, it would be a direct violation of them to use it in the business transactions of the community. It is, therefore, very important to legalize its use, and to give to the people, or that portion of them desiring it, the opportunity for its legal employment, while the knowledge of its characteristics will be thus diffused among men.” TABLES SHOWING THE RELATIVE VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, &c. Measures of Length. Millimetre = 0.03937 inch. Centimetre = 0.393708 “ Decimetre = 3.937079 inches. Metre = 39.37079 “ “ = 3.2808992 feet. “ = 1.093633 yard. Decametre = 32.808992 feet. Hectometre = 328.08992 “ Kilometre = 3280.8992 “ “ = 1093.633 yards. Myriametre = 10936.33 “ “ = 6.2138 miles. Inch yard) = 2.539954 centimetres. Foot yard) = 3.0479449 decimetres. Yard = 0.91438348 metre. Fathom (2 yards) = 1.82876696 “ Poleor perch yardg) = 5.029109 metres. Furlong (220 yards) = 201.16437 “ Mile (1760 yards) = 1609.3149 “ Nautical mile = 1852 “ 550 VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH Superficial Measures. Square millimetre = square inch. “ “ = 0.00155 “ “ “ centimetre = 0.155006 “ “ “ decimetre = 15.50059 “ inches. “ “ = 0.107643 “ foot. “ metre or centiare = 1550.05989 “ inches. “ “ “ = 10.764299 “ feet. “ “ “ = 1.196033 “ yard Are = 1076.4299 « feet. “ = 119.6033 “ yards. “ = 0.098845 rood. Hectare = 11960.3326 square yards. “ = 2.471143 acres. Square inch == 645.109201 square millimetres. “ “ = 6.451367 “ centimetres “ foot = 9.289968 “ decimetres. “ yard = 0.836097 “ metre. “ rod or perch = 25.291939 “ metres. Rood (1210 sq. yards) = 10.116775 ares. Acre (4840 sq. yards) = 0.404671 hectare. Measures of Capacity. Cubic millimetre = 0.000061027 cubic inch. “ centimetre or millilitre = 0.061027 “ “ 10 “ centimetres or centilitre = 0.61027 “ “ 100 “ “ “ decilitre = 6.102705 “ inches 1000 “ “ “ litre = 61.0270515 “ “ “ “ “ “ “ = 1.760773 imp’l pint. “ “ “ “ “ = 0.2200967 “ gal’n, Decalitre = 610.270515 cubic inches, “ = 2.2009668 imp. gal’ns. Hectolitre = 3.531658 cubic feet. “ = 22.009668 imp. gal’ns. Cubic metre or stere or kilolitre = 1.30802 cubic yard. “ “ “ = 35.3165807 “ feet. Myrialitre = 353.165807 “ “ WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. Cubic inch = 16.386176 cubic centimetres. “ foot = 28.315312 “ decimetres. “ yard = 0.764513422 “ metre. American Measures. Winchester or U.S. gallon (231 cub.in.) = 3.785209 litres. “ “ bushel(2150.42 cub. in.)= 35.23719 “ Chaldron (57.25 cubic feet) = 1621.085 “ British Imperial Measures. Gill = 0.141983 litre- Pint (£ gallon) = 0.567932 “ Quart (£ gallon) = 1.135864 “ Imperial gallon (277.2738 cub. in.) = 4.54345797 litres. Peck (2 gallons) = 9.0869159 “ Bushel (8 gallons) = 36.347664 “ Sack (3 bushels) = 1.09043 hectolitre. Quarter (8 bushels) = 2.907813 hectolitres. Chaldron (12 sacks) =13.08516 “ Weights. Milligramme = 0.015438395 troy grain. Centigramme = 0.15438395 “ “ Decigramme = 1.5438395 “ “ Gramme = 15.438395 “ grains. u = 0.643 pennyweight. lt — 0.0321633 oz. troy. “ = 0.0352889 oz. avoirdupois. Decagramme = 154.38395 troy grains. “ = 5.64 drachms avoirdupois. Hectogramme = 3.21633 oz. troy. “ = 3.52889 oz. avoirdupois. Kilogramme = 2.6803 lbs. troy. “ = 2.205486 lbs. avoirdupois. Myriagramme = 26.803 lbs. troy. “ = 22.05486 lbs. avoirdupois. Quintal metrique = 100 kilog. = 220.5486 lbs. avoirdupois. Tonne = 1000 kilog. = 2205.486 “ “ 552 VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH Different authors give the following values for the gramme Gramme = 15.44402 troy grains. “ = 15.44242 « “ = 15.4402 “ “ = 15.433159 “ “ = 15.43234874 “ AVOIRDUPOIS. Long ton = 20 cwt. = 2240 lbs. = 1015.649 kilogrammes. Short ton (2000 lbs.) = 906.8296 “ Hundred weight (112 lbs.) = 50.78245 “ Quarter (28 lbs.) = 12.6956144 “ Pound = 16 oz. = 7000 grs. = 453.4148 grammes. Ounce = 16 dr’ms. = 437.5 grs. = 28.3375 “ Drachm = 27.344 grains = 1.77108 gramme. TROY (precious metals). Pound = 12 oz. = 5760 grs. = 373.096 grammes. Ounce = 20 dwt. = 480 grs. = 31.0913 “ Pennyweight = 24 grs. = 1.55457 gramme. Grain = 0.064773 “ APOTHECARIES’ (pharmacy). Ounce = 8 drachms = 480 grs. = 31.0913 gramme. Drachm = 3 scruples = 60 grs. = 3.8869 “ Scruple = 20 grs. = 1.29546 gramme. CARAT WEIGHT FOR DIAMONDS. 1 carat = 4 carat grains = 64 carat parts. “ = 3.2 troy grains. “ = 3.273 “ “ , “ = 0.207264 gramme “ = 0.212 “ “ = 0.205 “ Great diversity in value. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 553 Proposed Symbols for Abbreviations. M—myria — 10000 Mm Mg Ml K—kilo — 1000 Km Kg K1 H—hecto — 100 Hm Hg HI Ha D—deoa — 10 Dm Dg D1 Da Unit — 1 metre—m gramme—g litre—1 are—a d—deci — 0.1 dm dg dl da c—centi — 0.01 cm eg cl ca m—milli — 0.001 mm mg ml Km = Kilometre. HI = Hectolitre. eg == centigramme c. cm = cm3 = cubic centimetre, dm2 = sq. dm = square deci- metre. Kgm = Kilogrammetre. Kg° = Kilogramme degree. Celsius or Centigrade. Fahrenheit. Reaumur. — 15° + 5° — 12° — 10 + 14 — 8 — 5 + 23 — 4 0 melting + 32 ice 0 + 5 + 41 + 4 + io + 50 4* 8 4- 15 + 59 + 12 + 20 + 68 + 16 + 25 + 77 + 20 + 30 + 86 + 24 + 35 + 95 + 28 + 40 +104 + 32 + 45 + 113 + 36 4- 50 +122 + 40 4- 55 +131 + 44 + 60 +140 -t- 48 4- 65 +149 + 52 4- 10 + 158 + 56 4- 75 +167 + 60 + 80 +176 + 64 4- 85 +185 + 68 + 90 +194 + 72 4- 95 +203 + 76 -j-100 boiling +212 water + 80 +200 +392 + 160 +300 +572 +240 +400 +752 +320 +500 +932 +400 554 VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH 1° C. = 1°.8 Ft. = |° Ft. = 0°.3 R. = R. 1° C. x | = 1° Ft. 1° Ft. x f = 1° C. 1° R. X | =1° Ft. 1° C. x l = 1° R. 1° Ft. x $ = 1° R- 1° R. X f =1° C. Calorie (French) = unit of heat = kilogramme degree English. It is the quantity of heat necessary to raise 1° C. the tempera- ture of 1 kilogramme of distilled water. Kilogrammetre = Kgm = the power necessary to raise 1 kilo- gramme, 1 metre high, in one second. It is equal to of a French horse power. An English horse power = 550 foot pounds, while a French horse power = 542.7 foot pounds. Ready-made Calculations. No. of units. Inches to centimetres. Feet to metres. Yards to metres. Miles to Kilometres. Millimetres to inches. 1 2.53995 0.3047945 0.91438348 1.6093 0.03937079 2 5.0799 0.6095890 1.82876696 3.2186 0.07874158 3 7.6199 0.9143835 2.74315044 4.8279 0.11811237 4 10.1598 1.2197680 3.65753392 6.4373 0.15748316 5 12.6998 1.5239724 4.57191740 8.0466 0.19685395 6 15.2397 1.8287669 5.48630088 9.6559 0.23622474 7 17.7797 2.1335614 6.40068436 11.2652 0.27559553 8 20.3196 2.4383559 7.31506784 12.8745 0.31496632 9 22.8596 2.7431504 8.22945132 14.4838 0.35433711 10 25.3995 3.0479450 9.14383480 16.0930 0.39370790 No. of units. Centimetres to inches. Metres to feet. Metres to yards. Kilometres to miles. Square inches to square centimetres. 1 0.3937079 3.2808992 1.093633 0.6213824 6.45136 2 0.7874158 6.5617984 2.187266 1.2427648 12.90272 3 1.1811237 9.8426976 3.280899 1.8641472 19.35408 4 1.5748316 13.1235968 4.374532 2.4855296 25.80544 5 1.9685395 16.4044960 5.468165 3.1069120 32.25680 6 2.3622474 19.6853952 6.561798 3.7282944 38.70816 7 2.7559553 22.9662944 7.655431 4.3496768 45.15952 8 3.1496632 26.2471936 8.749064 4.9710592 51.61088 9 3.5433711 29.5280928 9.842697 5.5924416 58.06224 10 3.9370790 32.8089920 10.936330 6.2138240 64.51360 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC. 555 No. of units. Square feet to sq. metres. Sq. yards to sq. metres. Acres to hectares. Square centimetres to sq. inches. Sq. metres to sq. feet. 1 0.0929 0.836097 0.404671 0.155 10.7643 2 0.1858 1.672194 0.809342 0.310 21.5286 3 0.2787 2.508291 1.204013 0.465 32.2929 4 0.3716 3.344388 1.618684 0.620 43.0572 5 0.4645 4.180485 2.023355 0.775 53.8215 6 0.5574 5.016582 2.428026 0.930 64.5858 7 0.6503 5.852679 2.832697 1.085 75.3501 8 0.7432 6.688776 3.237368 1.240 86.1144 9 0.8361 7.524873 3.642039 1.395 96.8787 10 0.9290 8.360970 4.046710 1.550 107.6430 No. of units. Square metres to sq. yards. Hectares to acres. Cubic inches to cubic centimetres. Cubic feet to cubic metres. Cubic yards to cubic metres. 1 1.196033 2.471143 16.3855 0.02831 0.76451 2 2.392066 4.942286 32.7710 0.05662 1.52902 3 3.588099 7.413429 49.1565 0.08494 2.29354 4 4.784132 9.884572 65.5420 0.11325 3.05805 5 5.980165 12.355715 81.9275 0.14157 3.82257 6 7.176198 14.826858 98.3130 0.16988 4.58708 7 8.372231 17.298001 114.6985 0.19819 5.35159 8 9.568264 19.769144 131.0840 0.22651 6.11611 9 10.764297 22.240287 147.4695 0.25482 6.88062 10 11.960330 24.711430 163.8550 0.28315 7.64513 No. of units. Cubic centimetres to cubic inches. Litres to cubic inches. Hectolitres to cubic feet. Cubic metres to cubic feet. Cubic metres to cubic yards. 1 0.06102 61.02705 3.5317 35.31659 1.30802 2 0.12205 122.05410 7.0634 70.63318 2.61604 3 0.18308 183.08115 10.5951 105.94977 3.92406 4 0.24411 244.10820 14.1268 141.26636 5.23208 5 0.30514 305.13525 17.6585 176.58295 6.54010 6 0.36617 366.16230 21.1902 211.89954 7.84812 7 0.42720 427.18935 24.7219 247.21613 9.15614 8 0.48823 488.21640 28.2536 282.53272 10.46416 9 0.54926 549.24345 31.7853 317.84931 11.77218 10 0.61027 610.27050 35.3166 353.16590 13.08020 556 FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS, ETC. No. of units. | Grains to grammes. Ounres avoir, to grammes. Ounces troy to grammes. Pounds avoir. ‘ Pounds troy to | to kilogrammes, kilogrammes. ] 0.064773 28.3375 31.0913 0.4534148 0.373096 2 0.129546 56.6750 62.1826 0.9068296 0.746192 3 0.194319 85.0125 93.2739 1.3602444 1.119288 4 0.259092 113.3500 124.3652 1.8136592 1.492384 5 0.323865 141.6871 155.4565 2.2670740 1.865480 6 0.388638 170.0250 186.5478 2.7204888 2.238576 7 0.453411 198.3625 217.6391 3.1739036 2.611672 8 0.518184 226.7000 248.7304 3.6273184 2.984768 9 0.582957 255.0375 279.8217 4.0807332 3.357864 10 0.647730 283.3750 310.9130 4.5341480 3.730960 No. of units. Long tons to tonnes of 1000 kilog. Pounds per square inch to kilogrammes per square centimetre. Grammes to grains. Grammes to ounces avoir. Grammes to ounces troy. 1 1.015649 0.0702774 15.438395 0.0352889 0.0321633 2 2.031298 0.1405548 30.876790 0.0705778 0.0643266 3 3.046947 0.2108322 46.315185 0.1058667 0.0964899 4 4.062596 0.2811096 61.753580 0.1411556 0.1286532 5 5.078245 0.3513870 77.191975 0.1764445 0.1608165 6 6.093894 0.4216644 92.630370 0.2117334 0.1929798 7 7.109543 0.4919418 108.068765 0.2470223 0.2251431 8 8.125192 0.5622192 123.507160 0.2823112 0.2573064 9 9.140841 0.6324966 138.945555 0.3176001 0.2894697 10 10.156490 0.7027740 154.383950 0.3528890 0.3216330 No. of units. Kilogrammes to pounds avoirdupois. Kilogrammes to pounds troy. Metric tonnes of 1000 kilog. to long tons of 2240 pounds. Kilog. per square milli- metre to pounds per square inch. Kilog. per square centi- metre to pounds per square inch. 1 2.205486 2.6803 0.9845919 1422.52 14.22526 2 4.410972 5.3606 1.9691838 2845.05 28.45052 3 6.616458 8.0409 2.9537757 4267.57 42.67578 4 8.821944 10.7212 3.9383676 5690.10 56.90104 5 11.027430 13.4015 4.9229595 7112.63 71.12630 6 13.232916 16.0818 5.9075514 8535.15 85.35156 7 15.438402 18.7621 6.8921433 9957.68 99.57682 8 17.643888 21.4424 7.8767352 11380.20 113.80208 9 19.849374 24.1227 8.8613271 12802.73 128.02734 10 22.054860 26.8030 9.8459190 14225.26 142.25260 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING THE TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. Treasury Department, Office of Internal Revenue, Washington, April 22, 1869. By the act of July 20, 1868 (section 1), there is laid on all distilled spirits, upon which no tax has been paid, a tax of 50 cents on every proof gallon, to be paid by the distiller, owner, or person having possession thereof, before removal from the distillery warehouse; and (section 59) an additional tax of $4 on each barrel of forty proof gallons of all distilled spirits in any bonded warehouse at the date of the taking effect of the act. BASIS OF TAXATION. The tax of 50 cents per gallon is to be collected on the whole number of gauge or wine gallons when the spirits are below proof, and upon the proof gallon when of greater strength than proof. The tax of $4 per barrel of 40 proof gallons is upon the proof gallons. distiller’s special tax. Distillers producing 100 barrels, or less, counting 40 proof gallons to the barrel, must each pay a special tax of $400, and $4 for each barrel in excess of 100 barrels, and monthly returns of the number of barrels of distilled spirits produced must be made by each distiller as the monthly returns of sales are made. Distillers of brandy from apples, peaches, and grapes exclu- sively, producing less than 150 barrels annually, are by the act of April 10, 1869, made subject to a special tax of $50, together with $4 per barrel on each barrel in excess of 100 barrels. Distillers of this class producing in excess of 150 barrels annually will be subject to the same special taxes as 558 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. other distillers. On spirits produced after July 20, 1868, the tax of $4 per barrel will be assessed monthly on Form No. 89. There must also be assessed and collected monthly from every authorized distiller an additional tax of $2 per day, Sundays excepted, when the distillery has an aggregate capa- city for mashing and fermenting 20 bushels of grain, or less, or 60 gallons of molasses, or less, in 24 hours; and a tax of $2 per day for each 20 bushels of grain or 60 gallons of mo- lasses of said capacity, in excess of 20 bushels of grain or 60 gallons of molasses in 24 hours. But any distiller suspending work, as provided in the act, will pay only $2 per day while the work is so suspended. TAX TO BE A LIEN. Every proprietor or possessor of a still, distillery, or dis- tilling apparatus is made jointly and severally liable for the taxes imposed by law on the distilled spirits produced there- from, and the tax is a first lien on the spirits distilled, the dis- tillery used for distilling the same, the stills, vessels, fixtures, and tools therein, and on the lot or tract of land whereon the distillery is situated, together with any building thereon, from the time said spirits are distilled until the tax is paid. DISTILLER DEFINED. Every person who produces distilled spirits, or who brews or makes mash, wort, or wash fit for distillation, or for the pro- duction of spirits, or who may, by any process of vaporization, separate alcoholic spirit from any fermented substance, or who, making or keeping mash, wort, or wash, has also in his posses- sion or use a still, is, under the provisions of the law, a distiller. MASH, WORT, OR WASH. No mash, wort, or wash fit for distillation or the production of spirits or alcohol can lawfully be made or fermented in any building, or on any premises, other than a distillery, duly authorized according to law; and no mash, wort, or wash so made and fermented can be sold or removed from any distillery before being distilled ; and no person, other than an authorized distiller, can, by distillation, or by any other process, separate the alcoholic spirits from any fermented mash, wort, or wash; and no person can use spirits or alcohol, or any vapor of alco- holic spirits, in manufacturing vinegar, or any other article, or in any process of manufacture whatever, unless the spirits or alcohol so used shall have been produced in an authorized dis- tillery, and the tax thereon paid. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 559 The use of any still, boiler, or other vessel for the purpose of distilling, is forbidden (section 12) in any dwelling-house or shed, yard, or inclosure connected therewith, or on board of any vessel or boat, or in any building or on any premises where beer, lager beer, ale, porter, or other fermented liquors, ether, or vinegar are manufactured or produced, or sugars or syrups are refined, or liquors of any description are retailed, or any other business is carried on, or within 600 feet of any pre- mises authorized to be used for rectifying. The only excep- tions are the manufacture of saleratus, and the grinding of meal or flour from grain to be used only for distillation on the premises. Where there are mills attached to a distillery, they must be so entirely separated by solid walls and otherwise as to be in fact independent premises, although both establish- ments may be driven by the same power. They must be so arranged that the description of the distillery premises on Form No. 27 does not include the mill. NO OTHER BUSINESS TO BE DONE IN A DISTILLERY. REGISTRY OF STILLS. Every person having in his possession or custody or under his control any still or distilling apparatus set up was required to register the same with the assistant assessor of the division in which such still or distilling apparatus was located, within 60 days from July 20; and all stills thereafter set up must be registered immediately on being set up. The application for registry will be in duplicate on Form No. 26, one of which will be retained and preserved by the assistant assessor, and the other transmitted by him to the assessor of the district, and a copy thereof immediately sent by the assessor to the Com- missioner of Internal Revenue. All stills and distilling appa- ratus set up must be registered, whether they are intended to be used or not. Each assessor will enter the registry of all stills in a book, to be kept in his office and open to inspection, denoting each distillery by its number. ASSESSORS TO FORWARD LISTS OF STILLS, ETC. Every assessor who has not so done, will furnish this office with a list of all stills or distilling apparatus registered in his district, giving the names of the owners, the location, and whether or not the same are intended to be used, together with the registered number of the distillery. Where the distiller is not the owner of the fee, that fact will also be stated, and whether 560 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. the consent, or stipulation, or leaseholder’s bond required by section 8, has been filed with him. Every person engaged in the business of a distiller, or intend- ing to engage therein (section 6), must give notice on Form No. 27, which is hereby prescribed, over his own signature, to the assessor of the district in which such business is, or is to be, carried on, who will furnish a copy thereof to the collector. Like notice of any change in the location, form, capacity, own- ership, agency, or superintendence, or in the persons interested in the business of said distillery, or in the time of fermenting the mash or beer, is to be given within 24 hours of such change, and a copy of such notices will be immediately transmitted to the Commissioner. distiller’s notice. Assessors will also forward to this office information of the date when the bond was approved, if approved, and the time when the distiller commenced work ; and when any distiller’s bond shall be hereafter approved, notice of the date of such approval will be immediately forwarded to this office. NOTICES TO BE FORWARDED. BONDS. Every distiller, on filing his notice with the assessor, must, before continuing or commencing business after the passage of the act and on the first day of May in each succeeding year, make and execute a bond on Form No. 80, which is hereby pre- scribed, with at least two sureties to be approved by the asses- sor of the district. Assessors will give especial attention to the instructions printed thereon, and will require the sureties tojus- tify on Form No. 33 in double the amount of the penal sum of the bond. Under the provisions of section 8 no distiller’s bond can be approved unless he is the owner in fee, unencumbered by any mortgage, judgment, or other lien, of the lot or tract of land on which the distillery is situated, or unless he files with the asses- sor, in connection with his notice, the written consent of the owner of the fee, and of any mortgage, judgment creditor, or other person havjng a lien thereon, that the premises may be used for the purpose of distilling spirits subject to the provisions of law, and expressly stipulating that the lien of the United States for taxes and penalties shall have priority of such mortgage, judgment, or other encumbrance, and that in case of the for- TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 561 feiture of the distillery premises or any part thereof, the title of the same shall vest in the United States, discharged from any such mortgage, judgment, or other encumbrance. This instru- ment must be duly acknowledged and executed with all the for- malities required in conveyances of real estate, and must be duly recorded before the same is filed with the assessor. As the question as to the title to the real estate is material, the assessor should require of the distiller a properly certified statement or search of the title to such estate to be exhibited to him, and full evidence as to what, if any, liens or encumbrances exist thereon. Where the distiller’s estate is for a term of years only, under a lease or other evidence of title recorded before the passage of the act, the distillery or distilling apparatus having also been erected prior to that date, the distiller may, in lieu of the consent and stipulation aforesaid, give an additional bond on Form No. 3, which is hereby prescribed, with not less than two sureties, resi- dents of the district or county or an adjoining county, and owners of unencumbered real estate in said district or county equal to the penal sum of the bond. In such case the assessor will cause the value of the lot or tract of land, together with the buildings and distilling apparatus, to be appraised by two or more competent persons, to be designated by him, and the said appraisal may be increased by the assessor if, in his judgment, the same is too low, and the penal sum of said bond must be equal to such appraised value. This is in addition to the dis- tiller’s bond required by section 7, and a substitute forthe owner- ship in fee of the distillery premises; and if the same sureties should be offered upon both bonds, the assessor will see that they are the owners of unencumbered real estate, as afopesaid, sufficient in value to cover their liability upon both bonds. No assessor will (section 17) approve the bond of any distiller until all the requirements of law and the regulations in relation to distilleries have been complied with. No distiller’s bond should be approved until his distillery warehouse has been approved and established under the act of July 20, 1868, and a storekeeper assigned thereto by the Com- missioner of Internal Revenue. The bonds of distillers, when approved by the assessor, will be filed with the collector of the district. Where the distiller is not the owner in fee of the distillery premises, assessors must require a strict compliance with the provisions of section 8. Under the provisions of the amendatory act of April 10,1869, a bond of the character of leaseholder’s bond may, at the discre- tion of the Commissioner, be taken where the lease or title was 562 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. not required by the laws of the State to be recorded, in order to render it valid, or where the title was on July 20,1868, and has continued to be, in litigation ; or where there was a mortgage duly recorded prior to that date, which is not due; or where the fee is held by a feme covert, minor, person of unsound mind, or other person incapable of giving consent as required in section 8. But none of these provisions apply to a case where the dis- tillery and distilling apparatus was not erected prior to July 20,1868. Any person desiring to avail himself of this provision must make application to the Commissioner, showing, in case of a lease, that there was a valid subsisting lease on or before July 20, 1868, under which he holds, and that the same was not re- quired to be recorded by the laws of the State; if the title is in litigation, in what court the proceedings are pending; the par- ties thereto and the nature of their claims, and that such liti- gation was pending July 20, 1868; if a mortgage, the date and amount of the same, when recorded, by whom held, and when the same is due; and in case of incapacity to consent, the na- ture of said incapacity. In all cases a full and clear statement of the title to the estate should be given, and such application should have indorsed thereon the certificate of the assessor of the district that he has personally investigated the case, and finds that the statements made are correct. Previous to the approval of his bond, every person intending to engage in the business of a distiller must, under the direction of the assessor, cause to be made an accurate plan and descrip- tion in triplicate of the distillery and distilling apparatus, as provided in section 9. Such plan must be on good paper or trac- ing cloth, fifteen by twenty inches in size, with a margin of at least one inch on each side of the drawing; and where the distillery or distilling apparatus occupies more than one floor or story, each floor or story should be represented on a separate sheet. The assessor must, by personal examination, test the accuracy of such plan when made, and none but competent draughtsmen should be employed to make it. The capacity of each tub or vessel should be marked on the plan in gallons. After such plan is made, no alteration can be made in such distillery or distilling apparatus without the written consent of the assessor, and such alteration must be shown by a supple- mental plan and description, which should also be made in trip- licate like the original. One of said plans is to be kept dis- played in some conspicuous place in the distillery, one kept by PLAN OF DISTILLERY. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 563 the assessor, and one transmitted by him to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, rolled and not folded; and any supple- mental plan will be disposed of in the same manner. The ac- curacy of every plan must be 'verified by the assessor, the draughtsman, and the distiller; and the assessor will note a ref- erence to such supplemental plan on the copy in his possession, and on that of the distiller, and send a copy of such memoran- dum, with such supplemental plan, to the Commissioner. NOTICE OF INCREASE OF CAPACITY. In case a distiller desires to increase his capacity after his plans are furnished, the survey made, and his bond is approved, he must give notice under section 6, and if such change necessi- tates any alteration in his distillery, as the introduction of addi- tional mash or fermenting tubs, a supplemental plan must be fur- nished showing the alterations. If such alterations are confined to one floor, a supplemental plan of that floor, properly certified, will be received. ASSESSORS TO REPORT REDUCTION, ETC. Where the capacity is reduced, as provided in section SO, the assessor will make an immediate report of the facts to this office, designating the tubs which are closed or sealed up by their numbers as shown upon the plan on file, stating also the deduc- tion necessary to be made in the survey; and when the fasten- ings of these tubs are removed, a like report should be made, in all cases giving the dates when such changes are made. The survey required by section 10 is to be made of every distillery registered, or intended to be registered, for the pro- duction of spirits, and of every still or distilling apparatus here- after set up. The object is to determine the true producing capacity of each distillery, i. e., the quantity of spirits which may be produced in such distillery in twenty-four hours. In addition to this, the report should state the aggregate mashing and fermenting capacity in bushels or gallons, i. e., the number of bushels of grain or gallons of molasses which may be mashed and fermented in twenty-four hours. As this is one of the tests by which the amount of tax due is to be determined, it should be carefully and correctly made. The report should be imme- diately forwarded to the Commissioner, who, if he shall at any time be satisfied that it is incorrect or needs revision, may di- rect a new survey to be made. SURVEY. UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. INSTRUCTIONS AS TO SURVEY OF DISTILLERIES. In their report of. the survey, assessors will state the greatest and least diameter, and the depth of each mash-tub, its full ca- pacity, the number of dry inches allowed for working, and the working capacity in bushels, estimating not exceeding 30 gal- lons to the bushel. They will also give the greatest diameter, least diameter, and depth of each fermenting tub, designating the same by its num- ber as shown by the plan, with the full capacity, the number of dry inches allowed for fermentation, and the working capacity of each tub. Having found the aggregate working capacity of the ferment- ers, they will divide this amount by the number of gallons of mash which the distiller makes from a bushel of grain (not ex- ceeding, however, 45 gallons of mash to the bushel of grain in any case), which will give the number of bushels that will be required to fill the fermenters. Then, taking the fermenting period as fixed by the distiller on Form No. 27, or the average fermenting period actually used by the distiller as ascertained by the assessor and the person designated to aid him, from the best evidence accessible to them, which must be a fixed and definite number of hours or days, adding thereto 24 hours or one day for the time each fermenter is required to remain empty after its contents are drawn off', and dividing the number of bushels by this sum, the result will be the number of bushels which can be fermented in 24 hours. If not even days, divide by the number of hours and multiply by 24. They will then estimate the quantity of spirits which can be produced from a bushel of grain. This depends in a great degree upon the character and completeness of the apparatus; and while no fixed rule can be laid down upon this point, it may be sug- gested that in an ordinary steam distillery this varies from three to four gallons, many distilleries producing 15 and 16 quarts to the bushel. It would require a strong case to justify an esti- mate as low as three gallons, and in such case the reasons for such allowance must be fully reported to the Commissioner. In all cases it should be assumed that the distiller will have his apparatus in good order and use good material. Having deter- mined this product, multiply the number of bushels that can be fermented in 24 hours by this sum, and it will give the quantity of spirits whieh can be produced in 24 hours. The capacity of a molasses distillery is estimated upon the same principle. Having found the working fermenting capacity of the fermenters in gallons, as above stated, divide this by the number of gallons of mash which the distiller makes from a TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 565 gallon of molasses, not exceeding seven gallons of mash for a gallon of molasses, and it will give the number of gallons of molasses required to fill the fermenters. Take the fermenting period, plus the 24hours, and divide the amount found as above, and it will give the quantity which can be fermented in 24 hours. The quantity of spirit which can be produced from a gallon of molasses varies, of course, with the completeness of the appa- ratus and the quality of the material, from 80 to 95 per cent.— from 85 to 90 per cent, probably being a fair average ; and in no case should a less allowance than this average be made with- out first submitting a full report of the reasons therefor to the Commissioner. In case any question arises as to the correctness of the sur- vey, the assessor will forward a draft of his report to the Com- missioner before it is signed, in order that such questions may be determined. In estimating the number of dry inches to be allowed for fermentation, the assessor and person designated to aid him must, of course, be governed in a great measure by the depth of the fermenting tubs. From the best information received, it is believed that a fair allowance will be from three to seven dry inches for corn, and any mixture of corn and rye not exceeding one-half rye to one-half corn; and from seven to twelve dry inches for rye, and any mixture of rye exceeding one-half. While it is perhaps natural that the distiller should claim the maximum allowance as most advantageous to him, it is incumbent upon the officers making the survey to make such allowance only as is fair and equitable, having regard to the interests of the government as well as of the distiller.- Should the allowances in any district in all cases equal the maximum allowance, or in most cases exceed the average between the two extremes given, the survey should be accompanied by some explanation of the reasons therefor to rebut the inference which might be drawn from such action. The door of the furnace of every still or boiler used in any distillery (section 17) must be so constructed that it may be securely fastened and locked. This must be so done that the government locks may be applied, and so as to effectually pre- vent the doors from being opened, or the fires lighted in the furnace when locked. CONSTRUCTION OF DISTILLERIES. The fermenting tabs must be so placed as to be easily acces- sible to any officer, and must each have painted thereon in oil 566 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. colors its cubic contents in gallons, with the number of the tub, which should correspond with that given in the notice and on the plan. There must be a clear space of not less than one foot around every wood still, and not less than two feet around every doubler and worm tank. The doubler and worm tanks are to be elevated not less than one foot from the floor. Every fixed pipe, except those used only for the conveyance of water or of spent mash or beer, must be so placed as to be capable of being examined for its whole length, and must be painted and kept painted as follows: Pipes for the conveyance of mash or beer, of a red color; for the conveyance of low wines back into still or doubler, blue; for the conveyance of spirits, black ; for the conveyance of water, white; and they must be desig- nated by those colors on the plan. All locks and seals required by law will be designated by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, and are to be procured of the collector of the proper district, at the expense of the distiller, except the locks for the closing of the doors of the furnaces of the stills and boilers, which will be furnished to the assessors. LOCKS AND SEALS. Every distiller (section 16) is required to erect two or more receiving cisterns in a room or building used for that purpose, and for no other, for each distillery. Each of these cisterns must be of sufficient capacity to hold all the spirits distilled during the day of 24 hours. These cisterns must be so con- structed as to leave an open space of at least three feet between the top and the roof or floor above, and a space of not less than 18 inches between the bottom and the floor below, and they must be separated so that the officer may pass around them; and the pipes or other apparatus by which the cisterns are connected with the outlet of the stills, boilers, or other vessels, must be so constructed as to be always exposed to the view of the officer, and so as to prevent the abstraction of spirits while passing from the outlet of the worm or condenser back to the still or doubler or forward to the receiving cistern. These cisterns must not be connected with each other. Where a distiller draws off his spirits but once in three days, he must have three cisterns. He cannot, in any case, have less than two. The product of each day’s distillation must be run into one cistern, and one only. If the distiller has not provided at least two separate cisterns, each of a capacity sufficient to hold RECEIVING CISTERNS. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 567 a full day’s product, the assessor has no right to approve his bond; if he does so, he renders himself liable to the penalty imposed in section 17. Every person engaged in distilling or rectifying spirits, and every wholesale liquor dealer, is required (section 18) to place, and keep conspicuously on the outside of his distillery, recti- fying establishment, or place of business, a sign, in plain and legible letters not less than three inches in length, painted in oil colors or gilded, and of a proper and proport ionate width, the name or firm of the distiller, rectifier, or wholesale dealer, with the words “registered distillery,” “rectifier of spirits,” or “ wholesale liquor dealer,” as the case may be. No fence or wall of a height greater than five fee't can be allowed around the premises of any distillery so as to prevent easy and imme- diate access thereto. Every distiller must furnish to the asses- sor of the district as many keys to the doors and gates of the distillery as may be required by the assessor from time to time; and the distillery must always be kept accessible to any officer or other person having such key. SIGNS, FENCES, AND GATES. Section 22 provides that every distiller, at the hour of 12, meridian, on the third day after that on which his bond is approved by the assessor, shall be deemed to have commenced, and thereafter to be continuously engaged in, the production of distilled spirits in his distillery, except during the time when work shall be suspended in accordance with the provisions of that section. COMMENCEMENT OF WORK. This gives the distiller the three days in which to prepare his first mash for distillation, and as he cannot (section 21) do this in the absence of the storekeeper, assessors should with- hold the formal approval of the bond until notified that his warehouse is established and a storekeeper assigned. WHEN CAPACITY-TAX TO COMMENCE. The per diem capacity-tax imposed by section 13 will com- mence on the third day after the approval of the bond, and the full capacity-tax provided for in that section will be assessed for every calendar day thereafter, Sundays excepted, reckoning the third day after the approval of the bond as a whole day, unless work shall be suspended as provided in section 22. But should the distiller commence distilling at any time prior 568 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. to the third day after the approval of the bond, the capacity-tax will be assessed from the time when the production of spirits begins. SUNDAYS. No malt, corn, grain, or other material (section 35) can law- fully be mashed, nor any wash, wort, or beer brewed or made, nor any still used by a distiller at any time between the hour of 11 in the afternoon of Saturday and 1 in the forenoon of the next succeeding Monday, under penalty of one thousand dollars for each offence CAPACITY, REDUCTION OF. Any distiller desiring to reduce the producing capacity of his distillery must give notice of such intention in writing to the assessor, stating the quantity of spirits which he desires there- after to manufacture every 24 hours; and thereupon the asses- sor is required, at the expense of the distiller, to reduce and limit the producing capacity of the distillery to the quantity stated in his notice, by placing upon a sufficient number of tubs close-fitting covers, securely fastened by nails, seals, and otherwise, so as to prevent the use of such tubs without remov- ing said covers or breaking said seals; and whenever he shall be of opinion that other precautions are necessary, he will re- port the case to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue for in- structions. Where a distiller desires to reduce his capacity without reducing the number of his tubs, it can only be done by cutting down the tubs to the size required. The mere cut- ting out of one or more staves is not sufficient, but the whole tub must be cut off. In all cases of a reduction of capacity an immediate report will be made to the Commissioner by the assessor, showing what action has been taken and the proportionate reduction of capacity thereby effected. officers’ right of entry. Any revenue officer (section 32) may at all times, as well by night as by day, enter any distillery or building or place used for the business of distilling, or in connection therewith for storage or other purposes; and if not admitted upon demand, having declared his name and office, he may break open any doors or windows, or break through any of the walls of such premises necessary to be broken to enable him to enter. Any officer (section 31) may require the water in any worm tub to be drawn off and the tub and worm cleansed at any time when TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 569 the still is not at work, and the water must be kept out of the worm tub for two hours, or until the officer has finished his examination. Any distiller desiring to suspend work (section 22) must give notice in writing to the assistant assessor, stating when he will suspend work. On the day mentioned, the assistant assessor will, at the expense of the distiller, proceed to fasten securely every door of every furnace, still, or boiler in said distillery, by securely locking the same, so that they cannot be opened or any fire lighted in such furnace. Such notice must be immediately reported to the assessor, and also the action taken thereon, and such notice and report must be transmitted to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. No distiller can carry on the business of a distiller after the time stated in such notice until he shall have given another notice in writing to the assessor stating the time when he will resume work, at which time the assistant assessor must attend and remove the locks and other fastenings, which action must be immediately reported to the assessor and by him to the Commissioner, and the report of the assistant assessor must distinctly state whether or not there was any mash, wort, or beer on hand at the time of such suspension. SUSPENDING WORK. No deduction is to be made for a suspension of work unless the provisions of section 22 are strictly complied with. The dis- tiller must give two notices in writing to the assistant assessor, first, of the time when he proposes to suspend work, and, sec- ond, a like notice of the time when he proposes to commence; at both of which times the assistant assessor must be present to secure the furnaces or to remove the fastenings, as the case may be, and these two notices cannot be combined in one. WHEN DEDUCTIONS ALLOWED. Attention is called to the provision of this section imposing penalties upon any distiller who, after the time fixed in his no- tice of intention to suspend work, shall carry on the business of a distiller on said premises, or shall have mash, wort, or beer in his distillery or on any premises connected therewith, or who shall have in his possession or under his control any mash, wort, or beer, with intent to distill the same on said premises. Unless the distiller chooses to destroy the mash on hand when he sus- pends work, he must fix his time so that he will have time to run off the mash on hand before the notice takes effect, as after the time stated he can have no mash, wort, or beer on his dis- tillery premises. If he does the business of a distiller on the 570 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. premises, or has any mash, &c., therein, or in his possession or under his control, with intent to distill the same therein, he cannot suspend work under that section, and is not entitled to any deduction of the per diem capacity-tax. The attention of assessors is especially called to this matter. FERMENTING TUBS TO BE EMPTIED. At the end of the fermenting period every fermenting tub must be emptied and remain empty twenty-four hours. Under the heading “ fermenting tub emptied of beer or mash,” on Form No. 100, the storekeeper will enter in the proper col- umn the number of the tub on the line opposite the proper date entered in the left-hand column. If four tubs are emptied on the same day and but three lines are used for the description of the materials used, as corn, rye, malt, then one line should be left blank in this column on the day named. It is highly im- portant that the day, as well as the hour of the day in which each tub is emptied, should be accurately stated. DATE OF EMPTYING THE TUBS. SPIRITS TO PASS DIRECTLY FROM STILL TO RECEIVING CISTERN. The storekeeper will see that all spirits manufactured each day are conveyed into one of the receiving cisterns on the same day. The cisterns and the room in which they are contained must be in charge of and under the lock of the internal revenue gauger designated for that duty. The collector will designate the gauger to perform this duty. The supervisor, however, has power to transfer gaugers so designated from one distillery to another. In no case, however, will the storekeeper be allowed to hold the key or have charge of the cistern-room. The cistern-room must not be opened or suffered to remain open except when the designated gauger is present, nor will the key of the govern- ment at any time be suffered to pass into the possession of the distiller or any person in his employ. Until locks are pre- scribed, collectors and assessors will require such to be provided as in their judgment may be appropriate. When drawn into casks, the spirits must be gauged and proved by the gauger himself, with his own hands, and in no case can he deputize another person to do it for him. When gauged and proved, the gauger will mark with a cutting or branding iron upon the bung stave of each cask the number of GAUGING, MARKING, AND STAMPING. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 571 wine gallons and the number of proof gallons contained therein, with the proof, and the gauger will, in the presence of the store- keeper, place upon the head of each cask the distillery ware- house stamp, and also cut or burn upon the head of each barrel the serial number of the barrel. The serial number for every distillery must begin with num- ber one (No. 1) with the first cask deposited, and continue the series until the last day of the year, commencing a new series on the first day of January in each year thereafter ; and no two or more casks warehoused at the same distillery may be marked with the same number. NO ALLOWANCE TO BE MADE FOR LOSS BY LEAKAGE OR OTHERWISE. Section 23 of the act of July 20, 1868, requires that all dis- tilled spirits shall be drawn from the receiving cisterns into casks, which, after being marked and stamped in such a way as to show the contents, are to be immediately removed into the distillery warehouse. On the prescribed days, to wit, the first, eleventh, and twenty-first days of each month, the distiller must make his “entry for deposit,” which must cover all the spirits stored or deposited during the preceding tri-monthly period, and must specify the number of wine and proof gallons contained in each of the casks so deposited, and the amount of tax on the spirits. At the same time the distiller is required to give his bond (on Form No. 80), conditioned that he will pay the tax on the spirits as specified in the entry, or cause the same to be paid before removal from said distillery warehouse, and within one year from the date of said bond. Under this language it is very plain that no allowance can be made for any loss occurring in warehouse from leakage or any other cause. The amount of tax named in the entry and secured by the bond must be paid within the time named, even though loss may occur by leakage, by fire, or otherwise. In this regard spirits stored in warehouse are placed on the same footing with tax- paid spirits. The primary object of the present law was to col- lect the tax on all the spirits produced and drawn from the cis- tern, and the privilege of storing in warehouse for one year or less was not intended to and does not carry with it any advan- tage, in respect to loss, not conceded to the distiller who pays the tax on the same day that the spirits are drawn from the cistern. Such being the law, it is obvious that spirits in distillery warehouse are not required to be gauged and proved before 572 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. withdrawal therefrom, nor before the entry for withdrawal is made. The “entry for withdrawal” must correspond precisely to the “entry for deposit;” the tax-paid stamp must specify the amount of tax on the same number of gallons as are named on the distillery warehouse stamp, and this amount must be paid before withdrawal. The collector, instead of directing the gauger to gauge and inspect spirits in warehouse before the “entry for withdrawal” is made, will, upon receiving the entry made as above set forth, direct the gauger to proceed to the warehouse, and there, in presence of the storekeeper, stamp and mark the casks as required by law and regulation. THE TAX ON ALLOWANCES HERETOFORE MADE MUST BE COLLECTED. The rule laid down on page 17 of Instructions, Series 4, No. 1, providing for an allowance for loss by leakage in warehouse, has been revoked. In any case where this rule has been ap- plied to spirits produced since July 20, 1868, the collector is hereby instructed to collect, without delay, all sums which have been so allowed for loss by leakage or otherwise. The law is explicit and imperative, and as it gives no discretion to the Com- missioner or to any other officer to modify its operation in this respect, appeals to him for this purpose are useless. The bonds given under section 23 (on Form No. 80) must be held for the payment of all such allowances, and, if necessary, must be put in suit to recover the same. In cases where spirits were withdrawn before the end of the tri-monthly period, and for that reason no bond was given for the tax on such spirits, the tax must be collected on all allow- ances made for loss while in warehouse. FRACTIONS OF GALLONS. The law requires "the quantity in wine gallons and in proof gallons of the contents of each cask” to be marked upon the cask, reported by the gauger, &c. Consequently the exact number of gallons must be ascertained, marked, and reported. Frac- tions of gallons must be indicated in all cases, but the tax will be collected on the fraction of the gallon as if it were a whole gallon. A fraction of a wine gallon, however, is not to be taken as a whole gallon in calculating the number of proof gallons in a cask. The rule printed on pages 6 and 7 of Instructions, Series 2, No. 11, in regard to wantage, will be applied to the gauging and WANTAGE. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 573 proving of spirits at the distillery before storage in warehouse, viz : No larger allowance for wantage than a half wine gallon for each cask or barrel will be made, unless ascertained by mea- surement with the wantage rod. When the wantage is found by actual measurement to exceed a half gallon, the actual wantage will be allowed, and no more. DISTILLER TO PROVIDE WAREHOUSE. Every distiller must provide, at his own expense, a warehouse suitable for the storage of distilled spirits, which must be sit- uated on and constitute a part of his distillery premises. No dwelling-house can be used for such purpose; and no door, window, or other opening can be made or permitted in the walls of such warehouse leading into the distillery, or into any other room or building. No spirits can be stored in such distillery except those manufactured by the distiller providing it. A por- tion of the distillery may be used for this purpose, but in such case it must be separated from the distillery by a solid brick or plank partition; and collectors will, when such warehouse is applied for, make careful examination as to the sufficiency of the division walls ; but the entrance to such room must be from the street or yard. If the distiller elects, such warehouse may be a separate building, but it must be upon the premises actually occupied for the distillery. It must be a portion of the distil- lery, adjoining the distillery building, or within or adjoining the distillery yard. Every distiller will make application in writing to the col- lector of the district, stating fully the precise location, size, description, and construction of the room or building desired for such warehouse, specifying its location upon or by refer- ence to the plan of the distillery; and upon receipt of such application the collector will, by himself or one of his deputies, make a full and careful examination thereof, and if the same is approved by him, will transmit said application to the Com- missioner of Internal Revenue, with his report thereon, for his approval, stating the estimated storage capacity of such ware- house; and when approved by the Commissioner, a store- keeper will be assigned to such warehouse. Such warehouse must be established for each distillery before any spirits are distilled, and all expenses connected with such warehouse must be paid by the distiller. STOREKEEPERS. Storekeepers are appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury (section 52), one or more of whom will be assigned by the 574 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Commissioner of Internal Revenue to every warehouse. The storekeeper assigned to any distillery warehouse will (section 21) also have charge of the distillery connected therewith. Supervisors have authority to transfer storekeepers from one distillery warehouse to another, i. e., to change their location after they have been assigned; but they cannot relieve a store- keeper from duty except by suspending him from office. All charges made by supervisors must be immediately reported to the Commissioner, and unless the case is one requiring imme- diate action all changes should be made by reassignment from the Commissioner. Storekeepers cannot engage in any other business while in the service of the United States, without the written permission of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. In case of the temporary absence of the storekeeper from sickness or other cause, the collector having control of the warehouse may designate some person to have temporary charge of such ware- house, who will have all the powers and be subject to all the liabilities of a storekeeper while so acting. Collectors, however, have no power to designate a person to act as storekeeper at a warehouse to which no assignment has been made by the Commissioner. Their power is limited to supplying the temporary absence of the regularly assigned storekeeper. An absence occasioned by a removal from office, or suspension, or revocation of the assignment, is not a tem- porary absence. The storekeeper will keep the warehouse book on Form No. 101, and make daily returns in duplicate (section 52) to the collector and Commissioner, and triplicate monthly reports to the Commissioner, the assessor, and collector; and, as having charge of the distillery, will also keep the book required by section 21, on Form No. 100. The books must be furnished to the storekeeper by the distiller. MASHING, DISTILLING, AND REMOVAL OF SPIRITS PROHIBITED IN THE ABSENCE OF STOREKEEPER. The special attention of officers and distillers is directed to the penalties imposed in section 21 for mashing, distilling, or removing spirits in the absence of the storekeeper or person designated to act as storekeeper. Any mashing or distilling done at night, or at any other time when the storekeeper is not present, is prohibited. It is the duty of all officers, and espe- cially of collectors, to see that this law is obeyed, and its viola- tion noted and properly punished. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 575 COMPENSATION OF STOREKEEPERS. Storekeepers are not entitled to compensation until assigned to duty at a warehouse by the Commissioner of Internal Reve- nue. After such assignment they will be entitled to the rate of compensation fixed in their assignment for the time during which they are actually employed. Where, during the tempo- rary absence of the regular storekeeper, the collector designates some person to act for him, the person so designated will be entitled to the same rate of compensation as the regular store- keeper for the time he is so employed, and the regular store- keeper will not be entitled to compensation for such time. In order to entitle a storekeeper to compensation he must have been assigned to the warehouse by the Commissioner, or trans- ferred thereto by the supervisor, and have actually performed his duties as such during the time for which compensation is claimed. The provision forbidding storekeepers to engage in any other business does not apply to a storekeeper who is not under actual assignment to duty. Whenever work is suspended or resumed in a distillery, the assessor will notify the storekeeper; and where such suspen- sion is for an indefinite time, or for a period exceeding one week, the assessor will immediately report the fact to this office, and whether or not the services of the storekeeper can be dispensed with. This is not to be included in or to take the place of the report of the notice of suspension or resump- tion of work, but a separate report. REIMBURSEMENTS BY THE PROPRIETORS OF INTERNAL REVE- NUE BONDED WAREHOUSES OF THE EXPENSES AND SALARIES OF STOREKEEPERS. , Public resolution No. 5, approved March 29, 1869, to supply omissions in enrolment of act approved March 8, 1869, pro- vides, “ that after the passage of this act the proprietors of all internal revenue bonded warehouses shall reimburse to the United States the expenses and salary of all storekeepers or other officers in charge of such warehouses, and the same shall be paid into the treasury and accounted for like other public moneys.” To carry the foregoing provision of law into practical effect, collectors are hereby instructed to demand and collect monthly hereafter, commencing with the 4th of March, 1869, from owners of bonded warehouses situated in their districts, such sums as may have been paid to United States “ storekeepers or 576 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. other officers in charge of such warehouses” for salary and other expenses, and to deposit the same to the credit of the Treasurer of the United States, in the same manner that other public moneys are now required to be deposited, as a reim- bursement of the “appropriation for salaries of collectors, assessors, &c. of internal revenue,” which appropriation should be named on the face of the certificate of deposit. The certifi- cate of the assistant treasurer or designated depositary, as the case may be, will be taken in triplicate, the original of which will be forwarded direct to the Secretary of the Treasury, the duplicate filed in this office with Special Account Current No. 119, and the triplicate retained for their own protection. Hereafter, in making payments to storekeepers, collectors will require them to sign triplicate vouchers, the original and duplicate to be disposed of as required by existing regulations, and the triplicate to be presented to the owner of the bonded warehouse, with demand for reimbursement, and surrendered and receipted in his favor by the disbursing agent, when the amount thereof shall have been reimbursed to the United States. The amount of the reimbursement thus made will be entered to the credit of the United States in a separate account current upon Form No. 119, which, with its appropriate abstract, No. 120, will be furnished from this office. This account current will be supported by the duplicate certificate of deposit referred to above, and will be mailed to this office within fifteen days after the close of the month in which the reimbursement and deposit may have been made. The first account current under these instructions will be rendered for the month of April pre- sent, and will include all reimbursements of salary and expenses paid to storekeepers from and after the 4th of March (the date when the law took effect) to the 30th of April, 1869. storekeepers’ reports. The storekeeper’s daily report is to be made, whether any entries are made upon his warehouse book or not, during all the time he is in charge of the distillery warehouse. If no spirits are deposited or withdrawn, the report should so state. Store- keepers will enter upon the warehouse book the number of packages deposited, the serial numbers of the casks, the serial numbers of the warehouse stamps, and the actual quantity in wine and proof gallons—in gallons and fractions of gallons. In the entries for withdrawal the serial numbers of casks and stamps and the quantity must correspond with the entries for deposit. Fractions of gallons are in no case to be entered upon the books as whole gallons; neither must tax-paid stamps be TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 577 reported or entered in any instance. Fractions of gallons are treated as whole gallons only in determining the amount of tax due upon the quantity in a given package. The daily reports must be a correct copy of the entries upon the warehouse book for the day, and the monthly report the aggregate footings for the month. In making their monthly abstracts, Form No. 88, they will enter first the amount of mash on hand at the close of the pre- ceding month. Under this they will enter the quantity of ma- terial used during the month, with the quantity of mash pro- duced therefrom, and from the amount of these two items deduct the quantity of mash on hand at the end of the month. All spirits should be drawn from the receiving cisterns after distillation ceases on the last day of the month, or on the morn- ing of the first day of the month, so that the full product of the month may be known and determined. If drawn off on the first day of the month, the quantity drawn off and warehoused on that day will be entered on the distiller’s tri-monthly—the storekeeper’s abstract, Form No. 88, and on Form No. 89—in a separate item. It is the duty of the storekeeper to know that all entries and reports made by him are correct. He has no right to estimate or to trust to information received from the distiller or any person in his employ. He is placed on duty, not to receive and record the reports of the distiller or his employes, but to keep a record of transactions of which he is required to have a per- sonal knowledge. The quantity of mash in a tub at the time it is emptied is not the subject of an estimate, but is to be de- termined by actual measurement; and the quantity made and used during the month, or on hand at its close, can and must be determined in the same way. The attention of storekeepers and other officers is specially Galled to these instructions, as the reports heretofore made are generally erroneous in some one or more of these particulars. Perfect accuracy must be the standard, and constantly recurring defects or negligence or carelessness in making their reports will be deemed sufficient cause for removal. If there is any violation of law or irregularity on the part of the distiller, the storekeeper must make immediate report of the same to the collector and to the Commissioner, and for any neg- lect to do so he will be dismissed. Where a distillery is closed on account of any violation of law which is reported by the storekeeper, such storekeeper will be promptly assigned to another warehouse. 578 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. ENTRY FOR WAREHOUSING. All spirits when drawn from the receiving cisterns must be immediately removed to the distillery warehouse, and on the first, eleventh, and twenty-first days of each month, or within five days thereafter, the distiller or owner must enter the same with the collector of the district for deposit in such warehouse. The entry must be made and signed by the distiller or owner of the spirits in the following form:— Entry of distilled spirits deposited by in distillery warehouse No. — in the district, State of , during the ten days ending on the day of , A. D. 186-, distilled by . ENTRY FOR DEPOSIT IN DISTILLERY WAREHOUSE. Kind of spirits. Date of deposit. Number of casks. Serial numbers, casks. Serial numbers, stamps. Amount of tax. Wine gallons. Proof gallons. Dated at , —, 186-. (Signed) . State of , County of , ss: Personally appearing , made oath that the foregoing statement by him subscribed is in all respects correct and true. Before me, —— , Collector district . Dated , , 186-. The entry will be made in triplicate, one to be retained by the collector, one sent with the duplicate of the bond to the Com- missioner of Internal Revenue, and the other sent to the store- keeper in charge of the warehouse ; and at the time of making said entry the distiller will give bond in duplicate on Form No. 80, which is hereby prescribed. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 579 Entries for deposit are to be made tri-monthly only, and such entry must cover the total amount of spirits deposited during the entire tri-monthly period next preceding the entry, and no entry for deposit can be made except as herein prescribed. WITHDRAWAL OF SPIRITS FROM WAREHOUSE. Spirits may be withdrawn from warehouse on payment of the tax on making with the collector of the district an entry for withdrawal in duplicate, as follows:— ENTRY FOR WITHDRAWAL OF SPIRITS FROM WAREHOUSE— TAX PAID. Entry of distilled spirits to be withdrawn on payment of tax from distillery warehouse No. , by . Entered for deposit on the day of , A. D. 186-, by , in said warehouse. Number of casks. Serial numbers, stamps. For what purpose withdrawn. Kind of spirits. Wine gallons. Proof gallons. Serial numbers, barrels. Amount of tax. Dated at , , 186-. (Signed) . State of , County of , ss: Personally appearing , made oath that the foregoing statement by him subscribed is in all respects correct and true. Before me, * > Collector district. Dated , A. D. 186-. On the payment of the tax, the collector will indorse upon the back of a copy of said entry an order to the storekeeper in charge of the warehouse, for the delivery of the spirits specified in the entry, in the following form, viz :— 580 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Office of Collector of Internal Revenue, District of the State of , 186-. Sir : The full amount of taxes due and owing on the distilled spirits de- scribed in the within entry of withdrawal having this day been paid to me, you are hereby directed to deliver said spirits to Mr. , after this order shall have been countersigned by the assessor of this district, or the assistant assessor, as directed by regulation. (Signed) Collector. To Mr. > Storekeeper. This order will be countersigned by the proper assessor, or assistant assessor, in the following form, viz:— I hereby certify that the foregoing order has been presented to me, and that the amount of taxes certified therein to have been received has been entered in the bonded account of this district, kept in my office. (Signed) , Assessor. This order must be presented to and signed only by the asses- sor, in all city districts, as well as in all other districts where the warehouse from which the goods are withdrawn is situated in the same place or town with the assessor’s office, or is within a convenient distance therefrom. In other districts the certificate may be signed by the assistant assessor of the division in which the warehouse is situated; and in such case he must imme- diately make an entry upon the assessment book of the items stated in the permit, and transmit to his assessor a duplicate of the entry, or a statement showing date, names, article, quantity, and amount of tax, as given in the entry. The collector will place one of said entries on file in his office, and transmit the other to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Entries for withdrawal may be made at any time after the spirits have been stored in the warehouse, and entered upon the bonded account. All the spirits produced in any distillery must be removed to the distillery warehouse, even when they are immediately withdrawn therefrom on the payment of the tax; and the entry for deposit must be made at the regular tri-monthly periods, although the spirits covered by it have been withdrawn. The bond to be given must cover all the spirits remaining in warehouse at the end of the tri-monthly period. If all the spirits deposited during that period have been withdrawn, no bond will be required; but the collector will, in such case, certify upon the entry that such spirits have been withdrawn upon the pay- ment of the tax, giving the dates of the withdrawals, and the amount of the tax collected on each. When a portion only of the spirits deposited during the tri-monthly period is withdrawn prior to the entry for deposit, the bond will be taken for the TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 581 quantity remaining in warehouse at the end of the tri-monthly period, and the collector will make a like certificate covering the quantity withdrawn. All warehousing bonds must be properly stamped, and the duplicate must be stamped as an original bond. Every entry for withdrawal (original and duplicate) must have affixed a 50- cent internal revenue stamp. BONDS AND WITHDRAWAL ENTRIES TO BE STAMPED. The bonded account will be kept and reported as heretofore directed in Series 3, No. 9, pages 70 and 71, until otherwise ordered. THE BONDED ACCOUNT. If the question had not been frequently asked whether casks of spirits in distillery warehouses cannot be filled up before withdrawal, with spirits taken directly from the cistern, it would scarcely be necessary to state that such filling up is contrary to law, and whoever does, permits, or connives at the act, is guilty of a fraud upon the government. FILLING UP WHILE IN BOND ILLEGAL. As the law requires the tax to be paid within one year from the date of the bond, collectors are cautioned to keep the entries, accounts, and dates in such manner that the specified lots cov- ered by each bond can be readily identified, and this provision of law promptly enforced. It is hardly necessary to add that this provision applies exclusively to distilled spirits produced since July 20, 1868. PAYMENT OF TAX WITHIN ONE YEAR. CUSTODY OF WAREHOUSE. The storekeeper will have charge of the warehouse to which he may be assigned, under direction of the collector control- ling the same. The warehouse will be in the joint custody of the storekeeper and the proprietor thereof, and kept securely locked. The storekeeper will retain the key of the government lock, and will not permit the same at any time to go into the possession of such proprietor, and the warehouse must at no time be unlocked or remain open unless in the presence of the storekeeper. 582 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. One or more internal revenue gaugers will be appointed (sec- tion 53) in every district where it may be necessary, who are to be sworn and give bond in not less than five thousand dollars, for the faithful discharge of their duties. Gaugers will inspect, brand, and stamp all spirits required by law to be inspected, and all spirits which have been inspected, when directed so to do by the collector. No gauger can be appointed a storekeeper, nor can he deputize or allow another person to act for him. Returns of inspections are to be made daily, in duplicate, to the assessor and collector, containing a true account, in detail, on Form No. 59. GAUGERS. gaugers’ fees. The fees for gauging are to be collected by the collector of the district, and on the first day of each month he will pay to each gauger the amount of fees due him for the work done during the preceding month, not exceeding, however, $250 in any month. The accounts of the gaugers are to be settled and closed monthly. It was not intended that money earned by one gauger should be given to another who did not earn so much ; nor, if a gauger’s fees amount to more than $250 in any one month, can the bal- ance be carried forward and paid to him in any succeeding month, when the aggregate fees for the month do not amount to that sum. Under the clause in section 53, providing that fees for gaug- ing shall be prescribed by the Commissioner, “ to be paid to the collector by the owner or producer of the articles to be gauged and inspected,” it is held that the collector may require prepay- ment of the fees before issuing the order to the gauger to gauge and inspect. This may not be practicable in the case of inspec- tion at the distillery, as the number of packages cannot be pre- cisely known until they are filled from the cistern, but in such cases prepayment will not generally be necessary in order to secure the fees. But in other cases, such as withdrawals from warehouse, and inspections for rectifiers, wholesale liquor dealers, &c., the number of packages may be known before the order for gauging is given. But whether this or any other course is pursued for the collection of gauging fees, the collector is re- quired to receive and retain all amounts received as such fees, until paid to the gaugers as directed by the regulations. The collector will report monthly to this office, on Form No. 108, the amount of fees collected by him during the month, the amounts paid to the several gaugers, accompanied by the receipt TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 583 of each gauger for the amount paid him, and the balance re- maining in his hands on the last day of the month. The bal- ance must be deposited to the credit of the Treasurer of the United States with the general collections, and be reported on Form No. 51 in an item by itself, the same as the monthly list, and on Form No. 22, using a new number, 168. The collector should charge himself with the balance thus deposited and re- ported on his quarterly account, Form No. 79. From the daily returns of the gaugers, on Form No. 59, the assessor will transmit monthly to this office, on Form No. 109, a consolidated report, showing the number of packages gauged, and the fees earned by each gauger during the month. Both reports from the collector and assessor must be made promptly at the end of each month. Collectors in districts where fees have not already been pre- scribed under the present law, are desired forthwith to recom- mend to this office what fees should be allowed for gauging in their respective districts. Whenever it is found that the amount received by the collec- tor for gaugers’ fees exceeds the amount paid, it will be the duty of the collector to make a specific report of the facts to the Com- missioner, and recommend such a change in the rate of fees prescribed as will bring the receipts as nearly as possible to balance the expenditures, as it was not the intention of the law that this should be made a source of revenue to the government. While it is impossible to regulate the scale of fees so as to pro- duce an accurate balance each month, they will be so regulated as to produce as little excess as possible. LABOR AND EXPENSE OF GAUGING. Section 58 also provides that “ all necessary labor and expense attending the gauging of any article shall be borne by the owner or producer of such articles.” Under this clause the labor of handling and moving barrels or packages, and the cost of brand- ing-irons, furnaces, brushes, paste, and varnish, used in marking and stamping, are to be borne by the owner or producer. Each distiller should keep the articles named on hand. Travelling expenses do not seem to be included, and gaugers cannot be authorized to collect them as part of the expense of gauging. Hydrometers are the only instruments furnished by the gov- ernment for gaugers, and these must be obtained, used, and dis- posed of as directed in Series 2, No. 11, and Special No. 55. Every gauger must obtain, at his own expense, the calipers INSTRUMENTS FOR GAUGERS. 584 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. and other gauging instruments described in Series 2, No. 11, and must use them in the manner therein prescribed. Collectors who have not been supplied with a sufficient num- ber of hydrometers, or manuals for inspectors containing cor- rection tables, &c., should send their orders for the same, with proper explanations, to the Commissioner. SACCHAROMETERS. No saccharometer having been yet adopted, distillers may use such saccharometers for ascertaining the gravity of beer as are in good repute and general use among brewers and dis- tillers. The name of the scale used should, however, always be noted on the yeasting book. Every distiller (section 19) is required to make true and exact entry daily, in books to be kept for that purpose, in the form and manner set forth in Forms Nos. 12, 18, 25, and 28, which forms are hereby prescribed, of all matters therein con- tained ; and to render an account in duplicate on Form No. 14, taken from such books, on the first, eleventh, and twenty-first days of each month, or within five days thereafter, to the assistant assessor. No materials of a kind for which a special column is provided in Form No. 13 should be entered under the head of other materials; and in Form No. 12 every kind of material purchased must be specified. Each account must be verified under oath or affirmation by the owner, agent, or superintendent of the distillery. The oath of a clerk or other is not sufficient. Upon the receipt of the return, the assistant assessor should satisfy himself, by personal examination of the books and pre- mises, of the accuracy of the entries made, and will then trans- mit the same to the assessor. DISTILLERS TO KEEP BOOKS. On the receipt of the distiller’s first return in each month, assessors will promptly make the computation required in sec- tion 20, and report their action to this office on Form 89, whether any additional assessment is made or not for any deficiency in the return of spirits produced. The additional special tax of $4 per barrel for each barrel in excess of 100 barrels is to be made on Form No. 89, as determined by the production, and the per-diem capacity-tax is to be entered on the same form. The survey made under section 10 is the basis ASSESSMENTS ON FORM NO. 89. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 585 for the assessment of the per-diem capacity-tax, and no return is required of the distiller therefor, as the assessment is to be made from the assessor’s official records. The assessments made on Form No. 89 will be entered on the monthly lists and transmitted to the collector for collection. Assessors and collectors will see that the various reports required to be made to them by storekeepers and other officers are promptly made, and any failure should be at once reported to the Commissioner. In order to secure correctness and uniformity in the monthly reports of assessors on Form No. 89, the following instructions are issued, and assessors will give them careful consideration and be governed strictly in accordance therewith in making up those reports. The first question to be determined is whether or not the distiller has returned and accounted for all the spirits produced by him during the month. If the assessor finds that the dis- tiller has not done this, then he will, from the best evidence he can obtain, estimate and determine the quantity of spirits pro- duced over and above the quantity returned, and this, added to the quantity returned, will be the quantity which should be entered on Form No. 89 as the required product or amount to be accounted for. If the assessor finds that the whole quantity produced has been returned and accounted for, this will agree with the reported product. It cannot be less than the reported product, unless the assessor is prepared to certify that the dis- tiller has actually returned and accounted for more than he has produced. The assessor will be understood to certify that the distiller has actually produced the quantity of spirits entered on Form No. 89 as the required product or amount to be accounted for. INSTRUCTIONS AS TO REPORTS ON FORM NO. 89. Under the provisions of section 20, the assessor is required to make this investigation personally, and in so doing he is not concluded by the reports of the distiller or storekeeper, but should use every other means in his power to test the correct- ness of the returns. In "ascertaining and determining the quantity of materials used from the quantity of mash made, the rule laid down in the law is that 45 gallons of mash from grain shall represent not less than one bushel of grain, and seven gallons of mash from molasses shall represent not less than one gallon of mo- lasses ; that is, 45 gallons of mash must represent not less than a bushel of grain, but may represent more. If the distiller 586 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. actually makes but 35 or 40 gallons of mash from a bushel of grain, then 35 or 40 is the divisor to be used instead of 45. Under the amendatory act of April 10, 1869, in distilleries in which grain or meal is mashed by hand, and without the use of steam, and which have a producing capacity of less than 100 gallons of spirits in 24 hours, 60 gallons of mash or beer brewed or fermented from grain will represent not less than one bushel of grain. The number of distilleries within this provision is compara- tively small, and in making the surveys or computations on Form No. 89, assessors will follow the instructions hereinbefore given, starting with 60 instead of 45 gallons of mash as repre- senting not less than a bushel of grain. In all cases the inquiry should be what is the usual and average quantity of mash made from a bushel of grain. It must be remembered that this provision applies only to distilleries where grain or meal is mashed by hand without the use of steam, the actual producing capacity of which is less than 100 gallons in 24 hours. In ascertaining or testing the correctness of the quantity of spirits reported as produced by comparison with the quantity of material found to have been used, the assessor, if he have no more definite means, will determine what quantity of spirits should be produced from a bushel of material of the kind and quality used. Suppose, for instance, the assessor finds from the reports and otherwise that the distiller has used for the month 425,925 gallons of mash from grain. This, at 45 gallons to the bushel, would call for 9465 bushels of grain; but if the dis- tiller actually used a thicker mash, so that 40 gallons would represent a bushel, then it would call for 10,648J bushels of grain. Suppose, then, the assessor finds that, under all the cir- cumstances, the distiller has actually produced, and should be charged with, a product of 14 quarts to the bushel; he would then enter on Form No. 89, under the head of “amount of spirits required to be produced,” &c., 33,127XW gallons, at 45 gallons of mash to the bushel, or 37,268x4040 gallons, at 40 gal- lons to the bushel. Again, suppose that the distiller’s fermenting period is fixed at 72 hours; adding the 24 hours during which each tub must remain empty, no one of the tubs can be filled oftener than once in four days. If the assessor finds that the distiller actually ferments but 48 hours, he must necessarily use more material than could have been used with 72 hours’ fermenta- tion, and, of course, must have produced more spirits. The importance of these computations as a means of testing TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 587 the correctness of the returns of the distiller can be readily seen, and they all contain elements material to be considered in the determination of the question what is the quantity of spirits which has been actually produced by the distiller during the month. After having determined this question, the assessor will cal- culate the 80 per cent, of the capacity as estimated under the provisions of the act. To determine the 80 per cent, of the capacity, the assessor will take the number of gallons fixed by the survey as the pro- duct for 24 hours, multiply this by the number of days for which the per diem capacity-tax should be assessed; 80 per cent, of this product is 80 per cent, of the capacity as deter- mined by the survey, and should be entered as such on Form No. 89. This is a matter of arithmetical computation, and errors are hardly excusable. If the 80 per cent, exceeds the reported product, then an assessment must be made on the balance. If the amount actually produced is found to be correctly reported, and the amount so reported is less than 80 per cent, of the capacity as determined from the survey, the difference between the reported product and 80 per cent, must be assessed. On this point the law is imperative. But if the amount actually produced and reported equals or exceeds the 80 per cent, no assessment is to be made. Where, however, the assessor finds that the distiller has actually produced more than he has reported or accounted for, and this amount exceeds the 80 per cent., the assessment is to be made upon the difference between the amount so found and the reported product, even though the reported product exceeds the 80 per cent., because the distiller should pay upon all the spirits produced by him. Suppose the actual product is found to be 5000 gallons; reported product 5000 gallons; 80 per cent, of capacity 6000 gallons, the distiller would be assessed upon 1000 gallons as a deficiency. Suppose, however, the actual product is found to be 6500 gallons; reported product 5000 gallons; 80 per cent, of capa- city 6000 gallons, the difference between the reported product and 80 per cent, is 1000 gallons, and between the reported product and actual product is 1500 gallons, upon which last amount the assessment should be made. When the difference between the actual product and the reported product is greater than the difference between the 80 per cent, and the reported product, the assessment will be upon the former quantity. When the reported product equals or 588 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. exceeds the 80 per cent., but is less than the actual product, as above found, the assessment will be made upon the difference between the actual and reported product. But if in any case the actual product and the reported product are each less than the 80 per cent., the assessment must be made for the difference between the reported product and the 80 per cent. To determine the number of barrels of 40 proof gallons each to be reported on Form No. 89 as assessed at $4 per barrel, the greatest number of proof gallons, whether the required pro- duction, the reported production, or 80 per cent, of the capacity, will be divided by 40, and the quotient, less the number exempt under the special $400 tax, will be the number to be so assessed. Where there is a fractional number of gallons less than 40, the assessment will be made at the rate of 10 cents per gallon. This will save the necessity of carrying forward such fractional number of gallons to the next computation. The number of barrels is found from the quantity reported, together with any deficiency that may be assessed. The per diem capacity-tax (section 13) is $2 upon the first 20 bushels or less of grain, or 60 gallons or less of molasses; and in addition thereto $2 for each even 20 bushels of grain or 60 gallons of molasses in excess of the first 20 or 60. In this assessment fractions in excess of the first 20 or 60 are to be discarded. The number of days upon which the per diem capacity-tax is to be assessed is the whole number since the date of com- mencement in the month, inclusive, less Sundays and the days upon which operations have been legally suspended; due notice having been given thereof by the distiller, accompanied by the certificate of the assistant assessor that at the time the locks were placed upon the furnace-doors no mash, wort, or beer was on hand on the premises. This rule will be strictly adhered to, and all deductions made which are not supported by the official records on file in this office will be stricken out, and the assessments returned for correction. The.computations on Form 89 should be made promptly at the commencement of each month, and immediately forwarded to this office. COMMENCEMENT OF WORK AFTER SUSPENSION. Where a distiller resumes work after a suspension with no mash on hand, he will be deemed to have commenced the dis- tillation of spirits at 12 meridian on the third day after the assistant assessor unlocks the furnace-doors. The full per TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 589 diem capacity-tax will be assessed from the time the furnace- doors are unlocked until work is again legally suspended. The time for estimating the 80 per cent, of the capacity will com- mence on the third day after, unless distilling is commenced prior to that day. If distillation commences on the second day after the furnace- doors are unlocked, the time for which the 80 per cent, is com- puted will include the second day. Where such allowance is made in computing the 80 per cent., the assessor will note the fact on Form 89, stating the number of days allowed. Under the provisions of section 23, all spirits must be drawn from the receiving cisterns into casks of not less than 20 wine gallons each. This applies to all distillers, whether of fruit or otherwise. Distillers’ original packages must contain at least 20 wine gallons. Smaller packages cannot be warehoused or sold or removed by the distiller. If he sells in smaller packages, he must do it as a dealer, and such packages must be filled from the original casks or packages, and such sale cannot be made on the distillery premises. distillers’ packages. When any distilled spirits are drawn from any cask or other package, and placed in any other cask or package containing not less than 10 gallons, and intended for sale, they must be again inspected and gauged, and the cask or package into which they are so transferred marked or branded. Such mark or brand must state the kind and proof of the spirits; the par- ticular name of such spirits, as known to the trade; the name and place of business of the rectifier or dealer, as the case may be; and, if such spirits have not been rectified, the name of the distiller; the distillery where produced; serial number of the original package, together with the name of the gauger; the time and place of inspection. CHANGE OF PACKAGE. ASSISTANCE TO BE FURNISHED. On demand of any revenue officer (section 33), every distiller or rectifier must furnish strong, safe, and convenient ladders, and supply all assistance, lights, tools, staging, or other things necessary for inspecting the premises, stocks, tools, and appa- ratus belonging to such person, and open all doors, and open for examination all boxes, packages, casks, barrels, and other vessels not under the control of a revenue officer in charge. 590 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. NO DISTILLERY ALLOWED TO RUN WITHOUT COMPLIANCE WITH REGULATIONS. Under no circumstances must a distillery be allowed to run until all the requirements of the law and these regulations have been complied with; and any distillery found running without such compliance must be immediately stopped. REVENUE OFFICERS NOT TO BE INTERESTED IN DISTILLING, ETC. No internal revenue officer can be interested, directly or in- directly, in the manufacture of tobacco, snuff, or cigars, or in the production, rectification, or redistillation of distilled spirits, under the penalties imposed by section 97. DISCONTINUANCE OF WAREHOUSES. Whenever the Commissioner of Internal Revenue shall be of opinion that any warehouse is unsafe or unfit for use, or the merchandise therein liable to loss or great wastage, he may dis- continue such warehouse, and require the merchandise therein to be transferred to such other warehouse as he may designate, and within a time to be prescribed by him, at the expense of the owner of the merchandise. If such transfer is not made or such expense not paid by the owner, the merchandise will be seized and sold by the collector as upon distraint. Any person (section 59) who rectifies, purifies, or refines dis- tilled spirits or wines by any process other than by original and continuous distillation from mash, wort, or wash, through continuous closed vessels and pipes until the manufacture thereof is complete; and every wholesale or retail liquor dealer who has in his possession any still or leach-tub, or who keeps any other apparatus for the purpose of refining in any manner distilled spirits, and every person who, without rectify- ing, purifying, or refining distilled spirits, shall, by mixing such spirits, wine, or other liquor with any materials, manufacture any spurious, imitation, or compound liquors for sale under the name of whiskey, brandy, gin, rum, wine, spirits, cordials, wine bitters, or any other name, shall be regarded as a rectifier and as being engaged in the business of rectifying. On and after May 1, 1869, the distinction made in the act of July 20, 1868, between rectifiers and compounders of liquors is abolished, and those who were compounders under the act of July 20 will be classed as rectifiers and be subject to all the provisions of law relating to rectifiers. RECTIFIED SPIRITS. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 591 The attention of assessors is called in this connection to the provisions of section 11 of the act of July 20, 1868, and espe- cially to the penalty imposed in the last clause of said section. Rectifiers rectifying two hundred barrels or less per annum must pay a special tax of two hundred dollars, and fifty cents for each barrel in excess of two hundred barrels. The payment of the special tax as a rectifier does not relieve any person from the payment of the special tax as a wholesale dealer on account of the sales of spirits, whether the same be of his own rectification or otherwise. Rectifiers having or using any still or distilling apparatus must register the same, as provided in section 5, and must give the notice required by section 6. Every rectifier or wholesale liquor dealer must provide himself with and keep the book (Form No. 52) which is hereby prescribed. And every such book must be, at all times, kept in some public or open place on the premises of such rectifier or wholesale dealer, respectively, for inspection; and any revenue officer may examine such books, and take abstracts therefrom. Such book must be preserved, and no part thereof, or any entry therein, can be cancelled, altered, obliterated, or destroyed. Section 46 declares it to be unlawful for any rectifier, whole- sale or retail liquor dealer, to purchase or receive distilled spirits in quantities exceeding 20 gallons from any person not an authorized distiller, rectifier, or liquor dealer, except at judicial sales, or sales by an authorized auctioneer. Under the provisions of section 59, rectifiers are required to make monthly returns on Form No. 45 of all matters therein contained, but this is not a substitute for, nor does it relieve them from, monthly returns of their sales as dealers. LISTS OF RECTIFIERS ASSESSED FOR SPECIAL TAX TO BE FORWARDED. Assessors will also report to this office the names and place of business of all persons who have been, or shall be, assessed a special tax as rectifiers, and will forward to this office each month a copy of the return made by each for the preceding month. DEALERS IN LIQUORS. Under the provisions of the amendatory act of April 10, 1869, every person who sells, or offers for sale, foreign or do- mestic distilled spirits, wines, or malt liquors, in less quantities than five gallons at the same time, is to be regarded as a retail dealer in liquors; and every person who sells, or offers for sale, 592 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. such spirits, wines, or liquors, in quantities of five gallons or upward, is to be regarded as a wholesale liquor dealer. This changes the distinction between wholesale and retail dealers in liquors, and assessors will take notice thereof in making the assessments for the special tax for the year commencing May 1, 1869, and correct any assessments made before receipt of these instructions accordingly. Dealers in liquors, whether wholesale or retail, whose sales, including sales of all other merchandise, exceed $25,000, are subject to an additional tax of one dollar for each hundred dol- lars of sales of liquors in excess of such $25,000, and at the same rate as a wholesale dealer on every thousand dollars of sales of other merchandise. When any liquor dealer’s sales shall ex- ceed $25,000, he must keep separate accounts of his sales of liquors and his sales of other merchandise, and must return them in separate items, and will be assessed one per cent, on his sales of liquors, and TV of one per cent, on his sales of other merchandise in excess of such $25,000. The exemption of distillers and brewers from special tax as dealers extends only to sales of liquors of their own production, made at the place of manufacture, and in the original casks or packages to which the tax-paid stamps are required to be affixed. The liquors must be delivered directly to the purchaser, or his agent, from the distillery or brewery premises. Dealers in liquor, who sell in quantities less than five gallons, and also in quantities of five gallons and upwards, must pay special tax both as wholesale and retail liquor dealers. Any person who manufactures any still or worm to be used in distilling is to be deemed a manufacturer of stills, and pay a special tax of $50; and, in addition thereto, $20 for each’ still or worm for distilling, made by him; i. e., $20 for each still and $20 for each worm. Any person manufacturing any still, boiler, or other vessel to be used for the purpose of distilling, must, before the same is removed from the place of manufacture, notify, in writing, the assessor of the district in which such still, boiler, or other vessel is to be set up; by whom it is to be used; its capacity, and the time when the same is to be removed from the place of manufacture. MANUFACTURERS OF STILLS. No such still or boiler can be set up without the permit of such assessor for that purpose. The term “for distilling,” as here used, will be hereafter con- strued to mean “ for distilling spirits.” It is not to be under- TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 593 stood, however, that this limitation of the construction of the term furnishes sufficient grounds upon which any tax assessed under a more literal construction will be refunded. DISTILLERS OF BRANDY FROM FRUIT. Distillers of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclu- sively, are subject to the same taxes and rates of tax as other distillers. They must register their stills, give the notice, and file the bond required of other distillers, but are exempted from the additional requirements imposed upon other distillers, who are not the owners of the fee of the distillery premises, and will not be required to furnish the plan required by section 9. The survey must be made as required by section 10. They will be held subject to all the requirements of the law, as to the assess- ment, collection, or ascertainment of the tax due, and providing for the keeping of books, and for returns, except that instead of making returns tri-monthly, they will make return on Form No. 15 on the first day of each and every month, and the tax on the spirits distilled by them during the period embraced in their returns must be paid at the time of making their return. The tax-paid stamps must be affixed before the spirits are removed from the distillery, and upon such as remain on hand at the time the return is made. They will not be required to provide a bonded warehouse, nor to remove the spirits produced by them from the distillery to a bonded warehouse, nor to erect receiving cistern in the dis- tillery. They will be exempt from any penalty for non-com- pliance with any of the provisions of section 17 ; and also the provisions of section 22, in relation to suspending work; nor will they be subject to the per diem capacity-tax imposed by section 13, except for the days on which distillation is carried on. Assessors will report monthly in all cases on Form No. 89. The amendment to the law imposing a special tax upon this class of distillers is a revocation of Circular 173. SPIRITS IN BOND JULY 20, 1868. Under the provisions of the act of July 20, 1868, all spirits then in bond were required to be withdrawn within nine months from the passage of the act, and the casks or packages marked and stamped, and subject, in all respects, to the same require- ments as if manufactured after the passage of the act. Under the amendatory act of April 10, 1869, this time was extended until June 30, 1869; but such spirits not withdrawn prior to April 20, 1869, are made subject to an additional tax, 594 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. at the rate of one cent per gallon per month on each proof gal- lon deposited and bonded in warehouse. Where the time con- stitutes a fractional part of a month only, a proportionate amount will be collected, reckoning the tax at one-thirtieth of one per cent, per proof gallon for each day. Upon consideration of the question, it has been determined that upon withdrawals of all spirits produced prior to July 20, 1868, the tax must be paid upon the quantity deposited in or transferred to the warehouse, in accordance with the circular letter of April 14, 1869. Under this, leakage in warehouse is not allowed, and a regauge on withdrawal is not necessary. The collector, however, may direct the gauger to regauge, if the owners of the spirits require it. All spirits remaining in warehouse after June 80, 1869, are declared to be forfeited to the United States. The neglect to withdraw prior to July 1 works an absolute forfeiture. All spirits remaining in any warehouse after June 30 will be immediately taken possession of by the collector, who will re- port the quantity, with the names of the owners, if known, at once to the Commissioner. Spirits produced prior to July 20,1868, which are now stored in warehouses which have been re-established as distillery ware- houses, must be withdrawn and removed from such distillery warehouse in accordance with these regulations. PERMANENT DISCONTINUANCE OF DISTILLING. When any authorized distiller proposes to discontinue the business permanently, he must give notice to the assessor of the time at which he proposes to discontinue, who, upon receipt of such notice, will direct one of his assistants to close and secure the furnace-doors as in case of suspension of work. The distil- ler will also re-register his still as not for use, and make applica- tion for the discontinuance of his warehouse, withdrawing all spirits stored therein, by the payment of the tax. The assessor will report the action taken to this office, and the per diem capacity-tax will cease from the time the distillery is so closed. CHANGE OF OWNERSHIP. Where the title to the estate upon which an authorized dis- tillery is located is changed by a sale, judicial or otherwise, or there is any change of ownership in the premises or distilling apparatus, or where the lot or tract of land on which the dis- tillery stands, or any part thereof, or any of the distilling ap- paratus, subsequent to the approval of the bond, becomes sub- ject to or encumbered by any mortgage, judgment, or other lien; TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 595 or any person becomes interested in the business, other than those stated on Form No. 27, it is no longer an authorized distillery. In such case there must be a new notice on Form No. 27, and all the steps taken the same as in case of a new distillery, except that the distiller may adopt or assent in writing to the correctness of the plan and survey on file, and the proper correction should be made upon the registry of the still. Under the act of July 20, 1868, a rectifier was defined to be any person who rectifies, purifies, or refines distilled spirits by any process; and as redistillation was a purifying or refining of distilled spirits, it was forbidden to be carried on within 600 feet of any authorized distillery. By the amendatory act of April 10,1869, original and continuous distillation from mash, wort, or wash, through continuous closed vessels and pipes, until the manufacture thereof is complete, is not deemed to be rectifying. Therefore, a distiller may after May 1, 1869, carry his product through as many processes of distillation as he pleases, provided the process is continuous, commencing with the distillation of the mash, wort, or wash, the product of the distillation of the mash being carried through continuous closed vessels and pipes until the final product is deposited in the receiving cisterns. REDISTILLATION ON DISTILLERY PREMISES. This does not authorize the leaching of the spirits through charcoal or any other substance; nor the purifying and refining of distilled spirits in any other mode than by redistillation; and no materials or substances whatsoever can be added during the process. The object of the amendment was simply to allow the redis- tillation of spirits in copper, as formerly practised in many distilleries, provided it should be done under the restrictions named. The apparatus must be so constructed that there can be no access had to the spirits on its passage through the pipes and vessels connecting the beer still with, the receiving cisterns. Under these restrictions an alcohol column may be substituted for one of the doublers. From and after November 1,1868, stamps for distilled spirits will be required to be used in all cases as provided by law. These stamps are engraved and bound in book form, the books of tax-paid stamps containing one hundred and fifty and three hundred stamps each, and the others four hundred each. STAMPS FOR DISTILLED SPIRITS. 596 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. The tax-paid stamps are for 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 110, 120, and 130 gallons, with nine coupons attached, each coupon representing one gallon. These stamps will be issued to collectors upon their requi- sitions in such numbers as may be required, and will be charged to them at the full value of the stamps, or at the full value of the tax on the number of gallons represented on the stamps and coupons. It is the duty of the collector to return to this office any book of marginal stubs as soon as the stamps contained therein have been used; and when he has accounted for the tax on the number#of gallons represented on the stamps and coupons that were contained in any book of tax-paid stamps, there will be allowed a commission of half of one per centum on the amount of the tax on spirits distilled after the passage of the act of July 20, 1868, to be equally divided between the assessor and collector. The books containing other than the tax-paid stamps may be intrusted by the collector to a gauger, whenever he may deem it necessary so to do, and he may require such gauger to give security to return or account for all such stamps. Such gauger must make a daily report to the assessor and collector on Form No. 118 of all such stamps used by him, and for whom used, and from these reports the assessor will, on the first of each month, assess the person for whom they were used at the rate of 25 cents for each stamp used during the preceding month, and return the same to the collector for collection. These assessments should be transmitted to the collector with the monthly list, but should not be included in the aggregate of the list nor be receipted for on Form No. 28J. When all the stamps contained in these books shall have been issued, the collector will return the books with the marginal stubs therein to this office. The stubs must in no case be removed from any of the books, and all unused coupons must remain attached to the marginal stubs. No coupon will be of any value when detached from the stamp or stub. Collectors will be credited with the amount of the tax on the number of gallons represented by all coupons attached to the stubs returned to this office. The tax-paid stamps, as well as the other stamps, must be signed by the collector in his own handwriting, and the blanks in the stubs must be filled so as to preserve a perfect record of the use of the stamps when attached. The amount actually received for all kinds of stamps for spirits should be reported monthly on Form No. 90, and also TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 597 on Form No. 51, in the same manner that receipts from the sale of beer stamps are now reported. DISTILLERY WAREHOUSE STAMPS. The law imperatively requires that all spirits produced in any distillery shall be drawn off from the receiving cisterns at least once in three days, and to be gauged and marked and im- mediately removed to the distillery warehouse. The gauger will mark the casks as hereinbefore required, and affix the ap- propriate stamp to each cask as required. If the book of stamps is not in possession of the gauger, the collector or deputy col- lector will issue the stamps upon the report of the gauger in detail of his inspection, keeping an account of the number of stamps so furnished to each distiller, and will report to the assessor at the end of each month the number of stamps other than the tax-paid stamps so issued by him and to whom issued. TAX-PAID STAMPS. Whenever any person desires to withdraw spirits from a warehouse, he will notify the collector or deputy collector, who will upon receipt of the tax cut from the book stamps with the requisite coupons annexed, properly filled up and signed, which will be affixed by the gauger, in presence of the storekeeper, to a smooth surface on the head of the respective casks, as hereinafter directed. At the time of affixing the tax-paid stamps, the gauger will, in presence of the storekeeper, brand the cask as hereinbefore provided in accordance with the provisions of section 25. A stencil-plate cannot be used for this purpose. This brand must not in any case be obliterated or cancelled, except as provided in section 25, by cutting or burning* a cancelling line across such brand or mark; and no stamp, mark, or brand must be effaced or in any manner obliterated until such cask is emptied or its contents drawn off’. STAMP FOR RECTIFIED SPIRITS AND WHOLESALE DEALERS5 STAMP. Whenever any cask or package of rectified spirits is filled for shipment, sale, or delivery, on the premises of any authorized rectifier, or when any cask or package of distilled spirits is filled for the same purpose on the premises of any wholesale dealer, it is the duty of the gauger to gauge and inspect the same, and place thereon the stamp for rectified spirits, or wholesale dealers’ stamp, as the case may be. 598 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. The provisions of section 25 cover all packages filled for shipment, sale, or delivery upon the premises of any authorized rectifier or of any wholesale dealer. As the law explicitly re- quires all such packages to be gauged and stamped, the rectifier or dealer must put up his spirits in casks or packages of a kind which will admit of the attachment of the stamps as required by law. Where the contents of any cask or package are transferred on the premises of a rectifier or dealer to another cask or package of not less than ten gallons capacity, there must be in addition to the stamp for rectified spirits or wholesale dealers’ stamp the marks and brands required by section 47. The requirements of section 47 are not a substitute for, but in addition to the requirements of section 25. AFFIXING, CANCELLATION, AND COVERING OF STAMPS. By virtue of section 25, act of July 20,1868, it is hereby pre- scribed that the affixing, cancellation, and covering of stamps placed on casks or other packages containing distilled spirits, shall be done in the following manner, viz:— Affixing.—The stamps are to be securely affixed to a smooth surface of the cask or package. That surface must not have been previously painted or covered with any substance. Transparent varnish, or any other adhesive material which will cause the stamp to stick securely and permanently, may be used for that purpose. The affixing will be done by the gauger in the presence of the storekeeper. Cancellation.—The stamp having been affixed, it must imme- diately be cancelled. For this purpose the gauger will use a stencil-plate of brass or copper, in which will be cut not less than five fine parallel waved lines, long enough to extend not less than three-quarters of an inch beyond each side of the stamp, on the wood of the cask ; and the name of the gauger must be cut on one end of the plate, and his title, viz., “ U. S. Gauger,” on the other end, perpendicular to the lines. This plate must be imprinted, with blacking or durable coloring material, over and across the stamp as indicated, and in such a manner as not to deface the reading-matter on the stamp ; that is, so as not to daub and make it illegible. Covering— The stamp having been affixed and cancelled, it must immediately be covered with a coating of transparent varnish or other substance. Any transparent varnish or other similar substance may be used for this purpose. TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. 599 EMPTY CASKS OR PACKAGES. By the provisions of section 43, every person who empties or draws off, or causes to be emptied or drawn off) any distilled spirits from any cask or package bearing any mark, brand, or stamp required by law, must, at the time of emptying such cask or package, efface and obliterate such mark, brand, or stamp. Any empty cask or package from which the mark, brand, or stamp has not been effaced or obliterated is declared to be for- feited, and any internal revenue officer should seize the same wherever found. Any person or transportation company who shall receive or transport, or have in possession with intent to transport or to cause or procure to be transported, auy such empty cask or package, or any part thereof“ having thereon any brand, mark, or stamp required to be placed on casks or packages of distilled spirits, is liable to a penalty of $300 for each such cask or package, or any part of such cask or package; and any boat, railroad car, cart, or other vehicle, and all horses or other animals used in carrying or transporting the same, are to be forfeited. Any person who shall fail or neglect to efface and obliterate such mark, brand, or stamp at the time of emptying such cask or package, or who shall receive any such cask or package, or any part thereof, with intent to transport the same, or who shall transport the same, or knowingly aid or assist therein, or who shall remove any stamp from any cask or package without defacing or destroying the same at the time of such removal, or aid or assist therein, or who shall have in his possession any such stamp so removed, or who shall have in his possession any cancelled stamp or any stamp which has been or purports to have been used, is deemed guilty of a felony, and to be punished by fine and imprisonment. The attention of all officers of internal revenue is specially called to the provisions of this section. From all the provisions it is clear that the intent of the law is to require that the marks, stamps, and brand on any cask of spirits shall be effaced and destroyed at the time the cask is emptied, and the responsibility of doing this is placed upon the person emptying it. The terms “efface and obliterate” must be understood to mean a complete destruction, so as to leave no part or portion of the marks, stamps, or brand legible or intelligible. Persons who have possession of, deal in, or are engaged in the transportation of empty spirit casks or packages should understand their liability. If they violate the law, the penalties, though severe, must be 600 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. enforced, and ignorance of its provisions, negligence, or care- lessness on the part of themselves or their subordinates is not a sufficient excuse. The offence, if committed, is declared to be a felony, and there is no power to compromise. MARKING AND BRANDING CASKS. The attention of all officers of internal revenue is called to the regulations in relation to marking and branding of casks or packages of distilled spirits, a strict compliance with which is enjoined upon all officers, and especially gaugers. Complaints have been made that there is a great lack of uniformity among the gaugers in carrying out the regulations, and it is charged that, in some districts, the regulations have been persistently and deliberately disregarded. There is no difficulty in understanding the regulations, and all officers are notified that they must be strictly complied with. It has also been found that the stamps for distilled spirits are in many instances negligently and insecurely attached. This is almost entirely the result of carelessness on the part of the gauger and undue haste in affixing the stamp. Care must be taken to attach the stamps securely and smoothly to a clean surface, and the gauger must take time enough to do so. After it is so affixed it should be cancelled as prescribed, and then covered with the transparent varnish. This is a matter for which the gauger will be held responsible, and a desire to do the greatest amount of work in the shortest space of time will not be accepted as an excuse for a failure to do the work well. Collectors and other seizing officers are instructed to detain or seize any and all casks or packages of spirits which are not marked and branded as required by these instructions, and forthwith report the facts to this office. The owner of the spirits will find it for his interest to insist that the gauger does his work correctly. Any neglect to mark and brand spirits as required by the regulations, or any case of negligence or carelessness in attach- ing the stamps, should be at once reported to this office, that the proper steps may be taken for the dismissal of the officer so doing; and collectors will also be justified in declining to assign any gauger to duty who shall be found guilty of such negligence, carelessness, or disregard of the regulations. C. DELANO, Commissioner. REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE DISTILLATION OF BRANDY FROM APPLES, PEACHES, OR GRAPES, EXCLUSIVELY. Treasury Department, Office of Internal Revenue, Washington, July 1, 1870. EXEMPTIONS. Under the provisions of section 2 of the act of July 20, 1868, the Commissioner of Internal Revenue is authorized, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, to exempt distillers of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively, from certain requirements of said act relating to the manufac- ture of spirits; and, therefore, by virtue of said authority, and with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, I hereby exempt all distillers of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively, from the following provisions of said act, and the acts amendatory thereof, to wit:— From all of the provisions of sections 3,8, 9,15,18, 21, 22, 24, and 45 of the act of July 20, 1868, and so much of the act of April 10, 1869, as is amendatory to section 8 of said act; and from portions of the following-named sections of said act of July 20, 1868, to wit:— So much of section 6 as requires the distiller to state in his notice the number of mash tubs and fermenting tubs, and the cubic contents of each tub, the number of receiving cisterns and the cubic contents of each cistern, and the number of hours in which the distiller will ferment each tub of mash or beer. So much of section 7 as provides that in no case shall the dis- tiller’s bond be for a less sum than five thousand dollars. So much of section 12 as provides that no person shall use any still, boiler, or other vessel for the purpose of distilling, in any shed, yard, or inclosure connected with any dwelling-house. From all of the provisions of section 17, except so much thereof as provides that “ no assessor shall approve the bond of any distiller until all the requirements of law and all regulations made by the-Commissioner of Internal Revenue in relation to distilleries, in pursuance thereof, shall have been complied with,” and the penalty relating thereto. From all of section 19, 602 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. except so much thereof as provides for the keeping of a book or books, in the manner to be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, the preservation of such book or books for the inspection of revenue officers, and the penalties pertain- ing thereto, and the making of returns: Provided, however, That the manner of making such returns shall be as prescribed in these regulations. So much of section 20 as provides that forty-five gallons of mash or beer brewed or fermented from grain shall represent not less than one bushel of grain, and seven gallons of mash or beer, brewed or fermented from molasses, shall represent not less than one gallon of molasses; and so much of section 1 of the act approved April 10, 1869, as is amendatory thereof. From all of the provisions of section 23, except so much thereof as requires that all distilled spirits shall be drawn into casks, and shall be gauged, proved, and marked by a United States gauger, by cutting on the cask containing such spirits, in a manner to be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, the quantity in wine gallons and in proof gallons of the contents of such cask, and the serial nVimber of the package, in progressive order. From so much of section 25 as provides for the receiving of an order from the collector for the removal of spirits from distillery warehouse; and from so much thereof as requires that the affixing of the tax-paid stamp, and the cutting or burning of the serial number of the stamp, shall be done by a gauger. From so much of section 1, act April 10, 1869, as requires that spirits purified or refined in the original course of manu- facture must be by continuous distillation through continuous closed vessels and pipes until the manufacture thereof is com- plete. Distillation from the aforesaid fruits, or from the undistilled products of either or all of these fruits, exclusively, is regarded as a distillation from the fruit. REGULATIONS. 1. (Section 5.) Every still in the possession of any person must be registered on Form 26, either as being for use or not for use; and all stills that have not been so registered must be forthwith registered by the person in possession thereof, with the assessor of the district, or the assistant assessor of the divi- sion in which such still is situated. An omission to so register incurs a penalty of five hundred dollars. 2. (Section 6.) Each person having a still so registered, and DISTILLATION OF BRANDY. 603 intending to use the same for the distillation of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, must, before commencing distilla- tion, give notice on Form 27f to the assessor of his district, direct or through the assistant assessor of his division, of his intention to distill, stating in such notice his name and place of residence, and, if a company or firm, the name and place of residence of each member thereof; the place where said busi- ness is to be carried on; the number and kind of stills; the total capacity of each in gallons; the manner in which the same is to be boiled, whether by steam or furnace heat; the kind of fruit proposed to be used; the building or place on the premises where the distillery is situated in which he will deposit and keep the brandy to be distilled by him until the tax is paid thereon and the tax-paid stamps attached thereto; and that such still or stills are not within six hundred feet of any premises authorized to be used for rectifying or refining distilled spirits by any process. 3. (Section 10.) On the receipt of notice, Form 27J, the assessor, with the aid of his designated assistant, will proceed to make a careful survey of such still or stills, in accordance with the provisions of section 1.0 of said act of July 20, 1868, unless there be on file in his office a correct survey thereof theretofore made, and it appearing to his satisfaction that no change has taken place in the capacity of such still or stills since the making of such survey. 4. (Section 7.) After the completion of such survey, and before the commencement of distillation, each distiller shall make and execute a bond on Form No. 30|, with at least two sureties to be approved by the assessor of the district. The penal sum of said bond shall not be less than double the amount of the tax on the spirits that can be distilled in his distillery during a period of thirty days, as ascertained by the survey, and in no case shall such bond be for a less sum than five hundred dollars. Bonds so given expire on the last day of April of each year, and parties must renew their bonds before continuing or again engaging in distillation after that date. A new bond may be required, in case of the death, insolvency, or removal of either of the sureties, and in any other contingency, at the discretion of the assessor or Commis- sioner of Internal Revenue. On the presentation of such bonds to the assessor, he shall examine the same and satisfy himself that they are correct in form and duly executed according to law; that the sureties thereon are residents of the district, or of some county adjoining the district within the same State; and that such sureties are ample security for the 604 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. amount of such bond, and for that purpose may require from such sureties affidavits, abstract of title, or other evidences as to their solvency. The assessor shall indorse his approval on each bond, certifying that the bond is properly filled up and executed, and that the sureties thereon are, in his belief, suffi- cient. Under the provision of section 59, as amended in the act of April 10, 1869, distillers of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively, producing less than one hundred and fifty barrels annually, are required to pay a special tax of fifty dol- lars per annum, and every such distiller producing more than one hundred barrels of forty proof gallons each within the year, shall pay an additional tax of four dollars for each and every such additional barrel over one hundred barrels. The special tax of fifty dollars is an annual tax, commencing with the first day of May, of each year, and when paid within the year is to be estimated on the unexpired portion of the year, at the rate of fifty dollars per annum. For instance, a party commencing business in May, pays fifty dollars, but a party commencing business in September, pays but T82 of $50, or $33 33. The party paying the $50, is exempt from further special tax on the first one hundred barrels, forty proof gallons each ; while the party paying the $33 33, is exempt on the first sixty-six and two-third barrels; and each party must pay the additional tax of four dollars per barrel upon every barrel in excess thereof. The special tax is to be charged for all of the month within which the bond is approved, no fractions of a month being recognized in estimating this tax, and the exemp- tion from barrel tax is to be applied to the first barrels pro- duced within the year. 5. (Section 19.) Every distiller from fruit must provide himself with a book in accordance with Form No. 25J, which is hereby prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, in which he shall, from day to day, make or cause to be made a true and exact entry of the hours between which the still is operated each day; the kind, quantity, and condition of the fruits used; the number of times each still has been boiled off during each day, and the quantity of singlings and of brandy produced thereby; which book must be always kept open to the inspection of any revenue officer, and, when filled up, shall be preserved by the distiller for the period of not less than two years thereafter, and whenever required shall be produced for the inspection of any revenue officer. Severe penalties are provided in the law for making false entry in such book, or for fraudulently altering any entry made therein, or for omit- ting to make or have made the entries required. DISTILLATION OF BRANDY. 605 Distillers are at liberty to procure the book in any way they see fit. All of the foregoing requirements must be complied with by the distiller before the assessor can approve his bond, and the distiller must not commence work at his distillery before the bond is approved and the special tax paid. On completing the process of distillation, the distiller must draw the brandy distilled by him into casks, each of not less capacity than ten gallons, wine measure, and must retain the same at the designated place of deposit at the distillery until the tax is paid thereon and the tax stamps attached thereto, as hereinafter directed. Severe penalties are provided in the law for altering, chang- ing, consuming, or removing the spirits before the tax is paid thereon and the tax stamps attached thereto. 6. (Section 25.) On or before the 25th day of each month, the distiller shall notify the collector of his district, on Form A, stating the probable number of packages of brandy that will be distilled by him within the month, and probable num- ber of wine gallons, with his request to have the same gauged and marked; and on the receipt of such notice, and after the last day of the month, the collector of the district shall cause the brandy produced during the month to be gauged, proved, and marked, as hereinafter directed, by a United States gauger, who, upon order of the collector, shall proceed at once to gauge, prove, and mark each package of such spirits as he may lind at the distillery or designated place of deposit; and shall cut upon the bung stave of each package the wine gallons, the proof, and the proof gallons; and shall cut or burn on the head of each cask the name of such distiller, the district, the serial number of the cask and kind of spirits; and shall mark thereon the date of such gauge and the name of the gauger by whom made, placing such date and name on the head of the package in such way as to admit of the attaching of the tax- paid stamp between the same. The gauger, on completing each inspection, shall immediately make report thereof, in triplicate, on Form 59J, showing for whom gauged and where, the number of packages, the serial number of each, the proof, the wine gallons and the proof gallons of each, the kind of spirits and the amount of tax thereon, and sign the same, delivering one copy thereof to the distiller, and transmitting one copy thereof to the assessor and one to the collector of the district. The fees for such gauging to be paid by the distiller, at such rates as are or may be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Immediately on the receipt of such return from the gauger, and on or before the tenth day of each month, the distiller 606 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. shall make a return, in triplicate, on Form 15, showing the number of days within the preceding month upon which his stills were operated; between what hours of each day ope- rated ; the kind, quantity, and condition of fruit used, and the number of times each still was boiled off each day; the quan- tity of singlings produced; the aggregate number of wine and of proof gallons of brandy distilled during the month, and quantity of singlings on hand at the end of the month; which return shall be signed by the distiller and sworn to by him before the. assessor, assistant assessor, or some other officer hav- ing general power to administer oaths, and shall be transmitted to the assessor, who, on receipt thereof, shall forthwith trans- mit one copy to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue and one copy to the collector of the district. Having exempted distillers of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively, from the provisions of the law requiring that redistillation be carried on through continuous closed pipes and vessels, it is necessary that the distiller shall complete the process of distillation of his production within the month, so as to have no singlings on hand at the end of the month beyond the production of the last two days, and even this amount should be doubled, where it is possible to do so, within the month, and embraced in the return as brandy. On payment of the tax upon the brandy, as shown in the gauger’s report, the collector shall prepare tax-paid stamps of the proper denomination, with all the blanks filled up accord- ing to the facts as appearing in such gauger’s return, including the serial number of the package to which each stamp is to be attached, which stamps shall be signed by the collector, as well as by the gauger making the return, and delivered to. the dis- tiller. Upon the receipt from the collector of the tax-paid stamps, the distiller shall affix the same to the packages in a secure and permanent manner, by pasting the same upon the head of the packages, at the place previously designated by the gauger, and by driving tacks, one in each corner, one in the centre and at each side of the stamp, making not less than seven in num- ber; and shall cancel the same, by writing across the face of the stamp his name and the date upon which the stamp is affixed to the package, and varnish the stamp with a trans- parent varnish, so as to protect it from removal or damage by exposure; and shall cut or burn, in legible figures, upon the head of each cask, the serial number of the stamp attached thereto, and the date of the payment of the tax. In attaching the stamps, the distiller must be careful to attach each stamp to the package the serial number of which is given in the DISTILLATION OF BRANDY. 607 stamp; and on having so attached the stamps to each package, he shall make entry of the serial number of each package, and of the stamp attached thereto, in the proper column in his book, Form 25J, together with the aggregate amount of tax paid; and on selling or disposing of the packages so stamped, shall enter on his book to whom sold or delivered. Any distiller of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, de- siring to avail himself of the privileges of a distillery warehouse, and of the bonding of the spirits of his own manufacture therein, may do so on complying with all the requirements of law in regard thereto, the same as if such provisions had not been in- cluded in the exemptions set forth in these regulations. The brandy, when put up, marked, and stamped as herein- before required, may be disposed of by the distiller under the authority of the ninth paragraph of section 1, act April 10,1869, by sale or otherwise, at the place of manufacture, in the original casks or packages to which the tax stamps are affixed. Dis- tillers, desiring to retain the brandy for their own consumption, must put it up, mark it, and stamp it, the same as if intended for sale. Under these regulations, it is permissible that a dis- tiller, legally authorized, may receive either of the fruits named or the undistilled products thereof from another person for the purpose of distillation, returning to that other person all or a part of the brandy produced therefrom; but in such case the Government recognizes no person in the transaction but the distiller, and the brandy when distilled must be put up, marked, and stamped, the same as if distilled by the distiller from his own fruits, and for his own consumption or sale. Dis- tillers cannot dispose of the brandy distilled by them in any other than the tax-stamped packages, nor at any other place than the place of manufacture. Every distiller is required, from the date of the approval of his bond until he permanently discontinues business at his distillery, to render all the monthly notices and returns required, whether any distillation has been had at his distillery within the month or not; and where no distillation has been had, the returns shall show that fact. Distillers, desiring to permanently discontinue business, must do so by re-registering their stills as not for use, on Form 26, which form shall be executed in duplicate, and delivered to the assistant assessor of the division, who, on receipt thereof, will see that the still (or stills) is so dismantled as to prevent further distillation, and when so dismantled shall transmit said Form 26 to the assessor of the district, who, on receipt thereof, shall re- gister such still as not for use, and transmit one copy of said Form 26 to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. 7. (Section 20.) On the receipt of the distiller’s return, Form 608 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. 15, in each month, the assessor shall inquire and determine whether said distiller has accounted in his return for the pre- ceding month for all the brandy produced by him; and if the assessor is satisfied that the distiller has returned all the spirits produced by him, he will enter the quantity so reported on Form 89 as the amount to be accounted for during that month. If the quantity so reported by the distiller is less than 80 per cent, of the surveyed capacity of the distillery for the time run and material used, the assessor will assess the distiller 50 cents per proof gallon for every gallon of such deficiency, together with the special tax of $4 per barrel for every barrel of 40 proof gallons each; provided, that no tax of $4 per barrel shall be assessed until the number of barrels exempted under the special tax has been produced. If the assessor finds, upon an examina- tion, that the distiller has not reported all spirits actually pro- duced by him during the month, he will ascertain the quantity actually produced. In determining the amount actually produced, the assessor shall ascertain the kind and quantity of materials used, and the time operated, and determine such amount therefrom, on the basis of the spirit-producing capacity of the materials used as fixed in the survey. The time will be arrived at by aggregating the hours run and dividing by 24, counting any fraction as a whole day. In the absence of a satisfactory return of the materials used and time operated, he may base his estimate of actual production upon the surveyed capacity of the distillery for the period which it is ascertained it was operated, fixing the production at the full capacity thereof. Whenever the actual production of brandy within the year shall be equal to the number of barrels exempted under the special tax, there shall be an additional tax of four dollars per barrel, forty proof gallons, for every barrel in excess of the number so exempted. No assessment for per diem tax will hereafter be made against distillers of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively. 8. Instructions for making Surveys.—(Section 10.) Under the provisions of section 10 of the act of July 20, 1868, the true producing capacity of each distillery must be ascertained and determined by the assessor of the district and the skilful person designated by the Commissioner of Internal Kevenue to assist him therein. These designated assistants are appointed on the recommendation of the assessor of the district, and assessors should see that a sufficient number of suitable persons are re- commended for appointment to meet all the requirements of DISTILLATION OF BRANDY. 609 the service. The reports of the surveys thus made are to be made out in triplicate on Form 99, signed by the assessor and his designated assistant, and one copy thereof delivered to the distiller, another retained by the assessor, and the third trans- mitted to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the cer- tificate of the assessor thereon showing the date on which the copy was delivered to the distiller. Fruit distilleries having no ascertainable mashing or ferment- ing capacity, the true producing capacity thereof is determined solely on the capacity for distillation. This is arrived at by determining, first, the capacity in gallons of each still, making proper deduction for boiling space; second, the number of boil- ings of each still that can be effected in twenty-four hours, of each condition of the material to be used; and, third, the spirit- producing capacity of the material in each condition. The capacity in gallons of each still may be ascertained either by arithmetical calculation, or by filling the same and measur- ing the contents. When done by filling and measuring the contents, the columns in Form 99 for diameters may be left blank, and a note entered on the face of the report showing that the capacity was ascertained by measurement of contents. Twenty per cent, must be deducted from the total capacity of each still, as an allowance of space for boiling. For instance, a still holding one hundred gallons will boil eighty gallons. The number of boilings that can be effected of each material in twenty-four hours is to be determined in view of the appli- ances in use for that purpose. When steam is used, a greater number of boilings can be ordinarily effected than where fur- nace heat is used; and the number of boilings that can be effected with furnace heat depends upon the shape of the still and the amount of the surface exposed to the action of the heat, and the manner in which the still is set. It is believed that ordinarily seven boilings of fruit, in any of the conditions in which it is used, may be had in twenty-four hours. The total number of boilings that can be had having been ascertained, proper deduction should be made for doubling; as, for instance,a still thatcan be boiled off seven times in twenty-four hours may require two boilings to double the singlings produced, thus leaving a capacity of five boilings in twenty-four hours. Apples, peaches, and grapes, from which brandy is distilled, are used in such a variety of conditions, in different sections of the country, that it is difficult to give a classification of these materials which will embrace every condition in which they may be used. The following classification will, however, be found sufficiently comprehensive to embrace any of the ordinary conditions in 610 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. which the fruit is distilled, viz., pomace, cider, must, sour wine, wash, cheese, and lees. The blanks will be found to contain a column for “ other material,” in which to embrace material not clearly coming under either of the above classifications. By pomace, is meant the crushed fruit without the juice ex- pressed therefrom; cider, the expressed juice of the apple; must, the unfermented juice of the grape; sour wine, the fer- mented juice of the grape; cheese, the residue of the fruit after the juice has been expressed therefrom; wash, is the liquid expressed from the cheese of apples or grapes, after adding water thereto; lees, or “ piquettef the dregs or settlings of wine. The spirit-yielding capacity of these several conditions of the fruits is so variable, that it is difficult for this office to lay down any fixed rules on the subject, but it must necessarily leave the determination of the amount of spirits to be produced from a given quantity of each of these materials to the judgment of the assessor and his designated assistants, they acting upon the most reliable information that can be obtained from past ex- periences in the particular locality in which they are making the surveys. From the information contained in the records of this office, and derived from other reliable sources, it is believed that proof brandy may be distilled from these materials, as follows: One gallon from every 17 gallons of apple or peach pomace; one gallon from every 8 gallons of grape pomace; one gallon from every 12 gallons of cider; one gallon from every 5 gal- lons of must; one gallon from every 7 gallons sour wine. The spirit strength of the other materials must be determined solely in the light of experience in each particular locality. This office is not prepared to give any rules relative thereto. Having thus ascertained the number of gallons of each ma- terial that can be distilled in twenty-four hours, and the spirit strength thereof, the capacity of the still or stills for twenty- four hours is readily arrived at. In the absence of the printed blanks furnished by this office, the notices, returns, bonds, &c., required by these regulations, may be made up from the following forms. All of these forms will be furnished to the assessor or collector of the district, for the use of distillers, excepting the book Form No. 25J, and the notice from the distillers of spirits to be gauged, Form A. These regulations shall go into full force and effect on and after the 1st day of July, 1870; and thereupon all former regulations inconsistent herewith will be superseded. C. DELANO, Commissioner. Approved: Geo. S. Boutwelll, Secretary of the Treasury. DISTILLATION OF BRANDY. 611 BLANK FORMS. (26.) UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. REGISTRY OF STILLS. [To be returned in duplicate to the Assistant Assessor by every person having in his possession or custody, or under his control, any still or distilling apparatus set up. Persons failing to register, become liable to a penalty of five hundred dollars, and fine of not less than one hundred dollars nor more than one thousand dollars, and imprisonment for not less than one month nor more than two years, in addition to forfeiture of the still and all personal property found in the building, &c., where the same shall be set up. (Act of July 20,1868, section 5.) A copy of each notice on this form is to be immedi- ately forwarded to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue.] List of stills and distilling apparatus set up at No. — street, in the of , county of , and State of , in the division of the collection district of said State, owned by . Serial No. of still. Cubic contents. For what purpose used. Whether or not intended to be used. Residence. (Number and street, if in a city.) Names of owners. Kind of still. Gallons. (Signed) Received for registry, this day of , A. D. 187-. Assistant Assessor Division, Collection District, m-) UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. NOTICE BY DISTILLERS OF APPLES, PEACHES, OR GRAPES, EXCLUSIVELY. [To be returned to the Assessor of the District by every person engaged in, or intending to be engaged in, the business of a fruit distiller. Persons failing to give notice, become liable to a penalty of one thousand dollars and a fine of not less than one hundred dollars nor more than t\yo thousaird dollars. Act of July 20, 1868, section 6.] 612 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Notice is gereby given, That , of the of , county of , and State of , intend, under the name or style of , to carry on or engage in the business of distilling brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively, at the distillery operated by , situate No. street, in the of , county of , district of , known as Registered Distillery No. , and that the following utensils will be used in said business, viz:— Number and kind of stills and capacity of each in gallons Manner of boiling (whether by steam or furnace heat) Kind of fruit proposed to be used Estimated quantity of brandy capable of being produced every twenty-four hours Distance of distillery from nearest place or premises authorized to be used for rectifying or refining distilled spirits The brandy manufactured at said distillery will be deposited and kept at the following-described place, situated on the same premises with said dis- tillery, until the tax shall be paid thereon and the tax-paid stamps attached thereto, to wit:— Name of every person interested, or to be interested, in the business, and nature of interest, with residence (if in a city, designated by street and number) : , , 18 7-. (Signed) . To , Assessor District . Received this day of , A. D. 187-. , Assessor. •, Assessor. In case of any change in the location, form, capacity, ownership, agency, superintendency, or in the persons interested in the business of such distillery, notice thereof, in writing, stating the particulars of such change, and asking that such notice may be annexed to and made part of the original notice on this Form, must be given to the Assessor or Assistant Assessor of the Division within twenty-four hours of such change. Copies of all notices given on this Form must be immediately forwarded to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, and also copies of all subsequent notices of any changes as above noticed. Under the provisions of Section 11, the processes of distillation and rectifi- cation cannot both be carried on within the distance of six hundred feet; and any Assessor who assesses, or Collector who collects, any special tax in such case, is liable to a penalty of five thousand dollars. DISTILLATION OF BRANDY, 613 (99.) UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. SURVEY OF STILLS USED FOR DISTILLING BRANDY FROM APPLES, PEACHES, OR GRAPES, EXCLUSIVELY. Survey of Distillery at No. , at , in the of , County of , and State of , in the division of the collection district of said State, owned by . Number and kind of stills. Greatest diameter. Least diameter. Mean diameter. Height. Cubic contents. Working capacity. ' No. of boilings in 24 hours by steam. No. of boilings in 24 hours, furnace heat. Apple po- mace. I Peach po- 1 mace. | Grape po- | mace. j | Cider. S s | Sour wine. A c$ * | Cheese. I Lees or pi- 1 quette. | Other ma- terial. 1 Apple po- 1 mace. I Peach po- 1 mace. I Grape po- mace. | Cider. s | Sour wine. A s £ j Cheese. | Lees or pi- 1 quette. | Other ma- terial. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons of material required to produce one gallon of proof brandy. Brandy-producing capacity in 24 hours. Proof gallons. Apple po- mace. Peach po- mace. Grape po- mace. Cider. Must. Sour wine. Wash. Cheese. Lees or pi- quette. Other ma- terial. Apple po- mace. Peach po- mace. Grape po- mace. Cider. Must. Sour wine. Wash. Cheese. Lees or pi- quette. Other ma- terial. ♦ Survey made on the day of , A. D. 187-. , Assessor — District of . , Designated Assistant. I certify that a copy of this survey was delivered to , Distiller, on the day of , 187-. , Assessor. Note.—In case any still is so irregular in form that it cannot be accurately measured in any other manner, it may be filled with water, and the contents drawn off and measured. 614 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. (30*.) UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. FRUIT DISTILLER’S BOND. [Bonds given on this Form expire on the last day of April in each year, and must be renewed before continuing or again engaging in distillation after that date.] Know all men by these presents, That we, , as principal, and , as sureties, are held and firmly bound unto the United States of America in the full and just sum of thousand dollars, money of the United States ; to which payment, well and truly to be made, we jointly and severally bind ourselves, our heirs, executors, and administrators, firmly by these presents. Sealed with our seals, and dated this day of , A. D. 187-. The condition of the foregoing obligation is such, that whereas the said now , or intend, on and after the day of , 187-, to be engaged in the business of distilling brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively, within the Collection District of the State of , to wit, at Registered Distillery No. • , situate in the of , county of , and State aforesaid: Now, therefore, if the said shall in all respects faithfully comply with all the provisions of law and regulations in relation to the duties and business of distillers of brandy from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively, and shall pay all penalties incurred or fines imposed on him for a violation of any of the said provisions, then this obligation shall be void; otherwise, it shall remain in full force. Signed, sealed, and delivered in presence of— The following instructions must be particularly observed and complied with, viz:— 1st. The Christian names must be written in the body of the bond in full, and so signed to the bond. 2d. The residence of each signer must be stated in the bond. 3d. A seal of wax or wafer must be attached to each signature. 4th. Each signature must be made in the presence of two witnesses, who must sign their names as such. 5th. There must be at least two sureties, and the bond must be dated. 6th. A twenty-five cent stamp must be affixed and cancelled. 7th. The penal sflm named in the bond must not be less than double the amount of the tax on the spirits that can be distilled, during a period of 30 days, by the still or stills of which the person giving the bond has notified the Assessor, nor shall it be in any case less than five (hundred) dollars, and should be increased from time to time, if such increase be made necessary by the increase of the number of stills. The attention of the Assessor to whom this bond may be offered for approval is called to the duty imposed upon him by the following provisions, contained in section 7 of the act approved July 20, 1868, to wit:— “ The Assessor may refuse to approve said bond when, in his judgment, the situation of the distillery is such as would enable the distiller to defraud the United States.” “A new bond may be required in case of the death, insolvency, or removal of either of the sureties, or in any other contingency, at the discretion of the Assessor or Commissioner of Internal Revenue.” DISTILLATION OF BRANDY. 615 [Indorsement.'] I hereby certify that this bond is properly filled up and executed, and that the sureties thereon are, in my belief, sufficient, and I approve the same. Assessor district of . (2W) FORM OF BOOK TO BE KEPT BY DISTILLERS OF BRANDY FROM APPLES, PEACHES, OR GRAPES, EXCLUSIVELY. as- Date. Hour of commencing. O Hour of closing. 2 B <-*- CD Hours worked 0 p | Apple pomace. | Peach pomace. ui & | Grape pomace. El | Cider. | Must. *0 | Sour wine. OQ CO | Wash. O- | Cheese. | Lees or piquette. CD | Other material. No. 1. 5* o No. 2. § s, No. 3. No. 4. | Singlings produced. Wine gallons. HH hj 03 O -t CL&5 Proof gallons. c 5. | Serial No. of package | Serial No. of stamp. Dollars. •g H Cents. j To whom sold or delivered. (A.) P. 0., Co., . , 18 7-. Sik : You are informed that during the present month I will put up about packages of brandy, at my distillery, No. , which will contain, in all, about wine gallons, and which I desire to have gauged and marked by a United States gauger, as required by law and regulations, so as to enable me to make my monthly return and pay the tax thereon. Very respectfully, } Distiller. To , Collector District of . (591) UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. RETURN OF GAUGER OF BRANDY FROM FRUIT. [To be made monthly to Assessor, Collector, and Distiller. Each package must be reported separately.] RETURN OF BRANDY gauged at Fruit Distillery No. , in the Dis- trict of , operated by , for the month of , 187-. For whom gauged. Date of gauging. Serial No. of package. Wine gallons. 4Wantage. Proof. Proof gallons. Taxable gallons. Tax due. Dolls. Cts. • ■ J Gauger. 616 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. (15.) UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. MONTHLY RETtJRN OF DISTILLER OF APPLES, PEACHES, OR GRAPES, EXCLUSIVELY. Account of the quantity of brandy distilled from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively, by , in the of , county of , and State of - ■ , during the month of , 187-. To be furnished to the Assessor in triplicate on the first day of each month, or within ten days thereafter, and the tax to be paid to the Collector within the same time. Total SOH Date. Hour of com- mencing. O *§ 3 Hour of closing. g B Hours worked. pp | Apple pomace. | Peach pomace. » g | Grape pomace. g-sr | Cider. a> | Must. | Sour wine. | | Wash. o | | Cheese. g o w | | Lees or piquette. of | | Other material. a> | No. 1. M.&J P © | No. 2. S 2, | No. 3. | No. 4. E- s r °s • Cents. * 1 I, , do swear that the above is an exact account of the num- ber of hours worked and the whole number of gallons of brandy distilled at Distillery No. , carried on by , as aforesaid, during the month specified; and that the spirits so produced were distilled from apples, peaches, or grapes, exclusively; and that said account is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, correct and true. (Signed) . Sworn and subscribed before me, this day of , A. D. 187-. (Signed) , Assistant Assessor, Division, State of . ADDITIONAL EXEMPTION IN RELATION TO BRANDT DISTILLED FROM APPLES, PEACHES, OR GRAPES, EXCLUSIVELY. Treasury Department, Office of Internal Revenue, Washington, October 8, 1869. SPECIAL TAX-PAID STAMP FOR FRUIT BRANDY. It being apparent that the interests of the government, and the necessities of the business of distillers of brandy from fruit, require further exemption of such distillers from the provisions of the law than that heretofore prescribed in Series 5, No. 7, under section 2, act of July 20,1868, it is now ordered that they be exempted from so much of the provisions of section 23 of said act as requires them to put up the brandy they distill from fruit in casks of not less capacity than twenty gallons, wine measure, and that hereafter, until otherwise ordered, they be allowed to put up such spirits in packages of ten proof gallons or upwards. Under the authority conferred in section 101 of said act, with a view to the better collection of the tax derivable from brandy distilled from fruit, and the further prevention or detection of frauds on the revenue, a special stamp for fruit brandy has been issued, for packages of ten gallons, with coupons attached for use on packages containing more than ten gallons and not in any case exceeding nineteen gallons, the stamp now in use still applying to all packages of twenty gallons or upwards. Collectors will make immediate requisition for supplies of this special stamp, in the use of which the blanks must be filled in accordance with the facts in each case. The stamp will be in book form, of two sizes, the larger containing three hundred, the smaller one hundred and fifty each. A filled form of this stamp will read as follows:— Received 8th day of October, 1869, from William Compton, ta£ on ten gallons proof brandy, cask No. 1, for delivery to William Compton, at his distillery in Oldham County. Attest: W. J. WHITE, U. S. Gfyuger. JAMES F. BUCKNER, Collector, 5th District, State of Kentucky. C. DELANO, Commissioner. Approved: Geo. S. Boutwell, Secretary of the Treasury. INSTRUCTIONS AS TO SURVEY OF DISTILLERIES. Treasury Department, Office of Internal Revenue, The survey required by section 10 of the act of July 20, 1868, is to be made of every distillery registered or intended to be registered for the production of spirits, and of every still hereafter set up and intended to be used for that purpose. The assessor and person designated to aid him are to esti- mate and determine the Utrue producing capacity” of each dis- tillery, and make report thereof in writing. In performing this duty, they will assume that the distiller will put his machinery and apparatus in good working order, use good material, and employ competent and skilful work- men, and so manage his business as to produce the most favor- able results; and the question to be determined is, what, under such circumstances, is the number of bushels of grain or gallons of molasses which can be mashed and fermented in twenty-four hours, and the quantity of spirits that can be produced in the same time. August 26, 1869. The “true producing capacity” of a distillery is not limited to what the distiller may produce by following a particular course which he has marked out, but what may be produced under favorable circumstances. The distiller, for instance, may say that he will mash a certain number of bushels, and but once a day, and will use a portion only of his fermenting tubs, and will ferment his mash, for instance, ninety-six hours; but what he could produce by that process is not the “ true producing capacity” of his distillery, because he could mash double the proposed number of bushels, and three or four times instead of once per day, and can ferment twice or three times as much as he states, and of course increase his product in proportion. The “ true producing capacity” of such a distillery is not the amount which is so proposed to be produced, but the amount which can be produced, using all the machinery and apparatus, under competent and skilful management, taking as a basis for the calculation such premises as will produce the best practical results. In order to estimate and determine “ the true producing capacity” of a distillery, it is necessary to ascertain the capacity INSTRUCTIONS AS TO SURVEY OF DISTILLERIES. 619 of the mash and fermenting tubs. This should be done by actual and careful measurement, and the report must show the greatest diameter, least diameter, and depth of each tub; its form, whether round, oval, or square; its full capacity in gallons; the number of dry inches allowed for working or fermenting; its working capacity ; the fermenting tubs, in gallons; the mash tubs, in bushels—estimating not less than one bushel to twenty- five gallons of mash. The fermenting capacity, however, may limit the mashing capacity, because the distiller cannot mash more than he has capacity to ferment. If it should be found that a distiller has an excess of mash tubs, as compared- with his fermenters, due regard will be had to this fact, as mash tubs may be used as fermenters. Having ascertained the diameter and depth of each tub, the cubical contents will be found by the following rule: Multiply the square of the mean diameter in inches by the decimal .0034, and the product will be the number of gallons in one inch of depth; multiply this product by the number of inches of depth in the tub, and the product will be the cubical contents or capa- city of the tub in gallons. Having found the aggregate capacity of the fermenters, the number of bushels which it will take to fill such fermenters is found by dividing that quantity by the number of gallons of mash made from a bushel of grain. Under the provisions of section 20 this divisor cannot exceed forty-five, except in case of a distillery having a producing capacity of less than one hundred gallons in twenty-four hours, and in which grain or meal is mashed by hand, and without the use of steam, in which case it cannot exceed sixty. These are the maximum limits, and if in either case the distiller makes a thicker mash, using less water to the bushel, the divisor will be proportion- ately less. Having found the number of bushels which are required to fill the fermenters, the assessor and person designated to aid him will determine what, under all the circumstances, is a rea- sonable period to be allowed for fermenting, and in so doing they are not bound by the period stated in the distiller’s notice, but are to take such period as will, under ordinary circum- stances and with good management, produce the best results. From the best information it is believed that a fermenting period of sixty hours is as long a period as can be used con- sistently with good management or a profitable conduct of the business, and where a greater period than this is assumed it must be accompanied with such a statement of the circum- stances as will show it to be justified as an exceptional case. 620 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Having thus determined the fermenting period, the twenty- four hours during which the fermenting tubs are to remain empty are to be added, and with this sum divide the number of bushels which it requires to fill all the fermenters, and the re- sult will show the number of bushels that can be mashed in one hour or one day, according as the divisor is in hours or days; and if in hours, multiply by twenty-four to find the quantity for one day of twenty-four hours. Having thus found the number of bushels which can be mashed and fermented in twenty-four hours, the next point to be determined is, what quantity of spirits can, under all the circumstances, be produced from a bushel of grain—that is, what quantity of spirits can a practical distiller, with good management, produce from a bushel of good grain; and while no fixed rule can be laid down on the subject, it may be sug- gested that in ordinary distilleries this varies from three to four gallons, and in some cases over four gallons, as shown by the returns, or an average of three and a half gallons to the bushel. It may be safely assumed that it would require a strong case to justify an estimate of less than three gallons, and in such case the reasons for such an allowance must be fully reported to the Commissioner; and in all cases where the estimate is below the average (three and a half gallons) an explanation will be required. Having determined this product, multiply the number of bushels that can be fermented in twenty-four hours by it, and the result will be the quantity of spirits that can be produced in twenty-four hours. The capacity of a molasses distillery is estimated upon the same principle. Having found the working fermenting capa- city of the fermenters in gallons, as above stated, divide this by the number of gallons of mash which the distiller makes from a gallon of molasses, not exceeding seven gallons of mash for a gallon of molasses, and it will give the number of gallons of molasses required to fill the fermenters. Take the ferment- ing period, plus the twenty-four hours, and divide the amount found as above, and it will give the quantity which can be fer- mented in twenty-four hours. The quantity of spirit which can be produced from a gallon of molasses varies, of course, with the completeness of the appa- ratus and the quality of the material, from eighty to ninety-five per cent.—from eighty-five to ninety per cent, probably being a fair average; and in no case should a less allowance than this average be made without first submitting a full report of the reasons therefor to the Commissioner. In case any question arises as to the correctness of the survey, the assessor will forward a draught of his report to the Corn- 621 INSTRUCTIONS AS TO SURVEYS OF DISTILLERIES. missioner before it is signed, in order that such questions may be determined. In estimating the number of dry inches to be allowed for fermentation, the assessor and person designated to aid him must, of course, be governed in a great measure by the depth of the fermenting tubs. From the best information received, it is believed that a fair allowance will be from three to seven dry inches for corn, and any mixture of corn and rye not exceeding one-half rye to one-half corn; and from seven to twelve dry inches for rye, and any mixture of rye exceeding one-half. While it is perhaps natural that the distiller should claim the maximum allowance as most advantageous to him, it is incum- bent upon the officers making the survey to make such allow- ance only as is fair and equitable, having regard to the interests of the government as well as of the distiller. Should the allow- ances in any district in all cases equal the maximum allowance, or in most cases exceed the average between the two extremes given, the survey should be accompanied by some explanation of the reasons therefor, to rebut the inference which might be drawn from such action. Under the provisions of section 6, the distiller is required to state the fermenting period which he proposes to use, and the quantity of spirits which he will produce. This may or may not be the “ true producing capacity” of his distillery; but having so stated it, he cannot change his fermenting period without notice to the assessor, as provided in said section; if he does, he renders himself liable to heavy penalties. This is his own statement, entirely distinct from and independent of the “true producing capacity” as estimated and determined under section 10. It is to be made and filed before any action is taken under section 10. If, after his true producing capacity is determined under section 10, he chooses to adopt a ferment- ing period corresponding to that assumed by the assessor and person designated to aid him, he may do so by giving the proper notice. If he does it without such notice, he subjects himself to penalties. As this estimate and determination of the true producing capacity of distilleries is one of the most important tests by which the amount of tax to be paid by a distiller is to be deter- mined, it should be carefully and correctly made, and the offi- cers required to make it will be held to a strict accountability. The instructions on pages 7, 8, and 9, of Series 5, No. 7, in relation to the survey of distilleries, are hereby revoked, and the foregoing substituted therefor. Officers receiving these instructions will attach the same to Series 5, No. 7. C. DELANO, Commissioner. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS RELATIVE TO TICE METERS, Treasury Department, Office Internal Revenue, Washington, March 30, 1869. On the 16th of September, 1868, the Commissioner of Inter- nal Revenue adopted and prescribed for use in distilleries the spirit-meter invented by Mr. Isaac P. Tice, of New York, being the same that was adopted and prescribed by the Hon. Secretary of the Treasury on the 19th of April, 1867, under section 15 of the act of March 2, 1867, and subsequently recommended for use by the commission appointed under the joint resolution of Congress approved February 3, 1868. Section 3 of the act of July 20, 1868, provides that when- ever the Commissioner of Internal Revenue shall adopt and prescribe for use any meter, every owner, agent, or superinten- dent of a distillery must furnish and attach, at his own expense, such meter for use at his distillery, and furnish all pipes, mate- rials, labor, and facilities necessary to complete such attach- ment in accordance with the regulations of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who is also authorized to order and require such changes of, or additions to, the distilling apparatus, con- necting pipes, pumps, or cisterns, or any machinery connected with or used in or on the distillery premises, and prescribe such fastenings, locks, and seals as he may deem necessary. The system which has been adopted involves the use of two meters; the first will be attached to the end of the worm and will register the entire product of the still; the second will be placed upon the doubler in such position as to register the quantity of low wines carried back to the doubler for redistil- lation. If the still is provided with such attachments that no low wines are discharged, and the distiller is prepared to report as taxable the entire product of the still, the second meter will not be required. These meters are constructed of six different sizes, the prices and capacities being as follows:— I. As TO PROCURING AND ATTACHING METERS. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO METERS. 623 Sample meter A $200 Capacity, four gallons per minute. Sample meter B 250 Capacity, eight gallons per minute. These are intended for attachment to small copper stills. Meter No. 2 600 Capacity, three gallons per minute. Meter No. 3 • 800 Capacity, six gallons per minute. Meter No. 4 1000 Capacity, eighteen gallons per minute. maximum capacity per minute of each of the meters. Meter No. 1 is not now made, having been found too small for prac- tical use; a larger size, No. 5, having a capacity of about 30 gallons per minute, is now being constructed, the price and exact capacity of which will be announced hereafter. The meter adopted being the invention of Mr. Tice, and se- cured to him by letters patent, can only be made by him or under his license; and in order to guard against an unreason- able price being demanded of those who are bound by law to purchase it, the prices of the several sizes, under an arrange- ment made between Mr. Tice and the government, were deter- mined by a committee, consisting of Wm. T. Duvall, of George- town, D. C., Wm. P. Trowbridge, of New York, and S. J. Knowles, of Massachusetts, all practical and skilful machinists, two of whom were designated by the government and one by Mr. Tice, and the sums hereinbefore named are the prices agreed upon by them for the meters delivered at the place of manufac- ture, as stated in the report of that committee. Under the provisions of section 3 of the act of July 20, 1868, distillers are required to procure and attach such meters, and in making their applications therefor they must state the capa- city of the still in cubic feet, and its utmost possible producing capacity per minute—that is, the greatest possible quantity of spirits that will pass from the worm in that time. The pro- ducing capacity here referred to must not be confined to high wines merely, but must show the entire quantity of spirits, whether high or low wines, which can or will pass from the worm in the time specified. The attention of distillers is espe- cially called to this point, as the discharge from the worm is not uniform, and if the meter is not of sufficient capacity to measure and pass the largest quantity which the worm will dis- charge it will be flooded, and its operation thereby stopped The capacity above given must be understood to be the 624 UNJTED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. until the meter is opened and the valve again placed in working order. The application must also show the cubic contents of the doubler, the outside diameter of the worm at its lower ex- tremity, the height and diameter of the tank in which it is placed, and the material of which the still, doubler, and tank are constructed. The diameter of the main pipe leading from the still to the doubler, as well as of the charging and dis- charging and blow-off pipes, including the pipe used for dis- charging the doubler, must also be given. There is also re- quired a description of the foundations upon which the still, doubler, and condenser are respectively supported. If the still is provided with collapse valves, their number and diameter must also be stated. This application will be made on Form 7, as heretofore pre- scribed, which will be furnished by the collectors of the several districts. At the time of making the application, the applicant will furnish to the collector of his district a certificate of de- posit in a United States depository for the amount of the price of the meter or meters, payable to the order of Mr. Tice, and the collector will certify upon such application that he has re- ceived such certificate, and forward the application to this office for transmission to Mr. Tice. And the applicant should also state the means of access to the distillery, whether by railroad, steamboat, or canal, and with what points the distillery is con- nected by either of these modes of communication. If there is any person carrying on the trade of coppersmith in the immediate vicinity, the collector will state the fact; and if not, he will state the distance to the nearest point at which the services of such artisan can be procured. Upon the receipt of the bill of lading, the collector will at once transmit the certificate of de- posit to Mr. Tice, at his address, 314: Third avenue, New York city. The expenses of transportation and attachment of the meters, and of any changes required to be made in the distillery, are to be paid by the distiller. The distillers, must furnish all lumber and other materials necessary for the attachment of the meter, and such workmen and assistants as may be required. The attachment will be made in such manner as to interfere as little as possible with the operation of the distillery; but in case the distiller neglects promptly to provide the materials and assistance required, or in any way attempts to delay or defeat the attachment, it will be the duty of the collector of the district to dose the distillery until the meters are attached. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO METERS. 625 Where meters are being attached to several neighboring distilleries at the same time, the expenses incurred by Mr. Tice and his employees will be apportioned among the several distilleries according to the time employed in each. Distillers of apples, peaches, and grapes, exclusively, are exempted from the provisions of law requiring distillers to procure and attach meters. Examination of the applications on file has shown that the meters applied for by distillers are in many cases of too small capacity for the distillery. It is well known that, in steam distilleries especially, stoppages frequently occur for a short time when the accumu- lated force of the steam drives over the alcoholic vapor, which is rapidly condensed and discharged from the worm with great force, in some cases accompanied by mash; and the question for the distiller to determine under this regulation is, what is the greatest quantity which will be discharged from the worm under such circumstances? If the meter is not sufficient to pass the product of the worm under any and all circumstances, it will be flooded, the discharge valve closed, and its operations stopped, the spirit filling the meter and flowing back into the worm. The effect will of course be the same as if the distiller should effectually close the outlet of the worm while the still is in operation. If the distiller applies for a meter of too small capacity, its attachment will be attended with the result above stated, unless prevented by shutting off the steam in time. The cost of the delay and other expenses attending such an accident may be much more than the difference in the cost of the meters, asMe from the fact that the distiller in such case would be compelled to procure a larger meter to prevent a recurrence of such accidents. By the third paragraph of Circular No. 69, distillers were required to procure and attach two meters in all cases, except where the still is provided with such attachments that no low wines are discharged, and the distiller is prepared to report as taxable the entire product of his still. In most of the applica- tions but one meter is called for, although there is in the distillery a separation of low and high wines. If the two meters are attached, the distiller will be charged with the amount shown by the meter attached to the worm, deducting therefrom the amount of low wines shown by the other meter to have been returned to the doubler. Distillers should be at once required to revise their applica- tions for meters, and where the meters are too small, or only 626 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. one is applied for when two are required, the applications should be at once corrected. If not so done, it will be understood that the distillers propose to stand upon their applications as made, and that they will take the entire responsibility as to the meters ordered by them being of sufficient capacity ; and, where only one meter is applied for, that they assent to being taxed for the low as well as the high wines. All revenue officers will govern themselves accordingly. The manufacturer of the meters will be instructed to forward the meters of the sizes applied for, and to attach the same; and if any trouble arises on this account, the distiller, having been furnished with the precise size he asked for, will have no reason to complain of any one but himself. Meters will now be delivered as fast as the corrected applica- tions are received, and the manufacturer will proceed with their attachment as fast as possible. Collectors should at once notify all distillers who have not made application to do so immediatel}7, and will report to the Commissioner the names of such as refuse or neglect to make such application. Whenever a certificate of deposit is forwarded to Mr. Tice, the collector will report the fact to this office, giving the amount, and name of the distiller who made the deposit. Where collectors deposit their collections in a depository bank, the meter deposits will be made in such bank; but where they are required to deposit collections with an assistant treasurer or designated depositary, the meter deposits will be made in some responsible bank. A daily report must be made by the storekeeper in charge of each distillery to the assessor of the district, setting forth the indications shown by the meter at the hour of 12 midnight, or at the time when the distillery ceases to operate for the day. And each assistant assessor who has a distillery in his division will examine each meter whenever he visits the distillery, and report to his assessor the indications of the meter as above directed. And assessors, in making their monthly computation on Form No. 89, will use the information thus given in deter- mining the production. Where but one meter is attached, they will charge the distiller with the full product of the worm, making no deduction for low wines returned to the still or doubler. In distilleries where the product of the first distillation is singlings only, no meter will be required for the singling still; but each doubling still will require one or two meters, depending upon the fact whether there is a separation of the low wines. It must be understood, however, that there must be close connections between the singling and doubling stills in all cases, REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO METERS. 627 so that no access can be had by the distiller to the low wines at any point during their passage from the singling to the doubling still. Collectors will furnish distillers promptly with a copy of these instructions, and if no corrections of the applications are made, will at once notify this office. Where distillers continue to run, after the issue of these instructions, without making prompt application for a meter, the names of such distillers will be at once reported to this office. Under the provisions of the law the distiller is required to furnish and attach meters at his own expense, and also to furnish all pipes, materials, labor, and facilities necessary to complete such attachment. The first duty of a distiller is, of course, to procure a meter. The manufacturer is not required to furnish the meters on credit, and ought not to be expected to do so. When he ships a meter to a distiller, in accordance with the application, the manufacturer is entitled to the pay for it. The law does not require the manufacturer to attach it, but, on the contrary, requires the distiller to attach at his own expense. Wherever changes are required in a distillery to facilitate the attachment, such changes must be made by the distiller. In order that the attachment may be made correctly and the meters properly adjusted, the manufacturer or some of his own work- men are required to superintend the attachment. When a dis- tiller is notified by the manufacturer or his agents what changes are necessary, and what materials or assistance are required, he should furnish them promptly. It will be the duty of collectors to see that they do so, and in case of any unreasonable delay, to close the distilleries until the attachment is completed. Wherever it is practicable an officer detailed by the Commis- sioner will supervise the attachment, and when no such detail is made the assessor will detail one of his assistants for that purpose. When the attachment of a meter is completed, it must be promptly reported to this office by such officer or assistant assessor. The presence of such officer, however, will not be understood as relieving either the collector or assessor of the district from the responsibility properly belonging to them. A strict compliance with these instructions will be required of all officers of internal revenue. Whenever the manufac- turer or his agents commence the attachment of meters in any district, the officers of such district are required to afford them every aid in their power, in order that the work may be com- pleted as soon as possible. If there is any delay on the part of the distiller, or if any obstacles are interposed by him, or 628 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. the manufacturer or his workmen fail to do their duty, prompt report must be made to this office. All must understand that the requirements of the law in relation to meters and their attachment will be rigidly enforced. II. Computation of quantity of proof spirit. There are two classes of these spirit meters made. In one of these all the liquor is weighed, and a small sample of each can-full reserved for future inspection. In the other class all the liquor is likewise weighed, and, besides, the volume and weight of a certain portion of it is registered, from which the proof can be computed; in addition to which a small sample is taken, which serves to verify the proof deduced from the automatic register, and affords the means of applying a correc- tion for temperature. The first class, or sample meters, are made of two sizes, marked A and B. The former weighs five pounds, and the latter ten pounds, at one registration. To ascertain at any time how many proof gallons have run through one of these meters since a previous inspection, read the index, withdraw all the reserved sample, and ascertain its strength by the hydrometer in the usual way. Subtracting the previous reading of the register from that now observed, and multiplying the differ- ence by five for sample meter A, or by ten for sample meter B, we find the number of pounds of liquor that have been run through the meter. Having now the number of pounds and the average proof, we turn to Table II. of the Manual for Gaugers, which gives the corresponding number of gallons. The number of proof gallons is then found in the usual way by multiplying the number of gallons with the per cent, of proof spirits contained in them. METER REPORT. Example.—From meter at M. N.’s distillery at (here insert locality). Sample meter A. Amount of spirits distilled, as shown by meter, from February 6th, at 9 o’clock A. M., to February 13, at 4 o’clock P. M.: Reading of register . 5910 ' Previous reading . . 4632 1278 5 Pounds registered . . 6390 Total gallons . . 830 Sample drawn : Hydrometer, 106 ; temperature, 50°. True per cent., 110. Total proof gallons, 913. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO METERS. 629 The number of gallons passed through are here found from Table II. of the manual, as follows: On the line for 110 per cent, we find that 600 pounds are equal to 77.92 gallons, and hence 6000 pounds give 779.2 gallons; also 300 pounds give 38.9 gallons; and 90 pounds give 11.7 gallons; therefore 6390 pounds give 829.8 gallons. For the 90 we look in the column 900, and shift the decimal point one figure to the left. The second class, or complete meters, are made of four dif- ferent sizes, marked respectively No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5. In each meter the lower register counts every discharge of a weighing-can into which all the liquor runs. At each discharge this can weighs— In No. 2, 5 pounds. In No. 3, 10 pounds. In No. 4, 30 pounds. In No. 5, 50 pounds. The discharge of this weighing-can, at the same time empties a measuring-can holding exactly a quart, and the spirits so emptied are weighed in a three-pound weighing-can which is registered on the upper register; the number of quarts being taken from the lower register, as well as the total weight of the spirits. That portion of the spirits which was reserved in the measuring-can passes, after being weighed in the three- pound can, into the large or lower weighing-can. The quart and three-pound cans are alike in all the sizes of meters. We obtain thus the whole weight of the spirits that have passed through the meter, and also the weight of a certain number of representative quarts, from which we can find, by appropriate tables, the strength and quantity, and consequently the number of proof gallons. It is convenient to convert the quarts into gallons, as the tables have been constructed for that unit. (See Table IY. of the Manual for Gaugers.) Example.—Suppose that since the previous reading the lower register of a No. 3 meter has counted 636, and the upper register 398 ; we learn that 6360 pounds of liquor have passed, and that 636 quarts, or 159 gallons of it, weighed 3 X 398= 1194 pounds. Dividing 1194 by 159, we find that each gallon weighed, on the average, 7.51 pounds. Then dividing the whole weight, 6360 pounds, by the average weight of 1 gallon, 7.51 pounds, we find the whole run to have been 846.8 gallons. For the strength we enter Table IY. of the manual with 751 in the left-hand column, and find 130.6 as the corresponding percentage of proof spirits. Hence adding to 846.8 gallons 30.6 per cent, we obtain 1105.9 proof gallons for the-value of the registered spirits. 630 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. To a still which produces only high wines a single meter will be attached, and the foregoing process gives the number of proof gallons on which the tax is to be assessed. But if the still produce both high and low wines, the latter being returned to the doubler for redistillation, then an additional meter will be attached at the doubler, on which the low wines will be registered. We can then compute from the indications of this low-wine register the proof gallons returned to the still, which are to be deducted from the gross amount shown by the meter at the worm, in order to ascertain the amount on which the tax is to be assessed. Suppose, for example, that in the previous case the low-wine meter had counted on the lower register 359, and the upper one 229; we see that 3590 pounds of spirit were sent back as low wines, and that 359 quarts or 89.75 gallons of it weigh 3x229 = 687 pounds. Dividing 687 by 89.75, we find that each average gallon weighed 7.66 pounds, and seeing how often this is contained in 3590, that there were 468.7 gal- lons. Moreover, looking for the per cent, corresponding to 766 in Table IV., we find 114.6 per cent, as the average strength of the low wines. Hence 537.2 proof gallons have been sent back as low wines, which, subtracted from the total proof gallons that passed through the meter at the worm, viz., 1105.9, leaves 568.7 proof gallons as the amount on which the tax is to be assessed. If it be desired to know the average strength of the high wines, in order to compare with the gauger’s return, that may- be easily obtained by comparing the actual or "wine” gallons with the proof gallons, as thus: deducting 468.7, the number of gallons of low wines, from 846.8, the total number of gal- lons distilled, we find 378.1 the number of gallons of high wines, which have been found equivalent to 568.7 gallons of proof spirits. Dividing the latter number by the former, we obtain 150.4 per cent, as the average proof of the 378 gallons of high wines produced. The foregoing calculations all suppose that the liquor has been measured in the meter at a temperature of 60° Fahren- heit, for which the tables are constructed. If the spirits had passed through the meter at a high tem- perature, the proof derived from its indications would be higher than the actual strength ; and if at a lower temperature, it would be lower than the actual strength, in precisely the same degree as if the proof had been taken by a hydrometer. The receiver in which the small samples are collected con- tains a hydrometer and thermometer exposed to view. By these the average strength of the spirits distilled since the receiver was last emptied can be ascertained by observation, REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO METERS. 631 and their indications should be recorded at each reading of the meter. The proof so obtained should not differ from that de- rived from the automatic register by more than what is due to the difference between 60° Fahrenheit and the temperature at which the spirits may have passed through the meter. The receiver should be emptied after the verification of each report of the indications of the meter. The following form, adapted to the various cases, will be used in making reports of the indications of meters. The names, dates, and figures are filled in with the pen, and con- stitute an actual report, the computation of which is given below:— METER REPORT. From meters at Mr. distillery, at ———. Amount of spirits distilled as shown by meters, from February 11, at 9 o’clock A. M., to February 12, at 2 o’clock P. M.:— Top register .... 3842 Previous indication. . . 3296 Difference .... 546 Meter No. 4, at Worm. Bottom register . . . 4220 Previous indication. . . 3325 Difference .... 895 Total number of wine gallons distilled ...... 3668 Average proof 149 per cent. Total number of proof gallons * 5465 Meter No. 4, at Doubler. Top register .... 1029 Previous indication. . . 717 Difference .... 312 Bottom register . . . 2111 Previous indication. . . 1611 Difference .... 493 Number of wine gallons of low wines 1954 Average proof 122 per cent. Number of proof gallons of low wines ....... 2384 Total number of proof gallons run, minus low wines redistilled, by meter .......... • • 3081 Sample Receivers. Meter at Worm. Hydrometer 145 ; temperature 680 ; proof 142. Bottom register 895 30 pounds. 26,850 pounds. Total gallons 3,631 (by Table II.) Total proof gal- lons . . 5,156 Meter at Doubler. Hydrometer 118 ; temperature 650 ; proof 116. Bottom register 493 30 pounds. 14,790 pounds. Gallons of low wines . . 1,934 Proof gallons low wines . 2,243 Total proof gallons run, minus low wines redistilled, 2913. Tax due on 2913 proof gallons. 632 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. The computations may be conveniently made as follows:— Meter at Worm. Bottom— Top— 4)895 quarts. 546 3 223.75 gallons. 1638 pounds. 223.75)1638.00(7.32 1566.25 71.750 67.125 4.6250 4.4750 .1500 895 (lower weighing can.) 30 pounds. 7.32)26850.00(3668 galls, of 149 proof. 2196 1467.2 330.12 4890 4392 5465.32 proof gallons. 4980 4392 5880 5856 24 Meter at Doubler. 4)493 312 3 123.25 gallons. 936 pounds. 123.25)936.00(7.594 862.75 73.250 61.625 11.6250 11.0925 .53250 493 30 7.594)14790.000(1954 galls.of 122pr’f. 7594 390.8 39.08 7196.0 6784.6 2383.88 proof galls. 411.40 379.70 31.700 30.376 1.324 The above gives the quantity and proof from the meter indications, which would be accurate if the spirits had been measured at 60° Fahrenheit. But by the sample received we see that the true proof was 142 and 116 per cent, respectively. The difference of 7 and 6 per cent, corresponds to temperatures of 80° and 75°, which are reasonable and usual. The computa- tion of the proof gallons on which the tax is due is made from the weight and proof by samples according to Table II. of Manual. III. Testing meters when attached to a distillery. The most reliable way is to ascertain the weight by actual weighing, and by testing with the hydrometer the strength of a considerable quantity of spirits, both high and low wines, dis- charged from the meter, and compare the same with the regis- tration on the meter. REGULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO METERS. 633 To this end it would be necessary to disconnect the discharge- pipes for high and low wines, and to let the spirits be run into tanks provided for the purpose, sufficiently large to receive the product of a charge of high and low wines respectively. Bach tank should be mounted on a platform scale, and means pro- vided to empty the tanks into the receivers between the runs of the still. The weighing is preferred to measuring, because the weight is not changed by heat, while the volume is. After weighing each tank, its contents should be well stirred and then proofed with the hydrometer; the actual indication and temperature being set down, together with the weight and the corresponding index readings of the meter. Not less than 500 registrations of the weighing-can should be used in the test. This will give an accurate and correct test of the rate of the meter. A less accurate test may be made by comparing the result of the meter indications with the quantity and strength of the spirits actually delivered into the receiving cisterns for high wines. In adopting this method, the officer making the test must assure himself that there is no communication with the receiving cisterns except that from the meter, and that the receiving cis- terns are empty when he commences the test. He should measure all and none but the spirits that have passed through the meter and been delivered during his test. He will record the index readings of the meter at the com- mencement of the test and at the close of each run of the still, and draw off, measure, and test the proof of the spirits delivered into the receiving cisterns during each run. The measuring may be done by means of sealed gallon or five-gallon measures, or by barrels, the capacity of which has been ascertained by actual measurement with sealed measures, or by weighing the water they will hold, allowing 12 gallons for 100 pounds. The officer should see to the measurement personally, as well as to obtaining the average proof of each run. C. DELANO, Commissioner. REGULATIONS IN RELATION TO THE USE OF STAMPS FOR DISTILLED SPIRITS, THE ISSUE OF STAMPS FOR RECTIFIED SPIRITS, AND TO PROVIDE FOR A UNIFORM AND CORRECT MODE OF MARKING AND BRANDING CASKS OR PACKAGES OF SPIRITS. Treasury Department, Office of Internal Revenue, I. Use of stamps. Washington, August 20, 1869. Under the provisions of the act of duly 20, 1868, as amended by the act of April 10, 1869, there are, exclusive of the stamp for stock on hand, three classes of stamps for distilled spirits: 1. Those used for distillers, consisting of the distillery-warehouse and the tax-paid stamps. 2. Stamps for rectified spirits, to be used for rectifiers. And 8. Wholesale liquor-dealers’ stamps, to be used for wholesale liquor-dealers. All spirits produced are required to be deposited in the dis- tillery warehouse, prior to which they must be drawn into casks containing not less than twenty wine gallons each, and gauged, and the distillery-warehouse stamp affixed to each cask. When withdrawn from warehouse the tax-paid stamp must also be affixed, and both of said stamps must remain upon such casks until the spirits therein are emptied or drawn off, when such stamps, with the other marks and brands, must be effaced and destroyed, as required by section 48. The special brand, however, which, under the provisions of section 25, is to accompany the tax-paid stamp, must not be removed and destroyed, but, when the cask is emptied, is to be cancelled by cutting or burning a cancelling line across the letters and figures composing such brand in such manner as not to destroy their legibility. The original packages of a distiller, after removal from ware- house, must, therefore, bear the distillery-warehouse and tax-paid stamps. The absence of these stamps from any cask of raw spirits, high wines, or spirits withdrawn from a distillery warehouse, REGULATIONS OF STAMPS FOR DISTILLED SPIRITS. 635 is evidence that there has been a change of package, and the cask in such case must bear the marks and brands required by section 47, which furnish the means for identifying the spirits after such change of package. So long as the original package remains unchanged, and bears the distillery-warehouse and tax- paid stamps, no other stamp is required. Under the provisions of section 25, every package of recti- fied spirits filled for shipment, sale, or delivery on the premises of any authorized rectifier, must be gauged, inspected, marked, and branded as hereinafter provided, and have affixed thereto the stamp for rectified spirits. It must be understood, however, that the term rectified spirits is here used in its legal, and not in the ordinary commercial signification of the term. Any person who purchases tax-paid spirits and redistills or compounds the same, or who purifies or refines such spirits by any process, is a rectifier as defined by law; and the spirits so redistilled, compounded, refined, or purified, are rectified spirits, and must bear the stamps for recti- fied spirits. The term rectifier, as used in these regulations, includes every person who treats distilled spirits by any of the processes the using of which would constitute him a rectifier as defined by section 59 of the act of July 20, 1868, as amended by the act of April 10, 1869. When a rectifier purchases spirits and proposes to subject them to any of the processes which would constitute him a rectifier, he must file with the collector the notice hereinafter provided for ; and, upon emptying the casks, he must erase and destroy the stamps, marks, and brands upon such casks, with the exception of the special brand accompanying the tax- paid stamp, which must be cancelled as hereinbefore provided. And when he puts spirits into casks, after completing his pro- cess, such casks must have affixed the stamp for rectified spirits, and this stamp must not be removed until the cask is emptied. The absence of this stamp from a cask of rectified spirits is evidence of a change of package, and will justify a seizure if the package is not marked and branded as required by section 47; but so long as the original cask remains unchanged, no other stamp is required. A wholesale liquor-dealer is defined to be any person who sells or offers for sale spirits in packages of five gallons and upwards; and every cask or package filled for shipment, sale, or delivery, on the premises of any wholesale liquor-dealer, must be gauged and inspected, and have affixed thereto the wholesale liquor-dealers’ stamp. Where a wholesale liquor-dealer or rectifier purchases spirits in the original packages as put up by a distiller or rectifier, properly marked and stamped as such, no regauging or restamp- 636 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. ing is required. Where, however, he draws spirits from such original packages, and fills other packages on his premises, the spirits must be regauged and the stamps for rectified spirits or a wholesale liquor-dealers’ stamp affixed, as the case may be; and if such package contains ten gallons or more, it must also be branded and marked as required by section 47. Where a wholesale liquor-dealer purchases packages of spirits properly marked, stamped, and branded, and sells them in the same con- dition, no other stamp or mark is required. A neglect or failure to comply with the requirements of sec- tion 25, on the part of a rectifier or wholesale liquor dealer, renders him liable to the forfeiture of all spirits owned by him or in which he has any interest, and to a penalty of one thou- sand dollars. The attention of all officers of internal revenue is specially called to these instructions, as much confusion has arisen in consequence of the indiscriminate use of the stamp for rectified spirits and the wholesale liquor-dealers’ stamp. The use of the wholesale liquor-dealers’ stamp upon the original packages of rectified spirits put up by a rectifier is improper, and must not be allowed; and the term rectified spirits must not be limited to its old commercial sense, but must be construed to cover all spirits included in the statute definition. The provisions of section 47 apply to all cases where dis- tilled spirits are drawn from any cask or package, and placed in any other cask or package containing not less than ten gallons, and intended for sale, without regard to the person by whom, or the place where, such change is made; and the ab- sence of such marks or brands is declared to be sufficient cause of forfeiture. All distilled spirits on hand November 1,1868, and intended for sale, not then in bonded warehouse, were required to be returned to the collector, and stamped with the stock-on-hand stamp; and such spirits not so stamped were liable to seizure and forfeiture after December 1, 1868. Where packages of such spirits were properly stamped, and marked under the pro- visions of section 57, no other stamp, mark, or brand is required so long as such package remains unchanged. The absence of any stamp or brand required by law from any package of spirits containing more than five gallons works a forfeiture of the package and contents. This provision of section 57 is not in conflict with, but in addition to, the requirements of section 25. If any authorized rectifier fills any package with rectified spirits on his premises for shipment, sale, or delivery, without causing the same to be gauged and stamped with the stamp for REGULATIONS OF STAMPS FOR DISTILLED SPIRITS. 637 rectified spirits; or if any wholesale liquor-dealer fills any cask or package of distilled spirits without causing the same to be gauged and stamped with the wholesale liquor-dealers’ stamp, he becomes liable to the penalty imposed by section 96, and to the forfeiture of all spirits owned by him or in which he has any interest; and if such packages exceed five gallons, they also become forfeited. The local officers will be held responsible for the strict en- forcement of all the provisions of the law in relation to this subject. It is known that in some cases the wholesale liquor-dealers’ stamp has been erroneously attached where the stamp for recti- fied spirits should have been used, under the direct instructions or with the assent and permission of the collector of the dis- trict; and packages of rectified spirits are now on the market, stamped with the wholesale liquor-dealers’ stamp, without the brands and marks required by section 47, and some seizures have been made of such spirits for the want of those brands. It is not proposed that an indiscriminate seizure or detention shall be made of all such spirits for this cause, but that seizures should be confined to cases where there is other evidence of a change of package in cases where the stamps have been at- tached prior to these instructions. Hereafter, however, the in- structions in these regulations will be rigidly enforced, and any wrongful use of stamps will be at the peril of the owner. Circular No. 76 is revoked, and the foregoing substituted therefor. Whenever any rectifier proposes to empty any spirits for the purpose of rectifying, purifying, refining, redistilling, or com- pounding the same, he will file with the collector a notice or statement giving the number of casks or packages, the serial number of each, the number of wine and proof gallons in each, the kind of stamps and serial number of each, the particular name of such spirits as known to the trade, the proof, by whom produced, the district where produced, by whom inspected, and the date of inspection. This notice will be in the following form :— II. Issue of stamps for rectified spirits. To , Collector , district of . Notice is hereby given that I will empty for the purpose of rectification (redistilling, or compounding, as the case may be) the following described packages of distilled spirits, to wit: barrels, upon which are the fol- lowing stamps, marks, and brands :— 638 UNITED states internal revenue. CO 05 Serial number cask. 4* O Wine gallons. ©» 4-^ Proof gallons. 09 Ot Proof. bO CO Serial number ware- o house stamps. § Serial number tax- 09 -4 paid stamps. a t* ® t2j S. ►T 3 § U1 B "2 w o £• S'! Sr o P* CD O o o P ? District where pro- o tr duced. © a ?o O H-j J-* SSI CO W B . P jiS, CO c-« o Cr* a os'** m g 3 B Oq Cr* 5* pb Containing in the aggregate proof gallons. Dated , 18—. , Rectifier, No. street. When the process of rectification (including compounding, &c.) has been completed, the rectifier will so notify the col- lector, giving the number of proof gallons so rectified, redis- tilled, or compounded, and. request that the spirits may be gauged and inspected and stamps issued for the same; and thereupon the collector will direct a gauger to gauge and in- spect the same, and will issue stamps for rectified spirits cover- ing the quantity of spirits, but not in any case to exceed the number of proof gallons stated in the notice of the rectifier as filed in his office. These notices will be preserved and filed by the collector, and a copy thereof furnished to the assessor, who on the first of each month will compare the same with the return of the rectifier. Collectors will in no instance issue stamps for rectified spirits to any rectifier until this notice is filed with him, and such stamps will be delivered to the gauger, who will attach the same to the barrels or packages. III. Marking and branding of casks or packages of DISTILLED SPIRITS. Under the authority vested in the Secretary of the Treasury and the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, by the provisions of the act of July 20, 1868, the following regulations are pre- scribed for the purpose of securing a uniform and correct sys- tem of marking and branding packages of spirits:— The term “raw spirits” must be understood as including all spirits in the state in which they are produced by the distiller, all of which must be entered in the distillery warehouse, and 1. Raw Spirits. REGULATIONS OF STAMPS FOR DISTILLED SPIRITS. 639 duly withdrawn therefrom upon the payment of tax, and which should, except in cases where there has been a change of pack- age, bear the distillery-warehouse and tax-paid stamps. When such spirits are drawn from the receiving cisterns they must be gauged, proved, and marked, and in addition to affixing the distillery-warehouse stamp the gauger must cut upon the bung-stave in a legible manner the number of wine gallons, the proof, and number of proof gallons of spirits contained in each cask. At the same time the gauger will cut with a die, or burn upon the head of each cask, its serial number in figures not less than one inch in length, and the serial number of the distillery-warehouse stamp in figures not less than half an inch in length, placing the same immediately under the serial num- ber of the cask, as follows:— No. 194. D. W. S. No. 47946. When withdrawn from warehouse each cask must, in addition to the tax-paid stamp, have cut or burned upon it the name of the distiller, the district, the date of the payment of the tax, the number of proof gallons, and the number of the tax-paid stamp. This brand may, in accordance with the present regulations, be abridged in the following manner:— John Smith & Co., Distillers, 6th Dist. O. T. P. Jan. 10, 1869, P. G. 44. Stamp 39857. All of this, except the date, number of proof gallons, and number of the stamp, may be burned upon the cask prior to its being filled at the cisterns, and the date and numbers cut with a die at the time the tax-paid stamp is attached. The letters and figures constituting any brand or mark must in no case be less than half an inch in length. In addition to this, the cask must be conspicuously marked or branded with the particular name of the spirits as known to the trade, as “ high wines,” “rye,” “Bourbon,” or “copper distilled” whiskey, as the case may be. When it becomes necessary to change a package in a dis- tillery warehouse, i. e., to draw off the contents of a cask bearing the distillery-warehouse stamp and the accompanying marks and brands, and to place the same in a new cask, the spirits must be again inspected and gauged, the number of wine and proof gallons must be cut upon the bung-stave and upon the head of each cask; the gauger will cut with a die or burn with 640 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. a branding-iron his name and office, the time and place of in- spection, the proof of the spirits, the name of such spirits as known to the trade, the name of the distiller, the distillery where such spirits were produced, and the serial number of the original package, together with the serial number of the ware- house stamp. This brand may be in the following form:— Thomas P. Smith, U. S. Gauger, 1st Dist. Pa. Insp. May 1, 1869, dist. warehouse, No. 10, High wines, proof 140. Richard Roe, distiller. Distillery No. 10, 1st Pa. From cask No. 193. D. W. S. 40949. Where such change of package is made after the spirits have been withdrawn from warehouse and the tax-paid stamp attached, the cask will be marked and branded in the same manner, with the addition of the number of proof gallons, the date of the payment of the tax, and the serial number of the tax-paid stamp. This brand may be substantially as follows:— Thomas P. Smith, U. S. Gauger, 1st Dist. Penna. Insp. May 9, 1869, For Scott & Co., wholesale liquor dealers, 10 Water St., Philada., Pa. Rye whiskey, proof 101. John Smith & Co., distillers, Distillery No. 6, 6th Dist. Ohio, P. G. 44. T. P. May 1, 1869, stamp 89857. From cask No. 901, D. W. S. 49129. 2. Rectified Spirits. Under the name rectified spirits are included all spirits which, after leaving the hands of the distiller, are leached through coal, redistilled, refined, compounded, or subjected to any pro- cess which would constitute the person using it a rectifier as defined by law. Spirits subjected to any of these processes must be put up in casks, inspected and gauged, and in addition to attaching the stamp for rectified spirits the gauger will cut upon the bung- stave the number of wine and proof gallons, and mark upon the head of each cask, with a stencil-plate, in durable ink, his name and office, the date of inspection, the particular name of such spirits as known to the trade, the proof, the name and place of REGULATIONS OF STAMPS FOR DISTILLED SPIRITS. 641 business of the rectifier, and the serial number of the stamp for rectified spirits affixed thereto. This mark or brand may be substantially as follows:— Thomas P. Smith, XJ. S. Gauger, 1st Dist. Penna. Insp. May 15, 1869. Rye whiskey, proof 102, Greenleaf & Co., rectifiers and wholesale liquor-dealers, 10 and 12 South St., Philadelphia, Pa. Stamp No. 64,275. To which the rectifier may add any known trade-mark adopted and used by him; or, where such trade-mark is the dis- tinctive name of the spirits as known to the trade, it may be used as the name of the spirits. This brand or mark will be understood to represent that the package is a rectifier’s original package, and that the spirits contained therein were rectified, refined, purified, redistilled, or compounded, and put up by the party named as a rectifier, and at the place stated in such brand or mark. When the contents of a cask of rectified spirits are drawn from the original cask or package and placed in another cask or package containing not less than ten gallons, they must be again gauged and inspected, the number of wine and proof gallons cut upon the bung-stave, and upon the head of each cask must be marked or branded the name of the gauger, the time and place of inspection, the proof of the spirits, the particular name of the spirits as known to the trade, the name and place of business of the rectifier, with the date of the original inspection and the serial number of the stamp for rectified spirits upon the original package. This mark or brand will be substan- tially as follows:— Amos F. Wright, U. S. Gauger 2d Dist. Ohio. Insp. May 20, 1869. For Smith & Co., wholesale liquor-dealers, Cincinnati, O. Eye whiskey, proof 102. Eedistilled by Greenleaf & Co., rectifiers & wholesale liquor-dealers, 10 & 12 South St., Philad’a, Pa. Orig. Insp. May 15, 1869. Stamp No. 64,275. 642 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. 8. Wholesale Liquor-Dealers. Where wholesale liquor-dealers purchase spirits, regularly stamped and bearing the marks and brands required by these regulations, and sell the same without change, no additional inspection or marking is required. Where, however, they draw from such stamped and branded packages, and fill other pack- ages for shipment, sale, or delivery, the spirits must be again gauged and inspected and the wholesale liquor-dealer’s stamp attached, and such packages must be marked with the name of the dealer and the particular name of the spirits as known to the trade. Where the package so filled contains ten gallons or more, it must also be branded or marked as required by section forty-seven, substantially as hereinbefore provided in other cases of change of package. 4. Retail Liquor-Dealers. Retail liquor-dealers are only authorized to sell in quantities less than five gallons, and no reinspection or stamping of the packages of spirits so sold by them is required. The spirits which they purchase must be in packages pro- perly stamped, marked, or branded, and remain in the original casks or packages until drawn off for sale in retail packages, except where it becomes necessary from leakage or other cause to change the package. Where such change is made, such spirits must be again inspected and gauged, and the new pack- age branded in accordance with the provisions of section forty- seven. All spirits held by any wholesale or retail liquor-dealer will be held and taken to be “ intended for sale.” In all cases where spirits are inspected and gauged, the num- ber of wine and proof gallons must be cut upon the bung-stave. 5. Forfeited Spirits sold by United Stales Marshals. Under the provisions of section fifty-eight, of the act of July 20, 1868, all distilled spirits forfeited to the United States, sold by order of court, whether condemned before or after the pas- sage of the act, are to be sold subject to tax, and the purchaser must immediately and before he takes possession of such spirits pay the tax thereon. And if any tax-paid stamps are affixed to any cask or package so condemned, such stamps must be obliterated and destroyed by the collector or marshal after for- feiture and before such sale. The spirits so sold are subject to this tax without regard to the question whether or not any tax has been previously paid REGULATIONS OF STAMPS FOR DISTILLED SPIRITS. 643 thereon. The tax to be paid is fifty cents per wine gallon when below proof, and per proof gallon when above proof; fractions of a gallon to be taxed as a gallon. This is substan- tially a new tax, accruing upon the sale of such spirits by the marshal, and is to be paid in the district where the sale is made, and it is to be collected upon the quantity sold by the marshal. When, therefore, a sale is made by the marshal, he will re- quire the purchaser, before receiving possession of the spirits, to deliver to him the receipt of the collector of the district in which the sale is made for the tax due upon the same, which receipt will be executed on Form 105. The purchaser, in order to obtain the receipt, will deliver to the collector a statement to be signed by the United States marshal, giving the number of packages, the number of wine and proof gallons in each, with the date of the sale and the name of the purchaser, and the collector will issue for every such cask or package a tax- paid stamp, and cause the same to be affixed thereto. Upon the face of the receipt, Form 105, the collector will indorse the words, “ Tax-paid stamps issued,” and upon the stamps, “ Tax on spirits sold by United States marshal,” with the date of the sale. Before the delivery of any spirits so sold to the purchaser, the marshal will mark with a stencil-plate, or brand with a branding-iron, each cask or package with his name and official title, together with the date and place of sale, and the words tax paid, and the number of proof gallons, with the name of the gauger who gauged the same, and the date of gauging. No stamp, brand, or mark which may be upon the barrels at the time the spirits are condemned, is to be removed or ob- literated, except the tax-paid stamp, and the new tax-paid stamp and mark of the marshal should be so placed as not to cover or deface any of such stamps, marks, or brands. Collectors will furnish distillers, rectifiers, and wholesale liquor-dealers with a copy of these regulations, and all officers of internal revenue will see that the regulations are promptly and strictly carried out; and any neglect or failure to comply with the same, on the part of any officer, will be deemed suffi- cient cause for his immediate dismissal from office. Approved : William A. Richardson, C. DELANO, Commissioner. Acting Secretary of the Treasury. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON METHODS OF INSPECTING AND ASSESSING TAX ON DISTILLED SPIRITS. Treasury Department, February 15, 1866. Sir : I have the honor to request that a committee of the National Academy of Sciences be appointed to report to this department on the best method of proving and gauging alco- holic liquors, with a view to the establishment of such rules and regulations as may be necessary to insure a uniform system of inspection of spirits subject to duties. Very respectfully, h. McCulloch, Secretary of the Treasury. Professor Joseph Henry, Vice-President of the National Academy of Sciences. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TO THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY ON THE BEST METHOD OF PROVING AND GAUGING DISTILLED SPIRITS. The subjects of inquiry presented to this committee are two- fold. The first branch, relating to the best mode of proving and gauging distilled spirits subject to duty, has been fully considered; conclusions have been reached and adopted by the department. The second branch, relating to the means of pre- venting fraud in collecting the revenue on distilled spirits, is still under consideration, as the most promising inventions have only been submitted at a recent date. The present report will, therefore, only cover the first branch of the subject; the re- mainder being reserved for a future report. In considering the subject of hydrometers the committee have, in the first instance, reviewed the existing regulations and practice; next have sought to discover the grounds of their insufficiency under the new circumstances arising from the high tax upon distilled spirits; and finally have endeavored to devise means to meet the exigencies of the case. Previous to the imposition of the internal revenue tax im- ported spirits only were subject to duty. The instruments used REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 645 in ascertaining their value were adopted upon the recommenda- tion of Professor A. D. Bache, accompanying a report of in- vestigations made under his direction by Professor B. S. McCulloh on the subject of alcoholometers. This report, dated May 26, 1848, contains an exhaustive review of the scientific investigations and practical methods in all countries up to that time. It was printed as a public document (30th Congress, 1st session, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 50), and, together with the tables printed in a subsequent document (31st Congress, 2d session, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 28), forms a most valuable manual of refer- ence for the subject under consideration. The recommenda- tions made by Professor Bache were as follows:— 1. That the strength of liquors should not be referred to the arbitrary degrees of an artificial system, as those of Dycas’s hydrometer, but be ex- pressed in per centums of alcohol contained by volume. 2. That no reference he made in terms of “ proof,”as “first proof,”“second proof,” &c., which are from legal enactment, and not commercial use, in ascertaining or describing the strengths of alcoholic liquors ; but that such description be made in per centum by volume of contained alcohol. 3. That all gaugings or measurements of alcoholic liquids be referred to the standard temperature of 600 0f Fahrenheit’s thermometer. 4. That in stating the per centum by volume of pure alcohol contained in a liquid, it be reduced to its equivalent at the same standard temperature of 600 Fahrenheit. 5. That the centesimal hydrometer be adopted in determining the strength of liquids; and provisionally, until a better instrument is furnished, the centesimal alcoholometer of Tralles be used, with a suitable manual of tables to accompany the instrument. The experience of the past fifteen years has fully proved the wisdom of the system then adopted, which has been found well adapted to the purposes for which it was intended. The Tralles hydrometer was not used only by the govern- ment inspectors, but gradually found its way into use among importers of liquors, and in first-class distilleries. When, how- ever, it became necessary to inspect and ascertain the strength of all the spirits distilled in the country, under a system of very high taxation, various objections were raised to its use. The principal ones are the following:— (1.) The non-conformity of its scale with the custom of the trade. The Tralles instrument shows the per cents, of alcohol in the given sample of spirits, while all liquors are bought and sold by their percentage of proof spirits; and although the former are readily converted into the latter, when their relation is fixed, and especially when that relation is so simple as to de- fine proof spirit to contain one-half its volume of alcohol, yet it was claimed to be desirable that the inspector’s brand should correspond to the commercial designation of the article. More- over, the duty being laid on proof spirit, an instrument show- 646 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. ing per cents, of that liquor would lessen the labors of the inspector. (2.) The high rate of duty, amounting to six or eight times the value of the raw spirits, required that their value should be ascertained to within one per cent. In order to give single per cents, on proof spirit, it would be necessary to observe and take into account half per cents, of the Tralles instrument. This would require closer observation than there is usually time and opportunity for, while the use of fractions would materially increase the work of computation. (3.) The circumstances under which the inspection of large lots of liquor has to be performed, on the occasion of their shipment or delivery for storage at the government ware- houses, are such as to render quite impracticable the use of instruments requiring great care in handling, and a certain degree of leisure in observation. It is often necessary to per- form the inspection in the open air, exposed to inclement weather, and the greatest practicable despatch is generally requisite. Under such conditions, the length of the Tralles instrument, the care required in reading it to half degrees under the surface of the liquid, and the effect of the wind upon the exposed part of the stem, were found to be very objectionable. The further lengthening of the stem with the view of expanding the scale would, for these reasons, be quite out of the question. (4.) It was found that the “ Manual for Inspectors of Spirits” [McCulloh’s] gives, for temperatures varying considerably from 60° Fahr., sensibly erroneous values for the true equivalents to the indications of the hydrometer. There is, in fact, a systematic error in those tables, the origin of which the com- mittee have been unable to trace. Professor McCulloh, in the second report, above referred to, gives in full the data from which the tables in the Manual are derived, and states with great precision the processes of computation, which are per- fectly correct. But the figures in the Manual do not corre- spond to those data and processes, and their error is attested by direct experiment. Thus, according to the fundamental data, an indication by the hydrometer of 50 per cent, at a tempera- ture of 30° Fahr. corresponds to 55.94 true per cent., while the Manual gives 57.22; and for the same indication at 100° Fahr. the true equivalent is 41.33, while the Manual gives 42.96. The foregoing considerations led the committee to admit the necessity of adopting a more convenient instrument and pro- viding correcter tables. With a view to ascertaining the wants of the public in this matter, the opinions of several experienced inspectors were heard, among whose number the committee are specially in- REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 647 debted to Inspector Gr. W. Guysd for clear and practical infor- mation. One of the committee also conferred with leading distillers and rectifiers of spirits, as well as with revenue officers in different cities. The general opinion was found to be in favor of adapting the scale of the new hydromer to the custom of the trade, ac- cording to which the strength of spirits is reckoned above and below proof, in degrees intended to represent per cents. A few persons who had become used to the Tralles hydrometer, and learned the convenience of not having to deal with negative quantities, gave the preference to that instrument. Upon general considerations it would seem desirable that one instrument should be used for the ascertainment of specific gravities of all liquids, such as spirits, acids, oils, Sc., the corre- sponding values of which would be inferred by reference to tables. It is apparent, however, that such an instrument would not be as convenient for the several trades, who each deal with one class of liquid only, as separate instruments for the use of each, giving as direct an indication of the value as practicable. Admitting that the government inspection should conform to the customs of trade, so far as consistent with correct scientific principles, the idea of introducing a universal aerometer, or spe- cific gravity instrument, must be dismissed, although it is doubt- less admirably adapted for a laboratory. Having determined to adhere to the use of some instrument expressly adapted to alcoholic spirits, the first question to be decided was whether alcohol or proof spirit should be the stand- ard of reference. It certainly appears more natural to estimate the value of a liquid by the quantity of that element contained in it which constitutes its valuable property. But when, as in this case, the price is habitually referred to a certain mixture of the elements which is the most common form of the product, while the valuable element is attainable in purity only by elabo- rate and expensive chemical processes, the committee see no difficulty in yielding to the general custom and adopting proof spirit as the standard. There is no sacrifice of scientific pre- cision when the relation of this standard to standard alcohol is positively defined. The cases in which it becomes desirable to convert the per cents, of proof spirit into per cents, of alcohol are very few in number compared with those in which the reverse process would be necessary, if in the inspection of spirits alcohol were referred to as the standard, since, in fact, such would be the case with the branding of every barrel. Proof spirit has been heretofore defined by law to be alco- holic liquor, containing 50 per cent, by volume of alcohol, according to the Tralles hydrometer. The committee have seen 648 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. no reason to make a change in the specific gravity of the alco- hol to be considered as standard, but have followed Bache and McCulloh in adopting Tralles’ specific gravity of .7939 at 60° Fahrenheit. More recent experiments have indeed rendered it quite probable that absolute alcohol is yet sensibly lighter; but since that point remains still unsettled, and the possible differ- ence is far within the limits of practical testing, and since prices have long adapted themselves to the Tralles standard of strength, any change has appeared inexpedient. In order, however, to free the definition of proof spirit from reference to a particular instrument, the committee, under date of April 19, 1866, recommended to the department the following provision of law, which was embodied in the tax law, providing at the same time for the adoption of other results of their inquiries, viz:— That proof spirit shall be held and taken to be that alcoholic liquor which contains one-half its volume of alcohol of a specific gravity of .7939 at 60C Fahrenheit, and the duties on all spirits shall be levied according to their equivalent in proof spirit; and the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby author- ized to adopt, procure, and prescribe for use such hydrometers, weighing and gauging instruments, meters, or other means for ascertaining the strength and quantity of spirits subject to tax, and to prescribe such rules and regula- tions as lie may deem necessary to insure a uniform and correct system of inspection, weighing, and gauging of spirits subject to tax, throughout the United States. The specific gravity of proof spirit thus defined, has been found by the experiments of Gilpin and Blagden to be .93353 at 60° Fahrenheit; water at its maximum density being taken as unity. FORM OF HYDROMETERS. The standard of proof being thus fixed, it was next decided that the hydrometer scale should be so marked and numbered as to show at the temperature of 60° Fahrenheit the equivalent of proof spirit contained in the sample tested, indicated in per cents, by volume. Thus, proof spirit would be indicated by 100; 40 per cent, over proof, by 140; standard alcohol, by 200; 20 per cent, below proof, by 80. This was deemed pre- ferable to the employment of the negative scale under-proof, because it would simplify calculations and remove a fruitful source of mistakes in the application of the subtractive tem- perature corrections to negative quantities. The practical gaugers consulted readily assented to this proposition. As it was desired that the scale of the instruments should be so open as to indicate the nearest whole per cent, so decidedly that two different observers working hastily might not differ in their readings by so much as one per cent., it was agreed that the REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 649 average length of a scale division should be about one-tenth of an inch for the range between 80 and 180 percent., those being the strengths which occur in practice. It appeared, moreover, advisable, from considerations of practical conveniences, that the cup for containing the sample should not exceed seven or eight inches in height. Hence it was determined that a series of hydrometers should be provided, embracing together the entire scale, and so adapted to the ordinary classes of spirits that in proving a particular lot of barrels the inspector would require to use only one of the instruments. The scale was divided therefore as follows:— 1. From 80 per cent, to 120 per cent, for proof spirits and whiskeys. 2. From 100 per cent, to 140 per cent, for ordinary high wines. 3. From 130 per cent, to 170 per cent, for extra high wines. 4. From 160 per cent, to 200 per cent, for alcohols. To these was added a fifth instrument giving the per cents, from 0 to 100, or from water to proof spirit, for the sake of completeness, and for occasional use with low wines. The set of hydrometers adopted are figured on Plate XI. A great variety of the hydrometers in common use were examined by the committee, most of these being of silver or brass, with spheroidal bulbs, and two or more scales on the stem, with corresponding weights to be attached to the bulb when used in denser spirits. Such forms of construction were deemed to be objectionable for standard instruments, on account of their liability to become erroneous, by accident or designs by indentation of the bulb or alteration of the weights. A hydro- meter of glass, sufficiently strong to bear ordinary handling, but which will break by a blow or fall, that would change the form of one of metal, was deemed far safer. The committee next considered the question whether the thermometer should be blown into the bulb, as in Greiner’s alcoholometer, or whether it should be attached to the can or cup in which the liquor is tested, as commonly used. The latter form was deemed preferable, as the former would greatly increase the cost and fragility of the hydrometers. The glass vessel for holding the spirit, as used with Greiner’s instrument, affords the means of reading the scale very accu- rately by looking at it through the glass below the meniscus formed by capillary attraction. It may be well doubted, however, whether under the ordinary circumstances of practice the inspectors would use the care and deliberation requisite in making the observation in that form. Besides, the fragility of 650 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. the glass vessel forms a serious objection to its use. The commit- tee have therefore given the preference to the ordinary copper can, eight inches in height, two inches in diameter, with a ther- mometer so attached as to have the bulb in contact with the liquid, and to be protected from injury by projecting rims of metal. This can should always be quite full when the hydro- meter is immersed in the liquid, so that the reading can be taken with the eye nearly in the surface-plane of the liquid. For the loading of the bulb, a method proposed by Mr. G. Tagliabue, of New York, was approved by the committee. It consists of the requisite weight of fusible metal placed in the bottom of the bulb, and fused there into a closely fitting button. This is very compact and strong, and avoids the narrow neck of the bulb filled with mercury or shot, common in other forms of glass hydrometers. The form of hydrometers being thus determined upon, the next step was to establish the scales for the same. The follow- ing table gives the densities of alcoholic spirits for every per cent, of alcohol contained in the mixture, by volume, reckoned upon the volume of the mixture of alcohol and water. This table is derived from the experiments of Gilpin and Blagden, and is more generally known as Tralles’ alcohol scale. The densities are referred to water at its maximum density—about 39.4° Fahrenheit—as unity ; hence that of 0 per cent., or water, is given as .99910, that being its density at 60° Fahrenheit, the standard temperature of the table. The length of the part of the stem immersed is likewise given, being counted from the point at which the hydrometer floats in water of maximum density. The figures are derived as follows :— Since the product of the volume immersed into the density of the liquid is always constant, the immersed volume is in- versely proportional to the density. The numbers in the table, therefore, are the reciprocals of the densities diminished by unity, which is assumed to be the volume immersed in water. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 651 Specific gravity of alcoholic spirits at 60° Fahrenheit, that of water at its greatest density being 1.00000, and corresponding hydro- meter scale. Per cent, of alcohol. Specific gravity at 60°. Length of immersed part of the stem. Per cent, of alcohol. Specific gravity at 60°. Length of immersed part of the stem. Per cent, of alcohol. Specific gravity at 60°. Length of immersed part of the stem. 0 .99910 9 34 .95963 420 68 .89415 1184 1 .99768 24 35 .95829 435 69 .89174 1214 2 .99626 38 36 .95693 450 70 .88923 1246 3 .99484 52 37 .95549 465 71 .88673 1278 4 .99342 66 38 .95406 481 72 .8S420 1310 5 .99200 81 39 .95256 498 73 .88168 1342 6 .99071 94 40 .95106 515 74 .87911 1375 7 .98947 107 41 .94946 532 75 .87651 1409 8 .98822 119 42 .94784 550 76 .87388 1443 9 .98698 133 43 .94616 569 77 .87122 1478 10 .98574 145 44 .94447 588 78 .86855 1514 11 .98463 156 45 .94274 608 79 .86581 1550 12 .98353 168 46 .94098 628 80 .86306 1587 13 .98242 179 47 .93918 648 81 .86027 1624 14 .98132 191 48 .93731 669 82 .85743 1662 15 .98026 202 49 .93543 690 83 .85458 1701 16 .97923 212 50 .93353 712 84 .85168 1741 17 .97819 224 51 .93161 734 85 .84874 1782 18 .97716 234 52 .92959 758 86 .84580 1823 19 .97614 245 53 .92756 781 87 .84271 1867 20 .97512 255 54 .92552 805 88 .83955 1910 21 .97410 266 55 .92344 829 89 .83640 1956 22 .97308 277 56 .92134 854 90 .83310 2003 23 .97205 288 57 .91921 879 91 .82971 2052 24 .97103 299 58 .91705 905 92 .82632 2102 25 .97000 309 59 .91487 931 93 .81274 2155 26 .96894 321 60 .91264 957 94 .81907 2209 27 .96787 332 61 .91040 984 95 .81525 2266 28 .96680 343 62 .90815 1011 96 .81117 2327 29 .96568 355 63 .90589 1039 97 .80703 2391 30 .96454 368 64 .90360 1067 98 .80284 2456 31 .96339 380 65 .90130 1095 99 .79846 2524 32 .96215 393 66 .89894 1125 100 .79390 2596 33 .96092 407 67 .89656 1154 The scale given in the preceding table holds good, propor- tionally, for whatever length of scale be employed, and for all parts of scales. To find, therefore, the graduation ot the stem for the hydrometer, indicating from 50 to 70 per cent, alco- hol, or from 100 to 140 per cent, proof spirit, we take the dif- ference between 712 and 1246, the corresponding parts in the table, giving 584 parts to divide on the scale, in the proportion indicated by the table. If the whole length of this scale is to be 5.34 inches, every part will be represented by one-hundredth of an inch. 652 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. In the manufacture of glass hydrometers, it is not practicable to obtain the scale of a given length; the graduation, therefore, is usually made by hand. In order to avoid this laborious and inaccurate process, a series of fifteen scales were engraved and printed for each one of the five instruments, ranging from 4 inches to 4.7 inches in length, within which limits it was found easy to keep the variation. After “ pointing” each stem, or marking on it the extreme readings, by comparison with a standard instrument floating in the same liquid, that scale was selected which, among the fifteen, most nearly had the required length. In this manner no error greater that one-quarter of one per cent, could be introduced, which is quite inappreciable in practice. In order to find the diameter of the stem which will give a certain length of scale between given per cents., we may proceed as follows: Let g and gr represent the specific gravities of the given per cents., V and V7 the immersed volumes of the hydro- meter; since in each case the weight of the displaced liquid is equal to the weight of the hydrometer, we always have Vg= V’g'. Thus, for a hydrometer indicating from proof to 140 per cent., we have, from the preceding table— Specific gravity of proof spirit, .93353=g. Specific gravity of 140 per cent., .88923=y'. If we assume the immersed volume to be 2.65 cubic inches for proof, then we find F'=2.782; hence, the volume of the stem immersed in g' is 2.782—2.65 cubic inches; and if we make the length of the stem immersed between g and g' 4 inches, its diameter will be found .20 inch, nearly. It is convenient to state, in this connection, the measures taken for securing accuracy in the manufacture of the hydro- meters ordered by the Treasury Department upon the recom- mendation of the committee, and for their verification before acceptance by the department. Dr. John Torrey and Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, members resident in New York, prepared, with great precision, standard mixtures of the specific gravities corresponding to the extreme and middle points of the proposed scales, and by immersion in those mixtures marked a series of very delicate floats, having large bulbs and thin stems, one for each mixture. These floats were used by Mr. Tagliabue to point the hydrometers he manu- factured for the department. Similar mixtures were prepared in Washington, by Dr. B. F. Craig, for the Office of Weights and Measures, when, under the direction of Mr. Hilgard, the hydrometers were tested for the department. It will be understood that such mixtures would REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 653 not long maintain their strength after exposure to the air, and that they were only used for the selection of some sets of stand- ard hydrometers, with which others were afterwards compared in mixtures of convenient strength. It is gratifying to state that of several thousand instruments inspected, only very few were found to be in error over one-half per cent., and those mostly by several degrees, owing to some slipping of the scale or other accident. MANUAL OF TABLES FOR TEMPERATURE CORRECTION. In the preparation of the manual of tables which accompanies the hydrometers, the experiments made by Gilpin and Blagdon for the British government formed the principal basis of the work, as they are that of the tables of Tralles, and of Bache, and McCulloh, previously quoted. The computations made by McCulloh have been verified throughout, and have received some corrections, especially in the interpolated parts between 93 and 100 per cent. The extension of the tables from 30° to 20° temperature was rejected because it was thought necessary to give the correc- tions for temperatures as low as zero of Fahrenheit’s scale, which would render additional experimental data indispensa- ble, as Gilpin’s experiments were not extended below 30°. The committee was informed by inspectors that it frequently hap- pened that spirits arriving during winter in Chicago or Buffalo, and requiring to be inspected in bond, were found to be of a temperature approaching zero. With a view to obtaining the requisite experimental data, the Treasury Department, at the suggestion of your committee, re- quested the Surgeon-General of the United States to cause such observations to be made at his laboratory in Washington City, where special facilities for the purpose were understood to exist. Before these experiments could be made, the committee became acquainted with the labors of Dr. Recknagel, expressly under- taken with a view to supply the want in alcoholometry above stated, and published in the proceedings of the Munich Academy of Science, for 1866. The results of Dr. Recknagel are fully confirmed by those subsequently obtained by Dr. Craig in the laboratory of the Surgeon-General’s office. The appended tables are the following:— Table I. gives the densities found by Gilpin and Blagden for spirits of different strengths, at temperatures varying from 30° to 80° Fahrenheit. The spirit used in these experiments has a density of 0.825 at 60° Fahrenheit; referred to water at that temperature as unity. It corresponds to 92.6 per cent, of the 654 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. standard adopted by Tralles. The table also gives the corre- sponding percents, by volume according to Bache and McCulloh. Table II. gives Gilpin and Blagden’s densities, corrected per errors of observation by the methods of curves and least squares, according to Bache and McCulloh, and reduced to the standard of Tralles. Table III., derived from the preceding, shows the true densi- ties and volumes of alcohol of every strength from 1 to 100 per cent., and for every five degrees of temperature from 30° to 100°. The portion of this table above temperature 80° is derived from the other part by interpolation with second differ- ences, as fully stated by McCulloh l. c., and the extension of the densities from 93 to 100 per cent, is derived from a com- parison of the observations by Gay Lussac, Delegennes, Tralles, Muncke, and McCulloh. The supplement to Table III., gives the specific gravities of spirits between temperatures 0° and 25° Fahrenheit, from the observations by Dr. Recknagel, reduced to the standard of Tralles. Table IV., derived from the preceding one, shows the appa- rent densities, for glass vessels or hydrometers, and the apparent per cents., for every true per cent, and for every fifth degree of temperature from 80° to 100°. By apparent per cents, is meant the per cents, indicated by a glass hydrometer, which is graduated to show true per cents, when the spirit is at a tem- perature of 60° Fahrenheit. These indicated or apparent per cents, are obtained from a table of densities at 60°, interpolated for tenths of a per cent., the apparent specific gravities for each true per cent, being used as arguments. The supplement to Table IV. finally contains the same data for temperatures between 0° and 25°, and for spirits between 30 and 100 per cent., from Recknagel’s experiments. This table furnishes us with the data required for practical use in alcoholometry, viz., a comparison between the true and indicated per cents. The argument, however, is the true per cent., which appears in integer numbers, while the correspond- ing indicated percents, are fractional. We require, on the con- trary, for the Manual, a table in which the indicated per cents, are the integer argument, as observed on the hydrometer. The surest mode of effecting the required interpolation, and best calculated to provide a check against all preceding errors, was deemed to be the graphic method, on a sufficiently large scale to make hundredths of one per cent, sensible and tenths certain. Plate XII. shows the scheme of projected sheets on one- tenth their actual scale, and exhibits at the same time the gene- ral law. Plate XIII. gives one of the sheets on the full scale REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 655 and is intended to illustrate the process. It is by this means that Table I. of the Manual has been constructed. Tables II. and III. of the same are based upon the same experimental data as heretofore detailed. The computations and graphic operations have been mainly performed by Mr. F. Hudson; those for temperatures below 30° by Mr. F. H. Agnew; both of whom are entitled to great praise for the accuracy of their work. The following table, computed by Mr. Hudson, will be found of value, giving the relations between the per cents, by weight and by volume, and the actual quantities of water and alcohol contained in determinate mixtures by weight. It will be borne in mind that when alcohol and water are mixed a contraction takes place, varying with different proportions. Thus it re- quires 50 volumes of alcohol and 53.67 volumes of water to produce 100 volumes of proof spirit. The weight of 100 gal- lons of water at 60° Fahrenheit is taken at 833.14 pounds avoirdupois. Table of percentage by weight ajid volume, and of weights of alcohol and water in 100 gallons of spirits at 60° Fahrenheit. Per cent. Specific gravity of spirit. (Water at 60° = 1.) Weight of alcohol in 100 gallons spirit. Weight of water in 100 gallons spirit. Weight of 100 gallons of spirit. Alcohol. Water by volume. By weight. By volume. Pounds. Poun ds. Pounds. 5 6.24 94.17 0.99131 41.29 784.61 825.90 10 12.38 88.56 .98398 81.98 737.81 819.79 15 18.45 83.09 .97758 122.17 692.29 814.46 20 24.45 77.72 .97144 161.85 647.50 809.35 25 30.36 72.38 .96500 200.99 602.99 803.98 30 36.15 67.03 0.95757 239.34 558.45 797.79 35 41.80 61.69 .94901 276.73 513.93 790.66 40 47.29 56.37 .93948 313.08 469.63 782.72 45 52.62 51.10 .92916 348.35 425.77 774.12 50 57.78 45.92 .91833 382.55 382.55 765.10 55 62.79 40.82 0.90718 415.69 340.12 755.81 60 67.64 35.83 .89582 447.80 298.54 746.34 65 72.33 30.95 .88416 478.81 257.82 736.63 70 76.85 26.17 .87240 508.78 218.06 726.83 75 81.21 21.50 .86044 537.70 179.16 716.87 80 85.41 16.97 0.84831 565.40 141.36 706.76 85 89.41 12.54 .83581 591.89 104.46 696.35 90 93.19 8.23 .82278 616.94 68.55 685.49 95 96.71 4.05 .80895 640.26 33.71 673.97 100 100.00 0.00 .79461 662.02 0.00 662.02 656 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. The Manual gives the equivalents of true per cent, for indi- cations of the hydrometer and thermometer. This is deemed to be the best form in which the corrections for temperature can be put for practice, since it saves all arithmetical opera- tions, especially those that would ordinarily be performed mentally, without check and liable to error. For the advantage of those persons, however, who perform such operations with facility, and who would be likely to use from memory a table of the corrections most frequently occurring in practice, a graphic table of corrections is given in Plate XIV., which is so perspicuous as to require no special explanation. The experiments made by Dr. Craig in the laboratory of the Sur- geon-General’s Office follow Table IV., preceded by an expla- nation of the method employed. The report to the Treasury Department and the tables of the Manual for inspectors of spirits follow next, and complete this portion of the report of the committee to the academy. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 657 Table I.—Containing the densities found hy Messrs. Gilpin and Blag- den for spirits of different strengths, and at various temperatures ; extracted from the 84 th volume of Philosophical Transactions, 1794. If Sggggggggg&g^gSggS^o^ Temperature 40°. Sp.+W i 100+ olioo.oo 6 96.49 10t 93.14 151 89.99 20 87.00 25 84.18 30 81.53 35 79 03 40 76.67 45 74.44 501 72.33 55 70.33 601 68.42 65: 66.62 701 64.90 75 63.27 80 61.71 85 60.22 90 58.81 95 57.45 Spirit and water by weight. Quantity of spirit per cent. Temperature 30°. SSS8388S3SS8fcSSSSSSSfe8 in .83445 .84539 .85507 .86361 .87134 .87838 .88481 .89073 .89617 .90127 .90596 .91026 .91428 .91799 .92151 .02176 .92783 illilllllSillllilll Specific gravity. §* o.S5ggg?SfeSgg§gg3g^;§g;§,? Spirit and water by weight. 56.22 54.91 53.53 52.06 50.49 48.82 47.04 45.14 43.09 40.89 38.52 35.96 33.20 30.21 26.96 23.42 19.58 15.38 10.76 5.67 Quantity of spirit per cent. .93827 .94058 .94295 .94547 .94802 .95060 .95328 .95602 .95879 .96159 .96434 .96706 .96967 .97220 .97472 .97737 .98033 .98373 .98795 .99345 .94222 .94447 .94675 .94920 .95173 .95429 .95681 .95944 .96209 .96470 .96719 .96967 .97200 .97418 .97635 .97860 .98108 .98412 .98804 .99334 Specific gravity. If Temperature 45°. GG ft ggggSSggggSggigggKSo.o.55 Spirit and water by weight. Temperature 35°. 100.00 96.49 93.16 90.01 87.03 84.23 81.58 79.09 76.73 74.51 72.41 70.41 68.51 66.70 64.99 63.36 61.80 60.32 58.90 57.55 100.00 96.49 93.14 89.99 87.00 84.19 81.54 79.05 76.69 74.47 72.35 70 35 68.45 66.65 64.93 63.30 61.74 60.26 58.84 57.48 Quantity of spirit per cent. .83214 .84310 .85277 .86131 .86905 .87613 .88255 .88849 .89396 .89909 .90380 .90812 .91211 .91584 .91937 .92264 .92570 .92859 .93131 .93382 .83672 .84769 .85729 .86587 .87357 .88059 .8S701 .89294 .89839 .90345 .90811 .91241 .91640 .92009 .92355 .92680 .92986 .93274 .93541 ; 93790 Specific gravity. || CtoSocSoSoSoSoSoSoSoS Spirit and water by weight. 56.25 54.95 53.56 52.09 50.53 48.86 47.08 45.17 43.13 40.93 38.57 36.01 33.25 30.26 27.01 23.47 19.62 15.41 10.79 5.69 56.18 54.87 53.49 52 02 50.46 48.79 47.00 45.09 43.05 40.85 38.47 35.92 33.15 30.15 26.91 23.38 19.54 15.34 10.73 5.65 Quantity of spirit per cent. i .93621 .93860 .94096 .94348 .94605 .94871 .95143 .95423 .95705 .95993 .96280 .96563 .96840 .97110 .97384 .97666 .97980 .94025 .94249 .94484 .94734 .94988 .95246 .95502 .95772 .96048 .96315 .96579 .96840 .97086 .97319 .97556 .97801 .98076 .98397 .98804 .99344 Specific gravity. 658 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Temperature 50°. Temperature 55°. Spirit and water by weight. Quantity of spirit per cent. Specific gravity. Spirit and water by weight. Quantity of spirit per cent. Specific gravity. Spirit and water by weight. Quantity of spirit per cent. Specific gravity. Spirit and water by weight. Quantity of spirit per cent. Specific gravity. Sp.+W. W.+Sp. Sp.+W. W.+Sp. 100 4- o 100.00 .82977 100+100 56.29 .93419 100+ 0 100 00 .82736 100+100 56.33 .93209 - - 5 96.50 .84706 95 54.99 .93658 5 96.50 .83834 95 55.03 .93452 [-10 93.17 .85042 90 53.60 .93897 10 93.IS .84802 90 53.64 .93696 -15 90.02 .85902 85 52.13 .94149 15 90.03 .85664 85 52 17 .93948 [-20 87.05 .86676 80 50.57 .94414 20 87.06 .86441 80 50.61 .94213 • |-25 84.25 .87384 75 48.90 .94683 25 84.27 .87150 75 48.94 .944S6 [-30 81.61 .88030 70 47.12 .94958 30 81.63 .87796 70 47.16 .94767 35 79.12 .88626 65 45.22 .95243 35 79.14 .88393 65 45.26 .95057 40 76.76 .89174 60 43.18 .955.34 40 76.79 .88945 60 43.22 .95357 74.54 .89684 55 40.98 .95831 45 74 57 .89458 55 41.03 .95662 50 72 44 .90160 60 38.61 .96126 50 72.47 .89933 50 38.66 .95966 55 70.44 .90596 45 36 06 .96420 65 70.47 .90367 45 36.11 .96272 60 68.54 .90997 40 33.30 .96708 60 68.57 .90768 40 33.35 .96575 65 66.74 .91370 35 30.31 .96995 65 66.77 .91144 35 30.36 .96877 70 65.02 .91723 30 27.06 •972S4 70 65 06 .91502 30 27.11 .971 SI 75 63.39 .92051 25 23.52 .97589 75 63.43 .91837 25 23.57 .97500 80 61. S4 .92358 20 19.67 .97920 80 61.87 .92145 20 19.71 .97847 85 60.85 .92647 15 15.45 .98293 85 60.39 .92436 15 15.49 .98239 90 58.94 .92919 10 10.82 .98745 90 58.97 .92707 10 10.85 .98702 95 57.59 .93177 5 5.70 .99316 95 57.62 .92963 5 5.71 .99284 Temperature 60°. Temperature 65°. Sp.+W. W.+Sp. Sp.+W. W.+Sp. 100 + 0 100.00 .82500 100+100 56.36 .93002 100+ 0 100.00 .82262 loo+ioo 56.40 .92794 + 0 96.51 .83599 95 55 06 .93247 5 96.51 .83362 95 55.10 .9:5040 +10 93 19 .84568 90 53.68 .93493 10 93.20 .84334 90 53.72 .93285 15 90.04 .85430 85 5221 .93749 15 90.05 .85193 85 52.25 .93546 20 87.08 .86208 80 50.65 .94018 20 87.09 .85976 80 50.69 .93S22 2-5 84.28 .86918 75 4S 98 .94296 25 84.30 .86686 75 49.02 .94099 30 81.65 .87569 70 47.20 .94579 30 81.67 .87337 70 47.25 .94388 35 79.16 .88169 65 45.30 .94876 35 79.18 .87938 65 45 35 .94680 40 76.81 .88720 60 43.26 .95181 40 76.84 .88490 60 43.31 .95000 45 74.59 .89232 55 41.07 .95493 45 74.62 .89006 55 41.11 .95318 50 72.49 .89707 50 38.71 .95804 50 72.52 .89479 60 38.75 .956:55 55 70.49 .90144 45 36.16 .96122 55 70.52 .89920 45 36 20 .95962 60 68.60 .90549 40 33.40 .96437 60 68.63 .90328 40 33.44 .96288 65 66.80 .90927 35 30.40 .96752 65 66.83 .90707 35 30.45 .96620 70 65.09 .912S7 30 27.15 .97074 70 65.12 .91066 30 27.20 .96959 75 63.46 .91622 25 23.61 .97410 75 63.49 .91400 25 23.66 .97309 80 61.91 .91933 20 19.75 .97771 80 61.94 .91715 20 19.79 .97688 85 60.43 .92225 15 15.52 .98176 85 60.46 .92010 15 15.56 .98106 90 59.01 .92499 10 10.87 .98654 90 59.04 .92283 10 10.89 .98594 95 57.66 .92758 6 5.73 .99244 95 57.69 .92546 5 5.74 .99194 Temperature 70°. Temperature 75°. Sp +W. W.+Sp. Sp.+W. W.+Sp. 100 + 0 100.00 .82023 100+100 56.44 .92580 100+ 0 100 06 .81780 100+100 56.47 .92364 5 96.52 .83124 95 55.14 .92828 5 96.52 .82878 95 55.17 .92613 10 93.20 .84092 90 53.75 .93076 10 93.21 .S3851 90 53.79 .92865 15 90.06 .84951 85 52.28 .93337 15 90.07 .84710 85 52.32 .93132 20 87.11 .S5736 80 50.73 .93616 20 87.12 .85496 80 50 77 .93413 25 84.32 .86451 75 49.06 .9389S 25 84.34 .86212 75 49.10 .93695 30 81.69 .S7105 70 47.29 .94193 30 81.71 .86864 70 47.32 .93989 35 79.20 .S7705 65 45.39 .94500 35 79.22 .87466 65 45.43 .94301 4(1 76.86 .88254 60 43.35 .94813 40 76.88 .88018 60 43.39 .94623 45 74.64 .88773 55 41.16 .95139 45 74.67 .88538 55 41.20 .94957 50 72.54 .89252 60 38.80 .95469 50 72.57 .89018 60 38.84 .95292 55 70.55 .89695 45 36.25 .95802 55 70.58 .89464 45 36.29 .95638 60 68.66 .90104 40 33.49 .96143 60 68.68 .89872 40 33.53 .95987 65 66.86 .90484 35 30.60 .964S4 65 66.89 .90252 3") 30.54 .96344 70 65.15 .90847 30 27.24 .96836 70 65.18 .90617 30 27.29 .96708 75 63.52 .91181 25 23.70 .97203 75 63.55 .90952 25 23.74 .970S6 60 61.97 .91493 20 19.83 .97596 80 62.00 .91270 20 19.87 .97495 85 60.49 .91793 15 15.59 .98028 85 60.52 .91569 15 15.62 .97943 99 59 08 .92069 10 10.92 .98527 90 59.11 .91849 10 10.94 .98454 95 57.73 .92333 6 5.75 .99134 95 57.76 .92111 5 5.77 .99066 Table I.—Continued. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 659 Table I.—Continued. Sp.+W. 100+100 5 10 15 20 25 SO 35 40 45 Spirit and water by weight. Temperature 80°. 100.00 96.52 93.22 90.0.9 87.13 84 35 81.73 79.25 76 90 74.69 Quantity of spirit per cent. .81530 .82631 .83603 .84467 .85248 .85966 .86622 .87228 .87776 .88301 Specific gravity. Spirit and water by weight. 63.09 62.04 60.56 59.15 57.80 72.60 70.61 68.71 66.92 65.21 Quantity of spirit per cent. .88781 .89225 .89639 .90021 .90385 .90723 .91046 .91340 .91622 .91891 Specific gravity. W.+Sp. 100+100 95 90 85 SO 75 70 65 60 55 Spirit and water by weight. 56.51 55.21 53.83 52.36 50.81 49.14 47.37 45.47 43.43 41.24 Quantity of spirit per cent. .92142 .92393 .92646 .92917 .93201 .93488 .93785 .94102 .94431 .94768 Specific gravity. Spirit and water by weight. 38.89 36.34 33 58 30.59 27 33 23.79 19.91 15.65 10.97 5.78 Quantity of spirit per cent. .95111 .95467 .95S26 .96192 .96568 .96963 .97385 .97845 .9S367 .98991 Specific gravity. Table II.—Showing Gilpin and Blagden's densities corrected for errors of observation, and reduced to standard of Tralles. Temperature 30. Spirit and I* Corrected Spirit and Corrected water by Per cent. Specific specific water by { Per cent. Specific specific weight. gravity. gravity. weight. gravity. gravity. Sp. W. W. S. 100+0 92.600 .83S21 .83825 100+100 52.194 .94137 .94136 5 89.365 .84919 .84920 95 50.990 .94362 .94358 10 86.292 .85880 .85880 90 49 708 .94590 .94590 15 83.381 .86747 .86744 85 48.347 .94835 .94833 20 80.635 .87506 .87505 80 46.901 .95087 .95086 25 78.047 .88203 .88202 75 45 360 .95343 .95337 30 75.607 .88841 .88840 70 43.711 .95595 .95592 35 73.306 .89430 .89432 65 41.951 .95858 .95856 40 71.130 .89973 .89975 60 40.063 .96122 .96123 45 69.073 .90476 .90474 55 38 033 .96383 .96400 50 67.126 .90941 .90951 50 35 814 .96632 .96632 55 65.277 .91367 .91368 45 33 483 .968S0 .96S79 60 63.521 .91764 .91764 40 30.927 .97112 .97114 65 61.854 .92134 .92136 35 2S.155 .97330 .97328 70 60 272 .924S0 .92476 30 25 144 .97547 .97546 75 58.765 .92805 .92805 25 21.867 .97772 .97790 80 57.326 .93107 .93106 20 18.290 ,98»'20 .98021 85 55.954 .93390 .93387 15 14 373 .98323 .98320 90 54.644 .93657 .93652 10 10.066 .98715 .98712 95 53.392 .93906 .93908 5 5.305 .99245 .99247 Temperature 35°. 100+ 0 92.600 .83597 .83597 100+100 52.194 .93940 .93940 + 5 89.365 .84693 .84692 95 50.990 .94164 .94166 10 86 292 .85652 .85654 90 49.708 .94399 .94100 15 83.381 .86509 .86515 85 48.347 .94649 .94646 20 80 635 .87278 .87281 80 46.901 .94903 .94902 25 78 047 .87980 .S79S1 75 45.360 .95160 .95157 30 75.607 .8S621 .88621 70 43.711 .95416 .95418 35 73.306 .89214 .89214 65 41.951 .95686 .95687 40 71.130 .89758 .89758 60 40.063 .95962 .95960 45 69 073 .90264 .90261 55 38.033 .96228 .96243 50 67.126 .90729 .90736 50 35.844 .96492 .96490 55 65.277 .91159 .91157 45 33.483 .96753 .96749 60 63.521 .91558 .91555 40 30 927 .96999 .96998 65 61.854 .91926 .91928 35 28.155 .97231 .97232 70 60.272 .92272 .92271 30 25.144 .97468 .97469 75 58.765 .92597 .92600 25 21 867 .97713 .97732 80 57.326 .92902 .92903 20 18.290 .97988 .97986 55.954 .93190 .93187 15 14.373 .98308 .98305 90 54.644 .93457 .93454 10 10.066 .98715 .98712 95 53.392 .93706 .93709 5 5.305 .99255 .99257 660 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Temperature 40°. Spirit and Corrected Spirit and Corrected water by Per cent. Specific specific water by Per cent. Specific specific weight. gravity. gravity. weight. gravity. gravity. Sp. W. W Sp. 100+ 0 92 600 .83370 .83367 100+100 52.194 .93743 .93741 + 5 89.365 .84463 .84462 + 95 50.990 .93973 .93971 10 86.292 .85430 .85426 90 49.708 .94210 .94207 15 83.381 .86283 .86285 85 48.347 .94462 .94456 20 80.635 .87056 .87055 80 46.901 .94717 .94715 25 78 047 .87759 .87758 75 45.360 .94974 .94974 30 75.607 .88401 .88400 70 43 711 .95242 .95241 35 73.306 .88993 .8S9.94 65 41.951 .95516 .95515 40 71 130' .89536 .89539 60 40 063 .95793 .95794 45 69.073 .90040 .90046 65 38 033 .96072 .96082 50 67 126 .90514 .90519 50 35 844 .96347 .96344 55 65.277 .90944 .90944 45 33.48.3 .96619 .96614 60 63.521 .91346 .91343 40 30.927 .96880 .96877 65 61 854 .91716 .91717 35 28 155 .97132 .97130 70 60.272 .92068 .92063 30 25.144 .97384 .97385 75 58 765 .92393 .92393 25 21.867 .97649 .97666 80 57.326 .92700 .92698 20 18 290 .97945 .97943 85 55.954 .92988 .92984 15 14.373 .98284 .98281 90 54.644 .93257 .93253 10 10 066 .98706 .98702 95 53 392 .93508 .93508 5 5.305 .99256 .99257 Temperature 45°. 100+ 0 92.600 .83139 .83135 100+100 52 194 .93537 .93540 + 5 89 365 .84234 .84230 95 50.990 .93776 .93773 10 86 292 .85200 .85196 90 49.708 .94011 .94012 15 83 381 .86053 .86053 85 48.347 .94263 .94263 20 80.635 .86827 .86827 80 46.901 .94520 .94525 25 78 047 .87534 .87533 75 45.360 .94*36 .94788 30 75.607 .88176 .88177 70 43 711 .95057 .95060 35 73.306 .88769 .88772 65 4! 951 .95337 .95339 40 71.130 .89316 .89318 60 40.063 .95619 .95625 45 69.073 .89828 .89828 55 38.033 .95907 .95917 50 67.126 .90299 .90299 50 35.844 .96193 .96193 55 65.277 .90730 .90728 45 33 4S3 .96476 .96475 60 63.521 .91129 .91129 40 30 927 .96753 .96752 65 61.854 .91502 .91504 35 28 155 .97023 .97022 70 60 272 .91854 .91852 30 25 144 .97296 .97295 75 58 765 .92181 .92183 25 21 867 .97578 .97592 80 57 326 .92487 .92490 20 18.290 .97892 .97891 85 55 954 .92775 .92778 15 14.373 •98250 .98247 90 54.644 .93047 .93049 10 10 066 .98685 .98682 95 53 392 .93298 .93304 5 5 305 .99249 .99247 Temperature 50°. 100+ 0 92.600 .82902 .82901 100+100 52.194 .9.3335 .93336 5 89 365 .84000 .S3997 95 50.990 .93574 .93572 10 66.292 .84965 .84964 90 49.70S .93812 .93814 15 63 361 .85825 .85820 85 48.347 .94064 .94067 20 80 635 .86598 .86597 80 46 901 .94329 .94332 25 78.047 .87305 .87305 75 45 360 .94598 .94599 30 75 607 .87951 .87951 70 43.711 .94S73 .94876 35 73 306 .68546 .88547 . 65 41.951 .95157 .95160 40 71.130 .69094 •S9094 60 40 063 .95448 .95452 45 69.073 89603 .89607 55 38 033 .95745 .95749 50 67.126 .90079 .90077 50 35.844 .96040 .96038 55 65 277 .90514 .90510 45 33.483 .96:133 .96332 60 63.521 .90915 .90912 40 30.927 .96621 .96622 65 61.854 .91288 .91288 35 28.155 .96908 .96908 70 60.272 .91640 .91639 30 25.144 .97196 .97198 75 58.765 .91968 .91971 25 21.867 .97501 .97510 80 57.326 .92275 .92280 20 18.290 .97832 .97831 85 55.954 .92564 .92569 15 14.373 .98205 .98204 90 54.644 .92S35 .92642 10 10.066 .98656 .98653 95 53.392 .93093 .93098 5 5.805 .99227 .99227 Table II.—Continued. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 661 Temperature 55°. Spirit and Corrected Spirit and Corrected water by Per cent. Specific specific water by Per cent. Specific specific weight. gravity gravity. weight. gravity. gravity. Sp. W. W Sp. 100+0 92 600 .82262 .82666 100+100 52.194 .93124 .93129 5 SO 365 .83759 .83762 95 50.990 .93368 .93369 10 86.292 .84726 .84730 90 49.708 .93612 .93613 15 83.381 .85587 • .85586 85 4S.347 .93863 .93868 20 80 635 .86363 .86365 80 46.901 .94128 .94136 25 78.047 .87072 .87075 75 45.360 .94401 .94407 30 75.607 .87717 .87723 70 43.711 .94682 .94688 35 73.306 .88313 .88320 65 41.951 .94971 .94978 40 71.130 .8S865 .88868 60 40.063 .95271 .95276 45 69.073 .89377 .89383 55 38 033 .95576 .95577 50 67.126 .89852 .89853 50 35.S44 .95880 .95879 55 65.277 .90286 .90289 45 33.483 .96185 .961S 4 60 63.521 .90686 .90693 40 30.927 .96488 .96487 65 61.854 .91062 .91069 35 28.155 .96790 .96789 70 60 272 .91420 .9142.3 30 25 144 .97094 .97095 75 58.765 .91754 .91756 25 21.867 .97412 .97420 SO 57.326 .92062 .92067 20 18.290 .97759 .97763 85 55.954 .92353 .92358 15 14 373 .98151 .98152 90 54.644 .92624 .92632 10 10.066 .98613 .98614 95 53.392 .92879 .92889 5 5.305 .99195 .99197 Temperature 60°. 100+0 92.600 .82126 .82429 100+100 52194 .92918 .92920 5 89.365 .83524 .83525 95 50 990 .93163 .9.3163 10 86 292 .84492 .84494 90 49 708 .93409 .93 409 15 83.381 .85353 .85350 85 48 347 .93665 .93666 20 80.635 .86130 .86131 80 46.901 .93933 .93937 25 73.047 .86840 .86843 75 45 360 .94211 .94212 30 75.607 .87490 .87493 70 43.711 .94494 .94497 35 73 306 .88090 .88091 65 41.951 .94791 .94792 40 71.130 .88640 .88640 60 40 063 .95095 .95097 45 69.073 .89152 .89156 55 38 0.33 .95407 .95401 50 67.126 .89626 .89626 50 35.844 .95718 .95716 55 65.277 .90063 ,900«6 45 33.483 .96035 .96032 60 63.521 .9046S .90471 40 30.927 .96350 .96348 65 61.854 .90S45 .908 48 35 28.155 .96665 .96664 70 60.272 .91205 .91201 30 25.194 .96987 .96985 75 58.765 .91539 .91539 25 21 867 .97322 .97322 SO 57 326 .91850 .91S51 20 18.290 .97683 .976S6 85 . 55 954 .92142 .92144 15 14.37.3 .98088 .9S09I 90 54 644 .92416 .92419 10 10.066 .98565 .98566 95 53.392 .92675 .92677 5 5.305 .99155 .99157 Temperature 65°. 100+0 92 600 .8218S .82190 100+100 95 52 194 .92710 .92708 5 89.365 .83287 .8.3286 50.990 .92956 .92954 10 86.292 .84258 .8 4256 90 49.708 .93201 .93202 15 83.381 .85116 .85113 85 48 347 .93462 .93462 20 80.635 .85899 .85895 80 46.901 .93738 .93735 25 78 047 .86608 .86609 75 45 360 .94014 .94014 30 75 607 .87258 .87260 70 43.711 .94303 .94302 35 73.306 .87859 .87859 65 41.951 .94604 .94603 40 71.130 .88410 .88409 60 40.063 .94914 .94914 45 69.073 .88926 .SS926 55 3S.03.3 .95232 .95222 50 67.126 .89398 .89397 50 35 844 .955 49 .95549 55 65.277 .89839 .89841 45 33.483 .95876 .95876 60 63 521 .90247 .90247 40 30 927 .96201 .9620 4 65 61.854 .90625 .90624 35 28.155 .9653.3 .96533 70 60.272 .90984 .90983 30 25 144 .96872 .96869 75 58.765 .91318 .91319 25 21.867 .97221 .97215 SO 57 326 .91632 .91633 20 18 290 .97600 .97601 85 65.954 .91927 .S1927 15 14.373 .98018 .98021 90 54.644 .92200 .92203 10 10.066 .98505 .98508 95 53 392 .92463 .92463 5 5.305 .99105 .99107 Table II.—Continued. 66 2 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. - Temperature 70°. Spirit and water by weight. Per cent. Specific gravity. Corrected specific gravity. Spirit and water by weight. Per cent. Specific gravity. Corrected specific gravity. Sp W. W. Sp. 100-1-0 92.600 .81949 .81949 100+100 52.194 .92497 .92493 5 89.365 .83049 .83046 95 50.990 .92744 .92742 10 86.292 .84016 .84016 90 49.708 .92992 .92992 Id 83.381 .84875 .84875 8.5 48.347 .93253 .93255 20 80.635 .85659 .85657 80 46 901 .93532 .93530 25 78.047 .86373 .86372 75 45 360 .93813 .93S13 30 75.607 .87027 .87025 70 43.711 .94108 .94104 35 73.306 .87626 .87624 65 41 951 .94415 .94411 40 71 130 .88175 .8S176 60 40 063 .94728 .94728 45 69.073 .88693 .88693 55 38.033 .95053 .95039 50 67 126 .89172 .89166 50 35 844 .95383 .95378 55 65.277 .89614 .89613 45 33.483 .95716 .95715 60 63 521 .90023 .90020 40 30.927 .96056 .960.55 65 61.854 .90403 .90397 35 28 155 .96397 .96397 70 60.272 .90765 .90759 30 25.144 .96749 .96746 75 58.765 .91099 .91097 25 21 867 .97116 .97100 80 57.326 .91411 .91412 20 18.290 .97508 .97508 85 55.954 .91710 .91707 15 14 373 .97940 .97941 90 54 644 .91986 .91984 10 10.066 .98438 .98440 95 53.392 .92250 .92247 5 5.305 .99045 .99047 Temperature 75°. 100+0 92.600 .81706 .81706 100+100 52.194 .92281 .92276 5 89.365 .82803 .82804 95 50.990 .925.30 .92528 10 86 292 .83776 .83774 90 49.708 .92781 .92779 15 83.381 .84634 .84635 85 48.347 .93048 .9304.5 20 80.635 .85419 .85417 80 46.901 .93329 .93322 25 78 047 .86134 .86133 75 45 360 93611 .93609 30 75.607 .86786 .867S7 70 43.711 .93904 .93902 35 73.306 .87387 .87387 65 41.951 .94216 .94216 40 71.130 .87939 .87940 60 40.063 .94538 .94539 45 69.073 .88458 .88458 55 38.033 .94872 .94853 50 67 126 88938 .88932 50 35 844 .95206 .95203 55 65.277 .89383 .89383 45 33.483 .95552 .95550 60 63.521 .89791 .89791 • 40 30.927 .95901 .95901 65 61 854 .90171 .90168 35 28.155 .96257 .9625.5 70 60.272 .905.32 .90532 30 25.144 .96621 .96617 75 58.765 .90870 90872 25 21 867 .96999 .96977 80 57.326 .911S8 .91189 20 18 290 .97407 .97406 85 55.954 .91487 .91484 15 14.373 .97855 .97852 90 54.644 .91766 .91762 10 10 066 .98365 .9S363 95 53 392 .92028 .9202S 5 5 305 .98977 .98977 Temperature S0°. 100+0 92.600 .81457 .81461 100+100 52 194 .92059 .92056 5 89 365 .82557 .82560 95 50 990 .92310 .92311 10 86 292 .83528 .83530 90 49.708 .92563 .92564 15 83.381 .84391 .84394 85 48.347 .92833 .92832 20 80.635 .85171 .85175 80 46.901 .93117 .93111 25 78.047 .858S9 .85892 75 45.360 .93404 .93402 30 75.607 .86544 .86547 70 43 711 .93701 .93697 35 73 306 .87150 .87148 65 41 951 .94017 .94017 40 71.130 .87697 .87702 60 40.063 .94346 .94346 45 69.073 .88222 .88220 55 38.033 .94683 .94663 50 67.126 .88701 .S8696 50 35.844 .95025 .95024 55 65 277 .89145 .891.50 45 33.483 .95381 .95381 60 63.521 .89558 .89559 40 30.927 .95740 .95743 65 61.S54 .89940 .89936 35 28.155 .96105 .96107 70 60.272 .90304 .90303 30 25.144 .96481 .96481 75 58 765 .90641 .90644 25 21.867 .96876 .96846 80 57.326 .90964 .90963 20 18 290 .97297 .97296 85 55.954 .91258 .91258 15 14 373 .97757 .97754 90 54.644 .91540 .91537 10 10 066 .98278 .98276 95 53.392 .91808 .91806 5 5 305 .98902 .98897 Table IL—Continued. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 663 Table III.—Showing the true densities and volumes of alcohol of every strength from 1 to 100 per cent., and for every five degrees of temperature from 30° to 100°. Temperature 30°. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. 0 .99981 1000.7 34 .96825 1009.0 68 .90737 1014.8 1 .99815 1000.8 35 .96720 1009.3 69 .90 492 1014.8 2 .99706 1000 8 36 .96615 1009.6 70 .90249 1014.9 3 .99567 1000.8 37 .96509 1010.0 71 .90007 1015.0 4 .99128 1000.9 38 .96403 1010.5 72 .89758 1015.1 5 .99289 1000.9 39 .96268 1010.6 73 .89508 1015.2 6 .99169 1001.0 40 .96132 1010.8 74 .89253 1015.3 7 .99056 1001.1 41 .95991 1011 0 75 .88996 1015.4 8 .98911 1001.2 42 .95848 1011.2 76 .8873S 1015.4 9 .98832 1001.4 43 .95699 1011.4 77 .8S476 1015.5 10 .98719 1001.5 44 .95547 1011.7 78 .8S214 1015.6 11 .9S627 1001.7 45 .95393 1011.9 79 .87946 1015 8 12 .98536 1001.9 46 .95233 1012.1 80 .87676 1015.9 13 .98115 1002 1 47 .95069 1012.3 81 .87403 1016.0 11 .98351 1002.3 48 .94894 1012.4 82 .87127 1016.1 15 .98272 1002 5 49 .94716 1012.5 83 .86850 1016 3 16 .98196 1002.8 50 .94537 1012.7 84 .86561 1016.4 17 .98119 1003 1 51 .94356 1012.8 85 .86264 1016.4 18 .98013 1003.4 52 .94172 1013.1 86 .85967 1016.4 19 .97975 1003.7 53 .93983 1013.2 87 .85660 1016.5 20 .97911 1004.1 54 .93784 1013 3 88 .85347 1016.6 21 .97816 1004 5 oo .93580 1013.4 89 .85034 1016.7 .97780 1004.9 56 .9337S 1013.5 90 .84706 1016.8 23 .97706 1005.2 57 .93173 1013.6 91 .84367 1016.8 21 .97631 1005.4 58 .92965 1013 8 92 .84028 10169 2.> .97557 1005 7 59 .92754 1013.8 93 .83670 1017.0 26 .97181 1006.1 60 .92535 1013.9 94 .83304 1017.1 27 .97112 1006.4 61 .92320 1014.1 95 .82919 1017.1 28 .97339 1006 8 62 .92104 1014 2 96 .82511 1017.2 29 .97263 1007.2 63 .91880 1014.3 97 .82093 1017.2 30 .97186 1007.6 64 .91656 1014.3 98 .81674 1017.3 31 .97107 1008.0 65 .91431 1014.4 99 .81232 1017.4 32 .97015 1008.3 66 .91205 1014.6 100 .80776 1017.4 33 .96923 1008.6 67 .90979 1014.8 Temperature 35°. 0 .99999 34 .96692 1007.6 68 .90523 1012.4 1 .99859 1000.9 35 .96583 1007.9 69 .90279 1012 4 2 .99719 1000.9 36 .96473 1008.2 76 .90034 1012.5 3 .99579 1001.0 37 .96360 1008.5 71 .89790 1012.6 4 .99139 1001.0 38 .96247 1008.8 72 .89541 1012.7 5 .99300 1001.0 39 .96108 1008.9 73 .89291 1012.7 6 .99178 1001.1 40 .95969 1009.1 74 .89035 1012.8 7 .99063 1001.2 41 .95824 1009.2 75 .88777 1012.8 8 .98919 1001 3 42 .95679 1009.4 76 .8851S 1012.9 9 .98831 1001 4 43 .95527 1009.6 77 .88256 1013.0 10 .98720 1001.5 44 .95372 1009.8 78 .87993 1013.1 11 .98623 1001.6 45 .95214 1010.0 79 .87724 1013.2 12 .98529 1001.8 46 .95051 1010.1 80 .87453 1013.3 13 .98135 10020 47 .94884 1010.3 81 .87179 1013.4 11 .98310 1002.1 48 .94707 1010.4 82. .86900 1013.5 15 .98251 1002.4 49 .94528 1010.5 83 .86621 1013 6 16 .98173 1002 6 50 .94347 1010.6 84 .86332 1013.7 17 .98091 1002.8 51 .94164 1010.8 85 .86036 1013.7 18 .98010 1003 0 52 .93976 1010.9 86 .85740 1013.7 19 .97936 1003.3 53 .93785 1011.1 87 .85432 1013.8 20 .97861 1003.6 54 .93585 1011.2 88 .85120 1013 9 21 .97791 1004 0 55 .93382 1011.2 89 .84806 1013.9 22 .97721 1004.2 56 .93178 1011.3 90 .84478 1014.0 23 .97611 1004.5 57 .92970 1011.4 91 .84139 1014.1 21 .97561 1004.7 58 .92761 1011.5 92 .83S00 1014.1 25 .97181 1005.0 59 .92549 1011.6 93 .83442 1014.2 26 .97101 1005.2 60 .92330 1011.7 94 .83075 1014.3 27 .97323 1005.5 61 .92113 1011.8 95 .82692 1014.3 28 .97211 1005.8 62 .91895 1011.9 96 .82283 1014.4 29 .97161 1006.1 63 .91672 1012.0 97 .81866 1014.4 30 97076 1006 4 64 .91447 1012.0 98 .81448 1014.5 31 32 .96991 .96891 1006.8 1007.1 65 66 .91220 .90992 1012.1 1012.2 99 100 .81006 .80550 1014.5 1014.6 33 .96796 1007 3 67 .90765 1012.4 664 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Temperature 40°. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. j Per cent. Density. Volume. 0 1.00000 1000.9 34 .96555 1006.2 68 .90307 1010.0 1 .99860 1000.9 35 .96441 1006.4 69 .90064 1010 0 2 .99719 1000 9 36 .96325 1006.6 70 .89818 1010.1 3 .99580 1001.0 37 .96206 1006.9 71 .89571 1910.1 4 .99440 1001.0 38 .96086 1007.1 72 .89321 1010.2 5 .99300 1001.0 39 .95945 1007.2 73 .89071 1010.2 6 .99176 1001.1 40 .95803 1007.3 74 .88815 1010 3 7 .99059 1001.1 41 .95656 1007.5 75 .88557 1010.3 8 .98943 1001.2 42 .95507 1007.6 76 .88296 1010.4 9 .98826 1001.3 43 .95352 1007.8 77 .88033 1010 5 10 .98710 1001.4 44 .95194 1007.9 78 .87770 1010.5 11 .98611 1001.5 45 .95032 1008.0 79 .87500 1010.6 12 .98513 1001 6 46 .94866 1008.2 80 .87228 1010.7 13 .98415 1001.8 47 .94697 100S.3 81 .86953 1010 8 14 .98317 1001.9 48 .94518 1008.4 82 .86672 1010 8 15 .98227 1002.0 49 .94336 1008.5 83 .86392 1010 9 16 .98141 1002 2 50 .94153 1008.6 84 .86102 1011.0 17 .98054 1002.4 51 .93969 1008.7 85 .85807 1011 0 18 .97968 1002.6 52 .93778 1008.8 86 .85512 1011.0 19 .97888 1002.8 53 .93584 1008 9 87 .85203 1011.1 20 .97811 1003.1 54 .93384 1009.0 88 .84891 1011.1 21 .97733 1003.3 55 .93180 1009.1 89 .84577 1011.2 22 .97655 1003.6 56 .92975 1009.1 90 •S4248 1011.3 23 .97569 1003.7 57 .92766 1009.2 91 .83909 . 1011.3 24 .974S3 1003.9 58 .92555 1009.3 92 .83570 1011 3 25 97397 1004.1 59 .92342 1009.3 93 .83212 1011.4 26 .97312 1004.3 60 .92123 1009.4 94 .82848 1011.5 27 .97228 1004.6 61 .91904 1009.5 95 .82461 1011.5 28 .97143 1004.8 62 .91684 1009.6 96 .82054 1011 6 29 .97053 1005.0 63 .91460 1009.6 97 .81638 1011.6 30 .96962 1005.3 64 .91234 1009.7 98 .81220 1011.7 31 .96869 1005.5 65 .91007 1009.7 99 .80778 1011.7 32 .96767 1005 7 66 .90778 1009.8 100 .80323 1011.8 33 .96664 1006.0 67 .90548 1009.9 Temperature 45°. 0 .99993 34 .96413 1004 7 68 .90087 1007.5 1 .99852 1000.8 35 .96294 1004.9 69 .89846 1007.5 2 .99712 1000.9 36 .96173 • 1005.0 70 .89598 1007.6 3 .99571 1000.9 37 .96047 1005.2 71 .89350 1007.6 4 .99430 1000.9 38 .95921 1005.4 72 .89099 1007 7 5 .99290 1000.9 39 .95778 1005.5 73 .88S49 1007.7 6 .99165 1000.9 40 .95634 1005.6 74 .88593 1007 8 7 .99046 1001.0 41 -95483 1005.7 75 .88334 1007 8 8 .98927 1001.1 42 .95331 1005.8 76 .88074 1007.8 9 .98808 1001.1 43 .95173 1005.9 77 .87809 1007.9 10 .98690 1001.2 44 .95012 1006.0 78 .87545 1007.9 11 .98587 1001.3 45 .94847 1006.1 79 .87273 10080 12 .98487 1001.4 46 .94679 1006.2 80 .87000 lOOS.O 13 .98386 1001.5 47 .94507 1006 3 81 .86724 1008.1 14 .98285 1001.6 48 .94326 1006 3 82 .86442 1008.1 15 .98190 1001.7 49 .94143 1006.4 83 .86160 1008.2 16 .98099 1001.8 50 .93958 1006.5 84 .85871 100S.3 17 •9S008 1001.9 51 .93771 1006.5 85 .85576 100S.3 18 .97917 1002.1 52 .93578 1006.7 86 .85282 1008.3 ' 19 .97832 1002.2 53 .93381 1006 7 87 .84973 1008.3 20 .97748 1002.4 54 .93ISO 1006.8 88 .84660 1008.4 21 .97664 1002.6 5.) .92975 1006 8 89 .84345 100S.4 22 .97580 1002.8 56 .92769 1006 9 90 .84016 1008.5 23 .97490 1002.9 57 .92558 1006.9 91 .83677 1008.5 24 .97399 1003.1 58 .92346 1007 0 92 .83338 1008.6 25 .97308 1003.2 59 .92131 1007.0 93 .82980 1008.6 26 .97217 1003.3 60 .91912 1007.1 94 .82615 1008 6 27 .97127 1003.5 61 .91692 1007.2 95 .82230 100S 7 28 .97036 1003 7 62 .91471 1007.2 96 .81823 100S.7 29 .96940 1003.8 63 .91246 1007.3 97 .81407 1008.8 30 .96842 1004 0 64 .91020 1007 3 98 .80990 100S 8 31 .96744 1004.2 65 .90791 1007.3 99 .80548 1008.8 32 .96636 1004 4 66 .90560 1007.4 100 .80094 100S.9 33 .96527 1004.5 67 .90328 1007.5 Table III.—Continued. REPORT OF T11E NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 665 Table III.—Continued. Temperature 50°. Per | cent. | Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. 0 .99975 1000 6 34 .96268 1003.2 68 .89866 1005 0 1 .99834 1000.7 35 .96143 1003.3 69 .89625 1005.1 2 .99693 1000 7 36 .96018 1003.4 70 .89376 1005.1 3 .99552 1000.7 37 .95885 1003.5 71 .89126 1005.1 4 .99411 1000 7 38 .95753 1003,6 72 .88875 1005.1 5 .99270 1000.7 39 .95608 1003.7 73 .88624 1005 2 6 .99143 1000.7 40 .95461 1003.7 74 .88367 1005.2 7 .99023 1000 8 41 .95307 1003 8 75 .88108 1005.2 8 .98902 1000 8 42 .95152 1003.9 76 .87847 1005.3 9 .98782 1000 8 43 .94991 1004 0 77 .87582 1005.3 10 .98661 1000.9 44 .91828 1004 0 78 .87317 1005.3 11 .98556 1000 9 45 .94660 1004.1 79 .87045 1005.4 12 .98451 1001.0 46 .94488 1004.1 SO .86771 1005 4 13 .98347 100.1.1 47 .94314 1004.2 81 .86493 1005 4 14 .98243 1001.1 48 .94131 1004 3 82 .86211 1005.5 15 .98144 1001.2 49 .93946 1004.3 83 .85928 1005.5 16 .98049 1001.3 50 .93759 1004 3 84 .85639 1005.5 17 .97954 1001.4 51 .93570 1004.4 85 .85344 1005 5 18 .97859 1001.5 52 .93374 1004.5 86 .85050 1005.6 19 .97767 1001 6 53 .93176 1004.5 87 .84742 1005.6 20 .97677 1001 7 54 .92974 1004 6 88 .84427 1005.6 21 .97588 1001.8 55 .92768 1004.6 89 .84112 1005.6 22 .97497 1002.0 56 .92559 1004.6 90 .83782 1005.7 23 .97402 1002.0 57 .92349 1004.6 91 .83443 1005 7 24 .97307 1002.1 58 .92135 1004.7 92 .83104 1005.7 25 .97212 1002.2 59 .91920 1004 7 93 .82746 1005 7 26 .97115 1002 3 60 .91699 1004.8 94 .82380 1005.8 27 .97019 1002.4 61 .91478 1004.8 95 .81997 1005 8 28 .96923 1002.5 62 .91255 1004.8 96 .81589 1005.8 29 .96821 1002.6 63 .91029 1004.9 97 .81174 1005 9 30 .96718 1002 7 64 .90802 1004.9 98 .80756 1005.9 31 .96614 1002 9 65 .90573 1004.9 99 .80316 1005 9 32 .96500 1003.0 66 .90341 1005.0 100 .79863 1006 0 33 .96387 1003.1 67 .90107 1005.0 Temperature 55°. 0 .99947 34 .96117 1001.6 68 .89642 1002.5 1 .99SOS 1000.4 35 .95988 1001.7 69 .89401 1002 5 2 .99664 1000.4 36 .95858 1001.7 70 .89151 1002.6 3 .99523 1000.4 37 .95720 1001.8 71 .88901 1002.6 4 .99381 1000.4 3S .95582 1001,9 72 .88649 1002.6 5 .99240 1000.4 39 .95434 1001.9 73 .8S397 1002.6 6 .99112 1000.4 40 .95285 1001.9 74 .88140 1002 6 7 .98990 1000.4 41 .95128 1001.9 75 .87880 1002 6 . 8 .98867 1000.5 42 .94970 1002.0 76 .87618 1002.6 9 .98745 1000.5 43 .94805 1002.0 77 .87353 1002.7 10 .98622 1000.5 44 .94639 1002 0 78 .87087 1002.7 11 .98513 1000.5 45 .94468 1002.1 79 .86814 1002.7 12 .98407 1000.5 46 .94294 1002 1 80 .86539 1002 7 13 .98299 1000 6 47 .94117 1002 1 81 .86261 1002.7 14 .98192 1000.6 48 .939.32 1002.1 82 .85978 1002 7 15 .98090 1000 6 49 .93746 1002.2 83 .85694 1002 8 16 .97991 1000.7 50 .93557 1002.2 84 .85405 1002 8 17 .97S91 1000 7 51 .93367 1002.2 85 .85110 1002 8 18 .97792 1000.8 52 .9316S 1002.2 36 .84816 1002 8 19 .97695 1000.8 53 .92968 1002 3 87 .84507 1002.8 20 .97599 1000.9 54 .92764 1002 3 88 .84192 1002 8 21 .97503 1001.0 55 .92558 1002.3 89 .83S77 1002.8 22 .97407 1001.0 56 .92348 1002.3 90 .83547 1002.8 23 .97308 1001.1 57 .92136 1002 3 91 .83208 1002 9 24 .97209 1001.1 58 .91921 1002.4 92 .82869 1002 9 .97109 1001.1 59 .91704 1002.4 93 .82511 1002.9 26 .97008 1001.2 60 .91483 1002.4 94 .82146 1002.9 27 .96906 1001,2 61 .91260 1002.4 95 .81763 1002.9 28 .96805 1001 3 62 .91036 1002.4 96 .81356 1002 9 29 .96697 1001.3 63 .90810 1002.4 97 .80941 1002 9 30 .96588 1001.4 64 .90583 1002.5 98 .80523 1003.0 31 .96478 1001.4 65 .90353 1002.5 99 .80082 1003.0 32 .96360 1001 5 66 .90118 1002.5 100 .79630 1003 0 33 .96241 1001 5 67 .S9SS3 1002.5 666 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Temperature 60°. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. 0 .99910 1000.0 34 .95963 1000.0 68 .89415 1000.0 1 .99768 1000.0 35 .95829 1000 0 69 .89174 1000.0 2 .99626 1000 0 36 .95693 1000.0 70 .88923 1000.0 3 .99484 1000.0 37 .95549 1000 0 71 .88673 1000.0 4 .99342 1000 0 38 .95406 1000.0 72 .88420 1000 0 5 .99200 1000.0 39 .95256 1000.0 73 .88168 1000.0 6 .99071 1000.0 40 .95106 iooo o 74 .87911 1000 0 7 .98947 1000 0 41 .94946 1000 0 75 .87651 1000.0 S .98822 1000.0 42 .94784 1000.0 76 .87388 1000.0 9 .98698 1000.0 43 .94616 1000 0 77 .87122 1000 0 10 .98574 1000.0 44 .94447 1000.0 78 .86855 1000.0 11 •9S463 1000 0 45 .94274 1000.0 79 .86581 1000.0 12 .98353 1000.0 46 .94098 1000 0 SO .86306 1000 0 13 .98242 1000 0 47 .93918 1000.0 SI .86027 1000 0 14 .98132 1000.0 48 .93731 1000.0 82 .85743 iooo o 1.3 .98026 1000.0 49 .9.3543 1000 0 83 .85458 1000.0 16 .97923 1000.0 50 .93353 1000.0 84 .85168 1000.0 17 .97819 1000.0 51 .93161 1000.0 85 .84874 1000.0 18 .97716 1000 0 52 .92959 1000.0 86 .84580 1000 0 19 .97614 1000.0 53 .92756 1000.0 87 .84271 1000.0 20 .97512 1000.0 54 .92552 1000 0 88 .83955 looo.o 21 .97410 1000 0 55 .92344 1000.0 89 .83640 100,0 0 22 .9730S 1000.0 56 .92134 1000.0 90 .83310 1000.0 23 .97205 1000 0 57 .91921 1000.0 91 .82971 1000.0 24 .97103 1000.0 58 .91705 1000.0 92 .82632 1000 0 25 .97000 1000.0 59 ' .91487 1000 0 93 .82274 1000 0 26 .96894 1000.0 60 .91264 1000.0 94 .SI 907 1000.0 27 .96787 1000.0 61 .91040 1000.0 95 .81525 1000.0 2S .96680 1000.0 62 .90S15 1000.0 96 .81117 moo 0 29 .96568 1000.0 63 .90589 1000.0 97 .80703 1000.0 30 .96454 1000.0 64 .90360 1000.0 98 .802S4 iooo o 31 .963.39 1000.0 65 .90130 1000.0 99 .79846 1000 0 32 .96215 1000 0 66 .89S94 1000.0 100 .79390 1000 0 33 .96092 1000.0 67 .89656 looo.o Temperature 65°. 0 .99863 34 .95804 998.3 68 .89185 997 4 1 .99721 999.5 35 .95666 998 3 69 .88944 997.4 2 .99578 999.5 36 .95525 998 2 70 .88693 997.4 3 .99435 999.5 37 .95376 998.2 71 .SS442 997.4 4 .99293 999.5 38 .95227 998.1 72 .881S9 997 4 5 .99150 999.5 39 .95075 998.1 73 .87936 997.4 6 .99020 999.5 40 .94923 998.1 74 .87679 997 4 7 .98893 999.5 41 .94760 99S.0 75 .87418 997 3 8 .98768 999.4 42 .94594 99S.0 76 .S7155 997.3 9 .98642 999.4 43 .94424 998.0 77 .80888 997.3 10 •9S516 999.4 44 .94252 997.9 78 .86622 997 3 11 .9S402 999.4 45 .94077 997.9 79 .86346 997.3 12 .98290 999 4 46 .93898 997.9 80 .86070 997.3 13 .98176 999.3 47 .93716 997.9 81 .85791 997.3 14 .98063 999.3 48 .93527 997.8 82 .85507 997.3 1.5 .97953 999 2 49 .93337 997 S 83 .85221 997.2 16 .97846 999.2 50 .93145 997 8 84 .S4931 997.2 17 .97739 999.2 51 .92952 997.8 85 .84636 997.2 18 .97632 999.1 52 .92748 997.7 86 .84342 997.2 19 .97524 999.1 53 .92543 997 7 87 .84032 997.2 20 .97416 999.0 54 .92337 997.7 88 .83717 997.2 21 .97309 999 0 55 .92128 997 7 S9 .S3401 997 1 22 .97201 998.9 56 .91917 997.6 1 90 .83071 997.1 23 .97095 998 9 57 .91703 997.6 91 .82732 997.1 21 .96990 998.8 5S .91486 997.6 92 .82393 997.1 2.5 .96SS4 998.8 59 .91267 997 6 93 .82035 997.1 26 .96773 998.8 60 .91044 997.6 94 .81670 997 1 27 .96662 998.7 61 .90818 997.6 95 .81287 997.1 2S .96550 998.7 62 .90591 997 5 96 .80879 997.1 29 .96433 998 6 63 .90365 997.5 97 .80465 997.1 30 .96314 998.6 64 .90136 997.5 9S .80048 997.1 31 .96194 998.5 65 .89905 997 5 99 .79608 997.1 32 .96066 998 5 66 .89667 997.5 100 .79156 997.1 33 .95938 998.4 67 .89427 997.5 Table III—Continued. REPORT OF TIIE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 667 Table III.—Continued. Temperature 70°. Per ceut. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume 0 .99807 999 0 34 .95641 996.7 | 68 .88954 994.8 1 .99664 999 0 35 .95499 996 6 69 .88711 994 8 2 .99520 998.9 36 .95354 996.5 70 .88460 994 8 3 .99377 998 9 37 .95199 996.3 71 .88209 994.8 4 .99234 998.9 38 .95044 996.2 72 .87955 994.7 5 .99091 998.9 39 .94S91 996.2 73 .87702 994.7 6 .98959 998.9 40 .94737 996.1 74 .87444 994.7 7 .98831 998 8 41 .94571 996.1 75 .87183 994 7 8 .98704 998 8 42 .94403 996.0 76 .86920 994.6 9 .98576 998.8 43 .94228 995.9 77 .86652 994 6 10 .98448 998 7 44 .94053 995 8 78 .86385 994.6 11 .98332 998.7 45 .93877 ''995.8 79 .86109 994.6 12 .98216 998 6 46 .93696 995.7 80 .85832 994.5 13 .98100 998 6 47 .93511 995.7 81 .85553 994.5 14 .97984 998.5 48 .93321 995.6 82 .85269 994 5 15 .97872 998 4 49 .93129 995.6 83 .84983 994.4 16 .97761 998.4 50 .92935 995.5 84 .84692 994.4 17 .97651 998.3 51 .92740 995.5 85 .84397 994.4 18 .97540 998.2 52 .92533 995.4 86 .84102 994.4 19 .97427 998.1 53 .92328 995.4 87 .83792 . 994 3 20 .97313 998.0 54 .92119 995.3 88 .83477 994.3 21 .97199 • 997.8 55 .91909 995 3 S9 .83161 994.3 22 .97086 997.7 56 .91697 995.3 90 .82830 994.2 23 .96978 997 7 57 .91482 995 2 91 .82491 994.2 24 .96870 997.6 58 .91264 995 2 92 .82152 994.2 23 .96762 997.6 59 .91044 995.2 93 .81794 994 2 26 .96647 997 5 60 .90820 995.1 94 .81428 994.2 27 .96531 997.4 61 .90592 995.1 95 .81016 994.1 28 .96415 997.3 62 .90364 995.0 96 .80640 994 1 29 .96293 997.2 63 .90138 995.0 97 .80224 994.1 30 .96169 997 1 64 .89909 995.0 98 .79S08 994.1 31 .96045 997.0 65 .89677 995.0 99 .79368 994.0 32 .95912 996.9 66 .89438 994.9 100 .78917 994.0 33 .95779 996.7 67 .89196 994.9 Temperature 75°. 0 .99741 34 .95474 994.9 68 .88719 992.2 1 .99596 998.3 35 .95327 994.7 69 .8S476 992.2 2 .99453 998.3 36 .95178 991 6 70 .88224 992.1 3 .99309 998.2 37 .95018 994.4 71 .87973 992 1 4 .99165 998 2 38 .94858 994 3 72 .87719 992.1 .99021 998.2 39 .94703 994.2 73 .87465 992 0 6 .98888 99S 2 40 .94548 994.1 74 .87206 992.0 7 .9S75S 998 1 41 .94379 994 0 75 .86945 992 0 8 .98630 998.1 42 .94207 993.9 76 .86681 991.9 9 .98500 998.0 43 .94029 993.8 77 .86414 991.9 10 .98372 998.0 44 .93851 993.7 78 .86146 991.8 11 .98252 997.9 45 .93673 993 6 79 .85869 991 8 12 .98134 997.8 46 .93490 993.5 80 .85593 991.7 13 .98015 997.7 47 .93303 993.5 81 .85313 991.7 14 .97896 997.6 48 .93112 993.4 82 .85029 991.7 15 .97781 997.5 49 .92917 993.3 83 .84743 991.6 16 .97667 997.4 50 .92722 993.2 84 .84452 991.6 17 .975.5.3 997.3 51 ..92526 993.1 85 .84156 991.5 18 .97439 997.2 52 .92317 993.1 86 .83860 991.5 ' 19 .97321 997.0 53 .92109 993.0 87 .83550 991.4 20 .97201 996 8 54 .91899 992.9 88 .83235 991.4 21 .97081 996.6 55 .91686 992 9 89 .82919 991.4 22 .96962 996 5 56 .91474 992 8 90 .82589 991.4 23 .9685.3 996.4 57 .91259 992.8 91 .82249 991.3 24 .96743 996 3 58 .91041 992.8 92 .81910 991.3 25 .96633 996.2 59 .90819 992.7 93 .81551 991 2 26 .96514 996 1 60 .90593 992 7 94 .81185 991.2 27 .96394 99.5 9 61 .90364 992.6 95 .80802 991.2 2S .96274 99.5.8 62 .90135 992 5 96 .80397 991.2 29 .96147 995.6 63 .89909 992 5 97 .79982 991.1 30 .96019 64 .89679 992.5 98 .79565 991.0 31 .95891 995 4 65 .89447 992.4 99 .79126 991.0 32 .95754 995.2 66 .89207 992 4 100 .78675 991.0 33 .95616 995.1 67 .88963 992 3 668 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Table III.—Continued. Temperature 80°. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. 0 .99666 997.5 34 .95303 993.1 68 .88482 989 6 1 .99521 997 5 35 .95152 992.9 69 .8S238 989 5 2 .99376 997.5 36 .9499S 992.7 70 .87986 9S9 5 3 .99231 997 5 37 .94833 992.5 71 .87735 989 4 " 4 .99086 997.4 38 .94668 992.3 72 .87481 989.4 5 .98941 997.4 39 .94512 992.2 73 .87226 989 3 6 .98806 997.3 40 .94355 992 1 74 .86967 989.3 7 .98676 997 3 41 .94183 992.0 75 .86705 989 2 8 .98546 997 2 42 .9400S 991.8 76 .86442 989.2 9 .98415 997.1 43 .93826 991 7 77 .86173 989.1 10 .98285 997.1 44 .93645 991.5 78 .85905 9S9.1 11 .98163 997.0 45 .93466 991.4 79 .85628 989 0 12 .98042 996 8 46 .93281 991.3 SO .85351 9SS 9 13 .97920 996.7 47 .93092 991 2 81 .85072 988.9 14 .97799 996.6 48 .92S99 9911 82 .84787 988.9 15 .976S1 996 5 49 .92703 991 0 83 .84502 988.8 16 .97564 996.3 50 .92506 990.9 84 .84211 9SS.8 17 .97447 996 2 51 .92309 990.9 85 .83914 98S.7 18 .97330 996 1 52 .92097 990.7 86 .83617 988.6 19 .97207 995 8 53 .91888 990.6 87 .83306 9S8.6 20 .97081 995.6 54 .91675 990 5 88 .82991 9S8 5 21 .96955 995 3 55 .91461 990 5 89 .82675 9SS.5 22 .96S31 995 1 56 .91218 990.4 90 .82344 9S8.4 23 .96720 995 0 57 .91033 990.3 91 .82004 988.3 24 .96608 994 9 58 .90813 990 3 92 .81665 9S8.3 25 .96 497 994.8 59 .90591 990.2 93 .81306 988 2 26 .96375 994.6 60 .90365 990.2 94 .809 41 988.2 27 .96251 994 5 61 .90134 990 1 95 .80558 988 2 28 .96126 994.3 62 .89903 990.0 96 .60152 988.1 29 .95996 994 1 63 .89677 9S9.9 97 .7973S 988 0 30 .95865 993 9 64 .89417 9S9.9 98 .79320 988.0 31 .9573.3 993 7 65 .89215 9S9.9 99 .78882 987 9 32 .95591 993 5 66 .88973 989.8 100 .78 432 987.9 33 .95449 993.3 67 .8S727 989.6 Temperature 85°. 0 .99581 34 .95126 991 3 68 .88243 986.9 1 .99435 998.7 35 .94971 991.1 69 .87997 9S6 8 2 .992S9 996 6 36 .94S13 990.S ■ 70 .S7746 986.S 3 .99143 996.6 37 .94644 990.5 71 .87495 986.7 4 .98997 996.5 38 .94475 990.2 72 .87240 9S6.7 5 .98S51 996 5 39 .94317 990.1 73 .869S5 9S6 6 6 .98716 996 4 40 .94159 990.0 74 .86726 986 5 7 .9S5S4 996.3 41 .93984 9S9.9 75 .86464 9S6.5 8 .98452 996.3 42 .93806 ' 9S9.7 76 .86200 9S6.4 9 .98320 996 2 43 .93620 989.5 77 .85930 986 3 10 .98189 996.1 44 .93436 989 3 78 .S5662 986.3 11 .98065 996.0 4.5 .93257 989.2 79 .85385 9S6.2 12 .97941 995.8 46 .93070 989 1 80 .85107 9S6 1 13 .97817 995 7 47 .92878 988 9 81 .84S28 986.1 14 .97693 995 5 48 .92683 988.8 82 .84544 984 0 15 .97572 995.4 49 .92487 988.7 83 .84260 986 0 16 .97452 995 2 50 .92288 988.6 84 .83968 9S5 9 17 .97333 995 0 51 .92089 988.5 85 .83669 985. S 18 .97213 904.9 52 .91875 988 3 86 .83371 985 7 19 .97085 991 6 53 .91664 9S8.2 87 .83060 935.6 20 .96953 994.3 54 .91449 988.1 88 .82745 985.6 21 .96821 994.0 55 .91233 988.0 89 .82429 985 5 22 .96692 993 7 56 .91019 987.9 90 .82097 9S5 4 23 .96580 993.6 57 .90805 987.9 91 .S1759 9i-5.4 24 .96468 993.5 58 .90585 987 8 92 .81418 985.3 25 .96355 993 4 59 .90361 9S7.7 93 .81059 9S5.2 26 .96229 993.1 60 .90133 987.6 94 •S0692 985.2 27 .96101 992.9 61 .89901 9S7 5 95 .80310 985 1 28 .95973 992.7 62 .89668 987.4 96 .79904 985.1 29 .95839 992.5 63 .89442 987 4 97 .794S9 985 0 30 .95705 992 2 64 .89213 987.3 98 .79074 981.9 31 .95569 992.0 65 .88980 9S7 2 99 .78636 984.8 32 .95423 991.8 66 .88737 9S7.1 100 .7S185 9S4.8 33 .95277 991.5 67 .88489 987.0 REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 669 Table Ill.-^Continued. Temperature 90°. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. 0 .99187 995 7 34 .94946 989.4 68 .88000 984.2 1 .99339 995 7 35 .94787 989.1 69 .87753 9S4.1 2 .99193 995.7 36 .94625 9SS.8 70 .87502 984.0 3 .99016 995 6 37 .94451 988.5 71 .87252 984.0 4 .98S99 995.5 38 .94278 988.2 72 .86996 983.9 5 .98752 995.5 39 .94119 98S.1 73 .86741 9S3.8 6 .98615 995.4 40 .93960 9SS.0 74 .86481 983.7 7 .98481 995.8 41 .93782 987.7 75 .86219 983.7 8 .98349 995.2 42 .93600 987.5 76 .85954 983 6 9 .98216 995.1 43 .93411 9S7.3 77 .85685 983,5 ]0 .98083 995 0 44 .93224 9S7.1 78 .85416 983.4 n .97957 994.9 45 .93044 987.0 79 .85139 983.3 12 .97830 994 7 46 .92855 986.8 80 .84861 983 3 13 .97704 994.5 47 .92661 986.6 81 .84581 983,2 u .97578 994.4 48 .92465 986.5 82 .84299 9S3 2 15 .97454 994.2 49 .92267 986.4 83 .84016 9S3.1 18 .97332 994.0 50 .92067 986.2 84 .83723 983 0 17 .97209 993 8 51 .91866 986 1 85 .S3423 982.9 18 .97086 993 6 52 .91650 985.9 86 .83123 9S2.8 19 .96954 993.2 53 .91438 985.8 87 .82812 982.7 20 .96816 992.9 54 .91221 985.6 88 .82497 982.6 21 .96679 992.5 55 .91002 9S5.5 89 .82181 982.6 22 .96545 992.2 56 .90787 9S5 4 90 .81850 982.5 23 .96132 992.1 57 .90574 985 3 91 .81510 982.4 24 .96319 991.9 58 .90.353 9S5.3 92 .81169 982.3 25 .96206 991.8 59 .90127 985.1 93 .80810 982.2 28 .96077 991 6 60 .89899 985.0 94 .80444 982.1 27 .95916 991.3 61 .S9665 984.9 95 .80062 982.0 28 .95814 991.0 62 .89131 984.8 96 .79655 981.9 29 .95677 990.8 63 .89205 984.7 97 .79241 981.8 30 .95540 990.5 64 .SS976 984.7 98 .78826 9S1.7 31 .95101 990 3 65 .88743 984.6 99 .78388 9S1 7 32 .95251 990.0 66 .8S498 984 5 100 .77937 981.6 33 .95101 989.7 67 .8824S 984.3 Temperature 95°. 0 .99383 34 .94762 987 5 68 .87756 981.5 1 .99235 994.7 35 .94598 9S7 2 69 .87506 9S1.3 2 .99087 994.6 ' 36 .91432 986.8 70 .87256 981.3 3 .98938 991.5 37 .94255 986 5 71 .87007 981.2 4 .9S790 991.4 38 .91077 986 1 72 .86751 981 1 5 .9S612 991.4 39 .93917 985.9 73 .86495 981.0 6 .98504 994 3 40 .93758 985.8 74 .86235 980.9 7 .98369 994.2 41 .93576 985.6 75 .85972 980.8 8 .98235 991.1 42 .93391 985.3 76 .S5707 980 8 9 .98101 991.0 43 .93198 985 0 77 .85437 980 7 10 .97967 993.8 44 .93008 984.8 7S .85168' 980.6 11 .97839 993.7 45 .92S28 9S4.7 79 .84891 980,5 12 .97710 993.5 46 .92637 984.5 SO .84613 980.4 13 .97581 993.3 47 .92410 9S4.3 81 .84334 980.3 14 .97453 993.1 4S .92243 984.1 82 .84052 980.3 15 .97327 992.9 49 .92044- 984 0 83 .83770 980.3 16 .97202 992.6 50 .91843 9S3.8 84 .83476 980.1 17 .97077 992.4 51 .91641 983.7 85 .83175 980.0 18 .96952 992 2 52 .91422 983.5 86 .82874 979.8 19 .96S14 991.8 53 .91209 983.3 87 .82562 979.7 20 .96672 991.4 54 .90989 983 1 88 .82247 979.7 21 .96529 . 991.0 55 .90768 9S2.9 89 .81931 979.6 22 .96390 990.6 56 .90552 982 8 90 .81599 979.5 23 .96277 990.5 57 .90340 982.8 91 .81259 979.4 24 .96164 990.3 58 .90119 982 7 92 .80918 979 3 25 .96051 990.2 59 .89892 982.6 93 .80559 979.2 26 .95919 989.9 60 .89663 982.5 91 .80193 97 9.'1 27 .95785 989.7 61 .89427 982.3 95 .79810 979 0 28 .95650 9S9 3 62 .89191 982 1 96 .79405 979.0 29 .95510 989 0 63 .88966 982.1 97 .78991 978.8 30 .95370 988.8 64 .88737 982' 0 98 .78576 97S.7 31 .95229 988.5 65 .88503 982.0 99 .78138 978.6 32 .95075 988.2 66 . 88256 981 8 100 .77688 978.6 33 .91921 987.8 67 .88006 981 6 670 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Table Ilf—Continued. Temperature 100°. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume. Per cent. Density. Volume 0 .99270 993.6 34 .94573 985.5 68 .87508 978.7 1 .99121 993.5 35 .94406 985.2 69 .87256 978.5 2 .98971 993.4 36 .94236 984.8 70 .87008 978 5 3 .98821 993.3 37 .94054 984 4 71 .86759 978 4 4 .98672 993.3 38 .93872 983.9 72 .86504 978.3 5 .98523 993.2 39 .93712 9S3.8 73 .86248 978 2 6 .98383 993.1 40 .93552 983.7 74 .85987 978.1 7 .98248 992.9 41 .93367 983.4 75 .85724 978.0 8 .9S112 992.9 42 .93179 983 1 76 .85458 977.9 9 .97977 992.7 43 .92982 982.7 77 .85187 977 8 10 .97842 992.6 44 .92789 982 5 78 .84918 977.7 11 .97711 992.4 45 .92609 982.3 79 .84641 977 6 12 .97580 992.1 46 .92416 982.1 80 .84363 977 5 13 .97449 991.9 47 .92218 981.9 81 .84085 977.4 14 .97319 991.7 48 .92020 981.8 82 .83804 977.4 15 .97191 991.5 49 .91819 981 6 83 .83524 977.4 16 .97063 991.2 50 .91616 981.4 84 .83229 977 2 17 .96937 991.0 51 .91413 981.2 85 .82926 977.1 18 .96810 990.7 52 .91192 981.0 86 .82623 976 9 19 .96668 990.3 53 .90977 9 SO. 8 87 .82310 976 7 20 .96519 989.8 54 .90755 980 6 88 .81995 976.7 21 .96371 989.3 55 .90531 980.4 89 .81679 976 6 22 .96227 988.9 56 .90316 980 3 90 .81348 976.5 23 .96115 988.8 57 .90104 980.2 91 .81007 976.3 24 .96002 988.7 58 .89882 980.1 92 .80666 976.2 25 .95889 988.6 59 .89654 980 0 93 .80306 976.1 26 .95755 98S 2 60 .89423 979.8 94 .79939 976.0 27 .95617 9S7 9 61 ■S91S6 979.6 95 .79556 975.S 2S .95479 987.6 62 .88948 979 4 96 .79150 975.7 29 .95338 987.3 63 .8S724 979.4 97 .7S737 975 6 30 .95195 987.0 64 .88495 979.4 98 .78322 975 5 31 .95051 986 6 65 .88261 979 3 99 .77886 975 4 32 .94894 986.3 66 .88013 979 1 100 .77435 975.4 33 .94736 9S5.9 67 .87761 978.9 REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 671 Supplement to Table III.—Giving specific gravities for tempera- tures between 0° and 25°, observed by Dr. Recknagel, and reduced to Tralles’ standard. Per Specific gravity. Per Specific gravity. cent. cent. 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30 .9772 .9763 .9755 30 .9746 .9737 .9728 31 .9770 .9761 .9751 31 .9741 .9731 .9721 32 .9767 .9757 .9746 32 .9736 .9725 .9714 33 .9762 .9751 .9740 33 .9729 .9717 .9705 34 .9757 .9745 .9733 34 .9721 .9708 .9696 35 .9750 .9738 .9725 35 .9712 .9700 .9687 36 .9744 .9731 .9718 36 .9704 .9690 .9677 37 .9736 .9723 .9709 37 .9695 .9682 .9668 3S .9728 .9714 .9700 38 .9686 .9671 .9656 39 .9719 .9705 .9690 39 .9675 . 9659 .9644 40 .9708 .9694 .9678 40 .9663 .9647 .9632 41 .9699 .9683 .9667 41 .9651 .9635 .9619 42 .9687 .9671 .9654 42 .9638 .9621 .9604 43 .9674 .9657 .9640 43 .9624 .9606 ■ 95S9 44 .9660 .9643 .9626 44 .9608 .9591 .9573 45 .9645 .9628 .9611 45 .9593 .9578 .9558 46 .9631 .9613 .9596 46 .9578 .9560 .9542 47 .9616 .9598 .9580 47 .9562 .9544 .9526 48 .9600 .9582 .9564 48 .9546 .9528 .9509 49 .9584 .9566 .9548 49 .9529 .9511 .9492 50 .9568 .9549 .9531 50 .9512 . .9493 .9474 51 .9551 .9532 .9513 51 .9494 .9475 .9456 52 .9533 .9514 .9495 52 .9476 .9457 .9437 53 .9514 .9495 .9476 63 .9457 .9438 .9418 54 .9496 .9476 .9457 54 .9438 .9418 .9398 55 .9477 .9457 .9438 55 .9418 •939S .9378 66 .9457 .9437 .9418 56 .9398 .9377 .9357 57 .9436 .9416 .9397 57 .9377 .9357 .9337 58 .9416 .9396 .9377 58 .9357 .9336 .9316 59 .9395 .9375 .9356 59 .9336 .9315 .9295 60 .9375 .9355 .9335 60 .9315 .9294 .9274 61 .9354 .9334 .9314 61 .9294 .9273 .9253 62 .9333 .9313 .9292 62 .9272 .9251 .9231 63 .9312 .9291 .9270 63 .9250 .9229 .9209 64 .9290 .9269 .9248 64 .9228 .9207 .9187 65 .9268 .9247 .9226 65 • .9206 .9185 .9164 66 .9246 .9225 .9204 66 .9184 .9162 .9141 67 .9223 .9202 .9181 67 .9161 .9139 .9118 68 .9200 .9179 .9158 68 .9138 .9116 .9095 69 .9177 .9156 .9135 69 .9115 .9093 .9072 70 .9153 .9132 .9111 70 .9091 .9069 .9048 71 .9129 .9108 .9087 71 .9067 .9045 .9024 72 .9105 .9084 .9063 72 .9042 .9020 .8999 73 .9080 .9059 .9038 73 .9017 .8995 .8974 74 .9056 .9034 .9013 74 .8992 .8970 .8948 75 .9031 .9009 .8988 75 .8967 .8945 .8923 76 .9006 .8984 .8963 76 .8942 .8919 .8897 77 .8980 .8958 .8937 77 .8916 .8S93 .SS71 78 .8954 .8932 .8911 78 .8890 .8867 .8845 79 .8928 .8906 .8884 79 .8863 .8840 .8818 80 .8901 .8879 .8857 80 .8836 .8813 .8791 81 .8874 .8852 .8830 81 .8809 .8786 .8764 82 .8847 8825 .8803 82 .8782 .8759 .8736 83 .8S19 .8797 .8775 83 .8754 .8731 .8708 84 .8790 .8768 .8746 84 .8725 .8702 .8679 ' 85 .8761 .8739 .8717 85 .8696 .8673 .8650 86 .8731 .8709 .8687 86 .8666 .S643 .8621 87 .8701 .8679 .8657 87 .8635 .8612 .8590 88 .8670 .8648 .8626 88 .8604 .8581 .8559 89 .8638 .8616 .8594 89 .8572 .8549 .8527 90 .8606 .8583 .8561 90 .8539 .8516 .8494 91 .8573 .8550 .8528 91 .8506 .8483 .8461 92 .8540 .8517 .8494 92 .8471 .8449 .8427 93 .8506 .8483 .8460 93 .8437 .8415 .8392 94 .8470 .S448 .8425 94 .8402 .8380 .8357 95 .8433 .8411 .8388 95 .8365 .S343 .8320 96 .8394 .8372 .8349 96 .8326 .8304 .8281 97 .8353 .8331 .8308 97 • .8284 .8262 .8239 98 .8310 .8287 .S264 98 .8240 .8218 .8195 99 .8264 .8241 .8218 99 .8194 .8172 .8149 100 .8215 .8192 .8169 100 .8145 .8123 .8100 672 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Table IV.—Showing the apparent densities and apparent per cents., corresponding to every true per cent, from 1 to 100, and for every fifth degree of temperature from 30° to 100.° Temperature 30°. True 1 Apparent True Apparent True Apparent per specific Apparent per specific Apparent per specific Apparent cent. 1 gravity. per cent. cent. gravity. per cent. cent. gravity. ! 0 .99945 —0 25 34 .96788 26.99 68 .90702 1 62 50 1 .99806 +0 73 / 35 .96683 27 97 69 .90457 63.57 2 .99667 1.71 36 .96578 28 91 70 .90214 64.63 3 .99.528 2.69 37 .96472 29.84 71 .89972 65.67 4 .99390 3 66 38 .96366 30.77 72 .89723 66.72 5 .99251 4 64 39 .96231 31.87 73 .89473 67.76 6 .99131 5.54 40 .96095 32 98 74 .89218 68.82 7 .99018 6.43 41 .95954 34.07 75 .88962 69 84 8 .98906 7 33 42 .95811 35.13 76 .88704 70.88 9 .98794 8.23 43 .95662 36.22 77 .88442 71.91 10 .98681 9.14 44 .95510 37.27 78 .88180 72.9.5 11 .98589 9.89 4o .95356 38 33 79 .87912 74.00 12 .9S49S 10.69 46 .95196 39.40 80 .87612 75.03 13 .9S407 11.51 47 .95032 40 46 81 .87369 76 07 14 .98316 12.33 48 .94S57 41.55 82 .87093 77 11 15 .98234 13.07 49 .94679 42.63 S3 .S6816 78 14 16 .98158 13.76 50 .94500 4.3.69 64 .86528 79.19 17 .98081 14.48 51 .94320 44.73 85 .86231 80.27 18 .98005 15.20 52 . .94136 45.78 86 .85934 81.33 19 .97937 15.86 53 .93947 46 84 87 .£5627 82.41 20 .97873 16.48 54 .93748 47.91 88 .85314 83.50 21 .97808 17.11 55 .93544 48.99 89 .85001 84.57 22 .97742 17.75 56 .93342 50.07 90 .84673 85.68 23 .97668 18 47 57 .93137 51.12 91 .84334 86.80 24 .97593 19.21 58 .92929 52.15 92 .83995 87.87 25 .97519 19.93 59 .92718 53 19 93 .83638 $9.01 26 .97446 20.65 60 .92499 54.25 94 .83272 90.11 27 .97374 21.35 61 .922S4 55 29 95 .S2S87 91.25 28 .97301 22 07 62. .92068 56.31 96 .82 479 92 45 29 .97225 22.81 63 .91844 57.36 97 .82061 93 61 30 .97148 23.56 64 .91621 58 39 98 .81642 94 71 31 .97069 24 33 65 .91396 • 59.41 99 .81201 95.81 32 .96977 25.22 66 .91170 60.42 100 .80745 96.92 33 .96886 26 08 67 .90944 61.43 Temperature 35°. 0 .99967 —0.40 34 .96661 28.17 68 ,90i94 63.42 1 .99S27 4-0.58 35 .96552 29.14 69 .90250 64.48 2 .99687 1.57 36 .96442 30 10 70 .90005 65.53 3 .99547 2.55 37 .96329 31.09 71 .89761 66.56 4 .99407 3.54 38 .96216 31 99 72 89512 67 60 5 .99268 4.52 39 .96077 33 12 73 .89 162 68 63 6 .99146 6.42 40 .95938 34.19 74 .89006 69 67 7 .99031 6 32 41 .95793 35 26 75 .SS748 70.70 8 .98917 7.24 42 .95648 36.31 76 .88489 71.73 9 .98802 8.16 43 .95496 37.37 77 .8S228 72 76 10 .9S6S8 9.09 44 .95341 38 43 78 .879 55 73 79 11 .98591 9.87 45 .95183 39 49 79 .87695 74 83 12 .98497 10.69 46 .95020 40 54 80 .87425 75 86 13 .98103 11.55 47 .94853 41.57 SI .87151 76 89 14 .98308 12 41 48 .94676 42.64 82 .S6S72 77 94 15 .98222 13.18 49 .94498 43.70 83 .86493 78 96 16 .98141 13.92 50 .94317 44 75 84 .86304 80 01 17 .98059 14.69 51 .94134 45.80 85 .86008 81 07 18 .97978 15.47 52 .93946 46.85 86 .85712 82.11 19 .97904 16.18 63 .93756 47.87 87 .85404 83.19 20 .97832 16.88 54 .93555 48.94 88 .85093 84.26 21 .97762 17 55 55 .93352 50.01 89 .84779 85 32 22 .97690 18.25 66 .93148 51.07 90 .84451 86.42 23 .97610 19.04 57 .92940 52.09 91 .84112 87.50 24 .97530 19.82 58 .92731 63.12 92 .83773 88 58 25 .97450 20.61 59 .92519 54.16 93 .83415 89.6S 26 .97370 21.39 60 .92300 55 21 94 .83048 90 77 27 .97292 22.16 61 .920S3 56.24 95 .82665 91 90 28 .97213 22.92 62 .91865 57.26 96 .82256 93.09 29 .97130 23 74 63 .91642 68 29 97 .81840 94.19 30 .97045 24.56 64 .91418 59 31 98 .81422 95.26 31 .96960 25.28 65 .91191 60 33 99 .809 Ml 96 35 32 .96863 26.29 66 .90963 61 34 100 .80524 97.44 33 .96765 27 21 67 .90736 62.35 REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 673 Temperature 40°. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. 0 .99974 —0.45 34 .96530 29.33 68 .90284 .64.33 1 .■99834 +0.54 35 .96416 30 33 69 .90041 65.38 2 .99693 1.53 36 .96300 31.31 70 .89795 66.42 3 .99554 2.51 37 .96181 32.28 71 .89548 67.45 4 .99414 3.49 38 .96061 33.24 72 .89298 68 49 5 .99274 4.48 39 .95920 34.32 73 .89048 69.50 6 5.39 40 .95778 35.38 74 .88792 70.52 7 .99033 6.31 41 .95631 36 43 75 .88534 71.55 8 .98917 7 24 42 .95482 37.47 76 .88273 72 58 9 .98801 8.17 43 .95327 38.53 77 .88010 73.61 10 .98685 9.10 44 .95169 39.58 78 .87747 74 63 11 9 90 45 .95008 40.61 79 .87477 75 66 12 .98488 10.78 46 .94842 41.64 80 .87206 76.68 13 .98390 11.66 47 .94673 42.66 81 .86931 77.72 14 .98292 12.55 48 .94494 43 72 82 .86650 78.75 15 .98202 13.36 49 .94312 44.78 83 .86370 79.77 16 .98116 14.15 50 .94129 45.82 84 .86080 80.81 17 .98029 14.97 51 .93945 46.85 85 .85785 81.85 18 .97943 15.81 52 .93754 47.88 86 .85490 82.89 19 .97863 16.58 53 .93560 48.91 87 .85181 83.96 20 .97786 17.32 54 .93360 49.96 88 .84869 85.02 21 .97708 18 08 55 .93156 51.02 89 .84555 86 08 22 .97630 18.84 56 .92951 52 04 90 .84226 87.14 23 .97544 19 69 57 .92742 53.07 91 .83887 88.22 24 .97458 20.53 58 .92531 54.10 . 92 ;83548 89.28 25 .97372 21.37 59 .92318 55.12 93 .83191 90.35 26 .97287 22.20 60 .92099 56.16 94 .82827 91.42 27 .97203 23.02 61 .91880 57.19 95 .82440 92.56 28 .97118 23.85 62 .91660 58.21 96 .82033 93.69 29 .97028 24.73 63 .91436 59.23 97 .81617 94.77 30 .96937 25.59 64 .91210 60.24 98 .81199 95.82 31 .96844 26.47 65 .90984 61.25 99 .80757 96.89 32 .96742 27.42 66 .90755 62.27 100 .80302 97.96 33 .96639 28.37 67 .90525 63.28 Temperature 45°. 0 .99974 —0.45 34 .96394 30.52 68 .90070 65.25 1 .998:33 -f0.54 35 .96275 31.52 69 .89829 66.27 2 .99693 1.53 36 .96154 32.50 70 .89581 67.31 3 2.52 37 .96028 33 50 71 .89333 68.34 4 .99411 3.51 38 .95902 34.45 72 .89082 69.37 5 .99271 4.50 39 .95759 35.52 73 •S8832 . 70.36 6 .99146 5.42 40 .95616 36 53 74 .88576 71.38 7 .99027 6.35 41 .95465 37.59 75 •88317 72.41 8 .98908 7.31 42 .95313 38 62 76 .88057 73.43 9 .98789 8.27 43 .95155 39.67 77 .87792 74.46 10 .98671 9.22 44 .94994 40.70 78 .87528 75.47 11 .98568 10.05 45 .94829 41.72 79 .87256 76.50 12 .98468 10.96 46 .94661 42 73 80 .86983 77.52 13 .98367 11. S7 47 .94489 43.75 81 .86707 78.54 14 .98266 12.78 4S .94308 44 80 82 .86425 79.57 15 .98171 13.65 49 .94125 45.85 83 .86143 80 58 16 .98080 14.49 50 .93940 46.88 84 .85854 81.61 17 .97989 15.36 51 .93753 47.88 85 .85559 82.64 18 .97898 16.24 52 .93560 48.91 86 .85265 83.67 19 .97813 17.06 53 .93363 49.95 87 .84957 84.72 20 .97729 17.87 54 .93162 50.99 88 .84644 85.78 21 .97645 18.70 55 .92957 52.01 89 .84329 86.81 22 .97561 19.52 56 .92751 53 02 90 .84000 87.86 23 .97471 20.40 57 .92540 54.06 91 .83661 88.93 24 .97380 21.29 58 .92328 55.08 92 .83322 89.96 .97289 22.19 59 .92113 56.10 93 .82964 91.02 26 .97198 23.07 60 .91894 57.13 94 .82599 92.10 27 .97108 23.95 61 .91674 58.14 95 .82214 93.21 28 .97017 24 83 62 .91453 59 15 96 .81807 94.28 29 .96921 25.75 63 .91228 60 16 97 .81391 95.34 30 .96823 26.66 64 .91002 61.17 98 .80974 96.37 96725 27.58 65 .90773 62.19 99 .80532 97.42 32 .96617 28 56 66 .90542 63.21 100 .80079 98.47 33 .96508 29.53 67 .90310 64.22 Table IY.—Continued. 674 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Temperature 50°. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. 0 .99962 —0.36 34 .96256 31.67 68 .89854 66.17 1 .99821 +0.63 35 .96131 32.68 69 .89613 67.18 2 .99680 1.62 36 .96006 33.67 70 .89364 68.21 3 .99539 2.61 37 .95S73 34.67 71 .89114 69.24 4 .99398 3.60 3S .95741 35.65 72 .88864 70.24 r} .99257 4.60 39 .95596 36.67 73 .88613 71.24 6 .99130 5.54 40 .95449 37.70 74 .88356 72 25 7 .99010 6.50 41 .95295 38.74 75 .88097 73.27 8 .98889 7.46 42 .95140 39.77 76 .87836 74 29 9 .98769 8.43 43 .94979 40.80 77 .87571 75.30 10 .98648 9.40 44 .94816 41.80 78 .87306 76 31 11 .98543 10.28 45 .94648 42. SI 79 .87034 77.33 12 .98438 11.23 46 .94476 43.83 80 .86760 78 35 13 .98334 12.17 47 .94302 44.84 81 .86482 79 36 14 .98230 13.11 48 .94119 45.88 82 .86200 80.38 15 .98131 14.01 49 .93934 46 91 83 .85917 81.39 16 .98036 14.91 50 .93747 47.92 84 .85628 82.40 17 .97941 15.82 51 .93558 48.92 85 .85333 83.43 18 .97846 16.74 52 .93362 49.95 86 .85039 84.44 19 .97754 17.63 53 .93164 50.98 87 .84731 85.48 20 .97664 18.51 54 .92962 51.98 88 .84416 86.53 21 .97575 19.38 55 .92756 53.00 89 .84101 87.54 22 .974S4 20.28 56 .92547. 54 02 90 .83771 88 58 23 .97389 21.21 57 .92337 55.03 91 .83432 89.63 24 .97294 22.13 58 .92123 56.05 92 .83093 90.64 - "25 .97109 23.06 59 .91908 57.06 93 .82735 91.70 26 .97102 24 01 60 .91687 58.OS 94 .82369 92.77 27 .97006 24.94 61 .91466 59.09 95 .81986 93.82 28 .96910 25.85 62 .91243 60.09 96 .81578 94.87 29 .96809 26.79 63 .91017 61.10 97 .81164 95 91 30 .96706 27.76 64 .90790 62.11 98 .80746 96.92 31 .96602 28.70 65 .90561 63 12 99 .80306 97 95 32 .96488 29.70 66 .90329 64.13 100 .79853 98.98 33 .96375 30.69 67 .90095 65.15 Temperature 55°. 0 .99941 —0.22 34 .96111 32.85 68 .89636 67.08 1 .99799 +0 78 35 .959S2 33.85 69 .89395 68.08 2 .99658 1.77 36 .95852 34.83 70 .89145 69.12 ' 3 .99517 2.77 37 .95714 35.85 71 .88895 70.11 4 .99375 3.77 3S .95576 36.81 72 .88643 71.12 5 .99234 4.76 39 .95428 37.85 73 .88391 72 12 6 .99106 5.73 40 .95279 38.85 74 .88134 73.13 7 .98984 6.70 41 .95122 39.89 75 .87874 74.14 8 .98861 7.69 42 .94964 40 89 76 .87612 75.15 9 .9S739 8.67 43 .94799 41.91 77 .87347 76.15 10 .98616 9.67 44 .94633 42 90 78 .87081 77.15 11 .98507 10.60 45 .94462 43.91 79 .86808 78.17 12 .98401 11.56 46 .94288 44.92 80 .86533 79.17 13 .98293 12.54 47 .94111 45 93 81 .86255 80.18 14 .9S186 13.51 48 .93926 46.96 82 .85973 81.19 15 .98084 14.45 49 .93740 47.95 83 .85689 82 19 16 .97985 15.40 50 •93551 4S 96 84 .85400 83.20 17 .97885 16.36 51 .93361 49.96 85 .85105 84.22 18 .97786 17.32 52 .93162 50.99 S6 .84811 85.21 19 .97689 18.26 53 .92962 51 99 87 .84502 86.25 20 .97593 19.21 54 .92758 52.99 88 .84187 87.26 21 .97497 20.15 55 .92552 54.00 89 ■83872 88.26 22 .97401 21.09 56 .92342 55.01 90 .83542 89.30 23 .97302 22.06 57 .92130 56.02 91 .S3203 90.31 24 .97203 23.02 58 .91915 57.03 92 .82864 91 31 25 .97103 24.00 59 .91698 58.03 93 .82506 92.37 26 .97002 24.98 60 .91477 59.04 94 .82141 93.40 27 .96900 25.94 61 .91254 60.04 95 .81758 94.41 28 .96799 26.89 62 .91030 61.04 96 .81345 95.44 29 .96691 . 27.90 63 .90S04 62.05 97 .80936 96.45 30 .96582 28.88 64 .90577 63.05 98 .80518 97.46 31 .96472 29.84 65 .90347 64.06 99 .S0077 9S47 32 .96354 30.87 66 .90112 65.OS 100 .79625 99.48 33 .96235 31.84 67 .89S77 66.07 Table IV.—Continued. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 675 Table IV.—Continued. Temperature 60°. , True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific | gravity. | Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. 0 .99910 0.00 34 .95963 34.00 68 .89415 68.00 1 .99768 1.00 35 .95829 35.00 69 .89174 69.00 2 .99626 2 00 36 .95693 36.00 70 .88923 70.00 3 .994S4 3 00 37 .95549 37.00 71 .88673 71.00 4 .99342 4.00 38 .95406 38.00 72. .88420 72.00 5 .99200 5.00 39 .95256 39 00 73 .88168 73.00 6 .99071 6 00 40 .95106 40.00 74 .87911 74.00 7 .9S947 — 7.00 41 .94946 41.00 75 .87651 75.00 8 .98822 8.00 42 .94784 42.00 7C .87388 76.00 9 .9S698 9.00 43 .94616 43.00 77 .87122 77.00 10 .98574 10 00 44 .94447 44.00 78 .86855 78 00 11 .98463 11.00 45 .94274 45.00 79 .86581 79 00 12 .98353 . 12 00 46 .94098 46.00 80 .86306 80.00 13 .98242 13.00 47 .93918 47.00 81 .86027 8100 14 .98132 14.00 48 .93731 48 00 82 .85743 82.00 15 .98026 I 15 00 49 .93543 49.00 • 83 .85458 83.00 16 .97923/ 16.00 50 .93353 50.00 84 .85168 84.00 17 .97819' 17 00 51 .93161 51.00 85 .84874 85 00 IS .97716 18 00 52 .92959 52.00 86 .84580 86 00 19 .97614 19.00 53 .92756 53.00 87 .84271 87.00 20 .97512 20.00 54 .92552 54.00 88 .S3955 88 00 21 .97410 21.00 00 .92344 55.00 89 .83640 89.00 22 .97308 22.00 56 .92134 56.00 90 .83310 90.00 23 .97205 23.00 57 .91921 57.00 91 .82971 91.00 24 .97103 24.00 58 .91705 5S.00 92 .82632 92 00 25 .97000 25.00 59 .91487 59.00 93 .S2274 93.00 26 .96894 26.00 60 .91264 60.00 94 .81907 94.00 27 .96787 27.00 61 .91040 61 00 95 .81525 95.00 28 .966S0 28.00 62 .90815 62 00 96 .81117 96.00 29 .96568 29.00 63 .90589 63.00 97 .80703 97.00 30 .96454 30.00 64 .90360 64.00 98 .80285 98.00 31 .96339 31.00 65 .90130 65.00 99 .79846 99.00 32 .96215 32.00 66 .89894 66 00 100 .79390 100.00 33 .96092 33.00 67 .89656 67.00 Temperature 65°. 0 .99S69 0.29 34 .95810 35.14 68 .89191 68.93 1 .99727 1.29 35 .95672 36.15 69 .88950 69.89 2 .99584 2 30 36 .95531 37.13 70 .88699 70.90 3 .99441 3.30 37 .95382 38.16 71 .88448 71.89 4 .99299 4.30 38 .95233 39 15 72 .88195 72.89 5 .99156 5.34 39 .95081 40.16 73 .87942 73.88 6 .99026 6.36 40 .94929 41.10 74 .87685 74.87 7 .9S899 7.38 41 .94766 42.11 75 .S7424 75.88 S .98774 8.39 42 .94600 43.10 76 .87161 76.85 9 .98648 9.40 43 .9 44 30 44.10 77 .86894 77.85 10 .98522 10.47 44 .94258 45.09 78 .86628 78.83 11 .98408 11.50 45 .94083 46 08 79 .86352 79.83 12 .98296 12 51 46 .93904 47.07 80 .86075 80.83 13 .98182 13.55 47 .93722 48.05 81 .85796 81.81 14 .98069 14.59 48 .93533 49.05 82 .85512 82.81 15 .97959 15.65 49 .93343 50.05 83 .85226 83.80 16 .97852 16.68 50 .93141 51.05 84 .84936 84.79 17 .97745 17.72 51 .92958 52 00 85 .84641 85.79 18 .97638 18.76 52 .92754 53.01 86 .84347 86.75 19 .97530 19.82 53 .92649 54.01 87 .84037 87.74 20 .97422 20.88 54 .92343 55.00 88 .83722 88.74* 21 .97315 21.93 55 .92134 56.00 89 .83406 89.71 22 .97207 22.98 56 .91923 56.99 90 .83076 90 69 23 .97101 24.02 57 .91709 57.98 91 .82737 91.69 24 .96996 25.04 58 .91492 58.98 92 .82398 92 69 25 .96890 26.04 59 .91273 59.96 93 .82040 93.67 26 .96779 27.07 60 .91050 60.96 94 .81675 94.62 27 .96668 28.11 61 .90824 61 96 95 .81292 95 59 28 29.11 62 .90597 62.96 98 .80881 96.58 29 .96439 30.13 63 .90371 63.95 97 .80470 97.56 30 .96320 31.15 64 .90142 64.95 98 .80053 98 53 31 .96200 32.12 65 .89911 65.93 99 .79613 99.51 32 .96072 33.16 66 .89673 66.93 100 .79161 • 100.49 33 .95944 34.14 67 .89433 67.93 1 1 676 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Temperature 70°. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. 0 .99820 0.63 34 .95653 36.28 68 .88965 69.83 X .99677. 1.64 35 .95511 37.27 69 .88722 70.80 2 .99533 2.65 36 .95366 38.27 70 .88471 71.80 3 .99390 3 66 37 .95211 39.30 71 .88220 72.79 4 .99247 4.67 38 .95056 40.31 72 .87966 73 79 5 .99104 5.74 39 .94903 41.27 73 .87713 74.76 6 .98972 6. SO 40 .94749 42.21 74 .87455 75.75 7 •9S844 7.8» 41 .94583 43.20 75 .87194 76.73 8 .98717 8.85 42 .94415 44 19 76 .86931 77.72 9 .98589 9.89 43 .94240 45.19 77 .86663 78.70 10 .98461 11.02 44 .94065 46.18 78 .86396 79.67 11 .98345 12.07 45 .93889 47.16 79 .86120 - 80.67 12 .98229 13.12 46 .93708 48.12 80 .85843 81.65 13 .98113 14.18 47 .93523 49.11 81 .85564 82.63 14 .97997 15.28 48 .93333 50.10 82 .85280 83.61 15 .97885 o' 16.37 49 .93141 61.10 83 .84994 84.59 16 .97774 17.44 50 .92947 52.06 84 .84703 85.58 17 .97664 18.51 51 .92752 53.02 85 .84408 86.56 _18 .97553 19.60 52 .92545 64.03 86 .84113 87.50 19 .97440- 20.71 53 .92340 55.02 87 .83803 88.48 20 .97326 21.82 54 .92131 56.01 88 .83488 89.46 21 .97212 22.93 55 .91921 — 57.00 89 .83172 90.41 22 .97099 24.04 56 .91709 57.98 90 .82841 91.38 23 .96991 25.09 57 .91494 58.97 91 .82502 92.38 24 .96883 26.10 58 .91276 59.95 92 .82163 - 93.34 25 .96774 27.12 59 .91056 60.93 93 .81805 94.29 26 .96659 28.19 60 .90832 ~ 61.92 94 .81438 95.22 27 .96543 29.22 61 .90604 62.93 95 .81056 96.17 28 .96427 30.23 62 .90376 63.93 96 .80650 97.15 29 .96305 31 27 63 .90150 64.91 97 .80234 98.11 30 .96181 32.28 64 .89921 65 89 98 -79S18 99.06 31 .96057 33.27 65 .89689 66.86 99 .79378 100.05 32 .95924 34.29 66 .89450 67.85 100 .78927 100.99 33 .95791 35.2S 67 .89208 68.86 Temperature 75°. 0 .99760 1.06 34 .95492 37.40 68 .88736 70.75 1 .99615 2.08 35 .95345 38.41 69 .88493 71.71 2 .99472 3 08 36 .95196 39.40 70 .88241 72.71 3 .99328 - 4.10 37 .95036 40.44 71 .87990 73.69 4 .991S4 6.12 38 .94876 41.43 72 .87736 74 67 5 .99040 6.25 39 .94721 42.38 73 .874S2 75.64 6 .98907 7.32 40 .94566 43.30 74 .87223 76.62 7 .98777 8.36 41 .94397 44.29 75 .86962 77.60 8 .98649 9.40 42 .94225 45.28 76 .86698 78.57 9 .98519 10.50 43 .94047 46.28 77 .86431 79.55 10 •98391 11.65 44 .93869 47.26 78 .86163 SO.51 11 .98271 12.74 45 .93691 48.21 79 .85886 81.50 12 .98153 13.81 46 .93508 49.18 80 .85610 82.47 13 .9S034 J 14.93 47 .93321 50.17 81 .85330 83.44 14 .97915 16.08 48 .93130 51.15 82 .85045 S4.42 15 .97800 17.18 49 .92935 52.12 S3 .84759 85.39 16 .97686 18.29 60 .92746 53.08 84 .84468 86.36 17 .97572 19.41 51 .92544 54.04 85 .84172 87.31 18 '•97458. 20.53 52 .92335 55.04 86 .S3S76 88.25 19 .97340 21.69 53 .92127 56.03 S7 .83566 89.22 20 .97220 22.85 54 .91917 57.02 SS .83251 90.17 21 .97100 ' 24.03 55 .91704 58.00 89 .82935 91.11 22 .96981 25.18 56 .91492 68.98 90 .82605 92.08 23 .96872 26 21 67 .91277 59.94 91 .82265 93.08 24 .96762 27.23 68 .91059 60.91 92 .81926 93.97 25 .96652 28.25 59 .90S37 61.90 93 .81567 94 90 26 .96533 29 31 60 .90611 62.90 94 .81201 95.81 27 .96413 30.36 61 .90381 63.91 95 .80818 96.75 28 .96293 31.37 62 .90152 64.90 96 .80413 97.70 29 .96166 32 40 63 .89926 65 86 97 .79997 98.65 30 .96038 33.42 64 .89696 66.83 9S .7 95SO 99.58 31 .95910 34.40 65 - .89464 67.80 . 99 .79141 100.53 32 .95773 35.41 66 .89224 68.79 100 .7S690 101.48 33 .95634 36.41 67 .88980 69.77 Table IY.—Continued. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 677 Temperature 80°. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent- per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. 0 <7.99692 1.53 34 .95328 38.52 68 .88505 71.66 1 .99547 2.50 35 .95177 39.53 69 .88261 72.63 2 .99402 3.58 36 .95022 40.53 70 .88009 73.62 3 .99257v 4.60 37 .94S57 41.55 71 .87758 74.59 4 .99112 6.68 38 .94692 42.55 72 .87504 75.56 *•5 .98967 6.84 39 .94536 43.47 73 .S7248 76 53 6 .98831 7.93 40 .94379 44.39 74 .86989 77.50 7 .98701 8.98 41 .94207 45.38 75 .86727 78.47 8 .98571 10.03 42 .94032 46.37 76 .86464 79.43 9 .9S440 11.21 43 .93850 47.36 77 .86195 80.40 10 .98310*. 12.39 44 .93669 48.33 78 .85927 81.35 11 .9S1SS 13.49 45 .93490 49.28 79 .85650 82.33 12 .9S067 14.61 46 .93305 50.25 80 .85373 83.29 13 .97945 15.79 47 .93116 51.22 81 .85094 84.25 14 .97824 16.95 4S .92923 52.18 82 .84809 85.22 15 .97706 18.10 49 .92727 53.14 83 .84524 86.18 16 .97589 19.25 50 .92530 54.11 84 .84233 87.12 17 .97472 20.39 51 .92333 55 05 85 .83936 88.06 18 .97355 21.54 52 .92121 56.06 86 .83639 89 00 19 .97232 22.74 53 .91912 67.04 87 .83327 89.95 20 .97106 23.97 54 .91699 58 03 88 .83012 90.88 21 .96980 25.19 55 .91485 - 59.01 89 .82696 91.81 22 .96856 26.35 56 .91272 59.96 90 .82365 92.78 23 .96745 27.39 57 .91056 60.93 91 .82025 93.71 24 .96633 28.42 58 .90836 61.91 92 .81686 94.59 25 .96522 29.40 59 .90614 62 89 93 .81327 95.50 26 .96400 30.47 60 .90388 63.87 94 .80962 96.40 27 .96276 31.51 61 .90157 64.88 95 .80579 97.31 2S .96151 32.52 62 .89926 65.86 96 .80173 98.25 29 .96021 33.55 63 .89700 t>6.S2 97 .79759 99.19 30 .95890 34.54 64 .89470 67.77 98 .79340 100.11 31 .95758 35.52 65 .89238 68.73 99 .78902 101.04 32 .95616 36.53 66 .88996 69.71 100 .78452 101.97 33 .95474 37.52 67 .88750 70.69 Temperature 85°. 0 .99613 2.09 34 .95157 39.66 68 .88271 72.59 1 .99467 3.12 35 .95002 40.65 69 .88025 73.56 2 .99321 4.15 36 .94844 41.63 70 .87774 74.53 3 .99175 5.19 37 .94675 42.65 71 .87523 75.49 4 .99029 6.34 38 .94505 43.66 72 .87268 76.45 5 .98883 7.51 39 .94347 44.58 73 .87013 77.41 6 .98748 8.60 40 '.94189 45.48 74 .S6754 78 37 7 .9S616 9.67 41 .94014 46.47 75 .86492 79.32 8 .98484 •10.81 42 .93836 47.4431 76 .86228 80.28 9 .98352 12.01 43 .93650 48.4&S 77 .8595S 81.24 10 .98221 13.19 44 .93466 49.If* 78 .85690 82.19 11 .98097 14.33 45 .93287 50.34 79 .85413 83.16 12 .97973 15.51 46 .93100 51.30 80 .85134 84.12 13 .97849 16.71 47 .92908 52.25 81 .84855 85.07 14 .97724 17.92 48 .92713 53.21 82 .84571 86.03 15 .97603 19.11 49 .92517 . 54 17 83 .84287 86 95 16 .97483 20.28 50 .92318' .3 k 55.12 84 .83995 87.87 17 .97364 - 21.45 51 .92119 56.07 85 .83696 88. S2 IS .97244 22.62 52 .91905 57.07 86 .83398 89.73 19 .97116 23.87 53 .91694 58 05 87 .83087 90.66 20 .96984 25.15 54 .91478 59.04 88 .82772 91.59 21 .96852 26.39 55 .91262 60.01 89 .82456 92.52 22 .96723 27.60 56 .91048 60.96 90 .82123 93.45 23 .96611 28.62 57 .90834 61.92 91 .81785 94.34 24 .96499 29.61 58 .90614 62.89 92 .81444 95.21 .96386 30.59 59 .90390 63.87 93 .81085 9(5.10 26 .96260 31.64 60 .90162 64.86 94 .80718 96.98 27 .96132 32 67 61 .89930 65.85 95 .80336 97.88 28 .96004 33.68 62 .89697 66.83 96 .79930 98.81 29 .95870 34.69 63 .89471 67.77 97 .79515 30 .95736 35.68 64 .89242 68.72 98 .79100 100.62 31 .95600 36.65 65 .89009 69.66 99 .78661 101.54 32 .95454 37.66 66 .88766 70.63 100 .78210 102.45 33 .95308 38.65 67 .88518 71.61 Table IV.—Continued. 678 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Temperature 90°. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. a True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. 0 .99525 2.78 34 .94983 40.77 68 .88034 73.52 1 .99377 3.75 35 .94824 41.75 69 .87787 74.48 2 .99231 4.79 36 .94662 42 73 70 .87536 75.44 3 .99084 5.90 • 37 .94488 43.76 71 .S7286 76.38 4 .98937 7.08 38 .94314 44 78 72 .87030 77 34 5 .98790 8.26 39 .94155 45.68 73 .86775 78 29 6 .98653 9 37 40 .93996 46.57 74 .86514 79.24 7 .98519 10.50 41 .93818 47.53 75 .86252 80.19 8 .98387 11.69 42 .93636 48.51 76 .85987 81.14 9 .98254 12.89 43 .93447 49.51 77 .85718 82.09 10 .98121 14.10 44 .93260 50.49 78 .85449 83.03 11 .97995 15.30 45 .93080 51.40 79 .85172 83.99 12 .97868 16.53 46 .92891 52.33 SO .84S94 84.93 13 .97742 17 75 47 .92697 53.29 81 .84614 85.88 14 .97616 18.98 48 .92501 54 25 82 .84332 86.80 15 .97492 20.20 49 .92303 55.20 83 .84049 87.70 16 .97370 21.39 50 .92103 56.15 84 .83755 88.63 17 .97247 22.59 51 .91902 57.09 85 .83455 S9.56 18 .97124 23.79 52 .91685 58.09 86 .83155 90.46 19 .96991 25.09 53 .91473 59.06 87 .82S44 91.37 20 .96853 26.3S 54 .912.56 60.04 88 .82529 92.30 21 .96716 27.66 55 .91037 61.01 89 .82213 93.21 22 .96582 28.88 56 .90822 61.97 90 .81882 94.09 23 .96469 29.87 57 .90609 62 91 91 .81542 94.96 24 .96356 30.85 58 .90388 63.88 92 .81200 95.82 25 .96243 31.78 59 .90162 64.86 93 .80841 96.69 26 .96114 32.82 60 .89934 65.83 94 .80475 97.56 27 .95983 33. S4 61 .89700 66.82 95 .80093 98.44 28 .95851 34.84 62 .S9466 67.79 96 .79686 99.35 29 .95714 35.85 63 .89240 68.73 97 .79272 100.25 30 .95577 36.81 64 .89010 69.65 98 .78857 101.13 31 .95438 37.78 65 .88777 70 58 99 .78418 102 03 32 .95288 38 78 66 .88532 71.56 100 .77967 102.94 33 .95138 39.78 67 .88282 72.55 Temperature 95°. 0 .99428 3.39 34 .94805 41.87 68 .87796 74.44 1 .99280 4.44 35 .94641 42.85 69 .87545 75.40 2 .99132 5.53 36 .94475 43.83 70 .87295 76.35 3 .98983 6.71 37 .94298 44.86 71 .87046 77.28 4 .98835 7.90 38 .94119 45 88 72 .86790 78.24 5 .98687 9.09 39 .93959 46.77 73 .86534 79.17 6 .98548 10.23 40 .93S00 47.63 74 .86274 80.12 7 .98413 11.45 41 .93618, 48.60 75 .86011 81.06 8 .98279 12 67 42 .93433 49.58 76 . .85746 81.99 9 .98145 13 89 43 .93240 50.59 77 .85476 82.94 10 .98011 15.14 44 .93050 51.55 78 .85206 83.87 11 .97883 16.38 45 .92S70 52.44 79 .84929 84. SI 12 .97754 17.63 46 .92679 53.38 80 .84651 85.76 13 .97625 18 89 47 .92482 54.34 81 .84372 86.67 14 .97497 20.15 48 .92285 55.28 82 .84090 S7.57 15 .97371 21.38 49 .92086 56.23 83 .83808 88.47 16 .97246 22.60 50 .91884 57.17 84 .83514 89.38 17 .97121 23. S2 51 .91682 58.11 85 .83213 90.29 18 .96996 25.04 52 .91463 59.11 86 .S2911 91.18 19 .96858 26 34 53 .91250 60.06 87 .82599 92.09 20 .96716 27.66 54 .91030 61.04 88 .822S4 93.02 21 .96573 28.96 55 .90809 62.03 S9 .81968 93.86 22 .96434 30 17 56 .90593 62.98 90 .81636 94 72 23 .96320 31.16 57 .90381 63.91 91 .81296 95.58 24 .96207 32.07 5S .90160 64.S7 92 .80955 96.41 25 .96094 32.9S 59 .89933 65.83 93 .80595 97.27 26 •95962 34.01 60 .89703 66.80 94 .80229 98.13 27 .95828 35.01 61 .89467 67.7S 95 .79846 99.00 28 .95693 36.00 62 .89231 6S.76 96 .79441 99 89 29 .95553 36.97 63 .S9006 69.67 97 .79027 100.77 30 .95413 37.95 64 .88777 70.58 98 .78611 101.64 31 .95272 3S.89 65 .88543 71 51 99 .78173 102.53 32 .95118 39.92 66 .S8296 72 49 100 .77723 103.42 33 .94964 40.89 67 .88046 73.47 Table IV.—Continued. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 679 Temperature 100°. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. True per cent. Apparent specific gravity. Apparent per cent. 0 .99321 4.15 34 .94622 42.96 6S . .S7553 75.37 1 .99172 5.22 35 .94455 43 95 69 .87301 76.33 2 .99022 6.40 36 .94285 44.94 70 .87053 77.26 3 .98872 7.60 37 .94103 45.97 71 .86804 78.19 4 .98723 8 80 38 .93920 46.99 72 .86549 79.12 5 .98574 10.00 39 .93760 47.85 73 .86292 80 05 6 .98434 11.26 40 .93600 4S.70 74 .86031 80.99 7 .98299 12.49 41 .93415 49.67 75 .85768 81.91 8 .98163 13.72 42 .93227 50.66 76 .85502 82 85 9 .98028 14 98 43 .93030 51.65 77 .85231 83.78 10 .97892 16,30 44 .92837 52.60 78 .84962 84.70 11 .97761 17.56 45 .92657 53 49 79 .84685 85.64 12 .97630 18.84 46 .92464 54.42 80 .84407 86.56 13 .97499 20.13 47 .92266 55.38 81 .84128 87.45 14 .97369 21 40 48 .92067 66.31 82 .83847 88.34 15 .97241 22.65 49 .91866 57.26 S3 .83567 89.22 16 .97113 23.90 50 .91663 58.19 84 .83272 90 11 17 .96987 25.12 51 .91460 59 12 85 .82969 91.01 IS .96860 26.32 52 .91239 60 11 86 .82666 91.90 19 .96718 27.64 53 .91024 61.07 87 .82352 92.82 20 .96569 28.99 54 .90802 62.06 88 .82037 93.68 21 .96421 30.29 55 .90578 6.3.05 89 .81721 94.50 22 .96277 31.50 56 .90363 63.99 90 .81390 95 34 23 .96165 32.41 57 .90150 64.91 91 .81049 96.19 24 .96052 33.31 58 .89938 65 81 92 .80708 97.01 25 .95938 34.19 59 .89700 66.82 93 .80347 97.85 26 .95804 35.18 60 .89469 67.78 94 .79980 98.69 27 .95666 36 19 61 .89232 68.76 95 .79597 99.55 2S .95523 37.15 62 .88994 69.72 96 .79191 100.42 29 .95387 38.13 63 .88770 70.61 97 .78778 101.29 30 .95244 39.08 64 .88541 71.52 93 .78.362 102 15 31 .95100 40.04 65 .88306 72.45 99 .77926 103.02 32 .94943 41.02 66 .8S058 7.3.43 100 .77475 103.90 33 .94785 41.99 67 .87806 74.40 Table IY.—Continued. Supplement to Table IV.—Giving apparent specific gravities and apparent per cent, for temperatures between 0° and 25°, as derived from the supplement to Table III. 4*. 4~ 4»- 4* CO © CO CO © CO CO CO CO CO 0 J-* © CO CO -4 Oi 4- CO i-> © co CO GO -or © Oi 4- 4* © tO >—1 © © © 00 --4 Apparent per cent. ©coco © © © © © co co co b co co co co co © © © © CO © © © © © © © 1—J >—1 l—1 ‘—‘CO to* to 4-©© tO 4 © to 4* *4 CO tO 4* -4 © — CO © O *4 »— -*4 CO © 4* © CO © to © ©©©©(-* Apparent specific gravity. i—1 © © © © © co ©COCO©© © © © © © © © © © © "*4 © Oi 4* CO tO H-* © © © -*4 © Oi 4- CO True per cent. © © © © © © © © © © © © -4 -~4 -4 -- ©to Apparent per cent. © © © GO © © ©©CO©© ©©©CO© CO© to tO © © © *- 4* Cl Cl CJI © © © -4 © © Oi © 4- © tO ©CO © © © © © CO tO Oi © i—' © © 4- <1 CO -4 4— CD CC © CO l-' W 4* 4- 4- W tO Apparent specific gravity. 680 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Supplement to Table IV.—Continued. 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 WW WW W WW W WW -4 © wi 4 W tO 4 © CO GO Cl Cl >4“ CO to 1— O 4 4 4 4 4 ** ifi* 4 WWWWW WWWWW -4 05 Cl 4* CO tO O CO » -4 03 Ci 4* W tv H O 444 444*44 WWWWW WWWWW *4 03 Oi 4 W tO 4 O CO CD *4 03 Oi 4 W tO ■ O True per cent. CO CO CO coco CO CO to to toto to to »o to to to to WWW co w to to to to to to to to to to to to to WWW w to to to to to to to to to to to tO M m Apparent CO CD •*! & CO to O o co co © io if*- b» CO 4 *05 4 4Ci W H O CO 05 C5 Ci 03 41 © 4 W -4 H-< 03 to 4 tO O GO 05 4 W tO tO W 4 -4 © W -4 4 -4 Ot per cent. cococo co co co co co cococococo CO CD CO CO CO Cl Oj Cl © 03 03 © © © © C3 © *4 ;—1 © CO CO 05 Cl 4 W tO 4 O COCO 05 05 05 05 05 Ct Ct Ct Ct Ot Ci Ci Ci Cl Cl 4 4 4*WtOHO CO CO 05 CJi 4» W tO i-* O COCO 05 03 03 © © C3iOiCiOiCn Oi Cn Ot © Cn 44 4 W tO 4 © CO © © Ot 4 W LO 4 O ©CO True per cent. Ct Ct Ct Ct Ct Ct 4 4 4 4 ** 4 4*- rf»* 4 CO CO C Ci Ci Ci Ci 4 4 4 4 4 4- 4* 4* 4* W WW C3i Oi C3i C3i 4 4 4 4 4 4 444WW WW Apparent Ct Ct 4 CO CO to <-* O co CO -4 05 4 03 co to© r„ - . 03 05 Cl 4* GO tO *—1 O CO "4 05 Ci W tO O COCO 4©bi4W W 4 © CD *4 05 4 "tO © © co coco to to to W CO W W W 4 4 4 4 4 Ct Ot Ot pi »-3 © g © CO © CO © ©©©CO© ©©©CO© ©© to to W W W w W 4 4 4 4 4 Oi Oi Oi Ci Ci Apparent specific h3 W Ci M O O 4 to to CO CO CO W H O S WO © tO 4 05 00 CO OHHtOtO H O O 4 Ci tO 00 *d © tO 4 © *4 CD CD©©©© © CO "4 Ci tO © Ci gravity. o COCOCO «4 *4 -4 *4 *4 05 05 05 05 05 to 1—* O CO © ®4 © Ct rf* W t0f-*0 CO CO 05 Ci p d *■* o CO CO CO *4 *4 *4 *4 4J 4J 4J 4J *4 *4 0305050305 tO i-* O CO © *4 © Ct 4 W tO 4 © CO CD ® P> «S o> cn & o> o< tn $ •4 *4 *4 © © © © © ©©©©© Ot Ot Ot Ct Ot Apparent .o Ct Ct 4 rf-WWWH HOOCOCD *4 -4 -4 05 05 CO —4 05 05 Cl 4 4 CO WtOh-OO CO CD © "*4 *4 ©COCO 4©©Oi4 W W tO 4 © © © © CO *4 per cent. cococo cococococo go co co co co co CO co CO CO •4 © CO £0 S o O O O ' H-I to cococo cococococo cococococo cobocococo MCOCD CO CO CO CO CO gOOO*-1 HMHMtO © © © co CO CO CO © ©©co©© ©co©© co 55 00 CO ©©©COO © © © — 4 4 h M to w Apparent specific *4if.Hi © Ci 4 .4 to <1 tO M W O O W 05 CO H •4 4* H CD Oi bj to *4 tO -4 4 Ct CD to Cl S O © © W ©©tbcow CD W CD tO © © tot* CD © gravity. Q COCOCOCOCO COCOCOCOCO COCOCOCOCO CO GO © CO CO «4 05 Ct rfkCOtO'-'O CO CO «4 05 Ct 4- W o CO co CO CO VO cococococo cococococo coco O co (/) *4 05 C)I 4* WtOHO CO © -1 © Ol 4 W © ©©©©© © © © © © CO CO © CO co ©© © © © *4 © Ci 4 W tO 4 © CO © © Ot 4 W True per cent. CO COCOCOCOCO CO CO CO QO CO -4^1 Ct 4 tO 4 © CO CO OJ Ci 4 03 tO 4 © © 41 C50n CO COCOCOCOCO 00 CD 00 CO CO © © *4 *4 41 *4*4 4 W tO O CO CO *4 05 4 W tO H O CO CO *4 03 4 © © © © © © ©WOO©© © *4 -4 *4 «4 «4 *4 4 tO 4 © © *4 O Ci 4 W H © © © *4 © Ci 4 Apparent W H CD Cl W H © © M Ct 4 C3HOCOCO 41 C5 *4 if* H CD 05 4 tO 4 CO © -4 bi if* 03 tv H © CO 4 © Ci tO CD -q Ci 4 tO 4 © <| © Ct W tO H-i © co © © © © © ©’©©©© © © © © © bo co 4 03 *- +- Cj Ci Cl Cl 03 G5 C5 *4 CO CO CO CO co co co CO co co co CO co bo CO CO co CO 4 tetOWWW 4- 4* 4* Ci j» Ot 05 05 05 “4 -4 41 © © © © © © © © © © © ©©©©© ©bo 4 to CO C3 4 4 C» C« Ct © © 05 Apparent specific O CO Ct CO 4 © *4 tO 03 4 4 *4 ©OHH © CO 4 W CO W 4 W S S 8 tO Ol ©©44,-. $S © Cl 4 Cl ©Cl tO 4 4 *4 ©to WWW to 4 gravity. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 681 05 05 05 05 05 Oi Ol Oi Oi Ol 4*. 4j* 4*- 4». 4»* 4»* CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 4* OSkBHO CO CD -4 05 Oi 4- 00 tO )—1 O CO CD 05 Oi 4- 05 LO )—' O CO CD -4 05 Oi 4- 05 tO i-4 © True per cent. Temperature 20°. Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi 4- 4*- 4*. 4«* 4*- 4*« 4** 4>- CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO tO tO tO tO tO tO tO tO tO tO 05 Ol CO LO H o C CO 05 Oi 4- CO cO J-* O O CO <1 Oi 4- CO tO O JO CO 05 Oi i4 W W JO H bi bi 4- 4- 05 bo lo H- I-* CO 03 M 05 Oi b> 00 fcO i-' O <0 00 *05 4* bo OO tc rc to Cl «—- 05 O tO 4* 05 Oi Oi 05 tO © 05 tO Apparent specific gravity. © CO *0 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO OO CO COCOCOCOCO -4 CD 4 CD O CO 05 M Ci CO tO Ol -4 CD CD CO CO -4 Ol LO CO Ol tO CO 4- © Oi O Oi O 4* CO »—1 4- -4 © Apparent specific gravity. 05 05 05 05 05 Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi Oi 4>> 4*- 4>* 4>- 4- 4*- 4*- CO 05 CO CO CO 0005050505 05 tO •—1 O CO CD *4 05 Ol 4-* CO tO 1— O CD CD -4 05 Ol 4- 05 tO i—4 © CO CO —1 05 Ol 4- 05 tO l-4 © True per cent. HJ CD 3 CD ps S' •t CD ,0 Ol Oi Ol Ol Oi Oi Cl Oi 4 4- 4- 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 COtOtOtOtO tOtOtOtOtO j4 05 Oi 4- CO tO M © JD CO 05 pi 05 tO H O © CO vf 05 4- CO tO h-» © CO CO <1 05 pi 4- 05 tO 4- 4»- 4*- 05 05 to tO H4 j—1 O CO b> *4 05 bi 4- 05 tO tO ’►-* © 05 *4 bi bi bi 4*- 4*- bi 05 CD b O CO <1 Apparent per cent. 0 . . O co co co co CO CO CO 0 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CD CD CO CO CO CD CO CD CO CO CD H-1 tO tO tO to tO 05 05 CO 05 05 4- 4- 4»- 4- 4- Oi Oi Oi Ol Ol Ol 05 05 05 050505 05 05 05 -01 -4 *4 CD O tO 4* CO H W Oi -4 CO H 05 Oi CD Ol tO CO 4 CD Oi O Oi CO © tO 4 05 CO tO h O-J 4 Apparent specific gravity. O CD CD CD CO CD CO CO CO CO CD CO CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO CO -4 *4 <1 *4 -4 *4 -4 *4 05 05 05 05 05 © CD CD -4 05 Ol 4 05 tO 1-4 © CD CD) -4 05 Ol 4 05 tO H O CD CO *4 05 Ol 4 05 tO H-4 © CD CO -4 05 Oi True per cent. CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CD CO CO CO 00 CO CO CD -4 -4 -4 -4 <4 -4 -J <1 -4 -4 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 Ol Oi 05 Oi 4* tO O O00J4 054 WMHOJD » 4 O Oi 4 WtOHOp 4 p p 4 W tO O O CD *4»- tO O CO 05 4 '06 W M O «D (X) *4 05 bi 4 4 b» 05 tO tO M © © © 50 b (D CD 4 4 05 05 05 Ol Oi Apparent per cent. O ... O CO CD CD bi CD CD CO CO CD CO CO OO CD CO CO bi CD CD CO CO QO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CD CO —1 1—4 CD 4CDW4H O* CD tO O' CD t5 Oi CD H 4 4 O 05 05 CD -HOSCOP 4 4C0t0 4 05 O M 05 05 05 Oi 1—4 Ol *4 05 05 CD CO "4 O 05 Ci 05 4 05 Ol 4 150 4 4 H 4 05 CD H O Ol O H CD >—1 4 4 O Apparent specific gravity. Supplement to Table IV.—Continued. EXPERIMENTS MADE AT THE SURGEON-GENERAL’S OFFICE, UNITED STATES ARMY, IN WASHINGTON CITY. The apparatus with which experiments were made on the specific gravity of alcohol at temperatures below 32° Fahren- heit, consisted essentially of a glass bulb loaded with mercury and suspended from the arm of a balance, a brass can to contain the liquid under examination, and a small tub in which the can was placed and surrounded by a freezing mixture. This can or cup was prolonged below into a tube through which passed a rod carrying a screw-shaped stirrer, by means of which rapid currents could be excited in the liquid, and its 682 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. uniformity of temperature insured. The rod was turned by a multiplying wheel which could give a rapidity of motion much in excess of what was actually required. The brass can, which was inches deep by 3| in diameter, was immersed in the freezing mixture to about half an inch from its top, and was filled with alcohol to within about one inch of the same level, leaving an empty space above of some ten cubic inches. It was closed by a tightly fitting brass cover, in which were inserted three tubes open at both ends ; one large one in the centre through which passed the fine wire by which the plunger was suspended, and one small one on each side. Through one of these smaller tubes an accurate thermometer was inserted, and the other was connected .by means of an India-rubber tube with a half-gallon bottle which contained a small quantity of strong sulphuric acid, and served as a reser- voir of desiccated air. One of the main difficulties which presented itself in con- sidering the question of accurate determination of specific gravities at low temperatures was this, that when the spirit was cooled below the dew point of the atmosphere, moisture would begin to condense on its surface so that its composition would be continually changing by the absorption of water, the rapidity of change depending upon the humidity of the air and the amount of it which came into contact with the alcohol. It was unavoidable that there should be an empty space over the alcohol in the can, and that this space should communicate with the external air; but in order to hinder the freedom of admixture, the communication was made through a tube of some length and capacity; and further, by means of a hand pump, small quantities of air which had been dried in the sul- phuric acid bottle were from time to time introduced into the air space of the can. That this device was effective, was ascer- tained by observing that while moisture was thickly deposited on the outside of the can, sometimes in the form of ice, none could be detected on its inner surface, even where most exposed to the external atmosphere. During the latter part of the experiments a lining of thick blotting-paper was pasted on the inside of the cover of the can, to act as an absorbent of any moisture that might deposit. This precaution was apparently superfluous as long as the injec- tion of air from the sulphuric-acid bottle was attended to. The glass bulb used in the experiments weighed in air 54.064 grammes, and when immersed in distilled water at 60°, 1.602. It displaced, therefore, 52.462 grammes of distilled water at 60°, and to this weight the densities as determined were referred. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 683 The general course of experiment was to introduce the alco- hol into the can to determine its density at some moderate temperature, and then to fill around it with a mixture of salt and pounded ice and to stir the alcohol frequently until it had reached its lowest temperature, which it did in from one and a half to two hours, when the thermometer ceased to fall and remained stationary for some time; the stirring was then inter- mitted and the immersed plunger weighed. The temperature then beginning to rise slowly, requiring about three hours to change from zero to 32°, the operation of weighing was repeated from time to time until a series of weighings had been made at temperatures below 32°. The day’s work was then generally finished by removing a part of the ice from the tub and adding enough warm water to raise the temperature to that included in the ordinary tables. A final weighing of the immersed plunger then gave the means of determining whether the spirit had altered its density during the course of the day. The freezing mixture used in the tub was in all cases broken ice and salt. It was put in until its level was at or a little above the level of the alcohol, and was occasionally stirred up, a thermometer being used to make certain that no great differ- ence of temperature existed between its top and bottom. The rate of rise of temperature in the freezing mixture was, as has been previously stated, about a degree Fahrenheit in six minutes. While a rapid motion of the stirrer was kept up, the alcohol in the can closely followed this change, and the temperature of the glass bulb could not have lagged behind to any material extent. Upon the cessation of motion a condition of stable temperature would result, lasting until currents of convection caused by the increasing heat of the freezing mix- ture had been established in the alcohol. This temporary condition of stability enabled the plunger to be weighed with sufficient accuracy, that is, to within the error which would result from the variation of a twentieth of a de- gree Fahrenheit. The balance used was capable of indicating one-fifth of a milligramme, but as the variation of one degree Fahrenheit caused a change of more than two centigrammes in the appa- rent weight of the plunger, errors of weighing not greater than a milligramme were disregarded. 684 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Date. Weight of bulb in air. Thermometer. U s o b m Attached thermometer. Date. Weight of bulb in distilled water. j Temperature. Gram. Gram. April 10,1888 54.064 64° 30.11 72 Afarcli 5, 1S68 1.599 59.5 April 20,1S68 54.064 64 30.19 64 Alarch 5, 1868 1.602 60 0 April 30,1868 54 064 71.5 29.95 75 1.611 61.7 March 13, 1868 54.065 75 29.95 75 March 6' 1868 1.607 60.5 54.065 70.5 30.00 75 March 6, 1868 1.651 69.5 March 6, 1868 1.712 79.0 March 6, 1868 1.794 89.9 March 6, 186S 1.788 89.0 March 6, 1868 1.653 70.0 March 7, 1868 1.575 50.0 March 7, 1868 1.570 39.2 March 7, 1868 1.584 32.0 Note.—Mean weight of bulb in air corrected for buoyancy of air = 54.1212 grammes. Mean weight of water displaced by bulb, at temperature 39°,4 Fah., =52.568 grammes. 60 PER CENT. OP ALCOHOL—APPROXIMATE. 1868. April 11 April 14 April 20 April 21 Date. 6 442 4.929 4.917 4 908 6.491 6.428 4.929 5.000 6.430 6.356 4.913 4.907 4.891 4 885 4.886 5.132 5.153 5.200 5.559 6.334 6.356 5.080 4.990 5 196 6.284 Weight of bulb in mixture. 72 1.6 1 0.5 74.5 71.7 1.7 5.1 71.9 68.7 1.2 1.0 0.1 0 0 12 13 15 32 67.7 68.7 10 5 15 19.1 Temperature of mixture. 18IIlliiilil!l8«S'I8ll81l! Specific gravity. 12.20 1.35 2.00 2.15 2.25 2.35 2 50 3.00 3.20 3.40 1868. April 21 4 April 22 11.00 A.M 11.45 11.55 12.05 P.M 12 10 12.15 12.20 Date. Gram. 5.305 5.300 5.449 5.556 5.788 6 365 6.491 6.463 5.180 5.050 4.994 4.964 4.934 4.922 4.906 4.886 5.300 5.486 5.506 5 635 5.720 5.930 6.222 6.200 Weight of bulb in mixture. Temperature of mixture. iiiiiiilii iiiiiiSilSiiiiS Specific gravity. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 685 1868. April 23, P. M 2.30 April 24, A. M 11.30 11.45 12 12.10 P. M 2.15 2.45 3.45 4 April 25, A. M 11.30 12 12.20 P.M 2 2.30 3 April 27, P. M 1.10 1.30 Date. Weight of bulb in mixture. 75 62 67 —0.5 —1.3 0 +1 15.3 20 32 72.9 66.6. 2 1 0 23.5 30 62 72.1 3 4 5 Temperature of mixture. IllIlIllIIIlIllllIIIIl Specific gravity. 1868 April 27, 2 P 2.30.. 2.45.. 3.15.. April 29, P. a 12.45.. 1.15.. 2 .... 2.15.. 2.40.. 3.30.. April 30, A. a 1 p. ai 1.45.. 2;.... 2.20.. 2.30. 2.40.. 2 50.. 3 .... 8.10.. 3.20.. Date. : : : : K Gram. .. 4.683 .. 4.580 .. 4.602 .. 4.705 .. 5.720 .. 4.440 .. 4.533 ..' 4.590 .. 4.675 .. 4.730 .. 5.413 .. 5.861 .. 4.505 .. 4.564 .. 4.585 .. 4.605 .. 4.623 .. 4.642 .. 4.662 .. 4.683 .. 4.702 .. 4.721 Weight of bulb in mixture. 15 10 11 16 65 3.5 8.8 11 15 18 51 71.8 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Temperature of mixture. iiiilliiiliiifliliitii Specific gravity. 55 PER CENT. OF ALCOHOL—APPROXIMATE. 82 PER CENT. OF ALCOHOL—APPROXIMATE. March 21 9.481 68.1 0.8511 March 27, 2.10 P.M.... 7.887 0 0.8795 7.881 —0.1 .8796 2.30 7.887 0 .8795 7.857 —1.1 .8801 9.501 69 .8488 7.838 —2.2 .8804 March 28, A.M 9.344 62.8 .8518 7.847 —1.6 .8803 P.M 8.100 9.8 .8752 7.850 —1.5 .8803 8.101 10.1 .8752 7.863 —1 .8S01 8.082 9 .8758 7.862 —1 .8801 8.448 25 .8691 1.15 P. M 7.900 +1 .8793 9.389 64.8 .8509 40 PER CENT. OF ALCOHOL—APPROXIMATE. May 20, 2.15 P. M 4.147 60 0.9507 June 10,1.55 P. M 3.236 6 0.9680 May 21, P. M 4.275 66.9 .94S2 2.10 3.253 7 9677 1.40 3.172 1 .9692 2 20 3.267 8 .9674 2.10 3.330 11 .9662 2.35 3.293 10 .9669 2.20 3 340 12 .9660. 2.50 3.456 20 .9638 2.35 3.355 13 .9657 3.30 3.663 33 .9599 2.45 3.373 14 .9654 June 11, A.M 4.313 70 .9475 3 3 389 15 .9651 11.55 3.280 9 .9671 3 15 4.149 60 .9506 12.25 P.M 3.309 11 .9666 June 9, A. M 4.435 76 .9452 12.35 3.325 12 .9663 10 50 3.263 7.5 .9675 12.45 3.340 13 .9660 3 298 10 .966S 12 55 3 355 14 .9657 3.460 20 5 .9637 1.05 3.367 15 .9655 2 40 P. M 3.491 22 5 .9631 1.20 3.367 15 .9655 3 15 3 509 23.5 .9628 1.50 3.385 16 .9652 June 10, A.M 4 386 73.5 .9461 2 3.400 17 .9649 12 M 3.143 0 .9698 2.10 3.415 18 .9646 12.30 P. M 3.143 0 .9697 3 3.448 20 .9640 1 P. M 3.160 1 .9694 3.30 3.639 32 .9603 1.10 3 178 2 .9691 3.50 4.126 60 .9511 1.30 3.206 4 .9686 June 12, 10.30 A.M. ... 4.124 60 .9511 1.45 3.220 5 .9683 686 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Washington, July 21, 1866. Sir: The committee of the National Academy of Sciences, appointed in pursuance of your request, under date of Febru- ary 15, to advise the Treasury Department on the best mode of proving and gauging distilled spirits, have the honor to submit the accompanying report, together with an instrument and book of tables, which they recommend to be used in the inspection of spirits. The preparation of the latter has somewhat delayed the presentation of this report. The conclusions reached, and recommendations submitted, are briefly as follows:— ON PROVING THE STRENGTH OF SPIRITS. 1. In conformity with the general usage of distillers, recti- fiers, and dealers in spirits, the strength of spirituous liquors, in levying duties, should be estimated according to their equiva- lent of proof spirit, defined to be that alcoholic liquor which contains one-half of its volume of absolute alcohol. 2. Instead of using the terms above and belovj proof, the 'per- centage of proof spirit contained in liquor should be stated, and the hydrometers should be graduated accordingly. Proof spirits will thus be indicated by 100 on the scale, alcohol by 200, water by 0. The per cents, of alcohol contained in the liquor will be represented by just one-half the numbers indi- cating the per cents, of proof spirits, and will be identical with those of the “Tralles” scale. 3. The hydrometers should be made of glass, and graduated to indicate true per cents, of proof spirit, when the liquor is at a temperature of 60° Fahr. Of a great variety of patterns sub- mitted, the committee give the preference to that presented by Mr. G. Tagliabue, of New York, who has made the accompany- ing instrument in accordance with their views. It consists of five separate hydrometers in series, covering the whole range from water to alcohol, and so arranged that for the inspection of any particular class of liquors, only one of them is required. They are compact, of moderate size, and not easily broken. The scales are very open, and afford great accuracy and facility in reading. Each set is accompanied by a copper case or cup, for containing the liquor, with an attached thermometer. 4. A table is herewith presented to be used in connection with the hydrometers, giving the true per cents, of proof spirit for any indication of the hydrometer at temperatures between 0° and 100° Fahr. This table is so full as to leave no computa- tion for fractions to be made; the required value is at once found by inspection, and in proving a particular lot of spirits REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 687 all the entries required will, in general, be found on the same page. 5. The hydrometers should be tested by an officer of the government, and, as no stamp can be placed upon them, should be manufactured with a label on the inside of the bulb, desig- nating them as government standards: those that will not bear the test to be broken. The hydrometers and tables should be issued to inspectors by the Internal Revenue Bureau, either with or without charge for their cost, as may be deemed best. The committee recommend that the government issue them free of charge, with a certain allowance for breakage, the ex- cess over which should be paid for by the inspector. It is understood that the full set of hydrometers with a cup and thermometer, packed in a neat box, can be supplied at a cost of twenty dollars ($20); single hydrometers to supply breakage at $2 50. ON GAUGING THE QUANTITY OF SPIRITS. 6. As the volume of a given quantity of spirits varies con- siderably with the temperature, it is obvious that the duty should be assessed upon the number of gallons it occupies at the average temperature of 60° Fahr. All methods of mea- suring or gauging the contents of casks being somewhat uncer- tain, while their weight is readily ascertained, and not variable with the temperature, the committee recommend that, instead of gauging, the quantity of spirits should be estimated by means of their weight. With that view, they submit Table II. of the manual, which gives the number of gallons corresponding to different weight and strength of spirits. 7. As it may not be practicable to introduce at once the sys- tem of weighing the casks, and they will continue to be gauged, a column for reducing the volume measure at any temperature to its equivalent at 60° Fahr. is given in Table I., in conjunc- tion with the true per cents. The use of this table should be enjoined. 8. For the information of inspectors and manufacturers, a short table is added to the manual giving the specific gravity for each degree of strength of spirits, and the relative propor- tions of alcohol and water contained. All of which is respectfully submitted by JOSEPH HENRY, M. C. MEIGS, J. E. HILGARD. Committee of the National Academy of Sciences. Hon. Hugh McCulloch, Secretary of the Treasury. 688 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Treasury Department, August 1, 1866. Sir: I am directed by the Secretary to acknowledge the receipt of the report of the committee of the National Aca- demy of Sciences, appointed in pursuance of my request of February 15, to advise this department on the best mode of proving and gauging distilled spirits. The Secretary further instructs me to return you his thanks for the information and advice contained in the report in question. Respectfully yours, WM. E. CHANDLER, Assistant Secretary. Professor Joseph Henry, Smithsonian Institution. MANUAL FOR INSPECTORS OF SPIRITS. EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES, AND DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR USE. Proof spirit is defined by law to be that mixture of alcohol and water which contains one-half of its volume of alcohol; the alcohol when at a temperature of 60° Fahr. being of spe- cific gravity 0.79390, referred to water at its maximum density as unity. Proof spirit has, at 60° Fahr., a specific gravity of 0.93358,100 parts by volume of the same consisting of 50 parts of absolute alcohol and 53.71 parts of water. The difference of the sum of the parts of the alcohol and water, and the result- ing 100 parts of proof spirit, is due to the contraction which takes place when alcohol and water combine. As the law declares that “the duties on all spirits shall be levied according to their equivalent in proof spirits,” the hydro- meters furnished to the inspectors are so graduated as to indi- cate the number of parts by volume of proof spirit equivalent to 100 parts of the liquor at the standard temperature of 60° Fahr.; thus they read 0 for water, 100 for proof spirit, and 200 for absolute alcohol. It is seldom, however, that the liquor is inspected at 60° Fahr.; and as its density varies with the temperature, a correc- tion is necessary for a temperature differing from 60°, the hy- drometer giving too low an indication for temperatures below 60°, and one too high for those above. This correction applied TABLE I.—TRUE PER CENT. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 689 to the indication of the hydrometer, gives the true per cent., or what the reading of the hydrometer would be were the liquor at 60°. Table I. has been prepared accordingly, and exhibits the true per cents, by volume of proof spirit for such indications of the hydrometer at temperatures between 0° and 100° Fahr. as are likely to occur in practice. The left-hand column, headed “In- dication,” contains the reading of the hydrometer, and on the same horizontal line, in the body of the table, in the “ Tempe- rature” column indicated by the thermometer, is found the cor- rected reading or true per cent. The table is computed for tenths of a per cent.; but in practice only the nearest whole number of a per cent, need be used, excepting when large quantities are proved at one opera- tion, in which case the decimal must be retained; otherwise, in taking out true per cents., if the decimal is .5 or less, drop it; if it is .6 or over, add a unit. Thus, page 697, column 23°, indication 123, the true per cent., 136.5, is called 136. Same page and column, indication 141, the true per cent., 153.6, is called 154. Examples.—The hydrometer reads 130, the thermometer 29° ; on page 697, in the temperature column 29°, and opposite indi- cation 130, we find 141, which is the true per cent, of proof spirit in the liquor. This is the same as 41 over proof, according to the ordinary way of speaking. Suppose the hydrometer reads 150 and the thermometer 85° ; on page 715, in temperature column 85°, and against indication 150, we again find 141 for the true per cent. It may happen that the hydrometer indicates the strength as under proof when it is really over, and vice versa. Examples.—The hydrometer reads 89, the thermometer 29°. On page 696, column 29°, indication 89, we find the true per cent. 102, or 2 over proof. ”V The hydrometer reads 103, the thermometer 86°. On page 714, column 86°, indication 103, we find the true per cent, to be 92, or 8 under proof. VOLUMES. The correction required to reduce 100 gallons, measured at any temperature, to its volume at the standard temperature, 60° Fahr., is given in table of corrections to volume, page 719. As the volumes contract with a decrease and expand with an increase of temperature, below 60° the correction is to be added, and above 60° to be subtracted. Examples.—Suppose the cask was gauged at the time it was 690 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. inspected, and that at 30° it contained 121.4 gallons, while the hydrometer read 135. For temperature 30°, and opposite in- dication 135 (page 719), we find the correction to volume 1.5, “ add” Gallons gauged . . . 121.4 1 per cent. 1.2 .5 per cent. . . -}- ,6 Gallons at 60° Fahr , . 123.2 Suppose that at 85° it contained 124.8 gallons, while hydro- meter reads 155. For temperature 85°, and opposite indication 155 (page 719), we find the correction to volume 1.3, “subtract” Gallons gauged . . • .124.8 1 per cent. ........... — 1.2 .3 per cent — .4 Gallons at 60° Falir. ..... .... 123.2 The above show that at 60° Fahr. the cask contains 123.2 gallons of spirits and of strength 146, as will be found from Table I. In order to firfd the equivalent number of gallons of proof spirit, multiply 123.2 by 1.46, which may be done thus with the least number of figures:— Multiply by 1 123.2 Multiply by 4, and set back 1 digit 49.2[8] Multiply by 6, and set back 2 digits 7.3[92] 179.8[72] The result shows a larger volume of proof spirit than the actual volume of liquor in the cask. This is because the liquor, being of strength 146, is over proof, and would require the addi- tion of water to reduce it to proof. TABLE II. This is a table for gauging by means of the weight of the liquor and the true per cent. The following example fully il- lustrates its use :— Example.—A cask of spirit of 141 per cent, strength (or 41 over proof) weighed 913 pounds net. We find— 900 pounds equal to 121.54 gallons 10 pounds equal to gallons 3 pounds equal to gallons Or contents 123.29 that is, 913 pounds of spirit of strength 141 is equivalent to 123.3 gallons at 60° Fahr. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 691 The equivalent gallons for 10 pounds are found from the column 100 pounds by moving the decimal point one place to the left; those for three pounds from the column 300 pounds by moving the decimal point two places to the left. TABLE III. Gives, the respective volumes of absolute alcohol and water con- tained in 100 volumes of spirits of different strength, and also the specific gravities of the mixtures, referred, for convenience, to the density of water at 60° Fahr. as unity. This table will be found especially useful in reducing the strength of liquors by a definite amount. To do this, divide the alcohol in the given strength by the alcohol in the required strength, multiply the quotient by the water in the required strength, and subtract the water in the given strength from the product. The remainder is the num- ber of gallons of water to be added to 100 gallons of liquor of the given strength to produce a liquor of the required strength. Example.—It is required to reduce liquor of 141 per cent, to proof. We find on page 724, 141 per cent, contains 70.5 parts alco- hol, and 32.86 parts water. Page 723,100 per cent, contains 50.0 parts alcohol, and 53.71 parts water. Alcohol in 141 per cent. . . . . . • • • .70.50 Divide by alcohol in 100 per cent. =50.00 1.41 Multiply by water in 100 per cent. =53.71— 50 70.50 4.23 09 .01 01 75.73 Subtract water in 141 per cent. • 32.86 Gallons of water to add to 100 gallons of 141 per cent. . . . 42.87 or, to 100 gallons of 141 per cent, add 42.9 gallons of water, and the mixture will be proof spirit. This rule is generally applicable for reducing to any per cent.; but when it is required to reduce to 100 per cent., it is suffi- cient to multiply the given per cent, by 53.71, and deduct the water in the given strength. Thus in the above example— 1.41 X 53.71 — 32.86 = 75.73 — 32.86 = 42.87. 692 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Table I. — Showing the true per cents, of Proof Spirit for any indi- cation of the Hydrometer at temperatures between 0° and ICO0 F. iDd. 121 to 120. Temp 1° to 10°. ei . o p TEMPERATURES. T3 X a i° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° | 9° 10° 51 80.8 80.2 79.7 79.1 78.6 78.0 77.4 76.9 76 3 75.7 52 81.8 81,2 80.7 80.1 79.6 79 0 78.5 77.9 77 4 76 8 63 82.7 82.1 81.6 81.0 80.5 80.0 79 5 78.9 78 4 77.9 54 83.6 83.1 82.5 82.0 81.5 81.0 80.5 79.9 79.4 78.9 55 84 4 83.9 83.4 82.9 82.4 81.9 81.4 80 8 80 3 79.8 66 85 3 84.8 84.3 83 8 83.3 82.8 82.3 81 8 81.3 80.8 57 86 2 85.7 85.1 84 6 84 1 83.6 83.1 82.7 82.2 81.7 68 87.0 86.5 86.0 85.5 85.0 84.5 84.0 83.6 83.1 82 6 59 87.8 87.3 86.9 86.4 85.9 85.4 84.9 84 5 84.0 83.5 60 88.6 88.1 87.7 87.2 86.7 86.2 85.7 85.3 84.8 84 3 61 89 4 89.0 88.5 S8.1 87.6 87.1 86.6 86.2 85.7 85.2 62 90 2 89.8 89.3 88.9 88.4 87.9 87.5 87.0 86.6 86.1 63 91.0 90.6 ’ 90.1 89.7 89.2 88.7 88.3 87.8 87.4 86.9 64 91.9 91.4 91.0 90.5 90.1 89.6 89.1 88.7 88.2 87.7 65 92.7 92.3 91.8 91.4 90.9 90.4 90.0 89 5 89.1 88.6 66 93 5 93.1 92.6 92.2 91 7 91.2 90 8 90 3 89 9 89.4 67 94 3 93.9 93 4 93.0 92 5 92.1 91 6 91 2 90.7 90.3 68 95.2 94.7 94.3 93.8 93.3 92.9 92 5 92.0 91.6 91.2 69 96.0 95 6 95 1 94.7 94.2 93 8 93.3 92 9 92 4 92.0 70 96.8 96.4 95.9 95.5 95.0 94.6 94.2 93.7 93 3 92.9 71 97.7 97.3 96.8 96.4 95.9 95.5 95.1 94.6 94.2 93 8 72 98.5 9S.1 97.6 97.2 90.7 96.3 95 9 95.5 95.1 94.7 73 99.4 98.9 98.5 98.0 97 6 97.2 96.8 96.3 95 9 95.5 74 100.3 99 8 99.4 98.9 98.5 98.1 97.7 97 2 96 8 96.4 75 101.1 10U.6 100.2 99.7 99.3 98.9 985 98.1 97.7 97.3 76 101.9 101.5 101.0 100.6 100 2 99.8 99.4 98 9 98 5 98.1 77 102.8 102.4 101.9 101.5 101.1 100.7 100.3 99.8 99 4 99.0 78 103.6 103.2 102.7 102.3 101.9 101.5 101.1 100 7 1003 99 9 79 104.5 104.1 103 6 103.2 102 8 102.4 102.0 101.6 101.2 1008 80 105.3 104.9 104.4 104.0 103 6 103 2 102.8 102.5 102.1 101.7 81 106.2 105 8 105.3 104,9 104.5 104 1 103.7 103 4 103.0 102.6 82 107.0 106.6 106.2 105.8 105.4 105 ft 104.6 104.3 103'9 103.5 83 107.9 107.5 107.0 106.6 100.2 105.8 105 4 105.1 104.7 104.3 84 108.7 108 3 107.9 107.5 107.1 106.7 106 3 106 0 105 6 105.2 85 109 6 109.2 108.8 108.4 108 0 107.6 107.2 106.9 106.5 106.1 86 110.4 110.0 109.6 109.2 108. S 108.4 108 0 107 7 107 3 106.9 87 111.2 110.8 110.5 110.1 109.7 109.3 108.9 108.6 108 2 107.8 88 112.1 111.7 111.3 110 9 110.5 110.1 109.8 109.4 109.1 108.7 89 112.9 112.5 112.2 111.8 111.4 111 0 110.7 110.3 110 0 109.6 90 113.8 113.4 113.0 112.0 112.2 111.8 111.5 111.1 110.8 110.4 91 114.7 114 3 113.9 113.5 113.1 112 7 112.4 112 0 111.7 111.3 92 115.6 115.2 114.8 114 4 114.0 113 6 113.3 1129 112.6 112 2 93 116.5 116.1 115.7 115.3 114 9 114.5 114 2 113 8 113.5 113.1 94 117.4 117.0 116.6 116.2 115 8 115.4 115.1 114.7 114.4 114.0 95 118.3 117.9 117.5 117.1 116.7 116.3 116 0 115 6 115.3 114.9 96 119 2 118 8 118.4 118.0 117.6 117.2 116 9 116 5 116 2 115 8 97 120.1 119.7 119 3 118 9 118.5 118.1 117 S 117 4 117.1 116.7 98 121 0 120.6 120.2 119.8 119.4 119.0 118 7 1183 118 0 117 6 99 121.9 121.5 121.1 120 7 120 3 119.9 119.6 119 2 118 9 118 5 100 122.8 122.4 122.0 121.6 121.2 120 8 120.5 120.1 119.8 119.4 101 123 7 123 3 122.9 122.5 122 1 121.7 121.4 121.0 120.7 120.3 102 124 6 124.2 123.9 123.5 123.1 122.7 122.4 122.0 121.7 121.3 103 125.5 125.1 124.8 124.4 124.0 123.6 123.3 122 9 122.6 122 2 104 126.4 126.0 125 7 125 3 124.9 124 4 . 1211 123 8 123 5 123 1 105 127.3 126.9 126.6 126.2 125.8 125 4 125 1 124 7 124.4 124.0 106 128.3 127 9 127 5 127.1 126.7 126.3 126.0 125.6 125 3 124 9 107 129.2 128.8 128.4 128.0 127.6 127.2 126.9 126 5 126 2 125.8 108 130 1 129.7 129.3 128 9 128 5 128.1 127.8 127.4 127.1 126.7 109 131.0 130.6 130.3 129 9 129 5 129.1 128.8 128.4 128.1 127 7 110 131.9 131.6 131.2 130.9 130.5 130.1 129.S 129.4 129 1 128.7 111 132 8 132.5 132.1 131.8 131.4 131 0 130.7 130 3 130.0 129 6 112 133.8 133.4 133 1 132.7 132 3 132.0 131 6 1.31 .3 130 9 130 6 113 134.7 134.4 134 0 133.7 133.3 132 9 132.6 132.2 131 9 131.5 114 135.6 135 3 134 9 134 6 134 2 133.9 133 5 133 2 132 8 132 5 115 136 6 136 2 135 9 135.5 135 2 134 9 134 5 134.2 133.8 133.5 116 137.6 137.2 136.9 136 5 136.1 135.8 135.4 135.1 134.7 134 4 117 138.5 138.1 137.8 137.4 137.1 136 8 136.4 136 1 135 7 131.4 118 139.4 139.0 138.7 13S 3 13S 0 137.7 137 3 137.0 136 6 136.3 119 140.4 140.0 139.7 139 3 139 0 138.7 138.3 138 0 137 6 137.3 120 141.3 140 9 140.6 140.2 139 9 139.6 139.2 13S 9 138.6 138 2 TRUE PER CENT. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 693 lad. 121 to 189. TRUE PER CENT. Tenip. 1° to 10° Indica- tion. TEMPERATURES i° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 9° 10° 121 142.2 141 9 141 5 141.2 140.9 140.6 140.2 139 9 139.5 139.2 122 143.1 142.8 142 4 142.1 141.8 141.5 141.1 140 8 140 4 140 1 123 141 1 143 8 143 4 143 1 142.8 142.5 142 1 141.8 141.4 141.1 124 145 0 144 7 144.3 144.0 143.7 143.4 143 0 142.7 142 3 142.0 125 145.9 145.6 145.3 145 0 144 7 144.4 144.0 143.7 143.3 143.0 126 146 9 146 6 146.2 145 9 145.6 145.3 144 9 144.6 144.2 143.9 127 147.8 147 5 147.1 146.8 146.5 146.2 145.8 145.5 145.1 144 8 128 14S 7 148.4 148 0 147.7 147.4 147.1 146.7 146 4 146.0 145.7 129 149.6 149.3 148 9 148 6 148.3 148 0 147.7 147.3 147.0 146.7 130 150 6 150.3 149.9 149.6 149.3 149.0 148.6 148.3 147.9 147.6 131 151.5 151.2 150.8 150 5 150 2 149.9 149 5 149.2 148.8 148.5 132 152.4 152 l 151.7 151.4 151.1 150.8 150.4 150.1 149.7 149.4 133 153 3 153.0 152 6 152 3 152.0 151 7 151.4 151.0 150.7 150.4 134 154.2 153.9 153.6 153 3 153.0 152.7 152.3 152.0 151.-6 151.3 135 155.2 154.9 154.5 154.2 153.9 153.6 153.2 152.9 152 5 152.2 136 156.1 155.8 155.4 155.1 154.8 154.5 154.1 153.8 153.4 153.1 137 157.1 156 8 156 4 156 1 155 8 155.5 155.1 154.8 154 4 154.1 138 158 0 157.7 157.3 157.0 156.7 156.4 156.0 155.7 155 3 155.0 139 158.9 358.6 158.2 157.9 157.6 157.3 •158.9 156 6 156.2 155.9 140 159.8 159.5 159.1 168.8 158.5 158.2 157.9 157.5 157.2 156.9 141 160.8 160.5 160.1 169.8 158.5 159.2 158.8 158.5 158.1 157.8 142 161.7 161.4 161.0 160.7 160.4 160.1 159.7 159.4 159.0 158.7 143 162.6 162.3 161.9 161.6 161.3 161.0 160.7 160.3 160.0 159.7 144 163.6 163.2 162.9 162.5 162.2 161.9 161.6 161.2 160.9 160.6 145 164.5 164.2 163.8 163.5 163.2 162.9 162.6 162.2 161.9 161.6 146 165.3 165.0 164 7 164.4 164.1 163.8 163 5 163.1 162.8 162 5 147 166.2 165.9 165.6 165.3 165.0 164.7 164.4 164.0 163.7 163.4 148 167 1 166.8 166.5 166.2 165.9 165.6 165 3 164 9 164.6 164.3 149 168.0 167.7 167.4 167.1 166.8 166 5 166.2 165.9 165.6 165.3 150 168.9 168.6 168.3 168.0 167.7 167.4 167.1 166.8 166.5 166.2 151 169.8 169.5 169 2 168.9 168.6 168.3 168.0 167.7 167.4 167.1 152 170.7 170.4 170.1 169 8 169.5 169.2 168.9 168.6 168.3 168.0 153 171.6 171.3 171.0 170.7 170.4 170.1 169.8 169.5 169.2 168.9 154 172,5 172.2 171.9 171.6 171.3 171.0 170.7 170.4 170.1 169.8 155 173.3 173.1 172.8 172.6 172.3 172.0 171.7 171.3 171.0 170.7 156 174.2 174.0 173.7 173.5 173.2 172 9 172.6 172.2 171.9 171.6 157 175.1 174.9 174.6 174.4 174 1 173.8 173.5 173.2 172.9 172.6 158 176.0 175.8 175.5 175 3 175.0 174.7 174.4 174 1 173.8 173.5 159 176.9 176.7 176.4 176 2 175.9 175.6 175.3 175.0 174.7 174 4 J60 177,8 177.6 177.3 177.1 176.8 176.5 176.2 175.9 175.6 175.3 161 178.7 178.5 178.2 178.0 177.7 177.4 177.1 176.8 176.5 176.2 162 179.6 179.4 179.1 178.9 178.6 178.3 178.0 177.7 177.4 177.1 163 180.4 180.2 179.9 179.7 179.4 179.1 178.8 178.6 178.3 178.0 164 161.1 181.1 ISO. 8 ISO.6 180.3 180.0 179 7 179.5 179.2 178.9 165 182.1 181.9 181.6 181.4 181.1 180.8 1.80.5 180.3 180.0 179.7 166 183.6 182.8 182.5 182 3 182.0 181 7 181.4 181 2 180.9 180 6 167 183.8 183. S 183.3 183.1 182.8 182.5 182.3 182.0 181 8 181 5 168 184.7 184.4 184.2 183.8 183 7 183.4 183.2 182.9 182.7 182.4 169 185 5 185.3 185.0 184.8 184.5 IS 4.2 184.0 183.7 183.5 183.2 170 186.4 186.1 185.9 185.6 185.4 185.1 184.9 184.6 184.4 184.1 171 187.2 186.9 186.7 186,4 186.2 186.0 185.8 185.5 185 2 185.0 172 188.0 187.8 187.5 187.3 187.0 186.8 186.5 186.3 186.0 185.8 173 188.9 188.6 188,4 188.1 187.9 187.7 187.4 187 2 186.9 186.7 174 189,7 189.5 189.2 189.0 188.7 188 5 188.2 188.0 187.7 187.5 175 160.6 ISO. 3 190.1 189.8 189.6 189.4 189.1 188.9 188.6 188.4 176 191.4 191.2 190.9 190.7 190 5 190.3 190.0 189.8 189.5 189.3 177 192.3 192.0 191.8 191.5 191.3 191.1 190.9 196.6 190.4 190.2 178 193.1 1929 192 6 192.4 192.2 192.0 191.8 191.5 191.3 191.1 179 193.9 193.7 193.4 193.2 193.0 192.8 192.6 192.3 192.1 191.9 180 194.7 194.5 194.2 184.0 193.8 193.6 193.4 193.2 193.0 192.8 181 195 4 195.2 194.9 194.7 194.5 194.3 194 1 193.9 193.7 193.5 182 196 2 196.0 195.7 195.5 195.3 195.1 194.9 194.7 194.5 194.3 183 196.9 196.7 196.4 196.2 196.0 195.8 195.6 195.5 195.3 195.1 184 197.6 197.4 197.2 197 0 196.8 196.6 196.4 196.3 196.1 195.9 185 198.3 198.1 197.9 197.7 197.5 197.3 197.1 197.0 196.8 196.6 186 199.1 198 9 198.7 198.5 198.3 198.1 197.9 197.8 197.6 197.4 187 199.8 199.6 199.5 199.3 199.1 198.9 198.7 198.6 198.4 198.2 1,88 200.0 199.8 199.6 199.4 199.3 199.1 198.9 189 .... •— .... .... .... 199.9 199.7 694 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Ind. 51 to 120. ci • O Q TEMPERATURES. a +* n° 12° 13° 14° 16° 16° 17° 18° 19° 20° 51 75.1 74.5 74.0 73.4 72 8 72.2 71.7 71.1 70.6 70.0 52 76.2 75.7 75.1 74.6 74.0 73.4 72.9 72.3 71.8 71 2 53 77.3 76 8 76 2 75.7 75.1 74.5 74.0 73.4 72.9 72 3 54 78.3 77.8 77.2 76.7 76.1 75.6 75.0 74.5 73.9 73 4 55 79.3 78.8 78 2 77.7 77 2 76.7 76.1 75.6 75.0 74.5 56 80.3 79.8 79.2 78.7 78 2 77.7 77.2 76 6 76.1 75 6 57 81.2 80.7 80.1 79.6 79.1 78.6 78.1 77.6 77.1 76.6 58 82.1 81.6 81.1 80.6 80.1 79.6 79.1 78.6 78.1 77.6 59 83.0 82.5 82.0 81.5 81.0 80 5 80.0 79 6 79.1 78 6 60 83.8 83 3 82.9 82.4 81.9 81 4 80.9 80.5 80.0 79.5 61 81.7 84.2 83.8 83.3 82.8 82.3 81.8 81.4 80.9 80 4 62 85.6 85.1 84.7 84.2 83.7 83.2 82.7 82 3 81.8 81.3 63 86.4 85.9 85.5 85.0 84.5 84.0 83.6 83.1 82.7 82.2 61 87.2 86.8 86.3 85.9 85.4 84.9 84.5 84.0 83.6 83.1 65 88.1 87.6 87.2 86.7 86.2 85.8 85.3 84.9 84.4 84 0 66 88.9 38.4 88 0 87.5 87.0 86.6 86.1 85.7 85.2 84.8 67 89 8 89.3 88.9 88 4 87.9 87.5 87.0 86.6 86.1 85.7 68 90.7 90.2 89.8 89.3 88 8 88.4 87.9 87.5 87.0 86.6 69 91.5 91 0 90.6 . 90 1 S9.6 89.2 88.8 88.3 87.9 87.5 70 92.4 91.9 91.5 91.0 90.5 90.1 89.7 89.2 88.8 88.4 71 93.3 92.8 92 4 91.9 91.4 91.0 90.6 90.1 89.7 89.3 72 94 2 93.7 93.3 92 8 923 91.9 91.5 91.0 90.6 90.2 73 95.0 94.6 94.1 93.7 93.2 92.8 92.4 91 9 91.5 91.1 71 95.9 95.5 95.0 94.6 94.1 93.7 93 3 92 S 92.4 92 0 75 96.8 96.4 95.9 95.5 95.0 94.6 94 2 93.7 93.3 92 9 76 97.7 97.3 96.8 96.4 95.9 95.5 95.1 94 6 ' 94.2 93 8 77 98.6 98 2 97.7 97 3 96.8 96.4 96.0 95.5 95.1 94.7 78 99.5 99.1 98.6 98.2 97.7 97 3 96.9 96; 4 96.0 9-5 6 79 100.4 100.0 99.5 99 1 98.6 98.2 97.8 97.3 96.9 96.5 80 101.3 100.9 100.4 100.0 99.5 99.1 9S.7 98 2 97.8 97.4 81 102.2 101.8 101.3 100.9 100.5 100.1 99.6 99.2 98.7 98.3 82 103 1 102.7 102.2 101.8 101.4 101.0 100.5 100.1 99.6 99.2 83 103.9 103.5 103.1 102.7 102.3 101.9 101 5 101 0 100.6 100 2 81 104.8 104.4 104.0 103 6 103 2 102.8 102 4 101.9 101.5 101.1 85 105.7 105.3 104.9 104.5 104.1 103.7' 103.3 102.8 102.4 102 0 86 106.5 106.1 105 8 105.4 105.0 104.6 104.2 103.7 103.3 102 9 87 107.4 107.0 106.7 106.3 105.9 105.5 1051 104.6 104.2 1038 8S 108.3 107.9 107.6 107.2 106 8 106.4 106.0 105.5 105.1 104 7 89 109.2 108. S 108.5 108.1 107.7 107.3 106 9 106.4 106 0 105 6 90 110.0 100.7 100.3 109.0 108.6 108.2 107.8 1073 106.9 106.5 91 110.9 110.6 110.2 109.9 109.5 109 1 108.7 108 2 107. S 107.4 92 111.8 111.5 111.1 110.8 110.4 110 0 109.6 109.1 108.7 108.3 93 112.7 112.4 112 0 111.7 111.3 110.9 110.5 110.0 109 6 109.2 91 113.6 113.3 112.9 112.6 112.2 111.8 111.4 111 0 no 6 110.2 95 111.5 114 2 113.8 113.5 113.1 112.7 112 3 111.9 111.5 111.1 98 115.4 115.1 114.7 114.4 114.0 113.6 113 2 112 8 112 4 1120 97 116.3 116 0 115.6 115.3 114.9 114,5 114.1 113.7 113 3 112.9 98 117.2 116 9 116.5 116.2 115.8 115.4 115 0 114 7 114.3 113 9 99 118.1 117.8 117.4 117.1 116.7 116 3 115.9 115.6 115.2 114.8 Joo 119.1 118 7 118.4 118.0 117.7 117.3 116.9 116.5 116.1 115 7 701 120.0 119 6 119.3 118.9 118 6 118.2 117.8 117.5 117 1 116.7 102 120.9 120.6 120.2 119.9 119.5 119.1 ns.7 118.4 118.0 117.6 103 121.8 121.5 121.1 120 8 120.4 120.0 119.6 119 3 118.9 118.5 101 122.7 122.4 122 0 121.7 121.3 120 9 120.5 120 2 119 8 119.4 105 123.6 123.3 122.9 122.6 122.2 121. S 121.4 121.1 120.7 120.3 106 124.5 124.2 123.8 123 5 123.1 122.7 122.4 122.0 121.7 121 3 107 125.5 125.1 124.8 124.4 124.1 123 7 123 3 123.0 122.6 122.2 108 126.4 126.0 125.7 125.3 125 0 124.6 124 2 123 9 123.5 123.1 109 127.4 127.0 126.7 126.3 126.0 125 6 125.2 124.9 124 5 121.1 110 128 3 128.0 127.6 127.3 126.9 126.5 126.1 125.8 125.4 125 0 111 129.3 128.9 128 6 128.2 127 9 127.5 127.1 126.8 126 4 126.0 112 130.3 129.9 129.6 129 2 128.9 128.5 12S.1 ■ 127.8 127.4 127.0 113 131.2 130 8 130.5 130.1 129.8 129.4 129.0 12S.7 128.3 127.9 111 132.2 131.8 131.5 131.1 130.8 130.4 130.0 129.7 129.3 128.9 115 133 2 132.8 132.5 132.1 131.8 131.4 131.0 130.7 130 3 129.9 116 134.1 133.7 133.4 133.0 132.7 132.3 132.0 131.6 131.3 130.9 117 135.1 134.7 134.4 134.0 133.7 133 3 132 9 132 6 132.2 131.3 118 136.0 135.6 135 3 134.9 134.6 134.2 133 9 133.5 133.2 132.3 119 137.0 136.6 136.3 135.9 135.6 135.2 134.9 134.5 134.2 133.3 120 137.9 137.5 137.2 136 8 136.5 13Q.1 135.8 135.4 135.1 131.7 TRUE PER CENT. Temp 11° to 20°. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 695 n.4 25.3 25.2 25.1 25.0 24.8 24.7 24.6 24 26.7 26.6 26.5 26 4 26.3 26.2 26.1 25,9 25.8 25 7 25 27.8 27.7 27.6 27.5 27.4 27.3 27.1 27.0 26.8 26.7 26 29.0 28.9 28.7 28.6 28.5 28.4 28.2 28.1 27.9 27.8 27 30.3 30.1 30.0 29 8 29.7 29.5 29.4 29.2 29.1 28.9 28 31.4 31.3 31.1 31.0 30.8 30.6 30.5 30.3 30.2 30 0 29 32.7 32.6 32.4 32.3 32.1 31.9 31.7 31.5 31.3 31.1 30 33.9 33.7 33.6 33.4 33 2 33.0 32.8 32.6 32.4 32.2 31 35 1 34.9 34.8 34.6 34.4 34.2 34.0 33.7 33.5 33 3 32 36.3 36.1 35.9 35.7 35.5 35.3 35.1 34.8 34 6 34.4 33 37.6 37.4 37.1 36 9 36.7 36.5 36.2 36.0 35.7 35.5 34 38 9 38.6 38.4 38.1 37.9 37.6 37.4 37 1 36.9 36 6 35 40.2 39.9 39.7 39.4 39.1 38.8 38.5 38.3 38.0 37.7 36 41.5 41.2 40.9 40.6 40.3 40 0 39.7 39.5 39.2 38 9 37 42.8 42.5 42.1 41.8 41.5 41.2 40.9 40.6 40.3 40 0 38 44.1 43.7 43.4 43.0 42.7 42.4 42.1 41 7 41.4 41.1 39 45.3 44 9 44.6 44.2 43.9 43.6 43.3 42 9 42.6 42.3 40 46.5 46.1 45.8 45.4 45.1 44.8 44.4 44.1 43.7 43.4 41 47.6 47.3 46.9 46.6 46.2 45.9 45.5 45.2 44.8 44.5 42 48.8 48.4 48.1 47.7 47.4 47.0 46.7 46.3 46.0 45.6 43 49.9 49.6 49.2 48.9 48.5 48 1 47.7 47.4 47.0 46.6 44 51 1 50.7 50.4 50.0 49.6 49.2 48.8 48.5 48,1 47.7 45 52.4 52 0 51.5 51.1 50.7 50.3 49.9 49.6 49.2 4S.8 46 53 6 53.2 52 7 52.3 51.9 51 5 51.1 50.7 50.3 49.9 47 54.8 54.3 53.9 53.4 53 0 52.6 52.2 51.7 51.3 50.9 4S 55.9 55.5 55.0 54 6 54.1 53.7 53.3 52.8 52.4 52 0 49 57.1 56.6 56.2 55.7 55.3 54.9 54.4 54.0 53.5 53 1 50 58.2 57.7 57.3 56.8 56.4 » 56 0 55.5 55.1 54.6 54.2 51 59.3 58.9 58.4 58.0 57.5 57.1 56.6 56.2 55.7 55.3 52 60.4 60.0 59.5 59.1 58 6 58 2 57.7 57.3 56.8 56.4 53 61.6 61.1 60.7 60.2 59.7 59 2 58.8 58.3 57.9 57.4 54 62 6 62.2 61.7 61.3 60.8 60.3 59.9 59.4 59.0 58.5 55 63 7 63.2 62.8 62.3 61.8 61 3 60.9 60.4 60.0 59.5 56 64.7 64 2 63 8 63.3 62.8 62 3 61.9 61.4 61.0 60.5 57 65.8 65.3 64 9 64.4 63.9 63.4 63.0 62.5 62.1 61.6 58 66.8 66.3 65.9 65.4 64.9 64.4 64.0 63.5 63.1 62.6 59 67 8 67.3 66 9 66.4 65.9 65 4 65.0 64.5 64.1 63 6 60 68.8 68 4 67.9 67.5 67.0 66.5 66.0 65.6 65.1 64.6 61 69.9 69.4 69.0 68.5 68.0 67.5 67.0 66 6 66,1 65.6 62 70.9 70.4 70.0 69.5 69.0 68.5 68.0 67.6 67.1 66.6 63 71.9 71.4 71.0 70.5 70.0 69.5 69.0 68 6 68.1 67.6 64 72.9 72.4 72.0 71.5 71.0 70 5 70.1 69.6 69.2 68.7 05 73.9 73.4 73.0 72 5 72.0 71.5 71.1 70.6 70.2 69.7 702 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Ind. 66 to 130. Indica- tion. TEMPERATURES. 41° 42° | 43° 44° 45° o CO 47° 48° 49° 50° 66 ’ 75.0 74.5 74.0 73.5 73.0 72 5 72.1 71.6 71.2 70.7 67 76.0 75.5 75.0 74.5 74.0 73 5 73 1 72.6 72.2 71.7 68 76.9 76.5 76.0 75.6 75.1 74.6 74.1 73.7 73 2 72 7 69 77.9 77.4 77.0 76.5 76.1 75.6 75.1 74.7 74.2 73.7 70 78.9 78.4 78.0 77.5 77.1 76.6 76.1 75.7 75.2 74.7 71 79.8 79.4 78.9 78.5 78.0 77.5 77 1 76 6 76.2 75 7 72 80.8 80 3 79.9 79.4 79.0 78 5 781 77.6 77 2 76.7 73 81.7 81.3 80.8 80.4 80.0 79.5 79.1 78.6 78.2 77.7 74 82.7 82.2 81.8 81.3 80.9 80.4 80.0 79 5 79.1 78 6 75 83.6 83.2 82.7 82.3 81.8 81.4 80.9 80.5 80.0 79.6 76 84.6 84.1 83.7 83.2 82.8 82.4 81.9 81.5 81.0 80 6 77 85.5 85.0 84.6 84.1 83.7 83 3 82.8 82.4 81.9 81 5 78 86.5 86 0 a5.6 85.1 84.7 84 3 83 8 83.4 82.9 82.5 79 87. a 87 0 86 6 86.1 85.7 85.3 84 8 84.4 83.9 83.5 80 8S.4 88.0 87.5 87 1 86.7 86.2 85.8 S5.3 84.9 S4.4 81 89.3 88.9 88.4 88 0 87.6 87.2 86.7 86.3 85.8 85 4 82 90.3 89 9 89 4 89.0 88.6 88 2 87 7 67.3 86.8 S6 4 83 91.3 90 9 90.4 90 0 89.6 69.2 88 7 88.3 87.8 87.4 84 92.3 91 9 91.4 91.0 90 6 90.2 89.7 89.3 88.8 88.4 85 93.3 92.8 92.4 91.9 91.5 91.1 90.7 90.2 89.8 89.4 86 94.2 93.8 93 3 92.9 92.5 92.1 91.7 91.2 90 8 90.4 S7 95.2 94 8 94.3 93.9 93.5 93.1 92.7 92.2 91.8 91.4 88 96.1 95.7 95.3 94 9 94.5 94.1 93.6 93.2 92.7 92 3 S9 97.1 96.7 96.2 95.8 95.4 95.0 94.6 94.1 93.7 93.3 90 98.0 97 6 97.2 96 8 96.4 96.0 95.6 95.1 94.7 94.3 91 99.0 98.6 98.1 97.7 97.3 96.9 96.5 96.1 95.7 95.3 92 99.9 99 5 99.1 98.7 98 3 97.9 97.5 97.0 96. 6 96 2 93 100.9 100.5 100.1 99.7 99.3 98.9 98.5 98.0 97.6 97 2 94 101.9 101.5 101.1 100.7 100.3 99.9 99.5 99.0 98.6 98.2 95 102.8 102.4 102.0 101.6 101.2 100.8 100.4 100.0 99.6 99.2 96 103.8 103.4 103.0 102.6 102.2 101.8 101.4 101.0 100.6 100.2 97 104.8 104.4 104.0 103.6 103.2 102.8 102 4 102.0 101.6 101.2 9S 105.8 105.4 105.0 104.6 104 2 103.8 103.4 103 0 102.6 102 2 99 106.7 106.3 105.9 105.5 105.1 104.7 104 3 103 9 103.5 103 1 100 107.7 107.3 106.9 106.5 106.1 105.7 105.3 104 9 104.5 104 1 101 108.6 108.2 107.9 107.5 107.1 106.7 106.3 105.9 105.5 105.1 102 109.6 109 2 108.8 108.4 108.0 107.6 107.2 106.8 106.4 106.0 103 110 5 110.1 109.8 109.4 109.0 108.6 108.2 107.8 107 4 107.0 104 111.5 111.1 110.8 110.4 110.0 109.6 109.2 108.8 108 4 108 0 105 112.5 112.1 111.8 111.4 111.0 110.6 110.2 109.8 109.4 109.0 106 113.4 113.0 112.7 112.3 111.9 111.5 111 1 110.8 110.4 110.0 107 114.4 114.0 113.7 113.3 112.9 112.5 112 1 111 8 111.4 111.0 108 115.4 115 0 114.7 114.3 113.9 113.5 113.1 112.8 112.4 112.0 109 116.4 116.0 115.7 115.3 114.9 114.5 114.1 113.8 113.4 113.0 110 117.4 117.0 116.6 116.2 115.8 115.4 115 0 114.7 114.3 113.9 111 118.3 117 9 117.6 117.2 116.8 116.4 116.0 115.7 115.3 114.9 112 119.3 118.9 118.6 118.2 117 8 117.4 117 0 116.7 116.3 115.9 113 120.3 119 9 119.6 119.2 118 8 118.4 118.0 117.7 117.3 116.9 114 12! 2 120.8 120.5 120.1 119.7 119.3 119.0 118.6 118 3 117.9 115 122.2 121.8 121.5 121.1 120.7 120.3 120.0 119.6 119.3 118 9 116 123.2 122 8 122.5 122.1 121.7 121.3 121.0 120.6 120.3 119 9 117 124.2 123 8 123.5 123.1 122.7 122 3 121.9 121 6 121 2 120.8 118 125.2 124 8 124.5 124.1 123.7 123 3 122.9 122.6 122.2 121.8 119 126.1 125.8 125.4 125.1 124.7 124.3 123.9 123.6 123.2 122.8 120 127.1 126 S 126.4 126.1 125.7 125.3 124.9 124.6 124.2 123.8 121 128.1 127 8 127 4 127.1 126.7 126.3 125.9 125.6 125.2 124. S 122 129.1 128.8 128.4 128.1 127.7 127.3 126.9 126.6 126.2 125.8 123 130 1 129.8 129.4 129.1 128.7 128.3 127 9 127.6 127.2 126 8 124 131.1 130 7 130 4 130.0 129 6 129.2 128 9 128.5 128.2 127 8 125 132 1 131.7 131.4 131.0 130.6 130.2 129.9 129.5 129.2 128 8 126 133 1 132 7 132.4 132.0 131.6 131.2 130.9 130 5 130.2 129.8 127 134.0 133 7 133.3 133.0 132 6 132.2 131.9 131.5 131.2 130 8 128 135.0 134.7 134.3 134.0 133.6 133.2 132.9 132.5 132.2 131 8 129 135 9 135.6 135.2 134.9 134.5 134.1 133.8 133.4 133 1 132 7 130 136.9 136.6 | 136.2 135.9 135.5 135.1 134.8 134 4 | 134.1 133 7 TRUE PER CENT. Temp. 41° to 50°. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 703 Ind. 131 to 197 id TEMPKRATURE8. ”3 .2 41° 42° 43° 44° 45° 46° 47° 48° 49° 50° 131 137.9 137.5 137.2 136.8 136.5 136.1 135.8 135.4 135.1 134 7 132 138.9 138.5 138.2 137.8 137.5 137.1 136.8 136.4 136.1 135.7 133 139.8 139.5 139.1 13S.8 138.4 138.1 137.7 137.4 137.0 136.7 134 140.8 140 4 140.1 139.7 139.4 139.0 138.7 138.3 138.0 137.6 135 141 8 141.4 141.1 140.7 140.4 140.0 139.7 139.3 139.0 138.6 136 142.7 142.4 142.0 141.7 141.3 141.0 140.6 140.3 139.9 139.6 137 143 7 143.3 143.0 142.6 142.3 141.9 141.6 141.2 140.9 140.5 138 144.7 144.3 144.0 143.6 143.3 142.9 142.6 142.2 141.9 141.5 139 145.7 145.3 145.0 144.6 144.3 143.9 143.6 143.2 142.9 142.5 140 146.7 146.3 146.0 145.6 145.3 144.9 144.6 144.2 143.9 143 5 141 147.7 147.3 147.0 146.6 146.3 145.9 145.6 145.2 144.9 144.5 142 148.6 148.3 147.9 147.6 147.3 146.9 146.6 116.2 145.9 145.5 143 149.6 149.2 148.9 148.5 148.2 147.9 147.5 147.2 146.8 146.5 144 150.6 150.2 149.9 149.5 149.2 148.9 148.5 14S.2 147.8 147.5 145 151 6 151.2 150.9 150.5 150.2 149.9 149.5 149.2 148.8 148.5 146 152.5 152.1 151.8 151.4 151.1 150.8 150.5 150.1 149.8 149.5 147 153 5 153.1 152.8 152.4 152. L 151.8 151.4 151.1 150.7 150.4 148 154.5 154.1 153.8 153.4 153.1 152.8 152.4 152.1 151.7 151.4 143 155.4 155 1 154.7 154.4 154.1 153.8 153.4 153.1 152.7 152.4 150 156.4 156.1 155.7 155.4 155.1 154.8 154.4 154.1 153.7 153.4 151 157.4 157.1 156.7 156.4 156.1' 155.8 155.4 155.1 154.7 154.4 152 158.4 158.0 157.7 157.3 157.0 156.7 156.4 156.0 155.7 155.4 153 159.3 159.0 158.6 158.3 158.0 157.7 157.4 157.0 156.7 156.4 154 160.3 160 0 159.6 159.3 159.0 15S.7 158.3 158.0 157.6 157.3 155 161.3 161.0 160.6 160.3 160.0 159.7 159.3 159.0 158.6 158.3 156 162.3 161.9 161.6 161.2 160.9 160.6 160.3 159.9 159.6 159.3 157 163.2 162 9 162.5 162.2 161.9 161.6 161.3 160.9 160.6 160.3 158 164.2 163.9 163.5 163.2 162.9 162.6 162.3 161.9 161.6 161.3 159 165.2 164.9 164.5 164.2 163.9 163.6 163.3 162.9 162.6 162.3 160 166.1 165.8 165.4 165.1 164.8 164.5 164.2 163.8 163.5 163.2 161 167.1 166.8 166.4 166.1 165.8 165.5 165.2 164.8 164.5 164.2 162 168.1 167.8 167.4 167.1 166.8 166.5 166.2 165.8 165.5 165.2 163 169.0 168.7 168.4 168.1 167.8 167.5 167.2 166.8 166.5 166.2 164 170.0 169 7 169.3 169.0 168.7 168.4 168.1 167.8 167.5 167.2 165 171.0 170.7 170.3 170.0 169.7 169.4 169.1 168.8 168.5 168.2 166 171.9 171.6 171.3 171.0 170.7 170.4 170.1 169.8 169.5 169.2 167 172 9 172.6 172.3 172.0 171.7 171.4 171.1 170.7 170.4 170.1 168 173.8 173.5 173.2 172.9 172.6 172.3 172.0 171.7 171.4 171.1 169 174 7 174.4 174.2 173.9 173.6 173.3 173.0 172.7 172.4 172.1 170 175 7 175.4 175.1 174.8 174.5 174.2 173.9 173.7 173.4 173.1 171 176.6 176 3 176.1 175.8 175.5 175.2 174.9 174.7 174.4 174.1 172 177.6 177.3 177.0 176.7 176.4 176.1 175.8 175.6 175.3 175.0 173 178.5 178.2 178.0 177.7 177.4 177.1 176.8 176.5 176.2 175.9 174 179.4 179.1 178.9 178.6 17S.3 178.0 177.7 177.5 177.2 176.9 175 180.4 180.1 179.9 179.6 179.3 179.0 178.7 178.5 178.2 177.9 176 181.3 181.1 180.8 180.6 180.3 180.0 179.7 179.5 179.2 178.9 177 1S2.2 182.0 181 7 181.5 181.2 180.9 180.7 180.4 180.2 179.9 178 183.2 182.9 182 7 182.4 182.1 181.8 181.6 181.3 181.1 180.8 179 1S4.1 183.9 183.6 183.4 183.1 1S2.8 182.5 182.3 182.0 181.7 180 185.1 184.9 1S4 6 184.4 184.1 183.8 183.5 183.3 183.0 182.7 131 186.1 185.9 185.6 185.4 185.1 184.8 184.5 184.3 184.0 183.7 182 187.0 1S6.8 186.5 186.3 186.0 1S5.7 185.5 185.2 185.0 184.7 183 188.0 187.7 187.5 187.2 iS7.0 187.8 186.7 186.5 186.2 186.0 185.7 184 188 8 188 5 188 3 188.0 187.6 187.3 187.1 186.8 186.6 185 189.7 189 5 189.2 189.0 188.8 188.6 18S.3 1S8.1 187.8 187.6 186 190.6 190.4 190.1 189.9 189.7 189.5 189.2 189.0 188.7 188.5 187 191.5 191.3 191.0 190.8 190.6 190.4 190.1 1S9.9 189.6 189.4 188 192.5 192 2 192.0 191.7 191.5 191.3 191.1 190.8 190.6 190.4 189 193.4 193 2 192.9 192.7 192.5 192.3 192.0 191.8 191.5 191.3 190 194.3 194.1 193 8 193.6 193.4 193.2 193.0 192.7 192.5 192.3 191 195.2 195 0 194.8 194.6 194.4 194.2 194.0 193.7 193.5 193.3 192 196.1 195 9 195.7 195.5 195.3 195.1 194.9 194.6 194.4 194.2 193 197.1 196.9 196.7 196.5 196.3 196.1 195.9 195.6 195.4 195.2 194 198.0 197 8 197.6 197.4 197.2 197.0 196.8 196.6 196.4 196.2 195 199.0 198.8 198.6 198.4 198.2 198.0 197.8 197.5 197.3 197.1 196 199.9 199.7 199.5 199.3 199 1 198.9 198.7 198.5 198.3 198.1 197 199.9 199 7 199.5 199.3 199.1 TRUE PER CENT. Temp. 41° to 50°. 704 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. TRUE PER CENT. Ind. 1 to 65. ce . O fl TEMPERATURES. a 51° 52° 53° 54° 55° 56° CJl ' o 68° 59° 60° i 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1 1 10 2 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.4 2 3 2.2 2 1 2 0 3 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 3 0 4 4.7 4.7 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.4 43 4.2 4.1 40 5 6.7 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 5 0 6 6.7 6.7 6.6 6.6 6,5 6.4 6.3 6 2 6.1 60 7 7.7 7.7 7.6 7.6 7.5 7.4 7 3 7.2 7 1 7 0 8 8.7 8.7 8.6 8.6 8.5 8.4 83 8.2 8 1 80 9 9.7 9.7 9.6 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.3 9 2 9 1 9.0 10 10.8 10.7 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.4 10.3 10 2 10.1 10.0 11 11.9 11.8 11.7 11.6 11.5 11.4 11.3 11 2 11.1 11.0 12 12.9 12.8 12.8 12.7 12.6 12.5 12.4 12.2 12.1 12 0 13 13.9 13.8 13.8 13.7 13.6 13.5 13.4 13 2 13.1 13.0 14 15.0 14.9 14.8 14.7 14.6 14.5 14 4 14 2 14.1 14.0 15 16.0 15.9 15.8 15.7 15.6 15.5 15.4 15.2 15.1 15 0 16 17.0 16.9 16.9 16.8 16.7 16.6 16.4 16.3 16.1 16.0 17 18.1 18.0 17.9 17.8 17.7 17.6 17.4 17.3 17.1 17.0 18 19.1 19.0 18.9 18.8 18.7 18.6 18.4 18.3 18.1 18.0 19 20.2 20.1 19.9 19.8 19.7 19.6 19 4 19.3 19.1 19.0 20 21.3 21.1 21.0 20.8 20.7 20.6 20.4 20.3 20.1 20.0 21 22.4 22.2 22.1 21.9 21.8 21.6 21 5 21.3 21.2 21.0 22 23.4 23.2 23.1 22.9 22.8 22.6 22.5 22.3 22.2 22.0 23 24.5 21.3 24.2 24.0 23.9 23.7 23 5 23.4 23.2 23.0 24 25.5 25.4 25.2 25.1 24.9 24.7 24.5 24.4 24.2 24 0 25 26.5 26.4 26.2 26.1 25.9 25.7 25.5 25.4 25.2 25.0 26 27.6 27.5 27.3 27.2 27.0 26.8 26.6 26 4 26.2 26.0 27 28.7 28.5 2S.4 28.2 28.0 27.8 27.6 27.4 27.2 27.0 28 29.8 29.6 29.5 29.3 29.1 28.9 28 7 2S.4 28 2 28 0 29 30.9 30.7 30.5 30.3 30.1 29.9 29.7 29.4 29.2 29.0 30 32.0 31.8 31.6 31.4 31.2 31.0 30.7 30 5 30.2 30.0 31 33.1 32.9 32.6 32.4 32.2 32.0 31.7 31 5 31.2 31.0 32 34.2 34.0 33.7 33.5 33.3 33.0 32 8 32.5 32.3 32.0 33 35.3 35.0 34.8 34.5 34.3 34.0 33.8 33.5 33.3 33.0 34 36.4 36.1 35.9 35.6 35.4 35.1 34.8 34.6 34 3 34.0 35 37.4 37.2 36.9 36.7 36.4 36.1 35.8 35.6 35.3 35 0 36 38.6 38.3 38.1 37.8 37.5 37.2 36.9 36 6 36.3 36.0 37 39.7 39.4 39.1 38.8 38.5 38.2 37.9 37.6 37.3 37.0 38 40.8 40.5 40.2 39.9 39.6 39.3 39.0 38.6 38.3 38.0 39 42.0 41.6 41.3 40.9 40.6 40.3 40 0 39.6 39 3 39.0 40 43.1 42.7 42.4 42.0 41.7 41.4 41 0 40.7 40.3 40.0 41 44.1 43.8 43.4 43.1 42.7 42.4 42.0 41 7 41.3 41.0 42 45.2 44.9 44.5 44.2 43.8 43.4 43.1 42 7 42.4 42.0 43 46.3 45.9 45.6 45.2 44.9 44.5 44.1 43 8 43.4 43.0 44 47.3 47.0 46.6 46.3 45.9 45.5 45 1 44 8 44 4 44.0 45 48.4 48.0 47.7 47.3 46.9 46.5 46.1 45.8 45.4 45.0 46 49.5 49.1 48.8 48.4 48.0 47.6 47.2 46.8 46.4 46.0 47 50.6 50.1 49.8 49.4 49.0 48.6 48.2 47.8 47.4 47.0 48 51.6 61.2 50.8 50.4 50.0 49.6 49.2 48.8 48.4 48.0 1 49 52.7 52.3 51.8 51.4 • 51.0 50.6 50.2 49.8 49.4 49.0 50 53.8 53.4 52.9 52.5 52.1 51.7 51 3 50.8 60.4 50.0 51 54.9 54.4 54.0 63.5 53.1 52.7 52.3 51.8 51.4 51.0 62 56.0 55.5 55.1 54.6 54.2. 53.8 53.3 52 9 52.4 52.0 63 57.0 56.5 56.1 55.6 55.2* 54.8 54.3 53.9 53.4 53 0 64 58.0 57.6 57.1 56.7 56.2 55.8 55.3 64.9 54.4 54 0 55 59.0 58.6 58.1 57.7 57.2 56.8 56.3 55.9 55.4 55.0 66 60.0 59.6 59.1 58.7 58.2 57.8 57.3 56.9 56.4 56.0 67 61.1 60.6 60.2 59.7 69.2 58.8 58.3 57.9 67.4 57.0 68 62.1 61.7 61.2 60.8 60.3 59.8 59.4 58.9 58.5 58.0 69 63.1 62.7 62.2 61.8 61.3 60.8 60.4 59.9 59.5 59.0 60 64.1 63.7 63.2 62.S 62.3 61.8 61.4 60.9 60.5 60.0 61 65.1 64.7 64.2 63.8 63.3 62.8 62.4 61 9 61.5 61.0 62 66.1 65.7 65.2 64.8 64.3 63.8 63.4 62 9 62.5 C2 0 63 67.1 66.7 66.2 65.8 65.3 64.8 64.4 63.9 63.5 63.0 64 68.2 67.7 67.3 66.8 66.3 65.8 65.4 64.9 64.5 64.0 65 69.2 6S.7 68.3 67.8 67.3 66.8 66.4 65.9 65.5 65.0 Temp. 51° to 60° REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 705 Ind. 66 to 130. ISill esses issSs SISsI sills 11111 Issss sssss gggssg? g®?™ sssss s$ss§ Indica- tion. 70.2 71.2 72 2 73 2 74.2 75.2 76.2 77.2 78 1 79.1 80.1 81.1 52.1 83.1 81.0 85.0 86.0 87.0 88.0 89 0 90.0 91 0 91.9 92 9 93.9 91.9 95.8 96.8 97 8 98.8 99 8 100 8 101 8 102.7 103.7 104.7 105.6 106.6 107.6 108.6 109.6 110.6 111.6 112.6 113.5 114.5 115.5 116.5 117 5 118.5 119.5 120.4 121.4 122.4 123.4 124.4 125.4 126.4 127.4 128 4 129 4 130.4 131.4 132 3 133.3 CJ1 h—i o i Essie esses sessijis ss5sl Isis! slsgs jssssss sssgs ssssss sssss assss <00000 obooo ooooh h m m h h m w tc w w to to lc to co co bo *- 4* ** 4- 4* 4- 4- 4* 4- b« b« o« b* b b« b b o a> cs bi -*4 --a -- Ifi M* ip- if- *■ if- if- i(i *■ if- if- if- if- if*, if- Mf M- if- ii. if. It- if. if. if. if. if. if. if. if if. M- if »*. if if if if if if- if if- if- Ot bi bi bi bi tn bibitnOOi bibibib. c» g0 IggSS gjsBfss Sills K.SsSB sllli sills IggSS SSSgS g$8S3g ggegg 83333 SrSS.2 38S3§ ooooo o’oooo ooooo ooooo ooooo bbobb oo boo obooo bbbob bo boo ooooo obooo bbbb'o n TRUE PER CENT. Temp. 51° to 60° 706 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Ind. 131 to 200 u TEMPERATURES. 51° 52° 53° 54° 55° 56° 57° 58° 59° 60° 131 134.3 133.9 133.6 133.2 132.8 132.4 132.1 131.7 131.4 131.0 132 135.3 134.9 134.6 134 2 133.8 133.4 133.1 132.7 132.4 132 0 133 136 3 135.9 135.6 135.2 134.8 134.4 134.1 133.7 133.4 133.0 134 137.2 136.9 136.5 136.2 135 8 135.4 135.1 134.7 134.4 134.0 135 138.2 137.9 137.5 137.2 136.8 136.4 136.1 135.7 135.4 135.0 136 139.2 138 9 138.5 13S.2 137.8 137.4 137.1 136.7 136.4 136.0 137 140.2 139.8 139.5 139.1 138.8 138.4 138.1 137.7 137.4 137.0 138 141.2 140.8 140.5 140.1 139.8 139.4 139.1 138.7 138.4 138.0 139 142.2 141.8 141.5 141.1 140.8 140.4 140.1 139.7 139.4 139.0 140 143.2 142.8 142.5 142.1 141.8 141.4 141.1 140.7 140.4 140.0 141 144.2 143.8 143.5 143.1 142.8 142.4 142.1 141.7 141.4 141.0 142 145.2 144 8 144.5 144.1 143.8 143.4 143.1 142.7 142.4 142.0 143 146.2 145.8 145.5 145.1 144.8 144.4 144.1 143.7 143.4 143 0 144 147.2 146.8 146.5 146.1 145.8 145.4 145.1 144.7 144.4 144.0 145 148.1 147.8 147.4 147.1 146.7 146.4 146.0 145.7 145.3 145.0 146 149.1 148.8 ' 148.4 148.1 147.7 147.4 147.0 146.7 146.3 146.0 147 150.1 149.7 149.4 149.0 14S.7 148.4 148.0 147.7 147.3 147.0 148 151.1 150.7 150.4 150.0 149.7 149.4 149.0 148.7 148.3 148.0 149 152.1 151.7 151.4 151.0 ,150.7 150.4 150.0 149.7 149.3 149.0 150 153.1 152.7 152.4 152.0 151.7 151.4 151.0 150.7 150.3 150.0 151 154.1 153 7 153.4 153.0 152.7 152.4 152.0 151.7 151.3 151.0 152 155.1 154.7 154.4 154.0 153.7 153.4 153.0 152.7 152.3 152.0 153 156.1 155.7 155.4 155.0 154.7 154.4 154.0 153.7 153.3 153.0 154 157.0 156.7 156.3 156.0 155.7 155.4 155.0 154.7 154.3 154.0 155 158.0 157.7 157.3 157.0 156.7 156.4 156.0 155.7 155.3 155.0 156 159.0 158.7 158.3 158.0 157.7 157.4 157.0 156.7 156.3 156.0 157 160.0 159 7 159.3 159.0 158.7 158.4 158.0 157.7 157.3 157.0 158 161.0 180.6 160.3 159 9 159.6 159.3 159.0 158.6 158.3 158.0 159 162.0 161.6 161.3 160.9 160.6 160.3 160.0 159.6 159.3 159.0 160 162.9 162.6 162.2 161.9 161.6 161.3 161.0 160.6 160.3 160.0 161 163.9 163.6 163.2 162.9 162.6 162.3 162.0 161.6 161.3 161.0 162 164.9 164.6 164.2 163.9 163.6 163.3 163.0 162.6 162.3 162.0 163 165.9 165.6 165.2 164.9 164.6 164.3 164.0 163.6 163.3 163.0 164 166.9 166.6 166.2 165.9 165.6 165.3 165.0 164.6 164.3 164.0 165 167.9 167.6 167.2 166.9 166.6 166.3 166.0 165.6 165.3 165.0 166 168.9 168.6 168.2 167.9 167.6 167.3 167.0 166.6 166.3 166.0 167 169 8 169 5 169.2 168.9 168.6 168.3 168.0 167.6 167.3 167.0 168 170 8 170.5 170 2 169.9 169.6 169.3 169.0 168.6 168.3 168.0 169 171 8 171.5 171.2 170.9 170.6 170.3 170.0 169.6 169.3 169.0 170 172.8 172 5 172.2 171.9 171.6 171.3 171.0 170.6 170.3 170.0 171 173.8 173.5 173.2 172.9 172.6 172.3 172.0 171.6 171 3 171.0 172 174.7 174.4 174.1 173.8 173.5 173.2 172.9 172.6 172.3 172.0 173 175.6 175.3 175.1 174.8 174.5 174.2 173.9 173.6 173.3 173.0 174 176.6 176 3 176.1 175.8 175.5 175.2 174.9 174.6 174.3 174.0 175 177.6 177.3 177.1 176.8 176.5 176.2 175.9 175.6 175.3 175.0 176 178.6 178.3 178.1 177.8 177.5 177.2 176.9 176.6 176.3 176.0 177 179.6 179.3 179.1 178.8 178.5 178.2 177.9 177.6 177.3 177.0 178 180.5 180.2 180.0 179.7 179.4 179.1 178.8 178.6 178.3 178.0 179 181.4 181.2 180.9 180.7 ISO. 4 180.1 179.8 179.6 179.3 179.0 ISO 1S2.4 182.2 181.9 181.7 181.4 181.1 180.8 180.6 180.3 180.0 181 183.4 183.2 1S2.9 182.7 182.4 182.1 181.8 181.6 181.3 181.0 182 184.4 184.2 183.9 183.7 183.4 183.1 182.8 182.6 182.3 182.0 183 186.4 185.2 184 9 184.7 184.4 184.1 183.8 183.6 183.3 183.0 184 186.3 186.1 185.8 185.6 185.3 185.0 184.8 184.5 184.3 184.0 185 187.3 187.1 186.8 186.6 186.3 186.0 185.8 185.5 185.3 185.0 186 188.3 188.0 187.8 187.5 187.3 187.0 186.8 186.5 186.3 186.0 187 189.2 189 0 188.7 188.5 188.3 188.0 187.8 187.5 187.3 1S7.0 188 190.2 190.0 189 7 189.5 189.3 189.0 188.8 18S.5 1S8.3 18S.0 189 191.1 190.9 190.6 190.4 190.2 190.0 1S9.7 189.5 189.2 1S9.0 190 192.1 191.9 191.6 191.4 191.2 191.0 190.7 190.5 190.2 190.0 191 193.1 192 9 192.6 192.4 192.2 192.0 191.7 191.5 191.2 191.0 192 194.0 193 8 193.6 193.4 193.2 193.0 192.7 192.5 192.2 192.0 193 195 0 194 8 194.6 194.4 194.2 194.0 193.7 193.5 193.2 193.0 194 196.0 195 8 195.6 195.4 195.2 195.0 191.7 194.5 194.2 194.0 195 196 9 196.7 196.5 196.3 196.1 195.9 195.7 195.4 195.2 195.0 196 197 9 197.7 197.5 197.3 197.1 196.9 196.7 196.4 196.2 196.0 197 198.9 198.7 198.5 198.3 198.1 197.9 197.7 197.4 197.2 197.0 198 199:9 199.7 199.5 199.3 199 1 198.9 198.7 198.4 198.2 198.0 199 200.0 199.8 199 6 199.4 199.2 199.0 200 200 0 TRUE PER CENT. Temp. 51° to 603 REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 707 Ind. 1 to 65. Indica- tion. TEMPERATURES. 61° 62° 63° o CO 65° 66° o D- CO 0 00 CO 69° 1 -a o o 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.0 2 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.0 6.9 0.7 3 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.7 4 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.1 3.0 2.8 2.7 5 4.9 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.1 4.0 3.8 3.7 6 5.9 5.8 5.6 6.5 5.4 5.3 5.1 5.0 4.8 4.7 7 6.9 6.8 6 6 6.5 6.4 6.3 6.1 6.0 5.8 5.7 8 7.9 7.8 7.6 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.1 7.0 6.8 6.7 9 S.9 8.8 8.6 8.5 8.4 8.3 8.1 8.0 7.8 7.7 10 9.9 9.7 9.6 9.4 9.3 9.2 9.0 8.9 8.7 8.6 11 10.9 10.7 10.6 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.0 9.9 9.7 9.6 12 11.9 11.7 11.6 11.4 11.3 11.1 11.0 10.8 10.7 10.5 13 12.9 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.3 12.1 12.0 11.8 11.7 11.5 14 13.9 13.7 13.6 13.4 13.3 13.1 12.9 12.8 12.6 12.4 15 14.9 14.7 14 6 14.4 14.3 14.1 13.9 13.8 13.6 13.4 16 15.8 15.7 15.5 15.4 15.2 15.0 14.8 14.7 14.5 14.3 17 16.8 16.7 16.5 16.4 16.2 16.0 15.8 15.7 15 5 15.3 18 17.8 17.7 17.5 17.4 17.2 17.0 16.8 16.7 16 5 16.3 19 18.8 IS.7 185 18.4 18.2 1S.0 17.S 17.6 17.4 17.2 20 19.8 19.6 19.5 19.3 19.1 18.9 18.7 18.6 18.4 18.2 21 20.8 20.6 20.4 20.2 20.0 19.8 19 6 19.5 19.3 19 1 22 21.8 21.6 21.4 21.2 21.0 20. S 20.6 20.4 20.2 20 0 23 22.8 22.6 22.4 22.2 22.0 21.8 21.6 21.3 21.1 20 9 24 23.8 23.6 23.4 23.2 23.0 22.8 22.6 22 3 22.1 21.9 23 24.8 24.6 24.4 24.2 24.0 23.8 23.5 23.3 23.0 22.8 26 25.8 25.6 25 3 25.1 24.9 24.7 24.5 24 2 24.0 23.8 27 26.8 26.6 26.3 26.1 25.9 25.7 25.4 25.2 24.9 24.7 28 27.8 27.6 27.3 27.1 26.9 26.7 26.4 26.2 25.9 25.7 29 28.8 28.5 28.3 28.0 27.8 27.6 27.3 27.1 26.8 26 6 30 29.8 29.5 29.3 29.0 28.8 28.5 28.3 28.0 27.8 27.5 31 30.7 30.5 30.2 30.0 29.7 29.4 29.2 28.9 28.7 28.4 32 31.7 31.5 31.2 31.0 30.7 30.4 30.1 29.9 29.6 29.3 33 32.7 32.5 32.2 32.0 31.7 31.4 31.1 30 8 30.5 30.2 34 33.7 33.4 33.2 32.9 32.6 32.3 32 0 31.8 31.5 31.2 35 34.7 34.4 34.2 33.9 33.6 33.3 33.0 32 7 32.4 32.1 36 35.7 35.4 35.2 34.9 34.6 34.3 34.0 33.6 33.3 33.0 37 36.7 36.4 36.1 35.8 35.5 35.2 34.9 34.6 34.3 34 0 38 37.7 37.4 37.1 36.8 36.5 36.2 35.9 35.5 35 2 34.9 39 38.7 3S.4 38.0 37.7 37.4 37.1 36 8 36.4 36.1 35.8 40 39.7 39.3 39.0 38.6 38.3 38.0 37.7 37.3 37.0 36.7 41 40.7 40.3 40.0 39.6 39.3 39.0 38.6 38.3 37.9 37.6 42 41.6 41.3 40 9 40.6 40.2 39.9 39.5 39.2 38 8 38.5 43 42.6 42.3 41.9 41.6 41.2 40.8 40.5 40.1 39.8 39.4 44 43.6 43.2 42.9 42.5 42.1 41.7 41.4 41.0 40 7 40.3 45 44.6 44.2 43.9 43.5 43.1 42.7 42.3 42.0 41.6 41.2 46 45.6 45.2 44.9 44.5 44.1 43.7 43.3 42.9 42.5 42.1 47 46.6 46.2 45.8 45.4 45.0 44.6 41.2 43.8 43.4 43 0 48 47.6 47.2 46.7 46.3 45.9 45.5 45.1 44.7 44 3 43.9 49 48.6 48.2 47.7 47.3 46.9 46.5 46.1 45.7 45.3 44.9 50 49.6 49.2 48.7 48.3 47.9 47.5 47.1 46.6 46.2 45.8 61 50.6 50.2 49.7 49.3 48.9 48.5 48.1 47.6 47.2 46.8 32 51.6 51.2 50.7 50.3 49.9 49.5 49.1 48.6 48.2 47.8 53 52.6 52.2 51.7 51.3 50.9 50.5 50.1 49.6 49 2 48.8 54 53.6 53.2 52 7 52.3 51.9 51.5 51.1 60.6 50.2 49.8 55 54.6 54.1 53.7 53.2 52.8 52.4 52.0 51.5 51.1 50.7 56 55.6 55.1 54.7 54.2 53.8 53.4 53.0 52.5 52.1 51.7 57 56.6 56.1 55.7 55.2 54.8 54.4 53.9 53.5 63.0 52.6 58 57.6 57.1? 56.7 56.2 55.8 55.4 54.9 54.5 54.0 53.6 59 58.6 58.1 57.7 57.2 56.8 56.3 65.9 55.4 55.0 54.5 60 59.5 59.1 58.6 58.2 67.7 57.3 56.8 56.4 55.9 55.5 61 60.5 60.1 59.6 59.2 58.7 58.3 57.8 57.4 56.9 56.5 62 61.5 61.1 60.6 60.2 59.7 59.3 58.8 58.4 57.9 67.5 63 62.5 62.1 61.6 61.2 60.7 60.3 59.8 59.4 58.9 58.5 64 63.5 63.1 62.6 62.2 61.7 61.3 60.8 60.4 59 9 59.5 65 64.5 64.1 63.6 63.2 62.7 62.3 61.8 61.4 60.9 60.5 TRUE PER CENT. Temp. 61° to 70°. 708 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. lad. 66 to 130. 71° 72° 73° 74° 75° o CO o 77° o 00 79° 00 o o 2 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 3 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.1 6.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 6.1 4 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.0 5 3.5 3.4 3.2 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.4 2 2 2.0 6 4.5 4.4 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 7 5.5 5.3 5.2 5.0 4.8 4.6 4.4 4.3 4 1 3.9 8 6.5 6.3 6.2 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.4 5.2 5.0 4.8 9 7.5 7.3 7.2 7.0 6.8 6.6 6.4 6 2 6.0 5.8 10 8.4 8.2 8.1 7.9 7.7 7.5 7.3 7.1 6.9 6.7 11 9.4 9.2 9.1 « 8.9 8.7 8.5 8.3 8.1 7.9 7.7 12 10.3 10.1 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.2 9.0 8.8 8.6 13 11.3 11.1 10.9 - 10.7 10.5 10.3 10.1 9.8 9.6 9.4 14 12.2 12.0 11.8 11.6 11.4 11.2 11 0 10.7 10.5 10.3 15 13.2 13.0 12.7 12.5 12.3 12.1 11.9 11.6 11.4 11 2 16 14.1 13.9 13.7 13.5 13.3 13.1 12.8 12.6 12.3 12 1 17 15.1 14.9 14.7 14.5 14.3 14.1 13.8 13.6 13.3 13 1 18 16 1 15.9 15.6 15.4 15.2 15.0 14 8 14.5 14 3 14.1 19 17.0 16.8 16.6 16.4 16.2 16.0 15 7 15.5 15.2 15.0 20 18.0 17.8 17.5 17.3 17.1 16.9 16.7 16.4 16.2 16.0 21 18.9 18.7 18.4 18.2 18.0 17.8 17.5 17.3 17.0 16 8 22 19.8 19.6 19.3 19.1 18.9 18.6 18.4 18.1 17.9 17 6 23 20.7 20.4 20.2 19.9 19.7 19.5 19 2 19.0 18.7 IS.5 24 21.6 21.4 21.1 20.9 20.6 20.3 20.1 19.8 19.6 19 3 25 22.5 22.3 22.0 21.8 21.5 21.2 21.0 20.7 20.5 20.2 26 23.5 23.3 23.0 22.8 22.5 22.2 21.9 21.7 21.4 21,1 27 24.4 21.2 23.9 23.7 23.4 23.1 22.8 22 6 22.3 22.0 2S 25.4 25.1 24.9 24.6 24.3 24.0 23.7 23.5 23.2 22 9 29 26.3 26.0 25.8 25.5 25.2 24.9 24.6 24.4 24 1 23.S 30 27.2 26.9 26.7 26.4 26.1 25.8 255 25 3 25.0 24.7 31 28.1 27.8 27.6 27.3 27.0 26.7 26.4 26 1 25.8 25.5 32 29.0 28.7 28.5 28.2 27.9 27.6 27.3 27.0 26.7 26.4 33 29.9 29.6 29.4 29.1 28.8 28.5 28.2 27.8 27.5 27.2 34 30.9 30.6 30.3 30.0 29.7 29.4 29.1 28.7 28.4 2S.1 35 31.8 31.5 31.2 30.9 30.6 30.3 30.0 29.6 29.3 29.0 36 32.7 32.4 32.1 31.8 31.5 31.2 30.8 30.5 30 1 29.8 37 33.7 33.4 33.0 32.7 32.4 32.1 31.7 31.4 31.0 • 30.7 38 34.6 34.3 33.9 33.6 33.3 32.9 32.6 32.2 31 9 31.5 39 35.5 35.2 34.8 34.5 34.2 33.8 33 5 33.1 32.8 32.4 40 36.4 36.1 35.7 • 35.4 35.1 34.7 34.4 34.0 33 7 33.3 41 37.3 37.0 36.6 36.3 36.0 35.6 35.3 34 9 34.6 34.2 42 38.2 37.8 37.5 37.1 36.8 36.5 36.1 35 8 35.4 35.1 43 39.1 38.7 38.4 38.0 37.7 37.3 37.0 36.6 36.3 35 9 44 39.9 39.6 39.2 38.9 38.5 38.1 37 8 37.4 37 1 36.7 45 40.8 40.5 40.1 39.8 39.4 39.0 38.7 38.3 38.0 37.6 46 41.7 41.3 40.9 40.5 40.1 39.8 39.4 39.1 38.7 38 4 47 42.6 42.2 41.9 41.5 41.1 40.7 40.3 40.0 39.6 39 2 48 43.5 43.1 42.S 42.4 42.0 41.6 41.2 40.8 40 4 40.0 49 44.5 44.1 43.6 43.2 42.8 42.4 42.0 41.7 41.3 40.9 50 45.4 45.0 44.5 44.1 43.7 43.3 42 9 42.5 42.1 41.7 51 46.4 45.9 45.5 45.0 44.6 44.2 43.8 43.3 42 9 42.5 52 47.4 46.9 46.5 46.0 45.6 45.2 44.7 44.3 43 8 43.4 53 4S.4 47.9 47.5 47.0 46.6 46.1 45.7 45.2 44.8 44 3 64 49.3 48.9 48.4 48.0 47.5 47.1 46.6 46.2 45.7 45.3 55 50.3 49.8 49.4 48.9 48.5 48.0 47.6 47.1 46 7 46.2 56 51.3 50.8 50.4 49.9 49.5 49.0 48.6 48.1 47.7 47.2 57 52.2 51.8 51.3 50.9 50.5 50.0 49.6 49.1 48.7 48.2 58 53.2 52.7 52.3 51.8 61.4 51.0 50.5 50.1 49.6 49.2 59 54.1 53.7 53.2 52.8 52.4 52.0 51.5 51.1 50.6 50.2 60 55.1 54.6 54.2 53.7 53.3 52.9 52.4 52.0 51.5 51.1 61 56.1 55 6 55.2 54.7 54.3 53.9 53.4 53.0 52.5 52.1 62 57.1 66.6 56.2 55.7 55.3 54.8 54.4 53.9 53 5 53.0 63 58.1 57.6 « 57.2 56.7 56.3 55.S 55.4 54.9 54.5 54.0 64 59.0 58.6 58.1 57.7 67.2 56.8 56.3 55.9 55.4 55.0 65 60.0 59.6 59.1 58.7 58.2 57.8 57.3 56.9 56.4 56.0 Temp. 71° to 80°. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 711 Ind. 66 to 130. TRUE PER CENT, Temp. 71° to 80°. is TEMPERATURES. 3s 71° 72° 73° 74°' 75° 76° 77° 78° 79° 80° 66 61.0 60.6 60.1 59.7 59.2 58.7 58.3 57.8 57.4 56.9 67 62.0 61.6 61.1 60.7 60.2 59.7 59.3 58.8 58.4 57.9 68 63.0 62.6 62.1 61.7 61.2 60.7 60.3 59.8 59 4 58.9 69 64.0 63.6 63.1 62.7 62.2 61.7 61.3 60.8 60.4 59.9 70 65.0 64.6 64.1 63.7 63.2 62.7 62.3 61.8 61.4 60.9 71 66.0 65.6 65.1 64.7 64.2 63.7 63 3 62.8 62.4 61 9 72 67.0 66.6 66 1 65.7 65.2 64.7 64.3 63.8 63.4 62 9 73 68.0 67.6 67.1 66.7 66.2 65.7 65.3 64.8 64.4 63 9 74 69.0 68.6 68.1 67.7 67.2 66.7 66.3 65.8 65.4 64.9 75 70.0 69.6 69.1 68.7 68.2 67.7 67.3 66.8 66.4 65.9 76 71.0 70.6 70.1 69.7 69.2 68.7 68.3 67.8 67.4 66.9 77 72.0 71.6 71.1 70.7 70.2 69.7 69.3 68.8 68.4 67.9 78 73.0 72.6 72.1 71.7 71.2 70.7 70.3 69.8 69.4 6S.9 79 74.0 73.6 73.1 72.7 72.2 71.7 71.3 70.8 70.4 69i9 80 75.0 74.6 74.1 73.7 73.2 72.7 72.3 71.8 71.4 70.9 81 76.0 75.6 75.1 74.7 74.2 73.7 73.3 72.8 72.4 71.9 82 77.0 76.6 76.1 75.7 75.2 74.7 74.3 73.8 73.4 72 9 83 78.1 77.6 77.2 76.7 76.3 75.8 75.3 74.9 74.4 73.9 84 79.1 78.6 78.2 77.7 77.3 76.8 76.4 75.9 75.5 75.0 85 80.1 79.6 79.2 7S.7 78.3 77.8 77.4 76.9 76.5 76.0 86 81.1 80.7 80.2 79.8 79.3 78.8 78.4 77.9 77.5 77.0 87 82.2 81.7 81.3 80.8 80.4 79.9 79.5 79.0 78.6 78.1 88 83.2 82.7 82.3 81.8 81.4 81.0 80.5 80.1 79.6 79.2 89 84.2 83.7 S3.3 82.8 82.4 82.0 81.5 81.1 80.6 80.2 90 85.2 84.8 84.3 83.9 83.4 83.0 82.5 82.1 81.6 81.2 91 86.3 85.8 85.4 84.9 84.5 84.0 83.6 83.1 82.7 82.2 92 87.3 86.8 86.4 85.9 85.5 85.0 84.6 84.1 83.7 83.2 93 88.3 87.8 87.4 86.9 86.5 86.1 85.6 85.2 84.7 84.3 94 89.3 88.8 S8.4 87.9 87.5 87.1 86.6 86.2 85.7 85.3 95 90.3 89.8 89.4 88.9 88.5 88.1 87.6 87.2 86.7 86.3 96 91.3 90.9 90.4 90.0 89.6 89.1 88.7 88.2 87.8 87.3 97 92.3 91.9 91.4 91.0 90.6 90.1 89.7 89.2 88.8 88.3 98 93.4 92.9 92.5 92.0 91.6 91.2 90.7 90.3 89.8 S9.4 99 94.4 93.9 93.5 93.0 92.6 92.2 91.7 91.3 90.8 90.4 100 95.4 95.0 94.5 94.1 93.7 93.3 92.8 92.4 91.9 91.5 101 96.4 96.0 95.5 95.1 94.7 94.3 93.8 93.4 92.9 92.5 102 . 97.4 97.0 96.5 96.1 95.7 95.3 94.8 94.4 93.9 93.5 103 98.4 98.0 97.5 97.1 96.7 96.3 95.9 95.4 95.0 94.6 104 99.5 99.0 98.6 98.1 97.7 97.3 96.9 96.4 96.0 95.6 105 100.5 100.1 99!6 99.2 98.8 98.4 98.0 97.5 97.1 96.7 106 101.5 101.1 100.6 100.2 99.8 99.4 99.0 98.5 98.1 97.7 107 102.5 102.1 101.7 101.3 100.9 100.5 100.0 99.6 99.1 98.7 10S 103.5 103.1 102.7 102.3 101.9 101.5 101.1 100.6 100.2 99.8 109 104.5 104.1 103.7 103.3 102.9 102.5 102.1 101.6 101.2 100.8 110 105.5 105.1 104.7 104.3 103.9 103.5 103.1 102.7 102.3 101.9 111 106.6 106.2 105.7 105.3 104.9 104.5 104.1 103.7 103.3 102.9 112 107.6 107.2 106.7 106.3 105.9 105.5 105.1 104.7 104.3 103.9 113 108.6 108.2 107.8 107.4 107.0 106.6 106.2 105.7 105.3 104.9 114 109.6 109.2 108.8 108.4 108.0 107.6 107.2 106.7 106.3 105.9 115 110.6 110.2 109.8 109.4 109 0 108.6 108.2 107.7 107.3 106.9 116 111.6 111.2 110.8 110.4 110.0 109.6 109.2 108.7 108.3 107.9 117 112.6 112.2 111.8 111.4 111.0 110.6 110.2 109.7 109.3 108.9 118 113.7 113.3 112.8 112.4 112.0 111.6 111.2 110.7 110.3 109.9 119 114.7 114.3 113.9 113.5 113.1 112.7 112.3 111.8 111.4 111.0 120 115.7 115 3 114.9 114.5 114.1 113.7 113.3 112.9 112.5 112.1 121 116.7 116.3 115.9 115.5 115.1 114.7 114.3 113.9 113.5 113.1 122 117.7 117.3 117.0 116.6 116.2 115.8 115.4 114.9 114.5 114.1 123 118.7 118.3 118.0 117.6 117.2 116.8 116.4 116.0 115.6 115.2 124 119.7 119.3 119.0 118.6 118.2 117.8 117.4 117.0 116.6 116.2 125 120.7 120.3 120.0 119.6 119.2 118.8 118.4 118.0 117.6 117.2 126 121.7 121.3 121.0 120.6 120.2 119.8 119.4 119.0 118.6 118.2 127 122.7 122.3 122.0 121.6 121.2 120.8 120.4 120.0 119.6 119.2 128 123.8 123.4 123.0 122.6 122.2 121.8 121.4 121.0 120.6 120.2 129 124.8 124 4 124.0 123.6 123.2 122.8 122.4 122.0 121.6 121.2 130 123.8 125.4 125.0 124.6 124.2 123.8 123.4 123.0 122.6 122.2 712 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Ind. 131 to 200. TRUE PER CENT. Temp. 71° to 80°. 5 d TEMPERATURES. 3s 71° 72° 73° 74° 75° 76° 77° 78° 79° 80° 131 126.8 126.4 126 0 125.6 125.2 124.8 124.4 124-0 123.6 123.2 132 127.8 127.4 127 1 126.7 126.3 125.9 125.5 125.1 124.7 124 3 133 128.9 128.5 128 1 127 7 127.3 126.9 126 5 126.1 125.7 125.3 134 129.9 129 5 129.1 128.7 128.3 127.9 127.5 127.2 126 8 126.4 135 130.9 130.5 130.2 129 8 129 4 129.0 128.6 128.2 127.8 127.4 136 131.9 131.5 131.2 130 8 130.4 130 0 129 6 129.3 128.9 128.5 137 132.9 132.5 132 2 131.8 1.31,4 131.0 130.6 130.3 129.9 129.5 138 133.9 133.5 133 2 1.32.8 132.4 132 0 131.6 131 3 130.9 130.5 139 134.9 134.5 134 2 133 8 133.4 133 0 132 6 132 3 131.9 131.5 140 136.0 135.6 135.3 134.9 134.5 134.1 133.7 133.4 133.0 132 6 141 137.0 136.6 136 3 135 9 135 5 135.1 134 7 134.4 134.0 133.6 142 138 0 137 6 137.3 136 9 136.5 136.1 135.8 135.4 135.1 134 7 143 139.0 138.6 138 3 137.9 137.5 137 1 136.8 136.4 136.1 135.7 144 140.0 139 7 139.3 139 0 138.6 138.2 137.8 137.5 137.1 136.7 145 141.0 140 7 140.3 140.0 139 6 139.2 138 8 138.5 138 1 137.7 148 142 0 141.7 141.3 141.0 140.6 140.2 139.8 1.39.5 139.1 138.7 147 143.0 142.7 142 3 142 0 141 6 141.2 140 8 140.5 140 1 139.7 148 144 0 143.7 143 3 143.0 142 6 142.2 141.9 141.5 141.2 140.8 149 145 1 144 8 144 4 144.1 143 7 143 3 142.9 142.6 142.2 141.8 150 146.1 145.8 145.4 145.1 144.7 144 3 143 9 143.6 143.2 142.8 151 147.1 146.8 146.4 146.1 145.7 145.3 145.0 144.6 144 3 143.9 152 148.1 147.8 147.4 147.1 146.7 146 3 146 0 145.6 145.3 144.9 153 149.2 148 8 148.5 148.1 147.8 147.4 147.0 146.7 146.3 145 9 154 150 2 149 8 149.5 149 1 148.8 148.4 148.0 147 7 147.3 146.9 155 151.2 150.8 150.5 150.1 149 8 149.4 149.1 148.7 148 4 148.0 156 152 2 151.9 151 5 151.2 150.8 150.4 150.1 149.7 149.4 149 0 157 153 3 152.9 152.6 152 2 151 9 151.5 151.1 150 8 150.4 150.0 158 154.3 153.9 153.6 153 2 152.9 152.5 152 2 151.8 151.5 151.1 159 155 3 154.9 154 6 154.2 153.9 153 5 153.2 152.8 152 5 152.1 160 156.3 156 0 155.6 155.3 154 9 154.6 154 2 153.9 153 5 153.2 161 157.4 157 0 156 7 156.3 156.0 155.6 155.3 154.9 154.6 154.2 162 158.4 158 0 157 7 157 3 157.0 156 7 156.3 156 0 155.6 155.3 163 159.4 159 0 158.7 158 3 158.0 157.7 157.3 157.0 156.6 156.3 164 160.4 160.0 159.7 159 3 159 0 158.7 158.3 158.0 157.6 157.3 165 161.4 161.1 160.7 160.4 160.1 159.8 159.4 159.1 158.7 158.4 166 162.4 162.1 161.7 161.4 161.1 160 8 160.4 160.1 159 7 159.4 167 163 5 163.1 162.8 162 4 1621 161.8 161.4 161.1 160.7 160.4 168 164.5 164.1 163.8 163 4 163.1 162.8 162.5 162 1 161.8 161.5 169 165.5 165.2 164.8 164.5 164.2 163 9 163.5 163.2 162 8 162 5 170 166.5 166.2 165.8 165.5 165.2 164.9 164.5 164.2 163.8 163.5 171 167 5 167.2 166.8 166.5 166.2 165.9 165.6 165.2 164.9 164.6 172 168.6 168.2 167.9 167 5 167.2 166 9 166 6 166.2 165.9 165.6 173 169.6 169 3 168.9 168.6 168.3 168 0 167.7 167.3 167.0 166.7 174 170.6 170.3 169.9 169 6 169.3 169 0 168 7 168.3 168.0 167.7 175 171.7 171.4 171.0 170 7 170.4 170.1 169.8 169.4 169.1 168.8 176 172.7 172.4 172 0 171 7 171.4 171 1 170.8 170 4 170.1 169.8 177 173.8 173.5 173.1 172.8 172.5 172.2 171.9 171.5 171 2 170 9 178 174 8 174.5 174.1 173 8 173 5 173.2 172.9 172 6 172.3 172 0 179 175.8 175 5 175.2 174 9 174 6 174.3 174.0 173.6 173.3 173.0 ISO 176.8 176.5 176.2 175.9 175.6 175.3 175.0 174.7 174.4 174.1 181 177 9 177.6 177.3 177.0 176.7 176.4 176.1 175 8 175 5 175.2 182 178.9 178.6 178 3 178.0 177.7 177 4 177 1 176.8 176.5 176.2 183 179.9 179.6 17.9 3 179.1 178.8 178.5 178.2 177 9 177.6 177.3 184 180.9 180 6 180 4 180.1 179 8 179 5 179.2 179.0 178 7 178.4 185 1S2.0 181.7 181.4 181.1 180.8 180.5 180.2 180.0 179.7 179.4 186 183.0 182.7 182.5 182.2 181 9 1S1 6 181.3 181 1 180.S ISO. 5 187 1S4 0 183.8 183.5 183 3 183.0 182.7 182 4 182.1 181.8 181 5 188 185 1 184 9 184.6 184 4 184.1 183 8 183.5 1S3.2 182.9 182.6 189 186.2 186 0 185.7 185.5 185.2 184.9 184.6 184.4 184.1 1S3.S 190 187.3 187.1 186.8 186.6 186.3 186 0 185.8 185.5 185.3' 185.0 191 188.4 188.1 187.9 187.6 187.4 187.1 186 9 186.6 186.4 186.1 192 189.4 189 2 188.9 1S8.7 188.4 188.2 187.9 187.7 187.4 187.2 193 190.5 190.2 190.0 189.7 189.5 189.3 189.0 188.8 188.5 1S8.3 191 191.5 191.3 191.0 190.8 190.6 190.4 190.1 189.9 1S9.6 1S9.4 195 192.6 192.3 192 1 191 8 191 6 191.4 191.2 190.9 190.7 190.5 196 193.6 193.4 193 1 192 9 192 7 192.5 192 2 192 0 191.7 191.5 197 194 6 191.4 194 l 193.9 193.7 193.5 193.3 193 0 192.8 192.6 198 195 7 195.5 195.2 195.0 194.8 194.6 194.4 194.1 193.9 193.7 199 196 7 196.5 196.3 196.1 195.9 195 7 195.4 195.2 194 9 194.7 200 197.7 197 5 .197.3 197.1 196 9 196 7 196.5 196.2 196.0 195.8 REPORT OP the national academy of sciences. 713 TRUE PER CENT. Ind. 4 to 65. § a TEMPERATURES. d •*-» 81° 82° o CO 00 84° 81° 00 CT> o 87° 1 00 1 0° o 00 CO o 90° 4 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.0 5 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.6 6.3 o.i 6 2.7 2.5 2.2 2.9 1.8 1.6 1.3 i.i 0.8 0.6 7 3.7 3.4 3.2 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.5 8 4.6 4.4 4.1 3.9 3.7 3.5 3.2 3.0 2.7 2.5 9 5.6 5.4 5.1 4.9 4.7 4.5 4.2 4.0 3.7 3.5 10 6.5 6.3 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.4 5.1 4.9 4.6 4.4 11 7.5 7.2 7.0 6.7 6.5 6.3 6.0 5.8 5.5 5.3 12 8.4 8.1 7.9 7.6 7.4 7.2 6.9 6.7 6.4 6.2 13 9.2 9.0 8.7 8.5 8.3 8.0 7.8 7.5 7.3 7.0 14 10.1 9.8 9.6 9.3 9.1 8.9 8.6 8.4 8.1 7.9 15 11.0 10.7 10.5 10.2 10.0 9.7 9.5 9.2 9.0 8.7 16 11 9 11.6 11.4 11.1 10.9 10.6 10.4 10.1 9.9 9.6 17 12.8 12.6 12.3 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.3 11.0 10.8 10.5 18 13.8 13.5 13.3 13.0 12.7 12.4 12.1 11.9 11.6 11.3 19 14.7 14.5 14.2 14.0 13.7 13.4 13.1 12.8 12.5 20 15.7 15.4 15.2 14.9 14.6 14.3 . 14.0 13.7 13.4 13.1 21 16.5 16.2 16.0 15.7 15.4 15.1 14.8 14.6 14.3 14.0 22 17.3 17.1 16.8 16.6 16.3 16.0 15.7 15.4 15.1 14.8 23 18 2 17.9 17.7 17.4 17.1 16.8 16.5 16.3 16.0 15.7 24 19 0 18.8 18.5 18.3 18.0 17.7 17.4 17.1 16.8 16.5 25 19.9 19.6 19.4 19.1 18.8 18.5 18.2 17.9 17.6 17.3 26 20.8 20.5 20.3 20.0 19.7 19.4 19.1 18.8 18.5 18.2 27 21.7 21.4 21.1 20.8 20.5 20.2 19.9 19.6 19.3 19.0 28 22.6 22.3 22.0 21.7 21.4 21.1 20.8 20.4 20.1 19.8 29 23.5 23.2 22.9 22.6 22.3 22.0 21.7 21.3 21.0 20.7 30 24.4 24.1 23.7 23.4 23.1 22.8 22.5 22.1 21.8 21.5 31 25.2 24.9 21.6 24.3 24.0 23.7 23.3 23.0 22.6 22.3 32 26.1 25.8 25.4 25.1 24.8 24.5 24.1 23.8 23.4 23.1 33 26.9 26.6 26.2 25.9 25.6 25.3 25.0 24.6 24.3 24.0 34 27.8 27.5 27.1 26.8 26.5 26.2 25.8 25.5 25.1 24.8 35 28.7 28.3 28.0 27.6 27.3 27.0 26.6 26.3 25.9 25.6 36 29.5 29.1 28.8 28.4 28.1 27.8 27.4 27.1 26.7 26.4 37 30.4 30.0 21.7 29.3 29.0 28.6 28.3 27.9 27.6 27.2 38 31.2 30.8 30.5 30.1 29.8 29.5 29.1 28.8 28.4 28.1 39 32.1 31.7 31.4 31.0 30.7 30.3 30.0 29.6 29.3 28.9 40 32.9 32.6 32.2 31.9 31.5 31.1 30.8 30.4 30.1 29.7 41 33.8 33.5 33.1 32.8 32.4 32.0 31.6 31.2 30.8 30.4 42 34.7 31.3 34.0 33.6 33.2 32 8 32.4 32.1 31.7 31.3 43 35.5 35.2 34.8 34.5 34.1 33.7 33.3 32.9 32.5 32.1 44 36.3 36.0 35.6 35.3 34.9 34.5 34.1 33.8 33.4 33.0 45 37.2 36.0 36.5 36.2 35.8 35.4 35.0 34.7 34.3 33.9 46 38.0 37.7 37.3 37.0 36.6 36.2 35.8 35.5 35.1 34.7 47 38.8 38.5 38.1 37.8 37.4 37.0 36.6 36.3 35.9 35.5 48 39.6 39.3 38.9 38.6 38.2 37.8 37.4 37.1 36.7 36.3 49 40.5 40.1 39.8 39.4 39.0 38.6 38.2 37.9 37.5 37.1 50 41.3 40.9 40.6 40.2 39.8 39.4 39.0 38.7 38.3 37.9 fil 42 1 41.7 41.4 41.0 40.6 40.2 39.8 39.4 39.0 38.6 52 43.0 42.6 42.2 41.8 41.4 41.0 40.6 40.2 39.8 39.4 53 43.9 43.5 43.0 42.6 42.2 41.8 41.4 41.0 40.6 40.2 54 44.8 44.4 43.9 43.5 43.0 42.6 42.2 41.8 41.4 41.0 55 45.7 45.2 44.8 44.3 43.8 43.4 43.0 42.6 42.2 41.8 56 46 7 46.2 45.8 45.3 44.8 44.4 43.9 43.5 43.0 42.6 57 47.7 47.2 46.8 46.3 45.8 45.3 44.8 44.4 43.9 43.4 58 48.7 48.2 47.8 47.3 46.8 46.3 45.8 45.3 44.S 44.3 59 49.7 49.2 4S.8 48.3 47.8 47.3 46.8 46.3 45.8 45.3 60 50.6 50.2 49.7 49.3 48.8 48.3 47.8 47.3 46.8 46.3 61 51.6 51.2 50.7 50.3 49.8 49.3 48.8 48.3 47.8 47.3 62 52.6 52.1 51.7 51.2 50.8 50.3 49.8 49.3 48.8 4S.3 63 53 5 53.1 52.6 52.2 51.7 51.2 50.7 50.3 49.8 49.3 64 54.5 54.1 53.6 35.2 52.7 52.2 51.7 51.3 50.8 50.3, 65 55.5 55.1 54.6 54.2 53.7 53.2 52.7 52.3 51.8 51.3 Temp. 81° to 90°. 714 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. TRUE PER CENT. Ind. 66 to 130. els • TEMPERATURES. 5 ”** 81° 82° o CO 00 84° 85° 86° 87° | 88° | 00 CO o 90° 66 56.5 56.0 55 6 55.1 54.7 54.2 53.7 53.3 52 8 52.3 67 57.4 57.0 56.5 56.1 55.6 55.1 54.7 54.2 53.8 53.3 68 58 4 58.0 57.5 57.1 56.6 56.1 55.7 55.2 54.8 54.3 69 59.4 59 0 58.5 58.1 57 6 57.1 56.7 56.2 55.8 55.3 70 60.4 60.0 59.5 59.1 58.6 58.1 57 7 57.2 56.8 56.3 71 61.4 61.0 60.5 60.1 59.6 59.1 58.7 58 2 57.8 57.3 72 62.5 62.0 61.6 61.1 60.7 60.2 59.7 59.3 58.8 58.3 73 63.5 63.0 62.6 62.1 61.7 61.2 60.7 60.3 59.8 59.3 74 64.5 64.0 63.6 63.1 62.7 62.2 61.8 61.3 60.9 60.4 75 65.5 65.0 64.6 64.1 63.7 63.2 62.8 62.3 61.9 61.4 76 66.5 66.0 65.6 65.1 64.7 64.2 63.8 63.3 62.9 62.4 77 67.5 67.0 66 6 66.1 65.7 65.2 64.8 64.3 63.9 63.4 78 68.5 68.0 67.6 67.1 66.7 66.2 65 8 65.3 64.9 64.4 79 69.5 69.0 68.6 68.1 67.7 67.3 66.8 66.4 65.9 65.5 80 70.5 70.0 69.6 69.1 68 7 68.3 67.8 67.4 66.9 66.5 81 71.5 71 0 70.6 70 1 69.7 69 3 6S.8 68.4 67.9 67.5 82 72.5 72.0 71.6 71 1 70.7 70 3 69.8 69.4 68.9 68.5 83 73.5 73.0 72.6 72.1 71.7 71.3 70.8 70.4 69 9 69 5 84 74.5 74.1 73.6 73.2 72.7 72.3 71.8 71.4 70.9 70.5 85 75.5 75.1 74.6 74.2 73 7 73 3 72.8 72.4 71.9 71.5 86 76.5 76.1 75.6 75.2 74.7 74.3 73 8 73.4 72.9 72 5 87 77.6 77.1 76.7 76.2 75.7 75 3 74.8 74.4 73.9 73.5 88 78.7 78.2 77.8 77.3 76.8 76.3 75.9 75.4 75.0 74.5 S9 79.7 79 2 78.8 78.3 77.8 77.3 76.9 76 4 76.0 75 5 90 80.7 80.3 79.8 79.4 78.9 78.4 77.9 77.5 77.0 76.5 91 81.8 81.3 80.9 80.4 80.0 79.5 79.0 78.6 78.1 77 6 92 82.8 82.4 81.9 81.5 81.1 80.6 80.1 79.7 79 2 78 7 93 83.9 83 4 83.0 82.5 82.1 81.6 81.2 80.7 80.3 79 8 94 81 9 81.4 84.0 83.5 83.1 82.7 82.2 SI.8 81.3 80.9 95 85.9 85.4 85.0 84 5 84 1 83.7 83.2 82.8 82.3 81.9 96 86.9 86 4 S6.0 85 5 85.1 84.7 84.3 83.8 83.4 83 0 97 87.9 87.4 87.0 86.5 86.1 85 7 85.3 84.8 S4.4 84 0 98 88.9 88.5 88.0 87.6 87.1 86.7 86.3 85.8 85.4 85.0 99 90 0 89.5 89.1 88.6 88.2 87.8 87.3 86 9 86.4 86.0 100 91 0 90.6 90.1 89.7 89.2 88.8 88.3 87.9 87.4 87.0 101 92 1 91.6 91.2 90.7 90.3 89.8 89.4 88.9 88.5 88.0 102 93.1 92.7 92.2 91.8 91.4 90.9 90.5 90.0 89.6 89.1 103 94.2 93.7 93 3 92 8 92.4 92.0 91.5 91.1 90.6 90 2 104 95.2 94 8 94.3 93.9 93.5 93.1 92.6 92.2 91.7 91.3 105 96.3 95 8 95.4 94 9 94.5 94.1 93.6 93.2 92.7 92.3 106 97.3 96.8 96 4 95.9 95.5 95.1 94.7 94.2 93.8 93.4 107 98.3 97 9 97.4 97.0 96.6 96.2 95.7 95.3 94 8 94.4 108 99.4 98 9 98.5 93.0 97.6 97.2 96.8 96.3 95.9 95.5 199 100.4 100.0 99.5 99.1 98.7 9S.3 97.8 97.4 96.9 96.5 110 101.5 101.0 100.6 100.1 99.7 99.3 98.9 98.4 98.9 97.6 111 102.5 102.1 101.6 101.2 100.8 100.4 99.9 99.5 99.0 98.6 112 103.5 103.1 102.6 102.2 101.8 101.4 101 0 100.5 100.1 99.7 113 104.5 104.1 103.6 103.2 102 8 102.4 102.0 101.5 101.1 100.7 114 105.5 105.1 104.7 104.3 103.9 103.5 103 1 102 6 102.2 101.8 115 106.5 106.1 105.7 105.3 104.9 104.5 104.1 103.6 103.2 102.8 116 107.5 107.1 106.7 106 3 105.9 105.5 105.1 104.6 104.2 103.8 117 10S 5 108.1 107.7 107.3 106 9 106.5 106.1 105.6 105.2 104.8 118 109 5 109.1 108.7 108 3 107.9 107.5 107.1 106.7 106 3 105.9 119 110.6 110.2 109 7 109 3 10S.9 108.5 108.1 107.7 107 3 106 9 120 111.7 111.2 110.8 110.3 109.9 109.5 109.1 108.7 108.3 107.9 121 112.7 112.3 111.8 111.4 111.0 110.6 110.2 109.7 109 3 108.9 122 113.7 113.3 112.9 112.5 112.1 111.7 111 2 110.8 110.3 109.9 123 111.8 114.4 113.9 113.5 113.1 112.7 112.3 111 8 111.4 111.0 124 115.8 115.4 115.0 114.6 114.2 113.8 113 4 112.9 112.5 112.1 125 116.8 116.4 116.0 115.6 115.2 114.8 114.4 113.9 113.5 113.1 126 117.8 117.4 117.0 116.6 116.2 115.8 115.4 115.0 114.6 114.2 127 118.8 118.4 118.1 117.7 117 3 116.9 116 5 116.0 115.6 115.2 128 119.8 119.4 119.1 ll8.7 118 3 117.9 117.5 117.1 116.7 116.3 129 120.8 120.4 120.1 119.7 119.3 118.9 118.5 118.1 117.7 117.3 130 121.8 121.4 121.1 120.7 | 120.3 119.9 119.5 119.1 118.7 118.3 Temp. 81° to 90°. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 715 Ind. 131 to 200. TRUE PER CENT. Temp. 81° to 90°. | a TEMPERATURES. d'-2 81° 82° 83° 84° 85° 86° 87° 88° 89° 90° 131 122 8 122.4 122.1 121.7 121.3 120.9 120.5 120.1 119.7 119.3 132 123 9 123 5 1213.1 122.7 122.3 121.9 121.5 121.1 120.7 120.3 133 124.9 124.5 124.1 123.7 123.3 122.9 122.5 122.2 121.S 121.4 131 126.0 125 6 125.2 124.8 124.4 124.0 123.6 123.2 122.8 122.4 135 127.0 126.6 126.2 125.8 125.4 125.0 124.6 124.2 123.8 123.4 136 128.1 127.7 127.3 126.9 126.5 126.1 125.7 125.2 124.8 124.4 137 129.1 128.7 128.3 127.9 127.5 127.1 126.7 126.3 125.9 125.5 138 130.1 129.7 129.4 129.0 128.6 128.2 127.8 127.4 127.0 126.6 139 131.1 130.7 130.4 130.0 129.6 129.2 128.8 128.5 128.1 127.7 140 132.2 131.8 131.5 131.1 130.7 130.3 129.9 129.6 129.2 128.8 141 133.2 132.8 132.5 132.1 131.7 131.3 130.9 130.6 130.2 129.8 142 134.3 133.9 133.5 133.1 132.7 132.3 132.0 131.6 131.3 130.9 143 135.3 134 9 134.6 134.2 133.8 133.4 133.0 132.7 132.3 131.9 144 136.3 135.9 135.6 135.2 134.8 134.4 134.0 133.7 133.3 132.9 145 137.3 136.9 136.6 136.2 135.8 135.4 135.0 134.7 134.3 133.9 146 138.3 138 0 137.6 137.3 136.9 136.5 136.1 135.7 135.3 134.9 147 139 3 139.0 138.6 138.3 137.9 137.5 137.1 136.7 136.3 135.9 148 140.4 140.0 139.7 139.3 138.9 138.5 138.1 137.8 137.4 137.0 149 141.4 141.1 140.7 140.4 140.0 139.6 139.2 138.8 138.4 138.0 150 142.4 142.1 141.7 141.4 141.0 140.6 140.2 139.9 139.5 139.1 151 143 5 143.1 142.8 142.4 142.0 141.6 141.2 140.9 140.5 140.1 152 144.5 144.2 143 8 143.5 143.1 142.7 142.3 142.0 141.6 141.2 153 145.5 145.2 144.8 144.5 144.1 143.7 143.3k 143.0 142.6 142.2 154 146.5 146.2 145.8 145.5 145.1 144.7 144.4 144.0 143.7 143.3 155 147.6 147.3 146 9 146.6 146.2 145.8 145.4 145.1 144.7 144.3 156 148.6 148.3 147.9 147.6 147.2 146.8 146.5 146.1 145.8 145.4 157 149.7 149.3 149.0 148.6 148.3 147.9 147.5 147.2 146.8 146.4 158 150.7 150.4 150.0 149.7 149.3 148.9 148.6 148.2 147.9 147.5 159 151.8 151.4 151.1 150.7 150.4 150.0 149.6 149.3 148.9 14S.5 160 152. S 152.5 152.1 151.8 151.4 151.0 150.7 150.3 150.0 149.6 161 153.9 153.5 153.2 152.8 152.5 152.1 151.7 151.4 151.0 150.6 162 154.9 154.6 154.2 153.9 153.5 153.1 152.8 152.4 152.1 151.7 163 156.0 155.6 155.3 154.9 154.6 154.2 153.9 153.5 153.2 152.8 164 157.0 156.6 156.3 155.9 155.6 155.2 154.9 154.5 154.2 153.8 165 158.0 157.7 157.3 157.0 156.6 156.3 155.9 155.6 155.2 154.9 166 159.1 158.7 158.4 158.0 157.7 157.3 157.0 156.6 156.3 155.9 167 160.1 159.7 159.4 159.0 158.7 158.4 158.0 157.7 157.3 157.0 168 161.1 160.8 160.4 160.1 159.7 159.4 159.0 158.7 158.3 158.0 169 162 2 161.8 161.5 161.1 160.8 160.5 160.1 159.8 159.4 159.1 170 163 2 162.8 162.5 162.1 161.8 161.5 161.1 160.8 160.4 160.1 171 164 3 163.9 163.6 163.2 162.9 162.6 162.2 161.9 161.5 161.2 172 165.3 165 0 164.6 164.3 164.0 163.7 163.3 163.0 162.6 162.3 173 166.4 166.0 165.7 165.3 165.0 164.7 164.3 164.0 163.6 163.3 174 167.4 167.1 166.7 166.4 166.1 165.8 165.4 165.1 164.7 164.4 175 168.5 168.2 167.8 167.5 167.2 166.9 166.5 166.2 165.8 165.5 176 169.5 169.2 168.9 168.6 168.3 168.0 167.6 167.3 166.9 166.6 177 170.6 170.3 169.9 169.6 169.3 169.0 168.7 168.3 168.0 167.7 178 171.7 171.4 171.0 170.7 170.4 170.1 169.8 169.4 169.1 168.8 179 172 7 172.4 172.1 171.8 171:5 171.2 170.9 170.5 170.2 169.9 180 173.8 173.5 173.2 172.9 172.6 172.3 172.0 171.6 171.3 171.0 181 174.9 174.6 174.3 174.0 173.7 173.4 173.1 172.7 172.4 172.1- 182 175.9 175.6 175.3 175.0 174.7 174.4 174.1 173.8 173.5 173.2 183 177.0 176.7 176.4 176.1 175.S 175.5 175.2 174.9 174.6 174.3 184 178.1 177.8 177.5 177.2 176.9 176.6 176.3 176.0 175.7 175.4 185 ' 179.1 178.8 178.6 178.3 178.0 177.7 177.4 177.0 176.7 176.4 1S6 180.2 179.9 179.6 179.3 179.0 178.7 178.4 178.1 177.8 177.5 187 181.2 180.9 180.7 ISO.4 180.1 179.S 179.5 179.2 178.9 178.6 188 182 3 1S2.0 181.8 181.5 181.2 180.9 180.6 180.4 180.1 179.8 189 183.5 183.2 1S3.0 182.7 182.4 182.1 181.8 181.5 181.2 180.9 190 184.7 184.4 184.1 183.8 183.5 183.2 182.9 182.7 182.4 182.1 191 185.8 1S5.5 185.2 184.9 184.6 184.3 184.0 183.8 183.5 183.2 192 186.9 186.6 186.4 186.1 185.8 185.5 185.2 185.0 1S4.7 184.4 193 1S8.0 187.8 187.5 187.3 187.0 186.7 186.4 1S6.2 185.9 185.6 194 189.1 188.9 18S.6 188.4 188.1 187.8 187.6 187.3 187.1 186.8 195 190 2 190.0 189.7 189.5 189.2 188.9 188.7 188.4 1S8.2 187.9 196 191.3 191.0 190.8 190.5 190.3 190.0 189.8 189.5 189.3 189.0 197 192.4 192.1 191.9 191.6 191.4 191.2 190.9 190.7 190.4 190.2 198 193.5 193.2 193.0 192.7 192.5 192.3 192.0 191.8 191.5 191.3 199 194.5 194.3 194.0 193.8 193.6 193.4 193.1 192.9 192.6 192.4 200 195.6 195.4 195.1 194.9 194.7 194.5 194.2 194.0 193.7 193.5 716 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Ind. 6 to TRUE PER CENT Temp. 91° to 100°, ci • o fl TEMPERATURES. fl ** 91° 92° CO CO o 94° 95° 96° 97° 98° 99° 100° 6 0 3 0.0 7 1.2 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.2 8 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.3 6.0 9 3.2 2.9 2.7 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.7 10 4.1 3 8 3.6 3.3 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.2 1.9 1.6 11 5.0 4 7 45 4.2 3.9 3.6 3.3 3.1 2.8 2.5 12 5 9 5 6 5.4 5.1 4.8 4.5 4.2 3 9 3.6 3.3 13 6.7 6.4 6.2 5.9 5.6 5.3 5.0 4.7 4.4 4.1 14 7.6 7.3 7.1 6.8 6.5 6.2 5.9 5 6 6 3 5 0 15 8.4 8.1 7.9 7.6 7.3 7.0 6.7 6.4 6.1 5.8 16 9.3 9 0 8.7 8.4 8.1 7.8 7.5 7.2 6.9 6.6 17 10.2 9.9 9.6 9.3 9.0 8.7 8.4 8.1 7.8 7.5 18 11.0 10.7 10.5 10.2 9.9 9.6 9.3 8.9 86 8.3 19 11 9 11.6 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.4 10.1 9.7 9.4 9 1 20 12.8 12.5 12.2 11.9 11.6 11.3 11.0 10.6 10.3 10.0 21 13.7 13.4 13.1 12 8 12.5 12.2 11.8 11.5 11.1 10.8 22 14.5 14.2 13.9 13.6 13.3 13.0 12 6 12 3 11.9 11.6 23 15.4 15 1 11.7 14.4 14.1 13.8 13.4 13.1 12 7 12.4 24 16.2 15.9 15.5 15.2 14.9 14.6 14.2 13.9 13 5 13.2 25 17.0 16.7 16.3 16.0 15.7 15.4 15.0 14.7 14.3 14.0 26 17.9 17.5 17.2 16.8 16.5 16.2 15.8 15.5 15.1 14.8 27 18.7 18.4 18.0 17.7 17.4 17 0 16 7 16.3 16.0 15.6 28 19.5 19.2 18.8 18.5 18.2 17.8 17.5 17.1 16.8 16.4 29 20.4 20.0 19.7 19.3 19.0 18.6 18.3 17.9 17.6 17 2 30 21.2 20.8 20.5 20.1 19.8 19.4 19.1 18.7 18.4 1S.0 31 22.0 21.6 21.3 20.9 20.6 20.2 19.9 19.5 19.2 IS 8 32 22.8 22 4 22.1 21 7 21.4 21.0 20.6 20 3 19 9 19.5 33 23.6 23 3 22.9 22.6 22.2 21.8 21.4 21 1 20.7 20 3 34 24.4 24.1 23.7 23.4 23.0 22.6 22.2 21.9 21 5 21.1 35 25.2 24.9 24.5 24.2 23.8 23.4 23.0 22.7 22.3 21.9 36 26 0 25.7 25.3 25.0 24.6 24.2 23.8 23.5 23 1 22.7 37 26.8 26 5 26.1 25.8 25.4 25.0 24.6 24.3 23 9 23.5 3S 27.7 27.3 27.0 26.6 26.2 25.8 25.4 25.1 24.7 24.3 39 28 5 28.1 27.8 27.4 27.0 26.6 26.2 25.8 25.4 25 0 40 29.3 28.9 28.6 28.2 27.8 27.4 27.0 26.6 26.2 25.8 41 30.0 29.7 29.3 29.0 28.6 28.2 27.8 27.4 27.0 26 6 42 30.9 30.5 30.2 29.8 29.4 29.0 28.6 28.2 27.8 27.4 43 31.7 31 3 31.0 30.6 30.2 29.8 29.4 29 0 28.6 28.2 44 32.6 32.2 31.8 31.4 31.0 30.6 30.2 29.7 29.3 28.9 45 33.5 33.1 32.6 32.2 31.8 31.4 31.0 30.5 30 1 29.7 46 34 3 33.9 33.5 33.1 32.7 32.3 31.9 31.4 31.0 30.6 47 35.1 34.7 34.3 33.9 33.5 33 1 32.7 32.2 31.8 31.4 4S 35.9 35 5 35.1 34.7 34.3 33 9 33.5 33.0 32.6 32.2 49 36 7 36.3 35.9 35.5 35.1 34.7 34.3 33.8 33.4 33.0 50 37.5 37.1 36.7 36.3 35.9 35.5 35.1 34.6 34.2 33.8 51 38.2 37.8 37.5 37.1 36.7 36 3 35.9 35 4 35.0 34.6 52 39 0 3S.6 38.3 37.9 37.5 37.1 36.7 36.3 35.9 35.5 53 39.8 39.4 39.0 38.6 3S.2 37.8 37.4 37.1 36.7 36 3 54 40.6 40.2 39.8 39.4 39.0 38.6 3S.2 37.8 37.4 37 0 55 41.4 41.0 40.6 40.2 39.8 39 4 39.0 38.6 38.2 37.8 56 42 2 41.8 41.3 40.9 40.5 40.1 39.7 39 3 38.9 38.5 57 43.0 42.6 42.1 41.7 41 3 40 9 40 5 40.1 39.7 39.3 68 43.9 43.4 43.0 42 5 42.1 41.7 41.3 40.9 40.5 40 1 59 44 8 44.3 43.9 43.4 42.9 42.5 42.1 41.6 41.2 40.8 60 45 8 45.3 44.7 44.2 43.7 43.3 42.9 42.4 42 0 41.6 61 46.8 46.3 45 7 45.2 44.7 44 2 43.7 43 3 42.8 42.3 62 47.8 47.3 46.7 46.2 45.7 45.2 44.7 44 1 43.6 43.1 63 48.8 48.3 47 7 47.2 46.7 46.2 45 7 45.1 44 6 44 1 64 49 8 49.3 48.8 48.3 47.8 47 3 46.7 46.2 45.6 45 1 65 50.8 50 3 49.9 49.4 48.9 48.4 47.8 47.3 46.7 46.2 66 51.8 61.4 50.9 50.5 50.0 49 5 48.9 48 4 47.8 47.3 67 52.8 52.4 51.9 51.5 51.0 50.5 50.0 49.4 48.9 4S.4 68 53 S 53.4 52.9 52.5 52.0 51.5 51 0 50 6 50.1 49.6 69 54.8 54 4 53.9 53.5 53.0 52.5 62.0 51.6 51.1 50.6 70 55.8 55.4 54.9 54 5 54.0 53.5 53.0 52.6 62.1 61.6 REPORT OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 717 Ind. 71 to 135. i i TEMPERATURES. .2 a — 91° 92° 93° 94° 95° 96° 97° 98° 99° 100° 71 56.8 56.4 55.9 55.5 55.0 54.5 54.1 53.6 53.2 52.7 72 57.8 57.4 56.9 56.5 56.0 55.5 55.1 54.6 54.2 53.7 73 58.8 58.4 57.9 57.5 57.0 56.5 56.1 65.6 55.2 54.7 74 59.9 59.5 59.0 58.6 58.1 57.6 57.1 56.7 56.2 55.7 75 60.9 60.5 60.0 59.6 59.1 58.6 58.1 57.7 57.2 56.7 76 61.9 61.5 61.0 60.6 60.1 59.6 59.1 58.7 58.2 57.7 77 63.0 62.5 62.1 61.6 61.2 60.7 60.2 59.8 59.3 58.8 78 64.0 63.5 63.1 62.6 62.2 61.7 61.2 60.8 60.3 59.8 79 65.0 64.6 64.1 63.7 63.2 62.7 62.3 61.8 61.4 60.9 80 66.0 65.6 65.1 64.7 64.2 63.7 63.3 62.8 62.4 61.9 81 67.0 66.6 66.1 65.7 65.2 64.7 64.3 63.8 63.4 62.9 82 6S.0 67.6 67.1 66.7 66.2 65.8 65.3 64.9 64.4 64.0 S3 69.0 6S.6 68.1 67.7 67.2 66.8 66.3 65.9 65.4 65.0 84 70.1 69.6 69.2 68.7 68.3 67.8 67.4 66.9 66.5 66.0 85 71.1 70.6 70.2 69.7 69.3 68.9 68.4 68.0 67.5 67.1 S6 72.1 71.6 71.2 70.7 70.3 69.9 69.4 69.0 68.5 68.1 87 73.1 72.6 72.2 71.7 71.3 70.9 70.4 70.0 69.5 69.1 88 74.1 73.6 73.2 72.7 72.3 71.9 71.4 71.0 70.5 70.1 89 75.1 74.6 74.2 73.7 73.3 72.9 72.4 72.0 71.5 71.1 90 76.1 75.6 75.2 74.7 74.3 73.9 73.4 73.0 72.5 72.1 91 77.1 76.7 76.2 75.8 75.3 74.9 74.4 74.0 73.5 73.1 92 78.2 77.7 77.3 76.8 76.3 75.9 75.4 75.0 74.5 74.1 93 79.3 78.8 78.4 77.9 77.4 76.9 76.5 76.0 75.6 75.1 94 80.4 79.9 79.5 79.0 78.5 78.0 77.5 77.1 76.6 76.1 95 81.5 81.0 80.6 80.1 79.7 79.2 78.7 78.2 77.7 77.2 96 82.6 82.1 81.7 81.2 80.8 80.3 79.8 79.3 78.S 78.3 97 83.6 83.1 82.7 82.2 SI.8 81.3 80.9 80.4 80.8 79.5 9S 84.6 84.1 83.7 83.2 82. S 82.4 81.9 81.5 81.0 80.6 99 85.6 85.1 84.7 84.2 83.8 83.4 83.0 82.5 82.1 81.7 100 86.6 86.1 85.7 85.2 84.8 84.4 84.0 83.5 83.1 82.7 101 87.6 87.1 86.7 86.2 85.8 85.4 85.0 84.5 84.1 83.7 102 88.7 88.2 87.8 87.3 86.9 86.5 86.0 85.6 85.1 84.7 103 89.7 89.3 88.8 88.4 87.9 87.5 87.0 86.6 86.1 85.7 104 90.8 90.4 89.9 89.5 89.0 88.5 88.1 87.6 87.2 86.7 105 91.9 91.4 91.0 90.5 90.1 89.6 89.2 88.7 88.3 87.8 106 93.0 92.5 92.1 91.6 91.2 90.7 90.3 89.8 89.4 88.9 107 94.0 93.6 93.1 92.7 92.3 91.8 91.4 90.9 90.5 90.0 108 95.1 94.6 94.2 93.7 93.3 92.9 92.4 92.0 91.5 91.1 109 96.1 95.6 95.2 94.7 94.3 93.9 93.5 93 0 92.6 92.2 110 97.2 96.7 96.3 95.8 95.4 95.0 94.5 94.1 93.6 93.2 111 98.2 97.7 97.3 96.8 96.4 96.0 95.6 95.1 94.7 94.3 112 99.3 98.8 98.4 97.9 97.5 97.1 96.6 96.2 95.7 95.3 113 100.3 99.8 99.4 98.9 98.5 98.1 97.7 97.2 96.8 96 4 114 101.4 100.9 100.5 100.0 99.6 99.2 98.8 98.3 97.9 97.5 115 102.4 102.0 101.5 101.1 100.7 100.3 99.8 99.4 98.9 98.5 116 103.4 103.0 102.5 102.1 101.7 101.3 100.9 100.4 100.0 99.6 117 104.4 104.0 103.6 103.2 102.8 102.4 102.0 101.5 101.1 100.7 118 105.5 105.1 104.6 104.2 103.8 103.4 103.0 102.5 102.1 101.7 119 106.5 106.1 105.6 105.2 104.8 104.4 104.0 103.6 103.2 102.8 120 107.5 107.1 106.7 106.3 105.9 105.5 105.1 104.6 101.2 103.8 121 108.5 108.1 107.7 107.3 106.9 106.5 106.1 105.6 105.2 104.8 122 109.5 109.1 108.7 108.3 107.9 107.5 107.1 106.7 106.3 105.9 123 110.6 110.2 109.7 109.3 108.9 108.5 108.1 107.7 107.3 106.9 124 111.7 111.2 110.8 110.3 109.9 109.5 109.1 108.7 108.3 107.9 125 112.7 112.3 111.8 111.4 111.0 110.6 110.2 109.7 109.3 108.9 126 113.8 113.4 112.9 112.5 112.1 111.7 111.2 110.S 110.3 109.9 127 114.8 114.4 114.0 113.6 113.2 112.8 112.3 111.9 111.4 ll 1.0 128 115.9 115.5 115.0 114.6 114.2 113.8 113.3 112.9 112.4 112.0 129 116.9 116.5 116.0 115.6 115.2 114.8 114.4 113.9 113.5 1 3.1 130 117.9 117.5 117.1 116.7 116.3 115.9 115.5 115.0 114.6 114.2 131 118.9 118.5 118.1 117.7 117.3 116.9 116.5 116.1 115.7 115.3 132 119.9 119.5 119.2 118.8 118.4 118.0 117.6 117.2 1:6.8 116.4 133 121.0 120.6 120.2 119.8 119.4 119.0 11S.6 118.2 117.8 117.4 134 122.0 121.6 121.2 120.8 120.4 120.0 119.6 119.2 118.8 118.4 135 123.0 122.6 122.2 121.8 121.4 121.0 120.6 120.2 119.8 119.4 TRUE PER CENT. Temp. 91° to 100°. 718 UNITED STATES INTERNAL REVENUE. Ind. 136 to 200. TEMPERATURES. 100° 120.4 121.5 122.5 123.5 124.6 125.7 126.8 127.9 129.0 130.1 131.1 132.1 133.2 134.2 135.2 136.3 137.3 138.3 139.4 140.5 141.6 142.7 143.7 144.8 145.9 147.0 148.1 149.1 150.2 151.3 152.3 153.4 154.5 155.6 156.6 157.7 158.8 159.9 161.0 162.1 163.2 164.4 165.5 166.6 167.7 168.9 170.0 171.1 172.2 173.3 174.4 175.6 176.8 178.0 179.2 180.4 181.6 182.8 184.0 185.2 186.4 187.6 188.8 189.9 191.1 o 03 CT> 120.8 121.9 122.9 123.9 125.0 126.1 127.2 128.3 129.4 130.5 131.5 132.5 133.6 134.6 135.6 136.7 137.7 138.7 139.8 140.9 142.0 143.1 144.1 145.2 146.3 147.4 148.5 149.5 150.6 151.7 152.7 153.8 154.9 155.9 157.0 158.0 159.1 160.2 161.3 162.4 163.5 164.7 165.8 166.9 168.0 169.2 170.3 171.4 172.5 173.6 174.7 175.9 177.1 178.3 179.5 180.7 181.9 183.1 184.3 185.5 156.7 187.9 189.1 190.2 191.3 O 00 03 121.2 122 3 123.3 124.3 125.4 126.5 127.6 128.7 129.8 130.9 131.9 132.9 134.0 135.0 136.0 137.1 138.1 139.1 140.2 141.3 142.4 143.5 144.5 145.6 146.7 147.7 148.8 149.9 150.9 152.0 153.0 154.1 155.2 156.3 157.3 158.4 159.5 160.6 161.7 162.S 163.9 165.0 166.1 167.3 168.4 169.5 170.6 171.7 172.8 173.9 175.0 176.2 177.4 178.6 179.8 181.0 182.2 183.4 184.6 185.8 187.0 188.1 189.3 190.4 191.6 k CONNODO © ,-( r-1 frl - CO © © OHHHH H N IM CM CO CO O O ©©HHIM (M CO CO »0 © © l> CO © © r-l CO *C © CO CO © © -M CO O © CO © .t Fig 14. Fx^.l Fig 10 Kfli Pig. 13. top.. Fig.15. Fi<$12. Fig.l n^.2 Fie.3 PI,‘3. Fi d 3 Fid. 2 Fig.l. Fig i Fio. 5. ir.J3ow.17 Fio .16. Fig. 10 FigU. Ftg.t Fi^.6 Fig!) mt |ft$i Fipf Fi<>.5.] Nff W$'-> Figl3 Fi$l Laboratory of a Liquorist. F110 Fio 2 o F^.l Fig .3 Fid.4. Hydrometers iiidicatiiiQ percents try volume of Pi-oof Spirits at (SO Fahr. FI 11 100 120 140 170 200 90 80 no 130 160 190 70 60 100 120 150 50 ISO 40 30 90 -illO 140 20 170 10 o 80 100 1:50 160 Scheme of Sheets for Conversion of True into Apparent Per Cent - Alcohol. P1.12 Specimen Sheet for Conversion of True in to Apparent Per Cent . P113. //eo/zot Crr Cent. • fppn/rn t yUeo/rot Z3rr Cent. Temperature corrections f or a Irvdrometei\ Shovingper- cent of J/ivofspirit at 60 'Jfahr. CORKECTIOXS FOB. TEMPERATlTHE COJIKKCTIOXS Foil TEMPERAT111E FI 14 SUBTRACT SUBTRACT SUBTRACT SUB TRAC T AIUI AU1) ADD Ann firporf ofUcvtt/m/xl Academy o f Sciences1366’. INDEX. Absinthe, advice on distillation of, 245 apparatus, 242 bad in Paris, 246 causes of pernicious effects of, 244 coloring, 237, 238, 239, 240 deleterious effects of, 241 distillation of, 239 empyreumatic taste, 240 essence of, 419 inferior, 241 materials for, 239 of Besancon, 238 of Fougerolles, 238 of Lyons, 238 of Montpellier, 237 of Nimes, 239 of Portarlier, 236 remarks on, 239 series, 236 test of quality, 241 tincture of smaller, 431 undistilled, 246 water of, 344 white, 241 without distillation, 241 Absolute alcohol and water in spirits,723 Acetate of potash, 20 Acetic acid, 100 acid in sorghum-juice, 177 fermentation, 21 Accidents from carbonic acid gas, 43 of distillation, 87 of fermentation, 38 Achard, Madame, liqueurs, 490 Acid, apples, 222 fermentation, 21, 38 hydrochloric, 114 free, 22 regulating the dose of, 114 Acidimeter, 251 Acidification of vats, 39 Acids, action on essential oils, 198 in fermentation of the beet, office of, 113, 114 in liquors, 199 saturation of, 200 Acidule, or aciduline, 483 Action of heat in liquors, 200 Actual strength of liquors, table indi- cating, 254, 256 Adulteration of volatile oil or essence of rose, 362 Advantages of Egrot’s apparatus, 66, 68 Age, effect of, on brandies, 208 effect of, on perfumed spirits, 417 Aging brandies and spirits, 286 Air, action of, in fermentation, 27 in vats, 39 the, in fermentation, 28 Albumen, 33, 133 precipitation of, 19 Albumenized water, 380 Albumen size, 446 Alcohol 17 absolute, and water in spirits, 723 absolute, table of, 266 and sugar, difference of, 237 and water, 18 and water, weight and volume, 655 and water, weights of, 655 amylic, 98 as a solvent, 18 a stimulant, 20 boils, 18 boiling points of, 82 concentration of, 20 decomposition of, 18 distillation applied to, 86 distillation of, 89 first method for obtaining from sorghum, 174 for liqueurs, 102 from beets, 108 from figs, 184 from fruits, 185 from molasses, 103 from potatoes, 160 from various substances, 184 from rice, 159 from sorghum, 171 from sorghum in Algeria, 175 from the asphodel, 180 from wine, 90 from wood, 187 726 INDEX. Alcohol— great importance of, 19 in analysis, 19 in medicine, 19 in the arts, 19 in volatile oils, 360 large proportion in rice, 132 never frozen, 18 observations on different kinds, 193 of wine, 101, 102 pure, 17, 20 quantity of, from cider, 224 sensibility of, 17 specific gravity of, 18 tables of densities of, 657, 659, 663, 672 tables of per cent., 684, 685 transformation of sugar into, 24 water in, 20 what product of, 19 where found, 19 Alcoholic fermentation, 19, 21, 23 fermentation of grain, 144 product of grain, 135 richness of wines, 101 spirits, specific gravity of, 651 vapors, 86 vapors, imperfect condensation of, 88 Alcoholizable substances, 185 Alcoholometer, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255 centesimal, 253 degrees, table of, 264 Alcoholometric scale of M. Strope, 266 Alcoholometry, 246 Alcoolats, 415 Aldehyde, 195 Alicante, 535 Alkalies, action on essential oils, 198 vegetable, 19 Alkermes de Florence, 501, 530 Aloes, essence of, 423 Allowances, tax on, 572 Ambergris, tincture of, 429 Amer de Hollande, 498 Ammonia as a disinfectant, 43 Amour, parfait, 454, 458, 461 Amylic alcohol, 98, 195 Amygdaline, 365 Analysis, alcohol in, 19 of the beet, 108 of the potato, 160 of root of asphodel, 181 Anhydrous alcohol, 17 Angelica root, 245 root, essence of, 422 seed, essence of, 420 seeds, water of, 346 water, 847 Angelique, Eau d’, 453 Animal black, purifying, 382 economy, effect of potato spirit on, 171 Aniseed, essence of, 421 Anisette, 298, 453, 456, 459, 463, 522, 523, 525, 527 de Bordeaux, 469 de Holland, 497, 530 de Lyon, 470 de Paris, 470 esprit de Bordeaux, 427 esprit ordinaire, 427 of Marie Brizard, 469 of Winand Fockink, 497 Anise water, 345 Apparatus, continued, 52 Derosnd’s, 52 distilling, 46 for absinthe and perfumed spirits, 242 for distilling in a vacuum, 542 for distilling pastry, or semi-fluid materials, 73 for distilling rum, 76 for mellowing liqueurs, 443 of Viale, for sorghum and beet juice, 177 profitable, 86 . rectifying, 75 simple, 46 use of, 80 Apple brandy, 222 Apples, crushing, 223 juice of, 223 sugar in, 23 varieties of, 222 Application of heat, 312 of heat to distillation, 82 Apricot seeds, essence of, 426 water of, 847 Apricot water, 348 Apricots, 185 sugar in, 23 Areometer, 251, 252 Arnault de Villeneuve, 296 Arnould, M., 187 Armagnac brandy, imitating, 287 Aroma, 332 imitating, 286 in brandies, 207 M. Roubiquet on, 352 Aromatic distilled waters, 332 preservation of, 337 receipt for, 339 Aromatics, selection and preservation of, 325 Aromatic spirits, 204 tinctures, 429 waters without distillation, 348 INDEX. 727 Arrangement of a liquorist’s laboratory, 313 Arresting germination, 139 Artichokes, 19, 185 distilling, 73 Arts, alcohol in the, 19 Ashpit, 309 Assay still of Gay-Lussac, 267 of M. J. Salleron, 268 Assessment on forms, 584 Assistance to be furnished, 589 Asphodel, alcohol from, 180 analysis of, 181 processes of distilling, 182 Aspliodelus ramosus, 181 Attar of rose, 363, 364 Aubergier, M., experiments in rectify- ing marc brandy, 212 Aubergier’s experiments on the vinifi- cation and purification of brandies, 215 Aqua bianca de Turin, 502 d’Oro de Turin, 502 Azotized substances in grain, 133 Backings of perfumed spirits, 418 Backings, purification of, 205 Bad-flavored spirits, 204 Balm, 245 essence of, 420 tincture of, 431 Avater, 345 Barley, 131, 132, 133 cold, 155 crude, 155 Baryta, 20 Basis of taxation, 557 Baume divin, 491 humain, 491 Baum6’s alcoholometer, 252 hydrometer, table of degrees of, 265 Bay, tincture of, 431 Beak, 48 Beauregard, Count de, 174 Beer, 31 brandy from, 229 Beer yeast, 33, 165 Best brandies, 208 Beet, chemical analysis of, 108 Beet chips, maceration of, 126 distillation of, by maceration, 116 in France, 108 juice, distilling, 34 fermentation of, 126 juice of, 33 pulp for cattle, 125 spirit, distilling by rasping and pressure, 111 rectified, 128 alcohol from, 108 Beets, density of juice of, 110 different processes for distilling, 111 direct distillation of, 128 spirits of, 17 syrup of, extraction of, 179 testing, 109 Belgian apparatus, 71 Belgian process, 152 Belgium, mode of conducting distillation in, 157 new process used in, 154 Benzoin, essence of, 423 tincture-of, 429 Bergamot, water of, 347 Besancon, absinthe of, 238 Bitter almond hulls, infusion of toasted, 534 Bitter almonds, water of, 347 essence of, 425 volatile oil or essence of, 365 de Holland, 498 Bitters, 498, 501 Black cherries, syrup of, 401 currant leaves, tincture of, 432 currants, tincture of, 432 Blue coloring, 411, 412 Boerhaave, 17 Boiler, 47 Boiling, 84 point of liquids, 82, 313 Bonded account, 581 Bonds, 560 Bonds and withdrawal entries, 581 Books, distilling, 584 Bordeaux, wines of, 100 Bottling of West India liqueurs, 496 Bouquet in wines, 99, 100 Braconnet, M., 186 Brandy, 17, 18 cherry, 231 cider or apple, 222 odor of, 224 cognac, 292 imitating, 288, 289, 290 color of, 208 distilling, 103 from beer, 229 fruit, distillers of, 593 fruits, grapes or peaches, dis- tillation of, 601, 602, 611, 617 from grape pomace, 211 in 13tli century, 297 marc, 211 of Armagnac, imitating, 287 of Saintonge, imitating, 288 pear, 228 punch, syrup of, 404 trade, 210 728 INDEX. Brandies, 101 aging, 286 aroma in, 207 common, 210 improving, 107 different, 208, 209 distillation of, 206 from ,wine, 207 imitating different growths, 286, 287, 288 improved by age, 208 M. Aubergier’s experiments on, 215 M. Payen on, 293 of Charente, 208 of Saint-Jean d’Angely, 209 pear, 224 quality of, 207 Brillat-Savarin, 21 Brizard Marie, analysis of anisette of, 469 Brizard Marie, house of, 469 Brou de noix, 508, 510, 512, 514 Brouat, 296 Buckwheat, 132 Burgundy wines, 98 Cagliostro’s receipt for elixir cagliostro, 472 Calamus aromaticus, 245 essence of, 422 water, 347 Calcium, chloride of, 20 Caloric, 312 Camus, M. Le, on flavors, 440 Candy carrot, essence of, 422 Candy carrot water, 346 Cans, 303 Cap, 48, 94 Cap on beet-juice, 115 Capacity, reduction of, 568 Capacity tax, 567 Capillaire, syrup of, 394 Caramel, 410 Caramelization, 410 Caraway, essence of, 421 seeds, water of, 346 Carbonate of lime, 158, 167 of potash, 20 Carbonic acid, 30 gas, 541 in fermentation, 42 in fermentation, 46 Carbon of sugar, 30 Cardamom, essence of, 424 water, 347 Carrots, 19, 185 Cartier’s alcoholometer, 252, 255 Cartier and centesimal alcoholometers, 264 Cascarilla, essence of, 423 Caseine, 33 Cassia, essence of, 425 Cassis, 434 demifin, 512 ordinaire, 509 ratafia de, 509, 511, 512, 514 Catechu, essence of, 423 tincture of, 429 Cattle, pulp for, from beets, 125 Cedrat, 298 essence of, 426 water of, 347 Cedrato di Palermo, 502 Cellar, 42 of liquorist, 300 Celery, essence of, 426 Cellier-Blumenthal’s apparatus, 52, 71, 73 Cellulose, 22, 185 with grape sugar, 186 Cent-sept-ans, 453, 456, 459, 463, 522, 523, 525 Cenodella’s process with rose water, 343 Centesimal alcoholometer, 253 Centigrade and Fahrenheit thermome- ters, tables of, 250, 251 Centigrade and Reaumur thermometers, table for converting degrees, 249 Centigrade thermometer, 247 Cereals, the, 19, 130 Cette, wines made at, 533 Ceylon cinnamon, essence of, 424 Chalk, 158, 167 Champagne, 540 brands of, 209 wines, 98 Chaptal, M., quoted, 96 Charcoal, 311 Charente, brandies of, 208 distilling wines in, 292 Charm of liqueurs, 440 Chartreuse liqueur, 474 liqueur de, 528 Chemical analysis of the beet, 108 of must, 144 composition of grain, 132 of must, 94 of wine, 99 process of saccharification of grains, 158 Cherries, 185 alcoholic product, 234 black, tincture of, 435 distillation of, 233 fermentation of, 232 sugar in, 23 syrup of, 403 Cherry brandy, 231 punch, syrup of, 405 seeds, water of, 347 Chimney, 309 INDEX. 729 China-china, 475 Chinese sugar-cane, alcohol from, 171 Chiraz, 507 Chloride of calcium, 20 Chlorine gas as a disinfectant, 43 Choice of grain, 131 Choice of wines for distillation, 101 Cider, 223 Cider brandy, 222 odor of, 224 Cinnamomum, 476 Cinnamon, essence of, 424 volatile oil or essence of, 364 water, 346 Cisterns, receiving, 566 Clarification of sugar, 379 Clarifying liqueurs, 445 with milk, 447 Classification of liqueurs, 451 Clay, 20 Cleanliness in sweat-house, 43 Cleansing the apparatus, 58 Closed vats, 95 Closing remarks on Derosne’s appa- ratus, 63 Cloves, essence of, 425 water of, 346 Coal, 311 Coffee, essence of, 428 Cognac brandy, 292 imitating, 288, 289, 290 essence of, 291 Cognacs, 209 Cohobation, 322 Coke, 311 Cold barley, 155 Cold process of maceration, 125 Colored syrups, 376 Coloring absinthe, 237, 238, 239, 240 for curacjoa, 412, 413 of liqueurs, 408, 444 of brandy, 208 Column, 46, 49, 52 of plates for liqueurs, 322 Combier, M., liqueur of, 516 Commencement of work, 567 Common liqueurs, 452, 521 volatile oils, 361 Composition of wine, 99 Compounding liqueurs, 438 Computation of quantity of proof spirit, 628 Concentrated essence of oranges, 427 Concentration of must, 97 Condensation of alcoholic vapors, 88 Conductors, good and bad, 312 Concentrated essence of lemon, 427 Concentration of alcohol, 20 Considerations on distillation as applied to alcohol, 86 Constance, 535 Construction of distilleries, 565 Continued apparatus, 52 Continuous distillation, 86 Egrot’s apparatus for, 64 distilling, 225 Cooking potatoes, 162 Cooler or worm, 48 water of, 318 Cooling pipe, 48 Cordial wines, 532 constituent elements of, 534 factitious, 533 grapes for, 532 imitation of, 534 nature of, 532 quality of, 533 receipts for, 535 Coriander, essence of, 421 water, 346 Corn, Indian, 20 stalks, 185 Corrections to volume of spirits, 719 Couches, 137 Couerbe, M., experiment of, in macera- tion of flowers, 335 Coupnge, 286 Coupling, 47 Crhme d’absinthe, 471, 574 d’ananas, 491 . d’angelique, 459, 463, 471, 523, 524, 527 d’ceillets, 485 de Barbades, 298, 492, 527 de cachou, 492 de cannelle, 476 de cassis, 518 de cassis de Touraine, 518 de celeri, 459, 473, 523, 524, 527 de fleurs d’oranger, 460, 465, 481, 524, 525, 528 de framboises, 465, 481 de g6n6pi des Alpes, 482 de jonquille, 531 de heliotrope, 531 de jasmin, 531 de menthe, 460, 465,483, 524, 526, 529 de mezenc, 529 de mille-fleurs, 484, 531 de moka, 460, 465, 484, 492 de noyaux, 461, 465, 484, 492, 524, 526 de Phalsbourg, 485, 529 de r6s£da, 531 de rose, 487, 529 de the, 467 de la Chine, 488 de tubereuse, 531 de vanille, 517 730 INDEX. Creme— de violette, 518 de brou de noix, 518 Genibvre de Hollande, 498 sapotille de la Martinique, 493 Crude barley, 155 Crushing apples, 223 grapes, 92 Cumin seeds, essence of, 421 Cura?oa, 298, 453, 457, 400, 464, 477, 478, 479, 522, 523, 525, 527 coloring for, 412, 413 de Hollande, esprit de, 428 esprit de, 428 infusion of, 447 of Fockink of Amsterdam, 497 spirit of dried ribbons of, 479 tincture of, 430 superfine, 477 Currant syrup, 401 Currants, 185 fancy syrup of, 401 glucosed syrup of, 406, marc of, 432 sugar in, 23 syrup of, 406 Custody of Avarehouse, 581 Cutting and mixing common brandies, 286 Cyprus, 535 Daffodil, 19 Dates, 185 Dealers in liquors, 591 Debay, M. A., on Raspail’s liqueur, 516 Decolorizing filter, 303 sugar, 381 syrups, 302 Decomposition of alcohol, 18 4ft#r, 38 Deductions 569 Degeneration and preservation of sy- rups, 390 Deleterious action of carbonic acid gas, 43 effects of absinthe, 241 D61ices de Rachel, 471 Deliquescent salts, 20 Delisle’s thermometer, 247 Densimeter, 24, 252 Densities of alcohol, table of, 633, 657, 659, 672 Deposit of vats, should not be used as a leaven for a succeeding operation, 115 Depriving aromatic waters of their odor, 339 Derosne, M., 85, 201 apparatus, 52, 207 Derosne, M.— apparatus, closing remarks on, 63 apparatus in distilling juice of sor- ghum, 177 safeguard, 59 Description of Egrot’s apparatus, 66 Descrozille’s still, 267 Deutschland wasser de Breslau, 500 Dextrine, 134, 167, 186 composition of, 169 Diastase, 132, 134, 169 Dill, essence of, 426 water, 346 Direct distillation of beets, 128 Discolored liquid, 61 Discontinuance of distilling, 594 Distillation, 45, 102, 170, 299 accidents of, 87 application of heat to, 82 applied to alcohol, 86 as applied to liqueurs, 313 continuous, 86 of absinthe, 239 of alcohol, 89 of beets, direct, 128 of brandies, 206 of perfumed waters, liqueurs, &c., 295 of plants by steam, 336 of potatoes, 164 of potatoes by rasping and mace- ration, 164 of potatoes by saccharifying the starch, 165 . of solid materials, Villard’s appa- ratus for, 216, 219, 221 of sorghum by maceration, 175 of the beet by maceration, 116 of volatile oils or essences, 355 wines for, 101 without intermission, 52 Distilled spirit tax, 557 water, 328 waters, Soubeiran’s apparatus for, 49 Distilleries, construction of, 565 survey of, 618 Distillery, brandy, 103 machinery and utensils neces- sary in, 77 no other business in, 559 not to run without compliance with regulations, 590 plan of, 562 Distiller defined, 558 Distiller’s bond, 558 books, 584 notice, 560 packages, 589 special tax, 557 INDEX 731 Distillers of brandy from fruits, 593 requisites for, 245 Distillery, survey of, 563, 564 wines, new method of, 292 Distilling apparatus, 46 apparatus, improvements in, 51 apparatus of M. Yillard, 216, 219, 521 beets, different processes for, 111 beet-juice, 34 in a vacuum, 542 marc brandy, 211, 212 perfumed spirits, 416 portable apparatus for continuous, 225 potatoes, processes, 162 Dombasle, M., 162 method of alcoholic fermentation, 145 Drawing off or racking, 98 Drying the malt, 139 Dubrunfaut, M., on fermentation, 148 on the office of acids in fer- mentation of the beet, 113 Dumas, M., quoted, 32 Dumont’s filter, 385 Dutch bitters, 498 Dutch cura9oa of Winand Fockink, 497 Duval’s experimental still, 267 Early apples, 223 Eau cordiale, 298 d’angelique, 453, 456, 522 d’anis, 456 d’argent, 485 d’or, 485 de Chine, 476 de la Cote-aux-Noyaux, 476 de la Cote-Saint-Andre, 476 de noyaux, 454, 457, 522 de sept-graines, 487, 526, 529 des sept-graines, 455, 458, 461, 466 de vie, 296 d’andaye, 464, 480 Dantzick, 464, 480, 525, 528 veritable, 499 devine, 296, 480 verte de Marseille, 489 virginale ou la pucelle, 489 Ebullition, 84 Economy of Egrot’s apparatus, 68 Effervescent, wines rendered, 540 Effervescing wines, factitious, 540 liqueur for, 541 Eggs as a size, 446 Egrot, M., 85 Egrot’s apparatus, 207 for distilling in a vacuum, 542 for distilling rum, 76 for mellowing liqueurs, 443 Egrot’s apparatus— in distilling juice of sorghum, 177 column for liqueurs, 323 improvement, 49 new apparatus for continuous dis- tillation, 64 portable apparatus, 221 separator, 49 Elderberries, 185 infusion of, 435 Elecampane water, 347 Elevator, 72 Elixir de Cagliostro, 472 de Garus, 482 of Garus, 298, 526, 528 proprietatis, 296 Empty casks or packages, 599 Emptying stills, 56 Empyreuma, 200 Empyreumatic flavor, 318 English and French weights and mea- sures, 549 English bitters, 501 English distillatory apparatus, 152 process (new) of fermentation, 151 Entry for deposit in distillery ware- house, 578 officers’ right of, 568 for warehousing, 578 for withdrawal of spirits from warehouse, 579 Equilibrium of heat, tendency of bodies to acquire, 83 Essence of absinthe, 419 of aloes, 423 of angelica root, 422 of angelica seed, 420 of aniseed, 421 of anisette, 427 \ of apricot seeds, 426 44 of balm, 420 of benzoin, 423 of bitter almonds, 425 of calamus, 422 of candy carrot, 422 of caraway, 426 of cardamom, 424 of cascarilla, 423 of cassia, 425 of catechu, 423 of cedrat, 426 of celery, 426 of Ceylon cinnamon, 424 of cloves, 425 of coffee, 428 of cognac, 291 of coriander, 421 of cumin seeds, 421 of cura§oa, 428 732 INDEX. Essence— of dill, 421 of fennel, 422 of genipi, 420 of ginger, 422 of grains of paradise, 424 of hyssop, 420 of lavender, 420 of lemon, 426 of lemon, concentrated, 427 of mace, 425 of mirbane, 366 of muskmallow, 424 of myrrh, 424 of nutmegs, 425 of orange, 426 of orange flowers, 418 of oranges, concentrated, 427 of peppermint, 420 of raspberries, 422 of roses, 419 of rosewood, 423 of sandal-wood, 423 of sassafras, 425 of star anise, 421 of tea, 428 of tolu, 424 of violets, 419 Essences, 204, 415 by distillation, 355 liqueurs from, 521 or volatile oils, 350 Essential oils, 195, 29,6 action of acids and alkalies on, 198 oil of grain spirit, 171 soluble in alcohol, 197 test of presence, 196, 197 Eureka Pump Co. of N. Y., 70, 81 Evaporator, Derosne’s, 59 Expei’imental stills, 267, 268 Experiments at Surgeon-General’s of- fice, U. S. A., on alcohol, 681 Explanation of use of table of strength of spirituous liquors, 254 Expressing wine from the marc, 99 Expression of volatile oils or essences, 357 Extractor, 50 Extract or essence of cognac, 291 Extracts by maceration, 371 Facility of use of Egrot’s apparatus, 69 Factitious effervescing wines, 540 Fahrenheit and centigrade thermome- ters, tables of, 250, 251 Fahrenheit’s thermometer, 247 Farm, advantages of consuming pro- ducts on, 130 Farmers of France, production of alco- hol from beets, 108 Farmers, Viale’s process adapted to uses of, 180 Fat or fixed oils in volatile oils, 359 Feeble fermentation, 94 Feints, 318 Fennel, essence of, 422 water of, 346 Fenouillette de File de Rh6, 481 Ferment, 29 organization of, 29 vital action of, 29 Fermentable power of yeast, 31 Fermentation, 21, 94, 170 accidents of, 38 acid, 38 action of, 30 air in, 27 alcoholic, 23 duration of, 25 glucosic, 21, 22 heat in, 26 lactic, 46 microscopic observations in, 29 new English process, 151 of beet-juice, 126 to regulate and hasten, 112 of grain, 144 of molasses, 104 neutralization of the acids in fer- mented liquid from molasses, 106 of potatoes, 163 of syrups, 390 of wine, 532 old English method, 149 phenomena of, 38 of vinous, 35 proportion of water in, 25 putrid, 40 saccharine, 21, 22 test of being advanced, in Belgium, 157 the air in, 28 vinous, 23 viscous, 40 Fermenting tubs, 570 vats, 41 Fibrine, 33 Figs, alcohol from, 184 Filling up while in bond, 581 Filter, 328, 448 decolorizing, 303 Dumont’s, 385 Filteration and preservation of water, 328 Filtering liqueurs, 448 paper, 449 INDEX. 733 Filters, 81 dippers and disk, 302 Fine liqueurs, 463 spirits, 107 Fire, naked, 83 Fires in distilling, 88 Fireplace of furnace, 308 Fish size, 446 Flavor of essential oils, 198 Flavors, music of, 440 Fleurs d’oranger, 454, 457 liqueur, 521 Florentine receiver, 306, 334, 356 Flour, 132 Flowers and plants for volatile oils or essences, 356 maceration of, 334 preservation of, 325 Foaming wine, rose-tinted, 541 Fockink,Winand,of Amsterdam, anisette and cura5oa of, 497 Foreign liqueurs, 496 Forfeited spirits, 642 Forms, 584, 585 Forms, blank, 611, 613. 614, 615, 616 Fougerolles, absinthe of, 238 Fownes’ chemistry, 265 Framboises, 454, 457 ratafia de, 510 Fran9aises, liqueurs surfines, 469 France, grape in the south of, 97 interference with distillation of grain in, 130 wines in, 90 Franche-Comtt;, kirsch of, 234 Franzoesisch wasser de Dantzick, 499 French and English weights and mea- sures, 549 French methods of fermentation, 145, 147 Frothing, 41 Fruits, 22 alcohol from, 185 preservation of, 325 water of, 348 Fuel, 310 economy of, 69 for kiln-drying, 140 Furnace, 308 Fusel, 171 Galangal, tincture of, 431 Gallons by weight and strength of spirit, 720 fractions of, 572 Garancine, 191 Gaugers, instruments for, 583 and their fees, 582 Gauging, labor and expense of, 583 marking and stamping, 570 Gauging— and proving spirits, and the methods of, 644 the quantity of spirits, 687 Gay-Lussac on losses in open vats, 95 on the transformation of sugar into alcohol, 37 Gay-Lussac’s alcoholometer, 252, 253 assay still, 267 Gelatine size, 446 precipitation of, 19 Gemmule or plumule, 135 Geneva, 235 Genipi, essence of, 420 Germination, 137, 138 Gilpin and Blagden’s tables of spirits, 657, 659 Gin, 235 Gin of France and Belgium, 236 Ginger, essence of, 422 Girardin, M., 223 Glass retort, 46, 47 Glucose, 19, 98, 186, 374 composition of, 169 Glucosed syrup of currants, 406 syrup of orgeat, 407 syrups, 406 Glucosic fermentation, 21,22 Gluten, 33, 133 Glycyrrhizine, 378 Gooseberries, 185 Goose-neck, 46, 54 Grain, alcoholic fermentation of, 144 alcoholic product of, 135 chemical composition of, 132 choice of, 131 distilling, 73 musty, 141 remarks on spirits for, 171 starch, syrup of, 376 specific gravity of, 131 spirit, 130 Grains of paradise, essence of, 424 Gi’ande chartreuse, 298, 528 Grape in the south of France, 97 juice, action of air on, 28 pickers, 81 sugar, 186, 374 the, 19 Grapes for cordial wines, 532 gathering of, 91 maturity of, 91 stemming, 92 unripe, 97 Grate, 309 Green coloring, 414 Green starch, 166 Green walnuts, water of, 348 Grenache, 535 734 INDEX. Grenoble, monastery of, 475 Guibourt, M., on transformation of syrups, 402 Guignolet d’Angers, 520 Gum, 22, 167 arabic, syrup of, 395 ferment as, 29 precipitates of, 19 Hsematoxylin, 413 Heat, 26 action of, in liquors, 200 application of, 312 application of, in distilling, 45 application of, to distillation, 82 in fermentation, 26 maceration by, 116, 119 whence derived, 83 Heating by steam 84, by the naked fire, 83 Higgins, M., of Jamaica, experiments on molasses, 216 Highly spui’ious wines and liquors, 70 History of liqueurs, 295 IIolcus saccharatus, 171 Holland gin trade, 236 Honey, 376 Hydraulic press, 78 Hydrochloric acid, 114, 159 use of, 169 Ilydromel, 229 Hydrometer, 251 table of degrees of, and real spe- cific gravities, 265 Twaddell’s, 265 Hydrometers, form of, 648 Hygienic properties of liqueurs, 437 Hyssop, 245 essence of, 420 tincture of, 431 water of, 344 Huile d’anis des Indes, 493 d’oeillets, 466 de badiane, 493 de cacao, 493 de cannelle, 494 de cddrats, 494 de cr6oles, 494 de bergamotes, 494 de Fernambouc, 494 de framboises, 460 de gingembre, 495 de girofle, 495 de kirschenwasser, 465, 481, 529 de menthe, 457 de rlium, 466, 487, 495 de roses, 455, 458, 461, 466, 523, 524, 526 de vanille, 495, 508, 510, 511, 513 de Venus, 298, 488 Huile— de violettes, 511, 513 Hulls of bitter almonds, tincture of, 431 Imitating aroma of brandy, 286 flavor of different growths of brandy, 286, 287, 288, 290 of cordial wines, 534 of kirsch, 234 Imperfect condensation of alcoholic vapors, 88 Imphee, 172 Improvement of must, 96 Improving brandies and other spirits, 286, 290, 292 Increase of capacity, notice of, 563 Indian corn, 20, 132, 133 stalks, 19 Inferior absinthe, 241 Infusion, 142 liqueurs by, 507 of toasted bitter almond hulls, 534 Injection, 85 Inspectors of spirits, manual for, 688 Instruments for gaugers, 583 Iodine, 19 Jamaica rum, 230 Juice of apples, 223 of beets, density of, 110 * of grape, 533 Juniper-berries, use of, 235 water of, 346 Kiln, 139 -drying, 140 Kirsch, best process for, 233 imitation of, 234 of Franche-Compte, 234 or kirschenwasser, 231 Kirschenwasser or kirsch, 231 Laboratory of liquorist, 299 of the liquorist, arrangement of, 313 Lacambre, M., quoted in regard to Bel- gian laws, 152 Lactic acid, 41 fermentation, 41 Lacryma-Cliristi, 537 La Fiorretto de Florence, 303 La Giovane de Turin, 503 Langles, M., on essence of roses, 362 Laplace and Berthollet, 38 Late apples, 223 Lavender, essence of, 420 Lead, acetate or subacetate, danger in the use of, in clarifying, 447 salt of, presence of, 447 | Leakage, 571 INDEX. 735 Leaks in apparatus, 87 Leaven or yeast, 31 receipts for, 33, 34 Lemon, concentrated essence of, 427 essence of, 426 syrup, 396 thyme, water of, 345 water, 347 Leplay’s, M., method, 175 process of fermenting and distilling beets, 128 Levulose or liquid sugar, 377 Liebig, 38 Lien, tax a, 558 Lignine, 22 Lime in water, 328 Linseed oil, boiling point of, 82 Liqueur Chartreuse, 474 de la Grande Chartreuse, 528 first invented, 296 Flamande, 498 for effervescing wines, 541 hygitinique de Saumur, 517 et de dessert de Raspail, 515 Stomachique Doree, 517 Liquor dealers, 642 Liqueurs, 486 , alcohol for, 102 Amphoux, 490 apparatus for mellowing, 443 by infusion, 507 by volatile oils or essences, 521 clarifying, 445 classification of, 451 coloring, 408, 444 common, 452, 521 compounding, 438 conditions on which depends suc- cess in making, 441 demi-fines, 459, 523 determination of the strength of, 246 distillation of, 299, 316 double, 456, 510 du M6zenc, 483 filtering, 448 fines, 463, 513, 524 for essences lose their perfume in time, 531 hygienic properties, 437 history of, 295 mellowing, 442 mixing, 441 names of, 451 perfume of, 439, 441 receipts and nomenclature, 452 rectification of, 321 sized hot, 447 sizing, 445 storing and preservation of, 450 Liqueurs— surfines, 468, 515, 527 the charm of, 440 West Indian, 490 Liquids, boiling points of, 813 heating of, 85 heavier than water, table of, 265 lighter than water, table of, 265 pump, 305 Liquore delle Alpi, 503 Liquorice, saccharine matter of, 378 Liquorist, laboratory of, 299 the, 46 Liquorist’s laboratory, arrangement of, 313 Liquors, vinous, 19 List of rectifiers, 591 Locks and seals, 566 Loss by rectification, 205 of weight of barley by malting, 140 grinding, 141 Low wiues for reducing spirits, 291 Lyons, absinthe of, 238 Mace, essence of, 425 water of, 346 Maceration, 22, 23 by heat, 116, 119 by spent liquor, 127 by water, 116 cold process, 125 distillation of beet by, 116 of beet chips, 126 of flowers, 334 volatile oils by, 371 Macerators, 79 Machines and utensils necessary in a distillery, 77 Madder, spirit from, 189 Madeira, 536 Madere, malvoisie de, 536 Malaga, 536 Malt, 139, 140 drying the, 137 house, 137 saccharification by, 169 test of quality, 141 Malvoisie de Madere, 536 Management and progress of rectifica- tion, 201 of apparatus for absinthe and per- fumed spirits, 243 Mannite, 378 Manual for inspectors of spirits, 688 of tables for temperature correc- tions, 653 Manufacturers of stills, 591 Maple, sap of, 33 Maraschino, 501 de zara, 504 736 INDEX. Maraschino— water, 341 Marasquin de zara, 298, 530 Marc brandy, 211 de raisin brandy, 211 expressing, 99 of currants, 432 of grapes, 216, 221 Mar6s, M., analysis, 182 Marshmallow, syrup of, 396 Marking and branding casks, 600, 634, 638 Mash, wort, or wash, 558 Mashing, 141 or saccharifying by malted barley, 163 Materials for absinthe, 239 Mayorque, 482 Melisse water, 345 Mellowing apparatus, 443 liqueurs, 442 Melons, 185 Menthe, liqueur, 522 Mercurial thermometers, 247 Mercury, boiling point of, 82 Meters, testing, 632 Method of Dombasle, 145 Metric system of weights and measures, 547 Microscopic observations in fermenta- tion, 29 Milk for clarifying, 447 Mint, 454 water, 345 Mirbane, essence of, 366 Mixed wines, 533 Mixing liqueurs, 441 Mode of using Belgian apparatus, 74 Moderate price of Egrot’s apparatus, 69 Molasses, 20, 103, 374 alcohol from, 103 fermentation of, 104 for preserving yeast, 31 from beet, 104 Mr. Higgins’ experiments on, 216 spirits of, 17 taste and odor of the spirit of, 107 variety and selection of, 103 Montpellier, absinthe of, 237 distillers of, 297 trois six of, 107 wines made at, 533 Montigny, M. de, 172 Moor’s head, 46, 48 Mortnr, 305 Movable tube pump, 81 Mucilage, 22, 133 Mulberries, 185 syrup of, 403 Muriatic acid, 159 Muscat de Frontignan, 536 Lunel, 536 Music of flavors, 440 Muskmallow, essence of, 424 Musk, tincture of, 429 Muspratt, Dr. S., 166 Must, 27 and wine, 37 chemical analysis of, 144 chemical composition of, 94 degree of concentration of, 97 improvement of, 96 Musts, weak, 29 Musty grain, 141 Myrobolano, or myrobolanti, 504 Myrrh, essence of, 424 Naked fire, 45 distilling by, 317 heating by, 83 National academy of science on proving and gauging distilled spirits, 644 New method of distilling in a vacuum, 542 New process generally used in Belgium, 152 Nimes, absinthe of, 239 Nomenclature and receipts for liqueurs by distillation, 452 Nomenclature and receipts for liqueurs by infusion, 507 Noyaux, eau de, 454 Nutmegs, essence of, 425 water of, 346 Oats, 132, 133 Observations on different kinds of alco- hol, 193 Odor, depriving aromatic waters of, 339 Odor of brandy from the marc, 212 (Enanthic acid, 100 Oil of turpentine, boiling point of, 82 Oils, essential, 195 Old English method of fermentation, 149 Olio di Cremona, 505 maccheroni di Genova, 505 Ollivero’s receipt for vermout d’ltalie, 539 Open vats, 95 Operation of Derosne’s apparatus, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 Orange, essence of, 426 Orange flowers, essence of, 418 syrup of, 394 water of, 340 flower water, first quality of, 342 Oranger, fleurs d’, 454 Oranges, concentrated essence of, 427 spirit of, 479 INDEX. 737 Oranges— syrup of, 397 water of, 347 Order, neatness, and cleanliness, 301 Ordinary liqueurs, 508 Organization of ferment, 29 Orgeat, glucosed syrup of, 407 syrup of, 399 Orleans wines, 98 Orrisroot tincture, 430 Ortlin’s process of purification of phlegm, 205 Ownership, change of, 594 Packages, distillers’, 589 Pans, 202 Paracelsus, Theophrastus, 296 Parenchyma, 160 Parfait amour, 454, 458, 461, 466, 522, 524, 526 de Lorraine, 486 Parsnips, 185 Pasty or semi-fluid materials, appara- tus for distilling, 73 Payen, M., 40, 187 on brandies, 293 quoted, 32 Payment of tax, 581 Peach seeds, water of, 347 Peaches, 185 sugar in, 23 Pear brandy, 228 brandies, 224 Pears, sugar in, 23 yield of, 228 Pectine, 22 Pelouze, M., 187 Peppermint, essence of, 420 water, 345 Perforated water bath, 48 Perfume of liqueurs, 439, 441 Perfumed spirits, 415 apparatus, 242 effect of age on, 417 for liqueurs, 417 receipts for, 418 rectification of, 417 Perfumes prepared by M. Millon, 355 Pernicious effects of absinthe, causes of, 244 Perry, 228 Persico, 486 Persian liqueur, 607 Persicot du Palatinat, 500 Pese-sirop, 24, 386 Pestles, 81 Phlegm of perfumed spirits, 418 Phlegm, purification of, 205 Phenomena of the vinous fermentation, Pipette, 334 Plants, list of, 336 preservation of, 325 Pluchard, M., method for sorghum, 175 Pongoski, M., 191 Port, 537 Portable apparatus, 225 Portarlier, absinthe of, 236 Porto, 537 Potash, acetate of, 20 carbonate of, 20 Potato, analysis of, 160 spirit, essential oils in, 197 starch, sugar of, 375 syrup from, 376 Potatoes, 19, 20 alcohol from, 160 distillation of, by saccharification, 165 distilling, 162 cooked, 162 rasping and maceration, 164 remarks on spirits from, 171 residuum from distillation of, 165 selection of, 160 testing, 160 Preuve de Hollande, 210 Preparatory operations necessary be- fore submitting grain to alcoholic fer- mentation, 136 Preservation and degeneration of syrups, 390 of aromatic distilled waters, 337 of yeast, 31 and storing of liquors, 450 Press, 305 Presses, 81 Priming, 66 Processes for distilling beets, 111 potatoes, 162 Product of rectification, 205 Profitable apparatus, 86 Progress of rectification, 201 Proof brandies, 210 raising the, 284 spirit, computation of, 628 table of true per cent., 692 Proving and gauging of spirits, the method of, 644 the strength of spirits, 687 Proportion of water in fermentation, 25 Prune water, 348 Pulp, reducing potatoes to, 163 Pumpkins, 185 Pump, movable tube, 81 Pumps, 81 Punch liqueur, 462, 467 Pure alcohol, 17, 20 boiling point of, 82 738 INDEX Purification of phlegm, 205 Putrid fermentation, 21, 40 Putrefaction of yeast, 31 Quality of >absinthe, 241 of brandies, 207 of cordial wines, 533 of orange-flower water, 342 of potatoes, testing, 160 of spirits, 201 Quantity of alcohol from cider, 224 Quevenne, 29 Quicklime, 20 Quinces, ratafia of, 510 Quince water, 348 Racking or draining off, 98 Rags, dextrine from, 187 Raising the proof of brandy, 284 Raspberry vinegar, 435 syrup of, 404 water, 348 Raspberries, 185 essence of, 422 syrup of, 403 tincture of, 434 Rasp, 78 Rasping and maceration of potatoes, 164 and pressure, distilling beet spirit by, 111 Raspail’s liqueur hygienic, 298, 486, 515 Ratafia, 507 de cassis, 509, 511, 512, 514 de Dijon, 518 de cerises, 512, 514 de Grenoble, 519 de Coings, 510, 513, 515 de framboises, 510, 511, 513, 514, 520 de Grenoble, 519 de Louvres, 520 de raerises de Grenoble, 520 de Neuilly, 520 de quatre fruits, 513, 514 de Teysshre, 519 Ratafias, 436 Raw potatoes, distilling, 73 spirits, 638 Reaumur and centigrade thermome- ters, table for converting degrees, 249 Reaumur’s thermometer, 247 Receipts for aging bi’andies and other spirits, 286 for aromatic distilled waters, 339 for cordial wines, 534 for liqueurs by distillation, 452 by infusion, 507 by volatile oils or essences, 521 Receipts— for perfumed spirits, 418 for syrups, 392 for volatile oils or essences, 361 Receiver, 48 Florentine, 334, 356 Receiving cisterns, 566 Recknagle, Dr., observations of specific gravities of alcohol, 671 Rectification, 194 management and progress of, 201 of liqueurs, 321 of perfumed spirits, 417 of volatile oils or essences, 357 product and loss, 205 steam in, 204 Rectified beet spirit, 128 madder spirit, 193 spirits, 18, 101, 102, 103, 590, 640 Rectifier, office of, 62 Rectifying apparatus* 75, 201 Red coloring, 409 wines for distillation, 207 Redistillation on distillery premises, 595 Reducing potatoes to pulp, 163 Reduction of capacity, 563 of spirituous liquors, 272 Registry of stills, 559 Regulations and instructions for tax on distilled spirits, 557 Remarks on absinthe, 239 Remontage, 284 Report of the National Academy on methods of inspecting and assessing tax on distilled spirits, 647 Reports on form, 585 Resins, 19 Retail liquor dealers, 642 Retort, distillation by, 321 still, 51 Revenue officers, 590 Rice, 131, 132, 133 alcohol from, 159 large proportion of alcohol in, 132 Richness in degree, 69 Rich wines, distilling, 70 Roman essence of absinthe, 419 Root cutter or sheer, 78 Roots, preservation of, 325 Rose, volatile oil or essence of, 362 water, 343 Rosemary water, 345 Rosewood, essence of, 423 water of, 346 Roses, essence of, 419 huile de, 455, 458 M. Langles on essences of, 362 Rosolio di menta di Pisa, 505 di Torino, 505 de Turin, 530 INDEX. 739 Size, albumen, 446 fish, 446 gelatine, 446 Sizes of Egrot’s apparatus, 71 Sizing liqueurs, 445 Slack-tub, 48 Slicer, root, 78 Smith, H. M. & Co., apple and cider mill, 228 Soda and potash, use of, 200 use of, 169 Soil, taste of, communicated fi'om wines to brandies, 208 Solvent, alcohol as, 18 Sophistication of volatile oils and means of detecting, 359 Sorghum, 19 alcohol from, 171 beets, etc., by Viale’s apparatus, 177 cultivation of, 172, 173 earliest method for obtaining alco- hol from, 174 and imphee, history of, 172 introduction into France, 172 juice of, 174 maceration by heat, 175 saccharine richness of, 174 Soubeiran’s apparatus for distilled waters, 49 Special tax, distillers’, 557 Specific gravities of alcohol, table of, 671 gravity of grain, 131 Spent-liquor, insufficient exhaustion of, 87 maceration by, 127 testing, 87 Spirit from madder, 191, 193 grain, 130 of dried ribbons of Curatjoa, 479 of molasses, taste and odor of, 107 of oranges, 479 of tar, 534 rectified beet, 128 Spirits, bad flavored, 204 corrections to volume, 719 forfeited, 642 from grain and potatoes, 145, 171 gauging the quality of, 687 in bond, 593 improving, 286 manual for inspectors of, 688 of beets, 17 of molasses, 17 of wine, 17, 90 perfumed, 415 proving the strength of, 687 raw, 638 rectified, 590, 640 Rota, 538 Roubiquet, M., on aroma, 352 ' Rough apples, 223 Rubino di Venezia, 506 Rum, 18, 104, 229 apparatus for distilling, 76 Rumpunch liqueur, 462 syrup of, 405 Rye, 131, 132, 133 Saccharification, 22 by malt, 169 by sulphuric acid, 166 of grain by acids, 158, 159 of the starch of grains, 169 Saccharifier, the, 166 Saccharifying by malted barley, 163 the starch, 165 Saccharine matter, 19, 133 fermentation, 21, 22 principle, 19 Saccharometer, 24, 386 Saccharometers, 584 Safeguard, 59 Sage water, 345 Saintonge brandy, imitating, 288 Salleron’s assay still, 268 Salts, deliquescent, 20 % Sandalwood, essence of, 423 Sandbath, 45,321 Santel, M., 191 Sassafras, essence of, 425 water of, 346 Saturation, completion of, 167 of acids, 200 with lime, 159 Saussure, M. de, on the saccharification of starch by sulphuric acid, 168 Scheidam schnaps, 236 Schnaps, Scheidam, 236 Scubac, 467 de Lorraine, 488 Seasons effecting richness of wine, ci- der, etc., 224 Seeds, preservation of, 325 Selection and preservation of aromatics and other substances, 325 Separator, Egrot’s, 49 Separation of essential oils, 196 of products of rectification, 201 Sept-graines, eau de, 455, 458, 461 Set going and use Belgian apparatus, 72 Sherry, 537 cordial, 537 Signs, fences, and gates, 567 Simple apparatus, 46 stills, 46, 51 syrup, 392 Simplicity of cleaning Egrot’s apparatus, 70 740 INDEX. Spirits— true per cent, 688 to pass from still to receiving cis- tern, 570 volumes of, 689 what they are, 18 Spirituous liquors, reduction of, 272 table for reducing, 276 table indicating strength of, 254, 256 Spiritus rector, 332, 352 Squashes, 185 Stamps, 595, 597, 598, 634, 637 Star anise, essence of, 421 water, 346 Starch, 22, 133 boilers for, 81 conversion into sugar, 78, 133 composition of, 169 factories, economy of labor in, 166 from potatoes, 160 green, 166, precipitate of, 19 saccharifying, 169 syrup of, 468 Starting Derosne’s apparatus, 54, 64 Steam, 45 distilling by, 319 for heating conserves, 307 heating by, 84 press, 78 pressure of, in saccharification, 168 in rectification, 204 Steaming grapes, 92 Stems of the grape, 93 Steeping, 136, 158 vats, 81 Still, Gay-Lussac’s assay, 267 retort, 51 Stiils, 46, 49, 51, 52, 64, 71, 73, 76 assessors’ lists of, 559 experimental, 267, 268 registry of, 559 simple, 46, 51 Stimulant, alcohol a, 20 Storax, tincture of, 430 Storekeeper, distilling prohibited in absence of, 574 Storekeepers, 573 compensation to, 575 expenses and salaries, 575 reports, 576 Storerooms of liquoi'ist, 300 Storing and preservation of liqueurs, 450 Strainers, 306 Strawberries, 185 Strength of spirits, proving, 686 Stropd, M., alcoholometric scale of, 266 Sugar, 19, 23, 372 -cane, juice of, 33 Sugar— carbon of, 30 clarification of, 379 crystallizable, 24 decolorizing, 381 decomposition of, 38 for sweetening wine, 98 from starch, 78 in beets, to determine, 110 in fruits, 22 of lead for clarification, danger of using, 447 of potato starch, 375 table of brown in cold syrup, 388 of refined in cold syrup, 389 transformation into alcohol, 24, 37 uncrystallizable, 24 varieties of, 272 Sulle, Raymond, 296 Sulphate of lime, 158, 168 Sulphuric acid, boiling point of, 82 in fermentation of beet-juice, 112, 113, 114, 126 saccharification by, 166 ether, boiling point of, 82 Sun and daylight, action of, on liqueurs, 450 Sundays, 568 Superfine liqueurs, 468 Survey of distilleries, 618 of distillery, 563 Suspending work, 569 Suspension, commencement of work after, 588 Sweat-house, 41 Sweden and Norway gin, 236 barleys of, 155 Sweet apples, 222 Sweetening wines, 98 Swiss absinthe, 236 Synaptase, 366 Syrup of beets, extraction of, 179 of black cherries, 401 of brandy punch, 404 of capillaire, 394 of cherries, 403 of cherry punch, 405 of currants, 406 of grain starch, 376 of gum Arabic, 395 of marsh mallow, 396 of mulberries, 403 of orange flowers, 394 of oranges, 397 of orgeat, 399 of potato starch, 376 of raspberries, 403 of raspberry vinegar, 404 of rum punch, 405 of starch, 468 INDEX. 741 Syrup— of sugar, boiling point of, 82 of tea, 395 of violets, 397 of wheat, 376 simple, 292 Syrups, 389 * colored, 376 decolorizing, 302 degeneration and preservation of, 390 fermentation of, 390 glucosed, 406 receipts for, 392 transformation of, M. Guibourt on, 402 value of, 178 white, 376 Table for converting degrees of differ- ent thermometers, 249 for finding gallons from weight and strength of spirituous liquors, 720 for reducing spirituous liquors, 276 of absolute alcohol, 266 of actual value of spirits, 285 of alcoholometer degrees, 264 of apparent densities and apparent per cent, of alcohol, 672 of apparent specific gravities and apparent per cent, of alcohol, 679 of brown sugar in cold syrup, 388 of corrections to volume of spirits, 719 of degrees of Baume’s hydrometer and real specific gravities, 265 of percentage by weight and vol- ume, and of weights of alcohol and water, 655 of refined sugar in cold syrup, 389 of specific gravity of alcoholic spirits, 651 of strength of liquors, 254, 256 of true densities and volumes of alcohol, 663 of true per cent, of proof spirit, 692 of volatile oils or essences, 368 Tables of densities of spirits, 657, 663, 559 of English weights and measures, 549 of per cent, of alcohol, 684, 685 of specific gravities of alcohol, 671, 679 of volumes of absolute alcohol and water in spirits, and the specific gravities, 723 Tafia, 104, 229, 230 Tax capacity, 567 on distilled spirits, 557 on allowances, 572 payment of, 581 Taxation, basis of, 557 Tea, essence of, 428 syrup of, 395 water of, 345 Temperature, corrections, 653 for maceration, 143 of the sweat-house, 42 Test of presence of essential oils, 196, 197 still of Gay-Lussac, 101 of Salleron, 101 Testing beets, 109 meters, 632 spent liquor, 87 the quality of potatoes, 160 Teysshre, ratafia de, 519 Theory of Egrot’s apparatus, 65 Thermometers, 247 tables of, 249, 250, 251 mercurial, 247 Thunder, etfect of, in producing acid fermentation, 39 Thyme water, 345 Tice meters, 622 Tincture of ambergris, 429 of balm, 431 of bay, 431 of benzoin, 429 of black cherries, 435 of black currants, 432 of black currant leaves, 432 of catechu, 429 of curayoa, 430 of galangal, 431 of hulls of bitter almonds, 431 of hyssop, 431 of musk, 429 of orrisroot, 430 of raspberries, 434 of smaller absinthe, 431 of storax, 430 of tolu, 430 of vanilla, 430 of walnut hulls, 435 Tinctures, aromatic, 429 Toasted bitter almond hulls, infusion of, 534 Tolu, essence of, 424 tincture of, 430 Tokai, 538 Tranchage, 442 Transformation of sugar into alcohol, 24 Trois six, 18, 101, 102, 103, 211 examination of, 103 742 INDEX True densities and volumes of alcohol, table of, 663 per cent, of spirits, 688 Turf, 312 Turpentine, boiling point of, 82 Turnips, 19, 185 Turpin, 29 Twaddell’s hydrometer, 265 United States internal revenue regula- tions, £37 wines in, 90 Use of apparatus, 80 Belgian apparatus, to, 72 Usquebaugh, Scotch, 500 Vacuum, distilling in, 542 Value of syrups, Viale’s method of as- certaining, 178 Vanilla, tincture of, 430 Vapors, alcoholic, 86 Vapor in condensing coil, 62 Variety and selection of molasses, 103 Various substances, alcohol from, 184 Vat for conversion of starch into sugar, 78 Vats, air in, 39 cleaning of, 44 closed, 95 form of, 44 open, 95 solidity, 44 Vatting, 93 Vegetable alkalies, 19 juices, fermentation of, 33 Veritable eau de vie de Dantzick, 499 Vermout, 296 Vermout au Madbre, 540 de Turin, 538 d’ltalie (Ollivero), 539 Vespetro, 455, 458, 462, 467, 523, 524 527 de Montpellier, 489, 530 Vessels and utensils of the liquorist, 301 Viale’s apparatus for sorghum, beets, &c., 177 method for ascertaining the true value of syrups, 178 Villard’s apparatus, advantages of, 219 for distilling, 219 the marc of grapes, &c., 216, 219, 221 M., experiments, 216, 217 Vinous fermentation, 19, 21, 23 phenomena of, 35 Vinous liquors, 19 Vins de Chaudibre, 208 Vintage, 91 Violet coloring, 415 Violets, essence of, 419 Violets— syrup of, 397 • water of, 344 Viscous fermentation, 40 Vital action of ferment, 29 Volatile oil or essence of bitter almonds, 365 of cinnamon, 364 of rose, 362 of the grape, 214 oils, 19 by maceration or extracts, 371 easily altered, 355 in vegetables, 355 or essences, 350 by distillation, 355 by expression, 357 liqueurs from, 521 receipts for, 361 rectification of, 357 table of, 368 sophistication of, and means of detecting, 359 Volumes of absolute alcohol and water in spirits, and their specific gravi- ties, 723 of spirit, 689 Walnut hulls, tincture of, 435 Wantage, 572 Warehouse, custody of, 581 distiller to provide, 573 Warehouses, discontinuance of, 590 Warehousing, entry for, 578 Washer, 78 Waste liquor from wine of beet mo- lasses, 107 Water, 24, 327 action of, on fermentation, 25 and alcohol, 18 tables of volumes of, 723 and nitre, boiling point of, 82 and salt, boiling point of, 82 aromatic distilled, 332 as a gas, 327 as a liquid, 327 as a solid, 327 as a solvent, 18 bath, 45, 47 distilling in, 319 perforated, 48 use of, 20 distilled, 328 filtration and preservation of, 328 in alcohol, 20 of absinthe, 344 of bitter almonds, 347 of cooler, 318 of green walnuts, 348 of hyssop, 344 INDEX. 743 Water— maceration by, 116 of mocha coffee, 346 of orange flowers, 340 of tea, 345 of violets, 344 proportion of, for maceration, 143 Watering, 272 Weights and measures, metric system of, 547 West Indian liqueurs, 490 Wheat, 131, 132, 133 syrup of, 376 Whiskey, 17 White absinthe, 241 syrups, 376 wines for distillation, 207 Whortleberries, infusion of, 435 Wholesale liquor dealers, 642 Wine, 90 age of, for brandies, 207 alcohol from, 90 and must, 37 brandies from, 207 chemical composition of, 99 of herbs, 295 spirits of, 90 water in fermentation, 532 Wines, alcoholic richness of, 101 best for brandies, 208 cordial, imitation of, 534 Wines— choice of, 101 effervescing, 540 for distillation, 101 method of distilling, 292 mixed, 533 of Bordeaux, 100 rendered effervescent, 540 sorts of, 532 strength of, 100 sweetening of, 98 Withdrawal of spirits, 579 Wood, alcohol from, 187 preservation of, 325 Wooden bowl and iron ball of liquorist, 304 Work after suspension, 588 commencement of, 567 Working Egrot’s apparatus, 67 Worm, or cooler, 48 Wray, Leonard, 172 Yeast, beer, 33 fermentable power of, 31 or leaven, 31 preservation of, 31 use of, 144 Yellow coloring, 410, 411 Yield of alcohol from beets, 110 Zinziber or huile de gingembre, 495 CATALOGUE OF PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, PUBLISHED BT HENRY CAREY BAIRD, INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER, 1STo- 406 STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 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With illustrations. 12mo. §1 25 DYRN.—THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER : Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Prac- tical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification; including all of the most recent improvements in distilling apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the nume- rous vegetables, fruits, etc.; directions for the distillation and preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spiritu- ous and other compounds, etc. etc.; all of which is so simpli- fied that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distil- lers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage in the art of distilling By M. La Fayette Bytrn, 51. D. With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo. $1 50 $21 00 IIENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE 5 DYRNE—POCKET BOOK FOR RAILROAD AND CIVIL ENGI- -0 NEERS: Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying onfc Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cut- tings; Embankments; Earth-work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated, 18mo., full bound . . . . . $1 75 DYRNE.—THE HANDBOOK FOR THE ARTISAN, MECHANIC, AND ENGINEER: By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 Wood Engravings. 8vo. $5 00 DYRNE—THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL ME- -0 CHANICS: For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engrav- ings, 12mo. . . . . . . . . $3 63 THE PRACTICAL METAL-WORKER’S ASSISTANT; Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding; Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufactu- ring Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from the Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and others. By Oliver Byrne. A New, Revised, and improved Edition, with Additions by John Scotfern, M. B , William Clay, Wm. Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hun- dred and Ninety-two Engravings; Illustrating every Branch of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages . $7 00 DYRNE—THE PRACTICAL MODEL CALCULATOR: For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages . . . . $4 50 DEMROSE—MANUAL OF WOOD CARVING : With Practical Il- lustrations for Learners of the Art, and Original and Selected de- signs. By William Bemrose, Jr. With an Introduction by Llewellyn Jewitt, F. S. A., etc. With 128 Illustrations. 4to., cloth $3 00 6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. BAIRD.—PROTECTION OF HOME LABOR AND HOME PRO- ° DUCTIONS NECESSARY TO THE PROSPERITY OF THE AMERICAN FARMER: By Henry Carey Baird. 8vo., paper . . . 10 ■DAIRD.—THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN PRODUCERS, AND THE WRONGS OF BRITISH FREE TRADE REVENUE REFORM. By Henry Carey Baird. (1870) .... 5 •DAIRD.—SOME OF THE FALLACIES OF BRITISH-FREE-TRADE REVENUE-REFORM. Two Letters to Prof. A. L. Perry, of Williams College, Mass. By Henry Carey Baird. (1871.) Paper .... 5 BAIRD.—STANDARD WAGES COMPUTING TABLES: An Improvement in all former Methods of Computation, so ar- ranged that wages for days, hours, or fractions of hours, at a spe- cified rate per day or hour, may be ascertained at a glance. By T. Spangler Baird. Oblong folio $5 CO BAUERMAN.—TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OF IRON. Illustrated. 12mo $2 50 BICKNELL’.S VILLAGE BUILDER. 55 large plates. 4to $10 00 ■DISHOP.—A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MANUFACTURES: From 1608 to 1866 ; exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Prin- cipal Mechanic Arts and Manufactures, from the Earliest Colonial Period to the Present Time ; By J. Leander Bishop, M. D., Ed- ward Young, and Edwin T. Freedley. Three vols. 8vo., half morocco .......... $12 00 BOX.—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT AS APPLIED TO ■° THE USEFUL ARTS: For the use of Engineers, Architects, etc. By Thomas Box, au- thor of “Practical Hydraulics.” Illustrated by 14 plates, con- taining 114 figures. 12mo. . . . . . . $4 25 QABINET MAKER’S ALBUM OF FURNITURE : Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and Most Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong $5 00 pHAPMAN.—A TREATISE ON ROPE-MAKING: As practised in private and public Rope-yards, with a Description of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trade; Shipping, Mining, Railways, Builders, etc. By Robert Chapman. 24mo * . . . $1 50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. 7 nRAIK.—THE PRACTICAL AMERICAN MILLWRIGHT AND U MILLER. 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Management of Steel, including Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. Ede. 8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings. $6 00 pAMPIN.—THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD, U IVORY, SHELL, ETC.; With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also, an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By Francis Campin , with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth . . $3 00 mPRON DE DOLE.—DUSSAUCE.—BLUES AND CARMINES OF U INDIGO. A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial Product derived from Indigo. By Felicien Capron de Dole Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. Dus- bauce. 12mo. $2 50 8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. QAKEY.—THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY: CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RE- SUMPTION ? Letters to lion. 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Geographical and Sta- tistical Society. 8vo., paper 25 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo. . . . $2 50 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth $10 00 REVIEW OF THE DECADE 1857—’67. 8vo., paper 50 RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND PO- LITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo paper . 50 THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxa- tion. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commis- sion. 8vo., paper ....... 25 THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec. 1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical So- ciety, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Social Science, Boston ... 50 THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth $1 5d HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. 9 LETTERS ON INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (1867.) Paper 50 REVIEW OF THE FARMERS’QUESTION. (1870.) Paper 25 RESUMPTION! HOW IT MAY PROFITABLY BE BROUGHT AROUT. (1869.) 8vo., paper .... 50 REVIEW OF THE REPORT OF HON. D. A. WELLS, Special Commissioner of the Revenue. (1869.) 8vo., paper 50 SHALL WE HAVE PEACE? Peace Financial and Peace Poli- tical. Letters to the President Elect. (1868.) 8vo., paper 50 THE FINANCE MINISTER AND THE CURRENCY, AND THE PUBLIC DEBT. (1868.) 8vo., paper . . 50 THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING HER. Letters to Hon. Schuyler Colfax. (1865.) 8vo., paper $1 00 WEALTH! OF WHAT DOES IT CONSIST ? (1870.) Paper 25 QAMUS—A TREATISE ON THE TEETH OF WHEELS: Demonstrating the best forms which can be given to them for the purposes of Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work. Trans- lated from the French of M. Camus. By John I. Hawkins. Illustrated by 40 plates. Svo. . . . . . $3 00 pOXE.—MINING LEGISLATION. A paper read before the Am. Social Science Association. By Eckley B. Coxe. Paper 20 nOLBTJRN.—THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON: Comprising a sketch of the Gas-works of the city, Process of Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By Zerah Colburn. 8vo., cloth . . . . . . 75 pOLBURN.—THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE: Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimat- ing its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construc- tion and Management. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. A new edition. 12ino. . . . . . . $1 25 pOLBURN AND MAW.—THE WATER-WORKS OF LONDON: Together with a Series of Articles on various other Water- works. By Zerah Colburn and W. Maw. Reprinted from “ Engineering.” In one volume, 8vo. . . $4 Od T)&.GTJERREOTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER’S COMPANION: 12mo., cloth . . . . . . . . $1 25 10 ITENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE. jQXRCXS.—PERPETUAL MOTION: Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by Henry Dircks, C. E. Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines. 12mo., cloth . . . . . . . . $3 50 TJTXON.—THE PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT’S AND ENGINEER’S U GUIDE: Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels ; Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts; Diameter and Strength of Bolts, etc. etc. By Thomas Dixon. 12mo., cloth. $1 50 jyUNCAN.—PRACTICAL SURVEYOR’S GUIDE: Containing the necessary information to make any person, of common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher. By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth. $1 25 TjUSSAUCE.—A NEW AND COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESS- ING: Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval, Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Rend, De Fontenelle, Mala- peyre, etc. etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce, Chemist. Illustrated by 212 wood engravings. 8vo. .... $10 00 TjUSSAUCE.—A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF SOAP, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL: Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, a Description of all the Raw Materials and their Uses. Directions for the Establishment of a Soap Factory, with the necessary Apparatus, Instructions in the Manufacture of every variety of Soap, the Assay and Determination of the Value of Alkalies, Fatty Substances, Soaps, etc. etc. By Professor H. Dussauce. With an Appendix, containing Ex- tracts from the Reports of the International Jury on Soaps, as exhibited in the Paris Universal Exposition, 1867, numerous Tables, etc. etc. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume Svo. of over 800 pages . . . . . . . . $10 00 TJUSSAUCE.—PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POW- DERS. By Professor H. Dussauce. 12mo. . . . $3 00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. jyjSSAUCE.—A PEACTICAL GUIDE FOE THE PEEFUMEE: Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Form- ulae of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosme- tics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinc- tures, Infusions, Yinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams, Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described. Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel, etc. With additions by Professor H. Dussauce, Chemist. 12mo. $3 01) nUSSAUCE.—A GENERAL TEEATISE ON THE MANUFACTUEE U OF VINEGAE, THEOEETICAL AND PEACTICAL. Oomprising the various methods, by the slow and the quick pro- cesses, with Alcohol, Wine, Grain, Cider, and Molasses, as wel\ as the Fabrication of Wood Vinegar, etc. By Prof. H. Dussauce. I2mo. (In press.) -fYUPLAIS.—A COMPLETE TEEATISE ON THE DISTILLATION AND MANUFACTUEE OF ALCOHOLIC LIQUOES: From the French of M. Duplais. Translated and Edited by M. McKennie, M D. Illustrated by numerous large plates and wood engravings of the best apparatus calculated for producing the finest products. In one vol. royal 8vo. (Keady May 1, 1871.) Q2-?” This is a treatise of the highest scientific merit and of tha greatest practical value, surpassing in these respects, as well as in the variety of its contents, any similar volume in the English language. DE GEAFF.—THE GEOMETRICAL STAIE-BUILDEES’ GUIDE: Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by 22 Steel Engravings; together with the use of the most approved princi- ples of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Graff, Architect. 00 TtYEE AND COLOE-MAKEE’S COMPANION : Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. In one vol. 12mo. §1 25 12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. •pASTOH— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON STREET OR HORSE- POWER RAILWAYS: Their Location, Construction, and Management; with General Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation; toge- ther with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for Investment; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relat- ing thereto. By Alexander Easton, C. E. Illustrated by 23 plates, 8vo., cloth $2 00 pORSYTH.—BOOK OF DESIGNS FOR HEAD-STONES, MURAL, L AND OTHER MONUMENTS : Containing 78 Elaborate and Exquisite Designs. By Forsyte. 4to., cloth $5 00 *** This volume, for the beauty and variety of its designs, has never been surpassed by any publication of the kind, and should be in the hands of every marble-worker who does fine monumental work. pAIRBAIRN.—THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MA- X CHINERY OF TRANSMISSION : Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By William Fairbairn, Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. It. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy of Turin; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beau- tifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo. $2 50 pAIRBAIRN.—PRIME-MOVERS: Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power; the Construc- tion of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam; the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills. By William Fairbairn, C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Au- thor of “Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Trans- mission.” With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In press.) qiLBART.—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING: By James William Gilbart. To which is added: The Na- tional Bank Act as now in force. 8vo. . . $4 50 nESNER.—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON COAL, PETROLEUM, a AND OTHER DISTILLED OILS. By Abraham Gesner, M. D., F. G. S. Second edition, revised and enlarged. By George Weltden Gesner, Consulting Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated. 8vo. . . $3 50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. 13 nOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET MAKERS: '■* Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Il- lustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved plates. Oblong . . . • • • . §>3 00 p R ANT.—BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE 'T BEET: By E. B. Grant. 12mo. $1 25 pREGORY.—MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates, cloth . • $3 00 pRISWOLD.—RAILROAD ENGINEER’S POCKET COMPANION. Comprising Buies for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling from Prelimi- nary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Ex- pressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valu- able Rules and Examples. By W. Griswold. 12mo., tucks. $1 75 pUETTIER.—METALLIC ALLOYS: Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Pro- perties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated from the French of A. Gcettier, Engineer and Director of Founderies, author of “ La Fouderie en France,” etc. etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo. (In press.) -fTATS AND FELTING: A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c., 8vo. $1 25 HAY.—THE INTERIOR DECORATOR : The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decora- tions : with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D. R. Hay, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Dia- gram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo. §2 25 pTUGHES.—AMERICAN MILLER AND MILLWRIGHT’S AS- By Wm. Cartes Hughes. A new edition. In one volume, 12mo .... 50 14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. JJUNT.—THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. By Robert Hunt, Vice-President of the Photographic Society, London. With numerous illustrations. 12mo., cloth . 75 JJURST.—A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS r Comprising Formulae useful in Designing Builders’ work, Table of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda connected with Builders’ work, Mensuration, the Practice of Builders’ Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Pro- perty, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By J. F. IIurst, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound $2 50 JERVIS.—RAILWAY PROPERTY: A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways; designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the holders of this class of property; as well as Railway Mana- gers, Officers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Chief Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c. One vol. 12mo., cloth .... . $2 00 JOHNSON.—A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE ” UNITED STATES ON AMERICAN COALS : Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By Walter R. Johnson.. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp. 8vo., half morocco . . . . . $10 00 JOHNSTON.—INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS, J LIMESTONES, AND MANURES- By J. W. F. Johnston. 12mo. .... 35 JgTSENE.—A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING, For the Use of Beginners, to "which is added a Chapter on Dis- tillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom House for ascertaining the strength of "wines. By James B. Keene, of H. M. Customs. 8vo. . . $1 25 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. 15 JfENTISH.—A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS, And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Lo- garithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measur- ing of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thomas Kentish. In one volume. 12mo. . . $1 25 T7UBELL.—ERNL—MINERALOGY SIMPLIFIED: i\ A short method of Determining and Classifying Minerals, by means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way. Translated from the last German Edition of E. Von Kc-bell, with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other addi- tions. By Henri Erni, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture, author of “Coal Oil and Petroleum.” In one volume. 12mo. ... . $2 50 J ANDRIN.—A TREATISE CN STEEL: Comprising its Theory , Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Work- ing, and Use. By M. H. C. Laxdrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, ■Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Processes for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt, United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 12mo. . . $3 00 TARXIN.—THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S GRIDE. A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and their Alloys, etc.; to "which are added Recent Improve- ments in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Pro- cess, etc. etc. By James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.’s Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, "with extensive Addi- tions. In one volume. 12mo. . . .. . . $2 2a 16 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. T EAVITT.—FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL: With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities m which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manu facture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable; toge- ther with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Inte- rest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By II. T. Leavitt. Third edition. 12mo. . . . $1 75 TEROUX,—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFAC- lj TURE OF WORSTEDS AND CARDED YARNS: Translated from the French of Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. By Dr H. Paine, and A. A. Fesquet. Illustrated by 12 large plates. In one volume 8vo . . . $5 00 (MISS).—COMPLETE COOKERY; Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 60th edition. Thoroughly revised, with the addi- tion of New Receipts. In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth . . $1 50 (MISS). LADIES’ HOUSE BOOK : a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo., cloth . . . . . . . . . SI 25 t TESLIE (MISS).—TWO HUNDRED RECEIPTS IN FRENCH COOKERY. 12mo 60 JMEEER.—ASS AYER’S GUIDE; Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lierer. 12mo., cloth §1 25 T OVE.—THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND U FINISHING: On the most approved English and French methods; being Practical Instructions in Dyeing’ Silks, Woollens, and Cottons, Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc,; French and English Cleaning, etc. By Thomas Love. Second American Edition, to which are added General Instructions for the Use of Aniline Colors. Svo. . 5 00 TWTAIN AND BROWN.—QUESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED 1V± WITH THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE: And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By Thomas J. Main, Professor of Ma thematics, Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo., cloth $1 50 jyTAIN AND BROWN.—THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETER: With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By Thomas J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass’t Prof. Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief En- gineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. From the Fourth London Edition. 8vo. ... . $1 50 ■JWTAIN AND BROWN—THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE. By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass’t S. Mathematical Professor at Royal Naval College, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E. Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College. Authors of “Questions Connected with the Marine Steam-En- gine,” and the “ Indicator and Dynamometer.” With numerous Illustrations. In one volume 8vo $5 00 TUTARTIN.—SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF ME- 1V± CHANICAL ENGINEERS: Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads of Screws of any required Pitch; with a Table for Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 8vo. ....... 50 WHILES—A PLAIN TREATISE ON HORSE-SHOEING. With Illustrations. By William Miles, author of “ The Horse’s Foot” $1 00 TWrOLESWORTH.—POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULA] AND 1V1 MEMORANDA FOR CIVIL AND MECHANICAL EN3INEERS. By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Second American from the Tenth London Edition. In one volume, full bound in pocket-book form . . . $2 00 TWrOORE.—THE INVENTOR’S GUIDE: Patent Office and Patent Laws : or, a Guide to Inventors, and a Book of Reference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and others. By J G. Moore. 12mo., cloth $1 25 ■fTAPIER.—A MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY: Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By .Tames Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. In one volume, 8vo. . . . . . . . . $2 00 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. 17 18 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. T1TAPIER.—A SYSTEM OF CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO DYEING : By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edition, completely brought up to the present state of the Science, including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors. By A. A. Fesquet, -Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1867, .from the Reports of the International Jury, etc. Illus- trated. In one volume 8vo., 400 pages . . . . $5 00 hTEWBERY. —GLEANINGS FROM ORNAMENTAL ART OF 1)1 EVERY STYLE; Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of one hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred ex- amples. By Robert Newbery. 4to $15 00 IJICHOLSON.—A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING: Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forward- ing, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book- edges and Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. 12mo. cloth .... $2 25 -M-ORRIS.—A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND U MACHINISTS: Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Locomotives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By Septimus Norris, Civil and Me- chanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth $2 00 WTYSTROM. — ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND THE 1N CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS: For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo. $2 50 rYNEILL.—A DICTIONARY OF DYEING AND CALICO PRINT- V ING: Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics : with Prac- tical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O’Neill, Analytical Chemist; Fellow of the Chemical Society of London; Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester; Author of “ Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing.” To which is added An Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their Application to HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. 19 Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Exposition of 1867, from the Reports of the Interna, tional Jury, etc. In one volume 8vo., 491 pages . . $6 00 QSBORN.—THE METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL: Theoretical and Practical: In all its Branches ; With Special Re- ference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. Osbobn, LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Illustrated by 230 Engravings on Wood, and 6 Folding Plates. 8vo., 972 pages $10 00 QSBORN.—AMERICAN MINES AND MINING : Theoretically and Practically Considered. By Prof. H. S. Os- born, Illustrated by numerous engravings. 8vo. {In'preparation.') pAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER’S COMPANION: Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining, with numerous useful and valuable Receipts; Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement of the Dis- eases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Varnishers are particularly liable, with the simplest methods of Prevention and Remedy. With Directions for Graining, Marbling, Sign Writ- ing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are added Complete Instruc- tions for Coach Painting and Varnishing. 12mo., cloth, $1 50 pALLETT.—THE MILLER’S, MILLWRIGHT’S, AND ENGI- NEER’S GUIDE. By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo. . $3 00 pERKINS.—GAS AND VENTILATION. Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scien- tific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With illustrated Diagrams. By E. E. Perkins. 12mo., cloth . . . $1 25 pERKINS AND STOWE.—A NEW GUIDE TO THE SHEET-IRON r AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER: Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of Bars to Produce Sheet-iron; the Thiekness of the Bar Gauge in Decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet- iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and collected by G. H. Perkins and J. G- Stowe $2 50 20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. PHILLIPS AND DARLINGTON.— RECORDS OF MINING AND X METALLURGY: Or, Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and Smelter. By J. Arthur Phillips, Mining Engineer, Graduate of the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and John Darlington. Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one vol. l2mo. . $2 00 pRADAL, MALEPEYRE, AND DUSSAUCE. —A COMPLETE X TREATISE ON PERFUMERY: Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Ait, and the Best Formulae. According to the most approved Methods followed in France, England, and the United States. By M. P. Pradal, Perfumer-Chemist, and M. F. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, with extensive additions, by Prof. H. Dussauce. 8vo. $10 pROTEAUX.—PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE X OF PAPER AND BOARDS. By A. Proteaux, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School of Arts and Manufactures, Director of Thiers’s Paper Mill, ’Puy-de- Dome. With additions, by L. S. Le Normand. Translated from the French, with Notes, by Horatio Paine, A. B., M. D. To which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United States, by Henry T. Brown, of the “American Artisan.” Illustrated by six plates, containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Machinery, Plans of Paper-Mills, etc. etc. 8vo. $5 00 pEGNAULT.—ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. By M. Y. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. For- rest Benton, M. D., and edited, with notes, by James C. Booth, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and Wm. L. Faber, Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two vols. 8vo., cloth $10 00 pEID.—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT: By Henry Reid, C. E. To which is added a Translation of M. A. Lipowitz’s Work, describing anew method adopted in Germany of Manufacturing that Cement. By W. F. Reid. Illustrated by plates and wood engravings. 8vo. . . . , . $7 00 p IFF AULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF COLORS FOR PAINTING: Containing the best Formulae and the Processes the Newest and in most General Use. By MM. Riffault, Yergnaud, andTous- SAiNT. Revised and Edited by M. F. Malepeyre and Dr. Emil Winckler. Illustrated by Engravings. In one vol. 8vo, {In -preparation.) HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. 21 BIFF AULT, VERGNAUD, AND TOUSSAINT.—A PRACTICAL ±Xi TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES: By MM. Riffault, Vergnaud, and Toussaint. Revised and Edited by M. F. Malepeyre and Dr. Emil Winckler. Illus- trated. In one vol. 8vo. (In preparation.) OHUNK.—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES ° AND LOCATION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS. By Wm. F. Shbnk, Civil Engineer. 12mo., tucks . . $2 00 OMEATON.—BUILDER’S POCKET COMPANION: Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architec. ture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the sub- ject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. In one volume, 12mo. . . . . . . . . . .$150 OMITH.—THE DYER’S INSTRUCTOR: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cot- ton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods : containing nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Pad- ding; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. By David Smith, Pattern Dyer, 12mo.* cloth $3 00 CTMITH.—THE PRACTICAL DYER’S GUIDE: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Dyeing of Shot Cobourgs, Silk Striped Orleans, Colored Orleans from Black Warps, ditto from White Warps, Colored Cobourgs from White Warps, Merinos, Yarns, Woollen Cloths, etc. Containing nearly 300 Receipts, to most of which a Dyed Pattern is annexed. Also, a Treatise on the Art of Padding. By David Smith. In one vol. 8vo. $25 00 QJHAW.—CIVIL ARCHITECTURE: ® Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, containing the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Archi- tecture, Ac. By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Hard- ing , Architects. The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. Eleventh Edition. Ito. Cloth. $ 10 00 OLOAN.—AMERICAN HOUSES: A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 26 colored Engravings, with Descriptive References. By Samuel Sloan, Architect, author of the “ Model Architect,” etc. etc. 8vo. $2 50 22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. CfMITH.—PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS: Or, Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12mo $2 25 OTOKES.—CABINET-MAKER’S AND UPHOLSTERER’S COMPA- ° NION: Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making and Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Examples for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet-work ; The Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work ; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish; to prepare the Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Receipts, particularly for workmen generally. By J. Stokes. In one vol. 12mo. With illustrations $1 25 STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS. Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Test- ing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army. By authority of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates’. In 1 vol. quarto . . . . . . . . $10 00 rpABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND ■*- FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC. By Measurement. Cloth ...... 63 rpAYLOR.—STATISTICS OF COAL: Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commer- cial Distribution and amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manufacture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. IIaldeman. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engrav- ings. 8vo., cloth . . . . . . . . $6 00 rpEMPLETON.—THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATOR ON STEAM -*• AND THE STEAM-ENGINE : With Instructive References relative thereto, for the Use of Engi- neers, Students, and others. By Wm. Templeton, Engineer 12mo. $1 25 rPHOMAS.—THE MODERN PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth . ... 75 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. •THOMSON.—FREIGHT CHARGES CALCULATOR. By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent . . . . $1 25 •"TURNING: SPECIMENS OF FANCY TURNING EXECUTED ON ± THE HAND OR FOOT LATHE: With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cut- ting Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Pho- tographs. 4to. ........ $3 00 •TURNER’S (THE) COMPANION: Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eceentrie Turning; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instru- ments; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instruc- tions for working them. A new edition in 1 vol. 12mo. $1 50 TTRBIN — BRULL. — A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PUDDLING U IRON AND STEEL. By Ed. Urbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is added a Comparison of the Resisting Properties of Iron and Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 8vo. $1 00 WARN —THE SHEET METAL WORKER’S INSTRUCTOR, FOR Vy ZINC, SHEET-IRON, COPPER AND TIN PLATE WORK- ERS, &c. By Reuben Henry "Warn, Practical Tin Plate Worker. I'lus- trated by 32 plates and 37 wood engravings. 8vo. . . $3(0 WATSON—A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE. By Egbert P. Watson, Late of the “ Scientific American,” Au- thor of “ Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engi- neers,” In one volume, 12mo. . . . . . $1 50 WATSON.—THE MODERN PRACTICE OF AMERICAN MA- VV CHINISTS AND ENGINEERS: Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow Work Generally, with the most Economical Speed of the same, the Results verified hy Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and on the Floor. Together with Workshop management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc. etc. By Egbert P. Watson, late of the “Scientific American.” Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. 12mo. $2 50 24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD’S CATALOGUE. WATSON.—THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE ART OF VV WEAVING BY HAND AND POWER: With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected with the Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the best Power-Looms. 8vo. . $10 00 WEATHERLY.—TREATISE ON .THE ART OF BOILING SU- VV GAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING, COMFITS, GUM GOODS, And other processes for Confectionery, Ac. In which are ex- plained, in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufacturing every description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by Confectioners and others . . . $2 00 WILL.—TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. By Prof. Heinrich Wile, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edi- tion. Translated by Charles F. Himes, Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. . . $1 25 "yyiLLIAMS.—ON HEAT AND STEAM: EmbracingNew Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Expan- sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $3 50 WOHLER.—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON ANALYTICAL CHE- VV MISTRY. By E. Wohler. With additions by Granheatt and Troost. Edited by H. B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry, Rensselaer In- stitute, Troy, N. Y. With numerous Illustrations, (In press.) WORSSAM.—ON MECHANICAL SAWS : From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1867. By S. W. Worssam, Jr. Illustrated by 18 large folding plates. 8vo. $5 00 A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR COACH PAINTERS. Translated from the French of M. Arlot, Coach Painter; late Master Painter for eleven years with M. Ehrler, Coach Manufac- turer, Paris. With important American additions. {In press.) TTQGDES.—THE ARCHITECT’S AND BUILDER’S POCKET COM- V PANION. By F. W. Vogues, Architect. Illustrated. Full bound in pocket- hook form. (In press.)